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WicHERSs ae CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE : WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Roya anp GuILFoRD AVES. BauTIMore, MaryLanD Baad es Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the et of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. ae nenees on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies: (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. 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Tothisenditpublishes: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 JANUARY 4, 1925 No. 1 GENETICS.—The chromosomes of Citrus. Howarp B. Frost, Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, California (Communi- cated by W. T. SwINGLe). Many of the “bud variations” of Citrus? probably result from a chimeral constitution of the tree producing the variation. It may be assumed, however, that bud-variation types originate primarily through either gene (point) mutation or chromosomal mutation (chro- mosome aberration). In the investigation of the nature of somatic hereditary variations of Citrus, therefore, determinations of chromo- some number are necessary. They are also of interest in relation to the great variability of F, hybrids between species,’ although I consider it probable that this variability is mainly due to extensive heterozygo- sis of the parent forms. Strasburger* examined pollen mother cells and stem tips of sweet orange (“‘Apfelsine;”’ C. sinensis Osbeck), sour orange (“‘Pomaranze;” C. aurantium L.), citron (“Cedrate’’; C. medica L.), and a “bizzarria”’ form which was doubtless a mixed chimera, the components being citron and sour orange. He states that the pollen mother cells have 8 pairs of chromosomes, diakinesis being the most favorable stage for counting, and that ‘‘mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit” the very small 1 Paper No. 121, University of California, Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture and Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, California. 2? A.D. Saamet, L. B. Scorr, and C.S. Pomeroy. Citrus-frutt improvement: a study of bud variation in the Washington navel orange. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 623. 146 p., 19 pls., 16 figs. 1918. Also: Dept. Bulls. 624 and 697 (1918); 813 and 815 (1920). 3Watrer T. Swinete. Variation in first-generation hybrids (imperfect dominance) ; tts possible explanation through zygotaxis. Conf. Internat. Génétique, IV°. Compt. Rend., p. 381-394, 10 figs. 4Epvuarp Srraspurcer. Uber die Individualitét der Chromosomen und die Pfropfhy- briden-Frage. Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot. 44: 482-555. 3 pls., 1 fig. 1907. 1 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 stem-tip cells have 16 chromosomes. Osawa® reports for “unshuw” (satsuma; C. nobilis var. unshiu (Lour.) Swingle) that the number of pairs in pollen mother cells at diakinesis and at the first metaphase is probably 8, and that the somatic number is ‘‘more than 14, probably 16.” Evidently neither Strasburger nor Osawa secured very clear metaphase figures. No other determinations of chromosome number for Citrus seem to have been published. During the blooming season of 1924, pollen mother cells of several commercial varieties of Citrus were stained by the present writer, using Belling’s® iron-acetocarmine method (No. 2). This method probably gives better fixation than has previously been secured; in good material it gives some metaphase views in which every chromo- Fig. 1 Fig. 2 ApoGAMIC PROGENY OF MEDITERRANEAN SWEET ORANGE Vig. 1—Metaphase of first meiotic division; 9 bivalent chromosomes. Fig. 2.— Same as figure 1, at second metaphase; 9 univalent chromosomes in each group; some chromosomes distinctly split, but the halves always very close together. some is well separated from its neighbors. Normal spore tetrads are very uniformly produced. Polyspory and polycary have not been observed. The first count secured (at the metaphase of the first meiotic divi- sion) showed 9 separate chromosomes. Further study showed that 9 is the normal number of pairs in two varieties of sweet orange (C. sinensts Osbeck), namely, Mediterranean Sweet and Paper Rind (St. Michael), and in the variety of grapefruit (C. maxima (Burm.) Merrill) called Imperial. This conclusion depends on a few counts at diakinesis, where poorer staining and irregular position made count- SI. Osawa. Cytological and experimental studies in Citrus. Imp. Univ. Tokyo. Coll. Agr. Jour. 4: 83-116. 4 pls.,1fig. 1912. § Joun Beirne. On counting chromosomes in pollen mother cells. Am. Nat. 55: 573-574. 1921. JAN. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 3 ing relatively difficult, a few counts at the first or second anaphase, and more numerous counts at the first metaphase (fig. 1)7 and the second metaphase (fig. 2). As Strasburger’s! figures indicate, the chromosomes are very small. Dark granules, sometimes resembling the chromosomes, were often troublesome, and spoiled some preparations, but some metaphase groups were individually decisive. With Mediterranean Sweet (that is, one of the apogamic progeny from a species cross in which this variety was seed parent), the case was finally put beyond the pos- sibility of reasonable doubt. The chromosomes in two groups of pollen mother cells at the second division were countable in a large proportion of the cases, and 24 positive counts of 9 chromosomes were made here; in four of these cells, both groups were countable and each group consisted of 9 chromosomes. ‘The few apparent counts of 8 in these groups were plainly to be classed with those of still smaller numbers; that is, they obviously were cases where not all the chromo- somes of the normal complement were distinguishable. It is also significant that apparent counts of 10 are rare. Since three varieties of Citrus have been found to have 9 pairs of chromosomes, and two of these varieties belong to one of the species which Strasburger studied, it seems probable that 9, not 8, is the usual haploid number in Citrus. At least, it is certain that the number is not uniformly 8. BOTANY.—New plants from Central America... Pau C. STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum. In the course of work recently begun upon a flora of the Panama Canal Zone, several new species have been detected, and descriptions of them are published here. Two of the species described were recog- nized a few years ago by the late Prof. W. W. Rowlee, while revising the Scitaminales for the proposed Flora of Central America. Most of the species here described belong to the large family Rubiaceae, and particularly to the genus Hoffmannia. This genus finds its greatest development in Mexico and Central America, and consists of a large number of species, most of which seem to be extremely local in their distribution. 7 The figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida, at a magnification of about 3065 diameters, and are reduced one-fourth in reproduction. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 Calathea hirsuta Standl., sp. nov. Plants 0.5 to 1 meter high; leaves all basal, long-petiolate, the sheaths 15-20 em. long, membranaceous, densely short-hirsute, the petioles 3 cm. long or less, hirsute, the blades oblanceolate-oblong to oval, 19-41 cm. long, 11-12.5 cm. wide, rounded or broadly cuneate at base, abruptly short- acuminate at apex, thin, green, sparsely short-pilose above or glabrate, beneath soft-pilose or in age glabrate; scape 54-66 cm. long, slender, hir- sute; spike 6-12 cm. long, 1-2 em. thick, the bracts 4 or 5, spirally imbricate, rather lax, broad, thin, 2.5-4 em. long, acute to rounded and apiculate at apex, densely hirsute; corolla glabrous, exserted 2-3 cm. beyond the bracts. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,165,835, collected at Alajuela, Panama, August 18, 1923, by F. L. Stevens (no. 1131). Also collected in damp woods on Ancén Hill, Canal Zone in 1923, Standley 25163. A very distinct species, not closely related to any other known from Central America. Calathea panamensis Rowlee, sp. nov. Plants small, 20-40 cm. high, with few or numerous, erect or spreading basal leaves; petioles 8-16 em. long, sheathed for nearly their whole length, minutely pilose or glabrate; leaf blades obovate to oval, 11-20 em. long, 5-10 em. wide, rounded and abruptly short-acuminate or apiculate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, thin, glabrous above except along the puberulent costa, puberulent beneath; peduncles one or several, 3.5 em. long or less, the spikes sometimes sessile; bracts numerous, the outer ones ovate tolance- oblong, 4—7 cm. long, membranaceous, acute or acuminate, sparsely short- pilose; corolla yellow, equaling or exceeding the bracts, the segments seri- ceous outside. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 863124, collected in deep woods near Juan Diaz, Province of Panama, Panama, near sea level, Sept. 30, 1917, by Ellsworth P. Killip (no. 3078). The following additional specimens represent the same species: ' Panama: Near Tapia River, edge of forest, Maxon & Harvey 6664. Matias Hernandez, Pittier 6806. Chepo, Province of Panama, Pittier 4564. Costa Rica: Matambu, Nicoya Peninsula, alt. 600 m., Cook & Doyle 710. Myrosma panamensis Standl., sp. nov. Plants acaulescent, small, usually 30-40 cm. high, with few or numerous basal leaves; petioles 12-18 em. long, with broad green sheaths nearly their whole length, glabrate; leaf blades elliptic or oval, 16-30 em. long, 7-13 cm. wide, obtuse or acute at apex, rounded or broadly cuneate at base, thin, glabrous above except along the puberulent costa, beneath slightly paler, thinly short-pilose or puberulent; scapes equaling or shorter than the petioles, bearing at apex a large long-petiolate leaf; racemes 2-4 from the axil of the leaf, 4-6 em. long, on peduncles 1.5—-4 em. long; bracts numerous, lax, spread- ing, rather remote, broadly ovate, about 2 cm. long, obtuse, scarious, gla- brous; sepals oblong-lanceolate, 1 em. long; ovary glabrous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,506, collected in wet forest along the Rfo Tapia, Province of Panama, Panama, near sea level, December, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 26219). The following addi- tional collections belong here: JAN. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 5 Panama: Rio Tecumen, Standley 26738.. Near the big swamp east of Rio Tecumen, Sfandley 26608. Along the Corozal Road, near Panama, Standley 26845. Pleiostachya pittieri Rowlee, sp. nov. Plants a meter high or more; petioles about 75 em. long, glabrous, the callus terete, glabrous, 4 cm. long, with a distinct collar at its junction with the petiole; leaf blades elliptic, about 45 cm. long and 15 cm. wide, green and glabrous on both sides, acute at each end; spikes 2, sessile, linear, 15-19 em. long, 1.3 em. wide, slightly compressed; bracts ovate, 2.2 cm. long, acute, coriaceous, closely appressed, glabrous; flowers white, exserted; spikes subtended by a large petiolate leaf and by an obtuse oblong bract 3 cm. long inserted opposite the leaf. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 679566, collected on hills of Sperdi, Puerto Obaldia, San Blas Coast, Panama, altitude 200 meters or less, September, 1911, by H. Pittier (no. 4409). Pleiostachya pruinosa (Regel) Schum., the only similar species, differs in its usually pedunculate, broader, more compressed spikes, with larger thinner bracts, and in the dark red lower surface of the leaves. Aristolochia panamensis Standl., sp. nov. Stems erect or decumbent, simple, 30-100 cm. high, stout, the young branches densely pilose with short subappressed hairs; petioles stout, about 1 em. long; leaf blades obovate-oval to oblong-obovate, 9-21 cm. long, 5-12 cm. wide, acute to rounded at apex, acute at base, thick, pinnate- nerved, glabrous above, beneath very glaucous, finely soft-pubescent, the yenation prominent-reticulate; flowers borne near the base of the stem; peduncles slender, simple, in fruit 3-6 cm. long; calyx about 3.5 cm. long, densely pilose, the basal portion narrow, the throat inflated into a large sac 1.8 em. broad, the limb apparently broadly ovate and acuminate; cap- sule oval, about 3 em. long and 1.5 cm. in diameter, 6-celled, tomentose or glabrate, 6-costate. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,154,510, collected in moist forest along the Rio Paraiso, above East Paraiso, Canal Zone, Panama, Jan. 7, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 29906). The following additional specimens belong here: Panama: Vicinity of San Felix, eastern Chiriquf, alt. 120 meters or less, Pittier 5463, 5750. Rio Pedro Miguel, Canal Zone, Standley 29950. Las Cascadas Plantation, Canal Zone, Standley 25740, 29515. The plant is abundant locally in wet forests about the Canal Zone. It is quite unlike any of the other Central American species. Aristolochia sylvicola Standl., sp. nov. Stems very slender, scandent, glabrous; petioles slender, glabrous, 6-8 cm. long; leaf blades broadly rounded-deltoid, 12-17 em. long, 10-15 cm. wide, acuminate or somewhat abruptly acute, at base subcordate or subtruncate, thin, dark green and glabrous above, beneath glaucescent and thinly puberu- lent, palmately 5-nerved; inflorescence 4-flowered, borne on the naked corky-angled stems, glabrous, the pedicels about 6 mm. long; immature capsules oblong, 6-angled, 3 cm. long, glaucescent, glabrous. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,853, collected in wet forest on hills north of Frijoles, Canal Zone, Panama, Dec. 19, 19238, by Paul C. Standley (no. 27469). The stems were tightly wrapped about the trunk of a large tree. Only one plant was found. Although without flowers, the plant is so distinct from all known Central American species of Aristolochia that it seems best to describe it as new. Calderonia klugei Standl., sp. nov. Tree; young branchlets sparsely hispid with short hairs; stipules triangu- lar-ovate, 7 mm. long, brown, puberulent outside along the costa; petioles about 3 mm. long, hispid; leaf blades broadly ovate, 4-6.5 em. long, 2-4.5 cm. wide, narrowed to the obtuse apex, usually deeply cordate at base, glabrous above, hispidulous beneath along the costa; capsule subglobose, 2.5-3 em. long, glabrate, 2-celled, loculicidally bivalvate; seeds numerous, horizontal, semiorbicular, strongly compressed, winged at one end, the seed with its wing 2.5 em. long. Type in the U. §. National Herbarium, no. 1,206,424, collected near Chepo, Province of Panama, Panama, in 1924, by H. C. Kluge (no. 19). The type material forms part of a small but interesting collection of timber trees obtained by Mr. Kluge in the neighborhood of Chepo. The collector states that this tree does not reach a great size and that it grows usually on overflowed land. The vernacular name is ‘“‘palo colorado.” The flowers are not at hand, and when they are collected it may be found that the tree belongs to some other genus, but the fruit is so distinctive that it seems probable that it belongs to the genus Calderonia, recently described? from Salvador. Calderonia salvadorensis is distinguished from the Panama tree by its large leaves, rounded or obtuse at base. Manettia estrellae Standl., sp. nov. Suffrutescent or woody vine, the stems villosulous; stipules 1-1.5 mm. long, dentate; petioles 3-24 mm. long, villosulous; leaf blades ovate to oblong-elliptic, 3.5-6.5 em. long, 1.5-3 em. wide, acute, obtuse or acute at base, thin, villosulous on both surfaces, more densely so beneath; cymes axillary, few-flowered, pedunculate, the pedicels stout, 2.4 mm. long, vil- losulous; hypanthum densely short-villous, the 4 calyx lobes oblong-ob- lanceolate, foliaceous, 4-5 mm. long, acute; corolla pinkish white, thinly villous outside, the slender tube 1 cm. long, the lobes of about the same length; capsule obovoid, 5 mm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,146, collected in wet forest, La Estrella, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 27, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 39224). No. 39425 from the same locality is of this species. Among the North American species this is easily recognized by the copi- ous pubescence upon all parts of the plant. 2 This JouRNAL 13: 290. 1923. JAN. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 7 Hamelia storkii Standl., sp. nov. Branches glabrous; stipules subulate from a narrowly triangular base, 10-12 mm. long, ciliate; leaves opposite, the petioles 1.5-5 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades elliptic, 12-22 em. long, 4-9 em. wide, acuminate, acute at base, sparsely barbate beneath in the axils of the lateral nerves, elsewhere gla- brous; inflorescence terminal, the branches often 10 cm. long in age, glabrous, many-flowered, the flowers secund, sessile or nearly so; calyx glabrous, the lobes triangular-oblong, 1.5 mm. long, obtuse, longer than broad, erect; corolla yellow, 2.5-8 em. long, tubular, slightly widened above, the throat 4 mm. broad; fruit oblong, 1 cm. long, 3 mm. thick. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,166,466, collected in western Panama, August 1, 1923, by H. E. Stork (no. 38). Also collected in the Changuinola Valley, Panama, Jan. 14, 1924, by V. C. Dunlap (no. 326). Related to H. calycosa Donn. Smith, of Guatemala, which has smaller, mostly ternate leaves, a few-flowered inflorescence, and smaller corolla, besides much larger calyx lobes. Hamelia rowleei Standl., sp. nov. Branches thinly pilose with long spreading hairs; stipules subulate, about 1 em. long; leaves opposite, the petioles 1.5-4.5 cm. long, sparsely pilose; leaf blades elliptic-obovate, 15-19 em. long, 7-8 em. wide, abruptly short- acuminate, cuneate-attenuate at base, villosulous above along the costa but elsewhere glabrous, beneath copiously pilose with stiff spreading hairs; inflorescence terminal, many-flowered, the branches pilose, the flowers secund, sessile or nearly so; calyx pilose, the lobes deltoid, about as broad as long, 1.5 mm. long; corolla tube puberulent, 28 mm. long, 5 mm. wide above the base, the lobes broadly ovate, spreading. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,080,249, collected at Living- ston, on the Reventazén River, Costa Rica, in 1920, by W. W. Rowlee and H. E. Stork (no. 75). Probably related to H. magniloba Wernham, of Nicaragua, which has smaller flowers and nearly glabrous leaves. Hoffmannia asclepiadea Standl., sp. nov. Stems simple, herbaceous, green, 1.5 meters high, villosulous; leaves op- posite, the petioles stout, 2.5-4 cm. long, villosulous; leaf blades ovate- elliptic, about 20 cm. long and 8 cm. wide, long-acuminate, cuneate at base, glabrous above, copiously short-villous beneath, especially along the nerves; cymes sessile, shorter than the petioles, many-flowered, the branches densely short-villous; calyx short-villous, the lobes ovate-deltoid, obtuse, 1 mm. long; corolla ovoid and acutish in bud, greenish yellow, densely short- villous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,122, collected in wet forest at Las Nubes, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1,900 meters, March 20-22, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 38349). Among the Costa Rican species this is well marked by the copious pubes- cence. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, no. 1. Hoffmannia amplexifolia Standl., sp. nov. _ Stems simple, herbaceous, glabrous, sharply quadrangular, 1-1.5 meters high; leaves ternate, sessile, oblanceolate or oblong-obovate, 23-35 em. long and 8-13 ecm. wide or larger, long-acuminate, long-attenuate to the deeply cordate, clasping base, glabrous above, beneath minutely puberulent along the nerves; cymes clustered in the leaf axils, many-flowered, 3-8 cm. long, the branches densely villosulous, the flowers slender-pedicellate; calyx reddish, short-villous, the lobes narrowly triangular, obtuse; corolla greenish yellow, puberulent or villosulous, in bud 5 mm. long, the lobes longer than the tube; fruit red. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,192, collected in moist forest near Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 30, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 39869). Nos. 39717 and 39809, from the same locality are also of this species. Readily distinguished from other species of the genus by the clasping bases of the leaves. Hoffmannia josefina Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 3 meters high, with few branches, the stems terete, glabrous; leaves opposite, the stout glabrous petioles 1-1.5 em. long; leaf blades obovate or oblong-obovate, 13-22 em. long, 5.5-9 cm. wide, acute or abruptly short- acuminate, cuneate-attenuate at base, glabrous; cymes few or many-flowered, pedunculate, longer than the petioles, the branches glabrous, the pedicels 1-3 mm. long; calyx glabrous or with a few short scattered hairs, the limb 2 mm. long, the lobes narrowly triangular, acute, green; corolla in bud ovoid, acute, in anthesis 11 mm. long, glabrous, the lobes shorter than the tube; fruit subglobose, 6 mm. long, dark red. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,900, collected in moist forest between Aserri and Tarbaca, Province of San José, Costa Rica, al- titude about 1800 meters, February 12, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 34143). Hoffmannia hamelioides Standl.,sp. nov. Shrub 1.5 meters high, the branches glabrous; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 1-3 em. long, sparsely puberulent or glabrous; leaf blades obovate- elliptic or oblancolate-elliptic, 12-21 cm. long, 4.5-7 em. wide, abruptly acuminate, cuneate-decurrent at base, glabrous above, villosulous beneath along the nerves; cymes sessile, few or many-flowered, about equaling the petioles, the branches short-villous; calyx short-villous, the lobes 1-1.5 mm. long, narrowly triangular, acutish; corolla in bud ovoid, acutish, 4 mm. long, greenish white, short-villous; fruit dark red, 7-8 mm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,904, collected in moist forest between Aserri and Tarbaca, Province of San José, Costa Rica, alti- tude about 1,800 meters, February 12, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 34149). Related to H. josefina, but distinguished by the pubescence of leaves and inflorescence. JAN. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 9 Hoffmannia macrophylla Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 3 meters high, with few branches, glabrous throughout, the stems green; leaves sessile or nearly so, the blades decurrent to the base, oblong- obovate, 21-35 cm. long, 8-10 em. wide, abruptly acute, long-attenuate to the base, bright green; cymes sessile or pedunculate, 3-4 cm. long, laxly few-flowered, the pedicels 3-8 mm. long; calyx red, the limb shallowly lo- bate, the lobes rounded-deltoid, 1.5 mm. long; corolla in bud cylindric, obtuse, 6 mm. long, red outside, the lobes yellow, twice as long as the tube. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1,152,957-8 (from the same plant), collected in wet forest, Cerro de la Carpintera, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, altitude about 1700 meters, February, 1924, by Paul C. Stand- ley (no. 35636). Hoffmannia leucocarpa Standl., sp. nov. Shrub about 2 meters high, simple or with few branches, glabrous through- out; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 3-5.5 em. long, the blades elliptic or lance-elliptic, 15-24 em. long, 6-12 em. wide, acuminate, acute or cuneate at base; cymes axillary, equaling or often much exceeding the petioles, laxly few-flowered, the flowers on slender pedicels 5-12 mm. long, the branches bright red; calyx limb 2-3 mm. long, red, the lobes deltoid, acute; corolla red, in bud 7 mm. long and acute, the lobes longer than the tube; fruit subglobose, about 1 em. long, white. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,121, collected in wét forest at Las Nubes, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1600 meters, March 20-22, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 38340). No. 38703 from the same locality belongs to this species. Hoffmannia pallidifiora Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 1-2 meters high, with simple quadrangular glabrous stems; leaves opposite, the slender petioles 2-4 cm. long, glabrous, the upper leaves often sessile; leaf blades elliptic or obovate-elliptic, 15-25 cm. long, 7-9 cm. wide, acuminate, abruptly long-decurrent, glabrous; cymes few-flowered, long- pedunculate, equaling the petioles, the branches glabrous, the flowers partly sessile and partly pedicellate; calyx pale green, the lobes triangular, obtuse or acute, 1-1.5 mm. long; corolla pale green, narrow and acute in bud, in anthesis 8 mm. long, the lobes nearly twice as long as the tube; fruit oval, red, 1 cm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,101, collected in wet forest at La Hondura, Province’ of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1500 meters, March 16, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37877). The fol- lowing collections also belong here: Costa Rica: La Hondura, Standley 37780, 37837. El Mufieco, south of Navarro, Province of Cartago, alt. about 1400 meters, Standley 33435, 33951. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 181sT MEETING The 181st meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club the evening of Thursday, November 15, 1923, and was de- voted to a consideration of Pan-Pacific problems. The program was as follows: J. C. Merriam: The origin and development of the Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress. T. Waytanp VauGcHAN: The Australian Meeting in 1923: The Scientific Proceedings. Dr. Vaughan, in reporting for Col. Alfred H. Brooks and himself as dele- gates from the Academy, spoke in general of the cordial hospitality with which the delegates were received by the Commonwealth Government, the financial and other assistance rendered by the Government, the success of the meetings, and in some detail of the fields covered by the general and sectional meetings. There were present 81 official delegates, as follows: Great Britain, 12; United States, 17; Canada, 3; Hawaii, 6; New Zealand, 13; Japan, 10; Philippine Islands, 5; Netherlands, 6; British Malaya, 2; Tahiti, 1; Papua, 1; New Guinea, 1; Fiji, 1; Hongkong, 1; France, 1; Chile, 1. The Congress was officially opened in Melbourne, August 13, by an address from the Governor-General. The Sydney sessions were opened August 24. The President of the Congress, Sir David Orme Masson, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Melbourne, presided over the general sessions at Melbourne, which were limited to opening and closing meetings. The Vice-president of the Congress, Sir Edgeworth David, Professor of Geology at the University of Sydney, presided over the general session at Sydney, which were mostly devoted to subjects of general interest to several sections. These were as follows: The structure of the Pacific region and its influence on animal and plant life; Organization and coordination of scientific work in the Pacific region; Insects, their distribution and role in the Pacific region; Climate of the Pacific region, its causes and relations to eco- nomic and social life; Settlement in areas of low rainfall. The sections of the Congress were Agriculture, Anthropology and Ethnol- ogy, Botany, Entomology, Forestry, Geodesy and Geophysics (including Radiotelegraphy), Geography and Oceanography, Geology, Hygiene, Veterinary Science, and Zoology. In addition to the technical discussions, arrangements were made for several popular public lectures in both Mel- bourne and Sydney. Outlines of the programs of the sections are as follows: Agriculture.—(1) Problems relating to irrigation; (2) Agricultural educa- tion and research; (3) Genetics and the improvement of farm animals; (4) Diseases of wheat; (5) Soil surveys; (6) Genetics and the improvement of crops; (7) Diseases of cereals; (8) Diseases of miscellaneous crops; (9) Tropical agriculture; (10) Plant quarantine regulations. Anthropology and Ethnology.—(1) Cartography of the Pacific (joint meeting with sections of Geodesy and Geography); (2) Organization of research among the natives of Australia and the islands of the Pacific, and Linguistic problems of the Pacific; (3) Decline in native population in the islands of the Pacific, and Variations in sex ratios in relation to the index of declining fertility; (4) The Australian aboriginal—his origin and his re- gan. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 11 lations to the Tasmanian and other races; (5) The relation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Indonesian peoples and languages; (6) Migration zones. Botany.—(1) Forests of Victoria, and the big trees of Australia; (2) Ecologie studies in Tasmania, and the flora of Krakatau; (3) Antipodean shortage of softwoods (with Forestry Section); (4) Wheat diseases (with Agricultural Section); (5) Distribution of plants, Australia’s influence on adjacent floras, and Distribution of orchids; (6) So-called back-mutations and plant ecology in arid regions; (7) Gymnosperms of the Pacific; (8) Evolution of plant life in the Pacific; (9) General botany, especially the phytogeography, of the Pacific. Entomology.—(1) Parasitologic problems in veterinary science and zool- ogy; The bufialo fly (jot meeting with sections of Zoology and Veterinary Science); (2) Introduced pests and natural enemies (joint meeting with sec- tions of Zoology, Botany, and Forestry); (8) Introduction of beneficial insects into New Zealand, Distribution of anopheline mosquitoes, and The termite problem as affecting Australia; (4) The Mediterranean fruit-fly, Fruit-fly control, and Australian fruit-flies; (5) Control of noxious insects by the introduction of their natural enemies, and Entomological control of the prickly pear; (6) Control of the blow-fly pest; (7) Distribution of insects in relation to disease (jointly with other sections). Forestry.—The first three of the four sessions of this Section were devoted to joint discussions with the sections of Botany, Entomology, and Zoology. At the fourth session the topics were: Seasoning of hardwood timber, The need for research into the properties of hardwood timbers. At Sydney the topics were: Timber-boring insects, with special reference to the ex- portation of Philippine lumber; Re-afforestation in the Pacific; A national forestry school and the properties of hardwood timber; Introduced tropical borers and their natural enemies; Plant quarantine (jointly with the sec- tions of Agriculture and Entomology). Geodesy, Geophysics, and Radiotelegraphy.—(1) Present condition of mapping in the Pacific, and A geodetic survey of Australia; (2) Determina- tion of gravity at sea, Isostasy in the light of the work in India, Earth- tides, Australia’s possible contribution to knowledge of the figure of the Earth; (3) Meteorology of the Pacific, and International researches in solar physics; (4) Studies of terrestrial magnetism In the Pacific region, and The magnetic observatory of the Carnegie Institution at Watheroo; (5) Geodetic and trigonometric surveys and their status in New South Wales and the Netherlands East Indies; (6) Gravity determinations in the Philippines, Development of the hypothesis of isostasy, Limiting depth of earthquake foci, Methods of geodetic work; (7) Tropical storms and associated phenom- ena; (8) Location of earthquakes and the installation of seismographs and related matters; (9) Microseisms and their correlation with the distribu- tion of atmospheric pressure; (10) Engineering and architectural construc- tion in countries of high seismicity; (11) Earthquake forecasting; (12) Radiotelegraphy (three half-day discussions on ten topics, among them the organization of wireless time signals in the Pacific and adjoining countries). Geography and Oceangraphy.—(1) Mapping of the Pacific, and related matters (jointly with the sections of Anthropology and Geodesy); (1) Hy- drographic surveys in Australia, and An oceanographic institute in Australia; (3) Meteorology of the Pacific (jointly with section of Geodesy and Geo- physics); (4) Oceanography, Ocean currents of the southwest Pacific; (5) Unexplored regions of the Pacific, especially in Melanesia; (6) Geo- graphic education; (7) Physiographic unity of the Pacific (jointly with the section of Geology). 12. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 Geology.—There had been selected for the Section of Geology eight topics, and in the discussion of each of them an endeavor was made to cover the Pacific region. ‘The different topics interlocked in scope, so that they were mutually supplementary and taken all together a good general account, of many of the important geologic features of the Pacific region was the result. The topics were (1) Correlation of the Cenozoic formations; (2) The ore provinces; (3) The geologic structure; (4) Post-Mesozoic volcanic activity; (5) Carboniferous and Permian; (6) Coral reefs; (7) Oil and water re- sources; (8) Coal resources and status of a real geologic mapping. Hygiene.—(1) Mining hygiene; (2) Program of hygiene for the Pacific region; (8) Control of plague, small-pox, and other diseases among native races, and cooperation in public health matters; (4) Causes of the decline of native races; (5) Climate and human efficiency; (6) Insects and the distribution of disease by them (jointly with the sections of Entomology and Veterinary Science). There were also papers on ventilation, diseases among children in New South Wales, and heredity in cancer. Veterinary Science.—The work of this section is so interlocked with the sections of Agriculture, Entomology, and Zoology that it held no separate sessions in Melbourne, and in Sydney most of the sessions were also with those of other sections. Pleuro-pneumonia in cattle, Piroplasmoses of the Pacific region, and The control of the cattle tick were separately discussed. Zoology.—The papers before the section of Zoology were largely of mis- cellaneous character. In Melbourne parasites ard genetics were discussed with other sections, and fisheries and marine biological stations received independent consideration. In Sydney the geographic, distribution of several groups of organisms received attention; there were papers on the evolution of the marsupials, on the evolution of mollusks concurrent with topographic development, and on the ecology of marine organisms. The preservation of the native fauna of Australia was specially considered. In conclusion Dr. Vaughan spoke appreciatively of the general benefits of the Congress in bringing widely separated investigators into direct con- tact, in affording opportunity for first-hand information as to scientific progress in distant regions, and in promoting good will and mutual under- standing by the assembling of men actuated by the common purpose of increasing and utilizing scientific knowledge in the improvement of human welfare. H. E. Grecory: The resolutions adopted by the Congress on International Cooperation in Scientific Research. The resolutions adopted by the Congress of 1923 show that the delegates viewed the Pacific as a unit area, of which information in all branches of science was deficient. It was recognized that increase of knowledge in any branch is of great assistance to all other branches and that practical steps in progress are to be made by utilizing all agencies concerned—governmental, institutional, and individual. The resolutions therefore took the forms of (1) pointing out needed investigations wholly within the sphere of a single country, state, or institution, and (2) formulating projects which demand specific contributions from different sources. For some problems, for example the origin and history of the native populations, areas were de- limited in which Japan, Dutch East Indies, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States are to assume responsibility. The Congress passed resolutions designed to insure mere methods of field recording and label making, to provide for the publication of JAN. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 13 manuscripts, and to develop more and better university courses of instruc- tion in subjects directly related to the Pacific. Resolutions which are essentially outlines of projects for investigation in agriculture, anthropology, botany, entomology, forestry, geodesy, geog- raphy, geology, geophysics, hygiene, oceanography, veterinary science, and zoology, and which reveal an appreciation of the inter-relation of these subjects and a knowledge of ways and means, were spread on the records for transmission to institutions and government bureaus. Resolutions dealing with conservation are considered of particular importance, because of the urgency and human interest of the investigation which they formulate. Attention was directed to the threatened extinction of indigenous terrestrial fauna and flora and marine mammals; to the depletion of fisheries; to the relative unprofitableness of tropical agriculture because of plant diseases and insect pests; to the absence of ready communication between Pacific peoples, and especially to the alarming decrease in the native population. That the resolutions passed at the Australian session of the Pacific Con- gress are likely to lead to accomplished results is indicated by the way in which the suggestions formulated in resolutions at the Honolulu meeting in 1920 have been put into effect. (Author’s abstract.) 182d MEETING The 182d meeting of the Academy, the 26th annual meeting, was held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution of Washington the evening of Tuesday, January 8, 1924. The program consisted of an address by the retiring President, T. WayLanp VAUGHAN, entitled, Oceanography in its relations to other earth sciences. This has since been published in the Journal (14: 307-333. August 19, 1924). After a short intermission following the address the annual business meeting of the Academy was held. The minutes of the 25th annual meeting were read and approved. The Corresponding Secretary, Francis B. SILsBEE, reported briefly on the activities of the Academy during the year 1923. On, January 1, 1924, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members, 3 #:trons, and 560 members, one of whom was a life member. Of the total membership of 578, those living in or near Washington number 361, those in other parts of the United States 192. There are 25 foreign members. During the year the resignations of 13 members were accepted, and the Academy lost by death the following: Winu1am H. Baxcocx, Joun B. HENDERSON, Orro Kiotz, Aurrep A. Mayor, E. W. Mortuny, E. D. Wit- LiaMson. There was, nevertheless, a slight gain in membership over the last preceding year. Nine meetings of the Board of Managers were held, one important activity being the election of nine honorary members, as follows: ErRNest CLayton ANDREWs, Australia (Geology); CARL FREDERICK ALBERT CHRISTENSEN, Denmark (Botany); Raoun Gautier, Switzerland (Geodesy); Lron Manovvrier, France (Anthropology); Paunt Marcnat, France (Biology); F. Omort, Japan (Seismology); Sir Ernest RUTHERFORD, England (Radioactivity); Guiseprr STeraNInt, Italy (Paleontology); Max Weser, Netherlands (Zoology). Other matters considered by the Board of Managers pertained to support of the plan for a national arboretum in Washington, relief to sorely distressed scientists of foreign countries, and the proposed plan for preparing a complete and detailed history of scientific work in Washington, a project which, unfortunately, it has been necessary to postpone indefinitely. Especially noteworthy was the affiliation of three 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 new societies with the Academy during the year: Society of American Bac- teriologists (Washington Branch), American Society of Mechanical En- gineers (Washington Section), Helminthological Society of Washington. The effect of this has been to add about 350 scientists, or about 25 per cent, to those now directly affiliated with and represented by the Academy. This is the first occasion since 1912 that additional societies have become affil- iated with the Academy. The report of the Recording Secretary, Wituram R. Maxon, was read. In addition to the annual meeting there were held during the calendar year 9 public meetings, nearly all in conjunction with one or more of the affiliated societies, at which illustrated addresses were delivered. The titles and dates and places of publication of the addresses were stated. Besides these meetings the Academy participated in the memorial exercises held at the National Museum the evening of Saturday, February 3, 1923, celebrating the centenary of the birth of Spencer F. Baird, former Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution. Addresses on that occasion were delivered by WILLIAM H. Datu, C. G. Assot, Epwin Linton, Davin Starr JoRDAN, and C. Hart Merriam, all, with a single exception, members of the Academy. The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, showed total receipts of $5,307.12 and total disbursements of $6,190.09; the cash balance in hand December 31, 1923, was $1,788.50. Investments of the Academy have a total par value of $16,036.37. The cost of maintaining and printing the Journal in 1923 was approximately $3,700, a slight increase over 1922. The report of the Auditing Committee was read and the reports of both the Treasurer and the Auditing Committee were accepted. The report of the Editors of the Journal was read by Sipney Paice, the senior Editor. The editorial policy of the Board had remained essen- tially unchanged. Volume 13, for 1923, consists of 465 pages and includes 58 original articles, as against 486 pages and 52 original articles published in 1922. The cost of printing was slightly less per page than in 1922. Ref- erence was made also to a definite provision adopted by the Board of Mana- gers by which the Academy shares with authors the cost of illustrations, and by which authors’ reprints may be purchased at a much lower price than that charged by the publishers. With deep regret the Editors recorded the death of EK. D. Witutamson, a member of the Editorial Board. The committee of Tellers reported that the following officers had been elected for 1924: President, A. L. Day; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, IRA Remsen, W. E. Ritter; Corresponding Secretary, F. B. Stuspen; Recording Secretary, W. D. Lampert; Treasurer, R. L. Farts; Managers, Class of 1927, F. G. Corrrent, V. KELLOGG. The following Vice-Presidents, nominated by the affiliated societies, were then elected: Anthropological Society, T. Micuntson; Archaeological Society, Water Houau; Society of American Bacteriologists (Washington Branch), W. M. Cuarx; Biological Society, J. W. Grotey; Botanical Society, L. C. Corsett; Chemical Society, R. S. McBring; Institute of Electrical Engineers, A. R. Curyney; Society of Engineers, M. C. GRoveR; American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Washington Section), O. P. Hoop; Entomological Society, S. A. Ronwer; Society of Foresters, G. B. Supwortx; National Geo- graphic Society, FREDERICK V. Cov1LuE; Geological Society, G. F. LOUGHLIN; Helminthological Society of Washington, B. H. Ransom; Historical Society, ALLEN C. CiarK; Medical Society, Joon D. THomas; Philosophical Society, D. L. Hazarp. At 10:15 the meeting adjourned. Wiuuram R. Maxon, Recording Secretary. JAN. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOFHICAL SOCIETY 15 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 905TH MEETING The 905th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday, October 4, 1924. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P. M. by President Hazarp with 50 persons in attendance. The program of the evening consisted in reports from the meetings of the British Association and the International Mathematical Congress, held in Toronto during August 1924. W. J. Humenreys reported upon that part of the program which dealt with geophysics, including, particularly, meteorology, magnetism, and seis- mology. H. L. Curtis reported upon that part of the program which was con- cerned with general physics, describing in detail also some of the enter- tainment features and excursions. Pau D. Foote reported upon that part of the program which dealt with atomic physics, detailing particularly the papers by Compton and Duane. E. W. Woorarp reported upon the meetings of the International Mathe- matical Congress, discussing the papers under the headings of pure and applied mathematics. The reports were discussed by F. B. SmusBEE. 906TH MEETING The 906th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday, October 18, 1924. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P. M. by President Hazarp with 50 persons in attendance. The first paper on the program was presented by O. H. GisH on Prelimi- nary results of earth-current measurements at Watheroo, Western Australia. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. Marmuer, Maucuty, TucKERMAN, BreitT, and CRooKER. The first continuous recording of earth-current potentials in the Southern Hemisphere was begun in October, 1923, at the Watheroo Magnetic Obser- vatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington near Watheroo, Western Australia. The method used was previously described (see Tuis JouRNAL 14: 120. 1924). Curves of the diurnal variation for the months of Novem- and December, 1923, show pronounced characteristics as follows: The South- North component is a double wave which when plotted on local time is in phase with the South-North component of diurnal variations inearth-currents observed at Berlin (1884-1888) and Ebro (1914-1918). The West-East com- ponent of the diurnal variation at Watheroo, however, is approximately a single wave, while at Berlin and Ebro a double wave is obtained for this component. This single wave is in phase with the principal harmonic of the curve obtained at the other stations. The amplitudes observed at Berlin are expressed in arbitrary units and consequently can not be used in a comparison. At Ebro, however, the amplitude of either component is 20 times that found thus far at Watheroo, the range in values at Watheroo being as follows: South-North component, 1.6 millivolts per kilometer; West-East component, 0.6 millivolts per kilometer. The vector diagrams of the diurnal variations at Watheroo are of similar character to those obtained at both Ebro and Berlin. These diagrams are elongated along a line extending from west of north to east of south, and on the day-light portion the progression is clockwise. Though too early to draw definite 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 1 conclusions, these results do not appear to fit in to any existing theory. (Author’s abstract.) A paper on Graphical solution of spherical triangles was presented by F. E. Wricur. It was illustrated with lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. Lirrnenaues, TuckERMAN, HawxkeswortuH, and HumpHReys. The paper was published in full in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences for October 19, 1924. W. D. Lampert presented the third paper on the program on The dis- tance between two points on the Earth. The paper was discussed by Messrs. O. 5. Apams, L. H. Apams, GarpNreR, Hayrorp, GisH, WRIGHT, and HawkKESWORTH. The problem of finding the latitude and longitude of a point given by its distance and direction from a point of known latitude and longitude is called “the principal geodetic problem.’”’ The problem in hand is the in- verse of this, the two points being assumed to be given by their geographic coordinates. Many solutions of these two problems have been given to meet various conditions of distance, accuracy, or convenience in computation. When the flattening of the earth is aJlowed for, there are various con- necting lines which might be used, but the most natural one is the shortest, or geodesic, line. The complete solution for the geodesic was given in 1825 by Bessel in the Astronomische Nachrichten (Vol. 4). It involves elliptic integrals, and is decidedly laborious in spite of auxiliary tables. Associated with the spheroidal triangle, the vertices of which are a pole of the earth and the two points, there is a spherical triangle somewhat resembling the spheroidal one and related to it in certain rather simple ways. The spherical triangle should be conceived as a convenient geometrical representation of certain quantities occurring in the computation rather than as a deformation or projection of the spheroidal triangle. The rigorous solution involves successive approximations, each approximation requiring the solution of spherical triangles. If, however, too great accuracy is not demanded, the solution may be found by applying to the first approximation certain small corrections deduced from the differential variations of the parts of a triangle. This is done in the proposed approximate solution. This approximate solution is so accurate that, regardless of the distance between points, a computation with five-figure tables will not distinguish with certainty between the approximate and the exact processes, and often a computation with six figures is no more than sufficient for the purpose. (Author’s abstract.) W. J. Humpureys presented, as an informal communication, a report as delegate from the Philosophical Society of Washington to the Centenary Celebration of the Franklin Institute at Philadelphia. 907TH MEETING The 907th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences and was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday, November 1, 1924. The meeting was called to order at 8:18 P. M., by President A. L. Day, of the Acapremy, with 95 persons present. Dr. Henry Norris Russet of Princeton University addressed the meeting on Recent advances in our knowledge of the interior of the stars. JAN. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 17 All our direct knowledge of the stars deals with their surfaces. We can now find not only their distances and brightness, but their diameters, and temperatures; that is, their surface temperatures. The largest stars are red and relatively cool;those of intermediate size are white, and hot; the smallest ones (“dwarf stars’) are again red, with few exceptions. These facts fit in with the scheme of stellar evolution proposed by Lane and Lockyer, and revised by the speaker, according to which a mass of gas contracting under its gravitation will get hotter, both at the center and (more slowly) on the surface till its density becomes so high that the atoms are crowded close together, when the temperature falls again. The cooler stars show mainly the spectral lines of the metals; the hotter, those of the permanent gases. Saha and others have explained this on the theory of ionization. When a metallic atom loses an electron it absorbs a new set of lines—the spark lines. After losing from two to four, it no longer absorbs anything in the visible spectrum. This happens at the higher stellar temperatures. The permanent gases are much harder to ionize, and demand these high temperatures even to get their atoms into the ‘‘ex- cited” state in which they absorb lines in the visible region (instead of the ultra-violet). The spectral differences are therefore no evidence of trans- mutation of elements. In the interior of the stars the temperature must be many millions of degrees. Under these conditions the lighter atoms (about as far as sodium) would lose all their electrons, and be reduced to bare nuclei. The heavier ones would retain a few of the inner electrons. Even here, no general trans- mutation occurs; if the gas cooled down, the original atoms would auto- matically be reconstituted. Eddington has shown that the enormous gravitational pressure is sup- ported partly by the gas pressure due to the motion of atoms and electrons and partly by the pressure of the imprisoned radiation. If the mass of the body is less than one-tenth that of the sun, the radiation pressure has an insignif- icant share. Such bodies can not shine brightly enough to be seen at great distances—which explains why there are no stars of mass smaller than this. The amount of light which leaks out to the surface of a star depends on the opacity of the internal material. The first form of Eddington’s theory made this opacity constant, and ascribed the low luminosity of the dwarf stars to low internal temperature resulting from close packing of the atoms. Later work leads to an opacity increasing with the density, and to internal tem- peratures higher for the dwarfs than for the giants—the increased opacity of the former preventing much escape of heat to the surface. This demands that the stellar material should behave practically like a perfect gas, up to at least 100 times the density of water. The nuclei, and highly ionized residues of atoms inside the stars, are so much smaller than normal atoms that this is entirely reasonable. A few of the dwarf stars are white, and probably of great surface bright- ness, small diameter, and high density. The computed density for the comparison of Sirius is about 50,000 times that of water. Even this enormous density is no longer incredible, and the interpretation of these white dwarfs—previously a hopeless puzzle—is one of the notable triumphs of the new theory. (Author’s abstract.) 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 15, No. 1 908TH MEETING The 908th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences and was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday, November 15, 1924. The meeting was called to order at 8:17 P. M. by D. L. Hazarp, President of the Philosophical Society, with 80 persons present. President Hazard announced that the Committee on Elections would receive nominations for officers of the Philosophical Society for the coming year. The address of the evening was delivered by Prof. Cu. Fasry of Paris on the subject Thirty years of spectroscopy with the interferometer. The address was termed by Prof. Fabry a scientific autobiography, and the origin of interference fringes and their applications were discussed. Views illustrating the first fringes obtained as well as some of the early apparatus used were shown. The address was discussed by Messrs. SosMANn, BurGEss, and SKINNER. J. P. Aut, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS At the Annual Meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In- stitution the Secretary announced the appointment of Senators Smoor and Prrrer to fill the vacancies on the Board caused by the death of Senator Lodge and the resignation of Senator McCormick. Dr. Wini1am M. Mann returned recently from an extended trip, in the in- terests of the Federal Horticultural Board, to southern Europe where he investigated the distribution of the Mediterranean fruit fly. A meeting of the Petrologist’s Club was held at the home of H. G. Frr- Guson on December 16. M. I. GotpMan described An instance of syngenetic solution and epigenetic flowage in limestones, and observations on silicification. There was also further discussion of SHANNON and Ross’s paper on Bentonite, presented at the preceding meeting. Officers for 1925 were elected as follows: Secretary, Epwarp Sampson; Governing Committee, H. G. Frerauson, J. M. Mertir, H. E. Merwin. The December meeting of the Pick and Hammer Club, held at the Geologi- cal Survey on December 6, was devoted in part to an informal memorial and tribute to the late ALFRED H. Brooks, chief of the Alaska Branch of the Survey. Among the speakers were SipNEY Paice, GLENN S. Smiru, A. C. Spencer, C. E. MEeNDENHALL, R. H. Sarcent, and G. O. Smita. The regular program of the meeting consisted of reports on the work of the past field season, made by N. C. Grover for the Hydrographic Branch, GLENN S. Smirx for the Topographic Branch, G. R. MaNnsriztp for the Geologic Branch, J. D. Norrurvp for the Land Classification Board, and 8. R. Capps for the Alaska Branch. ANN OUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* wie i ie - Tuesday, January 6. The Botanical Society. Thursday, January 8. The Chemical Society. Saturday, January 10. The Philosophical apes at the Cosmos Club. _ =& Program: Danret L. Hazarp: Terrestrial magnetism in the twentieth century. Tuesday, January 13. The AcapEmy. Wednesday, January 14. The Geological Society. _ Thursday, January 15. The Acapremy. £ Saturday, January 17. The Biological Society. : The Helminthological Society. ? = * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS “ Genetics —The chromosomes of Citrus. Howarp B. Frost. Sh sien se Botany.—New plants from Central America. Pau C, STANDLEY..... ‘ie MER PROCEEDINGS / Wie OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: ArrHur L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. eae, Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Siuspen, Bureau of Standards. . Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. a Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. _ f Vol. 15 JANUARY 19, 1925 No. 2 ~ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kiiure W. F. Mreacrrs D. F. Hewerr NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams S. A. RonwEr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 JANUARY 19, 1925 No. 2 MATHEMATICS.—On the empirical representation of certain pro- duction curves! C. E. VAN ORSTRAND, Geological Survey. INTRODUCTION Production data representing the yearly output from individual mines, or from groups of mines included within areas of the order of magnitude of states or nations, can generally be represented by a curve (a, figure 1) which has a zero value at the origin of time—the curve rises irregularly and oftentimes quite abruptly to a maximum value and then declines rather slowly; presumably to a zero value, in an interval of time which may be assumed to be finite, or infinite. The problem to be solved consists of two distinct parts—(a) the selec- tion of an empirical equation, and (b) the evaluation of the constants of the empirical equation selected to represent the observations. It is proposed to treat both of these problems with sufficient detail and generality to enable the investigator to adopt at the outset certain well defined methods of procedure that will enable him to obtain satisfac- tory results with a minimum expenditure of time and energy. SELECTION OF AN EMPIRICAL EQUATION Expressed in terms of mathematics, we may say that the equation, y = FG) which represents the production (y) in terms of the time (x) has a zero value at the origin and at infinity—between these two values of the abscissae, the function is finite, positive, and continuous. The first derivative vanishes at infinity, but it may, or may not, vanish at the origin. 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 19 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 Functions satisfying these conditions can be defined in accordance with the theorems of the modern theory of functions. The following classification is based on the treatise by Forsyth.? Pec emes y =F (2) LIMITING CONDITIONS Accidental (1) a™(ao + aaa + +++ ane”) (bo + bie + ++ + byz”) RS 1 (2) af(ze 9 @ * (3) g (rt) > 0 Essential (") Aqa i (3) | estaene? eMX\zF 4+ AG || n\ ° >0 x (4) ax™e— 92) m>0g (zr) >0 =1 (5) E m eo (x) + (. ‘) m>0O0g(t)>0 | ar Accidental 1 1 and essen- <| (6) Crm ite aS: () m>O0g (*) >0 tial 1 -1 - 1 1 (7) Ez n () + of ‘) m>on C) >0 x (8) Oba! o Pig: AS ero 6 Order of numerator < Pi+Gi order of denominator Equation (8) consists of polynomial and transcendental expressions. The functions, f(x) and P(z, *), are polynomials, but g(#) and gu(-) may be either polynomial or transcendental. The exponents in f(x) are unrestricted—they may be positive or negative, integral or frac- tional. The order of contact at the vanishing points is finite or infin- ite according as the singularity is accidental or essential. The inequalities tabulated in the column ‘Limiting Conditions” are satisfied when the first derivative vanishes at the origin. Equations V, VIII, and IX of the following list are very special cases, y=a(1+=) (lee) eee ee (I) Cy C2 Cy C2 2A.R. Forsyru. Theory of functions of a complex variable. Cambridge University Press, 1900. A.L. Day and C.E. Van Orstrranp. The black body and the measurement of extreme temperatures. Astrophysical Jour. 19: 24-30. 1904. JAN. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 21 y=a @ _ a) Na CRNA REET ele Eel Ce hl ae ete arr ee (II) ae ba = — br y= 6 Q — *) Coan er er ree Sera IO TA ISELE. Hes RRA SIRES (IIT) =i a —m —btan = y=a ( + = € Sib PELE ATES a ES eas (IV) 2 is YAS: on Ga a a Oe SIE CRETE AS BNE BREE OEE AUT (V) y= a(x — ey cn Os eae Ghee See pe, ean Wart ene” ae Raed Gaates Mee ae eh (Vi) petactgie ee. AT et ee FOU AOR Om yA jit oe ate. (VII) = Ey ta CSO) Lees pe Ieee TA ee eT eR (VIID) TS CER are ater en Meee re ae (IX) b = =a)? Lf) = C8 LTE Oa OO ORS Ge tna oe aoe (X) respectively, of equations 6, 7, and 4 of the preceding list. With the exception of equation VII, the remaining equations in the list are easily obtained in a similar manner by introducing zeros at the points c, and c. instead of the points 0 and ~. Both zeros of equation VII are at an infinite distance from the origin. Apart from certain relations between the constants, equations I to VII, inclusive, represent Pearson’s seven types of frequency distribu- tion which have been used with great success by himself and others,’ chiefly in the field of biometrics. If we properly define the constants in IX and put m = n = 2, the equation represents the distribution of molecular velocities in a gas. Putting m = 0, n = 2, the equation reduces to Pearson’s type VII, which is the well known normal, Lapla- cean, or Gaussian distribution of frequencies on which the classical theory of probabilities is based. Pearson’s type III and V are like- wise special cases of IX. Two other very special cases of IX, br —_™ Y= OLes ONG = Ge are used to represent decline or extinction curves. These relations 2,W. Pain Experton. Frequency-curves and correlation. C. and E. Layton, Lon- don. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 are easily represented by straight lines on logarithmic paper. Equa- tion VIII contains as a special case, the equation deduced by Planck to represent at a particular temperature the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Pearson has developed criteria based on the method of moments by means of which one may select from his list of seven functions the particular equation of the group which will most accurately represent the observed values. Unfortunately, this method of procedure, at least in its present state of development, is not easily adapted either to the determination of criteria or to the evaluation of the constants in the selected equation when the observed frequency curve is incomplete. In view of these defects and the fact that theoretical considerations give us practically no information as to the nature of the required function, it becomes necessary to adopt a different method of pro- cedure. Evidently, variation, or degree of flexibility, or generality of functions can be obtained in only two ways—either by increasing the number of constants, or by putting the necessary mechanism into the function itself. An extreme case of the first is a Fourier series— of the second, a function of functions such as the expressions obtained for the representation of a frequency distribution by the method of semi-invariants. From the preceding brief discussion, it appears that equation [IX best meets the requirement of possessing a very consider- able range of generality expressed in terms of a minimum number of constants. It has therefore been selected for a first trial. COMPARISON OF METHODS OF EVALUATION OF CONSTANTS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS The precise evaluation of the constants of a frequency distribution oftentimes presents more difficulties than does the selection of an equation which is assumed to represent the data of observation. Four methods of evaluating the constants are now in use: (1) Method of least squares; (2) Pearson’s method of moments;? (3) Thiele’s* method 4Cuarues 8. Larkey. Mathematical determination of production decline curves. Mining and Metallurgy 4: 341-344. 1923. Harry M. Rorsrer. Determining the con- stants of oil-production decline curves. Trans. Am. Inst. Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. (Birmingham meeting, October, 1924.) WitLtarp W. Curier, Jr. Es- timation of underground oil reserves by oil-well production curves. Bull. 228 U. 8. Bureau of Mines, VII + 114 pages, 1924. 5 ARNE Fisopr. An elementary treatise on frequency curves. The Macmillan Co. 1922. ARNE FisHer. The mathematical theory of probabilities. Vol. 1. Second edi- tion. 1923. The Macmillan Co. gan. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 23 of semi-inyariants; and (4), Krichewsky’s® method of evaluating the constants of the first derivative of the required integral equation. Columns 3 and 4 of table 1 give Elderton’s? computed values (y-), and residuals (v) for the data tabulated in columns 1 and 2. The values were obtained by adjusting Pearson’s type I by the method of moments. Columns 6 and 8 give the computed values obtained by adjusting equations IX and I, respectively, by the method of least squares. The computed values in column 6 are too large over that portion of the curve which approaches the age axis as an asymptote, but over the remaining portion of the curve, the residuals obtained by this method are less than those obtained by the method of moments. Using the arbitrary values, c: = 9.1, co = 65.0, and adjusting the remaining constants of equation I by the method of least squares, we obtain the numbers tabulated in column 8. Judged by the usual criterion that the sum of the squares of the residuals (2v?) must be a minimum, the values tabulated in table 1, namely, 298, 550, and 169, show that the method of least squares gives a better adjustment than does the method of moments; furthermore, equation IX gives.a gradua- tion only slightly inferior to that of equation I. Column 11 gives the values calculated by Fisher’ from the equation, y = 1130 [¢o(x) + 0.0258 dpiti(x) + 0.0158 doi¥(x)] wherein 1 -3 (Hen) 1.624 Vn © and the remaining terms are respectively, the third and fourth deriva- tives of ¢,(z). The constants were evaluated by the method of semi- invariants from the data of columns 9 and 10. In column 13 are tabulated the values obtained from a least square adjustment of equa- tion I, using the arbitrary values, c: = c. = 31.0. The values of m and m, were assumed in this case to be independent. Comparison of the corresponding values of 2v?, 124 and 639, suggests that.it is prob- ably impossible to adjust equation I, either by the method of least got) = 6S. Kricnewsxy. A method of curve fitting. Ministry of Public Works, Egypt. Physical Department Paper No. 8. Government Press, Cairo, 1922. E.W.Woo.uarp. On Krichewsky’s method of fitting frequency curves. Monthly Weather Review 62, no. 2: 91-94. 1924. P 7W. Pain EvpEerTon. Loc. cit. pp. 54-58. 8 A. Fisner. Loc. cit. First reference, pp. 48-52. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 15, No. 2 squares or by the method of moments so as to obtain the remarkable degree of precision obtained in this particular instance by the method of semi-invariants. TABLE 1.—Comparison or Metuop or Least Squares with Meruop or Moments AND METHOD OF SEMI-INVARIANTS EXPOSED aa 2 NUMBER) yar CENTRAL | TO RISK me Bie a T CENTRAL aienas ANTS y AGE AGE Yo ¥ v z Yc x Uc Yo Yc r Uc (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 17 34 44 —10 1 43 =9 43 37 1 1 =29 0 22 145 137 +8 6 137 —4 145 42 6 5 24 0 27 156 149-7 11 158 +1 158 47 17 17 19 8 32 145 142 +3) 16 149 6 143 52 48 48 14 45 37 123 127 —4]| 21 128 1 127, 57 118 118 9 129 42 103 108 —5]| 26 105 | +16 107 62 224 226 —4 229 47 86 88 —2/] 31 88 21 87 67 286 291 +1 280 52 71 69 -+-2'| 36 65 26 «68 72 248 241 6 240 57 55 51 +4] 41 49 31 50 77 128 126 11 139 62 37 36 +11] 46 37 36 35 82 38 44 16 48 67 21 24 -—8] 51 28 |}+41 22 87 13 15 +21 ul 72 13 14 -1/] 56 20 46 13 92 2 3 26 0 77 7 7 0} 61 15 51 6 97 1 1 82 3 3 0!) 667 11 56 2 87 1 1 ON 7k 8 61 0 ZYo 1000 1000 1000 1130 1130 Lye 1000 1036 1001 1136 1125 Tv 298 550 169 124 639 log.a 0.94440 | 3.83910 5.03218 REaS 5.62412 m ears 0.86077 : Fic eee b fore 0.07650 my 0.40983 eters 0.35530 Bear 7.00455 Ms 2.77698 arty 2.53785 Canehs 6.42181 Cy 1.99638 aio 9.1 eects 31.0 C2 13.52728 HABE 65.0 31.0 Origin—age | 26.75942 16.0 26.0 ms. 66.0 Mode 0.00000 11.25 00.0 meters 1.345 Mode—age 26.75942 27.25 26.0 ee 67.345 The method of least squares frequently fails to give a satisfactory adjustment of Pearson’s type V; after passing the mode, the com- puted curve generally falls considerably above the observed curve. 25 ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES VAN 5 19, 192 JAN. TABLE 2.—Pretroteum Propuction IN West VireGinia, 1890-1923 v (12) kau —2.4 —0.5 kg) —1.0 +0.4 —1.2 (Or =053 —0.2 —0.3 +0.5 Ye (11) 5.5 10.5 11.5 Ill v (10) —2.4 +0.8 +0.1 13.4 13.1 ILL So 11.4 11.0 9.4 9.0 8.6 8.2 7.8 —(0).t8) 118) ale) +0.5 ileal (Osi —0.3 —0.3 +0.7 Yc (9) 10.5 13.4 13.4 12.9 Mil az 11.3 10.9 9.8 9.4 90 8.2 7.5 —ifao) 6.5 S ils) —0.5 6.5 +7.5 8.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 19.5 IX —=2.4 —125 SNES) || G7 4b) =i,3 Il 1 Hei —0.1 |+12.5 —0.3 Yc (6) 10.5 11.5 13.1 13.4 | +0.8 13.4 | +0.1 12.9 11.8 11.3 | +0.5 10.9 9.8 9-4 9.0 WON Onsale 6.8 | +0.2 4.5 5.5 20.5 23.5 5 IX —2.3 —1.4 —1.4) 14.5 a AS .5 +0.4| 19.5 2 Ai)QJ —0.1| 24.5 ~0.3| 25.5 +0.3) 31.5 10.4 11.4 13.0 | +0.9} 8.5 13.4 | +0.8| 10.5 13.0 11.8 11.4 11.0 9.8 9.4 9.0 PRO- DUC- TION Yo millions of barrels 8.1 10.0 13.9 | 14.2 11.6 | 10.7 | 11.8 9.8 ora 9.3 8.7 TIME years ite) 6 9 11 15 19 20 21 24 26 28 33 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 This defect can be corrected in part by substitution of equation X for equation V. The preceding examples serve to call attention to some of the difficul- ties involved in obtaining the best graduation of a particular set of observations; none of the methods is infallible, and ordinarily, the best method of meeting the requirements of a particular problem can be found only by trial and investigation. 175 10.0 - 75 50 PRODUCTION-MILLIONS OF BARRELS 25 c ic + ze w [e} Ww [o) wn oO wo uw S ice) Q a (ep) je) 2) 2 Dy a 2 N o © o 0 © D D D D D D MES eV eARS Fig. 1. Curves showing the effect of weighting the observation equations. Curve c is weighted; curve b is not weighted. ADJUSTMENT OF SOME PETROLEUM PRODUCTION DATA The annual production of petroleum’ for the’ years 1875-1923, inclusive, for the state of West Virginia is shown graphically in fig- ure 1. The numerical values, expressed in terms of millions of barrels, are tabulated in column 2 of table 2. In figure 1 is shown an anomaly of the least square adjustment. Curve b was obtained by adjusting equation IX, n = 1, on the basis of equal weights of the observation equations written in the form log.a + loge m — xb = log.y. 9G. B. Ricuarpson. Petroleum in 1919-1921. Mineral Resources of the United States, 1921. Part II, pp. 253-333, May 26, 1923. JAN. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 27 Curve c shows the result of adjusting the same equation after assign- ing to each observation equation the theoretically correct weight,1° y2. Following are the values of the constants: Curveb. Weight1. log.a = — 1.4008, m = 1.2776,b = — 0.0376. Curvec. Weighty. log.a = —5.6961,m = 4.5267,b = + 0.1609. The first value of b is negative instead of positive as it should be. Attention is called to this peculiar result as it occurs quite frequently in attempting to adjust the complete data of production curves and _may be incorrectly attributed to an error in the computation. The defect disappears if the origin is displaced sufficiently to the right as the following results, obtained by displacing the origin to the year 1889, readily show. ; Weight 1. log.a = 0.19062, m = 1.45976, b = 0.10375, =v? = 73.41, Weight y2. log.a = 0.80217, m = 1.14872, 6b = 0.08857, =u? = 65.61. Comparison of the values of =v? shows that the best results are again obtained by properly weighting the observation equations. Equal weights may be assigned to observation equations written in the form y 4 + ylog.x dm — ay db = dy = 0 ote ues ousta rele: fe (1) Using the preceding values of the constants obtained by assigning the weight, y?, and solving for da, dm, and db on the basis of equality of weights, we obtain the following results: Weight 1. log.a = 0.76175, m = 1.16496, b = 0.08935, =x? = 65.06. The value of =v? = 65.06 is practically the same as the former value 65.61; consequently, the two methods lead to identical results provided the values of the constants used in the computation of dy = v in the differential equation are a sufficiently close approximation to the cor- rect values. The true value of the exponent, n, in equation IX is not easily determined. In order to obtain distinct types of equations which are easily capable of interpretation in terms of the theory of generalized probability, Pearson adopted the integral values, + 1, — 1, and + 2. Fractional values of n must be admitted, however, if one desires to 100. M. Levanp. Practical least squares. First edition. p. 136, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1921. 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 minimize Yv?. Curves corresponding to various values of n are shown in figure 2. All negative values, including the value n = — 1 for which the curve is shown in the figure, must be excluded for the reason that in all of these cases the first derivative vanishes at the origin. Comparison of the values of =v? for the remaining values of n shows that the true value falls between n = 0 andn = 0.5. Values of the order of magnitude of n = 0.01 leads to indeterminate solutions for the remaining constants in the equation. This result is to be expected for in these special cases the value of the exponential factor (e-?*”) tends to approach a constant or a straight line. In the following final computations, the value n = 1 has been selected as a sufficiently close ” approximation to the true value. TABLE 3.—ConstTants FoR TABLE 2 Ix IX It I (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Lyo 329.3 329.3 329.3 329.3 Lye 337.5 337.0 336.7 336.8 Lv? 59.26 57.11 56.86 58.41 log.a 1.23530 1.46607 2.59166 2.59092 m 0.93588 0.81369 sacra b 0.08033 0.07470 0.07470 my ere Aone 0.81373 0.76915 m2 ~ notre ane pices 15. 48968 C1 Sie yt 12.0 12.0 Ce Siac Face eter 222.0 Origin 1890 1890 1902 1902 Mode 165 10.89 —1.11 —0.93 Mode—year 1901.65 1900.89 1900.89 1901.07 The constants of the equation, m br y =are are easily determined by writing the observation equations in the form log.a + log. xm — ab = logy. As previously stated, theoretical considerations show that each obser- vation equation must be multiplied by the corresponding value of yo. Using the data contained in the first two columns of Table 2, we obtain 33 weighted observation equations of the following form: JAN. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 29 2.4 log.a + 0.000 m — 2.46 = 2.101 3.8 log.a + 2.634 m — 7.66 = 5.073 6.4 log.a + 22.378 m — 211.2 b = 11.880, the solution of which leads to the results summarized in the second column of table 3. The first derivative vanishes at the points m b The latter point is designated mode by Pearson, and peak by the petro- leum geologist. The ordinates in the preceding computation were placed at the ends of the year intervals. Precision is generally supposed to be gained by placing the ordinates at the mid-points instead of the end points. The results of making the computation in this way are summarized in table 2, columns 5, 6, and 7; and in table 3, column 3. In this particular case, the value of =v? is reduced from 59.26 to 57.11, but it must not be inferred that a reduction of this character will always be obtained, for the value of Sv? is dependent also upon the point selected for origin. Pearson places the initial origin at any convenient point, and then solves for c:, the point at which the curve touches the x axis. The corresponding procedure by the method of least squares consists in solving a differential equation similar to (1) for the differential ele- ments da, db, de, and dm. I have not carried out the computations for this solution. The results obtained by transferring the origin to the point, z = 12.0, and adjusting type III on the basis of unrestricted constants are tabulated in columns 9 and 10 of table 2. Comparison of the values summarized in columns 3 and 4 of table 3 shows that the two methods lead to identical results. The numerical values are represented graphically by the curve designated, type IX, in figure 3. Two attempts have been made to apply Pearson’s method of moments: first, to the incomplete data (y.) tabulated in table 2, column 2; and, second, to assumed complete data obtained by using the observed values (y.) (column 2, table 2) from 1890 to 1923, inclu- sive, and the computed values represented by that portion of the type IX curve, figure 3, which extends from 1923 to the end of the curve. The values of « inthe respective cases are «x = — 0.0123 and« = — 0.2240, thus indicating that type I should be used in preference to type III. Both types fail for incomplete data. Evaluation of the constants from the so called complete data leads to the following results: iP —= Ce) Bhivoldy — 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 0.4543 L x ee (1 r sin (1 P sc) Mode-year = 1889.5 + 10.016 = 1889.516 Skewness = 0.838 12.1008 ll Mean-year = 1889.5 + 24.323 = 1913.823 Le = 63.18 Standard deviation = 17.07 Lye = ozs x 1.4749 — 0.0922x Type lll. y = 12.42 (1 + | e Mode-year = 1889.5 + 13.473 = 1902.973 Skewness = 0.636 Mean-year = 1889.5 + 24.323 = 1913:823 DT Se, Standard deviation = IA LYc = 323.3 Type I appears to be preferable to type III. As the labor involved in actually deciding the case would be very great, I have evaluated, instead, the constants of type I, using the method of least squares. Three computations were made, assuming for c; the arbitrary value, 12.0, and for c, the successive values, 132.0, 222.0, and 312.0. The respective values of =v?, wherein v was carried to tenths of a unit, were found to be 60.93, 58.41, and 57.97. The curve which represents >v? expressed as a function of c, varies so slowly that these values alone do not lead to an accurate determination of the desired constant. However, the value c. = 222.0 appears to be a close approximation to the true value, and as it does not differ greatly from the value c. = 216.4 calculated by the method of moments, it has been used in extending the computed curve until it reaches the 2 axis. The exten- sion is designated type I in figure 3. Over the remaining portion of the curve, the three types of formulae lead to almost identical results, as may be readily verified by comparison of columns 6, 9, and 11 of table 2. The values of Sv? tabulated in table 3 differ slightly, how- ever, and suggest that types III or [X should be used in preference to type I, but the agreement in the values is so close, and departures from rigorous methods of evaluation of the constants have been so marked, that definite conclusions can not be drawn except to say that each of the formulas in question gives a very satisfactory representa- tion of the data of observation. SOME GENERAL RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS Table 4 summarizes the results of adjusting the petroleum produc- tion data given by Richardson® for three states and one western field. The constants of the equation JAN. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 31 were evaluated by the method of least squares from weighted observa- tion equations of the general form - yolog.a + ylog.xm — xy.b = ylog-Yo. The resulting values of the constants are tabulated in columns 1, 2, and 3. Column 4 contains values of r, the probable error of -an observation of weight unity. The origins were determined by inspec- tion. A correct determination of these points would reduce slightly TABLE 4.—SumMary or ComMPUTATIONS FOR STATES AND FIELDS als 5 z I a © STATE OR FIELD i=] 3 SB ae ESA eS as 3 5 2/88 | a) aa Aa A AIA bo | m =~ a — (3) (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) (10) | (11) | (12) year 2)1884/12 26/513. 9/499. 4/0.029|169.11}565. 1)2! 3|187410. 72/737 . 4/699. 1/0.055|203. 74/792. 4/25. 3|1890|10. 89/337 .0\329. 3/0 .023)110.07|447 .7|2 OHIO seteteaslos-i< 0.82158}1. 48136/0.12084|1.3 Pennsylvania. il .99230/0.92101\0.08595/2.3: West Virginia|1.46607/0.81369|0.07470/0.9. Kern River, | @aleancntcec: |2.42293|0.50828,0. 10208|1.34/1900) 4.98|251.5/241.3/0.042) 63.18)/312. 4|20.2 the values of r. The mode-year is obtained by addition of the modeto the year selected as origin—thus, the mode-year or peak-year for the state of Ohio is 1884 + 12.26 = 1896.26. Pearson’s method of moments equalizes the observed and computed areas when applied to complete data. The value, Sy. = 328.1, obtained by the method of moments from the assumed complete data of West Virginia is in close agreement with the observed value, Dyo = 329.3; on the other hand, all of the values resulting from the appli- cation of least squares to the particular cases discussed in this paper are too large. The magnitude of the discrepancy is shown in column 9 of table 4. The error, for example, in computing the total produc- tion from 1890 to 1923 inclusive, for the state of West Virginia, is 2.3 per cent of the observed total production (Zy.) for the same time inter- val. The corresponding error resulting from an imperfect application of the method of moments is only 0.4 per cent. Unfortunately, this advantage is offset to a considerable extent by the failure of the method to minimize =v*; the difference between the two values, 63.18 and 57.11, is altogether too large. Mathematicians seem not to have settled the question as to the precise relation between the two methods of evalua- tion of constants. Jackson“ has shown that the methods are identical 1 Dounwam Jackson. The method of moments. Am. Math. Monthly 30: 307-3811. 1923. 32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 2 for power series, but the relationship existing between the two methods when applied to the more complicated functions has not been estab- lished. It is obvious from elementary considerations that the con- dition of maximum probability and the other condition of equalization of observed and computed areas are not necessarily satisfied at the PRODUCTION-MILLIONS OF BARRELS 2 5 —_—— 4 1 - — ml iso 4 + | + é ~ ae [ L yrax atl qe tte oats | [ Lede | n b =007470 ae Mode = T= \0gs3 T FI | Mean = 38¥= 26.163 (Ongin at 1690) | aS is Lt a Standard Deviation eS 17.702 (Origin at mean) 5 | ate tte — =0750 50 g 25 ar Bea 9 = ey a a ee oe oe ee a ae ee ae ee Fig. 3. Curves showing final adjustment of types I and IX same time. The computations summarized in columns 3 and 8 of table 1 provide a numerical proof of this proposition. The total area of the computed curve is easily obtained from the formula ° im — br T (m+ 1) m! area = | aw @ dx = St el ee 9 b b The results obtained by substitution in this formula are tabulated in column 11 of table 4. The values, 565.3, 792.1, 448.0, and 312.7 were obtained by summation of the computed ordinates (y.). The agreement between the two summations is all that could be desired. JAN. 19, 1925 VAN ORSTRAND: PRODUCTION CURVES 33 As the area of the computed curve from the origin to the mode (area abca, figure 3) can not be evaluated by integration; it is necessary to base the calculation on the computed values of y. The areas tabulated in column 10 represent these summations for the integral years and for the fractional part of the year interval extending from the end of the last integral year tothe mode. The ratio of computed peak produc- tion to computed total production is tabulated in column 12. The preceding results show that the simple equation (2) can be used to represent a very considerable range of production data with a degree of accuracy that is quite sufficient for most purposes. The constants are easily determined by the method of least squares, and the mode is given by the simple ratio, m/b. The computations repre- sented by the curves in figure 3 show that equation I also gives a satis- factory representation of the data. For other states or areas, some of the remaining equations in the list will undoubtedly prove to be useful. Pearson’s types of frequency distribution promise to be of great value in various fields of science. It may be of interest in this con- nection to call attention to the possibility that certain sands, for example, may be characterized by the mode, mean, and skewness (see figure 3) of the curve which represents the distribution of grain diam- eters, and that certain properties of the sands, such as permeability, may be related to these characteristics. The results recently obtained by Wightman, Trivelli, and Sheppard” on the relation of size-fre- quency distribution of grains in photographie emulsions to sensito- metric characteristics serve to emphasize the importance of this suggestion. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The investigation on which this paper is based was undertaken at the suggestion of Mr. G. B. Richardson, Geologist, of the U. 8. Geolog- ical Survey. Two of his assistants, Miss C. M. Shanner and Mrs. L. Boswell assisted in making some of the preliminary computations. The remainder of the computations were made by Mr. C. R. Randall, Junior Geophysicist of the Geological Survey. I am greatly indebted to all of those who have thus contributed so generously and efficiently in the preparation of my paper. 2 E. P. Wicurman, A. P. H. Trivenu, and S. E. Suepparp. The size-frequency distribution of grains of silver halide ‘n photographic emulsions and its relations to sensi- tometric characteristics. Abridged Scientific Publications from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company 7, no. 172: 24-33. 1923. 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 PHYSICS.—WNote on the theory of optical dispersion. G. Brett, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. (Communicated by L. A. BAuER.) Soon after the development of the J pag = nh principle attempts have been made by Sommerfeld and Debye! to account for optical dispersion by studying the perturbations caused in the electronic motion by the incident wave. These attempts, however, were unsuc- cessful because the frequency at which the calculation showed the reaction to be strongest proved to be the frequency of revolution of the electron and not the absorption frequency given by the relation AW =h»y. This difficulty was.avoided by Ladenburg and by Laden- burg and Reiche? by disregarding the nature of the perturbations and by postulating directly that an atom which is in a position to absorb radiation of frequency », contributes to the refractive index of the medium in which it is situated a term which would be contributed by a linear oscillator of the same frequency ».. A modification of this theory has been given by Kramers.’ In these theories the dispersion is discussed only for frequencies which do not lie in the absorption band. For this reason the equiva- lent classical resonator is not supposed to have any dissipation of energy. It is the purpose of the present note to discuss how far it is necessary to introduce the dissipation of energy into the theory. On the classical theory a frictional term in the equations of motion could be interpreted as due to radiation. On the quantum theory there is no continuous radiation. Thus a frictional term introduced directly into the equations of motion of the classical resonator would appear, to a certain extent, illogical, and one is led to look more closely into the possibilities of a classical resonator without a frictional term We adopt the notation of Van Vleck, and consider an energy level s from which it is possible for the atom to go into higher states r by absorbing energy and to descend into lower states t by emitting energy Taking the orientations of the atoms to be random, the polarization for N, electrons in the state s is hypothesized by Kramers to be IPs = 2 4 l=. 2 an Vie De Ars | N, C Vrs” (v,22 — v?) Vs (ve — v”) 1 Depyg, Sitzungsber. Miinchener Akademie, p. 1, 1915. 2? LADENBURG and Retcus, Naturwissenschaften 27: 584. July 6, 1923. 3H. A. Kramers, Nature, May 10, 1924, p. 673; August 30, 1924, p. 310. See Van Vurck, Phys. Rev. 24: 344. 1924. 4J.H. Van Vurck, Phys. Rev. 24: 330. 1924. 5 Van VLECK, loc. cit. Equation 17. gAN. 19, 1925 BREIT: THEORY OF OPTICAL DISPERSION 35 where A,_;.dé is the @ prior? probability that in the time dt an atom which is in the state r should fall into the state s. Whether this is the actual form or only similar to reality the essence of what follows remains unaffected. Let us consider one particular dispersion term. 3 A o a rs oS y 32 74 Vrs (vp? — v?) Eee (1) This means that under the action of the incident wave having an intensity & the V; atoms which are in the state s suffer a total polariza- tion P,; owing to their ability to be transferred to the state r. Now it is clear that any single atom can not give a purely monochromatic expression (1) because it does not remain in the state s indefinitely but on account of the A.;,is bound to leave s spontaneously. There- fore, even if one should suppose that while an atom is in the state s it gives a polarization of the type (1), one must expect an expression different from (1) for the observed average polarization. Expression (1) is essentially the reaction on the wave due to a classical oscilla- tor and for this reason we shall simplify the discussion by considering a resonator having the equation of motion® eo p = ue (2) m Here E; is the x component of the incident wave, e, m, 2 are respec- tively the charge, mass, and resonant frequency of the resonator. The incident wave we suppose to be of the type E, = E.» cos(wot — 6) (3) Let us suppose that at the time ¢ = ¢,, the atom falls into the state s and that at the time ¢ = f, it falls out of it. It is impossible to say (with the present state of our knowledge) what the initial conditions of the oscillator (2) are at tf = t. Lacking better information, how- ever, we may take the oscillator to be in a state of rest and in a position of equilibrium at the instant of its birth. The solution of (2) with these initial conditions is 6 While writing this note the author was unaware of the derivation given by H. A. Lorentz (Proc. Amst. Acad. 8: 591. 1906.) in which formula (10) is derived. Inasmuch, however, as the present note considers the question from the point of view of Fourier integrals, and shows the manner in which only the part of the polarization synchronous with the incident wave survives, it has not been withdrawn from publication. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 € Ex = ih See) Is cos (€ — wots) cosQ2 (t — 4) — a sin (€ — wo f,) sin Q @ — t1) + cos (aot — o| (4) In the neighbourhood of w) = © this is very nearly the same as Exo L= Svar as E (wot — €) — cos {Q(t — tr) + wot - | (4’) Letting and neglecting w — 2in comparison with 2 we have in the neighbour- hood of the absorption frequency the following Fourier Integral for x xv (t; hi, dy) - eB (ie —o)T sino — 97 rm (2 — wo')e 2) (cq — 109) 2 (w — ) | sine (° i) sin'(*® 5 =u) e — (@ — wo) t) + | = | cos (wl — ®— Wo (Op € — (w — wo)ti) \ dw (5) Let us suppose that the intervals (4, t2) are distributed throughout a long interval 7 in such a way that on the average their density is 1. The value which concerns us is oe (‘x Gain dt i =0 --) eile, mao w@ — 0) TS “(Se +o) “sin(g— ue ~) €08 (wt — e) + TM (Q? — wo Ww — wo 2(@i—en) a 2a — — —2 sin(® 5 “") in(?5* r) | = — sin(wt — ‘| @ — Wo wo —Q a east Me 8 an JAN. 19, 1925 BREIT: THEORY OF OPTICAL DISPERSION 37 sin(* = em) cin(*>°r) | = = = cos(wt — o| dw @ — wn a —Q Again, to within the same approximation, the wave (2) when acting for a time -7, and analyzed into a Fourier Integral is tog 1 Bhs sin (w = BLO E; 2 Nor aan) cos(wt — e)dw (7) Since 7must be thought of as >>T the band of frequencies repre- sin (w = By : . sented by —————— is to be thought of as infinitely more sharp ® — Wo sin(@ —. a)" than that represented by ——————., and consequently we may re- OP ip: write (6) as T fat GL) dt, = 4=0 e E. i. = oat sin(wo — ©) a) ee 7m (Q?2 — «,?) @® — Wo 2, 2(wo — Q) % . A — 0 *7) zZ sin (wot — e) wo — 2 (9) If now we should suppose that the times 7 have a distribution function ~ATo T. : of the type e SGI G) then we obtain an average value of P from IE (9) viz. P 3 é Bes TT? (Q = wo) [To COS(wot = €) + (Q — 9) sin (wot ae 5 )] m (Q+ wo) [1 + Te? (wo — &)?) co This result for the polarization is thus obtained on the hypothesis of intermittent actions, the number of intervals of lengths between 7 and 7 + dT beginning per second being e id =. The total number 0 of intervals started per second is therefore 1 and the average duration of an interval is 7). Hence, if we are to compare (10) with the result of the classical theory for a single continuously acting resonator having a frictional term then we must divide (10) by 7>. To within the approximations made (on performing an elementary calculation for the classical resonator) the result is seen to be identical on the two theories. We have thus shown that the phase change introduced by the clas- sical frictional force may be also thought of quantitatively as due to the interrupted action of the resonator. If the Correspondence Princi- ple may be applied in this case and if it is to be interpreted as assign- ing a certain similarity to the actual dispersion and the theoretical classical dispersion then we are practically forced to abandon any other influence than that of interrupted actions in the higher quantum states. If, further, the width of emission and absorption lines is related to the dispersion by the laws of the classical theory then we must think of this width as being entirely due to the finite time of each independent emission. Absorptions beginning in the lowest energy level occupy a singular position in this theory because atoms may remain in these indefinitely. Whether they suffer phase changes in their motion while in the lowest state is unknown but for the sake of uniformity such changes might be hypothesized. gAN. 19, 1925 DYAR AND SHANNON: NEW MOSQUITOES FROM BRAZIL 39 It is of interest to observe (as will be brought out in more detail in another note) that the above theory of interruptions accounts for the polarization of resonance radiation in weak magnetic fields in a more satisfactory manner than the classical resonator.’ ENTOMOLOGY.—New mosquitoes from Brazil (Diptera, Culicidae). Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHannon, U. 8S. National Museum. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHWER.) Dr. J. Bequaert has placed before us for determination a collection of mosquitoes recently made in Brazil, chiefly in the State of Ama- zonas. Among a number of interesting species collected, the following are hitherto undescribed. Sabethoides glaucodaemon, new species. Of usual size in the genus, largely purplish black; proboscis extending well beyond the antennae, slightly longer than the abdomen; palpi small, slightly longer than the two basal flagellar joints; eyes contiguous on lower side of head for a greater distance than they are above; prothoracic lobes contiguous above, their scales overlapping; rather numerous setae on anterior margin; mesonotum with setae only above roots of wings and a few on anterior mar- gin; spiracular sclerite with three setae; propleura with two setae; sterno- pleura without setae; a small but dense tuft of long setae on upper posterior corner of mesepimeron; pleurae with dense white scales below; trochanters and base of femora yellow, the under sides of the femora white scaled basally along the entire length of the posterior pair; abdomen compressed laterally, dark scaled on upper half, yellowish white scaled below, the colors divided in a straight line, though the white is illy contrasted in certain lights. Wings normal, basal cross-vein opposite the anterior cross-vein; roots of halteres yellow, stem and knob blackish; mid tarsi white scaled below on last four joints except narrowly at base of second. Type, female, no. 27744, U.S. Nat. Mus.; near San Alberto, Rio Branco, Amazonas, Brazil, August 28, 1924 (J. Bequaert). Nearest related to imperfectus B.-W. & B.,differing chiefly in the slightly longer proboscis, and from both this and chloropterus Humb. in the coloration of the abdomen. Culex (Choeroporpa) bequaerti, new species Rather small dark brown species; occiput with erect forked scales, all the recumbent scales broad, mostly white in front, a patch of black ones on each side of the middle; antennae fairly long, exceeding length of proboscis, which is about equal to the length of abdomen; integument of mesonotum very dark brown, scutellum somewhat paler; scales narrow, dark brown; dorsal setae sparse but well developed; a row of pronotal setae; pleurae yellowish, 7JIn such a way we may think of the field caused by virtual oscillators as virtual in the sense that it carries energy away only statistically but does not necessarily produce damping of the motions induced in the virtual oscillator by the exciting field. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 2 prealar setae about seven, a row of fairly strong setae along posterior margin of sternopleura, a little weaker below; a single lower mesepimeral seta; legs entirely dark, except for paler ventral surfaces of femora; abdomen dark brown, with whitish scales on ventral surface at bases of segments; wing scales broad subcostally, those on base of fork of second vein narrowly ovate to ligulate; halteres pale, the knobs dark. Male: palpi exceeding the proboscis by nearly the length of the last two joints, the penultimate joint with a small whitish ring at base, otherwise dark. Scales of mesonotum deep bronzy brown; three pronotal setae, broken in the female type. Hypopygium.—Side piece a little longer than hemispherical; inner division of lobe strong, running far into the side piece, with an infuscated patch basally, columnar, long, exceeding the outer lobe, with two strong long hooked and distorted filaments at tip, one inserted basally of the other; outer division small, with four stout rod-like filaments on the oblique outer aspect and a small rounded leaf basally of them. Clasper slenderly snout-shaped, the spine appendiculate. Tenth sternites comb-shaped, with six teeth, en- larged at base, with only a rudiment of basal projection; first plate of meso- some normal, the articulated plate rather narrow, emarginate on one side; second plate curved, tip furcate, the arms short, inner pointed, outer smooth, a long strong horn a little beyond the middle of the stem; basal hooks slender, strongly recurved, not projecting at base; ninth tergites conically pointed, small, setose, connected by a chitinous band. Type, male, paratype, female, no. 27745, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; male, Sororoca, Rio Branco, Amazonas, Brazil, September 1, 1924; female, Carmo, with other data the same (J. Bequaert). The preceding description was written before we had an opportunity of examining Miss A. M. Evans’ recent paper! describing new Choeroporpa from Brazil. Of the species there described C. (C.) thomasi Evans comes nearest to the present form. The mesosomal plate in the two is much the same. The comb of the tenth sternite of thomas? appears abnormal in Miss Evans’ figure; in bequaerti it consists of seven long equal teeth. The inner division of the lobe of the side piece has a longer stem in beguaerti than in thomast, the distance between the insertion of the two filaments being less than the remaining basal part of the stem, whereas in the figure of thomasi the reverse is the case. The outer division of the lobe of the side piece is differently formed, having no inner limb in bequaerti and the leaf is inserted on the stem basally of the other filaments, whereas in thomasz it arises between the limb and the outer setal group. Culex (Choeroporpa) albinensis Bonne-Wepster & Bonne Culex (Choeroporpa) albinensis Bonne-Wepster & Bonne, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 173: 1920. Culex (Choeroporpa) albinensis Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 8:62. 1920. Culex (Choeroporpa) gordoni Evans, Ann. Trop. Med. & Par. 18:369. 1924. No difference is apparent between Miss Evans’ detailed figures of the 1 Ann. Trop. Med. and Par. 18: 363-375. 1924. Jan. 19, 1925 DYAR AND SHANNON: NEW MOSQUITOES FROM BRAZIL 41 hypopygium of gordonz and the characters of albnensis in a slide before us. The distribution of the species includes Paramaribo, Surinam, and Mandos, Brazil. Mansonia indubitans, new species Basal antennal joints as dark as rest of antennae; antenna somewhat shorter than length of proboscis; palpi as long as four basal flagellar joints; proboscis on basal two-fifths with pale and dark scales intermixed, a rather broad white ring a little beyond middle, beyond blackish, paler at apex; mesonotum dark brown, setae normal, sparse small narrow golden scales intermixed, with long dark scales on the sides posteriorly; a number of pronotal setae; postspiracular setae present; sterno-pleural on posterior mar- gin with one long stout seta midway and smaller setae on either side, mes- epimeron with three setae near anterior margin; femora and tibiae with dark and light scales intermixed; hind tibiae darker; first tarsal joint without basal or apical ring, but with scattered white scales on inner surface; second and third tarsal joints white basally, also the fourth joint of mid and hind tarsi, remainder dark; wings dark scaled with numerous white ones intermixed, all broad; abdomen dark, with triangular patch of white scales on first seg- ment, apex directed forward, the venter with numerous broad white scales intermixed. Knobs of halteres dark brown. Type, female, paratypes, three females, no. 27746, U.S. Nat. Mus.; Belem, Para, September 19, 1924; Carmo, Rio Branco, Amazonas, August 31, 1924; above Santarem, July 22, 1924, Itacoatiara, Amazon River, September 15, 1924 (J. Bequaert). Similar to étillans Walker, the palpi shorter, and with slight differences in coloration as indicated above. Anopheles celidopus, new species Medium size, grayish in general appearance; occiput with erect truncate white scales above, dark brown below, white setae and scales between eyes; antenna shorter than palpus, scales only on the basal ‘flagellar joint; palpus but little shorter than proboscis, with outstanding dark brown scales, a few white ones at apices of second and third joints; prothoracic lobes with tuft of scales above; mesonotum with pale curved hairs sparsely distributed, a little denser anteriorly and darker on the sides; pleura with two indefinite pale pollinose lines; legs dark with narrow white rings at apices and bases of all but the last tarsal joints; abdomen dark, with sparse dark hairs, a few white scales on the dorsum of the last segment, and many dark and white scales on the venter of this segment; cerci densely scaled, mostly dark; wings with eight more or less definite white spots on anterior margin, and numerous other small white spots irregularly distributed over the wing; wing scales lanceo- late; knobs of halteres dark. Type, female, paratypes, four females, no. 27747, U.S. Nat. Mus.; Carmo, Rio Branco, Amazonas, Brazil, September 1, 1924 (J. Bequaert). This species does not fit well into any of the existing groups of Anopheles. It comes nearest to Arribalzagia, but lacks the lateral scale tufts of the abdomen. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 2 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. 8. G. Mortury, Associate in Middle American Archaeology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, gave public lectures at the Institution on October 28 and December 38, on Initial excavations at Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Under agreement with the government of Mexico, the Institution has the privilege of excavation and archaeological study at this ancient Maya city for a period of ten years, beginning January, 1924. Dr. A. E. Doveuass, Director of the Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, gave an illustrated lecture at the Carnegie Institution of Washington on December 5, on Cycles in development of tree rings as an evidence of climatic variation. Two lectures on atmospheric dynamics were given at the Carnegie Insti- tution on January 6 and 8, by Pror. V. BirrKknus, professor of hydrody. namics at the Geophysical Institute at Bergen, Norway, and research associate of the Institution. The first lecture was on The forces which lift airplanes, and the second, on Problems in dynamical meteorology. Dr. J. A. ANDERSON, of the Mt. Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Insti- tution, gave an illustrated lecture at the auditorium of the Institution on January 5, under the title: An experimental method of studying high temperatures. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Tuesday, January 20. THe Acapemy, Anthropological Society, Archaeo- logical Society, Biological Society (joint meeting), at the Carnegie Insti- tution. Program: J. C. Merriam, A.Scuuttz, A. Hrpuicka. The origin and evolution of man. Saturday, January 24. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club. Program: Reports from the Madrid meeting of the International Geo- detic and Astrophysical Union. Henry Freupine Rem, Wm. Bown, H. H. Knvreatt, L. A. Bauer. Wednesday, January 28. The Geological Society. Saturday, January 31. The Biological Society. Tuesday, February 3. The Botanical Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL Tue Acapemy, at the Carnegie Institution. Program: A.L.Day. The study of earth movements in California. Annual meeting for reports of officers, announcements of the results of the elections for 1925. CONTENTS EA te, ORIGINAL PAPERS ; Physies—-Note on the theory of Gpcinal ieeeraae G. BREIv.... Entomology.—New mosquitoes from Brazil (Diptera, eee G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON.............. Pepi eles ans fi Screnrivic\Nomms AND NEWS. 22.02.00. 0.5 ees Paet ceuee slemvaene OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY i President: ple L. pedal National Research Council. War, Recording Secretary: W. 'D. ee Coast and Geodetie Survey, Ry Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. — 1. 15 Fepruary 4, 1925 . No. 3 JOURNAL OF THE ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ; BOARD OF EDITORS = E. P. Kriure W. F. Meccers ~ §. J. Maucaiy NATIONAL MUSEOM BOREAU OF STANDARDS DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM D. F. Hewett GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams ‘ S. A. RonWER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIEFY ENTOMOLOGWAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLpMAN_ G, W. Stosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY Fe GEOLOGICAL SOCIDTY — RR. F. Griees J. R. SwANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY emp MTOR ie in = PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ete i fh EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHENIONTHLY == “/', xs a BY THE > ne WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF EN! ‘e PAGDH. 1m cu GeR 61920 Mr. Royan anp Guitrorp AY¥zs. v4 BauTmMoke, MARYLAND ‘ ~ ~ Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. 7 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific workin Washington. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 15 FEBRUARY 4, 1925 No. 3 BOTAN Y.—Roseoeactus, a new genus of Cactaceae. Atwin BERGER, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. (Communicated by E. P. Krzirp.) In 1838 J. Scheidweiler described and figured a curious little cactus collected by Galeotti near San Luis Potosi, Mexico, where it was said to grow on porphyritic rocks at an elevation of 6500 to 7000 feet. This cactus was unlike any of the Cactaceae known at that time. Scheidweiler recognized it as a new genus, so far monotypic, and gave it the name Ariocarpus. The generic name alludes to the fruit of the Aria, though in the case of this cactus it is a soft berry with many small seeds. The specific name which Scheidweiler gave to the plant, retusus, referred to the shape of the tubercles, which, mistaken for leaves, somewhat resemble the leaves of Haworthia retusa from South Africa; indeed the whole habit of the plant is similar to this strange little aloid succulent. Scheidweiler did not discuss the relationship of his new genus. The following year Lemaire described the same plant under the name Anhalonium prismaticum. In spite of the fact that this was a later name, it has been more commonly used than Scheidweiler’s older one. In 1842 Lemaire added another plant to his genus Anhaloniwm, A. kotschoubeyanum, also from San Luis Potosi, where three specimens of it had been collected by Karwinski. Lemaire, ignored the fact that the Karwinskian plant differed from that of Galeotti in having the tubercles split lengthwise by a deep fissure. In general habit, of course, the two plants were much alike, and in both the flowers came from the center of the plant; the exact origin of the flowers could not apparently be determined without sacrificing the very rare plants. Later on, in 1850, Prince Salm-Dyck published a description of 43 44. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 another plant, collected by Galeotti, under the name Anhaloniuwm elongatum, and Lemaire added A. areoloswm in 1859 and A. pulvilli- gerum in 1869. These three species, as well as several others, have remained doubtful. In 1856 G. Engelmann described a new plant of this relationship collected by Schott and Bigelow near the junction of the Pecos and the Rio Grande as Mammillaria fissurata. In 1859 he transferred this tothe genus Anhaloniwm. Nine years later Lemaire needlessly changed this name to A. engelmannit. Schumann, in 1903, recognized four species of Ariocarpus, and Brit- ton and Rose, in their recent excellent monograph of the Cactaceae, admit three species. The different views as to the number of species are not of great importance here; more important is the fact that in these monographs the genus Ariocarpus is located in different sub- tribes. While Schumann placed the genus among the Mammillarieae, Britton and Rose place it with the Echinocactanae. This seems strange but, as itis, they may both be right. I was never quite satisfied with the conception of the genus as stated by Lemaire and maintained by all subsequent writers. Scheid- weiler’s plant with the smooth, sharply pointed tubercles, bearing a little round areole with felt and some minute or obsolete spines near the top, is utterly different from the others with cleft tubercles. It was Lemaire who first included them under the same genus, his An- halonium being only another name for the genus Artocarpus of Scheidweiler. Through the kindness of Dr. J. N. Rose, I was enabled to study various living and dried plants and to compare them with Engel- mann’s Mammillaria jfissurata from ‘Texas, cultivated at the New York State Experiment Station. I finally have come to the con- clusion that there are indeed two distinct genera, differing not only in the nature of the tubercles but also, and chiefly, in the origin of the flowers. If we break off an old tubercle of the Texan plant or of Artocarpus lloydit Rose and cut it longitudinally, we shall see that the fissure, filled with grayish hairy wool, corresponds to an areole and we shall discover in its lower part the remains of the fruit and perhaps even a few seeds. On my living plant of Mammillaria fissurata Engelm., from Texas, seeds are observed in many of the old areoles. The seeds are more or less exposed and can be easily extracted; evidently in nature they are removed by rainwater. I have shown four of them recently and have three healthy seedlings at present. I do not know how old FEB. 4, 1925 BERGER: ROSEOCACTUS 45 these seeds may have been. We see that these plants have one single areole from which arise the flowers; in this character they agree with the subtribe Echinocactanae. The tiny areole at the top of the tubercles of the true Ariocarpus of Scheidweiler is wholly different. It does not show any sign of having ever produced flowers. In fact, if we break off one of the tubercles on a dried specimen, we shall detect in the axil between the tubercles, at the base of the tubercle but rising from the axis, the remains of the old fruit and numerous seeds, which have been hidden there for years. We see, therefore, that Ariocarpus, like Neomammillaria, has two kinds of areoles, barren ones on the top of the tubercles and others producing flower and fruit situated between the tubercles, or axillary on the stem. There can be no doubt that Ariocarpus belongs in the vicinity of Neomammillaria in the subtribe Coryphanthanae. It is evident, now, that the plants hitherto included under Ario- carpus not only are very different but may even belong to two sub- tribes. It may be, however, that this longitudinal flower producing fis- sure corresponds to the groove on the tubercles of the Coryphanthanae, and that the spine-bearing areole at the top of the tubercle has become obsolete. In this case these plants would be Coryphanthanae and not belong to the Echinocactanae. This question can only be solved by following the development of the plants from the seedlings, which bear spines, to the adult state. At present the exact systematic posi- tion must remain doubtful. The only species which can positively be left in Ariocarpus Scheid- weiler is A. retusus, the type species. Presumably there may be more than one species. Schumann placed the species of Ario- carpus proper in the subgenerus Leiothele and the two other species, A. fisswratus and A. kotschoubeyanus in the subgenera Aego- podothele and Chasmatothele. These latter species form a new genus, for which I herewith propose the name, Roseocactus. I take great pleasure in associating with these remarkable plants the name of Dr. J. N. Rose, who has done so much for the exploration of the Mexi- can flora and especially for the advancement of our knowledge of the Cactaceae, and who has recently published with Dr. N. L. Britton, Director of the New York Botanical Garden, a comprehensive mono- graph of these plants under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Roseocactus Berger, gen. nov. Extremely succulent plants with a thick turnip-like root and a flat or hemispherical body with numerous, densely spirally arranged thick tubercles, 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 exhibiting only the triangular upper surface of the top, and this rough, wrinkled or variously furrowed and deeply cleft lengthwise; cleft con- cealing the areole filled with wool and sproducing the flower and fruit from its lower part, the basal part of the tubercles generally quite hidden, the upper part semiterete or flattened; ovary naked; fruit naked, finally desiccating; seeds roundish obovate, finely rough-punctate, dull black; flowers from very young tubercles in the slightly depressed woolly center of the plant, surrounded by a dense mass of wool, the perianth shortly funnel-shaped, the outer segments few, somewhat fleshy and paler, the inner perianth segments in two rows, oblanceolate, finely dentate and cuspidate, sometimes retuse, spreading when fully developed, usually deeply rose-colored; filaments numerous, erect, somewhat longer than the tube; anthers small, yellow; style overtopping the anthers, with 5 to 9 irregularly spreading stigma lobes. The flowers open at noon in full sun and are of short duration. The seedlings have minute white bristles in their areoles which disappear entirely on the plants later on. Fic. 1—Roseocactus FISSURATUS (ENGELM.) BERGER Type species: Mammillaria fissurata Engelm. The genus ranges from Central Mexico to Western Texas. It consists of the following species: Roseocactus fissuratus (Engelm.) Berger Mammillaria fissurata Engelm. Proc. Amer. Acad. 3: 270. 1856. Anhalonium fissuratum Engelm. Cact. Mex. Bound. 75, pl. 16. 1859. Anhalonium engelmannii Lemaire, Cactées 42. 1868. Ariocarpus fissuratus IK. Schumann in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pflanzen- fam. 3%: 195. 1894. Coahuila, and southwestern Texas. The triangular surface of the tubercles show a deep linear impression fol- lowing the outer margins of the triangle. 47 ER: ROSEOCACTUS x BER AMOUMTE, (SOY) IIGAO at IT SOLOVOO aASOY—'Z ‘OMT 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 3 “This plant is generally known as living rock. It is dull gray to brown in color and grows on dry stony ground and, when not in flower, is easily mis- taken for the rocks which surround it.’”! Roseocactus lloydii (Rose) Berger Ariocarpus lloydii Rose, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 308. pl. 62. 1911. Zacatecas. > This species is very distinct from the preceding. In R. lloydii the tubercles are without the linear depression along the margin, but areraised towards the longitudinal cleft, almost as if they were compressed. Moreover, the exposed end of the tubercles is broadly rhomboid rather than deltoid. It is of more southern distribution than R. fissuratus. Roseocactus kotschoubeyanus (Lemaire) Berger Anhalonium kotschoubeyanum Lemaire, Bull. Cercle Confér. Hort. Dép. Seine 1842. Anhalonium sulcatum Salm-Dyck, Cact. Hort. Dyck. 1849: 5. 1850. Anhalonium fissipedum Mony. Cat. 1846 ex Labour. Monogr. 154. 1858. Stromatocarpus kotschubeyi Karw. ex Lem. Ill. Hort. 16: Misc. 72, 1868, name only. Ariocarpus sulcatus IK. Schumann, Monatschrift. f. Kakteenk. 8:9. 1897. Ariocarpus kotschubeyanus K. Schumann in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. Nachtr. 259. 1897. Central Mexico. In this, the smallest of the three species, the triangular surface of the small tubercles is slightly rough; the flowers arise just a little below the triangular top of the tubercle, from the areole but far away from the axil. This species has been recently introduced rather frequently. BOTANY.—Notes on Peruvian Urticaceae of the Marshall Field ex- ploration... Evusworts P. Kinurp, U. 8. National Museum. During the course of biological exploration in Central and South America conducted recently by the Field Museum of Natural History through the generosity of Captain Marshall Field, extensive botanical collections have been made in Peru by Macbride and Featherstone in 1922 and by Macbride and Bryan in 1923. The material of several families has been shared with the United States National Museum, and the present paper is essentially a report upon the family Urticaceae. The South American Urticaceae have received little critical atten- tion since the publication of Weddell’s treatment of the family in De Candolle’s Prodromus.? Many of the species, particularly those of the 1BrirTron anD Rosg, The Cactaceae 3: 83. 1922. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 216!: 32-235. 1869. FEB. 4, 1925 KILLIP: URTICACEAE 49 genus Pilea, are of limited range, and study of these two collections, as well as of other Andean material recently received by the National Museum,* has proved of the greatest interest. Urtica magellanica Poir. Lam. Encycl. 4: 221. 1816. Colombia to Chile. Matucana, 2500 meters (174). La Oroya, 3700 meters (974). Weddell’s description of this is probably too inclusive, certain species which are cited in synonomy probably being distinct. These two Peruvian specimens seem to be typical U. magellanica. Urtica ballotaefolia Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IJ. Bot. 18: 197. 1852. Colombia, Peru. In clumps at base of river cliffs, Llata, 2200 meters, August, 1922 (2268).: Recognized by its elongate androgynous spikes. A much coarser plant than the preceding. Urtica macbridei Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, about 1.5 meters high; stem erect, subquadrangular,. suleate, finely pilosulous or almost glabrous near base, armed with a few short, weak bristles, few-leaved, the internodes 6 to 20 cm. long; stipules in pairs, subreniform, 3 to 5 mm. long, 6 to 8 mm. wide, free to base, densely pilosulous; petioles 2 to 6 em. long, slender, widely divaricate or sub-reflexed, pilosulous-tomentose; leaves cordate-ovate, large for the genus, 6 to 12 cm. long, 4 to 8 cm. wide, tapering to an obtuse or acutish acumen, crenate from base to apex, 5 to 7-nerved at base, reticulate-veined (nerves and veins prominent beneath, paler than rest of blade), the upper surface pilosulous on the nerves, marked with minute linear and punctiform cystoliths, bearing numerous short inconspicuous bristles, otherwise glabrous, the under surface densely appressed-brown hirsutulous on the nerves and veins; plants monoe-. cious, the flower-spikes unisexual; staminate spikes borne at the upper nodes, 12 to 15 em. long, finely pilosulous, sparingly armed with weak bristles, the flowers in dense, more or less contiguous glomerules 4 to 5 mm. thick; perianth segments ovate, about 1 mm. long, obtuse, concave, pilosulous without; stamens about 1.5 mm. long; pistillate spikes borne at the lower nodes, 3 to 3.5 em. long, very slender, pilosulous and armed with weak bristles, the flowers in small, often contiguous glomerules 2 to 3 mm. thick; achenes ovate, 1 mm. long, compressed, glabrous. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 535353, collected at Mufia, on the trail to Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude about 2400 meters, June 5 to 7, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4271). A specimen of this is also in the National Herbarium. This species apparently has no close relatives in America. The long staminate spikes suggest U. ballotaefolia Wedd., but the inflorescences of U. ballotaefolia are androgynous while those of U. macbridet are unisexual. From U. dioica and the species that have been segregated from it, U. macbridei is at once distinguished by the shape of the leaves, length of the floral spikes, and general habit. Urtica morifolia Poir., of the Azores, is apparently the nearest relative of this new species. 3 See Kitire; New Urticaceae from Colombia. This Journau 13: 354-360. 1923. 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 Urera laciniata Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. III. Bot. 18: 203. 1852. Panama to Peru. Sunny, gravelly river flat, Pozuzo, 600 meters, June, 1923, “about 6 ft. high” (4703). Sandy flat, La Merced, 600 meters, August, 1923, “Coarse perennial, or woody below, to 20 ft. high. Stalks 3-5, rarely fewer. Flowers white. Wounds from spines cause swelling.”’ (5315). Distinguished by its deeply laciniate leaves. Urera baccifera (L.) Gaud. in Freyc. Voy. Bot. 497. 1826. Mexico and West Indies to Peru and Brazil. Mufia, 2200 meters, May, 1923. ‘Tree-shrub. Inflorescence red, with stinging pubescence. Fruits white.” (8910). A common tree in tropical America, distinguished from other species of this genus by the large sinuate serrations of the leaves. Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Skrivt. V.2: 296. 1851. Throughout tropical America. Steep grass-shrub slopes, Piedra Grande, station near Rio Santo Domingo, 1600 meters, May, 1923 (3690). A common plant in various habitats in the tropics, variable in size and habit. Leaves ovate or obovate. Many segregates have been proposed on slight differences. Pilea thymifolia (H. B. K.) Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 2: 44. 1855. Urtica thymifolia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2:37. 1817. Pilea globosa Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. II]. Bot. 18: 208. 1852. Southern Colombia to Peru. Rock-outcrop, Huanuco, 2200 meters, April, 1923 (3512). Huacachi, station near Muna, May, 1923 (3868, 4087). In shallow soil on sunny, sloping rocks, Matucana, 2500 meters, April-May, 1922 (447). A plant with much the habit of the preceding, but with nearly orbicular leaves. The name Pilea globosa has generally been applied to this species because of the inappropriateness of the earlier name. Pilea cordifolia Killip, sp. nov. Slender, repent herb, leafy throughout, especially at the ends of the branches; stems villosulous; stipules ovate, 1 to 1.5 mm. long, about 1 mm. wide, obtuse, persistent; petioles slender, 1 to 2 mm. long; leaves cordate, up to 4 mm. long and 5 mm. wide, obtuse at apex, entire or slightly undulate and, when dry, often revolute at margin, inconspicuously 3-nerved, sparsely villosulous on both surfaces, completely covered with punctiform cystoliths, black when dry; plants monoecious; staminate flowers borne singly or in pairs in the axils of the leaves on slender peduncles 3 to 6 mm. long, the perianth segments narrowly ovate, 1.5 mm. long, concave, the stamens 1 mm. long; pistillate flowers borne in a 4 to 6-flowered umbel on a slender peduncle 2 to 3 mm. long, the perianth segments unequal, the middle ovate, 0.5 mm. long, the lateral minute; achene ovoid, 0.7 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 535481, collected in mossy uplands, Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude about 4200 meters, June 10-24, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4395). A specimen of this collection is in the U.S. National Herbarium also. This small plant has the general appearance of P. microphylla and P. thymifolia. The leaves, the shape of the cystoliths, and the pubescence distinguish it readily from these two species and their close relatives. FEB. 4, 1925 KILLIP: URTICACEAE : 51 Pilea diversifolia Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. II. Bot. 18: 212. 1852. Peru. In patch at edge of shady brook, Mufia, 2200 meters, May 23-June, 1923 (3984). A much branched herb, with small leaves, those of a node both dissimilar and unequal. Pilea minutiflora Krause, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 37: 529. 1906. Peru (known hitherto only from the type locality, Huacapistana, Province of Tarma, Department of Junin). Mossy ledges, Huariaca, 2900 meters, April, 1923, ‘Indians take as remedy to cause forgetfulness for unrequited love.”’ (3126.) This and the following species belong to the long-peduncled group of the section Glabratae. Pilea minutiflora is related to P. anomala. Wedd. Pilea dauciodora Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IIT. 18: 223. 1852. Costa Rica and West Indies to Peru, Bolivia, and Venezuela. Wet bank, Huacachi, station near Mufia, about 2000 meters, May, 1923 (4117). Low creeping herb with leaves up to 3 cm. long. Pilea delicatula Killip, sp. nov. Plant slender, glabrous throughout, the stem repent, at length erect, 8 to 10 em. high; stipules ovate, 1 to 1.5 mm. long, abruptly acuminate; petioles of a node unequal, the longer 4 to 8 mm. long, the shorter 2 to 5 mm.; leaves crowded near end of stem, those of a node similar and nearly equal, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 0.5 to 1 cm. wide, acute, rounded or subcuneate at base, dentate- serrate (6 to 10 teeth on each side, imbricate toward apex, mucronate), 3- nerved (lateral nerves inconspicuous, barely reaching middle of blade), bearing on upper surface, mainly along nerves, a few minute linear cystoliths, on the under surface numerous inconspicuous punctiform cystoliths; plants apparently dioecious, the staminate not seen; pistillate flowers borne in globose glomerules 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, on peduncles 4 to 10 mm. long; perianth segments subequal, about 1 mm. long; achenes broadly ovate, about 1 mm. long and wide. Type in the Field Museum, no. 535486, collected in a wet mossy wood, at Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude 4000 meters, June 10-24, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4400). A specimen of this collection is also in the U.S. National Herbarium. Resembling P. daucidora Wedd. in size and habit P. delicatula differs in having larger and sharper teeth on the margin of the leaves, less numerous and less conspicuous cystoliths, which are punctiform, not linear, on the under surface of the leaves, and a more compact, globose inflorescence. This plant also resembles P. lamioides, a species of the short-peduncled group. Pilea tarmensis Killip, sp. nov. Erect herb, about 60 meters high, glabrous throughout; stem terete, striate, and woody below, subquadrangular and succulent above, leafy toward apex, naked below; stipules small, triangular-ovate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, obtuse; petioles 1 to 2 cm. long (or longer?), those of a node subequal or one a third longer than the other; leaves of a node subequal and similar, ovate-elliptic, 8 to 14 cm. long, 4 to 6 cm. wide, obtuse, auriculate at base, crenate-serrate from base to apex, 3-nerved (lateral nerves 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 extending to apex of blade), covered on both surfaces with yellowish fusiform, linear, and punctiform cystoliths, in addition finely black-punctate beneath; plants dioecious; staminate flowers in dense clusters in a diffuse, long- peduncled panicle (peduncle up to 5 em. long), short-pediceled, the perianth segments ovate, 1 mm. long, mucronulate; pistillate inflorescence not seen. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 536847, collected among rocks in a sunny shrubby canyon, near Huacapistana, Province of Tarma, Peru, altitude about 2800 meters, September 8, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 5822). In the absence of pistillate plants it is difficult to determine the exact relationship of this species. Weddell’s subdivision of both the section Glabratae and the section Pubescentes on the basis of the peduncles of pistillate inflorescence being longer or shorter than the subtending petioles is not wholly satisfactory. Probably this species is nearest P. anomala Wedd., though it differs in having broader leaves with obtuse apices and blunter teeth, and much denser flower clusters. Among the short-peduncled species it comes nearest P. multiflora (Poir.) Wedd. Pilea macbridei Killip, sp. nov. Plant about 1 meter high, glabrous throughout; stem woody, terete, nearly destitute of cystoliths, much branched above, the lower internodes 3.5 to 4 em. long, those near the ends of the branches 1.5 to 2 em.; stipules ovate, about 5 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, rounded at apex, soon deciduous; petioles 4 to 5 mm. long, geniculate near base, densely covered with linear cystoliths; leaves ovate or ovate-elliptic, 3 to 5 em. long, 1.5 to 2.5 em. wide, acuminate, shallowly cordate at base, serrate from base to apex (teeth averaging 2 mm. long), 3-nerved (nerves reaching the upper quarter of blade), faintly marked with fine linear cystoliths above, copiously covered with minute punctiform cystoliths and punctate with a few dark spots beneath, the upper surface very dark green, when dry, often yellow green along the nerves; plants monoe- cious; staminate heads cymose, about 5 mm. wide, borne 1 to 3 on slender peduncles 2 to 3.5 em. long which arise in the axils of the upper leaves; perianth purple-tinged, its segments minute; pistillate heads few-flowered, about 4 mm. wide, borne in the axils of the lower leaves on peduncles 6 to 8 mm. long; perianth segments unequal, the middle ovate, 1.2 mm. long, cucullate, the lateral barely half as long; achenes broadly ovoid or nearly orbicular, 1 mm. long, punctulate. Type in the Field Herbarium, no. 536217, collected at Villeabamba, hacienda on the Rio Chinchao, Peru, altitude about 2800 meters, July 17-26, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 5179). The inflorescence of this plant resembles that of P. elliptica Hook. f., of Chile, and in Weddell’s monograph, P. macbridez would key out close to P. elliptica. However, in general habit and shape and texture of the leaves the two species are very distinct. Pilea marginata Wedd. Arch. Mus. Paris9:238. 1856-57. Peru. Rocky trail edge through montafia, Pampayacu, hacienda at mouth of Rio Chinchao, about 1100 meters, July, 1923 (5086). Herb, about 80 em. high, the leaves coriaceous, minutely repand-serrulate along upper half of margins. FEB. 4, 1925 KILLIP: URTICACEAE 53 Pilea verrucosa Killip, sp. noy. Shrub, about 1 meter high; stem terete and glabrous below, subquad- rangular, ferruginous and verrucose above, the internodes about 2 cm. long; stipules small, orbicular, 2 mm. long; petioles of a node equal or one half as long as the other, 3 to 8 mm. long; leaves ovate or subrhombic, 2 to 3.5 cm. long, 1 to 2.5 em. wide, acute, subauriculate and often slightly asymmetrical at base, crenate-serrate (about 15 serrations to a side), triplinerved (lateral nerves extending to upper quarter of blade), subcoriaceous, glabrous, bearing very minute punctiform cystoliths on both surfaces; plants monoecious; staminate flowers borne in much-branched, densely-flowered panicles 2.5 to 4 em. long, in the axils of the upper leaves (common peduncles about 1 em. long), subsessile, very small, barely 0.5 mm. long, the segments acute; pistillate flowers in sessile or subsessile, densely-flowered cymes in the axils of the middle leaves, the perianth segments subequal, 1 mm. long, concave; achenes ovoid, 1.2 mm. long, 0.6 mm. wide, narrowed toward apex. Type in the Field Museum, no. 536240, collected at Villeabamba, hacienda on the Rio Chinchao, Peru, altitude about 2800 meters, July 17-26, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 5201). In many respects this plant agrees with the description of P. suffruticosa Krause. Both are shrubs and the upper branches apparently have the same peculiar roughness. The leaves of P. suffruticosa, however, are ovate-elliptic, tapering to the base, 5 to 8 em. long, and long-petioled, while in P. verrucosa the longest leaf present is but 3.5 em. long, and the leaves are ovate and auriculate at the base. The staminate inflorescences of P. suffruticosa are only half as long as the leaves and the individual flowers are long-pedicellate. In P. verrucosa the staminate inflorescences fully equal the leaves and the flowers are subsessile. Pilea orbiculata Killip, sp. nov. Low succulent herb, glabrous throughout, the stem repent, rooting at nodes, the branches erect or suberect, simple, up to 15 cm. high, longitudinally marked with fusiform cystoliths; stipules broadly ovate, 2 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, obtuse, connate at base, persistent; leaves crowded near apex of plant, those of a pair similar and subequal, orbicular or broadly ovate-orbicular, 7 to 10 mm. long, 9 to 12 mm. wide (leaves near middle of stem 5 mm. long and wide), rounded or slightly narrowing at apex, rounded or truncate at base, mucronate-serrulate except at entire base, short-petioled (petioles 4 to 6 mm.), often cartilaginous-thickened at margin, inconspicuously 3-nerved, faintly marked on the upper surface with minute fusiform cystoliths, almost destitute of eystoliths beneath; plants dioecious, the staminate not seen; pistillate flowers borne in small, densely-flowered, sessile or subsessile cymes 2 to 5 mm. long, shorter than the subtending petioles; perianth exteriorly covered with linear cystoliths, the segments unequal, the middle segment ovate, 5 mm. long, the lateral segments less than half as long; achene ovoid, about 5 mm. long, compressed. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534560, collected on mossy ledges, Chasqui, Peru, April 10, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3289). The following points of difference are to be noted between this species and its nearest relative P. pusilla Krause, both of the short-peduncled group of the section Glabratae: P. pusilla—leaves crenate, cystoliths punctiform, petioles 8 to 12 mm. long; pistillate cymes on erect, slender peduncles, equaling or 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No.3 slightly longer than petioles; achenes 1.2 mm. long; P. orbiculata—leaves mucronate-serrulate, cystoliths fusiform, petioles 4 to 6 mm. long; pistillate cymes sessile or subsessile, shorter than petioles; achenes 0.5 mm. long. Pilea lamioides Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. III. Bot. 18: 213. 1852. Peru. Rocky hillside, San Geronimo, Lima, about 150 meters, September, 1923 (5917). Small plant, 5 to 10 em. high, with the aspect of Lamium purpureum. Pilea pulegifolia (Poir.) Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. III. Bot. 18: 213. 1852. Urtica pulegifolia Poir. Encycl.4: 224. 1816. Peru. Thickets, Chaglla, about 2800 meters, May, 1923 (8650). Stem elongate, lax (?), much branched; leaves of a node similar but very unequal, the larger up to 2.5 cm. long; pistillate flowers in a loosely-flowered panicle about 8 mm. wide, the peduncles filiform, 1 to 1.5 em. long; perianth- segments unequal, the lateral less than half as long as the middle segment; achenes suborbicular, 1 mm. long and wide, finely papillose. The dimension of the leaves of Macbride’s specimen is twice that given by Weddell in his description of P. pulegifolia, but in general habit, leaf shape, and cystolithic markings this specimen agrees well with Weddell’s diagnosis. Weddell evidently saw only staminate plants, while Macbride’s specimens are all pistillate. DOUBTFUL SPECIMENS OF THE GENUS PILEA No. 3770. Yanano,about 1800 meters, May, 1923. Coarse, erect herb, glabrous throughout, the leaves oblong-elliptic, up to 15 em. long, 4 em. wide, narrowing to a rather broad base (petioles stout, 2.5 mm. long). This plant is nearest P. goudotiana Wedd., a species cultivated in Colombia, known to me only by description. In Macbride’s specimen, the inflorescence, probably pistillate, is not in a condition for satisfactory determination of the plant. No. 4826. Cushi, about 1600 meters, June, 1923. Erect succulent peren- nial herb, ‘‘4 feet’’ high; leaves long-petioled, oblong-elliptic, up to 16 cm. long, 6 em. wide; inflorescence undeveloped. Nearest P. spruceana Wedd., but larger in every way. Boehmeria aspera Wedd. Arch. Mus. Paris 9: 349, pl. 11, f. 24-28. 1856-57. Colombia, Peru. Steep, grass-shrub slopes, Piedra Grande, station near Rio Santo Domingo, May, 1923 ‘‘Shrub 2-5 feet”’ (8698). Readily recognized by its coriaceous, bullate-rugose, lanceolate leaves. Boehmeria pavonii Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. 1: 202. 1854. Peru and Bolivia. La Merced, about 600 meters, August, 1923. ‘Slender open shrub-tree”’ (5268). Leaves long-acuminate, the alternate ones often dimorphic; flowers clusters small for the genus. FEB. 4, 1925 KILLIP: URTICACEAE 55 Boehmeria weddelliana Killip, nom. nov. Boehmeria hirta Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. 1: 202. 1854, not Boehmeria hirta Pers. (1807). Peru. Sunny stream edge, Muna, about 2200 meters, May-June, 1923. “Compact 5 it. shrub” (4012). This is apparently the only South American species of Boehmerza with both axillary flower clusters and opposite leaves. The plant is densely hirsute throughout. Pouzolzia aspera Wedd. in DC. Prodr. 161: 233. 1869. Peru and Bolivia. Steep grassy, rocky slope, canyon of the Rio Huallaga, below Rio Santo Domingo, about 1200 meters, June, 1923, “Dense 2-3 ft. shrub’ (4238). Leaves lanceolate, entire, rough above, cano-tomentose beneath. Mpyriocarpa densiflora Benth. Bot. Voy. Sulphur 169. 1844. Colombia to Bolivia and Peru. Forest, Cushi, about 1600 meters, June, 1923, ‘“Rather open 10 ft. shrub- tree”’ (4838). A second specimen, collected at La Merced, about 600 meters altitude, August, 1923 (5454), with larger leaves rugose above, and more densely tomentose, is the subspecies dombeyana Wedd. The differences between Myriocarpa densiflora and M. stipitata, described at the same time by Bentham, are very slight, and the two may not be dis- tinct. In such case the latter name must be used, but in the absence of type material or authenticated specimens it does not seem advisable at this time to treat them as conspecific. Mpyriocarpa laevigata Killip, sp. nov. Compact tree or shrub, up to 5 meters high, glabrous, except inflorescence, petioles, and tips of branches, the bark of the younger branches cinerous; stipules ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 8 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide, acutish; petioles up to 5 em. long, canaliculate, appressed-pilosulous or nearly glabrous; leaves obovate or ovate, 7 to 14 cm. long, 4 to 8 cm. wide, abruptly acuminate or acute at apex, subcuneate or rounded at base, shallowly undulate-serrulate above middle, subentire in lower half, triplinerved with 3 or 4 ascending secondary nerves on each side of the mid-nerve, reticulate-veined, coriaceous, glabrous above, beneath often densely pilose in the axils of the principal and secondary nerves, and sparsely pilosulous along midrib, otherwise glabrous, densely covered on both surfaces with fusiform and punctiform cystoliths, the nerves: on under surface bearing longer, linear cystoliths; plants dioecious (?); staminate plants not seen; pistillate inflorescences solitary or in pairs in the axils of the leaves, twice dichotomous, the branches slender, wiry, pilosulous, 5 to 8 mm. long, the primary branches slightly shorter, the ultimate elon- gate, 10 to 15 cm. long, averaging 3 mm. thick; sepals 2, about 0.5 mm. long, recurved, glabrous; achene ovate-elliptic, s stipitate, ‘about 1. 5 mm. long (including stipe), compressed, slightly hispidulous, setose at margin (setae subequal), the body dark brown, the stipe pale. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534987, collected at Mumia. Peru, altitude about 2300 meters, May 23 to June 4, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3925). A specimen of this collection is also in the National Herbarium.. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 3 Additional specimens examined: Peru: Yanano, about 1800 meters, Macbride 3783. Cueva Grande, near Pozuzo, about 1100 meters, Macbride 4811. The smooth, coriaceous, nearly entire leaves distinguish this from the other Peruvian species of Myriocarpa. The foliage more nearly resembles that of M. heterostachys Donn. Smith, a plant of Guatemala, though in that species the leaves are rather long-attenuate at the apex, thinner, and the cystolithic markings are different. Phenax hirtus minor Wedd. in DC. Prodr. 161: 235°. 1869. eee urticaefolius minor Wedd. Arch. Mus. Paris 9: 496. 1856-57. eru. Shrubby canyon side, Matucana, about 2500 meters, March, 1923, ‘Loosely branched shrub, about 4 ft. Flowers pink” (2883). Brook margin, Matu- cana, April-May, 1922, ‘Woody below. Leaves glossy above.” (233.) Leaves only 1.5 to 3 cm. long; otherwise apparently the same as typical P. hirtus Sw., a common tropical plant. Phenax laevigatus Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. 1V. Bot.4: 192. 1854. Colombia to Peru. Stream-canyon’ thicket, Mito, about 2700 meters, July, 1922, “To 4 ft., erect; branches spreading, ‘spray-like’’”’ (1503). Huacachi, station near Muna, 2000 meters, May, 1923 (4153). Leaves coriaceous, glabrous except, occasionally, on the nerves beneath. Phenax laxiflorus Wedd. Arch. Mus. Paris 9: 499. 1856-57. Peru. Mufia, along trial to Tambo de Vaca, about 2500 meters, June, 1923 (4282). Readily recognized by the loosely-flowered clusters. Usually more densely pubescent than the other Peruvian species of Phenaz. Parietaria debilis Forst. Fl. Ins. Austr. Prodr. 73. 1786. Widely distributed in both hemispheres, from sea level to high altitudes. In moist soil on rock ledges of canyon, Matucana, about 2500 meters, April— May, 1922, “Stems clinging to face of rock,” (262). Upper slopes of seaside hills, Chorrillos, near Lima, September, 1923 (5870). Sandy loams along the sea, Turin, Lima, about 60 meters, September, 1923 (5968). PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 909TH MEETING The 909th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club Saturday, November 29, 1924, with President Hazarp in the chair and 55 persons in attendance. Program: W. W. Cosutentz: The measurement of planetary tenvperatures. (llustrated.) ; Author’s abstract: In 1921 a new method was used at the Lowell Observa- tory, Flagstaff, Arizona, for determining the temperature of stars. The novelty of the method consisted in separating the radiation into spectral components by means of transmission screens, and measuring the energy by means of stellar thermocouples similar to those used at the Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, California, in 1914. FEB. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 57 The results obtained were so promising that in 1922 the Lowell Observa- tory provided financial means for testing the device on the planets, pre- liminary to the crucial work at the opposition of Mars in 1924. Unfortu- nately, owing to eye-strain, only a few nights could be devoted to the tests. However, the results were entirely successful, indicating that the equatorial temperature of Mars was high, perhaps 10° to 20°C. In estimating planetary temperatures the usual procedure is to consider the intensity of insolation on the planet, the albedo of the planet, and various other factors. The measurements, which were made in 1922, showed that while the water cell is an excellent means for testing the presence of planetary radiation, it was desirable to try out a new method which would permit the correlation of the spectral distribution of the planetary radiation with that of a black body radiator. This is possible by separating the planetary radia- tion into spectral components by means of transmission screens as used in 1921. The outstanding features of this investigation are the results of the meas- urements on selected regions on the surface of Venus and of Mars. The sur- face of the former planet is hidden by clouds, and its period of rotation is undetermined. Hence, the thermocouple radiometer appears to be a means of obtaining further information on this question. It was found that not only does the illuminated crescent show the presence of considerable planetary radiation, but the unilluminated part of the disk also emits a large amount of infra red rays. This raises the question whether the radiation from the dark side of the planet is owing to a rapid rotation, say 1 to 10 days. Radiometric measurements were made on Mars on 24 nights under a wide range of instrumental and meteorological conditions. These measurements show that the bright regions of Mars are cooler than the dark regions, that the sunrise side of the planet is at a lower temperature than the side exposed to the afternoon sun, and that the polar regions are intensely cold. An estimate of the temperature of the irradiated equatorial surface of Mars was obtained by four methods, as follows: (1) By comparison with terrestrial conditions, Martian temperatures similar to those found on the Earth were inferred; (2) By direct comparison of the spectral components of the planetary radiation from Mars and the Moon, noonday temperatures were obtained ranging from 5°C. for the bright equatorial region to 20°C. for the adjacent dark regions; (3) By comparison of the observed spectral components of the planetary radiation from Mars with similar data calculated from the laws of spectral radiation of a black body, temperatures were ob- tained ranging from — 15°C. for the bright equatorial regions to 12°C. for the adjoining dark regions; and (4) By applying the fourth-power law of total radiation to the water-cell transmissions of isolated regions, temperatures up to 15°C. were calculated. As a whole, these temperature estimates are in harmony with visual ob- servations on Mars. The measurements show that the noonday tempera- ture of the equatorial surface of Mars at perihelion is not unlike that of a cool bright day on the Earth, with temperatures ranging from 5° to 15°C., or 40° to 60°F. The temperature estimates of the other planets are as follows: Mercury 75 to 100°C.; the upper limiting temperatures of the outer atmospheres of Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, —60°, —75°, —65°, and —75°C. re- spectively; and the unillumininated face of the Moon —75°C. to —200°C. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 3 W. D. Coxitins: Temperatures of air and water. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and diagrams, and was discussed by Messrs. SosMAN, Humpureys, and L. H. Apams. Author’s abstract: The large number of published measurements of earth temperatures throughout the world indicate that at depths of from 30 to 60 feet the temperature at any place is practically constant throughout the year. Computations by C. E. Van Orstrand from many temperature measure- ments at different depths lead to the conclusion that in general this constant temperature is about 2°F. higher than the mean annual air temperature at the same place. A number of different results have been published for the rate of increase of temperature with depth. A committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science reported in 1882 the selection of 1°F. for 64 feet of depth as the most probable average rate. Thus from the air tempera- ture it is possible to estimate closely the probable temperature of water ob- tainable from wells of any depth. Measurements of surface water temperatures at 23 places in the United States, published in United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 520-f, show a reasonably close agreement between the mean monthly water temperature and the mean monthly air temperature. In the warmer months the agreement is somewhat better than in winter. The mean monthly air temperature at any place may be taken as the approximate temperature of surface water during the month, but the agreement with the actual tempera- ture is not likely to be as close as the agreement between the calculated and actual temperature of ground water. 910TH MEETING The 910th meeting, being the 54th annual meeting, was held at the Cosmos Club Saturday, December 13, 1924, with President Hazarp in the chair and 35 persons present. The report of the Treasurer showed total receipts, $2015.12; disburse- ments, $1074.04, leaving a balance of $941.08. The report of the Secretaries showed that 18 meetings were held during the year, several in conjunction with other societies. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, J. A. FieminG; Vice-presidents, J. P. Autt and W. Bowin; Treasurer, P. R. HEY; Recording Secretary, H. A. Marmrr; Members-at-Large, General Committee, L. B. Tuckerman and H.E. Merwin. Regular program: N. H. Hecx: Application of force diagrams to compass compensation. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and was dis- cussed by Messrs. Curtis, HawkKESworRTH, PAWLING, FRENCH, and AULT. Author’s abstract: Mariners of the Middle Ages did not recognize the need for compass compensation, but with the arrival of the iron steamship, about 1850, and later the steel ship, the matter became of great importance. His- tory is cited to explain why this old subject is revived. Early investigators developed a mathematical solution which was improved by the British Navy and by Diehl and Muir for the American Navy. About 1910 there was a reaction against the mathematical treatment for several reasons, including: Realization that sub-permanent magnetism of a ship does not change accord- ing to fixed laws and may be affected by electrical machinery; magnetic ob- servations at sea by the Coast and Geodetic Survey showed that variations in ships’ magnetism made it difficult to get accurate observations and this led to the use by the Carnegie Institution of the “Galilee,” and the building of the “Carnegie,” a non-magnetic ship; the use of the gyro compass on large FEB. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 59 vessels has removed some of the more difficult problems. A reaction accord- ingly followed and recent manuals give a very simple treatment, in some cases the efforts to simplify lead to fallacies. This paper describes a rela- tively simple treatment which is intended to give a picture of the forces involved. The old method described nine bars as representing the ship’s magnetism; in any case, all the forces at the compass center can be resolved into compo- nents in three directions, but this statement presents no picture that can be visualized. Starting with an iron filing diagram of a bar magnet, the directions of forces at points in the field corresponding to that of the compass aboard the ship are indicated. Magnetism of the ship is considered as represented by three magnets symmetrically placed with respect to the ship, there being two such sets of magnets, one for permanent and one for temporary magnetism. Permanent magnetism. The forces due to the three magnets can be readily visualized, and the simple force diagram gives the resultant direction of the compass needle, taking into account the Earth’s field. Temporary magnetism. This is a little more difficult to visualize. By means of iron filing diagrams due to a soft iron bar making different angles with a uniform field, it is seen that the field of the bar may be considered as identical in form with that of a magnet of the same shape, but that the force in the field changes with the direction of the bar, becoming zero when at right angles to the direction of the uniform field. A simple force diagram shows how the force normal to the meridian which causes the deviation may be represented. From this an extremely simple diagram is developed for show- ing the variation of this force with the heading of the vessel. Compensation is briefly discussed, and the action of the spheres in compen- sating temporary magnetism is demonstrated. The application of this method, and discussion of the heeling error affords a test of its value. J. P. Autt, Recording Secretary. - THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 669TH MEETING The 669th meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club, October 25, 1924, at 8:10 p.m., with President GIDLEY in the chair and 72 persons present. F. C. Lrxcotn reported that the Authors’ Index to the Proceedings of the Biological Society had been issued, and exhibited copies. S. F. Biaxe reported that during the past summer he had observed in Connecticut a small snapping turtle which, when irritated by a stick, slowly raised the posterior portion of its body and then jumped forward about an inch, at the same time shooting out its head. Program: VERNON Batter: Recent observations in Glacier National Park (illustrated). The speaker compared the present numbers of the animals in the park with observations made some years ago. Careful estimates of the numbers of the larger animals in the park made by park officials for several years provide a basis for future determination of increase or decrease, but unfortunately there are few data for comparison from past years. From his study of animal life in the park in 1917 and 1918, the speaker is confident that there has been a noticeable increase in mountain goat, bighorn and deer, 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 a slight increase in elk and moose, and a notable decrease in predatory ani- mals, such as coyotes, wolves, and mountain lions. With reasonable control of these harmful species, the wild life of the park should go on increasing until there is a constant overflow into surrounding country, much of which is well adapted to game. One of the most delightful features of the animal life in the park is its tame- ness. White goats, bighorns, and deer are easily photographed at close range, and the great hoary marmots, Columbia ground squirrels, and chip- munks would often take food from the hand. Beaver, porcupines, snowshoe rabbits, squirrels, martens, mink, weasels, and conies were often seen at close range, and the birds of the park were equally confident and unafraid. Colored lantern slides were shown of some of the wildflower gardens and picturesque scenery of the park, as well as of many of the mammals and a few of the birds. P. J. BALDENSPERGER, Nice, France: Palestine and its fauna (illustrated). The speaker described the country and its inhabitants, and illustrated both the scenery and the people with numerous lantern slides, many of which showed places of religious interest. Mention was made of some of the more important birds and animals, and the decrease in wild life which has followed the deforestation of the country during the war was particularly emphasized. In conclusion the speaker, who is a practical bee-keeper, showed views of the bee hives used in Palestine and described some of his experiences with bees. 670TH MEETING The 670th meeting was held November 8, 1924, at 8 p.m., with President Giwv-tey in the chair and 53 persons present. L. O. Howarp read the following resolution regarding the recent death of Nep Ho.tutstTer, an ex-president of the Biological Society: Wuereas, the Biological Society of Washington has learned with profound regret of the death of one of its ex-presidents Ned Hollister, Superintendent of the National Zoological Park, therefore be it Resolved that this Society place on record an expression of the deep loss that it has suffered through the death of a most valued member, former editor and president; and of its appreciation of his ability as a zoologist, and especially of his character and worth as a man, Resolved, further, that a copy of this resolution be spread upon the minutes of the Society and that a copy be transmitted by the secretary to the bereaved family.— L. O. Howarp, T. 8S. Paumer, H. C. OBeRHOLSER, COMMITTEE. H. C. OBERHOLSER spoke of Mr. Hotuister’s work as editor of the “‘Jour- nal of Mammalogy”’ and of the educational work he accomplished as director of the National Zoological Park, as well as of his worth as a man. T. H. Scuerrer, Biological Survey: Mountain beavers and moles in the Puget Sound country (illustrated)—The peculiar little animal called the mountain beaver (A plodontia) is to be found only on the Pacific coast of North America. It resembles a tailless muskrat in size and general appearance, but is not aquatic. It is particularly abundant in the edges of the forests and on the old burns and cut-over lands of the Puget Sound country, where it burrows extensively among the stumps and logs and in the slopes of the many gulches that dissect the bench lands. The food of the mountain beaver includes a great variety of herbs, and cuttings of both deciduous and evergreen trees, shrubs, and vines. The animal is not arboreal in habit, but readily climbs shrubs and saplings to a height of several feet, cutting off the small branches and leaving short stubs to serve as the rounds of its ladder. Small FEB. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 61 piles of the green stuff it uses for food are cached temporarily at the entrances of its burrows, or in exposed situations where they are sometimes left to dry. The animal is active throughout the year. Skins of the mountain beaver were used by the Indians for making garments and robes, but have not been utilized by our modern furriers. Of the two species of mole to be found in our Pacific Coast States, the Townsend mole (Scapanus townsend) is the largest on the continent and is more abundant locally than any species occurring elsewhere. This abun- . dance is due, in a large degree, to the fertile, well watered soil of the North- west Coast, which teems with earthworms, the principal food of the mole. The Townsend mole burrows more deeply than the eastern mole and heaps up unsightly mounds of earth in fields, parks, and on lawns. From the stand- point of food habits it is more or less neutral in its effects on our interests, but becomes an intolerable nuisance in gardens, parks, lawns, and meadows, be- cause of its burrowing habits. The animal may be readily controlled by the use of properly constructed traps, but by no other practicable method. The fur of the Townsend mole is of excellent quality and is coming into use in the trade. The skins are larger than those imported from Europe as Scotch mole and Dutch mole. (Author’s abstract.) G. A. Dean, Bureau of Entomology: The European corn borer in America Gllustrated)—The European corn borer (Pyrausta nubdlalis Hiibner), now firmly established in the United States and Canada, probably gained en- trance into America in 1909 or 1910 in broom corn imported from Hungary and Italy, but was first reported in the United States in 1917, from near Bos- ton. In 1919 it was discovered in New York and northwestern Pennsylvania, and in 1920 it was reported from Ontario. In 1921 a slight infestation was found throughout a narrow strip of territory bordering on Lake Erie in Penn- sylvania, Ohio, and Michigan. The survey for 1924 has disclosed increases of 150 to 300 per cent in areas infested in Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. New areas have been found in Staten Island, Long Island and Connecticut. In Canada, the principal dent corn growing areas in Essex and Kent Counties, Ontario, are now so seriously infested as to cause considerable com- mercial injury. The prevalence of moisture, heavy dews, and high humidity ’ during the incubation of the eggs and during the early or first instar stage of the larvae in 1924 apparently caused very little mortality of the eggs and per- mitted large numbers of the larvae to become established in the tassels, leaves, stalks, and ears of the corn plants. In Massachusetts there has been not only a very marked decrease in the intensity of infestation, but also very little spread in the infestation. This decrease apparently is due principally to the adverse climatic conditions which prevailed during the summer of 1923. The thorough clean-up of fields, gar- dens, and small weed areas and the fall plowing of practically 90 per cent of the cultivated fields probably also contributed considerably to the decrease in the infestation. In eastern New York the infestation remains about the same, that is, there has been very little spread and very little increase in the intensity of the infestation. Since the insect in the short time that it has been found in America has been found infesting nearly two hundred species of plants, including many valuable garden and farm crops, it is considered an insect of major importance. En- tomologists and agronomists are convinced of its tremendous potentiality and of what may be expected when it once becomes established throughout the corn belt and has the benefit of one or two years of favorable climatic condi- tions. (Author’s abstract.) 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 3 F. C. Lrycoin, Biological Survey: Results of bird banding in Europe (illus- trated).—Bird banding in Europe has been practiced since 1899 when the first experimental work was done by Prof. H. C. C. Mortensen of Viborg, Denmark, followed by organized investigations in Germany, Holland, Hun- gary, Sweden, Scotland, and England. The records available trace the migration of the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) south through the valleys of the Elbe and Oder Rivers, across the Carpathian Mountains, Asia Minor, and Syria to the delta of the Nile River. This stream is then followed to its headwaters and on south to the Transvaal, Orange Free State and Cape Colony where the birds spend the winter. Another route is to the southwest through the valley of the Rhone River to the Mediterranean coasts of France and Spain and also to Morocco. It is not believed that the flight by this route (which is obviously of lesser importance) is continued much south of the African coast as the stork evi- dently dislikes the long flights which would be necessary to cross the Sahara Desert. A few young birds have returned in later years to within a short distance of their original home. The oldest bird, as revealed by banded birds, was eleven years old when killed. The Pintail (Dafila a. acuta) breeds in northern Europe, and a large number were banded by Prof. Mortensen at the island of Fano, off the west coast of Denmark. Many of these were subsequently recovered, some as far north as Lapland, Finland, and the coast of the White Sea. The winter range is shown to extend south through the valley of the Rhine River and along the Bay of Biscay to the northern shores of the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas. One bird was taken far in the interior, east of the Ural Mountains. Professor Mortensen also banded a large number of European Teal (Nettion crecca), another duck breeding to about 70° north. The winter quarters are confined largely to the regions included between the isotherms of 4° and 6°C. for January. These areas include almost all of Ireland, the south and west coasts of England, the western part of France between the Loire and Gironde Rivers, northern Italy and Jugo-Slavia. The fall migration to winter quar- ters is probably via the coastwise route. The Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) breeds throughout Europe and Asia to Kamchatka, but the birds banded were mainly from colonies along the ~ Baltic coasts and in Hungary. The fall migration of these birds follows the coast line south to the Mediterranean Sea, a few crossing to the African coast. From this main route there are several offshoots, the principal river valleys being followed by different quotas. At times cross-country flights of con- siderable length are undertaken and several ranges of mountains are regularly crossed. Two gulls, banded at the German station of Rossitten on the Baltic Sea, have been recovered in American waters; one near Bridgetown, island of Barbados, British West Indies, and the other near Vera Cruz, Bay of Campeche, Mexico. European Swallows (Hirundo r. rustica) have yielded a few interesting returns. Seven birds banded in England were recovered in South Africa, over 7,000 miles from the point of banding. Six of these were young birds in their first season. The route taken is not definitely indicated. Fifteen Hungarian birds returned to the point of banding, two yielding three succes- sive returns each. Corroborative evidence of the strength of the homing instinct in these birds is furnished by records from England and Scotland. FEB. 4, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 63 671ST MEETING The 671st meeting was held November 22, 1924, at 8:00 p.m., with Presi- dent GIpLEY in the chair and 98 persons present. New members elected: Dr. ALBERT L. Barrows, C. 8. East, ARTHUR LOVERIDGE. T. S. PALMER gave a report of the recent A. O. U. meeting at Pittsburgh, referring especially to the moving pictures of birds and exhibition of bird paintings. He also reported that one of his box turtles, after going into hiber- nation in October, had appeared again but was not active. S. F. Buaxs stated that a small Bell’s turtle which he had in captivity had reappeared from the mud during the warm days in early November, but had gone into the mud again at the time of the cold spell. Vernon BariEy commented on the delicious quality of some wild rice received from C. E. CHamptuiss, and discussed the hibernation of certain mammals. M. K. Brapy exhibited some living specimens of two rare Japanese sala- manders, and commented on their characters. S. F. Buaks reported that the series of books containing the minutes of the Council meetings of the Society is now complete, but that the first book of minutes for the open meetings has not been found. A. WerTmore reported that a hen pheasant appeared in his yard at Takoma Park on November 9. JOSEPH GRINNELL: Faunal changes now taking place in California.—The paper covers the faunal changes that have taken place since the coming of the white man to California. The principal factors controlling the number of animals are food supply, temporary refuges (cover), proper breeding places, and suitable climate. All these factors of the environment are affected by the following modifications, due to man: deforestation, afforestation, clearing of brush land, irrigation, cultivation of grassy plains, drainage of lakes and swamps, formation of reservoirs and canals, and grazing. Asa result of these modifications, some species have been reduced in numbers, some have in- creased (linnet), some have been exterminated (kit fox, last recorded in 1903), and some have been added from adjacent territory (bobolink). Irrigation has undoubtedly increased the number of individuals, but the species are fewer, owing to the extermination of many. In the Imperial Valley, where the Colorado River was diverted from its course, the introduction of water into desert areas has brought with it the cotton rat, muskrat, and Bermuda grass, the last closely followed by the pock- et gopher. Some desert rodents have been eliminated in the flooded regions. Examples of extermination are afforded by several rodents of very local dis- tribution inhabiting regions where the environment has been greatly changed by the advent of man. New arrivals are the opposum, which was introduced by negro caterers at San Jose in 1910 and is now found abundantly in the lowlands from Sacra- mento to Riverside, and the roof rat (Rattus alexandrinus), which is making its way along streams into remote places in the mountains. In discussion, T. S. Parmer stated that the important date in a study of changed conditions in California is that of the coming of railroads. In reply, Dr. Grinnell stated that he considered the introduction of automobiles of more importance in changing wild conditions. A. WETMORE, commenting on Dr. Grinnell’s statement that the eucalyptus groves in California were practically devoid of wild life, stated that he had found conditions much the same in the eucalyptus groves of Argentina. Almost the only native bird that inhabits 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 15, No. 3 them there is a parrakeet, which builds very large nests. A species of teal lays its eggs in the nests built by the parrakeet. Within five miles of Monte- video the only conspicuous plants and birds were all introduced—eucalyptus, tamarix, and the English sparrow. The paper was also discussed by M. K. Brapy and J. W. Grpuey, who re- ferred to the destructive effects of grazing in the northwestern states. H. V. Haruan: The plains and hills of the Punjab and Kashmir (illustrated). —Central and northwest India are regions of low rainfall. Much of the Punjab is desert. In the drier sections of the Punjab several million acres have recently been brought under irrigation. Cotton and wheat are the basic crops. The Mogul dynasty did much to promote horticulture and there are still remains of their work visible in the gardens of the tombs of several of their emperors. The Vale of Kashmir is a picturesque horticultural valley. The charac- teristic trees of the valley are oriental plane, mulberry, white-barked poplar, and willow. Berries, apricots, apples, and grapes are grown extensively. The grain crops are rice, wheat, barley, and corn. There are remains of eleven Mogul gardens several of which are still in good condition. They usually contain plane trees several centuries old. The irrigation systems are the original ones installed by the Moguls. Market gardens are grown in beds of turf floated on shallow lakes. (Author’s abstract.) 672D MEETING The 672d regular and 45th annual meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club December 6, 1924, at 8:15 p.m., with President GipLey in the chair and 22 persons present. The Annual Reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Recording Secretary, Treasurer, and Committee on Publications were read. The following officers were then elected: President, S. A. Ronwer; Vice Presidents, H. C. OBERHOLSER, E. A. GotpMaAN, A. Wermorg, C. E. Cuamsuiss; Recording Secretary, S. F. BLAKE; Corresponding Secretary, T. E. SNypER; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members of Council, H. H. T. Jackson, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, C. W. Stiuus, A. A. Doourrrie. The President-elect was nominated as Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences to represent the Biological Society. 8. F. Brake, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ALDEN Sampson, formerly a game preserve expert with the Biological Sur- vey, died in New York City January 5. Mr. Sampson was widely known as an explorer and traveler. He was a member of the Biological and Arch- aeological Societies. Dr. Ates Hrpiicka was recently elected President of the American An- thropological Society, succeeding Dr. WALTER Hovueu. The National Museum has received important ethnological, zoological and botanical material from the National Geographic Society, obtained by the Society’s recent expedition to China, headed by F. R. Wutsin. _ ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES : Thursday, February 5. The Entomological Society. _ Saturday, February 7. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club. _ Program: W. P. Wuire: Some scientific aspects of the game of golf. H. L. _ _Drypen: The Flettner rotor ship. - Thursday, February 12. The Chemical Society. _ Saturday, February 14. The Biological Society. _ Tuesday, February 17. The Anthropological Society. The Helminthological Society. ernest, February-19. THe ACADEMY. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL a Saturday, January 17. The Biological Society. A.B. Howewu: Mice that live in trees. : R. F. Grices: Scientific results of the Katmai expeditions. CONTENTS ia ORIGINAL PAPERS ‘adh Botany.—Roseocaclus, a new genus of Cactaceae. ALWIN Brercer ; Botany.—Notes on Urticaceae of the Marshall Field Peruvian explorat i WORTH. P. IRTOUIP 2 csp sg-slomesceien ser sas oo ears ee ae PROCEEDINGS 4 \Screntiric Norms AND NBWS..-..2.650.c0000stegeeceretorciioasee enter - | OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY — President: Vernon L. Ketoca, National Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francts B. Stspen, Bureau of Stan - Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Barve Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 15 Frsruary 19, 1925 No. 4 - JOURNAL«,,_ “ OF THE i ; 4 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E, P. Kiuure D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy NATIONAL MUBEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams S. A. RonwER PHILOS0PHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLDMAN G. W. StosE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIDTY R, F. Grices J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WicHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat anp GuILrorp AVES. BattTmore, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vor. 15 Fresruary 19, 1925 No. 4 BOTANY .—Notes on the taxonomy of American and Mexican Upland cottons. FreperRiIcK L. Lewron, U. 8. National Museum. A testimony to the difficulties in the way of assigning the proper botanical names to the many cultivated species and varieties of cotton is seen in the fact that students of the taxonomy of the genus Gossypium are not in accord as to the proper name which should be assigned to the group of varieties yielding the bulk of our annual crop of Upland cotton amounting to millions of bales. The name most commonly accepted for this important crop plant is Gossypium hirsutum 1., the first American species to be recognized by Linnaeus as distinct from Old World cottons. Some students of this question, like Fletcher and Watt, after examining the Linnean speci- mens, noting that his name hirsutwm was intended to apply to a cotton plant having seeds with green fuzz and a flower with red spots on the bases of the petals, have restricted the name G. hirsutum to a small group of varieties of Upland cotton having the above named char- acteristics; and have assigned other names to the bulk of the culti- vated forms yielding American Upland Cotton. Sir George Watt uses G. mexicanum Todaro to cover ‘Mexican cotton and the bulk of the Upland Americans;’’! while Fletcher believes G. siamense Tenore to be the true name of our plant.?. Before trying to decide between these two views let us examine the validity of the arguments pre- sented by the above writers in advocating the names proposed by them. ‘Watt, Sir George: The wild and cultivated cotton plants of the world, pp. 226-244. Bae F.: Botany and origin of American Upland cotton, Cairo Sci. Journ. 3: 264-266. 1909. 65 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 MEXICAN UPLAND COTTON NOT GOSSYPIUM MEXICANUM The bulk of the commercial cotton crop of Mexico is yielded by a species of Gossypiwm for which as yet we have no adequate name. To supply this deficiency, Sir George Watt makes use of an apparently appropriate specific name, @. mexicanum Todaro. Todaro’s name does not seem to have been taken up by any other student of the cottons until used by Watt in 1910. The latter does not cite any of Todaro’s actual specimens, nor indeed any specimens from Mexico, but apparently after deciding to apply G. mexicanum to the broad-leaved Mexican cottons of the general upland type he finds specimens from all over the world in the herbaria of Kew, British Museum, Geneva, and Calcutta, which he assigns to this species. Before accepting Watt’s identification of ‘“Mexican cotton” let us see if we can determine what kind of a cotton plant was in the mind of Agostino Todaro when he proposed the name Gossypiwm mexicanum. A brief description in Latin under this name was first published in 1868 in the list of seeds which ripened in 1867 in the Royal Botanic Garden at Palermo, Sicily; later a fuller and more detailed description was presented by Todaro in his monograph of the genus Gossypium, published in 1878. This deserip- tion was strengthened by an excellent colored plate, and shows a shrubby small-bolled plant yielding tawny colored cotton and small flowers with a spot at the base of each petal. He gives the habitat of the plant as ‘‘Northern Mexico”’ and says that seed of this species was sent to him in 1864 by the “celebrated Professor Decaisne”’ under the name ‘‘Coton sauvage de Siam dit Siam clair,’ with the statement that it was shrubby and perennial. The label on the specimen of cotton seed sent by Decaisne from the Botanic Garden at Paris at once arouses a question in the mind of the reader as to what “Wild Siamese Cotton’? was doing in Mexico about 1864. At first thought it would seem that Todaro had misquoted Decaisne and unintention- ally connected Siam and Mexico together, but an examination of Todaro’s writings develops that in three distinct papers he mentions the wild Siamese cotton having a habitat in Mexico.’ That such a species of cotton as was described and figured by Todaro is really to be found in Northern Mexico was proven by that indefatigable collector of Mexican plants, Dr. Edward Palmer, who brought to Washington from Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico, specimens and fresh seeds of a shrubby brown-linted cotton which he said was locally known as socollo or cocoyo. Plants grown by the writer in Texas and Florida from the seeds brought by Dr. Palmer appear as almost exact counterparts of Todaro’s plate of his G, mexicanum.’ From carefully made field notes put down from the living plants at Brownsville, Texas, the following description has been drawn: 8 Todaro, Agostino: Relazione sui cotoni coltivati al R. Orto Botanico nell’ anno 1864, in Atti della Societa di Acclimazione e di Agricoltura in Sicilia 4: 164. 1864. Todaro, Agostino: Index seminum Horti Regii Botanici Panormitani, ann. 1867, p. 20 and 31. 1868. Todaro, Agostino: Relazione sulla cultura dei cotoni in Italia, 193, pl. 6. 1877. FEB. 19,1925 LEWTON: AMERICAN AND MEXICAN COTTONS 67 Gossypium mexicanum Todaro Plant woody 1.5 to 2.5 meters high, very strict and: open, branching very low. Stem erect, slightly hairy, green or reddish. Basal limbs numerous, ascending, gradually becoming smaller upwards. Fruiting branches 15 to 20, ascending internodes very long, bolls not clustered nor fasciated. Leaves 10 to 13 em. long from base to tip, width the same, dark green, quite smooth above, smooth below, very flat, not thrown up in folds at the sinuses, 3-lobed, divisions broad, basal sinus deep, open; pulvinus very small, red; petioles 6 to 10 em. long, slightly hairy; nectaries present, small, oval very deep, edges not raised. Bracteoles small 2.5 to 4 em. long, 2 em. wide, oval, auriculate at base, almost smooth, thin, laciniae 6 to 8, hairy, extremely long, especially the middle one; nectaries 3, medium-sized, oval, shallow, not hairy; bractlets absent. Calyx, much appressed to the corolla tube, with conspicuous teeth, smooth; extra-floral nectaries on the calyx 3, medium-sized, smooth, elliptical; internal floral nectary broad, hairy hand broad. Petals small, 3.5 em. long, yellow, usually with a small purple red spot on the claw. Stamens variable in length, scattered, staminal tube not toothed at apex; pollen cream-colored, plentiful, style exserted. Bolls exceedingly small, 1 to 1.5 em. in diameter, round, blunt, 3- and 4- locked, short-stalked. erect, open poorly; oil glands very prominent, but a little below the surface, scattered. Seeds average 5 per lock, rather small, loose, very fuzzy; fuzz at first gray- green, later becoming rusty brown. Lint sparse, pale greenish brown changing to light brown on exposure to light; fine, soft, short, weak. The growing plant appears much like the common Mexican tree cotton, with its long ascending limbs and smooth, thin, flat leaves. The assigning of a specific name in the form of a geographical adjective to a plant whose limits of distribution are not known at the time often leads to the choice of a name which does not at all indicate the region where the plant ismost abundant. Witness for example the many plants whose specific name canadensis is far from indicating their true range of distribution. A geographical specific name is also misleading even when it truly expresses the plant’s native home if it is bestowed upon an obscure species when the same area is occupied by more common or conspicuous species. However this may be, the rules of taxonomy provide that even if the specific name is inappropriate for either of the above reasons, it must be used if properly pub- lished and not set aside by an oldername. We have such a case in Gossypium mexicanum Todaro. How much influence the Mexican types of Upland cottons have had in the development of particular varieties cultivated in our. cotton belt is still a matter of conjecture rather than of record, but certainly the species described by Todaro and the small-bolled, brown-fibered cotton found by Dr. Palmer had no part in the development of the Upland cottons of the United States, and none of the varieties belonging to this group of Upland cottons are refer- able to G. mexicanum Todaro. 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No, 4 “stam”? COTTON Fletcher’s argument,? that G. siamense Tenore is the true name for Ameri- can Upland cotton, is not to be disposed of so easily, even though he misquotes both Du Pratz and Tenore, on whose accounts he mainly depends. His argu- ment, in brief, is as follows: (1) That G. hirsutum L. is typified by a plant bearing 3 to 5-toothed bracteoles and flowers with dark red petal spots in the center, neither of which characterize our Upland cottons; (2) that in a large collection of varieties grown by him, the one most typical of the Upland cot- ton was a Cambodian variety, considered a native of that country; (3) that in 1758 “Du Prate” (Du Pratz) tells of the French colonists growing white cotton of Siam in preference to the Turkey kind “cultivated in our colonies;” (4) that in 1839 Tenore figured and described under the name G. siamense, “apparently from the country of origin,’ a cotton of the Upland type; and (5) that although G. religiosum L. “is undoubtedly the Upland plant,” and has priority over the name given by Tenore it has been applied by others to so many totally different varieties ‘“‘that it seems best to drop it altogether.” However, Tenore’s name szamense of 18389 was already preoccupied by Tussae in 1818 for a different type of cotton known at that time in San Domingo as Siamese cotton. Fletcher brings no proof of the Asiatic origin of his Cambodian Upland cotton other than the opinion of the agricultural authorities there that itis indigenous, and the existence of a similar supposedly wild type in the Philip- pines. Undoubtedly the presence of this cotton in the Philippines is due to the same cause as that of many other American plants found there; the early commerce between Spain and her eastern colonies via Mexico. Although Tenore was unable to trace the geographical origin of his white cotton of Siam he used the specific name szamense because he was unable to find that this variety had in Italy ever borne any other name. Du Pratz did say that the cotton successfully raised by the French colonists in Louisiana was of the “white cotton of Siam,” but the statement often credited to him, that the cotton “cultivated in our colonies is of the Turkey kind,” was added in a footnote by the English translator and refers to the British Colonies. More- over, a few years later, a number of quite distinct types of cotton were known and described from the West Indies as ‘Siam cotton.” The following quotations and translations taken from the works of several 18th and early 19th Century writers indicate the widespread knowledge of “Siam’”’ cotton 100 to 200 years ago: Pire Lasar: ‘There is in the islands another species of cotton whose seeds have been brought from Siam, and named for this reason cotton of Siam. It has naturally the color of clear coffee. It is of an extraordinary fineness, it is long and softer than silk. There is made of it stockings of an admirable fineness and so beautiful as to make blush the best silk stocking.” Du Prarz: “The cotton which is cultivated in Louisiana is of the species 4Labat, Pére: Nouveau voyage aux Isles de ’ Amerique 2: 406. 1724. 5 Du Pratz, Le Page: Histoire de la Louisiane 3: 364. 1758. FEB. 19, 1925 LEWTON: AMERICAN AND MEXICAN COTTONS 69 of the White Siam, though not so soft nor so long as the silk-cotton it is extremely white and very fine, and very good use may be made from it.’ Note added by translator of the English edition of 1774: ‘This East-India annual cotton has been found to be much better and whiter than what is cultivated in our colonies, which is of the Turkey kind. Both of them keep their color better in washing, and are whiter than the perennial cotton that comes from the islands although this last is of a better staple.”’ Bossu:' “‘The cotton of this country is of the species called white cotton of Siam. It is neither so fine nor so long as the silky cotton, but it is however very white and very fine. Its leaves are of a lively green and resemble spinage very much; the flower is of a pale yellow, the seed contained in the capsule is black, and oval like a kidney bean.” Lamarck:’ “It is claimed that there exists in the Kingdom of Siam, a cotton plant which produces cotton of.a russet or reddish color and of an extreme fineness, and it is said to be of a quality superior to other cottons. This cotton plant would appear to us to be still unknown to Botanists and should be different from the species that we come to mention, seeing that these all produce strong white cotton, even those which are grown in the East Indies and Moluccas. They cultivate in the West Indies a cotton plant analogous to that in question and which they call there Cottonzer de Siam. It is remarkable in that it produces a reddish cotton or one of a good chamois color and very fine. They make of it stockings of an extreme fineness and which are preferable to silk stockings by their cost and their beauty. » There are nevertheless very few of them made because they consume so much time.” Cavaninues :§ “Tn the Royal Garden of Paris I saw a plant, not in bloom, named Gossypzi flavi Siam, which seems to be reducible to this (G. religioswm) ; the leaves themselves are quite the same as G. religioso and it is true also the wool is yellow and not white as in other species.” Von Rour:? Of the 34 varieties of cotton described by Von Rohr and experimented with by him on Saint Croix, 4 were obtained from Martinique where they were known as “Siam rouge” or “Siam blane’’ (Von Rohr’s numbers 13, 16, 19 and 25). The following paragraphs are from Von Rohr’s notes describing the varie- ties grown by him: “No. 13 Siam lisse, brownish smooth Siam, plain nankeen; grows the high- est of all and already in the second year is 12 feet and spreads its branches 8 feet. Bolls small, fall easily, the staple weak; seeds smooth.” “No. 16 Siam couronne, brownish crowned Siam; wool paler in color than No. 13 and swells out of the boll better.”’ “No. 19 Siam blanc, white Siam; raised at Aux Cayes and Martinique. Outside of the harvest it is impossible to tell this (white Siam) from No. 16 (brown Siam), even when they stand next to one another. . “One would naturally think the white Siam was a sub-variety of No. 16, but suchisnotso. I have grown both in quantities since 1785 and both have held to their own characteristics. The wool of the white Siam is unusually white, never gets dirty on the tree and never has a colored fiber.”’ ® Bossu: Travels through Louisiana 1: 377-379. 1771. 7 Lamarck, Chev.: Encye. Method. Bot. 2: 136. 1786. 8 Cavanilles, A. J.: Monodelphiae classis Dissertationes, Sexta Dissert. 3: 314. 1788. 3 Von Rohr, Julius Philip Benjamin: Anmerkungen wiber den Cattunbau zum nuzen der Daenischen Westindischen Colonien 1791. 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 4 “No. 25 Brownish fuzzy Siam, mossy nankeen. In Guadeloupe called Siam rouge velu. Has been grown for many years by Mr. Von Oxholm. The color of the wool is isabella, it is very tender and elastic; seeds fuzzy.” RaAFINESQUE:'® This prolific writer, fifty years after the appearance of Von Rohr’s book, assigned Latin names to each of Von Rohr’s 34 varieties and published very brief descriptions in Latin drawn from Von Rohr’s notes. Rafinesque of course never worked with cotton plants, either living or in herbaria. The following are the names given to Von Rohr’s Siam cottons by Rafinesque: Gossypium fuscum Raf. Plain nankeen, Von Rohr No. 13. G. pallens Raf. Crowned nankeen, Von Rohr No. 16. G. asiaticum Raf. White Siam, Von Rohr No. 19. G. isabelum Raf. Mossy nankeen, Von Rohr No. 25. De Lasreyris:" This author includes an annotated list of 18 cotton varieties which he credits to M. de Badier, a cotton farmer of Guadeloupe, who made his experiments there in 1785-1787 (same time as Von Rohr in St. Croix). The list is divided into two groups, the commercial cottons and the uncultivated varieties which are used only by the Indians. “Cotonnier Siam batard a graines recowerte d’un duvet verdatre obscur. Distinguished by its dirty red cotton and by its seeds which are obscurely greenish.” “Cotonnier Siam batard a graines notres et lisses. It differs from No. 3 by its seeds; the rest is the same.” “Cotonnier Siam franc. Cotton brownish red; differs from Nos. 3 and 5, by the felt which adheres to the seeds, and of a brownish red. The cotton is very good.” De Lasteyrie also gives a table of Von Rohr’s 34 varieties, using his names and tabulating his data as to character of lint and habit of plant. Dr Tussac:” “There is found in the Antilles only one species of indigenous cotton which is commonly known under the name of ‘‘Maron” cotton. I consider it identical with the one I have just described (G. tricuspidatum). The other species cultivated there have been brought from the Hast Indies. . . . . The species cultivated by preference in the Antilles is the hairy cotton (G. hirsutum) with white lint and its variety with brown lint, the one with hairy seed adherent to the lint, the other with smooth seed easily detached from the lint. chs “A fourth species of cotton, less cultivated than the three others, is the cot- ton of Siam (G. stamense), this is a small annual shrub which does not attain a height of more than three feet, whose reddish branches are spread out and hang to the ground, and produces a kind of cotton brown in color, or some- times white, whose lint surpasses in fineness and length all the other species known. The shrub on account of its smallness does not bear much cotton. Its culture is convenient, but for one reason, that is, because it can be cul- tivated in dry places where other varieties do not succeed. Some authors have claimed that the Chinese manufacture the nankeens, which are sold to Europeans with this species of cotton, but I assured myself that the brown cotton of Siam bleaches upon being exposed alternately to dew and sunlight. It is therefore probable that if it is really with this species of cotton that the Chinese make their nankeens they surely have a method of fixing the brown color.” 10 Rafinesque, C.8.: Sylva Telluriana pp. 14-19. 1888. 11 De Lasteyrie, C. P.: Du cotonnier et de sa culture, pp. 1389-146. 1808. 12'Tussac, F. R. de: Flore des Antilles 2: 67-68. 1818. FEB. 19, 1925 BARTSCH: NEW HOSTS OF ASIATIC BLOOD FLUKE 71 CoNCLUSIONS A study of the above arguments and quotations must bring us to the following conclusions: (1) That neither G. mexicanum nor G. siamense are proper names for American Upland cotton; (2) that for more than a hundred years ‘“‘Siam cotton’’ was a general name given to several species or varieties of West Indian cottons having tawny or brownish lint and to occasional white forms of these; and (3) that there has been brought forward no valid evidence to indicate an Asiatic origin for our American Upland cotton. ZOOLOGY .—Some new intermediate hosts of the Asiatic hwman blood fluke» Patt Bartscu, U. 8. National Museum. The réle played by fresh-water mollusks as intermediate hosts of Trematode worms parasitic upon man, has received considerable attention in the last few years. As the elimination of the mosquito, or the curtailment of its development, eliminates or curtails malaria, so the elimination of the intermediate molluscan host of flukes will place a check upon fluke diseases. Great work has been done by Japanese workers in this field and more recently by Doctors Faust and Melaney in China. The known intermediate hosts of Schistosoma japonica, the Asiatic human blood fluke, belong to two genera, namely, Katayama and Oncomelania. The first of these is typified by Katayama nosophora Robson, made known to us by the careful studies of Robson based upon specimens secured in the Katayama district in the Province of Bingo on the Island of Hondo, Japan. In the present paper I am recognizing as subspecifically distinct from this, the form that occurs at Kurume on the Island of Kiushiu, Japan, under the name of Katayama noso- phora yoshidai. The Island of Formosa harbors the third race, Kata- yama formosana, described by Pilsbry and Hirasi as Blanfordia for- mosana some time ago. : Dr. Faust’s researches in Chinese Schistosomiasis have brought to light the occurrence of Katayama on the mainland, and I am describing as Katayama fausti the species discovered by Faust at Shaohing, Chekiang Province, China, and as Katayama fausti cantoni the race which he found at Canton, Kwangtung Province, China. The genus Oncomelania, of which there is more than one race, is the intermediate host of the human blood fluke in the Yangtse Valley, China. More material will be needed than I have at hand before a systematic discussion of this group can be undertaken. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 Katayama nosophora yoshidai, new subspecies Shell elongate-conic, brownish horn-colored. Nuclear whorls well- rounded, smooth (always decollated in the adult specimens that we have seen). Postnuclear whorls strongly rounded, narrowly shouldered at the summit. The portion of the summit that is appressed to the preceding turn forms a darker colored zone than the rest of the whorl. The postnuclear whorls are marked by indications of somewhat irregularly developed and spaced, axial, curved thread-lke riblets. These riblets are a little stronger on the last whorl than on the preceding. Atirregular intervals strong varicial thickenings are present. Periphery of the last whorl inflated, strongly rounded. Base short, strongly rounded, narrowly openly umbilicated. Aperture very broadly oval; outer lip strongly curved with a strong varicial thickening immediately behind the peristome; inner lip almost vertical, curved, reflected over and almost half covering the umbilicus; parietal wall covered by a thick callus. The type, Cat. no. 362024, U.S. N. M., was collected by Dr. A. Sadao Yoshida at Kurume, Kiushiu Island, Japan. It has lost the nucleus. There are eight whorls remaining, which measure: Length, 8.2 mm.; diameter, 3.3 mm. Cat. no. 340953, U. S. N. M., contains several hundred additional specimens from the type locality, collected by Dr. Yoshida. This subspecies differs from Katayama. nosophora nosophora in being in every way more robust and larger, and in having a much stronger sculpture than that race. Katayama fausti, new species Shell narrowly elongate-conic, horn-colored with a brownish tinge. Nuclear whorls decollated in all our specimens. Postnuclear whorls well rounded, narrowly shouldered at the summit, marked by very slender, curved, axial threads and rather inconspicuous varicial thickenings at irregular inter- vals. A very heavy varix forms a decided callus immediately behind the peristome, which extends from the posterior angle of the aperture undi- minished to the columella. Periphery of the last whorl well rounded. Base short, well rounded, very narrowly umbilicated. The base is drawn out anteriorly to join the varicial callus referred to above. Aperture oval, pale brown within; peristome darker; outer lip gently curved, inner lip curved and reflected over about half the umbilicus; parietal wall forming a strong callus that renders the peristome complete. The type, Cat. no. 362025, U.S. N. M., was collected by Dr. E. C. Faust at Shaohing, Chekiang Province, China. It has lost the nucleus; the remain- ing 54 whorls measure: Length, 6.5 mm.; diameter, 2.7, mm. Katayama fausti fausti resembles in slenderness Katayama nosophora nosophora, but is at once distinguished from this by the exceedingly strong varical callus behind the peristome. The axial sculpture in this species is also much finer than in Katayama nosophora nosophora. Cat. no. 362026, U. S. N. M., contains paratypes also collected by Dr. Faust. Katayama fausti cantoni, new subspecies. Shell elongate-conic, thin, semi-translucent, horn-colored with a brownish flush. Nuclear whorls decollated in all our specimens. Nuclear whoris FEB. 19, 1925 MANN! NEW BEETLE GUESTS OF ARMY ANTS 73 strongly rounded, narrowly shouldered, marked by obsolete, curved axial threads which are a little stronger on the last turn than on the rest. In addition to these there are inconspicuous varicial streaks at irregular inter- vals. Periphery of the last whorl wellrounded. Base moderately long, well rounded, narrowly umbilicated, anteriorly produced to meet the strong cal- lus-like varix which extends behind the peristome from the posterior angle of the aperture to the base. Aperture oval, pale brown within, with a dark brown edge at the peristome; outer lip strongly curved; inner lip moderately curved and reflected over about half the umbilicus; parietal wall covered by a rather thick callus. The type, Cat. no. 362027, U.S. N. M., was collected by Dr. E. C. Faust at Fatshan near Canton, China. It has 6.1 whorls, and measures: Length, 6.5 mm.; diameter, 2.7 mm. Cat. no. 362028, U.S. N. M., contains para- types also collected by Dr. Faust. The present subspecies differs from Katayama fausti fausti in being much thinner-shelled, and in having the varix behind the peristome much less strongly developed. The axial sculpture here is also much finer and much closer spaced than in Katayama fausti fausti. It is much larger than Kata- yama nosophora nosophora, but smaller than Katayama nosophora yoshidat. It differs from both these Japanese forms by having the varix behind the peristome much stronger. ENTOMOLOGY .—New beetle guests of army ants. W. M. Mann, Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture. (Communi- cated by 8. A. RoHWER.) The four species of beetles here described are file guests of army ants. Dr. E. Wasmann has made photos of three of them, and included the fourth, Ecitopora brevicornis new species, in a table of species in that genus soon to be published in a general account of the Eciton guests. All belong in the tribe Myrmedoniae of the Aleocharinae, and the two new genera add a little to the heterogeny of this already un- natural group. The types of these species will be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. Ecitopora brevicornis, new species Length 1.8 mm. Black, except abdomen and appendages which are brownish, the first two and the apical abdominal segment much lighter than the rest, the antennae reddish brown at base and the legs yellow. Opaque, ventral surface of abdo- men somewhat shining; head, pronotum and elytra densely and rather coarsely, abdomen more finely, and the ventral surface shallowly punctate. Hairs on head, thorax, elytra, and abdomen exceedingly fine, short, recum- bent, yellow in color, abundant, longer and abundant on appendages and ventral surface of abdomen; mixed with stiff, erect black hairs on antennae and apical portion of abdomen. Head a little broader than long, front broadly and rather strongly impressed at middle, with a narrow median impression with sublucid surface extending 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 4 its entire length. Antennal scape about as long as the second and third joints together, second joint as long as broad, joints 4 to 8 two times as broad as long, joints 9 and 10 three times as broad as long. Prothorax a little broader than long, broadest at anterior corners, evenly narrowed behind to the very broadly rounded posterior corners; dise broadly and shallowly impressed at middle, with elongate impressions at sides separated from the median portion by very broadly rounded ridges. Elytra at base considerably broader than pronotum, together broader than long; humeral and posterior corners rounded, sides slightly convex. Abdomen flat above, strongly convex beneath, narrowly margined at sides, the ultimate dorsal sclerite at basal fourth with a pair of short, curved, acute spines. Legs slender. Type locality —Cachuela Esperanza, Rio Beni, Bolivia. Host.—Eciton burchelli Westw. Described from a single specimen running with the ant column. Close to opaca Wasm. but the body is broader and darker in color, the antennal joints are shorter and broader, with the apex obtusely conical (in opaca it is more acute), and the abdomen is more finely punctate. Ecitophya gracillima, new species Length 5 mm. Reddish brown, elytra dark brown to black. Subopaque, densely and moderately finely punctate throughout. Erect hairs on head and body coarse, golden brown in color, not very abundant, on appendages finer; abdomen with very fine, not abundant yellow pubescence. Head longer than pronotum and nearly three times as long as broad, gradually broadened from occiput to eyes; vertex convex, front at middle feebly impressed longitudinally. Clypeus at basal half constricted and convex, broadly triangular in front, with the anterior border very feebly emarginate. Eyes very convex, about as long as the transverse diameter of first antennal joint. Antennae slender, only slightly thickened apically; first joint nearly as long and a little thicker than the third, enlarged near base and continuing of subequal thickness to apex; second joint broader than long and about one-fourth as long as the third, which is distinctly longer than the fourth and fifth together, joints 4 to 9 longer than broad; joint 10 shorter than the 9th; terminal a little longer than the penultimate joint, with sides nearly parallel on basal half, apical half conical, subacuminate at tip. Pro- notum shorter than elytra, a little less than twice as long as broad, broadest in front of middle where the sides are rounded (here a little broader than head including eyes), the anterior corners and border rounded; sides at posterior half nearly straight, posterior corners subangulate, border straight; dise at middle with narrow, strong sulcus, extending five-sixths its length; at sides posterior to middle broadly and shallowly impressed. Scutellum longer than broad, its apical border narrowly rounded and sublamellate. Elytra together longer than broad, humeri rounded, sides nearly straight and parallel. Abdo- men slender, scarcely broader than elytra, as long as head and thorax together. Legs long and very slender. Type locality Holotype and paratype. Cachuela Esperanza, Rio Beni, Bolivia. Host.— Eciton hamatum (Fabr.). - Near Ecitophya simulans Wasm. but smaller and lighter colored, with a much more slender abdomen, shorter antennal joints and less pronounced impressions on sides of pronotum. FEB. 19, 1925 MANN: NEW BEETLE GUESTS OF ARMY ANTS 75 Wasmannina, new genus Form elongate, slightly physogastric; heavily chitinized species. Head broad, not constricted behind. Eyes large and very convex. Maxillary palpi 4-jointed, the basal joint very small, second joint more than half as long as the third, narrow at base and gradually thickened toward apex; third joint cylindrical, slender, three and one-half times as long as broad; terminal joint coarse, subulate, less than half as long as the third. Mandibles rather large, arcuate, acute at tips. Antennae short and stout, first jomt scapiform. Pronotum moderately elongate, deeply impressed at middle, inflexed at sides. Elytra simple, not longer than pronotum. Abdomen a little longer than head and thorax together, broader and thicker than the thorax, strongly convex above and very strongly beneath, moderately margined at sides, with 6 distinct segments visible from above. Prosternum short, with a strong median carina and anterior border margined by a strong and sides by weak carinae. Mesosternum elevated between coxae as a high, strong carina; posterior half broad and rather strongly convex. Metasternum short. Anterior and middle coxae separated, posterior approximate. Femora nearly straight, stout; tarsi 4-5, 5-jointed, the middle and posterior metatarsi not much shorter than remaining joints together. Genotype.—W asmannina trapezicollis. Wasmannina trapezicollis, new species Length 6 mm. Dark brown to black, opaque; legs and basal joint of antennae and parts of abdomen red brown and shining. Head, thorax, elytra, and mesosternum densely, granulose-punctate, the remainder more finely and shallowly but equally densely punctate. Stiff, black, erect hairs sparsely distributed on head and body, more abundant on apical half of ventral portion of abdomen; very fine and silky yellow recumbent hairs abundant on abdomen. Head a little longer than broad, sides posterior to eyes broadly rounding into the posterior border, which is convex at sides and narrowly concave at middle. Front impressed at middle. Eyes about as long as their distance from the occipital corners. Clypeus strongly and narrowly carinate at mid- dle. Antennae thick and short, not longer than head and pronotum together; first jomt longer than the second and third together with the apical two- thirds strongly enlarged and rounded, nearly twice as thick as.the second; joints 3 to 9 transverse, 10 and 11 longer than broad, the terminal slightly longer than the penultimate and rounded at tip. Pronotum about one and one-half times broader than head, nearly one-half longer than broad, widest just behind the rounded anterior angles, from where the nearly straight sides converge to the very broadly rounded hind angles and posterior border; anterior border straight at sides, convex at middle; disc at middle with a profound, narrow, longitudinal impression which is broadest in front, deep- est at middle, and extends from the anterior border four-fifths the length of the disc. Elytra together broader than long; sides nearly straight and very feebly divergent behind, humeri rounded, posterior angles very broadly rounded, the hind margin angulately excised at middle. Type locality —Cachuela Esperanza, Rio Beni, Bolivia. Host.— Eciton crassicornis Smith. The holotype and single paratype were collected from a file of the ants crossing a road. 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 The broad form of the head and thorax, strongly suleate prothorax, the structure of the antennae and the pro— and mesosternum are distinctive in this genus. The body is unusually heavily chitinized and punctate. . Acamatoxenus, new genus Form elongate, with abdomen enlarged behind, constricted anteriorly. Head depressed, elongate and narrowed behind. Eyes large and convex. Maxillary palpi 4-joited, the basal joint very small, second joint a little longer than broad and about one-third as long as the third joint, which is subcylindrical, nearly four times as long as broad, and feebly bent on basal half; terminal joint slender, subulate. Labial palpi 3-jointed. Mandibles rather strong, apparently simple, bluntly tipped. Antennal fossae deep, extending to anterior border of head. Antennae 11-jointed, basal joint clavate, as long as second and third joints together. Labrum feebly con- vex, its anterior border strongly concave at middle, sides rounded. Pronotum elongate; laterally compressed, side margins deflexed, strongly lobed at middle opposite coxae. Elytra elongate, narrowed behind; humeri rounded, sub- gibbous. Abdomen carried elevated, constricted in front in the form of a short petiole which, in profile, is a little longer than high, with the dorsal surface strongly margined at sides and in the middle with an elongate elevation separating two deep lateral concavities; remainder of abdomen strongly swollen, very convex beneath and moderately above; not margined; seven dorsal segments visible. Prosternum in front of coxae broadly concave, margined in front and behind. Mesosternum prominent, convex, extending forward as a broad carina between middle coxae. Legs long and slender, femora normal; front coxae contiguous, middle and hind coxae separated; tarsi 4-5, 5-jointed; middle and posterior metatarsi very elongate. Genotype.—Acamatoxenus suavis. Acamatoxenus suavis, new species Length 3.5 mm. Reddish brown, legs and apex of abdomen yellowish, shining. Head, pronotum, elytra, and legs and petiole with small, setigerous tubercles, sparsest on head and most abundant on the elytra, mesothorax, and sides of abdominal pedicel; large foveolate punctures on head, thorax, pronotum, epimera, and mesothorax; abdomen microscopically punctate, except near border; stronger punctation in rows near posterior margins of abdominal segments; antennae densely punctate and subopaque. Long, fine yellow- brown hairs moderately abundant on head, body, and appendages; less abundant on dorsum of abdomen and arranged in rows on apical half of segments. Head one and five-eighths times longer than broad, broadest just behind eyes, from where the nearly straight sides converge to the prominently rounded occipital corners. Clypeus flat, about five times as broad as long, straight at anterior border. Front with a large, median, very profound impression. Vertex and occipital border deeply excised, the ‘ ‘neck”’ portion short and transversely concave. Antennae with first joint scapiform, thick, slightly enlarged toward apex; basal joint equal in length to the two fol- lowing together, second small, clavate, less than half as long as the third, which is nearly as long as the fourth and fifth together and twice as broad apically as at base; remaining joints (except the ultimate) each shorter and very slightly thicker than the preceding; terminal joint conical, obtuse at FEB. 19,1925 DYAR & SHANNON: MOSQUITOES OF PEARY’S EXPEDITION 77 apex, about as long as the joints 9and 10 together. Eyes large, with distinct facets, situated at front of sides of head, half as long as their distance to occip- ital border. Pronotum not as broad as head including eyes, more than twice as long as broad and only alittle broader behind than in front; anterior border convex at middle, produced at corners into obtuse angles, sides in front of middle nearly straight and parallel, then very broadly subgibbous and, pos- terior to this, feebly concave to the broadly rounded posterior corners, pos- terior border convex; median surface in front of middle shallowly and broadly impressed; sides posterior to middle with large and profound pits. Elytra together one and one-third times as broad as pronotum, together longer than broad; sides in front of middle nearly straight and parallel, then convergent, posterior corners and margins broadly rounded. Type locality—San Diego Cocula, Jalisco, Mexico. Host-—Eciton (Acamatus) cocula Mann (MSS.) The single specimen before me was found among a small cluster of this ant, beneath a stone. The genus is evidently a ‘‘file-guest”” and distinct from all related forms in the structure of the head, which is very broad in front, and, due to the marked incision at middle of posterior border, bilobed behind, with a profound frontal fossa. The abdomen is swollen behind, somewhat as in Mimeciton and Mimo- nilla, but both of these lack the distinct pedicel in front, and the structure ot the head and thorax is entirely different. ENTOMOLOGY .—The mosquitoes of Peary’s North Pole expedition of 1908. (Diptera, Culicidae). Harrison G. Dyar and Ray- MOND C. SHANNON, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by S. A. RoHWER.) A small collection of insects made on Admiral Peary’s 1908 polar expedition has recently been found in material at the National Museum. The actual collector of the specimens is not of record, nor is there anything in Peary’s narrative that throws light on the mat- ter. Captain R. A. Bartlett of the expedition states that the col- lecting must have been done by somebody on the “Erik,” the supply boat. The mosquitoes of this collection are here recorded. Aédes cantator Coquillett One female, Sydney, Nova Scotia, July 8,1908. This is the first authen- tic record of the species from Canada. Dyar gives! the distribution as ‘‘prob- ably in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,” which is now in part verified. Two species of black-legged Aédes were taken in Hawk’s Harbor, Labrador, in female examples only. It is possible that these are forms of 1 Trans. Royal Can. Inst.13: 106. 1921. 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 punctor or communis, and, indeed, the smaller and more abundant species is practically identical with Aédes punctodes Dyar, of northern Alaska; but we think it will be more definite to apply special names to them until males have been found. ‘ Aédes pearyi, new species Proboscis long, as long as the abdomen, slender, black. Palpi rather long, about. one-fifth the length of proboscis. Head with narrow curved light brown scales, which are whitish on the vertex in some lights. _Mesono- tum black in the integument, the scales narrow, curved, dark bronzy brown dorsally, shading to ight brownish yellow about the antescutellar space and to a rather broad area of light gray on the sides. About 20 proepimeral setae present (10 in A. punctor Kirby). Abdomen black, the segments with basal white bands, broad and even, two-fifths the length of the segment, scarcely widened laterally; venter uniformly whitish-scaled. Legs black; femora pale beneath, rather densely whitish speckled above; tibiae with pale reflec- tion below and small white tips; tarsi black. Wing scales hair-like black; costa and sixth vein white-scaled at base. Length, 6 mm. Type and paratypes.—Four females, no. 27861, U.S. Nat. Mus; Hawk’s Harbor, Labrador, July 20, 1908. Aédes labradorensis, new species Proboscis slightly shorter than the abdomen, black. Palpi about one-fifth the length of proboscis. Head with dark brown narrow curved scales, which shade to whitish on the sides rather than on the vertex. Mesonotum black, with narrow curved dark brown scales, shading to yellowish about antescutel- lar space, but not gray on the lateral margins; black posterior side stripes often quite distinct and edged within by a line of light scales, sometimes less con- trasted. Abdomen black with basal segmental whitish bands, which are narrowed centrally in an are and are not more than one-third the length of the segment dorsally, widening moderately at the sides; venter whitish scaled, the tips of the segments sometimes blackish shaded. Legs black, the femora whitish beneath and narrowly tipped with white. A few white scales at base of costa. Length, 4.5. to 5mm. Type and paratypes.—11 females, no. 27862, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Hawk’s Harbor, Labrador, July 20, 1908. Three females reported? by Howard, Dyar and Knab from Cape Charles, St. Lewis Inlet and Rigolet, Labrador, appear to be this species, and have been placed under labradorensis instead of under the provocans label as the latter has been made a synonym of punctor by Dyar.? A twelfth female from Hawk’s Harbor is light gray. We think it to be a badly faded specimen of labradorensis, although the date of capture is the same as that of the fresh specimens. Aédes alpinus Linnaeus Two females, much worn and abraded, we refer to this species, although a positive identification is impossible on account of condition and sex. God- havn, Greenland, August 29, 1908; Holstenborg, Greenland, September 2, 1908. 2 Mosq. N. & Centr. Amer. & W. I. 4: 749. 1917. 3 Ins. Ins. Mens. 12: 41. 1924. FEB. 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 79 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 361ST MEETING The 361st meeting of the Entomological Society was held at the National Museum December 6, 1923, with President Howarp presiding and 37 persons present. Georck A. Dean, of the Bureau of Entomology, was elected a member of the Society. The following officers for 1924 were elected: Preszdent, A. G. Bovina; Vice-Presidents, R. A. CusHMAN and J. M. Aupricu; Editor, CARL HEINRICH; Recording secretary, C. T. GREENE; Corresponding secretary-Treasurer, S. A. RouWwER; Lxecutive Committee, A. N. CAUDELL, W. R. Watton, J. A. Hystor; Vice-President of the AcapEmy, 8. A. RoHweEr. Program: J. E. Grar: Sweet potato weevil eradication. The sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius Fabr., is widely distributed throughout the tropics. The insect was first found in the United States in the vicinity of New Orleans about 1875. The facts concerning the first infestations are vague but from information collected by T. H. Jones, it appears that the weevil was imported from Cuba with seed sweet potatoes. The spread of the insect was very slow. Outbreaks occurred at Manatee, Florida, in 1878, and on the Gulf coast of Texas in 1890. In the following years occasional publications dealing with this species were issued, and these showed that the Gulf coast was slowly becoming generally infested. Food plants of the weevil belong to the Convolvulaceae Family. Seven species of the genus J/pomoea are infested to some extent, four of which are favorite food plants. A few species of the genera Calonyction, Pharbitis, and Jacquemontia are infested slightly. Many of the large-stemmed tie-vines, especially the perennial species, are utilized as food plants by this insect. 362D MEETING The 362d meeting of the Society was held at the National Museum, Janu- ary 9, 1924, with President B6vine in the chair and 53 persons present. Reports of officers for the year 1923 were read and approved. Program: The retiring President, Dr. L. O. Howarp, gave a short review of the entomological societies of the world. The address was discussed by Messrs. ScHaus, Schwarz, Baker, ALpRIcH, and MArRnart. H.S. Barber exhibited specimens of one of the smallest known beetles, recently received from A. Dampf, who collected them from a Polyporus on a fir near Mexico City. Two species! are represented in the sample received, and with them are larvae supposed to be their young. The beetles area little over 0.5 mm. long by about 0.1 mm. wide, and are therefore twice as long as the smallest known beetle, Nanosella fungi Le Conte, which is described as only a hundredth of aninchin length. This latter species has apparently never been found since its original capture by Count Victor Motschulsky, at Atlanta, Georgia, seventy years ago. A related widespread species, found only once at Cincinnati, Ohio, by Charles Drury has, however, been recorded under this name. 1 Described in Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 26: 172 and 174. 1924, as Cylindroselta dampfi and Mycophagus robustus. 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 4 Although no information as to how it lived in the fungus was received, the extremely elongate form strongly suggests that it lives in the sporetubes and its coloration—clear yellow except the black head-—suggests that it sits in the sporetubes with its head downward and nearly flush with the mouth of the tube. The larvae, on the contrary, have the hind end infuscated and strongly armed with formidable processes, suggesting the reverse to be the normal position in the sporetubes. It is also suggested that these forms are quite distinct from other groups of Ptiliidae, as they are dependent upon fresh polypore fungi. Program: J. C. Bripweuu: Bruchidius ater (Marsham), an unrecorded immigrant from Europe (Bruchidae, Coleoptera). In the proceedings of the meeting of the New York Entomological Society on October 1, 1918, Olsen is recorded as exhibiting specimens of Bruchus caluus Horn from Woods Hole, Massachusetts, where he is reported to have found it abundantly, breeding in Cytisus scoparius, the common broom. In a note, apparently by Charles Leng, it is suggested that the insect in question may be an introduced Euro- pean form, since, under several names, Bruchidae have been recorded as breeding in the broom. Asa result of the examination of material in several collections in New York bred from the broom at Wood’s Hole, the speaker found that the specimens in question were of the common European species which affects the broom, and were distinct from calvus. The synonomy of this species is involved, so that there is some difficulty in ascertaining its proper specific name. It has been commonly called Bruchus villosus or cist, but Schilsky, who exam- ined Fabrician types finds that these names apply to another species. It has also been called pubescens Germar, but an older available name is ater Mar- sham. Baudi has identified Olivier’s fasczatus as based upon specimens of this species, and it seems preferable to use Marsham’s name. The species is referred by Schilsky to his genus Bruchidius. Bruchus caluus Horn is referable to Acanthoscelides Schilsky and may be readily distinguished from Bruchidius ater by the form of the pronotum, which is much more transverse in B. ater. In A. calvus it is subconical and longer than broad while in B. ater it is broader than long. Bruchidius ater is repre- sented in the National Museum by several series of specimens from various sources including some intercepted in the seeds of Cytisus laburnwm from France by H. B. Shaw in quarantine at Washington. There are European records of its breeding in the seeds of the black locust (Robinia pseudacacia) but these are probably incorrect. It may be noted that the seeds of Cytisws contain a considerable propor- tion of spartein, an alkaloid intensely poisonous to mammals. The East African Bruchid Carypemon cruciger (Stephens) also breeds in a poisonous seed, that of Abrus pecatorius. In this case, however, the poisonous sub- stance is proteid in its nature and is destroyed by heat. It is possible that it is only poisonous when injected into the blood. It is occasionally used in India by cattle poisoners. The food plants of A. calvus still remain undiscovered. It is northeastern in its distribution, and is not uncommon from the District of Columbia to Massachusetts and Michigan; apparently it is abundant in the pine barrens of New Jersey. 363D MEETING The 363d meeting was held at the National Museum February 7, 1924, with President B6vrne in the chair and 56 persons present. FEB. 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 81 The following were elected to membership in the Society: P. D. SanpERs, G.S. Lanerorp, and §. F. Ports. Program: C. P. Cuatusen: Entomological investigations in the Orient. The paper was divided into two parts: (1) General observations on crop pests in Japan, and (2) a discussion of various biological factors entering into the problem of the introduction and establishment of the ten species of parasites of Popillia japonica and related forms, found in Japan and Korea. J. L. Kina: A brief sketch of entomological work in Japan. In Japan there is no federal or centralized bureau of entomology comparable to that of the United States. Most of the work is carried on in stations supported by the Prefectoral Governments or in part by appropriations of the Division of Agriculture. Much work, too, is under the direction of universities and agricultural colleges. Many of these stations have their problems narrowed to those concerning a single crop such as rice, fruits, silk culture, etc. A short review of the work of the chief economic entomologists of Japan was given, with special reference to the work of Dr. 8. I. Kuwana, Director of the Imperial Plant Quarantine Station, Yokohama. This station has branches at all the chief ports of Japan and Korea. Its chief function is the interception and inspection of plants for noxious insects and plant diseases. General work in economic entomology is also conducted by this department. The collections of Dr. S. Matsumura, of the Imperial University of Hokkaido, were described. 364TH MEETING The 364th meeting was held in the National Museum March 6, 1924, with Vice-President CusHMAN presiding and 31 persons present. Program: C. T. GREENE: Remarks on the puparia of muscoid flies. It was shown how the various types of puparia and their spiracular plates correlated with the adult characters. The following six families were used in this comparison: Tachinidae, Dexiidae, Sarcophagidae, Oestridae, Muscidae (Calliphoridae), and Anthomyidae. The paper was discussed by Messrs. ALDRICH, EWING, and SNODGRASS. R. E. SNoperass: Anatomy asa basts for research in entomology. Anatomy in its widest sense, is basic in all branches of entomological research, such as taxonomy, metamorphosis, physiology, senses and sense organs, parasitology, pathology, ecology, physiological effect of insecticides, insecti- cides, chemotropism. This classification of gubjects is merely that by which the different branches of entomology are taken up by the specialist but includes what may be called the Fundamentals of Entomology. Anat- omy may not be directly important to each one of these subjects, but workers in each are likeiy at some time to require a knowledge of some anatomy; to many of them anatomy is directly fundamental. The paper was discussed by Messrs. ALpRicH, Baker, Ewine, Grar, Haut, Howarp, WHITE and ZIEGLER. Notes and Discussion: Dr. Aldrich stated that the National Museum had acquired by exchange with the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, representa- tives of 80 species of Diptera from Greenland, including cotypes of 13 species. With the exception of a few mosquitoes, these are the first Greenland Diptera to be acquired by the Museum. They represent almost half of the known species. The flora and land fauna of Greenland were entirely exterminated during the ice age, and are still very meager. Henriksen and Lundbeck have given? 2 Meddelelser om Grénland vol. 22. 1917. 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 an exhaustive list of the insects of Greenland, the number of species in the different orders being as follows: Coleoptera 41, Hymenoptera 66, Diptera 188, Siphonoptera 6, Lepidoptera 46, Hemiptera 12, Corrodentia 2, Mallo- phaga 43, Anoplura 7, Orthoptera 2, Thysanoptera 1, Odonata 1, Trichop- tera 5, Neuroptera 2, Ephemerida 1, Collembola 14. 365TH MEETING The 365th meeting was held at the National Museum April 3, 1924, with President Bévrne presiding and 30 persons present. Dr. Bovine read a translation from Swedish of Professor Ivar Tradgardh’s paper Problems and methods in forest entomology. This paper was originally given at the opening of the first Scandinavian Entomological Congress, held at Stockholm in November, 1923. Dr. T. E. SnyprrR gave an account of a trip to Panama made early in the year. Of particular interest were the termite nests, seen along the railroad from Colon to Panama and along the road to the Rio Tapia. Mention was made of the damage done to the Hotel Tivoli by termites and to the lead cables of the Miraflores Locks by Coptotermes. Dr. Snyder referred to the excellent opportunities for biological studies at the tropical research station at Barro Colorado Island, in Gatun Lake. 366TH MEETING The 866th meeting was held at the National Museum May 1, 1924, with President B6vine presiding and 30 persons present. Drs. B6vine and Howarp paid a tribute to Dr. E. A. ScHwarz, who had just reached his 80th birthday. Program: J. B. Parker: On the biology of Tricrania. The meloid beetle Tricrania sanguintpennis Say is parasitic on the solitary bee Colletes rufithorax Swenk. The beetle passes the winter in the ground in the brood cell of the bee from which it emerges, and lays its egg three or four weeks before the bee begins its nesting activity. The eggs of the beetle are laid on the under side of objects lying loose on the ground occupied by the bees. The time required for the egg to hatch is about four weeks, and the young larval beetles, on hatching, scatter about over the nesting area. The evidence obtained indi- cates that the beetle gains entrance to the nest of the host by gaining lodg- ment on the female bee and riding down on her to the brood-cell. Once in the brood-cell the parasite first devours the egg of the bee and then completes its development by devouring the honey and pollen provided by the bee for her young. The insect passes through six instars in reaching the pupal condition. In moulting the skin is cast free from the body in each of the first three in- stars. In the fourth instar the cast skin is not ruptured but remains intact as a covering for the insect. The fifth is cast in the same fashion within the fourth, but the sixth is ruptured and cast free from the body within the fifth. The pupal stage is passed within the case formed by the cast skins of the fourth and fifth instars and within this case also the adult remains until time for it to emerge the following spring. R The time of emergence of the beetle and egg laying in the District of Colum- bia varied in the different years of observations from March 30 to April 21, and the one successful hatching of the eggs under field conditions required 26 days. How long the first instar can survive in the field is not known; in the laboratory without food the greatest limit was eleven days. Data obtained showed that the period of feeding, which includes the first four larva instars, FEB. 19, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 83 varied from 26 to 41 days. In 1920 all larvae reared in the laboratory had transformed to the pupal condition by August 23, and beetles obtained from the brood chambers of the bee that year on August 31 were all in the pupal stage. All beetles that year, whether bred in the laboratory or obtained from the nesting area in the pupal stage, transformed to the adult stage prior to September 17. The adult beetle, therefore, remains inactive in the brood cell, where it developed from September till the following spring. Notes and Discussion: The receipt of a number of drawings of the larvae of bees from Brother Claude Joseph, of Santiago, Chile, was reported by 8. A. ROHWER. Cart HEINRICH gave an account of a trip to institutions in New York, Boston, Ottawa, and Decatur, Illinois, in connection with his studies of Microlepidoptera. Professor C. B. Crossy, of Cornell University, spoke of the occurrence of Pomphebius say? in New York every second year. R. C. SHANNON reported the capture of several specimens of the rare Syrphid fly. 367TH MEETING The 367th meeting was held at the National Museum June 5, 1924, with President Bovine presiding and 35 persons present. Program: Marcus Bensamin: Thoughts on entomological writings. The speaker made suggestions for the preparation of manuscripts. Notes and Discussion: JAMES ZETEK gave an account of the scientific research work that is being done on the Canal Zone. Barro Colorado Island, recently established as a tropical research station, has an area of six square miles. A screened building has been erected here. Scientists interested in tropical research are invited to visit the island. Nineteen species of termites and about 80 species of mammals have been reported from Barro Colorado. Mr. Caudell exhibited a specimen of Arixenia jacobsoni Burr, an earwig- like creature found in bat caves in Java. 368TH MEETING The 368th meeting was held at the National Museum October 2, 1924, with President Bovine presiding and 28 persons present. Program: A. C. Baker: A major epidemic of a new pest on Citrus. The paper was illustrated by charts showing Citrus localities in Florida and cli- matic conditions, and was discussed by Messrs. Mason, Hystop, GAHAN, and Rouwer. Dr. J. M. Aldrich exhibited some specimens of the larvae of Nothomicrodon aztecarum Wheeler, found in the nest of the ant Azteca trigona Emery. This Dipteron is a remarkable form which can not be placed definitely in any family. The specimens were donated to the National Museum by Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard University. Cuas. T. Greene, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS At the annual meeting of the Washington Chapter of the American Institute of Chemists, held January 9, the following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, J. F. Coucn, Bureau of Animal Industry; Vice-President, H. E. Patren, Consulting Chemist, Washington Loan and Trust Building; Secretary, J. N. Taytor, Bureau of Animal Industry; S84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 4 Treasurer, H. L. Lourtr, U. 8. Tariff Commission. Dr. C. E. Munror was elected Honorary President. At the meeting of the Petrologists’ Club at the Geological Survey Janu- ary 21, F. L. Hess and W. T. Scuauuer discussed Replacement in peg- matites. Definite progress can be recorded since the previous discussion of the subject of the club in March, 1923. The new evidence tends to show the common occurrence of replacement of one mineral by another in the formation of many pegmatites. The following program of radio talks by station WRC, under the aus- pices of the Smithsonian Institution, has been announced: February 19, Hi. 8S. Wasutncton: What the Earth is made of; February 26, W. M. Mann: Habits of ants; March 5, E. Luster Jones: The work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in saving life and property at sea; March 12, B. A. Bran: American Jishes. Part Four of the Trees and shrubs of Mexico, by Pauu C. StTaNDLEY (Contributions from the U. $8. National Herbarium, Vol. 23), was issued last December. The families treated are from Passifloraceae to Sero- phulariaceae, inclusive. It is expected that Part Five, the concluding portion, will be published this year. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, February 21. The Philosophical Society. at the Cosmos Club. Program: H. W. Fisu: Magnetic secular change in Latin America; G. Breit: The inductance and resistance of a coil encircling the Harth; O.S. Apams: New World maps derived from elliptic integrals. The Helminthological Society. Wednesday, February 25. The Geological Society. The Medical Society. Saturday, February 28. The Biological Society. Tuesday, March 3. The Botanical Society. Wednesday, March 4. The Entomological Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL Wednesday, January 28. The Acapumy and the Geological Society. Program: F. L. Pack: Scenic aspects of Utah geology. H. D. Misrr: Erosion in San Juan Canyon, Utah. Thursday, February 5. The Entomological Society. Program: R. E. Snoparass: Senses and sense organs of insects. Thursday, February 12. The Chemical Society. Program: J.S. Norris, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: The reactivities of atoms and groups in organic compounds. CONTENTS: ORIGINAL PAPERS Zoology. Le new Griiermnediate hosts of the Asiatic human blood fluke. BARTSCH, yess vote scio cls os aide Entomology.—New beetle guests of army ants. V Entomology.—The mosquitoes of Peary’s North Pole expedition of. Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON............0..00e008 PROCEEDINGS The Hatomological Society. <<... .c2 8eacl eet kak ys Wace j ; Scrmnenrio)! Notes Any NMWSi¥ . nie sews eile ele te ON clalateis eee te Oe tae OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vas L. cae National Research cone’ Recording Secretary: W. D. Sadan Coast fad Geodiika Mele i Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. i ’ 4 Vol. 15 Marcu 4, 1925 No. 5 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kruuie D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuiy NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS ¢ L. H. Apaus S. Av RonwER { PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY , E. A. GotpmaNn G. W. Strose ; BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY , R. F. Griccs J. R. SWANTON ‘ BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WicHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Roya anp GuILFoRD AVES, BauTimMorReE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. leg fy ¢ Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 Marcu 4, 1925 No. 5 PHYSICS.—Thermoelectric measurement of cutting tool temperatures.' Henry SHore. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Com- municated by Mayo D. Hersey). A knowledge of the temperatures developed under the chip in the process of cutting metal is of importance for all research problems in metal cutting, especially those relating to the properties of the lubricants employed. Comparatively little has been attempted in ‘this field, although calorimetric methods for observing the heat im- parted to the chips have been used in lathe work? and thermocouples inserted close to the cutting surface have been used in drilling tests.* The method adopted in the present experiments was suggested by Dr. Lyman J. Briggs of the Bureau of Standards. This method con- sists in utilizing the contact point between tool and work as the hot junction of a thermoelectric circuit. This is entirely feasible since tool steel is of different composition from machine steel and hence, for a difference in temperature at the junctions, a thermal e.m.f. is produced, which depends on the temperature difference between the two junctions. Before attempting any calibrations, a preliminary run was made to see if the pressure produced at the top of the tool would affect the 1 Published by permission of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. The experiments were conducted under the super- vision of Prof. V. Bush. The problem was brought to the writer’s attention by Prof. M. D. Hersey in connection with the work of the Special Research Committee on the Cutting and Forming of Metals, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. See Mech. Eng. 46: 20-30, 57. 1924. ? Brackenbury, H. I. and Meyer, G. M., Heat generated in the process of cutting metal. Engineering 91: 39-40. 1911. 2 Schwartz, H. A. and Flagle, W. W., Significance of tool temperatures. Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. 237: 27-39. 1923. 85 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 e.m.f. generated. This was accomplished by placing the work in a lathe and bringing the tool to bear on it. An electric soldering iron with a fine tip was placed at the point of contact, and the resultant deflection of the millivoltmeter read. A light cut was then taken and the lathe stopped, leaving the tool in position. The work was suddenly made to bear down hard on the tool by pulling on the belt by hand, while the hot soldering iron remained at the point of con- tact, its temperature being held constant. The resulting deflection was the same as before, so it was concluded that pressure did not appreciably change the thermal e.m.f. This was important, since it meant that only an ordinary calibration of the tool and work metals would be necessary. TABLE 1.—Catipration Data ror Toot anp Work Metats (Toon MeTaL—JESSUP HIGH SPEED STEEL) WORK METAL—ORDINARY CAST BRASS WORK METAL—MILD STEEL Thermal e.m.f. Temperature diff. Thermal e.m.f. Temperature diff. millivolts degs. C. millivolts degs. C. 0.36 43 0.04 43 0.50 55 0.05 58 0.65 68 0.07 97 0.80 79 0.10 136 0.85 84 0.13 146 0.90 87 0.16 175 0.95 93 ? 0.32 209 1.00 96 0.40 228 ites 110 0.51 242 1.30 123 1.00 315 1.50 140 1.84 400 The calibration of the metals was accomplished by placing a bar of the tool metal (16 inches long by 7°; inch square) and a rod of work metal (16 inches long by } inch in diameter) in a small gra- phite crucible (No. 00) with 400 grams of pure tin. The crucible was heated electrically by inserting three lugs on the periphery of the crucible, spaced 120° apart, and connecting each lug to one phase of a 5-k.w., 3-phase, 60-cycle generator. The line current was regulated by adjusting the generator field rheostat, which varied the impressed voltage. This method of melting the tin enabled the heat input to be easily and quickly fixed and at the same time to be held constant. A constant heat input was necessary to allow thermal equilibrium to be reached at the inserted ends of the two metals undergoing calibration. The temperature of the tin was measured mar. 4, 1925 SHORE: THERMOELECTRIC MEASUREMENT 87 by an alumel-copper thermocouple when calibrating the steel rod, and with a high temperature mercury thermometer when calibrating the brass. Data for this calibration are given in Table 1. The next step was the actual determination of the e.m.f.’s produced for varying rates of removal of chips in a lathe. It was not feasible to insulate the tool without a special tool holder, so the work was insulated instead. The ends of the work were drilled and tapped for a 2 inch, 16-thread screw. Hard rubber plugs 4 inch long were inserted in these holes and filed flush with the ends of the work metal, then drilled and countersunk to fit the lathe centers. The dog was insulated from the lathe by wrapping varnished cambric around the tail. While the work was effectively insulated, the use of hard rubber center plugs at the ends limited to depth of cut, for due to bearing friction the plugs deteriorated rapidly, and threw the work off center. The thermoelectric circuit, starting at the point of con- tact of tool and work, was completed through work, commutator, TABLE 2.—TempPerATURE RISE WHEN CutTtine Cast Brass. (Curtine sPEEp, 16.0 FEET PER MINUTE} AVERAGE INITIAL DIAMETER, 0.52 INCH) RATE OF REMOVING CHIPS E.M.F. TEMPERATURE RISB lb. per minute millivolts degs. C. 0.0024 0.35 42 0.0036 0.50 55 0.0062 0.55 59 0.0086 0.60 64 0.0181 0.77 78 0.0476 1.10 106 TABLE 3.—TEMPERATURE RISE WHEN Courtine Mitp STEEL (CUTTINGSPEED, 13.5 FEET PER MINUTE; AVERAGE INITIAL DIAMETER, 0.88 INCH) mere On Eee Ova OF Catt E.M.F. CORRECTED TEMPERATURE RISE 1b. per minute millivolts degs. C. 0.0010 0.08 112 0.0036 0.17 165 0.0020 0.30 205 0.0030 0.45 237 0.0121 0.65 270 0.0300 0.65 270 0.0208 0.67 273 0.0235 0.72 279 0.0297 0.72 279 0.0321 0.77 285 0.0177 0.80 290 0.0270 0.82 292 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 millivoltmeter, and tool. One lead of the millivoltmeter was soldered to the free end of the tool, while the other went to a wooden con- tainer of mercury held in a ring stand. An annular copper disk, wetted previously with mercury, dipped into the container. The disk was held onto the work by means of a bakelite boss, but kept in good contact with the work by a copper strip placed under the set-screw of the dog. Using this arrangement, no parasitic or ex- traneous e.m.f.’s could be detected. To measure the generated e.m.f., it was only necessary to take a cut and note the reading of the millivoltmeter. This reading was sensibly constant for any particular cut, 5 per cent being the max- imum deviation which occurred whenever a chip broke off from the work. The data obtained for cutting brass and mild steel without the use of cutting fluids are given in Tables 2 and 3. These were reduced to usable form by means of the calibration curves, and by calipering the work before and after each run. Final results, also given in Tables 2 and 3, show at first a rapid increase of temperature with increasing rates of cutting the metal, but dropping to a more gradual rise at faster cutting rates—about 100 deg. C. rise for brass at 25 pound per minute, and about 300 deg. C. for mild steel at ,’y pound per minute. It is hoped that these experiments may later be continued in order to collect systematic information on the effect of varying the cutting speeds and depth of cut, as well as the tool and work materials and cutting fluids. A more complete paper, which will include the dimen- sional analysis of these and other published data, is in preparation by M. D. Hersey and the author. SPECTROSCOPY .—Regularities in the arc spectrum of nickel. Francis M. Watters, Jr., Bureau of Metallurgical Research, The Carnegie Institute of Technology (Communicated by W. F. MEGGERS). More than two years ago I collected all available spectroscopic data for iron, cobalt, and nickel, constructed complete wave-number tables for the are spectra of these elements, and began to investigate the structure of these spectra. Results for iron! and for cobalt? have already been published; the present note gives some preliminary results for the are spectrum of nickel. 1Waxters. This JouRNAL13: 248. 1923. J.O.S.A.&R.S.1.8:245. 1924. 2 Waters. This JourNaL14:407. 1924. MarR. 4, 1925 WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL 89 One of the questions attacked in these investigations was whether or not the alternation law of spectroscopy is obeyed throughout a triad of elements in column VIII of the periodic table. The spec- trum of neutral iron was found to consist mainly of terms whose maximum multiplicities are odd (8, 5, and 7 fold); the structure of the cobalt-are spectrum appears to be due to terms of even multi- plicities (2 and 4), while odd values (1 and 3) appear again to char- acterise the are spectrum of nickel. Although the latter spectrum is the simplest of the three, it has been the most difficult to analyse, and it is still in a somewhat in- complete and unsatisfactory state. After finding a considerable number of relative terms, and assigning inner quantum numbers to them, attempts were made to identify the terms which belong together in a polyfold group. Inner quantum numbers were given on the basis of combinational properties of the terms, and the spectral types of some of these terms were suggested by the Zeeman effects for nickel lines. The way in which a combination of two polyfold terms gives rise to a multiplet may be illustrated by the following group of six lines, an example of a three-fold P term combining with a three-fold D term, the individual levels of each triple level being distinguished by subscripts which represent the inner quantum numbers. The lines are represented by their wave numbers in vacuo and by their in- tensities and character as given by Hamm.’ All of these lines belong to class IL of King’s‘ temperature classification of the nickel lines. The separations of the polyfold terms are given in italics. 73958.40 73283.41 72450.11 D; D: D 45593.97 28364.39 674.95 27689.44 833.28 26856.16 P: 10 R, II 8 u, Il 6, IL 931.38 931.49 44662.49 28620.82 833.17 2787.65 P; 10 R, II PB, ill 691.51 43971 .00 28479 .16 Py 7B, Il The Zeeman effects for the above six lines as observed by Graft- dijk® are given for comparison with the patterns calculated from Landé’s * scheme. 3 Hamm. Zeitschr. wiss. Phot.13:105. 1913. * Kine. Astroph. Journ. 42: 344. 1915. 5 Grarrpisk. Arch. Neerl. II] A: 192. 1912. *Lanpé. Zeitschr. fiir Physik 15:190. 1923. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 Terms Observed / Calculated D:Po (0.00) 0.69 (0.00) 0.50 D:P, (0.84) 0.58, 1.55 (1.00) 0.50, 1.50 D,P: (0.00) 2.63 (0.00, 1.00) 0.50, 1.50, 2.50 DP, (0.00) 1.20 (0.00, 0.33) 0.83, 1.17, 1.50 D2P2 (0.59) 1.40 (0.33, 0.67) 0.88, 1.17, 1°60; “1-838 D;P2 (?) 1.33 (0.00, 0.17, 0.33) 1.00,1.17, 1.33, 1.50, 1.67 Considering that fairly large errors may be present in the observed values, it appears that the Zeeman effects for nickel may be expected to be in quantitative agreement with the values derived from Landé’s outline for multiplets of the first stage. Unfortunately, the published data on magnetic resolution of nickel lines are insufficient for the purpose of identifying many spectral terms. In addition to the D and P terms already mentioned, it is possible that 71946.69, 72831.10, and 74163.21 may represent a low lying F level, a higher one being represented by 40552.34, 41050.93, and 41189. 82. The terms 39754.70, 40000.00, 40662.44 and 43250.41, 43548.84, 44494.29 are probably of the type D, while 58145.92, 58429.10, 58553.42 have the appearance of a P level. In nearly all of these cases the interval rule is violated, but such violations are known to be common in complex spectra. In some of the combinations the intensity rule also appears to be violated, and on account of the fairly general validity of this rule the above term groupings will be regarded as provisional. Further investigation of the Zeeman effect for nickel lines is now in progress, and it is hoped that these new data will permit unambiguous identification of all the terms. For the present I am content to give in Table 1 the relative terms, inner quantum numbers (in parenthesis), and the wave numbers and description of the observed spectral lines arising from combinations of these terms. The distribution of the inner quantum numbers indicates that the spectrum consists of singlets and triplets; there appear to be no quintets unless the term separations are very large. In this connection it is observed that the terms fall into five (or more) rather definite groups as follows: 70753 to 74163, 58146 to 60641, 37563 to 47497, 29900 to 31557, and 21965 to 25077. The number of nickel lines classified in Table 1 is 345. These include nearly all of the stronger lines of the spectrum of neutral nickel. Of the lines of classes I and II there remain unclassified only 19 lines; of the remaining lines (intensity > 2) there remain 21 lines of temperature class III, 9 of class IV, 43 of class V, and 58 for which no temperature classification is given. MAR. 4, 1925 WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL 91 TABLE 1.—ReEtative TERMS AND COMBINATIONS IN THE ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL. 7416321 73958 . 40 73283 .41 72831.10 72450.11 (4) (3) (2) (8) (1) 47497 .11 26665 .94 26461 . 22 (4) | 41] 4-1 46748 .30 26082 .76 25701.85 (2 3-I 5-I1 46095 .10 | 28068 .10 27863 .32 26735 .91 (4) } AIT 5-II ae 45621 .22 28542 .05 27209 .79 (3) 4-T 7-I-I1 45593 .97 28364.39 27689 .48 27237 .08 26856. 16 (2) 10R-II1 Su-II 5-II 6-I1 45585 ..14 28373 25 27698 .25 27245 .92 (3 3-I1 5-II 4-II 45150.00 28133 .39 27300.21 (1) 4-I 3-1 45078 .76 29084. 45 28879 .65 27752 .33 (3) 6R-IL 10R-II 5-II 44849 44 29320.75 29115.94 28440 .94 27988 .58 (3) 5-Il 9R-IL 9R-II 7R-IL 44682 .27 29480 .94 29276.18 28148 .83 (4) 7R-II 10R-IL 4-I 44662 .49 28620. 82 27787 .65 (1) 10R-IIL 7R-IL 44494 29 29668 .83 29464.07 28789 .12 28336 .67 (3) 10R-II 10R-I1 7R-IL 5-II 44330 .45 29627 .92 28952 .98 28500.63 (3 4R-II 6R-IL 4-I 44974.80 | 29683 .67 29008 .65 28556 . 34 (2) } 2-II 10R-IL 6-IL 44900.13 | 29958 . 32 29283 .27 28830 .96 28449 .93 (1, 2) 1-I 3R-IT 5-II 5-IT 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 TABLE 1.—Continued 72450.11 (1) 74163.21 73958. 40 73283.41 72831.10 (4) (3) (2) (3) 43971 .00 (0) 43771 .25 29512.13 (1) t= 43543. 84 30414.59 29739. 61 29287 .27 (2) 411 5R-I1 5R-I1 43250. 41 30032.98 (1) il 43132.21 31030.96 30826.18 30151. 20 29698 . 86 (3) 4R-II 8R-I 7R-II 5R-I1 42721 .60 31236.77 30561.81 30109 .50 (2) 2-TI 4-II 5R-I1 42377 .10 31786.16 31581 .35 30906. 29 30454.00 (3) 11 1-1 5R-II SIDE 41189. 82 32973 .48 32768 .50 31641. 28 (4) 3-II 10R-II 1-1] 41180.98 32102.44 (1) 6-11 41050.93 33112.28 32907 .50 32232 49 31780.19 (3) 5-II 9R-II 8R-II 4-II 40662. 44 33500 .87 3329600 32620.97 32168 .67 (3) 4-II 10R-I1 6-II 2-1 40552 .34 33406.01 32731 .06 32278 .73 (2) 6-II S8R-II 5-11 40000.00 33958 .39 33283. 41 32831 .08 (2) 6 9R-II . 4-II 39754.70 33528 .71 (1) 6-11 38524.10 35639.11 35434.30 34306 .92 (3) 3 4 2 37562.45 36395.98 35720.98 35268. 63 (2) 4 4 3 28479 .16 7R-IL 29199 .72 8R-I1 29728 .54 2=] 31269 .13 4-II 31897 .82 10R-II 32450.14 6-II 32695. 42 10R-II 34887 .62 5 MAR. 4, 1925 WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL TABLE 1.—Continued. 93 60641.83 59434.38 58553.42 58429.10 58145.92 71946.69 70753.30 (2) (2) (2) (0) 47497 .11 (4) 46748 .30 24004.96 (2) 3-IIA 46095.10 (4) 45621 .22 25132.16 (3) oar 45593.97 | 26352.74 5159.34 15047.7 (2) 6-1 7-II 6-1 45585.14 | 26361.60 25168.16 (3) 41 4I 45150.00 | 26796.71 (1) etl 45078.76 (3) 44842. 44 | 27104.25 25910.93 15799.41 (3) 4-II 10-II 5-II? 44682 27 (4) 44662.49 | 27284.18 26090.79 15979.33 14771.79 (1) 5-II 6-11 TA 10-1 4449499 | 27452.43 26259.05 16147.50 (3) 21 s-II 6-I 44330 .45 26422.93 16311.40 (3) | 8-II 3 44974.80 | 27672.03 26478.63 16367.08 (2) 7-II 9-II 7-11 | 44000.13 | 26753.22 16641.78 (1, 2) 7-II 3-11 (2) (1) 12959.43 12835.18 8-IA 6-IIIA 12968 .20 1 13474 .69 2 13711.21 8-ITIA (0) 13890.72 138766.63 13483.43 7-IIIA = 8-IITA 14058 .88 6-IIIA 14278.61 14154.30 4V ? 4 6- IITA 14145 .63 2 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 TABLE 1.—Continued. 71946.69 70753.30 60641.83 5943438 58553.42 58429.10 58145.92 (2) (2) (2) (0) (2) (1) (0) 43971 .00 14458.18 (0) 7-II 43771.25 | 28175.38 (1) 5-II 43543.84 | 28402.81 27209.79 17098.04 (2) 5-II lee. 8 43250.41 | 28696.31 27502.95 17391.48 16183.93 15302.94 15178.79 (1) 6R-Il SI. eu 3 3 5-11 43132.21 | 28814.52 27621.11 17509.65 15421.13 (3) 5-II 10R-II 6-1 re \ hme 42721.60 | 29225.08 28031.72 17920.32 15831.78 15707.57 (2) 2-1 10R-II 5-1 10200 42377.10 | 29569.59 28376.22 (3) 4R-Il ei 41189. 82 (4) 41180.98 | 30765.69 29572.28 19460.83 18253.41 17372.42 16964 .94 (1) 2-I 1OR-Ir| 8-1 10-1 5-1J 9-I1 41050.93 | 30895.73 29702.38 19590.92 17502.50 (3) {1 4R-II 4 6-3 40662.44 | 31284.25 30090.86 19979.44 17891.01 (3) 2-II 5-II 2 5-1 40552.34 | 31394.33 30201.04 20089.50 18001.07 17876.94 (2) 4-JI 2-1 2 AV P70 40000.00 | 31946.72 30753.30 20641.94 18429 .25 (2) a] 3-II 2 4-11 39754.70 | 32191.97 30998.54 20887.22 19679.64 18391 .22 (1) 5-II 5R-II 2 3 6-II 8524.10 | 33422.77 32229.17 22117.75 (3) 3-II 8R-II 4-11 37562.45 | 34384.21 33190.82 23079.50 20990 .97 (2) 3 9R-II 6-11 2-IIA mar. 4, 1925 TABLE 1.—Continued WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL 95 31557 .37 31373 .28 30051 .13 29900.75 25077 .36 24988 .47 (2, 3) (2) (1) (2) (4) (3) 47497 .11 22420 .04 (4) 9-ITI 46748 .30 15375.05 (2) lu 46095.10 14537 .71 21017.87 (4) 3-IV 7-IJ 45621 .22 20548 . 86 (3) 7-II1 45593 .97 14036 .53 14220.63 15693 .29 (2) 10-IV-V 5-V 4 45585.14 14027 .82 14211.90 20507 .94 (3) 2 4 45150 .00 (1) 45078 .76 13521 .37 20001 . 44 20090 .83 (3) 10-III 4JII lu 44849 44 13285 .07 13469 .14 19854.04 (3) S-III 9-III 10-111 44682 .27 13124.89 19604.87 (4) 10-III 7u-V 44662.49 13289 .16 14611.38 14761 .74 (1) 8-IIIL 6-V 9-V 44494 29 12936 .95 13121.07 19506 .07 (3) 10-IV 9-II1 6-1V 44330 .45 12773 .04 12957 .13 19342 .00 (3) 4 7 6-ITL 44274.80 12717 .36 12901 .44 14373 .99 (2) 4 10-V 5-V 44000.13 12442 83 12626. 84 13948 .93 (1, 2) 1 7 4 43971.00 13919 .74 ‘0) 9-V 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 | TABLE 1.—Continued 31557 . 37 31873.28 30051.18 — 29900.75 += 25077.386 24988. 47 (2, 3) (2) (1) (2) (4) (3) 43771 .24 13720.06 | (1) 2 | 43543 .84 13492.75 13643.12 (3) 9-IV 4 . 43250.41 11877.15 13199.27 13349.74 (1) 2 7-V 2 43132.21 11574.85 11758.97 13231 .45 18143.81 | (2) 2 2 9-III 5-IV | 42721 .60 11348.32 12670.50 12820.24 (2) 3 3 8-V 42377 .10 11003.96 12476.43 (3) 1 2 41189 82 16112.54 (4) 3-V 41180.98 11280.27 (1) 4 41050.93 11150.23 15973.56 16062.49 (3) 2 4-V 6-V 40662 .44 15585.05 15673.96 (3) 5 7-IV? 40552.34 10501.33 (2) 2 24891.76 24849.40 24830.52 24385.74 23816.82 23697.14 (3) (2, 3) (4) (3) (2) (4) 4749711 22666.85 23111.67 (4) 5u-III 4 46748 .30 22362.69 22931.53 (2) 8-IIl 6-V 46095.10 21709.51 22398 .07 (4) 9-III 3 4562122 21924 .02 (3) 3 mar. 4, 1925 TABLE 1.—Continued WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL 24891 76 24849.40 24830.52 24885.74 23816.82 23697.14 3 (2, 3) (4) (3) (2) (4) 45593 .97 20702 .29 (2) ADU 45585.14 20693 .09 21768.40 21888.11 (3) 5-II1 7-III 1 45150.00 21333 .26 (1) 5-III 45078 .76 20248.23 20693.08 (3) 4u-III 5-III 44842 44 19950.66 19993.08 20456.77. 21025.63 (3) 3u 5-III 3 3-V 44682 27 19851.69 20296.51 20985 .12 (4) 3u S00 4-IIl 44662 .49 (1) 44494 29 19602.49 19644.89 19663.83 20797 .24 (3) 7u- V 2 7u-I1I 4-III 44330 .45 19481.05 19944.69 20513.64 (3) 3-V 4-III 5-II1 4497480 19425 .36 (2) Ni 44000.13 19614.34 20183.21 (1, 2) 4V 3-V 43971.00 (0) 43771.25 19954.33 20074.05 (1) 2 8-II1 43543 .84 (2) 43250.41 (1) 4313221 18282.70 18301.63 (3) 2 4-V 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 TABLE 1.—Continued 24891.76 24849. 40 24830. 52 24385. 74 23816.82 23697 .14 (3) (2, 3) (4) (3) (2) (4) 2721.60 17872 .27 (2) 6-II1 42377 .10 (3) 41189.82 16359 .33 17492 .69 (4) 4u-V 41180.98 (1) 41150.93 16159 .16 16201 .55 16220.39 17353 .77 (3) 6-V 3 5u-V 41IV 40662.44 | 15770.60 15813.06 (3) 10-III 3 03.18 16166. 59 40552 .34 157 7-IV (2) 40000 .00 15150. 57 (2) 4-IV 39754.70 15937.81 (1) 1 38524.10 13632 .17 (3) 1 37562. 45 2 23409.10 23331. 22 23328 .95 22857. 20 22122.70 21965, 83 (1) (2, 3) (1) (2) (2) (3) 46748 .30 23891 .18 (2) 4 MAR. 4, 1925 WALTERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF NICKEL TABLE 1.—Continued 99 23409. 10 (1) 23331 .22 23328 .95 22857 .20 (2;,3) (1) (2) 21965.83 (3) 43971 .00 (0) 43771.25 (1) 43543 84 (2) 43250 41 (1) | 22184.94 1 19841 .32 4 2262.86 21985.27 4V 21825 .07 3 21417 .58 3-V 20641 .94 9 20212 .60 20214 .89 20686. 59 3 2u 3-V 1992151 3u-IV 21421 .12 3-III 21127 .74 4-IV? 23628 .15 3-V 23112.92 22716 .42 3-V 100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 TABLE 1.—Continued 23409. 10 23331.22 23328 .95 22857 .20 (1) (2, 3) (1) (2) 43132 .21 19801 .01 20274 .96 (3) 4-V 1 42721.60 19312.48 19390.39 19392 .64 19864. 25 (2) 5-V 8-V 4u-V lu 42377 .10 19519.71 (3) 3 41189.82 (4) 41180.98 17771 .97 (1) 7-V 41050.93 18193 .65 (3) 3-V 40662. 44 17805.21 (3) 6-V 40552 . 34 17143 . 23 17221..15 17695 .24 (2) 5r-V 7-V 4-V 40000.00 16668.78 16671 .04 (2) 2u-V 3u-V 39754.70 16345 .61 16425 .74 (1) 8-V 8r-V 38524.10 15192.96 (3) 2u 37562 .45 14153 .36 14231 .45 14233 .35 (2) 2 8-V 1 22122.70 —-21965.83 (2) (3) 20254. 30 4IV 18539 .61 2 17877 .27 1 17632 .00 3 mar. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 101 BOTAN Y.—New plants from Central America—II.! Pau C. Stanp- Ley, U. 8S. National Museum. The species here described as new are mostly plants of the Canal Zone, which have been studied during the preparation of a flora of that region. There are included also descriptions of two Costa Rican plants, and of a new cactus from the Republic of Salvador. Inga gracilipes Standl., sp. nov. Tree 6 m. high, the young branchlets sparsely puberulent but soon gla- brate; petioles 1.5-3 em. long, glabrous, narrowly winged above, bearing at the middle and at the apex a sessile cup-shaped gland; rachis 1.5-2 em. long, with a cup-shaped gland at apex, narrowly winged, the wing attenuate below, the rachis 4 mm. wide at apex; leaflets 2 pairs, elliptic-oblong, 6-11 cm. long, 2.5-4.5 em. wide, abruptly and shortly obtuse-acuminate, obtuse at base, coriaceous, glabrous, lustrous above, with prominent venation; flowers umbellate, the umbels paniculate, the peduncles very slender, 2.5-4.5 cm. long, solitary or fasciculate, obscurely puberulent or glabrate; pedicels fili- form, 8-10 mm. long, minutely and very sparsely puberulent; calyx tubular, 3 mm. long, sparsely and very minutely puberulent; corolla greenish white, narrow-funnelform, 8-9 mm. long, glabrous; stamen tube short-exserted; very young fruit obiong, strongly compressed, with scarcely thickened mar- gins, glabrous, acute at base, subsessile. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,219,236, collected on brushy slope between France Field, Canal Zone, and Catival, Province of Colén, Panama, near sea level, January 9, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 30353). The vernacular name is “guava,” a term applied locally to all species of Inga. Inga gracilipes belongs to the section Leptinga, characterized by pedicellate flowers, but in its nearly glabrous flowers it is distinct from the other Central American species of the group. It is, however, closely re- lated to some of the Brazilian species, although it appears to differ from each of them in one or more details. Anaxagorea panamensis Standl., sp. nov. Slender shrub 1-2 m. high, the branchlets sparsely ferruginous-puberulent when young but soon glabrate; petioles 3-5 mm. long, glabrate; leaf blades lance-oblong, 9-16 cm. long, 2.5-4 cm. wide, acuminate, obtuse or acutish at base, thin, deep green and lustrous above, glabrous, beneath paler, when very young puberulent along the costa, but elsewhere glabrous, the lateral nerves 6 or 7 pairs, diverging at a wide angle, arcuately anastomosing remote from the margin; flowers axillary, solitary, the pedicels 2.5 cm. long, very slender, obscurely puberulent or glabrous, with a minute bractlet near the base; sepals ovate-acuminate, 8 mm. long, ferruginous-puberulent, thin; outer petals pale dull yellow, linear-oblong, obtuse, 2 cm. long, thin, puberu- lent, the inner petals scarcely 1 cm. long, triangular-ovate, acuminate; follicles numerous, bronze-green, glabrous, the stipe 1-1.5 em. long, the body about 1 cm. long, apiculate, splitting along one side at maturity and exposing the lustrous seed. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1,216,855-6, collected in wet forest along the Rio Tapia, Province of Panama, Panama, near sea level, Dec. 7, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 26168). The following collec- tions are of the same species: Panama: Rio Tapia, Standley 28247, 28289, 30660. Hills north of Frijoles, Canal Zone, Standley 27589. One other species, A. crass7petala Hemsl., has been described from Central America (Nicaragua), but according to the description it is not closely related to the present. plant. The Panama species is related to A. acuminata St. Hil., of South America, which has coriaceous leaves with very different venation. Annona hayesii Safford, sp. nov. Large shrub or small tree, the young branchlets ferruginous-tomentose at first but soon glabrate; petioles 3-7 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic-obovate or oblong-obovate, 12-25 em. long, 5-9 cm. wide, abruptly acuminate, obtuse or rounded at base, thin, deep green above, paler beneath, when young sparsely and minutely sericeous with brownish hairs but soon glabrate; pedicels 10-15 mm. long, solitary or fasciculate in the leaf axils, brown-tomentose, bearing a small ovate bract below the middle; calyx lobes triangular, acute, 2.5 mm. long, tomentose; outer petals linear, dilated at base, about 3 cm. long, obtuse, densely brown-tomentose, the inner petals minute; fruit sub- globose, 5 em. long or more, smooth, with scant pulp and thin skin; seeds smooth, brown, lustrous, compressed, 1 em. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 717078, collected near Yaviza, southern Darién, Panama, April, 1914, by H. Pittier (no. 6592). The following additional collections are referred here: PaNnaMA: La Palma, southern Darién, Pittier 6598. Matias Hernandez, Province of Panama, Pittier 6749. Corozal Farm, Canal Zone. Pittier 6684. Road to Corozal, Bro. Gervais 141. Old Las Cruces Trail, between Fort Clayton and Corozal, Standley 29179. Tumba Muerto Road, near Panama, Standley 29723. Punta Paitilla, Province of Panama, Standley 26272. Near Juan Franco Race Track, Province of Panama, Standley 27704. Annona hayesii is related to A. reticulata, a species distinguishable at a glance by its uniformly narrow leaves. Unonopsis pittieri Safford, sp. nov. Medium-sized tree with pyramidal crown, the branchlets at first minutely sericeous but soon glabrate; petioles 4-6 mm. long; leaf blades oblong-ellip- tic or elliptic-oblong, 14-32 em. long, 5.5-8.5 em. wide, abruptly acuminate, obtuse and slightly unequal at base, thin, concolorous or nearly so, minutely sericeous beneath along the costa, elsewhere glabrous; flowers greenish, borne in few-flowered racemes on old wood, the pedicels 2 cm: long, minutely sericeous, with a minute bractlet near the middle; calyx shallowly trilobate, minutely sericeous, the lobes obtuse; petals rounded-elliptic, very thick and fleshy, sparsely and minutely sericeous outside, strongly concave, the outer ones § mm. long, the inner slightly shorter. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 716051, collected along the Rio Faté6, Province of Colén, Panama, altitude 100 meters or less, July, 1911, by H. Pittier (no. 3871). Here probably belongs a fruiting specimen, Mazon 6890, from the Rio mar. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 103 Chinilla, Canal Zone. The berries are globose, 1.5 cm. in diameter, gla- brous, red at maturity, and long-stipitate. The single globose seed is deeply pitted. Pittier states that the vernacular name Is “‘yaya,’’ and that the soft wood is used for building purposes. The genus is a South American one, and no species has been known previously from North America. Species from Central America formerly placed in Unonopsis are now referred to Desmopsis. Trichilia unifoliola Blake & Standl., sp. nov. Shrub or small tree 3-6 m. high; branchlets nearly or quite glabrous; leaves alternate, 1-foliolate, very rarely 3-foliolate; petioles flattened and hispidulous above, 1-3.3 cm. long; leaflet sessile or obscurely ‘petiolulate, oval or oblong-oval, sometimes slightly obovate-oblong, 4-12 cm. long, 2.2— 5.5 em. wide, obtuse or retuse, often with short blunt apiculation (2.5 mm. long or less), cuneate to rounded and usually unequal at base, usually firm, deep green and somewhat shining above, glabrous on both sides except for the often barbatulate cups in the axils of the veins beneath, prominulous- reticulate on both sides, the principal veins 6-S pairs, whitish and prominent beneath; panicles axillary and terminating the branchlets, subsessile, about 1 em. long and thick, 3-fid, densely flowered; flowers sessile; calyx 2 mm. long, glabrous, the teeth 5, very short, obtuse, obscurely ciliolate; petals 5, free, oblong, 3.8 mm. long, obtuse, glabrous; stamens 10, 3.8 mm. long, the filaments alternately unequal, connate for nearly half their length into a glabrous tube, the free portions hirsute on margin and inside, cuspidate- bifid at apex, the anthers glabrous; ovary densely strigose, inserted in a fleshy, crenately 10-lobed disk about half its length, 3-celled; style glabrous, thick, about equaling ovary, the stigma small; capsule subglobose, warty, short-pilose, 7 mm. thick, brownish, 3-seeded. Panama: Sabana de Juan Corso, near Chepo, Oct. 1911, H. Pittier 4755 (type no. 679918, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Near Punta Paitilla, Piper 5426; Standley 26314, 30810. Bella Vista, Standley 25333. Near Matias Her- nindez, Standley 28881. Between Matias Hernandez and Juan Diaz, Standley 31989. Near big swamp east of Rio Tecumen, Standley 26685. All the specimens cited are from the Province of Panama, where the plant is common in thickets. The species seems clearly to be a derivative of Trichilia trifolia L., agreeing with it in flowering and fruiting char- acters, but differing in its almost always solitary leaflet, much larger than those of T. irifolia and of different outline. Two of the specimens examined show on the flowering branchlets one or two small leaves that bear a single lobe on one side at the base of the leaflet, or occasionally a single small lateral leaflet, rarely a third abortive one. Trichilia trifolia has a rather wide range in America, from Mexico to Venezuela and the islands off the Venezuelan coast, but it is not known in Panama, where it appears to be entirely replaced by T. unifoliola. Bernardia macrophylla Standl., sp. nov. Erect shrub 1.5-2.5 meters high; branchlets densely covered with very short ascending hairs; petioles 3-10 mm. long; leaf blades oblanceolate- oblong or oblong-obovate, 11-19 cm. long, 3.5-8.5 em. wide, acute or acu- 104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 minate, cuneately narrowed to the base, penninerved, crenate-serrate, copiously pilose on both surfaces with short simple hairs, the lateral nerves about 12 on each side; staminate spikes axillary, 3-4 em. long, much inter- rupted, the rachis hirtellous with ascending hairs, the bracts broadly ovate, many-flowered; pistillate spikes terminal, many-flowered, about 2.5 cm. long, the flowers sessile; capsule 5 mm. long, covered with minute appressed hairs. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,218,687, collected in moist thicket near the Rfo Tecumen, Province of Panama, Panama, ‘near sea level, Jan. 3, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 29389). Nos. 29380 and 29471 from the same locality belong to this species. The nearest relative of the Panama plant is B. corensis (Jacq.) Muell. Arg., in which the leaves are relatively broader, mostly obtuse, coarsely crenate, and with few lateral nerves. Opuntia salvadorensis Britt. & Rose, sp. nov. Plant 8-10 em. high, much branched and spreading; joints flattened, orbicular to short-oblong, 10-15 cm. long, glabrous; areoles rather few, 1.5—- 3 em. apart, small, circular, bearing tawny felt; spines usually 1 to 3, very unequal, slender-acicular, the longest ones up to 6 em. long, white or be- coming tawny; flowers yellow; petals about 2 em. long; ovary about 2.5 cm. long, obovoid, bearing small areoles without spines; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,207,015, collected by Dr. Salvador Caler6én at the Hacienda La Concordia, Departamento de Usulu- tan, El Salvador, January 19, 1924 (no. 2100). No species of Opuntia has heretofore been reported from El Salvador, although it is quite possible that there may be several native species. We should refer this species to the series T'wnae as limited in our monograph of the cactaceae. It is probably to be placed nearest O. triacantha and O. antillana, two West Indian species. Tontanea glabra (Bartl.) Stand. Coccocipsilum glabrum DC. Prodr. 4: 397. 1830. This species, described from Panama from specimens collected presum- ably by Née over a century ago, has not been found again until recently. It was collected near Fort Lorenzo, Canal Zone, March, 1923, by C. V. Piper (no. 5983). Evea guapilensis Standl., sp. nov. Stem suffrutescent, simple, terete, about 25 cm. high, green, glabrous, the internodes 2-5 cm. long, stipules green, persistent, 1 cm. long or more, bilobate, the lobes linear from a narrowly triangular base; petioles slender, 34 cm. long; leaf blades elliptic, 14-21 em. long, 6.5-9.5 em. wide, abruptly short-acuminate at each end, thin, deep green and glabrous above, paler beneath, sparsely hirtellous along the nerves; flower head terminal, solitary, subsessile, 2 cm. in diameter, the bracts purplish green, rounded and apicu- late at apex, densely furnished on both surfaces with soft slender multicel- lular appressed hairs. MAR. 4, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 105 Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,029, collected in wet forest near Gudpiles, Province of Limén, Costa Rica, altitude about 500 meters, March 12-13, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37025). Evea nana Standl., sp. nov. Stems suffrutescent, simple, 15 em. high, subterete, green, glabrous, the internodes 1-2 cm. long; stipules green, persistent, glabrous, about 6 mm. long, bilobate, the lobes oblong-linear; petioles slender, 3.5 cm. long; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, 15-16 cm. long, 6 cm. wide, acuminate at each end, thin, glabrous, deep green above, paler beneath; flower head terminal, soli- tary, on a stout peduncle about 2 cm. long, in fruit about 3 cm. in diameter, dense; bracts bright purple, broad, glabrous; nutlets 4 mm. long, grayish, obscurely tricostate dorsally, plane on the inner surface. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,871, collected in open thicket on hills north of Frijoles, Canal Zone, Panama, Dec. 19, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 27550). Although a single specimen in rather poor condition is at hand, it is evi- dent that the species represented is something quite distinct from anything previously reported from Central America. Pyschotria chagrensis Standl., sp. nov. Densely branched shrub 1-2 m. high, the branches slender, terete, gla- brous, very leafy; stipules 8-10 mm. long, triangular-ovate, long-cuspidate, thin, brown, caducous; petioles slender, 4-12 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic- obovate, 4-8.5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. wide, usually abrupt-acuminate, with acute tip, at base usually abruptly and cuneately decurrent, thin, glabrous, slightly paler beneath; flowers mostly terminal, in a few-flowered head, surrounded by thin brown glabrous bracts similar to the stipules, the flowers sessile, enclosed in large bractlets; calyx limb brown, the lobes linear; corolla white, glabrous outside, villous in the throat, the tube 4 mm. long, ampliate above, the 5 lobes spreading, less than half as long as the tube; fruit oval, 5 mm. long, multicostate, glabrous. Type in the U. §. National Herbarium, no. 1,215,962, collected along stream in wet forest, Barro Colorado Island. Canal Zone, Panama, Jan. 17, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 31373). The following specimens also be- long here: Panama: Chagres, Fendler 110. Porto Bello, Pittier 2433. Barro Colorado Island, Standley 31370. Fort Sherman, Canal Zone, Standley 31109. NicaraGcua: San Juan del Norte, Puttier 9657. No other American Psychotria known to the writer has a similar inflores- cence. Diodia denudata Standl., sp. nov. Erect perennial herb 30-100 cm. high, branched, the branches stout, quadrangular, glabrous, the angles narrowly winged, the wings green, with smooth margins; stipular sheath puberulent, the margin bearing numerous scabrous-margined bristles 4-9 mm. long; leaves short-petiolate, the blades ovate-elliptic to narrowly elliptic, 3-5 cm. long, 1-2.5 cm. wide acute, ab- ruptly decurrent at base, deep green above, paler beneath, scaberulous on 106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 both surfaces; flowers sessile in dense axillary clusters about 6 mm. in diam- eter, the subtending leaves much reduced above or obsolete, the upper flower clusters usually about 4 mm. in diameter; calyx lobes 4, triangular, acute, 0.5 mm. long, green, scaberulous-ciliolate; corolla white, exceeding the calyx lobes; fruit subglobose, bisulcate, 1 mm. long, scaberulous, separat- ing into 2 indehiscent cocci. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,154,022, collected on wet stream bank along the Rio Tapia, Province of Panama, Panama, near sea level, Dec. 24, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 28123). The following speci- mens also belong here: Panama: Rio Tecumen, Province of Panama, in moist forest, Standley 29364. Fort Lorenzo, Pzper 5895. This plant is very unlike any other species known from North America, but it is related to D. alata Nees & Mart. of Brazil. In that the wings of the stem are wider and retrorse-aculeolate, and the calyx is 2-lobed. Vernonia lankesteri Blake, sp. nov. Shrubby, 2-3.3 m. high; branches stout, herbaceous, pithy, densely grise- ous-lanate-tomentose, glabrescent; leaves alternate; petioles slender, pubes- cent like the branches, 1.5-3.5 em. long; blades obovate, 12.5-21.5 cm. long (including the decurrent base), 5-7.5 cm. wide, acuminate, at base long- acuminate and narrowly decurrent on the petiole, serrate or serrulate ex- cept toward base and apex (teeth about 1 mm. high, acutely callous-tipped, 3-8 mm. apart), papery, above deep dull green, densely and sordidly pubes- cent on costa and veins with short several-celled subglandular hairs, sparsely and finely so on surface, beneath paler green, griseous-subtomentose when young, glabrescent except along the veins and veinlets, on surface densely dotted with small, mostly yellow glands, penninerved, the chief lateral veins 10-15 pairs, prominulous beneath, curved-anastomosing toward mar- gin; heads in terminal or subterminal corymbiform panicles of 4-8, very many-flowered; pedicels pubescent like the stem, 3-8.5 cm. long, thickened below the heads; disk 2 em. high, about 2.5 cm. thick; involucre about 7-seriate, strongly graduate, 1.5-1.7 em. high, the 5 outer series of phyllaries triangular (outermost) to oblong-oval or oblong-obovate, with indurate greenish-white bases and shorter, usually broader, spreading or loose, somewhat nervose, herbaceous tips (those of the outermost phyllaries linear or lanceolate, acutish, of the others deltoid, obtuse or rounded), scantily appressed-tomentose, the middle ones 3-5 mm. wide, the 2 inner series erect, oblong, essentially gla- brous, with brownish, subscarious, obtuse to acuminate tips; corollas “Amparo purple (Ridgway), 19 mm. long (tube 5 mm., throat cylindric, Smm.,teeth 6 mm.), sparsely glandular; achenes (submature), blackish brown, glabrous, 5-angled, 2 mm. long; pappus yellowish white, the outer setae similar to inner but shorter, 1—2.5 mm. long, the inner about 4.2 mm. long. Costa Rica: La Palma, altitude 1500 meters, Nov., 1897, C. Wercklé _ 11604. In roadside undergrowth, Santa Clara de Cartago, 23 Feb., 1924, C. H. Lankester 712 (type no. 1,207,014, U. 8. Nat. Herb.). La Hondura, Province of San José, March, 1924, Standley 36602. The specimen collected by Wercklé has been identified by Dr. H. A. Gleason as Vernonia salvinae Hemsl., and the Costa Rican portion of the range given in the North American Flora? for that species is doubtless de- 233: 81. 1922. MAR. 4, 1925 REINHARD: HOPLISUS COSTALIS 107 rived from this specimen. In V. salvinae, as described by Hemsley and exemplified by two specimens from Chiapas now before me, the heads are only 1 to 3; the leaves are evenly strigose-pilose over the whole surface beneath; and the considerably broader phyllaries have shining, glabrous, more or less purplish brown, indurated bases, and their tips are acuminate or apiculate and (except in the innermost) short-strigose and more or less glandular. ; ENTOMOLOGY.—The wasp Hoplisus costalis, a hunter of tree- hoppers. Epwarp G. REINHARD, Canisius College (Communi- cated by 8S. A. RoHwEr). About twenty nests of the solitary wasp Hoplisus costalis (Cress.) were found scattered among the burrows of a large colony of bee- hunting wasps, Philanthus gibbosus, at Woodstock, Maryland, during the summers of 1922 and 1923. The site of this community was a sandy path, loosely paved with bricks and sheltered by a long balcony. Exteriorly, the burrow of Hoplisus is indicated by a small mound of sand, in expanse no larger than the area which could be covered by the palm of one’s hand. The nest entrance is always concealed under a covering of sand. A straw probe quickly finds the hidden doorway. From thence a slanting shaft penetrates the earth for five or six inches, making a moderate dip of about 30 degrees with the horizontal surface. At a depth of two inches the gallery is terminated by a scattered group of cells, each of which is stored with sufficient food to nourish a single Hoplisus during its larval growth. Every nursling receives for its nutriment a common diet of tree- hoppers, but the communistic system does not distribute an equal share to all. Of the 34 larvae whose provisions were listed, seven enjoyed six pieces of game, nine had five, seventeen had four, and one had only three articles to satisfy its appetite. The victims that are selected by Hoplisus for the nourishment of her grubs are all tree-hoppers, all members of the great Homopterous family Membracidae.t In hunting these Membracids the wasp shows no exclusive preference for any particular species, but she does seem to restrict her choice to the mature adults, as if deeming the mere undeveloped nymphs undesirable game. I have taken more than a dozen different species of tree-hoppers from the nests which Hop- 1G. P. Barth states of Gorytes canaliculatus: ‘‘The prey of the wasp seems to be exclusively leaf-hoppers of the species Cyrtolobus fenestratus Fitch and Atymna inornata Say.”’ Cyrtolobus and Atymna however are Membracidae, ‘‘tree-hoppers’’ therefore, though the writer calls them “‘leat-hoppers”’ throughout his account, a term which com- mon usage has restricted to the Jassidae. 108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 5 lisus had provisioned in this neighborhood. Among these species were: Ceresa bubalus Fabricius, Ceresa borealis Fairmaire, Telamona monticola Fabricius, Telamona tristis Fitch, Telamona unicolor Fitch, Thelia bimaculata Fabricius, Glossonotus crataegi Fitch, Archasia galeata Fabricius, Cyrtolobus arcuatus Emmons?, Vanduzea arcuata Say, Platycotis vittata Fabricius, Campylenchia latipes Say. These Membracids were kindly determined for me by Mr. W. L. McAtee. Hoplisus is a skilful huntress, but also a skilful paralyser. The Membracids are stung to complete immobility. Once the wasp has performed her surgical operation the victim becomes as quiet as a wax model. This state of traumatic coma persists for about a week; then the victim dies. But is the skill of the paralyser always unerring and infallible? The following fact suggests a negative answer. On August 4, I examined a burrow of Hoplisus consisting of a shaft and a single cell. In the corridor was the female wasp, and in the cell a solitary green tree-hopper, Ceresa borealis. Far from being paralysed to immo- bility the tree-hopper could thrash its legs about very vigorously, and its wings also, though it could neither walk nor fly. These strenuous muscular movements persisted through the entire day, but on the following day the victim died, supposedly from exhaustion. Here was a case where the wasp’s sting had brought about mere motor ataxia instead of complete paralysis. Hoplisus had evidently bungled badly. How can we exonerate her clumsiness? The first week of August marks the appearance of the second generation, and a single cell, provisioned with a single hopper, points to the very commencement of the wasp’s active career. So let us say that it was the tyro’s first operation; she was as yet a novice in wielding the lancet—and such would be by no means a fictitious excuse. Once a suitable victim is selected and properly paralysed, Hoplisus proceeds to straddle her prey, venter to venter, grasping it close to her body with her median legs, and in this attitude transports the unresisting bug through the air. Most of the wasps carrying prey succeed in landing squarely in front of their burrow, but not un- frequently one or another happens to descend wide of the mark. That is a mishap which necessitates an awkward portage along the ground. The tree-hopper’s high back or projecting horns cause the wasp many a tumble and a tussle before she finally gains the nest with her burden. When the wasp arrives at her burrow she scrapes it open and enters without releasing her prey. But once inside she usually drops MarR. 4, 1925 REINHARD: HOPLISUS COSTALIS 109 the hopper just within the vestibule, then turns around and pulls the prey down after her into the depths of the nest. The egg of Hoplisus costalis is about three millimeters long; smooth, white, and bow-shaped. It is carefully tucked beneath the folded legs of the tree-hopper, along one side of its broad breast. One end is fixed to the metasternum near the hind coxa; the other arches forward towards the hopper’s head. Sometimes the wasp makes use of a curious appliance to hold her precious egg in position. On the sternum of Membracidae, along- side the middle leg, there is a projecting spur, a curved, blade-like process. It forms with the adjoining coxa a deep notch. When closed by the overlying femur this notch becomes a socket exactly fitted to receive the wasp’s egg. When particularly careful the mother slips the end of her egg into this natural pocket, thus clamp- ing it more securely in place. It takes but two days for the egg to hatch. Five days are spent by the larva in consuming the tree-hoppers. Then the cocoon is fashioned—an oblong-ovate capsule put together with silk and sand; a neat and tough pupal casket, not without artistic merit. The nests of this wasp are sometimes parasitized by a small Tachinid. Two cells were unearthed on August 2, provisioned with green tree-hoppers but each occupied by a Dipterous maggot. Three days later these larvae formed their coarctate kegs, but the adult flies failed to emerge. Mr. C. T. Greene, of the United States Bureau of Entomology, examined the puparia, and found that they were the pupal cases of Pachyophthalmus signatus Meigen. Two empty pupuria of the same species were also taken from an old Hoplisus cell in which there were the remains of four Membracids. A bold and successful ravager of the nests of Hoplisus is her para- sitic relative, the Nysson wasp, Brachystegus hoplisivora Rohwer. The interesting activities of this Nysson parasite will be related in a future paper. Hoplisus costalis was described in 1872, under the generic name Gorytes, by Cresson from a female collected in Texas. Since the male has heretofore not been known, a brief description of it is here given. The male differs from the female in the followmg points: Form smaller and less robust; its color is brighter, and is of a more brilliant black and a lighter yellow than the female; the basal half of the flagellum is more darkly ferruginous beneath; the clypeus is black with a median yellow spot; several yellow markings of the female, viz., line on posterior orbits, spot on mandibles, spot on metanotum, 110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 5 are not present in the male; the femora are black beneath, though all are tipped with yellow; the wings are less densely smoked along the costal margin; the anterior tarsi are without combs, and the apical abdominal tergite is rounded convexly, not flattened like that of the female. Several specimens of both sexes bearing my label are preserved in the collections of the United States National Museum. A reared pair was presented also to the American Museum of Natural History. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS J. B. Esy resigned from the U. 8. Geological Survey, the end of Feb- ruary, to engage in petroleum engineering in Texas. Dr. R. B. Sosman, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, will give a series of lectures on geophysics at the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology in March and April. On February 7 occurred the death of Wituiam Francis HILLEBRAND, a man whose name is known wherever chemistry is taught or practised. Dr. Hillebrand was born in Honolulu, December 12, 1858. After two years at Cornell University (1870-72) he completed his training at the Universities of Heidelberg and Strassburg and at the Mining Academy at Freiberg. Returning to America he began practise as an assayer but entered the laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey at Denver in 1880. He was transferred to Washington in 1885 and the remaining forty years of his life were spent here. In 1908 he became chief chemist of the Bureau of Standards. He made many important contributions to his chosen science but was best known for his work on the analysis of rocks and minerals. Dr. Hillebrand was the first chemist to make a practice of determining all of the so-called minor constituents of minerals and rocks. His painstaking work in this field provided much information of geological significance, and will undoubtedly throw light on generalizations which are still to be made. His methods for rock analysis were described in five Bulletins of the Geological Survey, the last one, Bulletin 700, appearing in 1919. These bulletins have always been in great demand. ‘Two of them were translated and published in Germany. At the time of his death he had already spent a year in the preparation of a book on inorganic analysis. Fortunately his notes are so complete that his associate, G. E. F. Lundell, will be able to finish this work. Dr. Hillebrand was one of the world’s great chemists because of his knowl- edge in his chosen field and because of his absolute honesty of purpose and the high standards he set for himself. His attitude toward his work and his achievements in it inevitably brought recognition from his fellow scientists. He was President of the Washington Chemical Society in 1903 and of the American Chemical Society in 1906, at a critical time in the history of that organization. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society and of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1916 Columbia University awarded him the Chandler medal for his attainments in chemistry. He was a charter member of the ACADEMY. —_—_ oe wae a ee ee wehtoes 4 _ wet ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Thursday, March 5. The Entomological Society. Saturday, March7. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club. Program: C. L. Mircseti: West Indian hirricanes and other revolving tropical storms of the North AtlanticOcean. R.L.SaNnrorp: The detection of flaws by magnetic analysis. Wednesday, March 11. The Philosophical Society, special meeting, 3.30 P.M.,at Bureau of Standards. Program: Prof. P. Drsys: The quantum theory and its bearing on the classical laws of the conservation of energy and momentum. i Thursday, March 12. The Chemical Society. . Saturday, March 14. The Biological Society. Tuesday, March 17. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, March 18. The Entomological Society. Thursday, March 19. The AcaprEmy. * PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE ~ JOURNAL Saturday, February 14. The Biological Society. Program: Epgar Brown: The longevity of buried seeds. E. P. Watxer: Commercial development of Blue Fox farming in Alaska. H. L. Suanrz: Collecting experiences in Hast Africa. Thursday, February 19. The Acapemy and the affiliated biological societies. Program: Undesirable immigrants. Speakers: J. R. Mouiuer (Animal diseases); C. L. Manuatt (Plant diseases); L. Kotz (Human diseases). CONTENTS OriainaL PAPERS Physics.—Thermoelectric measurement of cutting tool temperatures. te SHORE! ALE cae = sehen RMAC Yee SNS MBE Sig, Sd he, a Spectroscopy.—Regularities in the are spectrum of nickel. Prancrs M. ; BOR SPS Lest ie buck la§ sh ete wAbie Sef. 2) ofan le vis elas anooh fen a a em Botany.—New plants from iGesiont Kenora Ti Pau C. STanDLEY..... Bea Entomology.—The wasp Hoplisus costalis, a hunter of tree-hoppers. ‘Epwa REINHARD.......... WOH > Came ma He aN eT Eee 6h. asa : Screntiric Notes aNp NEWS.......... SALA, Gatton Abe YS NT Wl ra 2: pee / * OFFICERS. OF THE ACADEMY President: VeRNoN L. Kettoaa, National Research Council. 4 Corresponding decal Francis B. SrusBex, Bureau of secs ad Marc 19, 1925 No. 6 JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS E.P.Kuue - D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuty NATIONAL MUSECM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 3 DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM , ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams S. A. Ronwar PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGIOAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griacs J. R. Swanton” BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY ‘ PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Roya anp GUILFORD AVES. Bautmore, MARYLAND Entered as Second Claes Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Made in United States of America Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences: This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges—The Jougnat does not exchange with other publications. : Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made a within thirty days after date of the following issue. : * Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. i ; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Von. 15 Marcu 19,1925 No. 6 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.—Terrestrial magnetism in_ the Twentieth Century... DanteL L. Hazarp, Coast and Geodetic Survey. One of the early presidents of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in his presidential address likened himself to a biennial plant, which for the first year devotes itself to storing up a reserve supply of plant food and in the second year bursts into flower. The character of the flower is an indication of the adequacy of the stored food supply. The president of this society is in much the same category. The close of the Nineteenth Century witnessed a marked quickening of interest in the study of the earth’s magnetism, of which one evidence was the expansion of the magnetic work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, the establishment of a separate division of terrestrial magnetism, and the inauguration of a magnetic survey of the United States. Now, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, it will not be amiss to take account of stock and see to what extent our knowledge has been increased and how far we have advanced toward the solution of the perplexing problems of the causes of the earth’s magnetism and its variations. It must be borne in mind that the science of terrestrial magnetism is comparatively young. Although Gilbert in 1600 conceived the idea of the earth as a great magnet, similar to a spherical lodestone, he had almost no observational data with which to test his theory, and it was not until 1838 that a fairly correct idea of the nature of the 1 Address of the retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washington, presented at the meeting on January 10, 1925. Received January 24, 1925. 1il 112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 earth’s magnetism and its distribution was developed by Gauss from his analysis of the results at that time available. With the character of the phenomenon established, the natural philosophers were quick to realize the importance of observations more widely distributed over the earth as a prerequisite for a more effective study. On the initiative of Humboldt and Gauss, supported by Herschell, Kupffer, and Sabine, there was developed one of the earliest cases of international cooperation for the study of a world-wide phenomenon, which was remarkably successful when the conditions of transportation and communication at that time are considered. Magnetic surveys were undertaken, observers were sent to regions where magnetic observations had not previously been made, including the expedition of Ross to the vicinity of the magnetic south pole, and magnetic observatories were established about 1840, at widely separated points, for the study of the variations of the earth’s magnetism. In spite of the imperfect instruments then available, the operation of these observatories served to establish the principal features of the short period variations of the earth’s magnetism. Some of them were discontinued at the close of the limited period for which international cooperation had been arranged, but others continued in operation much longer, some (as the one at Toronto, Canada) even to the present day. It is of interest to recall that, thanks to the zeal of A. D. Bache, later Superintendent of the Coast Survey, a magnetic observatory was operated at Girard College, Philadelphia, from 1841 to 1845, and that variation observations were made in this city from 1840 to 1842. One of the observatories established by Russia was at Sitka, Alaska, and was in operation from 1842 to 1867. The results obtained brought out the fact that the variations of the earth’s magnetism are different in different magnetic latitudes and called attention to the probability of some relationship between the presence of sun spots and the occur- rence of auroras and magnetic storms on the earth. The desire for more information regarding the connection between these two ter- restrial phenomena led to further international cooperation in the establishment of a ring of temporary magnetic observatories around the borders of the Arctic Ocean to be operated for three years from 1882. From that time on the interest in the study of the earth’s magnetism steadily increased, not only in the extension of magnetic surveys and in the operation of additional magnetic observatories, but also in the discussion of the results and investigations regarding the cause of the phenomenon. In most countries the magnetic observatories were established as an MAR. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 113 adjunct to existing meteorological observatories and given a subordi- nate position. At the meeting of the International Meteorological Conference held in Paris in 1896, however, recognition was given to the growing importance of the science of terrestrial magnetism by the appointment of a Permanent Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. A fresh impulse was given to the growth of interest by the appear- ance in 1896 of the Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism edited by Bauer, with the cooperation of most of the leading magneticians of the world. This provided a medium for the interchange of ideas and a forum for the discussion of problems of international import of much greater value than the triennial meetings of the international commission and helped to prepare the way for more ready acquiesence in recommenda- tions of the commission requiring international codperation or agree- ment. The investigations of the Nineteenth Century had shown that definite conclusions regarding the causes of the earth’s magnetism and its variations could not be reached until more accurate, more detailed, and more widely distributed observations had been made, and the first quarter of the Twentieth Century has been characterized by almost world-wide activity in the accumulation of observational data. More or less detailed magnetic surveys have been made by nearly every civilized country, new magnetic observatories have been established, instruments and methods of observing have been im- proved, greater homogeneity of results has been secured by national and international comparisons of instruments, and a fuller and more prompt publication of results has been the rule. In this accumulation of data the United States has played a most important part, and that it has done so is largely the result of the energy and persistence of Dr. Louis A. Bauer. His efforts in 1899, backed by those of Dr. Henry 8. Pritchett, at that time Superin- tendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, resulted in the appropria- tion of funds necessary for the expansion of the magnetic work of that bureau, so that it became possible to make a general magnetic survey of the country, including the islands under its jurisdiction and parts of Alaska, and to establish and operate five widely separated magnetic observatories. This work was planned and the magnetic survey carried well toward completion under his direction. Designed primarily to meet the practical needs of the navigator and surveyor, this survey at the same time supplied the data needed for the study of the problems of the earth’s magnetism. 114. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 Realizing that only a small portion of the earth’s surface is occupied by. the civilized nations and that it would be extremely difficult to secure governmental funds for work to be done outside a country’s jurisdiction, Bauer presented to the trustees of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington a plan for the establishment of a bureau for inter- national magnetic research, including a world magnetic survey to supplement the work being done by other agencies. This plan was approved, and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington was established in April, 1904. While in charge of the magnetic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Bauer had satisfied himself of the feasibility of making magne- tic observations at sea with nearly the same accuracy as on land, if a suitable vessel could be obtained. His plan for the world survey, therefore, included provision for a magnetic survey of the ocean areas by means of a non-magnetic vessel. This work at sea was carried on successfully from 1905 to 1921, first on the ‘‘Galilee,”’ a chartered sailing vessel, and later on the ‘Carnegie,’ a sailing vessel with auxiliary power, built for the purpose so nearly free of magnetic material as to practically eliminate the need of taking account of deviation corrections. While this work at sea was carried on primarily for scientific purposes, it had great immediate practical value in that it provided the means for correcting the existing world isogonic charts, which were found to be seriously in error because of the insufficient data on which they were based. At the same time magnetic observers were sent to nearly all accessi- ble regions where magnetic surveys were not being made under other auspices and to some regions usually thought of as inaccessible. Asia, Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico, were all the field of these far-reaching operations. In some instances, as in Canada, one season’s work by an observer of the Department of Terrestrial Magnet- ism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington was sufficient to stimulate local interest to a point where means were provided for continuing the work under local auspices. Advantage was taken of these world-wide travels to secure comparisons of instruments with the standards of the various magnetic observatories and other agencies engaged in making magnetic surveys, thus insuring a greater homo- geneity of results, in some cases calling attention to defective in- struments and in general emphasizing the importance of better in- struments and methods. MarR. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 115 Some idea of the magnitude of the work done in this world magnetic survey may be gained from the statement that it covered all the ocean areas from latitude 70° north to 60° south, nearly all of the land areas from 30° north to 60° south, excepting India and the Dutch East Indies, and in addition parts of China, Persia, and Canada. During the same period governmental magnetic surveys have been made in India, New Zealand, Dutch East Indies, South Africa, Canada, and Russia (including Siberia), and resurveys have been made of Japan and the British Islands, and in France, Prussia, and other European countries. Thus it will be seen that during the past 25 years there has been executed a world magnetic survey covering practically the whole surface of the earth between latitude 70° north and 60° south. At the same time the making of magnetic observations has been recognized as an important part of the work of an exploring expedition, and as a result much information has been obtained regarding condi- tions in regions which would not ordinarily be reached. This is particularly true of the polar regions. The Ziegler expedition to Teplitz Bay in 1903 and 1904, Amundsen’s work in the vicinity of the magnetic north pole, 1903-1906, and along the north coast of Siberia in 1918-1921, and the work of MacMillan’s two expedi- tions served to reduce materially the size of the magnetically un- explored region around the north pole, while the various South Polar expeditions, German, French, British, and Australasian, between 1902 and 1912, supplied a large amount of valuable information re- garding magnetic conditions on the borders of the Antarctic continent, and served to locate the position of the south magnetic pole within narrow limits. The operation of temporary magnetic observatories by some of the expeditions made possible a comparison of the magnetic variations in polar regions with those in lower latitudes, the value of the comparison being enhanced by cooperation at a number of leading observatories in the form of a more open time scale on the magneto- grams at specified times. While there were plenty of magnetic observatories in operation 25 years ago, their distribution was very unsatisfactory. Out of about 40 making reports, 70 per cent were in Europe; there was only one in North America (Toronto), none in South America, and only four in the Southern Hemisphere. With the new observatories established since that time there has been a great improvement in the geographical distribution, so that more than 50 per cent of the present active 116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 observatories are outside of Europe and ten are in the Southern Hemisphere. Here again the United States has taken a leading part. Observatories have been operated by.the Coast and Geodetic Survey at Cheltenham, Maryland; Tucson, Arizona; Vieques, Porto Rico; Sitka, Alaska, and near Honolulu, Hawaii, and by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at Watheroo, Australia, and Huaneayo, Peru. Other new observatories at Cordova and New Year Island; Argentina; Vassouras, Brazil; Apia, Samoa; Christ Church, New Zealand; Dehra Dun, India; Helwan, Egypt; Sodankyla, Finland; Meanook, Canada, have all helped to extend the area covered. At the same time some of the older observatories have been discontinued and others have been compelled to move to new sites because of the encroachments of electric car lines and other industrial developments. Improved methods and instruments have added materially to the accuracy of the results. In the development of new and improved field instruments the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism has been particularly active, to meet the very varied conditions under which it has had to operate, especially in the matter of observations at sea. The design of a portable galvanometer for use with the earth inductor has made it possible to use that instrument in the field in place of the dip circle, and the addition of a special device for rotating the coil of the earth inductor adapted it for use on board ship. The marine collimator permits more accurate declination observations at sea and the sea deflector provides a method of determining directly the hori- zontal intensity on board ship. Magnetometers have been improved to secure greater ease of handling, adjustment and transportation, and various combination instruments have been devised for use where a very light compact outfit is essential. The sine galvanometer, of which three types have been developed, provides an electrical method for determining the horizontal intensity, combining rapidity with great accuracy. It is particularly well adapted for a standard instrument, but not well suited for field use. The variometers designed by Eschenhagen, with very small magnets, have permitted the erection of smaller observatory buildings for the variation instruments and a decrease in the cost of operation, since it is possible to have three variometers record on a single photographic sheet. More complete control of the instrumental constants is also provided. With so much energy being devoted to the collection of observational data, it would not be surprising to find a falling off in the attention Mar. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 117 paid to the discussion of results; but this has been true only to the extent that the utilization of the data has not kept pace with its accumulation. There has been no falling off in the zeal with which magneticians have attacked the problems awaiting solution. Many of those who had taken a prominent part in the investigations of the last half of the Nineteenth Century have gone one by one, leaving their places to be filled by a younger generation. Schott, Eschenhagen, Wild, von Bezold, Snellen, Bérgen, Sutherland, Fritsche, Bidlingmaier, Neumayer, Riicker, Birkeland, and Leyst are among those whose names will always be recalled when reviewing the progress during that period. The fundamental problem of the cause of the earth’s magnetism - and its variations, attacked from many sides and with various weapons, has thus far withstood the attack. One theory after another has been advanced only to be withdrawn before the irresistable assault of ob- served facts. Some theories fitted well enough qualitatively, but were entirely inadequate when quantity was taken into account, while others which seemed plausible at one stage of our knowledge had to be discarded when our knowledge increased. Advances in other fields of science have been seized upon in the hope that they might furnish a clue to the mystery of the earth’s magnetism. Cathode rays, the electronic theory of matter, the constitution of the sun, and the probable condition of the interior of the earth are all being studied as to their possible bearing on the magnetic field of the earth. Gilbert’s conception of the earth as a great magnet uniformly magnetized about its axis of rotation, and subsequent modifications, had to be discarded with the acceptance of a very high temperature for the interior of the earth and the recognition of the demagnetizing effect of heat, coupled with the small amount of magnetic material found in the visible rocks. At the same time the magnitude of the anomalies (the departures from a uniform magnetization) indicated the presence of large masses of magnetic material not far from the surface. Recent investigations in various fields have suggested the possibility that some of the properties of matter subjected to very great pressure may be materially different from those observed in the laboratory at ordinary pressures. Susceptibility to magnetization may be one of those properties, and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, with the cooperation of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institutionof Washington, is arranging a series of experiments designed to test the matter. 118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 6 Nippoldt, in 1921, returned to the idea of the earth as a magnetized sphere, because of the difficulty of providing a satisfactory system of electric currents to account for the observed magnetic field. He advanced the theory that the principal part of the earth’s magnetic field consists of a non-homogeneous magnetization of the earth’s crust down to a depth of about 20 kilometers. In addition, there may exist for the earth’s nucleus a magnetic field symmetrical both about the axis of rotation and about the equatorial plane which may have arisen in the same manner as the general magnetic field of the sun. He assumed that the proportion of magnetite in the earth’s crust Increases with depth below the surface, but that the distribution is not homo- geneous. He also assumed an inner core composed of iron, nickel, and cobalt, as suggested by geophysicists, with the possibility that it may be susceptible of magnetization in spite of the high temperature, in view of the magnetic effects observed on the sun by Hale. Adolph Schmidt points out that even on the assumption that at a depth of 20 kilometers the earth’s crust is composed entirely of magne- tite, the average susceptibility would not be great enough to account for the observed conditions at the surface. When it became apparent that the conception of the earth as a permanent magnet could not be sustained, the idea was advanced that the earth’s magnetic field might be due to electric currents flowing about the earth, either below the surface or in the atmosphere—the earth an electro-magnet. The mathematical analysis of the earth’s field according to the method devised by Gauss and extended by Neu- mayer and Petersen (1891), and Schmidt (1896), indicated that a small portion of the earth’s magnetism, perhaps one-fortieth, could be referred to forces outside the earth, another small portion to vertical electric currents, but by far the larger part to a system of forces within the earth. A new analysis made by Bauer in 1922, using improved data based on modern observations, gave approximately the same result. He reached the conclusion that for a satisfactory representa- tion of the observed data it is necessary to recognize the existence of an internal magnetic system constituting about 94 per cent of the total field, and an external system and a non-potential system about equal to each other in amount. A comparison of his results with those previously obtained for the epochs 1842 and 1885 indicated that the intensity of magnetization of the earth had been decreasing during the 80 year period at an average annual rate of 1 part in 1500, a rate of loss which it is hard to reconcile MAR. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 119 with the age of the earth and the present intensity of magnetization unless we suppose that there have also been periods of increasing intensity. Bauer also carried out the harmonic analysis separately for parallels of latitude at 5° intervals from 60° south to 60° north and found an apparent correlation between distribution of land and water and intensity of magnetization, the intensity being greater for the parallels falling largely on the land. In an earlier (1911) discussion of the earth as an electro-magnet, Bauer took the position that the system of magnetic forces within the earth required by the Gaussian analysis might be the result of mag- netizing currents outside the earth, namely, negative electric currents circulating from west to east, but he later withdrew this hypothesis, after further study of the problem. As it seems to be established that the diurnal variations of the earth’s field and the disturbances must be ascribed to outside currents, it would be much simpler to ac- count for those changes if the field itself is due principally to outside currents. The idea of the earth as an electro-magnet naturally suggests the possibilty that its magnetism may be caused by its rotation. This possibility has been the subject of much study, particularly by Barnett, who has shown experimentally that a piece of iron may be magnetized by rotation; but the observed effect was much too small to account for the earth’s magnetism. Swann attacked the problem mathematically and concluded that any effect due to rotation would be too small to be detected. In 1900 Sutherland suggested as a possible cause of the earth’s magnetism the rotation of an electrostatic field within the earth (a positively charged core and a negatively charged crust, or vice versa), as Rowland’s experiments had proved that a moving charge of electricity produces a magnetic field analagous to that of a current, but this theory proved untenable when submitted to analysis. The development of the electronic theory of matter with the atoms consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons led Sutherland to suggest that if for some unknown reason connected with gravitation the negative charge of the atom was further from the center of the earth than the positive charge by only 0.4 x 10-* cm., it would account for a magnetic field comparable with that of the earth. Here again, when the theory was submitted to analysis and the electronic theory was more fully developed, it was seen that Sutherland’s hypothesis was untenable either qualitatively or quantitatively. 120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 Failing to find a satisfactory explanation of the earth’s magnetism on the basis of the known properties of matter and the accepted laws of electro-dynamics, J. J. Thomson, Sutherland, Bauer, and Swann have suggested that we may have to look for some slight but fundamental modification of those accepted laws, possibly as regards the mutual attraction and repulsion of moving positive and negative electrons, similar to a suggestion by H. A. Lorenz regarding the cause of gravita- tion. Indeed there seems to be growing a belief that gravitation and terrestrial magnetism are very closely allied and probably to be traced to a common origin. Realizing the difficulties in the way of a direct attack on the problem, especially before more complete observational data was available, many magneticians have turned their attention to a study of the variations of the earth’s magnetism and their correlation with asso- ciated phenomena, such as atmospheric electricity, earth currents, auroras, sun spots, solar radiation, meteorological phenomena, hoping in this way to throw light on the main problem. In particular, magnetic storms, those irregular disturbances of large amplitude and comparatively short duration, have been the subject of much study. From the time of the earliest comparisons of photographic records from widely separated observatories, it was recognized that the more severe magnetic disturbances occur at practically the same time all over the earth, and further comparative study of abrupt beginnings and sharp turning-points indicated strict stmultaneity, the departures therefrom being ascribed to errors inherent in the time measurements, so that more accurate determination of the time of occurrence of such salient features was suggested as a method of determining differences of longitude. In fact, van Bemmelen, from the mean of 53 abrupt beginnings, computed the difference of longitude between Batavia, Java, and Greenwich, and obtained a value differing by only 9 seconds from the one derived in the usual way. On May 8, 1902, there occurred a magnetic storm, the abrupt beginning of'which coincided with the eruptionof Mont Pelée, as nearly as the time of that disastrous outbreak could be determined. This apparent coincidence suggested the possibility that the two phenomena might be related. Bauer made a study of this storm in 1910, based on the records of 25 observatories, and reached the conclusion that it did not begin at the same instant all over the earth, but on the contrary had its origin in about longitude 75° west of Greenwich and traveled eastwardly around the earth, requiring between three and four minutes MAR. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 121 to complete the circuit. A similar study of another storm of dis- tinctive features supported this conclusion. For further evidence on this very important question, Faris made a study of 15 abruptly beginning storms occurring in 1906-1909, using the records of the five magnetic observatories of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and his results apparently confirmed Bauer’s conclusions, the transmission time again coming out about 33 minutes. It was neces- sary, however, to assume that some of the storms traveled from west to east, ashad been suggested by Bauer. Faris pointed out that probably the greater part of the error of determining the time of an abrupt beginning is due to the difficulty of selecting the exact point of begin- ning on the curve. Bauer accordingly secured reports from 23 obser- vatories on the same storms which Faris had investigated, making an effort to secure more homogeneous data by means of tracings of por- tions of the curves showing the points selected for measurement. A discussion of these more accurate data failed to confirm the conclusions drawn irom the earlier investigations. Rodés also made a study of a number of abrupt-beginning storms between 1910 and 1921 and found no evidence of storm propagation of the character suggested by Bauer, but he did find some indications that a terrestrial magnetic storm may begin at the “tront meridian,’’ that portion of the earth, that is, which would be the first to meet a stream of electrified particles coming from the sun, occurring later on both sides of that meridian. The close correlation between the occurrence of magnetic storms and auroras and the presence of large spots on the sun naturally led to attempts to trace a causal relationship. It was soon seen that a direct magnetic effect by the sun was out of the question.. With the development of the idea of currents of electricity being the cause of the earth’s magnetism, different forms of electric discharge emanating from the sun were successively put forth as the cause of the observed terrestrial phenomena, the theories advanced keeping pace with the development of our knowledge of electrical discharges in a vacuum. Birkeland, Arrhenius, and Nordmann agreed in considering the auroral rays as a luminescence produced by the absorption of cathode rays in the upper atmosphere, and attracted toward the earth’s magnetic poles. Birkeland, who devoted many years to the study of auroras, first supposed that the cathode rays were emitted directly from the sun, but later he advanced the modified theory that cathode rays from the sun set up electric currents in the atmosphere which in turn emit secondary cathode rays. He supported his theory by the production of artificial auroras in the laboratory, about a magnetized steel ball in a tube of rarefied air exposed to cathode rays. | 122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 Paulsen in 1906, after calling attention to the difficulties with earlier theories, sought to explain the aurora and magnetic storms by a strong ionization of the upper layers of the atmosphere above the zone of maximum frequency of the aurora. Stérmer, who had worked with Birkeland in both his observational and experimental studies of the aurora, knowing that the phenomenon of the concentration of cathode rays toward a single magnetic pole had been mathematically treated by Poinearé, thought it might be worth while to determine mathematically the trajectories of electric corpus- cles coming from the sun into the magnetic field of the earth, hoping to bring out the principal features of the aurora. These studies began in 1903 and covered a period of about ten years. Stérmer simplified the problem at the outset by treating the earth as a spherical magnet and neglecting the relative motion of the earth and sun and then modified the results obtained for this simple case to correspond to the more complex conditions actually existing. In this way he was able to develop paths for the corpuscles which seemed to fit the general features of the aurora as it appears in nature and of the artificial aurora of Birkeland, and thus tended to strengthen the corpuscular theory of its origin. The correlation of magnetic storms with sun spots, although very satisfactory when based on yearly averages, leaves much to be desired when individual cases are considered. ‘Thus severe magnetic storms sometimes occur when no large sun spots are visible and, on the other hand, the appearance of a sun spot is not always accompanied by a magnetic storm. ‘To account for this, Maunder advanced the theory that the solar activity which gives rise to magnetic disturbances on the earth does not act equally in all directions but along narrow well- defined streams, not necessarily truly radial; that these streams arise from active areas of limited extent; that these active areas are not only the source of our magnetic disturbances but are also the seats of the formation of sun spots; that these areas can be active both before a spot has formed and after it has disappeared. The fact that large magnetic storms frequently follow each other at an interval approxi- mating the time of revolution of the sun and that such recurrence has been traced for several rotation periods, not every recurrence being accompanied by a visible sun spot, requires some such explanation as that suggested by Maunder. Chapman, after a detailed analysis of a number of magnetic storms, attempted to show how some of their characteristics may be produced MAR. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 123 by streams of electric particles entering the atmosphere from the sun, but this theory, like so many others, failed to fit all the facts. The researches of Hale at the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory on the evidence of magnetic polarity in the sun spots occurring in pairs and on the general magnetic field of the sun have further stimulated the efforts to trace a connection between solar and terrestrial magnetism and opened the way for a study of the details of the sun’s magnetic field. According to the most recent analysis by Seares, the sun’s magnetic axis makes an angle of about 6° with the axis of rotation. When we consider the diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism a different problem is presented. Here we have to deal with a phenom- enon which is a function of local mean time, as contrasted with magnetic storms, which, as we have seen, occur everywhere at practi- cally the same absolute time. Attempts have been made to correlate the diurnal variation with changes of pressure, temperature, humidity, and other terrestrial phenomena which have a period the same as the earth’s rotation, but without success. Broadly speaking the diurnal variation is a function of the position of the sun above the horizon, distinctly a local phenomenon. ‘The extremes and the principal por- tion of the variation occur during the daytime. During the night | hours there is comparatively little variation. In view of this fact, it occurred to Bauer that the interposition of the moon between the earth and the sun at the time of a solar eclipse might have an appreciable effect on the earth’s magnetism. Accordingly he arranged for special observations by observers of the Coast and Geodetic Survey at the time of the total eclipse of May 28, 1900, at stations extending from Alabama to Maryland. The results indicated a small but definite disturbance associated with the passage of the moon’s shadow across the place of observation and of the character to be expected. Similar observations have been made at all accessible solar eclipses since that time, principally on the initiative of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, but with the cooperation of other observers in the countries crossed by or contiguous to the belt of totality. These have in general confirmed the results of the first series, though the effect produced by an eclipse is so small that it cannot be definitely recognized when ordinary magnetic disturbances are In progress. Much study has been given by Chree, Chapman, and others to the details of the diurnal variation, particularly to a comparison between conditions on quiet days and disturbed days and between conditions 124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 6 in high and low magnetic latitudes. Material has been provided for amore accurate study of those features which are not purely local, such as the effect of change of geographic position on the form and amplitude of the curves, through the publication by many observa- tories of diurnal variation tables based on five internationally selected quiet days, thus eliminating to a large extent the lack of homogeneity which magnetic disturbances might introduce. Still another problem is presented by the secular change of the earth’s magnetism, which requires centuries for its development. Time enough has not yet elapsed since the beginning of measurements of the earth’s magnetism to fully determine the characteristics of this change, but we do know that it does not go on indefinitely in one direc- tion; eventually there is a reversal. In the case of declination the records at some European stations go back far enough to show two reversals, with a range, in the case of London, of 35° in a little over 200 years. This suggested the idea of periodicity and a motion of the magnetic pole as the cause of the secular change, as it seemed possible to follow the occurrence of a particular phase from east to west around the earth. Data accumulated during the past 25 years show that the phenom- enon is very complex. The change is by no means regular; the periods indicated for different stations differ widely; unexpected reversals occur and there are undoubtedly waves of shorter period superimposed upon the primary wave, if indeed there is a primary wave. It is impossible to predict with accuracy what conditions will be ten years from now. Bauer has made a mathematical analysis of the secular change of the earth’s field as a whole, and has concluded that the system of forces involved is partly within the earth and partly outside and that the strength of the field is changing as well as its direction. It is not easy to conceive of a system of forces acting for a long term of years to produce such a great change in the direction of the earth’s magnetic field. A loss of magnetism would not be surprising from our experience with artificial magnets, but such a rapid loss as one part in 1500 per year for 80 years or more requires verification on the basis of more accurate secular change data for the whole earth. Variation of solar activity has been suggested as one cause of the secular change of the earth’s magnetism. The periodic change in the number of sun spots, which is undoubtedly a symptom of varying solar activity, is paralleled by an eleven-year period in the secular change, mar. 19, 1925 HAZARD: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 125 and Bauer has attempted to trace a relationship between changes in the earth’s magnetism and the changes of solar activity indicated by Abbott’s observations of the amount of heat given off by the sun. Abbott’s observations have not yet been going on long enough, how- ever, to draw any definite conclusions. Any theory of the earth’s magnetism based on electric currents either within or outside the earth must take account of the currents actually observed, and one of the features of the progress of the past twenty-five years has been the awakening of interest in the study of atmospheric electricity and earth currents and the development of instruments for measuring them which can be relied upon to give re- sults of the required accuracy. Before long we may also expect the increase in our knowledge of radio transmission to throw light on electrical conditions of the atmosphere at higher levels. From this summary of the accomplishments in the field of terrestrial magnetism during the first quarter of the Twentieth Century, it will be seen that there has been no sudden increase in knowledge, no epoch-making discovery, but just a steady advance. The old prob- lems still confront us, but in a modified form. Their scope has broad- ened tremendously and any theory to explain the earth’s magnetism must take into account the structure of the atom as well as the struc- ture of the universe. At the same time new weapons and new methods of attack have become available and the workers in other fields of science—astronomers, physicists, geologists, chemists—are now the allies of the magneticians. Moreover, an accurate magnetic survey of practically all of the accessible land and water areas and the opera- tion of additional magnetic observatories, better distributed, have provided us with reliable knowledge of the distribution of the earth’s magnetism—the facts which must form the ultimate test of any theory. Finally there has been an increasing recognition of the importance of international cooperation, so well expressed by Riicker in 1898, when he said: “For those who would unravel the causes of the mysterious movements of the compass needle, concerted action is essential. They cannot indeed dispense with individual initiative or with the leadership of genius, but I think all would agree that there is urgent need for more perfect organization, for an authority which can decide not only what to do, but what to leave undone.” We may confidently expect that the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union will eventually develop into an organization of the character suggested by Riicker. 126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 6 GEOLOGY.—A revision of the Pleistocene Period in North America, based especially on glacial geology and vertebrate paleontology. Outver P. Hay, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1. EXPLANATORY For some years the writer has been studying the fossil vertebrated animals of the North American Pleistocene period in the endeavor to determine the genera and species which then existed, the geological stages during which the various species lived, thewr origin, their distribution, and the causes of the disappearance of as many as did disappear. Naturally, it has been necessary to study the geology of the Pleistocene, in order to correlate the history of the animals with the geology. For the writer the Pleistocene is synonymous with the Glacial period. As regards the beginning of this period, we may not know when the first accumulations of ice began at the centers of radiation in Canada; but we may credit to the Glacial period such phenomena in southern British America and in the United States as (1) glacial drift produced from a continuous sheet of ice; (2) moraines from local glaciers pro- voked by a general lowering of the climate; (3) the disturbance of the previous drainage. The close of the Pleistocene was marked by the retreat of the last ice sheet to its center in Labrador. I accept the results of the glacialists who seem to have established the occurrence of five glacial and four interglacial stages. During these stages there appear to have been produced such important ef- fects, geological and biological, that they mark off as many distinct divisions of the Pleistocene period; but not all of them have the same value. 2. THE VICISSITUDES OF THE PLEISTOCENE VERTEBRATES In considering the vertebrate palaeontology of North America during the Pleistocene, the following facts need attention. Had it not been for certain geological changes which occurred just before or at the beginning of the Pleistocene, our continent would have been occupied by animals very different from those found here when Columbus made his discovery. The occupants would have been purely the descendants of the late Tertiary animals. There would have been found strange carnivores, probably various saber-tooth tigers; one- toed, probably also three-toed horses; tapirs; various species of camels MAR. 19, 1925 HAY: PLEISTOCENE IN NORTH AMERICA 127 and pececaries; short-jawed and long-jawed mastodons; possibly rhinoceroses. However, movements of the earth’s crust opened the gates of Asia and of South America and permitted hosts of vertebrates to enter from those lands. From South America there arrived six or more genera of giant ground-sloths, large and small armadillos, glyptodons, and huge capybaras. Sarnt-Hinatre, Fl. Bras. Merid. 1: 251-252. 1825. § HocHREUTINER, B. P. G., Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Genéve 6: 56. 1902. 7 Martrtet, G. E., Boll. Real Giar. Col. Palermo 1: 224. 1914. 168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 laciniate, involucral bracts. Ulbrich, remarking on a Mexican plant which he makes the type of his genus Selera, says’: ‘This plant resembles a spe- cies of Gossypium; it possesses, however, an involucre of entire, ovate, cor- date bracts and seeds so slightly hairy that it can not be included in that genus.” 4. Number of leaf nectaries.—The older descriptions of species of Gossypium always gave the number of nectaries to be found on the veins of the lower side of the leaves. The species Gossypium eglandulosum Cay. was con- sidered distinct from other cottons because no nectaries were found on the leaves. The number of these glands on the leaves of any one plant or species usually depends upon the number of lobes of the leaf and whether the leaf is situated on a branch or on the main stem. The uselessness of the number of nectaries on the leaf as a varietal or specific character was long ago pointed out by Von Rohr? and Medicus.'® Leake,! working with cer- tain Indian species, notes the varying number of leaf nectaries, and states that it is possible to recognize forms within the species in which the leaves are all eglandular. Gossypium tomentosum Nutt., a native Hawaiian species, is without any nectaries on its leaves, as is also a cultivated Indian variety of Gossypium nanking Meyen, grown by the writer out of a row of 130 plants of which but one plant bearing leaf nectaries was produced. 5. Petal spots.—Practically all of the species of this tribe which have never been cultivated bear a pink, crimson, or purple spot on the base of each petal. On the other hand a great many cultivated varieties of cotton have lost the petal spot, though in certain varieties it sometimes reappears in a few individuals. An example of this is found in the early Upland variety known as “‘King.’”’ In the cultivated species in which it normally occurs, such as Sea Island, Egyptian, and Kidney cottons (@. barbadense and G. lapideum), it is often quite variable in size and distinctness. 6. Covering of the seed.—Several writers, notably Von Rohr,® Rafinesque,” and Watt, have attempted a classification of varieties and species of Gos- sypium based entirely upon the covering of the seed. The seeds of a few of the genera of the Hibisceae are devoid of a downy or fuzzy covering, but in most of the genera the wild species have their seeds covered with rusty down or fuzz. In the cultivated varieties of cottons, however, the color and amount of the fibrous covering is so variable within the species, and even within the variety, as to make this character of doubtful value in taxonomic work. Certain degenerate types of the common Upland fuzzy-seeded cotton not only have naked seeds but the bolls contain little or no lint. 8 Utsricu, E., Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Brandenburg 55: 168. 1913. ° Von Rour, J. P. B., Anmerkungen iiber den Cattunbau part 2. 1793. 10 Mepicus, F. K., Bot. Beob. 2: 201. 1783. 1 Leake, H. M., Journ. Genetics 1: 239. 1911. 12 RAFINESQUE, C. 8., Sylv. Tellur. 14-19. 1838. 13 Wart, Gro., The wild and cultivated cotton plants of the world, pp. 8, 56, 60. 1907. APRIL 19, 1925 LEWTON: ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS IN HIBISCEAE 169 A wild cotton found growing on the coast of Jamaica by Britton and Harris has both smooth and fuzzy-seeded forms growing side by side, a condition which is also found in certain Chinese and Transcaucasian forms of Gos- sypium nanking. Yet Watt does not hesitate to use the presence or ab- sence of fuzz on the seed as a basis of classification of species, and believes the differences in the covering of the seed to be ‘‘almost sub-generic in value.” H. M. Leake has called attention to this “new character’ in Asiatic cottons. W. L. Balls gives his opinion of the dependence to be placed in the covering of the seed as a taxonomic character thus: “Similarly the smoothness or ‘fuzziness’ of the seed, which has been ridden to death in some schemes of classification, is almost an accident; various forms of the accidental result happen to be commoner in some species than others, but the naked-seeded forms are known now in all the commercial cottons, hav- ing probably arisen as sudden sports.” ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS WHICH ARE OF VALUE IN CLASSIFYING THE HIBISCEAE In place of the variable anatomical characters mentioned above, some of which are of taxonomic value when their limitations are known, other characters are here suggested which are believed to be more dependable for systematic classification. These may be listed as follows: 1. The extra-floral nectaries (excluding those on the leaves); position, number, shape, and size. . Black oil glands; presence or entire, absence, distribution. . Fringe of hairs on valves of carpels. . Persistence of involucral bracts. . Adnation of bracts to each other. . Number of chromosomes. D Orv Ww dO A few examples of the use already made of these anatomical characters by systematists are offered in the paragraphs below, and practical applica- tion of them to the problem of classifying the already established genera and species of the Hibisceae is promised in further studies in this series. 1. Extra-floral nectaries——The various species of Gossypium and related genera are usually provided with one or two sets of extra-floral nectaries in addition to the one or more nectaries usually found on the underside of the leaves. In Professor Comstock’s exhaustive study of cotton insects, Dr. William Trelease describes!’ the nectar secreted by the cotton plant and discusses its value in attracting certain insects which might aid in cross-pollination or act as guardians against the ravages of other insects. 14 Leake, H. M., Observations on certain extra-Indian Asiatic cottons. Mem. Dept. Agr. India Bot. 4: (5):111. 1912. 1 Baus, W. L., The development and properties of raw cotton. 3. 1915. 16 TRELEASE, W. in Comstock, J. H., Report wpon cotton insects. U.S. Dept. Agr., 317-343. 1879. 170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 Where these extra-floral nectaries have been mentioned by systematic botanists at all, they have usually been spoken of as ‘‘glands’’ without clearly distinguishing them from the floral nectary proper or from the black oil-glands to be seen so prominently in nearly all parts of the plant. But little attention to the extra-floral nectaries has been given by taxonomists, and their value as diagnostic characters in formal descriptions and keys has generally been overlooked. Tyler has clearly drawn"? the distinction between the four types of nec- taries, and has indicated their value in the classification of the cottons and their nearest relatives. Stanford and Viehoever describe!® the nectaries, and show that they differ morphologically from the internal black glands and have no connection with them. 2. The black oil-glands——The chemistry of the black oil-glands, black dots, or internal glands, as they are called by various authors, which are found in all parts of the cotton plant, has been studied by Stanford and Viehoever,'’ who state that they have been noted within the Malvaceae only in certain genera of the subfamily Hibisceae, and that other genera appear not to possess glands of this type. The absence of these black in- ternal glands from the cotyledons of the five species of Australian plants, placed by Fr. von Mueller first in the genus Gossypium and later Fugosia (Cienfuegosia), was noted by Todaro in his Monograph of Gossypium and used by him to separate subgenera. The distribution and arrangement of these glands was noted by Cavanilles in characterizing his genus Cien- fuegosia.*® . 3. Fringe of hairs on the valves of the carpels:—The most prominent char- acter of the genus Thurberia as described by Gray”! is a false dissepiment in each cell of the ovary which, upon the maturing of the capsule, breaks up into a fringe of long silky hairs along the edges of the carpels. These hairs seem to have a part in the ejection of seed from the open valves of the cap- sule in a manner somewhat analogous to the peristome on the capsule of certain mosses. Similar carpellary fringes are to be found on Cienfuegosia heterophylla (Vent.) Garcke, of southern Florida and the West Indies, Cien- fuegosia yucatanensis Millsp., of Yucatan, Gossypium harknessii Brandegee, of Lower California, Erioxylum palmeri Rose, of Mexico, and numerous other species included in genera other than Thurberia. The edges of the carpels of the capsules of Lagwnaria patersoni, a handsome ornamental 17 TyuErR, F. J., The nectaries of cotton. U.S. Dept. Agr. B. P. I. Bull. 131, pt. 5. 1908. 18 Sranrorp, E. E. & VizHorver, A., Chemistry and histology of the glands of the cotton plant, with notes on the occurrence of similar glands in related plants. Journ. Agr. Re- search 13: 419-435, pl. 42-50. May 20, 1918. 19 Toparo, A., Relazione sulla cultura dei cotoni in Italia 98. 1878. 20 CavaNnIuues, A. J., Monad. Diss., Decem. 174, pl. 72, f. 2. 1786. 21 Gray, A., Pl. Wright. 1: 23. 1852. APRIL 19, 1928 LEWTON: ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS IN HIBISCEAE 171 Australian tree, are provided with a thick fringe of very fine, stiff, golden, deciduous hairs pointing inwards and retarding the dissemination of the smooth seeds. Dr. E. W. Bick, Curator of the Brisbane Botanic Garden, Queensland, describes these as follows”: “‘Attached to the inner portion of the capsules are numerous short barbed hairs that will attach themselves to the skin, and are very irritating, being not unlike those of the velvet bean, Wucuna pruriens, commonly called cow-itch.” 4. The persistence of the involucral bracts.—The deciduous nature of the involucral bracts of the so-called Australian cottons (Notoxrylinon) and of species of the genera Thespesia and Montezuma has been made use of by several authors in formulating generic distinctions and analytical keys. 5. The adnation of the involucral bracts to each other —Whether the brac- teoles forming the involucre are free from each other or more or less united at their bases is a factor considered by Sir George Watt to be of value in the classification of cottons. His words are as follows™: “The most in- structive characteristics are derived from the position and condition of the bracteoles; the presence or absence of-nectar-yielding glands; and the nature of the floss and fuzz that surround the seed.”’ However, this writer finally gives first place to the covering of the seed as a diagnostic character, the adnation of the bracteoles being stated as the second most important charac- ter in defining his sections of Gossypium.** Hochreutiner,”* in his revision of the genus Hibiscus, considers this character of importance in classifying the large number of species belonging to that genus. The adnation of the involucral bracts of certain tropical American cottons and species of the Old World has been suggested by O. F. Cook** as having a protective value, but he does not suggest its use for purposes of classifi- cation. 6. Number of chromosomes.—During the past year three investigators, H. J. Denham in England,?’ A. G. Nikolajeva in Russia,?* and A. HE. Longley in Washington, have studied, independently of each other, the chromosome numbers of different species of cottons and some related genera. Each of these investigators has pointed out that the species so far studied fall into two groups, one having 13 chromosomes and the other 26. These two groups have already been well defined as the Old World and the New World cottons. 2 Bick, E. W., Flowering tress of the Brisbane Botanic Garden. Agr. Journ. Queens- land 16: 379-380. 1921. 22 Wart, Gro., loc. cit. p. 60. % Watt, Guo., loc. cit. pp. 61, 77, 163, 244, 316. 25 HocHREUTINER, B. P. G., loc cit. 4: 23-191. 1900. 28 Coox, O. F., The weevil-resisting adaptations of the cotton plant. U.S. Dept. Agr. B. P. I. Bull. 88: 31, 32, 37. 1906. 27 Denuam, H. J., Chromosome numbers of Old and New World cottons. Ann. Bot. 38: 433-438. July, 1924. Journ. Textile Inst. Manchester 15: T1496-1500. Oct., 1924. 22 ZartEy, G.S., Bull. Applied Bot. & Pl. Breeding (Russian) 13?: 1382. 1924. 172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 Cytological studies of this kind have opened a new field of investigation which is sure to throw much light on the relationships of the important economic plants. ENTOMOLOGY.—The wasp Nysson hoplisivora, a parasitic relative of Hoplisus costalis. Epwarp G. REINHARD, Canisius College, Buffalo, New York. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHWER.) It has been customary to extoll the solitary wasps as examples of altruism and industry. They are the industrious fossores, considered to be of a superior race above the ruder parasitic Hymenoptera. So they are, a very respectable clan, yet, ike many noted families, they are not without a “black sheep” to stain the family honor. It was only recently that any wayward habits among the members of the Sphe- coids have been brought to light. But information is accumulating, and the evidence points to a degenerate branch, the Nyssonint, as a set of parasites who revel in robbery and fratricide. The Nyssonini had a clear record for centuries because no one had ever investigated their manner of life. In 1887 Handlirsch voiced the first suspicion by noting how similar in appearance some of them were to the species of bees who practised parasitism. Yet nothing definite was known about the life-history of any Nysson until 1901 when Fer- ton observed the behavior of Nysson dimidiatus in France, and found indications of parasitic habits. Dr. William M. Wheeler, writing in 1919, thus summarizes the knowledge of Nysson’s habits: “According to Ferton (1901) the Gorytid Nysson dimidiatus is a parasite of Gorytes elegans. The latter digs its burrow in the sand and provisions it with larval and adult Hemiptera; the Nysson finds it and often enters it during the absence of Gorytes. If the latter happens to be at home the Nysson waits motionless about a dozen centimetersaway, with its head turned towards the nest, till the Gorytes departs. Adlerz (1910) observed very similar behavior on the part of Nysson maculatus towards Gorytes lunatus. Apparently both species of Nysson destroy the Gorytes egg attached to the prey and lay their own in its place.””! Neither Ferton nor Adlerz succeeded in finding the Nysson’s egg or larva or any signs of parasitic depredations beyond the suspicious actions of the wasp and its forceful entry into the Gorytes’ burrow. Barth in 1907 had made additional observations of which Dr. Wheeler was not aware. He saw in Wisconsin a Nysson fidelis (Cres.) rapidly 1 The parasitic Aculeata, a study in evolution. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 68: no. 1: 15. APRIL 19, 1925 REINHARD: THE WASP NYSSON HOPLISIVORA 173 scratch open and enter the nest of an absent Gorytes canaliculatus. The Nysson remained within for several minutes, then came out again and closed the entrance. The following day when the nest was opened, one of the cells was found to contain nine tree-hoppers and two eggs. One egg was glued to the thorax of a hopper, another smaller one was found lying unattached on the floor of the cell. This smaller egg, evi- dently that of Nysson, was in shape similar to the Gorytes’ egg, but its surface was less shining. These three observations seem to be the only evidence recorded in entomological literature of the singular manner of life practised by the Nysson wasps. During the summer of 1922 while investigating the habits of Hop- lisus costalis at Woodstock, Maryland, I made the acquaintance of an interesting Nysson previously unknown to science, which 8. A. Rohwer described? as Nysson (Brachystegus) hoplisivora. An account of the habits of this wasp will furnish us with new material for a con- sideration of Nysson’s parasitic behavior. The Nysson parasitoids are especially noteworthy because in all these cases the parasite bears a very close genetic relationship to its host, and according to the evolutionary doctrine it is supposed in general to have sprung from the same stock as its host species. The host of Nysson hoplisivora, as well as its parasite, both belong to the subfamily Nyssoninae. It is a wasp sometimes known as Gorytes costalis, though Hoplisus costalis is now the approved form. It preys upon various species of tree-hoppers (Membracidae) which it stores away in burrows dug into the sandy earth. Five or six mem- bracids are commonly placed in a single cell and the wasp’s egg is deposited on the last one brought in, along the lateral edge of the bug’s broad sternum. The mouth of the burrow is kept barricaded with a loose covering of sand which the wasp scrapes away when entering and carefully replaces when about to depart. There were about twenty nests of H. costalis sunk into the sand of a brick-covered path which was the site of a thriving settlement of the solitary wasps Philanthus gibbosus, who capture wild bees of the family Halictidae. Both wasps build nest-mounds of about the same size, those of Philanthus being somewhat more spreading. Somewhere among these nests, flying about, or resting in the neigh- borhood of a burrow, could always be found two or three of the Nysson wasps. They were small but very neat-appearing in their dress of dull 2 Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 25: no. 4. April, 1923. 174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 black and the first abdominal segment gleaming with red and yellow, like a ripe apple. They would fly very low, just skimming over the surface, to pause at every sand heap, inspect it, circle about inquisi- tively, and dart along to the next mound. The burrows of Philanthus did not interest them. They delayed longest at the doors of Hoplisus to gather information with trembling taps of their antennae. If the owner was about, the visitor would sometimes settle herself on the ground close by, and, with watchful gaze directed at the doorway, wait quietly until Hoplisus had departed. At times she would enter an open gallery but come out hastily again, and warily take up a post of observation to sit awaiting. But when the coast was clear and the nest vacated, the Nysson would boldly break through its barricaded portal to enter the nurse-chambers below, where her depredations could be committed without detection. For several days the lurking Nyssons haunted the colony before I could succeed in witnessing with full convicting evidence their sneaky methods. On July 12, early in the morning, I am watching near a clump of burrows which the Hoplisi has excavated. The tenent of the nearest dwelling has already gone off on her hunting expedition. A prying Nysson appears in the offing. She skims over to the un- guarded nest and alights on the little plateau of sand. Just a slight bit of hesitation and inspection, then the Nysson commences to tear away at the loose sand with her front tarsal rakes. She does her work audaciously and quickly. In a moment the tunnel is exposed and the Nysson slips swiftly within. Only a few seconds does she tarry. Then the intruder emerges and with wonderful nonchalance, as it were, carefully rearranges the sand over the doorway. To see her you would think she was the dwelling’s rightful owner and housewife. When the tunnel is once more blocked and the nest entrance obliterated, the Nysson calmly departs. Was the Nysson’s action in closing the burrow really an attempt to eliminate the traces of her forced entrance, or was it merely a tropism and remnant of the days when her more industrious an- cestors were wont to throw a curtain of sand over the doorway at every departure? In less than ten minutes, Hoplisus appears on the scene, she whose home had been invaded. Under her body she carries a motionless membracid. Will the wasp notice anything amiss in the arrangement of her doorway or in the sacred chambers below? The wasp proceeds as usual. She gives no evidence of alarm. The burrow is entered, her fresh capture left in the nest, and the busy matron ventures forth APRIL 19, 1925 REINHARD: THE WASP NYSSON HOPLISIVORA 175 again to resume her quest after choice tree-hoppers for her own—no, quite unwittingly now for another’s offspring. After an hour’s hunt, Hoplisus returns a second time with a captive, and thus for three hours longer I leave her to perform her hunting and household duties unmolested. At length, I begin to open the invaded burrow to see what rape or ruin the despoiler has accomplished. The corridor sloped gently downward for six inches, at the terminus of which was a single oval cell. A branch gallery led off further, but only this first cell had been provisioned. It contained six Ceresae piled two deep in a double layer. A Ceresa in the upper layer bore the Hoplisus egg. A Ceresa in the lower layer bore the parasite’s egg. This was so skillfully concealed and protected as to claim my astonishment. The Nysson had inserted it under the folded wings of the tree-hopper where it rested hidden and secure along the bug’s dorsal abdomen. Re- peatedly have I discovered the egg of hoplisivora in the cells of Hop- lisus and it is always found tucked away in the same position. Let us compare host egg and parasite egg. The former is more than twice as large as the latter. Hoplisus lays an egg which is bow-shaped, 3 mm. long, smooth, shining white, and glued by its caudal pole to the sternum of the tree-hopper alongside the hind coxa. It arches forward along the body to the hopper’s head. The parasite, Nysson hoplisi- vora, deposits an egg which is fairly straight and cylindrical, 1.34 mm. long, its greatest width 0.44mm. The shell is dull white, tough, with a “goose-flesh”’ texture that shows under the microscope as numerous small excrescences placed with regularity. For one reason or another I could not succeed in tracing out the entire history of the parasite from a single individual, but, having gathered scraps of information here and there, and having pieced them together, the remainder of the story became apparent. Some scattered bits of data taken from my note-book are here placed in order: 1. (July 13, cell no. 1). This cell contained five Membracids. The Nysson egg was tucked away under the wings of a Platycotis vittata. There was no Hoplisus egg present in the cell. 2. (July 12). Six membracids in the cell. The Nysson egg and the Hoplisus egg, each on separate bugs. 3. (July 20). Cell contained six membracids, the Nysson egg, and the Hoplisus egg. The following day, 7.30 a.m., the egg of the parasite hatched. Twelve hours later the egg of the Hoplisus hatched. 4. (July 15, cell no. 1). Six membracids. The Hoplisus egg is near hatching; the egg of the parasite has hatched. The larva feeds for a short time, then leaves its hopper to go exploring. 176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 5. (July 13, cell no. 4). Five membracids. The Hoplisus egg near hatching. To its basal end is attached a small larva half as long as the egg. 6. (July 15, cell no. 2). Fivemembracids. The parasite larva has just finished eating the Hoplisus egg and is attacking the hopper under the hind femur. The parasite feeds facing the opposite from the direction in which the Hoplisus larva is turned when beginning its meal. From these data it is quite easy to construct the story of the Nysson’s depredations: Nysson hopliswwora manages to install her egg in the nest-chamber of Hoplisus previous to the oviposition of the host-wasp who does not place her egg in the cell until the full quota of Membracids has been gathered. Theparasitic egg hatches half a day in advance of the Hop- lisus egg. The intruding larva takes alittle nourishment, thenadvances through the cell to seek out and devour the egg of its host. When its rival is destroyed, hoplisivora feasts without danger of molestation upon the store of provisions which its parasitism has appropriated. These facts do not agree with the previous opinion of entomologists that the Nysson destroys the egg of the Hoplisus wasp in order to lay its own inplace of the host egg, for in reality the destruction of the host egg is performed by the parasitic larva and not by its mother. Thisin- correct surmise led Dr. Wheeler to discuss a ‘‘Nysson type of Para- sitism’”’ which seemed singular and perturbing because it was without a corresponding type among the parasitic bees. The case of Nysson however is quite parallel in its general scheme with that of Stelis among the bees. When the egg of the parasite wasp has hatched the infant larvamay be seen moving about in the space between the wings and body of the tree- hopper. For the first few hours it attacks the flanks of the bug and secures a little liquid nourishment. Then, aroused by some inexplic- able urge it leaves its feast and goes exploring through the cell. When it starts on its trip of adventure the larva is a short, stout grub with a large head. It bears on its under surface some queer blisters, which are possibly leg-like appendages that render assistance in crawling. From its mouth projects a pair of long, thin mandibles, sharp and curved like the venom-fangs of a rattlesnake. The restless larva moves about over the heap of food. Sooner or later it comes in contact with the frail Hoplisus egg, pregnant with the developing form of another larva, larger than the parasite, and capable of becoming a powerful rival. The jaws of the adventurer APRIL 19, 1925 ROHWER: PARASITES OF HETEROSPILUS 177 open wide; the instinct for slaughter is aroused; its sharp fangs close upon the living egg; they rend and tear it, while the hoplisivorous son of Nysson proceeds to devour Hoplisus and by its cannabalism becomes sole possessor of the chamber of food. The remainder of the story is quickly told. The spoils gained by slaughter are soon consumed. A series of moults transforms the usurper from a small larva with sharp, falcate jaws and belly-blisters, to a common grub with broad, blunt, bidentate mandibles, round of abdomen without ambulatory contrivances. When the parasite has eaten its fill, it sets about constructing a cocoon of brown silk and earth, and thus once again betrays its Hoplisoid ancestry, for the co- coon of Nysson hoplisivora is indistinguishable from that of Hoplisus costalis except by its slightly smaller size. ENTOMOLOGY.—Five braconid parasites of the genus Heterospilus. S. A. Ronwer, Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. The five new species described below have been received at various times for identification, and the senders are anxious to have names for them so that they can use them in connection with papers dealing with the biology of their hosts. These species add considerably to our knowledge of the habits of the representatives of this genus. Heterospilus beameri, new species Female——Length, 2.75 mm. Frons immediately above the antennae finely aciculate; vertex and posterior orbits shining, practically without sculpture; antenna 23-jointed; scutum and prescutum rather coarsely granular, the prescutum more finely so anteriorly, the median posterior area of the scutum reticulate in addition to the granulations; notauli feebly foveolate anteriorly; the depression in front of the scutellum narrow, without longitudinal rugae; scutellum subopaque, finely tessellated; dorsal carinae of the propodeum well defined but narrow, the lateral-basal areas finely granular; the posterior face of the propodeum not sharply separated from the dorsal aspect, rather finely reticulate, without lateral carinae but with two rather indistinct median carinae which converge below; mesepisternum above the sulcus coarsely granular, below the sulcus tessellated; first tergite granular with two median carinae which bound the raised area and converge posteriorly; second tergite with a U-shaped suture basally and with triangular basal lateral areas defined by sutures, the surface granular except the apical margin; base of the third and fourth tergites feebly punctured, the punctures more widely separated on the fourth; ovipositor subequal in length to the abdomen; second abscissa of radius slightly shorter than the first; stigma angulate at the middle where the radius leaves it. Piceous; the second and fifth joints of antennae and legs below coxae, except last joint of tarsi which is blackish, stramineous; wings hyaline, iridescent, venation pale brown. 178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 15, NO. 8 Male.—Length, 2.75 mm. The male agrees in sculpture very well with the female except that the first tergite is longitudinally striate in addition to the granulations, the base of the second tergite is longitudinally wrinkled, and the U-shaped area of the second tergite is greatly lengthened so it is almost a truncate V. The third and following tergites are more distinctly sculptured than in the female; the posterior femora are short, robust and broad at the base; antenna 24-jointed; the carinae on the dorsal aspect of the propodeum are feeble; posterior wings without a stigma. Paratype females indicate variation in the number of antennal joints. In some of them they are 22- and in others they are 25-jointed. Paratype males indicate that the antennae may have only 22 joints. Some male paratypes are only 2 mm. long. Type locality—Cherokee County, Kansas. Described from eleven females (one type) and seventeen males (one allo- type) collected June, 1924, by R. H. Beamer, for whom the species is named. In submitting this material Mr. Beamer writes, ‘“They were reared from the eggs of Cicada.” Type, allotype and twelve paratypes—Cat. no. 23973, U.S. N. M. Five female and nine male paratypes returned to the Entomological Collections of the University of Kansas. This species falls nearest to languriae Ashmead, but is readily distinguished from it by the sculpture of the second tergite. The male is one of the un- usual forms of the genus, inasmuch as the stigma of the hind wing is wanting. Heterospilus cephi, new species Female.—Length, 2.25 mm. Length of ovipositor, 0.6 mm. Head behind the ocelli finely, transversely striate; antenna 27-jointed, the joints poorly differentiated; pronotum not dentate laterally; scutum and prescutum rather coarsely granular; notauli not foveolate, well defined; mesepisternum irregularly wrinkled dorsally with smooth, polished area ventrally; pro- podeum with the lateral-basal area finely granular, the lateral-dorsal carinae complete, with two diverging carinae dorsally which become obsolete later- ally and posteriorly; the posterior face and dorsal surface between the diverg- ing carinae irregularly wrinkled and with an indistinct median carina basally; first tergite sharply carinate laterally, longitudinally striate with the striae slightly irregular medianly; second tergite striato-granular; the base of the third and fourth tergites finely striate; ovipositor one-third as long as the abdomen; first intercubitus obsolescent; stigma angulate at the middle where the radius leaves it. Dark ferruginous; antennae, propodeum and first tergite piceous; wings hyaline, strongly iridescent; venation pale brown. Male.—Length, 2.6 mm. Dorsal part of the head more feebly sculptured than the female; base of the fourth tergite feebly striate; the diverging car- inae of the propodeum shorter than in the female and the median carina better defined; the posterior face of the propodeum more distinctly reticulate; antenna 31-jointed. Type locality—Ithaca, New York. Described from three females (one type) and three males (one allotype) recorded under Cornell University Experiment Station No. 1035. The type and allotype reared March 21, 1924; all other paratypes reared Feb- ruary 20, 1924, by D. T. Ries. Mr. Ries in transmitting this material states that the species is a parasite of Cephus pygmaeus. APRIL 19, 1925 ROHWER: PARASITES OF HETEROSPILUS 179 Type, allotype and paratypes—Cat. no. 27241, U.S. N.M. Paratypes, male and female, returned to Cornell University. The number of antennal joints varies; as one of the female paratypes has twenty-nine joints in the antenna, and one of the male paratypes has only 26 antennal joints. This species is apparently most closely allied to chittendeniz (Ashmead) and koebelei (Riley). In Ashmead’s key to the species of this genus it agrees better with chittendenti than with koebelez. It may be separated from chittendenii by the absence of the lateral carinae on the posterior face of the propodeum and the presence of striae on the base of the third and fourth tergites. From koebelei it may be separated by the longer antennae, the different arrangement of the carinae on the propodeum and the shape of the first tergite. Since the above description was prepared Mr. Ries has forwarded five small males (which are not considered types), under Bureau of Entomology number Webster 18707, which are much darker than the types. These specimens are piceous, with most of the head and thorax above almost black. The number of joints in the antenna varies from 24 to 26. These small males were reared in the autumn of 1924 and come from the following localities in New York: Byron (Cage No. 4083), East Bethany (Cage No. 4084), Sodus (Cage No. 4109) and Neufield (Cage No. 4058). Heterospilus etiellae, new species Female—Length, 2.6 mm. Length of ovipositor, 1 mm. Head, seen from above with the orbits gently receding; posterior orbits about half the width of the eye; face finely granular; frons to the level of the anterior ocellus granular; vertex with transverse wrinkles on a granular surface; posterior orbits shining below, dorsally sculptured like the vertex. but not so strongly; antenna 24-jointed, the third and fourth joints subequal; scutum coarsely granular; notauli distinctly foveolate anteriorly; posterior portion of the prescutum reticulate; suture in front of the scutellum with three longitudinal rugae; disc of the scutellum laminate; dorsal aspect of the propodeum gran- ulato-reticulate, the posterior face of the propodeum reticulate; dorsal aspect of the propodeum with a median longitudinal carina which joins the pen- tagonal area of the posterior face; mesepisternum smooth except medianly, where it is finely laminate; first tergite shorter than the second, striato- punctate with the striations predominating; second tergite with three trans- verse depressions, the first line-like, the two following broad, shallow, the surface longitudinally rugulose; third and following tergites smooth; ovipos- itor half the length of the abdomen; first and second abscissae of the radius subequal; recurrent vein interstitial. Jerruginous; dorsal aspect of the propodeum, base of the first tergite piceous; palpi, mouth parts and legs testaceous; flagellum black; wings hyaline; venation pale brown; parastigma dark brown, very sparsely clothed with glistening white hairs. . Paratype females show very little variation. The dark color of the pro- podeum extends on the side in some and the antennae vary from 22 to 24 joints. Male—Length, 2 mm. Antenna 23-jointed. The above description 180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 of the female applies equally well to the male. The pseudostigma in the hind wing is large and unusually well developed. Paratype male is rufo-piceous, but the dark areas can be distinguished by their black color; otherwise it agrees with’ the allotype. Type locality—Porto Rico. Described from 19 females (one type) and two males (one allotype) reared from the larva of Etiella zinckenella Treitscke in the pods of chick pea intercepted at quarantine in New York City. Material collected by Ivan Shiller June 18, 1923, and recorded under New York No. 1912. Mi ; Fal i iS | i mits mai i Nee i ‘Me \ \ j i if Fig. 1.—Heterospilus zeteki, new species. Adult female. (Drawn by E. T. Arm- strong.) Type.—Cat. no. 26599, U.S. N. M. This new form is more like Heterospilus longicaudis Ashmead than any other species from the West Indies. It may readily be separated from longicaudis by the shorter ovipositor and by the presence of ridges on the propodeum. —— _ Heterospilus zeteki, new species (Fig. 1) Female—Length, 1.5 mm.; length of ovipositor, 0.33 mm. Head when seen from above strongly narrowing behind the eyes; width of the posterior fecy. APRIL 19, 1925 ROHWER: PARASITES OF HETEROSPILUS 181 orbits subequal with the width of the eyes; face coriaceous; frons, vertex, and orbits smooth and polished; antenna 16-jointed, the joints long and nearly of uniform length, third and fourth subequal; scutum polished; notauli simple; depressed area on the posterior portion of the prescutum irregularly wrinkled; suture in front of the scutellum finely granular at the bottom; propodeum reticulate, without a carina, the lateral-basal areas granular; mesepisternum polished; first tergite raised medianly, without predominating striae, the surface with longitudinal striae which are better defined immediately latrad of the raised area; second and following tergites smooth, polished; ovipositor about one-third the length of the abdomen; first and second abscissae of the radius subequal; recurrent vein nearly interstitial. Dark piceous; scape, four anterior legs, except the femora dorsally, the posterior tibiae and tarsi, posterior femora beneath, and the posterior trochanters testaceous; mouth parts and inner orbits rufopiceous thorax with sparse, long gray hairs; wings hyaline; venation dark brown. Paratype female differs from the type in having the narrow base of the second tergite finely striated. Male—Length, 1.25mm. Antenna 17-jomted. Agrees with the descrip- tion of the female except the base of the propodeum is not reticulate, the sculpture of the face is not so coarse, and the head between the eyes at the level of the antennae is rufo-piceous. Paratype male has the antenna 15-jointed, otherwise agrees with the allotype. Type locality—Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Panama. Described from two females (one type) and two males (one allotype) collected August 22, 1923, from the nest of Nasutitermes ephratae Holm- gren. Material collected by J. Zetek and forwarded to T. E. Snyder under Zetek No. 2210. Type—Cat. no. 26598, U. S. N. M. In the smooth sculpture of the thorax and abdomen this species is rather unusual, and may easily be distinguished from the other Neotropical forms by these characters and its general dark color. Heterospilus melanocephalus, new species Female.—Length, 2mm. Length of ovipositor beyond end of abdomen, 0.75 mm. Head subquadrate, temples broad; face rather coarsely cori- aceous; frons shining, indistinctly tessellate medianly; vertex with irregular, transverse aciculation immediately above the ocelli; antennae 20-jointed, the joints long and well defined, third joint slightly longer than the fourth; scutum granular, subopaque; notauli feeble; suture in front of scutellum with a few well defined rugae; propodeum sub-shining, areola large, reticu- late; basal-lateral areas finely punctate; mesepisternum smooth, polished except the upper anterior angle which is coriaceous; sternauli well defined, coriaceous; sides of the propodeum reticulate; first intercubitus obsolete except for a small stump at the radius; radius leaving stigma beyond the middle, its first abscissa two-thirds the length of the second; abdomen short, apical width of the first tergite much greater than its length; first and base of second tergite longitudinally striate; first tergite has two predominating striae which form a raised wedged-shaped area medianly; second tergite without impressed lines; apex of second and all of the following tergites polished; ovopositor two-thirds of length of abdomen. Testaceous; head . 182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 black; scape and basal half of flagellum ferruginous, rest of flagellum piceous; wings hyaline iridescent; venation pale brown. One of the paratypes has the antennae 18-jointed, and the transverse aciculation on the vertex are very feeble. Type locality—Uvalde, Texas. Described from four females reared in June, 1921, by J. C. Hamlin, and thought by him to be a parasite of Melitaria junctolineella, and from one specimen from the same locality which Mr. Hamlin thought was a parasite of Cornifrons elautalis. Type and three paratypes-—Cat. no. 25624, U.S. N. M. Single paratype returned to the collector. Runs in Ashmead’s key! to hylotrupidis Ashmead; but it differs in the black head, shorter first tergite, ete. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 395th MEETING The 395th meeting of the Geological Society was held at the Cosmos Club November 12, 1924, President Wricur presiding and 89 persons present. The secretary announced the resignations of ApoLpH KNopr and Espmr 8. Larsen and the death of THomas L. Watson, State Geologist of Virginia, a corresponding member. The secretary also announced the result of a letter ballot on the place of meeting for the society as follows: Cosmos Club, 73; Interior Building, 14; No choice, 3. Program: G. R. Mansrretp: Physiography of southeastern Idaho. In southeastern Idaho the highest ridgetops at elevations of about 9,000 feet probably represent remnants of a peneplain developed in a region of complexly folded and faulted sedimentary rocks. The peneplain was dis- sected, and after the excavation of broad and deep valleys which, with the lower neighboring uplands, were extensively aggraded, the region was up- lifted, and again subjected to erosion through several succeeding partial cycles. About 1,000 feet below the peneplain stand remnants of a late mature erosion surface, about which unreduced remnants of the earlier dissected peneplain or of an intervening erosion surface now rise In some places as high as 500 feet. Two later erosion surfaces stand at altitudes respectively about 300 and 600 feet lower. These form more or less well defined rock terraces above the present early mature canyons, which them- selves range in depth from a few hundred to 1,000 feet or more. Older valleys, representing some of these earlier erosion surfaces, now hang here and there 400 feet or more above the present valley bottoms. Some of the broader valleys or intermont basins have been reexcavated in the buried valleys, which succeeded the peneplain. Others are in part of structural origin or have been eroded in rocks with favorable structures. Still other valleys owe their transverse courses to superposition, succeeding the aggradational cycle which came after the peneplain. All have been aggraded to a greater or less extent, partly because of former arid climatic conditions and partly because of obstruction by basaltic flows in the lower ' Can. Ent. 25:74. 1893. APRIL 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 183 valleys. Moister climatic conditions, probably associated with the latest glacial epoch, quickened the streams, notably Bear River, which rises in the glaciated Uinta Mountains, and permitted the youthful dissection of the aggraded material with the development of canyoned courses and graded reaches in some of the streams. Bear Lake, which occupies a reexcavated valley of structural origin in the southwestern part of the region, was de- veloped to nearly twice its present size. Its highest level, maintained by alluvial fans, did not long persist, but superposition of its outlet upon buried ledges preserved the level of the lake long enough to develop shore lines, which may now be recognized at many places. Since glacial time little erosion has been accomplished. (Author’s abstract.) The paper was discussed by Messrs. ALDEN and Marruss. Wiis T. Lee: The caverns of Carlsbad, New Mexico. This was an in- formal account of Dr. Lee’s explorations, and was illustrated by lantern slides and moving pictures. It was discussed by Col. Jonn Miuuts, VERNON Batey, and E. F. BurcuHarp. 396TH MEETING The 396th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 26, 1924, with President Wricut in the chair, and 38 persons present. The secretary announced the death of ALFrEep H. Brooks, past president and an active member of the Society. He also announced the election to active member- ship of M. N. SHort, FREDERICK WALKER, LLoyp GrBson, and A. W. Lawson Program: Dr. Kurt EHRENBERG, of the University of Vienna (by in- yitation): Present day paleontologic work in Austria. In Austria, as else-. where, fossils were studied first as aids to stratigraphy. Invertebrates, particularly ammonites and gastropods, were of greater interest because of their abundance. Edward Suess, Mojsisovics, Hoernes, Neumayr, and many others worked chiefly on one or both of these groups. In Neumayr’s time, as a consequence of Darwin’s and Haeckel’s studies, the morphology and phylogeny of fossils became subjects of research, and vertebrates assumed greater importance. From the study of vertebrates started a new line of investigation, Paleobiology, which, begun by Dollo in Brussels, developed at Vienna almost into a new science. At the Uni- versity of Vienna there is now a Department of Paleontology, under the leadership of Prof. C. Diener and Prof. G. von Arthaber, with collections arranged stratigraphically, and a Department of Paleobiology where Prof. Abel, the founder of Paleobiology, and his colleagues are working. The paleobiologist endeavors to learn the mode of life of the fossil animal. Starting from the knowledge that the outward form of every organism de- pends to a large degree upon its mode of life, his first investigation is always towards the special adaptations to the mode of locomotion, environment, and food. All tracks left by the animals are of importance not only to such investigations but also to phylogenetic researches, because the above-men- tioned adaptations are usually developed more or less gradually. Under favorable conditions the paleobiologist is able to finish his work with a res- toration of the life of any past period as complete as the fossil documents with which he had to work. An illustration of this is to be found in the extraordinary results attained in the recent exploration of the ‘“Drachen- héhle bei Mixnitz in Stiermark.” Latterly, paleobiological methods have been adopted in the study of invertebrates, but much remains to be done. Although the collections of the Department of Paleobiology of the University of Vienna contain a considera- 184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 ble number of invertebrates, which of course are arranged in paleobiological order, they are insufficient for the study of all the groups of invertebrates. The speaker appreciated therefore, the invitation of the International Education Board of New York which enabled him to study the ample col- lections in some of the museums in the United States. (Author’s abstract.) Dr. Ehrenberg’s paper was discussed by Messrs. Basstur, Hacunr, and WRIGHT. C. WytHE Cooks: Coastal terraces of Georgia. Five coastal terraces corresponding to ancient shore lines now standing at altitudes of 60, 100, 160, 215, and 260 feet above sea level extend inland across the southeastern quarter of the state of Georgia. The two lower shore lines run parallel to the present coast of the Atlantic Ocean; the higher shore lines indicate former direct connection of the Atlantic with the Gulf of Mexico, Florida having been submerged. Emergence has been by stages separated by periods of quiescence; oscillation of sea level has been within narrower limits than north of Cape Hatteras. When the sea retreated from the 215 to the 160-foot level, a group of islands appeared above water on the Floridian platform. From one of the islands a sand spit and submerged bar (the present Trail Ridge) extended northward to the vicinity of Jessup, Georgia, and shut off from the open ocean a sound similar in general appearance to Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. Further emergence permitted the water in the sound to drain southwestward into the Gulf of Mexico, giving birth to Suwannee River. Okefenokee Swamp, now 120 feet above sea level, occupies a depression in the floor of this ancient sound. (Author’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. BassteR, ALDEN, Sampson, Woop- RING, Hay, W. C. Mansrietp, Hacur, Bryan, and Capps. 397TH MEETING The 397th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 10, 1924, President Wricut presiding and 51 persons present. The secretary an- nounced the election of Joun C. Bram, U. 8. Geological Survey, to active membership. F. E. Wricut: Methods for relative gravity measurements. (Presidential address.) After a brief recess the 32d Annual Meeting was called to order. 32D ANNUAL MEETING The 32d annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 10, 1924, with President Wricut in the chair, and 35 members present. The minutes of the 3lst Annual Meeting and the annual report of the secretaries were read and approved. The annual report of the Treasurer was presented, showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1083. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, L. W. SvrerHenson; Vice-Presidents, D. F. Hewerr and Cuartes Burts; Treasurer, J. B. Renstpen, Jr.; Secretaries, EDWARD SAMP- son and J. D. Srars; Members-at-large of the Council, C. N. Fenner, F. E. Martugs, F. H. Morrit, C.8. Ross, R. B. Sosman; Nominee for Vice-Presi- dent of the Academy, F. E. Wricut. C. WytHE Cooks, Epwarp Sampson, Secretaries. APRIL 19, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 185 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of H. G. Ferguson on February 17. Program: E. V. SHaNNon: Pegmatites of eastern Connecticut; C. S. Ross: Petrology of an ore vein; W. F. FosHac: Andalusite deposits of the White Mountains, California. At a meeting of the Pick and Hammer Club at the Geological Survey February 21 informal accounts of exploration in Alaska during the past season were given by Messrs. P. 8. Smiru, Foran, and Memrtig. W. M. BraMuette is on leave from the Geological Survey to make in- vestigations for an oil company in Ecuador. Colonel THomas L. Casry, who died recently, bequeathed his large col- lections of insects, mollusks, and fossils to the National Museum. Professor F. W. Ciarkxs, of the Geological Survey, retired from the federal service the first of the year. Laurence LaForeer, of the Geological Survey, is giving a course of lectures in geology at Harvard University. O. E. Merryzer, Chief of the Water Resources Branch of the Geological Survey, recently examined a reservoir site near Guantanamo, Cuba, for a public utility company. A. F. Metcuer, geophysicist, has resigned from the Geological Survey to accept a position with the Marland Refining Company, at Ponca City, Oklahoma. Dr. H. 8. Wasutneton, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, sailed for Europe early in February to carry on archeological and volcanological studies in Italy and northern Africa. Dr. M. L. Crossley, president of the American Institute of Chemists, addressed the Washington chapter at its March meeting on the subject Chemistry as a Profession. Before the meeting, resident fellows of the Institute tendered Dr. Crossley a dinner at the Raleigh Hotel. W. T. Foran, geologist in the Geological Survey who has been engaged for two field seasons in the exploration of Alaskan petroleum reserves, has resigned to undertake exploration work in Argentina. Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Superintendent of the National Zoological Park, was appointed on April 1 an Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution with general supervision of the National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, and the National Zoological Park. The National Geographic Society has announced a grant of $55,000 to Dr. C. G. Abbot, to promote the establishment of a new solar radiation 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 8 station at a site to be chosen by Dr. Abbot in Africa or Asia, and to main- tain daily measurements there for several years. The project is termed “The National Geographic Society’s Solar Radiation Expedition, Cooper- ating with the Smithsonian Institution.” _ ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Betidsy. April 25. The Biological Society. s piucaday, May 5. The Botanical Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL journey across Lower California. E. A. Back: Some fabric pests. ‘Wednesday, April 8. The Geological Society. Program: J. B. Merrie: The Paleo- zoic geology of interior Alaska. G. C. Martin: The Mesozoic rocks of Alaska. P. 8. Smits: Fields for future Alaskan studies. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS salts. “Raymonp M, Hann and G. C. eS y PRC vey anton Sie Sieso hie ot Botany.—The value of certain anatomical charade: in classifying the Hibiseeae. FREDERICK ‘Li. LOWTON. 1. J0N. tics acess ahd Wedel ate ale alee tase a aon Entomology.—The wasp Nysson hoplisivora, a pate relative of Hoplisus costalie. & Epwanp G. Remngenp soba uke bee wee ian a vie suo sald Entomology. Five braconid parasites of the genus H. cnasetin 8. A. RouweEr... ap | 4 PROCEEDINGS The Geological Society............... Scrmntiric Notes AND NEWs......... OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vernon L. Kettoae, National Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Siuspex, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Mar 4, 1925 Waal eee JOURNAL OF THE ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES i BOARD OF EDITORS EL P. Kine D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy | WATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLCGICAL-SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams S. A. RopwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griacs J. R. Swanton a BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WicHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY *, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat anD GUILFORD AVES. Battmore, MagzyLAND Entered as Second Clases Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the srapaelart 4-0 Aceeptance for mailing at special rate of ostage provided for e Section 11 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. athaaseed on July 3, 1018. 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C European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. TEN Exchanges—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. ‘i's Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. i ® Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special ra are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. x ia JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 May 4, 1925 No. 9 PHYSICS.—An electromagnetic theory of quanta. F. Russpuu BicHowsky, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by A. IE, IDs) Several attempts have been made to modify the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell and Lorentz in order to make it consistent with the experimental facts which are the basis of the quantum theory. Most of these modifications have concerned the Lorentz equations for the electron, rather than the original Maxwell equations for the electro- magnetic field. The reasons for this are: first, the feeling that the quantum effects were somehow tied up with special atomic mechan- ism, and second, because it was apparently necessary to keep the Maxwell equations to account for wave propagation of light and the ordinary equations of electricity and magnetism. On the other hand, there is some evidence that the underlying quantum mechanism, what- ever it may be, is more general than any particular atomic structure but has to do with the field equations, the arguments for this being the same as those which led Einstein to the conception of light quanta. The second point is susceptible to mathematical analysis. The electromagnetic theory is the embodiment of the following ideas: (1) the magnetic flux is some function of the circulation of electrical forces, (2) the electrical flux is some function of the circulation of magnetic forces. We shall use Heaviside units, and the Lorentz notation, except that we shall follow the uses of Gibbs for the vector operators. In this notation (1) and (2) become ) vx f(b) == 6 (4) iL (5) Vv x¥(d) = —7 6 (h) 187 188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 1 1 : = ; : The constants z and — ¢ *Ppearing explicitly since electric forces are to be measured in electrostatic units and electromagnetic forces in electromagnetic units, and the right hand screw convention is to be used to fix sign. Equation (1) of Maxwell is a definition and may be kept unchanged without loss of generality (1) c = ¢ (d) Equations (2) and (8) of Maxwell are usually thought to express the experimental restriction that there be no permanent uncompen- sated charges or free magnetic poles in the space considered, and may, in accordance with this mode of thought, be put in the form (2) iG S00 (3) V-f(h) =0 At first sight, these expressions appear to be merely a definition of uncharged space, but this interpretation is not free from possible difficulties, for if we consider free space through which an electro- magnetic disturbance is passing, the electric and magnetic energy at each point is finite. Now the only apparent way to build up electric and magnetic energies in space is to separate neutralizing charges in space by producing what is called dielectric displacement, or by creat- ing fugitive electric charges in time. Now, the first point of view involving dielectric displacement has the advantage that it is consist- ent with the atomic structure of electricity, but it has the disadvantage that since both positive and negative electricity are assumed always present even in uncharged space, uncharged space is given an energy and mass content for which evidence is lacking or directly opposed. The second point of view assumes the generation of fugitive electricity, which is certainly not orthodox, but leaves uncharged space empty. It may be shown, however, that both points of view lead to mathe- matically equivalent results, though they suggest different interpreta- tion. We may, therefore, keep to the conventional point of view as expressed in equations (2) and (3). We now have assumed four general equations of which the Maxwell equations are special cases where the undetermined functions f, ¢, ¥, and @ are each equal to 1. Our problem now is to find what restriction on the form of these functions is necessary to account for those facts of optics, electricity and magnetism which are successfully may 4, 1925 BICHOWSKY: ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF QUANTA 189 accounted for by the special Maxwell function. Examination shows that, as far as pure opticsis concerned, all the equations for velocity, refraction, reflection, polarization, and interference depend on the assumption that there are solutions of the electromagnetic equations of the form: Dalembertian (x) = 0, Le., (6) Vx —@x =0 Where x may be any function of the electric and magnetic force 1 separately, and where a? for free space equals a That, as far as optical theory is concerned, x may be taken to be an inde- termined function of d and h, may be proven by going through the proof for the ordinary equations of optics, but may be seen in- tuitively from the fact that the equations of pure optics do not ex- plicitly involve electric and magnetic forces, the special form used in the electromagnetic equations cancelling out in the course of the proof of the optical equations. In order to derive equations for the effect of known magnetic and electric fields on optical phenomena, it is obvious that x must be determinate, but it is significant that it is just in such equations that the Maxwell theory shows the first sign of breaking down. Let us now assume that equation (6) represents the facts of optics and let us see what restriction this places upon the undetermined functions f, 6, Y and 6. Reversing the proof by which the Dalem- bertian (x) = 0; [x = d; x = h] is shown to be a solution of the Maxwell equation, it may be shown that f = 6 and¢ =¥y. In other words, any function of h and d substituted in the Maxwell equations will lead to a solution consistent with all purely optical phenomena, provided only the derivatives of the same functions are substituted for h and d respectively. Maxwell’s equations, therefore, are by no means the only electromagnetic equations which will lead to the facts of optics. There is, however, one other restriction which may be put on the equations of the electromagnetic field, namely that they be consistent with the principle of least action. From all that is known experi- mentally, this is not a necessary restriction and may not be legitimate, in fact, but it is certainly convenient to make this assumption as it allows the general methods of dynamics to be applied to electro- magnetics. There is a difficulty, however. To make use of this principle it is necessary to set up separate equations for the kinetic and 190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 potential energies of the field, that is to say, the part of the energy which depends on generalized velocities and that which depends on positions alone. In the ordinary theory it is known that the kinetic energy arises exclusively from the magnetic forces, and is given by the equation T = 3) 2? ds, where Z = f (h) = h [in the ordinary theory]. Similarly, the potential energy W depends exclusively on the electric force, and is given by the equation W = 4 ite ds. There is no appar- ent reason why this should be the case here since it might well happen that our function f (h) might contribute both to the kinetic or poten- tial energy; similarly for y (d). It may be shown, however, by sub- stituting Z = f (h), integrating equation (5) in respect to the time, taking the scalar product of the variation of = and the function, for a real and slightly varied path between A and B and integrating over the path, discarding the integrated parts, employing equation (4) and integrating again, that if the principle of least action holds, the differ- ence between the kinetic and potential energy must be in the form Vax — W) ds =3 ie ery (a) ds, the signs being opposite but undetermined. Now, if, as we shall assume f (h) is a function of the wave length and any term of the expansion contributes to the kinetic energy, all the terms must, but at long wave lengths f (h) must reduce to h, in order to account for the experimental fact that Maxwell’s equations hold for static or slowly changing fields, therefore T = 3 )2' ds and similarly W = 3 fy (d) ds. It will now be convenient to define the magnitude of two new vectors ® and by the equations f? (h) = h? — $2 and y? (d) = d? — D%. In other words we have added a scalar corrective function to the Maxwell equations. There appears to be no experimental test which will fix the direction of the vectors , and D, but it will be convenient later to assume that has the same direction as h and D asd. In these terms our fundamental equations become (2) V-(@ — 9)! = 0 (3) Vv -(? — 931 = 0 (4) vx ( — S) = > Lae — D 4 nee ce dt (5) VX (2 — 2) = id ae i e dt i which are the same as Maxwell’s except that (h? — ?)' is substituted for h and (d? — 9)! for d everywhere. Using these equations we may 4, 1925 BICHOWSKY: ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF QUANTA 191 obtain by differentiation an equation for the energy flux of an electro- magnetic field (8) “3 f(a? — Dt + be — §) ds +e f(a — D)! x (h? — G)! ds The first integral is the expression for the energy of an electromagnetic field; the second, corresponding to the Poynting vector of the Maxwell theory, represents the flux of energy across the arbitrary boundaries of the field. The total expression obviously corresponds to the Maxwell expression for the conservation of energy, but the energy E is now equal to the quantity which would be calculated from Maxwell’s expression E, but (9) H =H, — 3 (? + 9°) the flux being similarly (10) Sic (22) (bh? 3)? These expressions have the property of allowing zero energy density and zero radiation in fields where both the electric and magnetic forces are finite. They also show that if the classical (Maxwell) expression is taken as representing the energy, energy is not conserved, though it is with the new expression for the energy. Energy thus defined, since it was obtained by the use of the principle of least action, obeys the Hamiltonian equations, and its distribution is given by the equation (11) aE = ae ibe O +H} where 6 must equal 1/7 since the equation must reduce to the Max- well distribution law for the case of perfect gases. Equipartition, however, does not hold except in a modified sense, the average value of the energy of a degree of freedom of radiation being equal not to E. but to E, — 4 (D? + H*)aver, Where T,. = kr is the average energy of a gas particle. Now the energy of a radiation field may be expressed as a sum of terms (one for each degree of freedom) of the form Av where » is the frequency of a simple harmonic component of the electromagnetic wave. The energy per degree of freedom therefore can be put in the form E = E. — hy, where h, as far as theory goes, is a constant in time, but adjustable for different frequencies; but we shall immediately see that within the experimental limits of the Planck radiation law, h is a constant for all wave lengths, and in fact is equal to the Planck’s constant. 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 We may now calculate the equilibrium distribution between light waves of such energy and a perfect gas. The condition for equilibrium is ing 1a = 15), 5 KE, Substituting in our formulae (11) and (12) and using the usual formula for the energy of a gas molecule, we obtain Ee~8E = (EB + hye ~8 E+ b) or (13 Fe eee ) ah okt =e which is Planck’s familiar equation, but it is now derived in an entirely rigorous manner from the fundamental laws of mechanics with the aid of a self-consistent electromagnetic theory. It will be noted, moreover, that we have made use of no discontinuities such as are in- volved in the ordinary quantum proofs, nor have we made use of subsidiary assumptions of atom structure, or phase space, or special probability functions. Indeed, we have not found it necessary that the energy of a light wave is a multiple function of the wave length of the type n h », nm appearing nowhere in the proof. If, however, we had used the classical expression for energy and distribution, in order to make these equations consistent with Planck’s law, the energy of a monochromatic light wave must vary discontinuously with the intensity, being of the form nh ». However, this expression for the energy of a light wave is known to be inconsistent with general dynamical principles: The remaining important expressions for the energy of a light wave, namely the Stefan-Boltzmann equation and the Maxwell equation for light pressure, follow directly from our equations by any of the usual proofs, the former also by direct integra- tion of the Planck equation. Now let us consider the radiator. It is clear that in order for a system containing moving charges to radiate the electric and magnetic forces (due at great distances mostly to accelerations) it must suffice to give the modified Poynting vector a value greater than zero. The vector product of d, and h, (where d, and h, are that part of the electric and magnetic forces which, on the Maxwell theory, contribute to the radiation) must be greater than hv, where » is the frequency of emitted light. Therefore, that part 1 BicHowsky, Phys. Rev. 11: 58. 1918. may 4, 1925 BICHOWSKY: ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF QUANTA 193 of the energy of the electromagnetic field due to d, and h,, e.g. 3 fia +h2 — D2 — 2) ds, must equal zero for states in which the radiation is zero, such states we will call steady. There will generally be an infinite number of such states since both E,, and D2 + ? are variables, and for all of them, except those containing no accelerations the radiation from which is of infinite wave length, E,. will have a finite value. Suppose we have a system in such a stationary state, with the classical energy E,.., then E,., — €.3; suppose it now absorbs radiation of the frequency ». The energy absorbed from the small fraction of the wave surface available, calculated in the present way we will suppose to be P, where P is a quantity, we can make as small as we please by decreasing the intensity of the light. The contribution of this small amount of energy to the energy of the system will be AE. — hy = P. The system after absorption of energy has the energy P = E., + AE, — ©, — hy; it will, therefore, differ only a vanishingly small amount from the new non-radiating state E, — © = 0 where © = G, + hy», therefore EH, — E,. = hv which is Bohr’s frequency condition. Let us now suppose we have a system in such a displaced steady state and let it radiate. Since the new state is steady it will not radiate ‘until it has gained an extra energy Q. It will now radiate its classical energy, changing from Q + E, to E, the total energy given out being Q. Its wave length, moreover, will be given by the equation hy = E,, — E.,. Now, in order for conservation of energy to hold a b b — { Qat = {Pat - ie dt where (ie dt is the energy absorbed from neighboring atoms during the transition A — B. These last integrals are independent, since at least theoretically all neighboring atoms can be removed to a double order of infinite distance. Therefore the number of transitions must be proportional to the amount of light per unit time per unit area. It will be noted that the above proof of the Einstein-Bohr frequency condition tells us nothing about the frequency of the periodic motions of the electron in their stationary states. We can, however determine this connection for any particular model most simply by consideration of the moment of momentum. This quantity 7, which is conserved, is 1 given by the equation 7 = — r X (d? — D?)? X (h’ — §*)' orem = Eecw — — 2zh, where Ecw is oe classical energy of a system with the @ 194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 intrinsic frequency. Each possible transition is therefore equivalent as far as classical energy and impulse goes to that of a system of classical oscillators of the same constitution as the real system, but on a scale such that the energy and momenta are AE and 2zh instead of E and 7. Now, since momentum and energy and constitution define a system completely, our system of virtual oscillators will have all the dynamic properties of the real system, not as an approxima- tion, but exactly. It may thus be used to calculate frequency polari- zation, relative intensity, dispersion mean period of life, the results being exactly of the classical type except v is to be substituted for w, AE for E and 2zh for 7. Let us now consider the possible mechanical constitution of systems in the stationary state. Since the component of the radiation field of the same frequency as the motion of any electron must be zero, the field is conservative and must possess potential, a result which is consistent with the results of Fues? and Urey,’? though unexpected according to the ordinary quantum theory. However, when it comes to the calculation of such potential, the problem is less simple. If the field is stationary, as in the case of the two bodies in a stationary ex- ternal field, the only forces which with a constant position of the electron change with the time, are those due to radiation, and for- stationary states these cancel out. We may, therefore, compute the impulse moment by the ordinary methods of dynamics and solve for the motions, putting the moments of each electron equal to nh, e.g., we can use the classical equations 6 Ee a on = ; le, J ex@k3 Je = nh; [k = iL 2, 3] é Tex where J, is the impulse moment and «w, the intrinsic frequency of rotation, of the electron, of the perihelion, and of the plane. These equations are seen to be identical with Bohr’s formulation of the general quantum conditions, but by our proof they could only be expected to be valid in stationary fields, since the expression for magnetic and electric forces, according to the present view, contains the terms § and D which are functions in periodic systems of the frequency (in non-periodic systems of the accelerations). The general expression for non-radiating systems which would be expected from our equations would be 2 Furs, Zeit. f. Physik. 11: 364; 12: 1; 13: 211; 21: 265. 3 Urey, Phys, Rev. 25: 241. 1925. May 4, 1925 SHANNON: BOULANGERITE FROM WASHINGTON 195 5E = = ae Jo & Fike di. SO allthe quantities being calculated according to the new electromagnetic equations. Unfortunately, this formulation gives us no definite solution of the three-body problem in terms of known constants, for the values of § and D are unknown though one-half the sum of their squares is known to equal hy. In general, the solution must be different from that, assuming the ordinary law of force, because the magnitude of the periodic forces acting on an electron due to the changing relative position of the other electrons, would be different according to the present theory to that calculated from Coulomb’s law. If, however, D = 0, this difference of the motion, due now exclusively to the change in the expression for the magnetic force, would be small since magnetic forces due to electron motion in general contribute but little to the total motion, the calculation reducing in this case, except for a small correction (of the order of the relativity effect), to the type of model investigated by Kramers. In the probably impossible case D = hp there would be no perturbing perodic electric force on the motion of one electron due to the motion of another of the same frequency, even though the rotation was of different sense. This might lead, for example, to the model of a helium atom with the two electrons rotating in opposite senses, in equal circular orbits in parallel planes. Probably the true expression for D and © is not as simple as either of these cases, but it might still be reasonably expected that pairs of orbits might be found in which the perturbing effect of one on the other would not be large, even though the rotation was of opposite sense, a requirement which seems necessary to account for the low magnetic moment of certain atoms containing even numbers of electrons. MINERALOGY.—Boulangerite from the Cleveland mine, Stevens County, Washington.! EaruV. SHANNON, U.S. National Museum. Within recent years the mineral boulangerite, heretofore con- sidered rare, has been found by the writer to be perhaps the commonest of the lead-antimony sulphosalts. Its occurrence in two important districts in Idaho, one in Montana, and one in Bolivia have been described? and it has since been found in ores from additional mines } Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2E. VY. Saannon, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58: 589-607. 1920. 196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 in these regions and from Lower California. Another locality which came to notice a year or so ago is the Cleveland mine in Stevens County, Washington, where this mineral is one of the major con- stituents of a lead-silver ore occurring in lens-shaped bodies in frac- tured and brecciated zones in dolomitic limestone.* The Cleveland mine is located 18 miles by road west of Springdale, a town on the Great Northern Railway. In some bodies of ore the boulangerite is the most abundant mineral and it is prominent in most of the ore. The associated primary sulphides are galena, sphalerite, and ar- senopyrite. Secondary minerals formed by the oxidation of these include cerusite, anglesite, mimetite, bindheimite, valentinite, and scorodite. The specimens from this locality were received from Mr. Henry Fair of Spokane, Washington, to whom the writer desires to extend his thanks. The boulangerite forms excellent specimens which apparently are available in quantity. The best one received weighs in excess of 2 pounds (1 kilogram) and is $0 per cent boulangerite. The min- eral does not form free crystals but makes up columnar masses in which the parallel blades reach 10 centimeters in length. The color is light bluish lead-gray and the luster is metallic. The mineral becomes dull on exposure. Although there is evidently a tendency to cleavage, the larger blades are made up of fibers and no clean cut cleavage fragments can be obtained for measurement. The cleavages are in the vertical zone and there is none transverse to the fibers. The material analyzed (U. 8. Nat. Museum Catalog No. 94,514) was submitted to a metallographic examination, in polished section, by Mr. M. N. Short of the U. S. Geological Survey, who reports it pure except for the presence of about one tenth of one per cent. of pyrite. The microchemical reactions obtained with the standard reagents of Davy and Farnham are as follows: Strongly anisotropic; HNO; instantly tarnishes iridescent; with a slight effervescence; HCl fumes tarnish slightly—not always; KCN negative; FeCl; negative; KOH negative; HgCl, negative. These tests agree with those given for boulangerite by Davy and Farnham except that, where they describe the mineral as sectile, it is very brittle. The reaction—negative— with KOH immediately distinguishes this mineral from a jamesonite recently examined which quickly tarnishes dark brown with this reagent. 3O. P. Jenkins, Lead deposits of Pend Orielle and Stevens counties, Washington. Wash. Dept. of Conservation and Development, Div. of Geology Bull. 31: 127-130. 1924. me may 4, 1925 SNYDER: NEW RUGITERMES FROM PANAMA 197 The sample analyzed gave the results of column 1 of Table 1, while in column 2 is given the calculated composition agreeing with the formula of boulangerite, 5PbS. 2 Sb.8;, and in column 38 the theoretical composition of jamesonite according to Schaller’s formula, 4PbS. FeS. 35b283. TABLE 1.—ANALysSIS OF BOULANGERITE I II Til imMSOluble As elo to oe see te - G he ob eindes 0.40 Eek ch en yoy oes a CoStar os Crore ais arctan gaia s 55.34 55.41 40.32 [SRT eos 6 te tO BG aes in ETE SER re eer Pee ee 0.52 2.72 AITO Weeds 6 CUCROSE CSS R ROE o EES ae re Cnr 25.30 PAN Te 35.10 STATI sri bee Bae oO RDS IEE RoE nee y nertin 18.08 18.87 21.86 IRGUE Re abonbotod Donn OnOCO cote tere sare cinreetenae 99.64 100.00 100.00 I. Boulangerite from Cleveland mine II. Theoretical composition of Boulangerite _III. Theoretical composition of Jamesonite Teher would appear to remain no doubt, from the foregoing com- parison, of the agreement of the Cleveland mine mineral with the boulangerite formula and its distinct difference from jamesonite, to which mineral there is a strong tendency to refer all such lead sulph- antimonites. The locality is of interest by reason of the excellence of its specimens of this mineral and it is to be hoped that they may be widely distributed in collections before the mine is exhausted. ENTOMOLOGY.—A new Rugitermes from Panama. Tuos. E. SnyDER, Bureau of Entomology, U.S. Department of Agriculture. During the summer of 1924, Nathan Banks, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, visited the Canal Zone and localities in nearby Panama. Some time was spent collect- ing on Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, the site of the station of the Institute for Research in Tropical America. In addition to many other insects, Mr. Banks collected an interesting series of termites, including one new species of the subgenus Rugitermes Holmgren. Banks also collected the odd termite Armitermes (Rhynco- termes) major Snyder, of Costa Rica and Honduras, on Barro Colorado Island. Panama is a new locality for this interesting species. He has courteously allowed me to examine this collection of termites. Mr. Banks’ collection brings the termite fauna of the Canal Zone and nearby Panama, up to 38 species, representing 23 genera or subgenera, 22 of which, representing 16 genera or subgenera, occur on Barro Colorado Island. 198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 The new species is named ‘‘isthmz,’”’ in reference to the Isthmus of Panama, and is described as follows: Kalotermes Hagen, subgenus Rugitermes Holmgren Winged adult.—Often markedly bicolored, head and abdomen dark-colored, pronotum light-colored; in wings the median vein unites almost directly with the radial sector; antennae with 16-19 segments. Soldier.—Similar to soldiers of Kalotermes and Neotermes; antennae with 13-18 segments. The six described species of Rugitermes are all from South America; they are: nodulosus Hagen, rugusus Hagen, occidentalis Silvestri, bicolor Emerson, flavicinctus Emerson, and magninotus Emerson. Kalotermes (Rugitermes) isthmi Snyder is the first record of species in this subgenus occurring in Central America. Kalotermes (Rugitermes) isthmi, new species Winged adult-—Head very dark castaneous (almost blackish with reddish tinge), smooth, shining, longer than broad, sides almost parallel, rounded posteriorly, with scattered, long hairs. Postelypeus and labrum yellow, with long hairs; former, short but broad, latter broader than long and broadly rounded anteriorly. Eye black, not round, fairly large and projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than the diameter of the eye. Ocellus hyaline, projecting, suboval and at an oblique angle to the eye, almost touching eye. Antennae dark castaneous, finely punctate, with 17 segments, segments become longer and broader (somewhat wedge-shaped) towards apex; third segment longer than second or fourth segments, subclavate; fourth and fifth segments subequal; last segment shorter, narrower and suboval. Pronotum yellow or light yellowish brown, not twice as broad as long, broadest at middle, roundly emarginate both anteriorly and posteriorly; sides roundly slope (narrowed) posteriorly, with scattered long hairs. Wings smoky dark brown, coarsely punctate. In forewing median vein unites almost directly with the radial sector; radial sector close to, parallel, and with six branches to costal vein, first three long and oblique, others short; cubitus runs parallel to radial sector above middle of wing to apex of wing, with 12-13 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; subcostal vein unites with costa before the middle of the wing; seven irregular, transverse and crescentic branches between cubitus and radial sector (Fig. 3). In hind wing, median vein entirely absent; radial sector with two long and three short branches to costal vein; cubitus runs to apex of wing, with 10-11 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; subcostal vein unites with costa before middle of wing; seven irregular, transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. Wing scale (of fore wing) as long as pronotum. Legs yellow-brown to dark brown, elongate, slender, with long hairs; 3 long spines at apex tibiae, pulvillus present. Abdomen with tergites dark brown to blackish, a row of long hairs near the base of each tergite; cerci fairly elongate. Measurements: Entire winged adult 8.5 mm. long; entire dealated adult 5.75 mm. long; head (to tip labrum) 1.55 mm. long; pronotum 0.9 mm. long; fore wing 6 mm. long; posterior wing 5.75 mm. long; hind tibia: 0.9 mm. Pee may 4, 1925 SNYDER: NEW RUGITERMES FROM PANAMA 199 long; eye (long diameter) 0.305 mm.; head (at eyes) 1.4 mm. wide; pronotum 1.4 mm. wide; of fore wing, 1.70 mm. wide; posterior wing: 2.00 mm. wide. Kalotermes (R.) zsthmi Snyder is a strikingly bicolored species; K. (R.) rugosus Hagen is not bicolored, is larger, lighter colored, with a larger wing, and wing much less coarsely punctate. Soldier —Head light castaneous-brown, or yellow-brown with a reddish tinge, especially anteriorly, cylindrical, with sides nearly parallel, but broadest posteriorly, narrowed slightly anteriorly, with scattered long hairs, very dense on oblique frontal slope. Small, narrow, hyaline, slit like eye spot at right angles to sides of head. Mandibles black, base reddish-brown, broad at base, tips slender, pointed and incurved. Left mandible with one sharp pointed marginal tooth on KALOTERMES (RUGITERMES) ISTHMI SNYDER Fig. 1—Mandibles, with marginal teeth (soldier); Fig. 2—Pronotum (soldier) ; Fig. 3—Venation of fore wing. (All drawings by camera lucida; figs. 1 and 2 high power, fig. 3 low power.) apical third, two molar teeth in middle. Right mandible with two large marginal teeth at about the middle, the first sharp pointed, the other more blunt; edge of mandible roughened between apex and first tooth (Fig. 1). Antennae yellow, with 13 segments, slender, elongate, with long hairs; third segment light castaneous-brown, elongate, slender, subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments, nearly as long as fourth and fifth segments together; fifth slightly longer than fourth segment; segments become longer towards apex; last segment shorter, narrower and suboval. Pronotum dirty white, tinged with yellow, margins darker, not twice as broad as long, broadest at middle, broadly, roundly emarginate anteriorly, generally convex posteriorly, sides rounded, slope (narrowed) posteriorly, with scattered long hairs (Fig. 2). 200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 Legs tinged with yellow, femora somewhat swollen, three long spines at apex of tibia. Abdomen dirty white, tinged with yellow, a row of long hairs near the base of each tergite, cerci elongate. Measurements: Entire soldier 6.5-7 mm. long; head with mandibles 3.6 mm. long; head without mandibles (to anterior) 2.4 mm. long; left mandible 1.2 mm. long; pronotum 0.95 mm. long; hind tibia 1 mm. long; head (an- teriorly) 1.4 mm. wide; (posteriorly) 1.6 mm. wide; pronotum 1.65 mm. wide. Type locality—Barro Colorado Island, C. Z., Panama. Described from three winged adults, collected with one soldier and nymphs at the type locality ‘'24, VII,” N. Banks, collector. Other winged adults, soldiers and nymphs collected at Frijoles, C. Z., ‘10, VII,” N. Banks, collector. Type.—Winged adult, Cat. no. 15105, Museum Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; morphotype, soldier; paratype in U. 8. National Museum, Washington, D. C. ENTOMOLOGY .—Some new species of North American treehoppers (Membracidae, Hemiptera). KE. D. Batu, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. The writer is working on a revision of the tribe Telamonini which includes the major portion of the large treehoppers of the temperate regions of the United States. In studying the various collections a number of new species have been discovered. As it will probably be some time before the revision is completed, it has been thought best to describe the new species in advance so that the material may be distributed. Glossonotus nimbatulus new species Resembling twrriculatus but smaller, darker, with a tall, variable, foliaceous crest resembling acuminatus. Length 7 mm., width 4.5 mm., height 5 mm. Horn anterior and nearly vertical, broad and high, constricted near middle, nearly evenly foliaceous at apex, as seen from front broadly inflated from just above the very short and weak lateral angles, tapering evenly to just before the apex. Lateral angles obtuse, about half the width of the eye. Pronotum moderately acute in both planes. Color.—Uniform chestnut or darker, varying to almost black, with pale points on the sides of the horn. In the lighter specimens there is a narrow light median stripe from the apex of horn to apex of pronotum, becoming narrower in the darker specimens and occasionally wanting. Type female, Long Island, N. Y. (Davis); allotype, male, White Moun- tains, N. H. (Ball); paratypes: Lakehurst, N. J. (Barber and Am. Mus. N. H.); Roselle Park, N. J—Matausch (Am. Mus. N. H.); Framingham, Mass. (Dickerson Coll., Am. Mus. N. H.); Karner, N. Y. (N. Y. St. Coll.) ; and Penn- sylvania (Baker Coll., U.S. N. M.). Type and allotype in author’s collection; paratypes in Davis, Farber, Am. Mus. N. H..and U. 8. N. M. collections. Heliria gibberata new species Slightly smaller and darker than cristata, with the crest nearly uniform in height and only slightly overhanging. Female: length 10 mm., width 7 mm., height 5 mm.; males: length 8 mm. may 4, 1925 BALL: NEW NORTH AMERICAN TREEHOPPERS 201 Pronotum long, low, acute, weakly striated, crest prominent, situated as in cristata but with the posterior lobe long, almost as high as the anterior and nearly level, the anterior lobe rising in a gentle curve to the rounding and only slightly overhanging apex. Humeral angles very prominent in the female, resembling cristata. Males, shorter with a lower and less differentiated crest and with the humeral angles much reduced. Color.—Pale creamy ground with irregular dark mottlings giving a grizzled appearance, these usually emphasized on anterior and posterior margins of crest, the latter often extending as an oblique stripe to costa. Type female, allotype male, and three pair of paratypes collected by the writer at Ames, Iowa; a female from Galesburg, IIl., Stromberg (Godg. Coll.) U.S. N. M.; and one from Lincoln, Neb. (Osborn Coll.). Type and paratype in author’s collection; paratypes in U. 8S. N. M., A. M. N. H., and Osborn collections. The difference in the shape of both lobes of crest render this a strikingly distinct species. Heliria cornu tula new species Resembling gibberata, crest slightly longer, anteriorly upright or slightly retreating, superficially resembling Telamona maculata. Female: length 10 mm., height 6 mm., width 7 mm.; male: length 8.5 mm. Pronotum low, the apex abruptly pointed, bearing definite striations posteriorly. . Crest larger and longer than in gibberata, the anterior margin arising perpendicularly from the face of the metapodium excluding the median convexity; anterior lobe large, anterior angle broadly rounding; posterior lobe but little lower than the anterior, upper margin horizontal, posterior angle almost right-angled. Humeral angles longer than in cristata, rather narrow at base, then expanded and rounding to the long apices, as a whole, extraordinarily ear-like. Male crest smaller, the anterior margin sloping, the anterior lobe inclined to be broadly pyramidal. Color.—Pale gray, sometimes with a greenish tinge, mottled with darker, usually the dark color is emphasized across the metapodium; on the upper part of crest and in two bands behind the crest. Two examples are closely and almost uniformly irrorate with dark. Type female, Faltbush, L. I. (Olsen Coll.) ; allotype male, Elizabeth, N. J. (Matausch. Am. Mus. N. H.); 3 paratype females and 3 males from the Ma- tausch Collection, Am. Mus. N.H., one labeled Bronx, N. Y., one paratype female, Hummelstown, Pa. (DeLong Coll.), and one male, Maryland (Uhler. Coll, U.S. N. M.). Type and paratypes in author’s collection; allotype and paratypes in the Am. Mus. N. H.; paratypes in U.S. N. M. and collection of DeLong. Heliria clitella new species Resembling sinuata, but with a short oblique crest and short humeral angles. Length 11 mm., width 6 mm. Pronotum long, low, striae only normally developed and not prominent at apex. Crest shorter than in sinuata, anterior and posterior margins almost parallel, sloping, anterior lobe pyramidal or rounding, the posterior lobe short, the angle acute, produced. Crest with two compressed areas, one along front margin and the other parallel with it just before the posterior margin; these two troughs are separated by a very pronounced ridge that extends to the apex of the pyramid. Humeral angles very short and broad, rounding to just before the slightly acute apices. 202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 9 Color.—Grizzled gray, slightly mottled with dark, without definite pattern, a broad creamy stripe arising from just below the posterior angle of the crest and extending two-thirds of the way to apex of pronotum. Type female, and allotype male from Huachuca Mts., Ariz. (Schaffer, Brooklyn Mus.); paratype female taken with the types (Woodruff Coll.), and a male from Arizona (Cornell Coll.) Type in author’s collection; allotype in the Brooklyn Museum; paratypes in Cornell Collection and collection of L. M. Woodruff. Heliria fitchi new species Resembling sinuwata but with a lower crest and a more definite “step.” Length 11 mm., width 6 mm. Pronotum very long, striae normal, crest moderate, placed well back of metapodium, intermediate in length between sznuata and clitella, anterior margin quite sloping, posterior margin vertical, anterior lobe almost uniformly rounding above, one-third higher than the posterior one, posterior lobe almost square. Humeral angles very short for this group, slightly acutely angled with the margin rounding. Color.—Pale creamy with quite definite dark mottlings, as follows: most of the crest including an oblique band to the costa, a spot on the costa before this and most of the apical region of pronotum. The oblique stripe and the apical markings are separated by a white band which is enlarged on the median line and contains a definite dark spot. One example is much darker than the others and the old examples are pale brown rather than creamy. Type female, allotype male, and one paratype female, Charter Oak, Pa. (DeLong); paratype male, New York (Fitch Coll., U.S. N. M.) and another labeled ‘city’? (Uhler Coll., U. S. N. M.), probably from Baltimore, Md. Type female and allotype male in author’s collection; paratypes in U. 8. N. M. and DeLong’s collection. This is a strikingly distinct species although closely related to sinuata and clitella. The examples from the Fitch collection in the National Museum are labeled T'elamona concava Fitch and one parasitized example, probably a female, is labeled ‘“‘type.’’ This is not the species represented by the Fitch type in the Albany collection as will be discussed in a later paper. Heliria gemma new species Resembling fitch but paler and with a less definitely sinuated crest; crest intermediate between that of fitchi and concava. Large; female, light creamy with brown mottlings; males brown, hairy; crest long, broadly pyramidal with a posterior sinuation or step. Length, female 11 mm., width 5.5 mm., height 5.5 mm.; male, length 8-9 mm. Pronotum long, acute, crest arising just back of the metapodial slope, anterior margin sloping insensibly into the outline of the rather large broadly rounding anterior lobe, posterior lobe short, sometimes almost merged into the posterior slope of the anterior one, usually represented by a slight step or sinuation, the posterior angle obtuse and the margin rounding into the posterior process. Humeral angles very broad, about right-angled, equaling or exceeding the breadth of the eye. Color.—Female pale creamy, irregularly irrorate and mottled with brown, the brown mottling emphasized on the crest, the oblique stripe and at the apex of pronotum, the creamy emphasized in a semicircle beneath the crest on may 4, 1925 BALL: NEW NORTH AMERICAN TREEHOPPERS 203 either side and a band behind the crest which is connected with a definite white stripe on the posterior face of crest. The semicircles are irregular along the margin with brown mottling along the lower border and a tooth of light pushed up into the anterior base of the crest. The males are densely hairy, almost uniform brown, with traces of the creamy tooth and the posterior stripe. Type female, Vermont (Barrett) ; allotype male and two pairs of paratypes, Adirondack Mts., N. Y. (Barber); paratype females, Catskill Mts., N. Y. (Wanakana, N. Y. (Osb. Coll.) ; Lancaster, N. Y. (Van D. Coll., Ames); New Hampshire and Massachusetts (U. 8. N. M.); and males, Elk Park, N. Y. (Drake); and Mt. Katahdin, Me. (Barber). Types, allotype, and paratypes in author’s collection; paratypes in U. 8. N. M., Am. Mus. N. H., Ames Coll., Osborn Coll., and Barber Coll. Telonaca tremulata new species Resembling pyramzdata slightly shorter, stouter, with a broader sloping sinuate crest and much darker pigmentation. Length, female 9-10 mm., with 5.5. mm., height 5mm. Length, male 8 mm. Pronotum stout, the apical process rarely as long as the elytra, with a long pyramidal crest sloping from the metapodium to the anterior angle with a slight sinuation; anterior angle almost a right angle; top of crest long, sloping, concave, slightly sinuate, posterior angle obtuse, the posterior margin sloping slightly less than the anterior. Numeral angles prominent, similar to pyramzdata, not as long as their basal ath BeaLcely equaling the eye in length, slightly acutely angular, the apex rounded. Color.—Variable, usually soiled yellow, so heavily irrorated and mottled with dark fuscous as to give a general dirty grizzled appearance with still darker areas on the crest and extending obliquely to the costa as well as at the apex. The males are usually darker, sometimes with a brownish shade. The Utah examples are pale creamy with definite dark markings in sharp contrast Type male Ephraim, Utah, July 20, 1924; allotype female Salem, N. Y., July 27, 1924, both collected by the writer on aspen. Paratypes: Woodruff, Wisc. (DeLong); Bayfield, Wisc., (Wickham, Barber Coll.); Osceola, Wisc. (Ball) ; Cranberry lake, N. Y. (Osborn) ; Canada (Baker, U.S. N. M.); Buena Vista, Colo. (Wickham) ; and Colorado (Baker, U.S. N. M.). Type and allotype in author’s collection; paratypes in Barber, Osborn, DeLong, Am. Mus. N. H. and U. 8. N. M. collections. Telamona tiliae new species Intermediate between spreta and reclivata in outline, resembling spreta but with definite dark markings especially in the male. Length, female 10 mm., width 6 mm., height 5 mm. Length, male 9 mm. Pronotum long, acute, crest broad, quadrangular, inclined posteriorly, the anterior margin sloping from middle of metapodium to middle of crest, crest obliquely truncate, the anterior angle roundingly rectangular, the posterior one obtuse, posterior margin upright, rounding into pronotum below. Humeral angles slightly obtusely angular, their margins curved, almost equaling the eye. Color.—Dirty grayish-green, fading to dirty yellowish, with most of the crest and an oblique strip to costa brown; in the females this brown area may 204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 only be emphasized on the margin but in the males it is broad and definite, a broad light stripe on anterior and posterior margins of crest. Type female and allotype male, Ames, Iowa. Two pairs paratypes, Ames, Iowa, and two pairs, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, all collected by the writer on basswood. Type in author’s collection; paratypes in author’s collection, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. and U.S. Nat. Mus. Telamona gibbera new species Resembling tiliae but smaller and differently marked, slightly larger than reclivata, with a taller, narrower crest. Length, female 9 mm., width 5 mm., height 6mm. Length, male 8 mm. Pronotum low, rather broad with a narrow upright crest arising well back of the metapodium. Crest with the anterior margin vertical and in line with the lateral angles; dorsum obliquely rounding, highest just back of the anterior margin and sloping down to the obtuse posterior angle, posterior margin slightly sloping and rounding into the broad apical portion; humeral angles broad, almost right angles, equaling the eyes, resembling tzlzae. Male slightly smaller than the female with the crest sloping equally from both front and back. Color.—Dirty gray, slightly darkening around the margin of crest and set off by a white stripe on the posterior slope. Male highly and strikingly ornamented, as follows: Face and metapodium irregularly mottled with brown; crest heavily margined with dark brown with occasional light spots, a creamy area below the crest on either side which sends up a narrow yellow stripe into the dark of the crest, anterior carinae narrowly light and posterior slope broadly so. Type female, allotype male, and 3 paratype females, Williams, Ariz. (Knight); 1 paratype female, 1 paratype male, Pinal Mts., Ariz. (Wickman Ames Coll.) ; 2 females, Williams, Ariz.; and 1 female and 2 males Flagstaff, Ariz. (Barber and Swartz); 1 female and 3 males, Chiric. Mts., Ariz. (Hub- bard)—all U.S. N. M. Type and allotype in author’s collection; paratype in collection of author—H. H. Knight, Ia. St. Coll., Kan. U., U. 8. Nat. Mus. and Am. Mus. N. H. Teiamona tarda new species Resembling gibbera but with a slightly more anterior and pyramidal crest. Length, female 8.5 mm., width 4.5 mm., height 5mm. Length, male 7 mm. Pronotum long and acute, about five lateral carinae strongly developed back of the crest as in woodruffi; crest arising only slightly back of the me- tapodium, anterior margin slightly sloping from the metapodium to just before the evenly rounded apex; apex about one-half the width at base, posterior margin more sloping than the anterior, its outline almost straight to where it rounds to the pronotum. Humeral angles very short and rounding, one-half the length of the eye. Male very small, hairy, with a low rounding crest sloping equally from both margins. Color.—Pale dirty grayish-brown with slight darkening of the margins of the humeral angles and crest; median carina black interrupted before and behind the crest with light. Male darker with the crest mottled brown. Type female and allotype male, paratype female and male, Roselle Park, N. J. (Matausch Coll., Am. Mus. N. H.); type and paratype Am. Mus. N. H.; allotype and paratype and in author’s collection. may 4, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 205 Telamona woodruffi new species Resembling compacta but with a slightly higher and more angular crest as in reclivata and less maculations. Length 8 mm., width 4 mm., height 5 mm. Pronotum rather high, crest broader than high, slightly inclined posteriorly, dorsum long and straight, both angles rounding. Anterior margins sloping more than posterior and about in line with the humeral angles. Humeral angles roundingly right-angled, almost equaling the eye, much longer and more acute than in compacta. About five lateral carinae, quite definitely marked on the apical portion of the pronotum. Male with a smaller crest sloping into the metapodium anteriorly. Color—Rich, red-brown with occasional white flecks, much smaller and more obscure than in compacta. Carina interruptedly dark, posterior slope of crest light with dark margins. Male darker. Type female and allotype male, Elizabeth, N. J. Three-paratype females and one male from the same locality. All from the Matausch Coll., Am. Mus. N.H. Type in Am. Mus. N. H.; allotype and paratype in author’s collection, paratypes in Coll. Am. Mus. N. H. and L. M. Woodruff. Named for Mr. L. M. Woodruff who has done such fine work on the genus Cyrtolobus. Telamona vestita new species Resembling monticola, slightly smaller, darker, and with the crest rounding over from the metapodium almost to the posterior angle. Length, fe- male 9 mm., width 5 mm., height 6mm. Length, male 8 mm. Pronotum rather broad and short, crest very broad occupying nearly one- half the pronotum, anterior margin arising as a continuation of the curve of the metapodium and rounding over to the elongate dorsum; posterior margin short, upright, the angle often slightly acute. Humeral angles more prominent than in monticola, right-angled, equaling the eye. Color.—Pale, dirty yellowish, slightly flecked with brown, a light area on the posterior face of crest. The males are much smaller and darker and the Oregon female is dark. Type female and allotype male, Quincy, Calif. Paratype females from Quincy and Salinas, Calif. and a male from Tehachapi, Calif. all collected by the writer. One female, Oregon (Westcott); 2 males, Gold Hill, Oregon (Biederman, U. 8. Nat. Mus.); 1 female Humboldt, Calif. (VanDyke, U.S. Nat. Mus.); anda male, Santa Cruz Mts., Calif. (U.S. Nat. Mus.). Type and allotype in the author’s collection. Paratypes in National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History and the author’s collection. This is a very distinct species resembling monticola but lacking the green color. It is close to reclivata in structure but has a higher crest. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Public law No. 353, 68th Congress, approved January 31, 1925, reads as follows: “Beit enacted . . . . That the Coast and Geodetic Survey is hereby authorized to make investigations and reports in seismology, including such investigations as have been heretofore performed by the Weather Bureau.” The Bulletin of the Survey announces that publication of seismo- logical reports formerly published by the Weather Bureau in the Monthly Weather Review and discontinued July 1, 1924, will be resumed in the near future. The Act will have the effect of placing the seismological work of 206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 9 the Survey, which has heretofore been an adjunct to the magnetic work, in a position of equal importance to the magnetic work.. The Petrologists Club met at the home of A. C. SpENcER on March 17. Program: J. W. Grine: The decomposition of andalusite, kyanite and silli- manite by heating; R. W. G. Wycxorr: X-ray diffraction measurements on sillimanite and mullite; A. C. Spencer: Review of Spurr and Lewis’ “Ore deposits of Franklin Furnace.” The Petrologists Club met at the home of H. G. Ferauson on April 14. Program: J. B. Merrin, An outline of the igneous geology of Alaska; W. T. ScuaLuer: Red muscovite from New Mexico; D. F. Huwerrr: Supergene silica and jarosites in Nevada. A joint meeting of the Washington sections of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society of Naval Engineers and American Chemical Society, with the Washington Society of Engineers, was held on April 23 to hear a lecture by E. C. MacprpurceEr on Diesel engines in sub- marines. The April meeting of the Pick and Hammer Club was devoted to a dis- cussion of the application of aerial photography to topographic and geologic mapping. An illustrated lecture on Bird life in the District of Columbia was given by Harry C. OBERHOLZER before the Columbia Historical Society on April 21. The Acapremy’s List of one hundred popular books in science, prepared originally at the request of Dr. G. F. Bowerman, Librarian of the Public Library, and subsequently republished by the American Library Association, is now out of print, several thousand copies having been sold. The Associa- tion wished to reprint the list but has postponed reprinting for a few weeks in order to give opportunity for any revision that may be thought desirable. A committee consisting of the vice-presidents of the AcaprEmy, with R. B. Sosman of the Geophysical Laboratory as chairman, has been appointed to prepare this revision. Suggestions from readers of the Journal as to desirable changes will be appreciated by the committee. The latest revision was published in this Journal, Vol. 12, p. 469, (Dec. 19, 1922). ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES _ Tuesday, May 5. The Botanical Society. ‘ _ PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL _ Saturday, April 18. The Philosophical Society. C. W. Kanour: Non-inflammable liquids for low temperature thermostats. E.W.Woouarp: A problem in mathematical expectation and its bearing on statistics. P.R.Hzyz: Some thoughts on the inertia of energy. _ Wednesday, April22. The Geological Society. H.T.Sreanrns: The great explosions of i.) Kilauea voleano in 1924. C.E. Van OnstRanv: A possible dependence of deep earth ? temperatures on geologic structure. CHartes Burrs: New light on the Talladega et (Ocoee) rocks of Alabama. 4 ‘Saturday, May 2. The Philosophical Society. F. Neumann: Harthquakes of 1925— s the problem of determining epicenters. H.D. Hout: A method of studying electrode potentials and polarization. N. H. Huck: The path of sound waves through water. - CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Faas Web i ie " Physics.—An electromagnetic theory of quanta. F. RUssELL mae, ton. ker. 7: SHANNON. AS Beihai Saale nee etpla ie oe tae RR Oe Entomology. eae new species of North American trechoppers : Hemiptera). E. D. Ba: sity kieraih atelgi oj accnd NataE NR eee m tag Bovanierero Nowas kien Kawa V0 OU nae thane ee ia ‘at yi} OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vernon L. Ketioce, National Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Smuspez, Bureau of Sta Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodeti Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ol. 15 : May 19, 1925 No. 10 JOURNAL OF THE VASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS _E.P. Kur D. F. Hewerr S. J. Mavcany IONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apaus S.A. RowweR _--=~ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY — are tg R. F, Griaes J. R. Swanton ga BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY E. WIcHERS. CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat anp GuILrorp AVEs. 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The rate of Subscription per volume is........0...0.c0ccccceceseteveuses yee Semi-monthly numbers:.'s (0: sg. ofa Ae eae ll ae eee Monthly numbers)\o. 2-22). ygiek sie ares sein ete <0 isan a oe aaa Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’’ an addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. O European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. yah Exchanges.—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. _ Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is | within thirty days after date of the following issue. F as *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Specia’ " are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy * JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 May 19, 1925 No. 10 SPECTROSCOPY .—Quartet-system multiplets in the arc spectrum of yttrium... W. F. Merccerrs. Bureau of Standards, and B. E. Moore, University of Nebraska. In a recent note on Spectrum regularities for scandium and yttrium? doublets in the are spectra and triplets in the spark spectra were dis- cussed, and attention was directed to the close correspondence of spectral structures for these two elements. Zeeman effect data? con- firming.most of the are and spark multiplets of yttrium were repro- duced, but there existed at that time no published data for magnetic resolutions of scandium lines. Such have since been published by S. Goudsmit, J. Van der Mark and P. Zeeman,‘ and their measurements positively identify certain doublet and triplet terms respectively in the Se I and Sc IT spectra. On the basis of King’s® intensity and temperature classification of scandium lines, Cataldin® published three multiplets belonging to the quartet system of the are spectrum, the occurrence of which was required by the rule’ that the maximum multiplicity in a spectrum is one unit greater than the column number for the element. With the aid of Landé’s® interval rule the combining spectral terms were identified as high ‘F (read ‘“‘quartet F’’) and lower ‘D, ‘F’, and ‘G terms. No data for the Zeeman effect of these lines have been published. 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. 8S. Department of Commerce. 2 Meccesrs, This Journal 14: 419. 1924. 3 Moorg, Astrophys. Jour. 28:1. 1908. 4 Kon. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 33: 975. 1924. 5 Astrophys. Journ. 54:28. 1921. § Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 21: 464. 1923. 7 Laporte, Die Naturwissenschaften 11: 779. 1923. 3 Zeit. £. Physik. 15:189. 1923. 207 208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 In the case of yttrium no temperature classification has been pub- lished, and the Zeeman effect data were not extensive enough to iden- tify the quartet terms. The latter deficiency has recently been cor- rected by the authors; new measurements of magnetic resolutions of yttrium arc lines at once revealed the prominent quartet terms which are the analogues of those in scandium mentioned above. In either case the absolute values of these terms are still unknown but their relative values are compared in Table 1, in which the level with smallest energy content is called zero. TABLE 1.—Revative TERMS IN QuaRTET SYSTEMS Term Scandium Yttrvwm F, 00.00 00.00 F; 37 .67 141.33 14 90.28 340 .64 F; 157 .33 594.80 D; 31117.4 22278 .0 Dz 31139 .2 22328 .1 D; 31176.8 22420 .4 D, 31231 .5 22677 .2 I’ 29652 .5 20571 .1 F;’ 29695 .8 20742 .7 Fy,’ 29755 .6 20971 .8 5! 29831 .0 21250.8 Gs 27502..9 17756 .7 G4 27576 .2 18051 .5 Gs 27669 .8 18426 .9 Ge 27783 .5 18883 .2 The interval ratios of the yttrium terms are as follows: Observed Calculated ‘pF 254.16 : 199.31 : 141.33 = 9.000 7.058 5.004 9 a 5 4D 256.88 : 92.36 : 50.09 = 7.0 2. 1.4 7 5 3 leh 278.90 : 229.12 : 171.55 = 9.0 7.4 5.5 9 7 5 4G 456.26 : 375.35 : 294.73 =11.00 9.05 ®) ll 9 7 The agreement between observed and calculated interval ratios is almost perfect for the lowest F level, and although it is very poor for the *D term it becomes progressively better for the high levels as the azimuthal quantum number increases. Three quartet system multiplets resulting from the combinations of the above terms for yttrium are presented in Table 2. The multi- plets are arranged with term designations and intervals at the margins, each spectral line being represented by its observed wave length, estimated intensity (in parenthesis), and vacuum wave number. Exposures for the Zeeman effect of the yttrium lines in Table 2 were made with the spectrograph and magnet in the Brace Laboratory MAY 19, 1925 MEGGERS AND MOORE: ARC SPECTRUM OF YTTRIUM 209 TABLE 2.—QvaRTETS IN THE ARC SPECTRUM OF YTTRIUM Fs 254.16 Fy 199.31 F; 141.33 F, Ds 4527 .26 (8) 4475.71 (4) 4436 .14 (1) 22082 .27 22336 .59 22535 .82 256 .88 D; 4527 .79(8) 4487 .29(3) 4458 .95 (2) 22079 .68 22278 .96 22420 .52 92.36 D2: 4505 .95 (8) 4477 .41(4) - 22186 .67 22328 .11 50.09 D, 4487 .48 (6) 22278 .02 F's 4839 .86 (10) 4781 .04(3) 20656 .00 20910 .13 278 .90 F's 4906 .10(3) 4845 .68 (8) 4799.31 (4) 20377 .14 20631 .19 20830 .51 229 .12 F’; 4900.11 (10-x) 4852 .69(8) 4819 .64(3) 20402 .05 20601 .40 20742 .67 171.55 F’s 4893 .44(3) 4859 .83(8) 20429 .84 20571 .13 Gs 5466 .45 (10) 18288 .35 456 .26 G; 5606 .32 (3) 5527 .53 (10) 17832 .09 18086 .26 375.35 Gs Se 5644.68 (4) 5581.86 (8) 17456 .8 17710.91 17910 .20 294.73 G; 5740.23 (1) 5675 .26 (3) 5630.12 (8) 17416 .08 17615 .47 17756 .69 210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 of Physics; the spectrograms were measured at the Bureau of Stand- ards. In Table 3 the observed values are compared with those calculated according to Landé.? The parallel components (in paren- thesis) are followed by the perpendicular components, and in complex patterns the strongest component of either set is printed in bold face type while some of the weaker components are represented by asterisks. The exposures obtained thus far do not permit the measurement of TABLE 3.—ZrEMAN Errect oF Yttrium Arc LInEs Terms ALA, Obs, Cale. FD, 4487.48 (——) 0.58 (0.20) 0.20, 0.60 F.4D, 4475.71 (0.46) 1.27 (** 0:48; 0:67) ** 1.14) 335 eb ies F,D2 4477.41 (——) 0.00, 0.77, 1.53 (0.40, 1.20) 0.00, 0.80, 1.60 F;D; 4487.29 (——-) 1.20 (* 0.52, 0.86) * 0.86, 1.20, 1.54, * F;D2 4505.97 (0) 0.84 (0.08, 0.26) 0.77, 0.94, 1.12, 1.28 FsD, 4527.26 (0) 1.11 (0:05;-0:15°**)) 1.00; 1-10;ab19 seo seas F.D; 4527.79 (0) 1.07 (0.07, 0.20, 0.33) 0.90, 1.04, 1.17, 1.30** ¥,F;’ 4781.04 (O) 1.46 (0.05, 0.14, **)***** 1.48, 1.57, 1. 67 F3F 4’ 4799.31 (w) 1.55 (0.10, 0.31 *)*** 1.34) 1250, 01-76 F.F,’ 4819.64 (0.31, 0.95) 1.94 (0.31, 0.94) 0.09, 0.71, 1.34, 1.97 F;F;’ 4839.86 (0) 1.34 (0) 1.33 ByF,’ 4845.68 (0) 1.23 (O) 1.24 F3F;’ 4852.69 (0) 1.03 (0) 1.03 F.F 2’ 4859.83 (0) 0.41 (0) 0.40 F3F 2’ 4893.44 (0.32, 0.95) 1.96 (0.31, 0.94) 0.09, 0.71, 1.34, 1.97 FFs’ 4900.11 =) 1.068 (0.10, 0.31 *)*** 1.34, 1.55, 1.76 FF,’ 4906.10 (0) 1.51 (0.06, 0.14 **)***** 1-480 1°57, 91.67, F;Ge 5466.45 (0) 1.13 (0.03, 0:09: ***) 1:00; 1:06, das teetas F.Gs 5527.53 (0) 1.05 (0:03; 0:10.) **) 0:94; 1:00, 1 O07) sae F;G2 5581.86 (0) 0.93 (0.02, 0.07, 0.11) 0.87, 0.91, 1.00 ** F;Gs 5606.32 (0.62) 1.22 w (*** 0.57, 0:73) *** 10,126 yea FG; 5630.12 (0) 0.72 (0.09, 0.26) 0.31, 0.49. 0.66, 0.83 FG, 5644.68 (0.85) 1.11 (** 0.64, 0.89) ** 0.86, 1.11, 1.37 ** F;G; 5675.26 (14) —— (0.23, 0.68, 1.14) * 0.34, 0.80, 1.26 * = Intense spark line coincident. *F; — *Ds, (0.00, 0.08 *) 0.92, 1.00, 1.08 **. some of the fainter components in complex patterns but even the unresolved patterns are in qualitative agreement with the calculated values. The observations are being extended and a complete pres- entation together with further regularities in the spectra of yttrium will be given in another paper. ® Zeit. f. Physik. 15:189. 1923. e-- MAY 19, 1925 SHANNON: MYRMECOPHILE FROM PANAMA 211 ENTOMOLOGY .—An extraordinary adult myrmecophile from Panama. Raymond C. SHannon, Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHWER.) Under the title Two extraordinary larval myrmecophiles from Pan- ama,! Dr. W. M. Wheeler recently described a peculiar larva of a dipteron which he thought might prove to belong to the genus Microdon (Syrphidae) or to a closely allied genus. As a result of his paper, addi- tional data relating to this group of myrmecophiles came to light, all of which fit together fairly well to make a very interesting account. Incidentally, a new species of Microdon, peculiar enough to be quite in keeping with the remarkable larva recorded by Wheeler and which may eventually prove to be the adult, was found in the National Museum collection and is described below. Dr. Wheeler found more than a hundred individuals of a peculiar type of larva in the nest of an ant, Azteca trigona Emery. No adults were reared and the authenticated imago remains unknown. Wheeler states that a study of the larvae “‘shows a vague kinship to the Syrphid Microdon, ***. On the other hand the rigidity of the integument on the ventral surface and absence of a creeping-sole, the proportionally much greater development of the thoracic segments, the large, cylin- drical and undoubtedly functional prothoracic stigmata, the finer structure of the posterior stigmata, etc., are all characters which sepa- rate the larva under discussion from the Syrphidae and other aschizous Cyclorrhapha. Since it in all probability represents a new genus and may even represent a new family of Diptera I propose to call it Notho- microdon aztecarum gen. nov. et sp. nov. “What the larvae do in the carton nests of Azteca trigona must re- main a mystery till they are encountered by some observer who can study the behavior of both ants and guests in an artificial nest. The powers of locomotion of the larvae must be nil or limited merely to slowly dragging themselves by means of their feeble mouth-hooks. Perhaps they are actually carried about the nest by the ants. That they may feed on ant larvae is suggested by thefact that the brood was much less abundant in the nest in which they occurred than in several uninfested nests of the same ant which I examined in the avocado orchard of Mr. John English at Frijoles.”’ Shortly after the appearance of Dr. Wheeler’s paper Dr. Mario Bezzi suggested, in correspondence with Dr. J. M. Aldrich, the possi- bility of Nothomicrodon aztecarum Wheeler being the larva of a very 1 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 10: 240. 1924. 212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 unique South American dipteron, namely, Masarygus planifrons Brethes,? habitat, General Urquiza, Buenos Aires, Argentina, which has cleft antennae, or of one of its relatives. When Dr. Aldrich related this to the writer it recalled to his mind a Microdon-like syrphid in the undetermined material from Panama, collected by Mr. August Busck, which also had cleft antennae. It differs from the male of Masarygus planifrons, which has the third antennal joint divided intofour branches, by having only two branches. Brethes apparently was unaware of the relationship of his species to the Syrphidae, as he only compared it with the Syrphidae in the most casual way (“‘Solamente el abdomen es un poco hinchado en la hembra, mientras que el macho seria, bajo ese concepto, semejante a varios Syrphidae’’). He compared the species with the Conopidae and the Oestridae, and on the basis of their differences erected the family Masarygidae: ‘De todo lo expuesto creo que la neuva familia Masary- gidae debe colocarse entre los Conopidae y los Oestridae, pues con las demas familias la relacion es demasiado remota.” His description and figures of Masarygus planifrons reveal such close similarity to the Microdontinae that it is necessary to include it in the Microdon group. Moreover, he related how he found his specimens on a wooden post, running in and out of the galleries of an ant, Camponotus mus Rog., which was inhabitating the post. All species of Microdon, as far as known, are myrmecophiles. Dr. Bezzi in a subsequent letter to Dr. Aldrich states that Masary- gus Brethes may be congeneric with Ceratophya Wiedemann, a genus established* just 100 years ago, and founded upon material collected in Brazil. Only female specimens were known to Wiedemann and they agree essentially with the female of Masarygus planifrons in which the antennae are normal. Unless the males of the species of Ceratophya have cleft antennae this genus must be considered as a synonym of Microdon, as now understood. Dr. Bezzi also gave the reference to his paper in which he states that Masarygus is probably synonymous with Ceratophya, essentially as outlined above.‘ Whether Masarygus is generically distinct from Microdon on the basis of adult characters remains to be determined. The distinctive feature, i.e., the cleft antennae, as far as the evidence at present shows, is peculiar only to the male sex. Otherwise Masarygus is quite similar to a group of small, more or less yellowish, Microdon (Ceratophya ?) 2 Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires 410. 1908. 3 Wiedemann, Analecta Entomologica 14. 1824. * Societas Entomologica 25: 67. 1910. aha may 19, 1925 SHANNON: MYRMECOPHILE FROM PANAMA 213 occurring in the American tropics. The cleft antenna, without the arista, is unique in the Diptera. A number of species of Tachinidae have the third antennal joint cleft, but the arista is present. Certain Tabanidae (no arista occurs in this family) apparently have the cleft antennae, but this is owing to a projection from the upper basal corner of the third joint. A genus of Acaylpterae Diptera, Cryptochaetum, has no arista. The present species is tentatively placed in Microdon and for the present is designated by a distinctive specific name. Family SYRPHIDAE Masarygidae Brethes, Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires 410. 1908. Genus Microdon Meigen, sensu latus. Ceratophya Wiedemann, Analecta Entomologica 14. 1824. Masarygus Brethes, Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires 410. 1908. Nothomicrodon Wheeler, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 10: 240. 1924. Microdon megacephalus, new species. Male—A small golden yellow species with dark mesonotal markings. Head very large, noticeably broader than high; eyes nearly twice as long as wide, very slightly approaching above; face very broad, widening upwards to near top of eyes; ocellar tubercle very prominent, ocelli closely grouped; the triangle broader than long; first antennal joint slender, about as long as distance between antennal base and eye margin; second joint very small; third joint nearly four times as long as first, very broad basally and sheet-like, with an incision extending nearly to its base, dividing it into two branches, each branch tapering to a point; front and face golden yellow, a blackish line extending across ocelli from eye to eye which is clothed with black, short, coarse pile; a similar dark line looped around antennal base; facial pile very sparse, golden; mouthparts somewhat reduced; thorax very small, much smaller in dorsal aspect than frontal aspect of head; with three broad black- ish stripes; scutellum yellow; thoracic pile very sparse, coarse, reddish yellow; legs entirely yellow; fore and mid legs slender and with yellow pile; hind legs more or less swollen throughout; the tibia along the upper surface with densely matted, long black hairs; abdomen deep golden with sparse, coarse, golden pile; four-segmented, the fourth nearly as long as first three combined ; hypopygium remarkably enlarged, globose, with coarse black hairs; wings hyaline; stigmatical crossvein present; spurious vein nearly obsolete; third vein simple: apical crossvein nearly straight, slightly directed basally, mak- ing apex of first posterior cell nearly quadrate. Length 7 mm., wing 5.5 mm., third antennal joint 2.75mm., width of head 2.75 mm., width of thorax 2 mm. Type locality —Old Panama, Panama; January Bie 1911 (A. Busck). Type.—Cat. no. 27824, U.S. N. M. 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 911TH MEETING The 911th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 10, 1925, with President FLEMING in the chair and 52 persons present. The address of the evening was given by the retiring president, D. L. Hazarp, on Terrestrial magnetism in the Twentieth Century. It has been published in full in this Journau (15: 111-125. 1925). 912TH MEETING The 912th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 24, 1925, with President FLEMING in the chair and 50 persons present. The program consisted of reports of the meeting of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union held at Madrid in October, 1924. Profes- sor H. F. Rep presented the general report and also the report of the Section of Seismology. These were followed in turn by the report on the Section of Geodesy by Witu1amM Bowtr, the report on the Section of Meteorology by H. H. Kimpatt, and the report on the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism pre- pared by L. A. Baurr, read by W. J. Permrs in the author’s absence. H. D. Harrapon also contributed some interesting remarks on the Madrid meeting. 913TH MEETING The 913th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 7, 1925, with President FLEMING in the chair and 76 persons present. Program: H. L. Dryprn: The Flettner rotor ship. The paper was accompanied by practical demonstrations of the effects of air resistance and was discussed by Messrs. Breit, HutBurRT, and Hryu.—The Flettner rotor ship depends for its propulsion on the force exerted by the wind on a rotating cylinder. The force is similar in its nature to the force that lifts air-planes in that it is produced by an asymmetry in the object presented to the wind and in that the component of the force at right angles to the wind is many times larger than the component in the direction of the wind. Modern aerodynamical analysis relates this cross-wind component to the ‘‘circulation” of the fluid taken around the body. This modern point of view was set forth by the author in its relation to the simpler concept of momentum. [ixperi- ments were shown illustrating the existence of the large cross-wind compon- ent in the case of rotating cylinders. The rotor ship was then described, together with the investigations lead- ing to its construction. The advantages of the rotor ship over the usual type of sailing vessel are as follows: The crew required is very small. Less training is required to operate the rotor ship. The ship is more easily maneu- verable than a sailing vessel, turning more quickly and without bringing the vessel to. Sail is automatically shortened in squalls. The vessel is more easily gotten under way. Very little attention is needed in varying winds. The disadvantages are as follows: The propulsive force is too small in light winds. There is some question as to safety in extremely high winds. The fact that the propulsive force is independent of wind speed above a certain speed may mean that full advantage can not be taken of strong winds. The may 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 215 rotor ship makes a strong leeway in a following wind with cylinders turning or makes little headway if the cylinders are stopped. The author called attention to the necessity of studies of cost of operation before a final comparison could be made, and expressed the opinion that for psychological reasons the invention would not generally be adopted. (Author’s abstract.) W. P. Wuire: Some scientific aspects of the game of golf—Most games of skill are played with balls, and with a very great variety of balls and of bats or sticks for propelling them. The main principle of most of the active games, however, shows comparatively little variety. The object in the team- work games is to keep control of the ball, passing it to your friends until it can be put across some sort of goal, while in games of the tennis family the object is to return the ball to your opponent and yet in such a way as to get the better of him. Another group of less active games starts the ball from rest: billiards, bowling, croquet, quoits, and golf are in this class. Here the interest that comes from activity and from outguessing your opponent are both wanting. Hence in these games other resources for variety are sought. In tenpin bowling, however, the thrill, the suspense, as the ball goes: down the alley, and the feeling of power in propelling it and in seeing it hit, appear to be the only things which recommend the game. It is evident that these things are sufficient to redeem an extreme monotony. In billiards the use of more than one ball, with the necessary judging of various angles which this involves, calls for an intellectual exercise that adds to the interest. The element of variety from one day to another is absent from this game also, but appears in golf, owing to changes in the weather and in other conditions, and is particularly great when different courses are played on. There is also great variety in the kinds of strokes, some of which have to a superlative degree the elements of power and thrill, while others call for skill and control and adaptation to the terrain in different ways. In hitting the ball into the air from the ground, a beveled or “lofted” club: is essential and such a club always gives the ball an under or back-spin. This inevitable accompaniment is a great advantage, since it produces a. lifting force which overcomes gravity for a while and so increases distance. The ball, hit with a back-spin, goes nearly horizontally for the first half of its. flight, so that its path can be calculated by taking account only of the resist- dv oot cient approximation for the present purpose, a couple of integrations gives. ance oftheair. Taking the law of air resistance — av’, which is a suffi- 5 Sa < logn = or the distance traversed while the ball is falling from one velocity to another is a function of the ratio of the two velocities and not of their absolute magnitude. Hence a livelier ball adds as many yards to a short driver as to a long driver, and is therefore more advantageous for the short driver. The ball of a powerful driver loses a third of its velocity and there- fore nearly two-thirds of its energy in the first second after itis hit. The back- spin lift is proportional to the product of spin and speed. It mainly determines. at what velocity the ball shall begin to fall. The weak hitter gets less spin from a given club. Hence his ball does not hold the air so well at the latter end of the drive. He can estimate this deficiency and get more spin by using a club with more bevel or loft. It is therefore important that weak drivers should have abundant loft on their driving clubs. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. L. J. Briaas, TucKER- MAN, Hazarp, C. A. Briaes, and Croox. 216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 914TH MEETING The 914th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 21, 1925, with President FLEMING in the chair and 30 persons present. Program: O. 8. Apams: New world maps derived from elliptic functions, (Illustrated).—In 1864 H. A. Scuwanrz of Halle gave a formula for the con~ formal representation of a circle in a regular polygon. In 1877 the first geographic map of this kind was constructed and published; in 1889 a second such map was derived in an entirely different manner. By a tarther manipulation of the general expression of Schwarz seven new maps were computed and constructed, some for a hemisphere and others for the whole sphere. In addition to these, two other projections were shown, the second of which mapped the whole sphere in an ellipse with axes in the ratio of about two to one. Of these eleven projections which have been constructed for geographic purposes, no less than ten have been devised by members of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. A full discussion of the theory together with tables will soon appear as U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publi- cation No. 112. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. PAwLING, Breit, Hawxks- wortH, MArRMeErR, and TucKERMAN. H. W. Fisx: Magnetic secular change in Latin America (Illustrated). The paper presented a review of the work done by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism within the region under discussion, showing the positions on charts, and summarizing stations and repeat stations by means of tables. It was pointed out that for each of the so-called magnetic elements, declina- tion, inclination, and horizontal intensity, there exists in this area, a center, or focus of very rapid secular change. Charts were shown upon which were drawn the lines of equal annual change of each element for the year 1915, that being the mean year of the survey period. In the immediate vicinity of the centers, the lines of equal annual change formed closed curves, inclosing oval areas, while farther away the curvature of the lines was less regular. While the chart was drawn for the epoch 1915, it was shown that the posi- tions of these lines of equal annual change are continually shifting, as the rate of secular change varies from year to year and from place to place. Either there may be a motion of translation of the whole system of lines in any direction, or there may be a motion radially away from or toward the centers, which may move but little if at all. In the first case there will be accelera- tions of the secular rate of opposite sign on two sides of the center, depending on the direction of the translations; in the second case the accelerations will have the same sign on all sides of the center. The latter was found to be the case for all three elements. There was found to be a rapid increase of the annual rate up to the year 1914 or 1915 after which there was an even more rapid decrease at each of the centers, and this change at the centers was accompanied by changes of the same sign at stations in all accessible direc- tions from these stations, which became less as the distance from the centers increased. From this it appears that the positions of the centers change slowly, if at all, but that the accelerations are due to alterations in the activ- ity at the center. These centers of greatest change were situated generally as follows: For declination near the mouth of the Amazon or in Guiana; for inclination, in western Colombia and Ecuador; for horizontal intensity, in the Bahamas or southern Florida. ‘the radial movement of the lines of equal change in hori- zontal intensity was illustrated by a diagram showing the annual change for May 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 217 each year from 1905 to 1923, as found from the annual means at the United States Coast Survey observatories. At Vieques and Cheltenham, east and north respectively from the center, the accelerations were very similar; at Tucson on the west but at a greater distance, the acclerations were of the same sign but smaller, while at Honolulu, the signs were the same but the magnitude was quite inconsiderable by comparison. From the discussion of these centers for the period 1905-1923, it is con- cluded that the accelerations of changes of the secular rate were less near the lines of no change, than near centers of great change, and that a relatively small part of the acceleration is related to a change in position of those centers. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. PAwiinG and Breit. G. Breit: The inductance and resistance of a coil encircling the Earth. It has been suggested by Swann that one may be able to learn something about the electric and magnetic properties of the interior of the earth by study- ing the electromotive force induced in a loop of wire encircling the earth due to changes in a current maintained in another similar loop. In the present paper some calculations are made in order to investigate the possi- bilities of the idea. In view of the fact that it is easier to secure one loop than two, the electrical constants of a coil arranged equatorially around the earth are studied for the case of an alternating current passing through the cou. The coil is supposed to have the form of a single circular turn of wire. In view of the fact that the Heaviside layer appears to affect seriously the behavior of magnetic elements, an attempt was made to take it into account by introducing a conducting spherical shell into the problem, the shell being supposed to be concentric with the conducting core of the earth. The result of the calculation is too lengthy to be presented in this abstract. It may be stated, however, that in special cases definite, perceptible effects are to be expected and that by proper experimentation one may hope to learn some- thing about the average properties of the earth to a depth of the order of 100 kilometers. The anticipated difficulties of the experiment lie mainly in the considerable length of time which is likely to be necessary in order to make the eddy currents penetrate through a sufficient thickness of the earth’s crust. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Mr. WENNER. 915TH MEETING The 915th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, March 7, 1925, with President FLemINc in the chair and 34 persons present. Program: C. L. Mircurenty: West Indian hurricanes, and other tropical revolving storms of the North Atlantic Ocean (Illustrated).—A preliminary study of West Indian hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea during the period 1887— 1923 confirmed the opinion of the writer that tropical cyclones do not originate over the eastern two-thirds, approximately, of the Caribbean Sea. This investigation proved so informative and interesting that the much more comprehensive work of plotting, from all available data, including original vessel reports, the tracks of all tropical cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, for the entire period for which daily weather charts of the North Atlantic Ocean are available, 1887 to 1923, inclusive, was begun. The storms were classified according to their intensity, being divided into three groups, as follows: 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10: 1. Storms of known hurricane intensity. 2. Storms whose intensity was in doubt, because of an insufficient num- ber of reports. , 3. Storms not of hurricane intensity. The total number of storms for the 37 year period was 239. Of these 122,. or 51 per cent, were placed in group 1; 57, or 24 per cent, in group 2; and 60,. or 25 per cent, In group 3. The hurricane season in the region studied begins in June and ends in November. ‘The tracks for each month were plotted separately, the number for each of the months being as follows: June, 16; July, 17; August, 39; Sep- tember, 78; October, 71; and November, 15. In addition, one May and. and two December storms were charted, but they did not reach hurricane: intensity. One of the principal results of the study was definite establishment of the: fact that there are two well-defined areas where the majority of the tropical. cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean develop; one of these areas is the region: a short distance south and southwest of the Cape Verde Islands where many cyclones develop during August and the first half of September, and the other is the western third, approximately, of the Carribbean Sea where the develop- ment of cyclones is most frequent at the beginning and again near the end of the hurricane season. It was found that cyclones do not develop over the: North Atlantic within about 8 degrees of the equator, and that they develop. farther north as a rule only when the belt of doldrums, or area of light variable winds between the northeast trades of the northern hemisphere and the south- east trades of the southern hemisphere, shifts far enough to permit deflective force of the earth’s rotation to establish a circulation around a low pressure: area. Another important conclusion reached was that tropical cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean seek to recurve to the north and northeast at the first. favorable opportunity, irrespective of the longitude of the storm center, or the time of the year. The reason that so many cyclones move far to the west- ward before recurving is due to the semi-permanent area of high pressure that. extends from the region of the Azores west-southwestward to the coast of the South Atlantic States of the United States, and effectively prevents the cyclones from moving northward, except in the infrequent instances when this. area of high pressure breaks down. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hryt and Pawtinc. R.L.Sanrorp: The detection of flaws by magnetic analysis (Illustrated).—The interpretation of the results of magnetic tests for the detection of flaws has been. practically impossible due to the influence of internal stress on the magnetic properties. By making two or more tests at properly chosen values of mag- netizing force, the disturbing effect of variations of internal stress can be eliminated. By the use of this method, the greatest obstacle in the way of satisfactory interpretation of results is overcome and it is possible in the light of the results here reported, that the method may be of practical value for the detection of flaws. Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. WHITE, HAWKESWORTH,. TuckEeRMAN, L. H. Apams, and SosMan. 916TH MEETING The 916th meeting was a joint meeting with the scientific staff of the Bureau of Standards and was held at the Bureau of Standards on Wednesday, March 11, 1925. a May 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 219 The meeting was called to order by Dr. G. K. Burazss, Director of the Bureau of Standards, at 3:30 p.m., with several hundred persons in attendance. Professor P. DresByr of Zurich addressed the meeting on The Quantum Theory and its bearing on the classical laws of the Conservation of Energy and Momentum.—When X-rays fall upon a single electron as in an ionized gas, two things occur: the electron is set in motion forward, and secondary X-rays are scattered in all directions, forward and backward, the intensity of the forward rays being the greater. This may be accounted for by supposing the quantum of energy incident upon the electron to be divided into a smaller quantum which is radiated as scattered X-rays, and energy of motion of the electron. This explanation fails to account for the phenomena of interference. To include this we may suppose that the electron is radiating energy in all direc- tions before being hit by the quantum, and that the condition afterward is the resultant of two conditions: the radiation and the secondary X-rays with motion of the electron. In this case we have to assume that the laws of the conservation of energy and of momentum do not hold instant by instant, but only are valid when averaged over a period of time. (Abstract.) 917TH MEETING The 917th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, March 21, 1925, with President FLemrNc in the chair and 25 persons present. Program: H. A. Marmer: Mean sea level (Illustrated). For many geo- physical purposes, some of the difficulties inherent in geodetic sea level may be overcome by defining geographic mean sea level at any point as the average level of the sea at that point or as the plane about which the tide oscillates. This makes the determination of mean sea level a problem in the field of tides, and from the results of tidal observations it is found that sea level varies from day to day, from month to month and from year to year. The variation in sea level from day to day is conditioned by the weather, but that from month to month possesses a large element of periodicity, which is characteristic for a considerable area. From year to year the variation in sea level was found to be much the same over large areas. Notwithstanding occasional differences, it appears that if sea level in any one year is high or low at one point on the Atlantic coast of the United States, it is high or low all along the coast. And for the Pacific coast this was also found to be the case. The fact that the variation in sea level is much the same over considerable areas makes it possible to determine mean sea level at any point with a considerable degree of precision even from short series of observations, if at some point not far distant a tidal station has been in operation for a number of years. (Author’s abstract.) The paper is to appear in full in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers. Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. SosMAN, PAWLING, Houmpureys, Lampert, Wricut, Hopason, and Morey. H. E. Merwin and G. W. Morey: Optical effects of iron in certain glasses (Illustrated). Ferric glasses with different amounts of iron were made by adding Fe,O; to a glass containing 15 per cent Na.O, 10 per cent CaQ0, and 75 per cent SiO». These were ground and oxidized at 600° in a current of oxygen, then heated at about 1000° to make them compact. In an 80 220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 per cent PbO, 20510, glass, 5 per cent FeO; dissolved readily at about 800°. Ferrous glasses were prepared by heating to about 14000° in double graphite crucibles mixtures of ferrous oxalate and the lime-soda glass just mentioned. Timing to prevent formation of metallic iron, and also powdering and remelt- ing to make homogeneous, were necessary. The much greater effects of the ferric oxide on dispersion and refraction were shown by plotting optical measurements against compositions, as found by analysis. Ferrous oxide is much the stronger coloring agent. It produces a green- ish-blue color, and when ten per cent is present in the lime-soda glass, massed fragments 2 mm. in diameter appear black. Corresponding ferric glass is a slightly dull yellow. In the lead glass, five per cent Fe,.O; makes an appar- ently black glass which in 0.5 mm. thickness is deep orange-red. (Authors’ abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman and WRIGHT. Dr. W. J. HumpHreys gave an informal talk on Tornadoes which was dis- cussed by Messrs. Rupr, PAWLING, WRIGHT, SOSMAN, LAMBERT, Huck, and TUCKERMAN. H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 673D MEETING The 673d meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club January 17, 1925, with President RoHweERr in the chair and 121 persons pres- ent. ‘Lhe President read a list of committees for 1925, as follows: Committee on Communications: W. R. Maxon, Chairman, H. C. OBrRHOLSER, C. E. CHAMBLISS; Committee on Publications: C. W. RicHmMonp, Chairman, J. H. Ritey, T. E. Snyper, F. C. Lincoin, G. 8S. Miuuer, Jr.; Committee on Zoolo- gical Nomenclature: G. S. Miuurr, Jr., Chairman, P. Barrscu, A.C. BAKER, EK. A. Cuapry, H. C. OBrRHOLSER; Trustees of Permanent Funds of Society: T. S. Paumer (2 yrs.), H. C. OBERHOLSER (1 year), A. 8. Hircucock (3 years). The following members were elected: Witt1am M. Mann (life member) and CarLron P. Ropers. T.S. Paumer described the feeding of quail in the District of Columbia by police using food supplied by the Audubon Society. Their reports, which covered only a few days and do not include the whole of the District, enumer- ated about 79 covies, amounting to some 918 birds. A similar census made about six years ago gave the number of birds as 1200, and one made two years later, 1400. H. C. Osrruoser stated that a dead Baltimore oriole had been picked up in Anacostia about January 5. He also mentioned the increase in recent years of the canvasback duck. F. C. Lincotn reported the recovery in Newfoundland of a kittiwake banded in England. This is the first bird banded in Europe to be recovered in America north of Mexico. The man who collected the bird reported that it was good eating. Program: A. B. Howriu: Mice that live in trees (Ilustrated).—The red tree mouse (Phenacomys longicaudus), with a discontinuous distribution throughout the humid coast forests of California and Oregon, is a member of a genus related to the common meadow mouse. It, however, is remark- able for the fact that it seems to be more truly arboreal than any other mam- mal of the United States save the flying squirrel. Its food consists of the May 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 221 fleshy portion of the needles of the fir trees in which it lives. The midribs of these needles are not consumed, and these constitute the material with which the arboreal nests are constructed. The comparatively large nests of the females are very much more numer- ous than the smaller ones of males, and this, coupled with the fact that all of the five specimens thus far secured upon the ground have been males, sug- gests the very unusual possibility that this sex spends a considerable portion of the time amid terrestrial surroundings while the females do not. The young are remarkable for the slow rate of their development, the eyes not opening until the nineteenth day. The large, crested jays of the region have acquired the habit of tearing the nests to pieces in search of young mice. Data secured indicate that these mice, so specialized in habits, have few enemies with which to contend, and that their ecologic position is one in which they experience very little competition. (Awthor’s abstract.) R. F. Griaes: Scientific results of the Katmat Expeditions (Illustrated). — The speaker described the expeditions sent by the National Georgraphic Society between 1913 and 1919, in the course of which the ‘‘Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes’ was discovered. The vegetation of the region was discussed with particular reference to its recovery after the volcanic eruption. The numerous colored slides shown, in connection with moving pictures taken in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, gave a very clear idea of this remarkable region. SPECIAL MEETING A special meeting of the Biological Society was held in the National Museum January 24, 1925, with Vice-President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 85 persons present. The speaker of the evening was Frits JOHANSEN, who described the natural history, geology, and geography of the region on the east shore of Hudson Bay as observed by himself on a trip made as far north as Richmond Gulf in 1920 under the auspices of the Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. The talk was illustrated by lantern slides, mainly from photographs taken by the speaker. The studies of this expedi- tion showed that the Arctic marine fauna extends practically to the southern ead ot James Bay, in spite of the large amount of fresh water emptying into the Bay. 674TH MEETING The 674th meeting was a joint meeting with the Audubon Society held in the National Museum January 31, 1925, with T. S. Paumer, President of the Audubon Society, in the chair. The program consisted of the regular annual meeting of the Audubon Society, and a paper by Dr. A. A. ALLEN, of Cornell University on Our disappearing birds. 675TH MEETING The 675th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Feburary 14, 1925, with Vice President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 63 persons present. New member elected: Mrs. T. E. SnyprErR. _ VERNON Batey reported the observation of a duck hawk feeding on star- lings on Pennsylvania Avenue. A. Wetmore reported the first purple grackle seen at the Zoological Park on February 9. He also mentioned hearing a starling give the song of a meadowlark. E. A. GoLpMAN reported the recent observation of a female Chinese pheas- 222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 ant near the monastery at Brookland. A. WrrTmorg, discussing the local history of the Chinese pheasant, stated that several had been released in Maryland by E. Ler LeComptr, State Game Warden. Mr. Ernest Smoot several years ago turned out thirty-five birds in Klingle Valley. 8. F. Buaxe reported the observation of a bat flying about in Poli’s Theater on February 10. Program: Epcar Brown: The longevity of buried seeds (Illustrated).— Seeds of certain legumes (Hovea linearis and Goodia latifolia) collected in Australia by Robert Brown, and germinated after 105 years, furnish the longest authentic case of longevity of seeds. Prof. W. J. Brau buried seeds in the earth 40 years ago, to be taken out at intervals and grown. At the end of this time, half of the species still germinated. Dr. J. W. T. Duvet for- merly of the Seed Laboratory, buried seeds of 107 species of many different families in 1902. The seeds were buried at depths of 6 to 8 inches, 18 inches, and 3 feet. At the end of 20 years, 51 of the species germinated. In gen- eral, germination was better in the seeds buried at the greater depths. Of the total 107 species 36 failed to grow after 1 year. Ernest P. WALKER: Commercial development of blue fox farming in Alaska (Illustrated) —The blue fox, a color phase of the Arctic fox, is cireumpolar in range in the wild state, and is slightly smaller than the red fox. It ranges nearly as far south on the Alaska coast as the Alaska Peninsula and occurs on the Priblof and other large islands of Behring Sea. In 1858 the Russians, who then had jurisdiction over Alaska, took steps to protect the blues on the Priblofs and reduce the whites. In 1885 the Semidi Propagating Company took blues from the Priblofs and stocked North Semidi Island off the Alaska Peninsula and from then till 1899 a number of islands were stocked as far east as Prince William Sound. About 1901 and for a few years following about ten islands were stocked in southeastern Alaska but only one continued in business. The entire industry declined until about 1916 and ’17, when it began to revive. At present practically all suitable islands along the Alaska coast are occupied for blue fox farming, and raising blue foxes in pens has been success- fully undertaken. The animals on the islands are fed and cared for, but run at large. The young are born from late April to early June. Litters of as many as fifteen have been recorded but the more common ones run from five to nine. Fish is the basis of the feed. It is fed fresh, dried, smoked and cooked, and mushes of cereals are often fed in conjunction with it. Losses from diseases and other causes have not been serious, and territorial legislation to check poaching has been enacted. Breeding stock has been selling for about $300 per pair. When the animals are killed for skins, they are taken in late November and December in small houses called trap-feed houses, in which the animals are ordinarily fed and where a number can be taken at once. With the development of successful penraising the industry can expand to a large area of the United States and Canada where the climate is suitable. (Author’s abstract.) H. L. Suanvz: Collecting experiences in East Africa (Ilustrated)—The speaker described his experiences in the ‘‘addo” bush in Cape Province, on the Kafue River in northern Rhodesia, in Urundi, on Lake Tanganyika, and in the waterhole country north and east of Mt. Kenya. The first camp was in a dense thorn thicket. In such places Portulacaria afra the “speckbroom” or “elephant-food,” is one of the most important forage plants, eaten by wild elephants, domestic animals, and ostriches. On the Kafue in the open may 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 223 forest and grassland were many wild fruit trees, among them Garcinia livings- tonet, Diopyros senegalensis, Ximenia americana, and Canthium lanciflorum, and a fine display of terrestrial orchids of the genus Lissochilus. The larger game animals had deserted this region at the time of-account of dry weather. Brachylaena hutchinsti, a composite, is one of the most important timber trees in British East Africa, and reaches a large size. The distribution of game in Africa is very unequal. At times one may travel hundreds of miles without seeing any game animals; in other places hundreds of large game animals may be visible at one time. 676TH MEETING The 676th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 28, 1925, with President RoHwer in the chair and 129 persons present. New members elected: Cart J. Drekr, A. BRucr Horsratu, Morris A. STEWART. O. J. Murte: The white sheep of the Alaska Range (Ilustrated).—The white sheep, Qvzs dalli, is found principally on the north slope of the Alaska Range. The south side is covered too deeply with snow for the sheep to find food in winter. On the north side the strong winds sweep the snow off exposed places and make the feed more accessible. The sheep range above timber, some- times on gentle slopes, sometimes on rocky heights. They often flee for refuge into high rock masses, cliffs, and pinnacles. Among the companions of the sheep inhabiting the high country may be mentioned the caribou, grizzly, marmot, ground squirrel, and three species of ptarmigan. The vegetation is characterized by stunted forms of lowland plants. The sheep feed extensively on grass. Among other plants eaten may be mentioned Dryas octopetala. The sheep are found in greatest abundance in the Mt. McKinley region, where they are now protected. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides showing the sheep in their native haunts. (Author’s abstract.) Harry V. Haruan: Plant exploration in Abyssinia (Illustrated) —The northwest quarter of Abyssinia is a high plateau usually from 6,000 to 11,000 feet in elevation. It is populated by Amharas. On the east and south of this plateau there is a plain, usually about 5,000 feet high near the escarp- ment, and sloping gradually to the sea. The higher parts of this plain are occupied by Galla tribes. The Gallas raise wheat, barley, sorghums, teff, flax, many varieties of peas and beans, and a number of garden vegetables. The Amharas grew small grains, barley, wheat, emmer, and teff. Broad beans and peas are produced in limited quantities. The cultivation of the highlands is most intense at the higher elevations. The percentage of tilled land and the density of popu- lation decreases with altitude. The highest ridges are given over to the cultivation of barley. Cultivation of wheat and emmer commences at slightly lower elevations. Teff is grown in the wheat belt and in the sorghum belt. Sorghums are cultivated at lower elevations than wheat. (Author’s abstract.) 677TH MEETING The 677th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 14, 1925, with President Rouwerr in the chair and 75 persons present. New members elected: P.S. RipspaLte, R. W. Westwoop. C, W. Stites gave a report of his continued experiments on the polution of ground water. The chemical solution used has now been recovered at a distance of 414 feet from the well where introduced; the bacterial solution at 232 feet. As in the previous experiments, the bacteria remain at the top of the water level. 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 L. O. Howarp referred to the newspaper reports of experiments made with mosquitoes in France. The report states that Culex mosquitos, transferred from a place where they bit only birds to Paris, interbred there with the man- biting race, and the offspring lost the power of biting. It is questionable whether this will be true of subsequent generations. Program: R. C. SHannon: Parasitic flies in man and animals (Illustrated). —A certain group of Muscoid flies, the Oestridae or bot flies, are obligate parasites in mammals. However, many of the species of Muscoid flies which do not belong to the oestridae have similar habits and these serve to show the transition from forms which are usually saprophytic but may occasionally be myiasidic in habit to those forms which are true myiasids or bot flies and have specific vertebrate hosts. The Muscoid group, which is a very large one, is divisible into two subgroups, one of which lacks hypopleural bristles and tends to be vegetarian in diet, while the other group, which possesses hypo- pleural bristles, tends to feed on flesh. The more highly specialized of these are the bot flies and parasites of other insects. Specimens of many of the species mentioned were placed on exhibition. (Author’s abstract.) James Sitver: The European hare in North America: is it a menace? (Illustrated).—The European hare, Lepus europaeus, is now firmly established in North America. It was introduced as a game animal for use in coursing. There have been five or more introductions originating from Hungary, Ger- many, and England. ‘The first introduction was in 1888, the hares being liberated at Jobstown, N. J. Others were at Millbrook, N. Y., from 1893 to 1911 and at Brantford, Ont., in 1913. These three have proved most suc- cessful from the standpoint of subsequent abundance and spread. The hares have attained a maximum abundance in Dutchess and adjoin- ing counties, New York. In Dutchess County a recorded drain of over 3,000 hares per year for six years failed to appreciably reduce their numbers. In New Jersey the increase has been very slow except in a few favorable locali- ties, while in Ontario the animals widened their range to some 4,500 square miles in ten years. The injury chargeable to these hares is confined largely to young fruit and shade trees, ornamental shrubs and small fruits and then only during periods of heavy and persistent snow fall. Very severe injury in the past has been due to a lack of information as to how to protect the trees from possible depre- dations. This is being corrected by the local orchardists with the assistance of economic mammalogists so that the menace of the hare is being greatly lessened without reducing the numbers of this otherwise valuable game ani- mal. (Author’s abstract.) W. M. Mann: A collecting trip in Sinai and Palestine (Illustrated) .— The speaker gave an account of a trip made in 1914, in company with Dr. Joun C. Puruuies, along the Mosaic trail from Egypt to Jerusalem. Col- lections were made en route at stops at the Wady Feran, Akaba, Petra, and the Dead Sea. From Egypt to Akaba the journey was made by camel caravan, afterwards by mule train. A number of new species were collected, and large collections made of others, including the Syrian ibex, Butler’s owl, a new subspecies of rosy finch, the Moabitic sparrow, and anumber of ants. (Author’s abstract.) S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. MAY 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 225 THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 585TH MEETING The 585th meeting was held November 18, 1924, in the National Museum. Program: Dr. Ropert 8. Woopworts, chairman of the Division of Anthro- pology and Psychology of the National Research Council: The relations of Psychology and Anthropology. Dr. Woodworth stated that though anthropology is closely affiliated with geology, anatomy, history, and sociology, and though psychology is closely affiliated with sociology, physiology, and the science of education, it is note- worthy that when an academy or similar general scientific body organizes itself into divisions. anthropology and psychology are usually brought together into a single division. The two sciences seem to gravitate together at the border of the natural science field closest to the contiguous territory of the social sciences. There is little duplication of effort between anthropology and psychology, though they lie so close to one another. Anthropology is distinctly a study of the human species, whereas psychology is rather a study of certain processes basically common to man and animals, and often best studied in animals. Psychology, though undoubtedly interested in problems of race and culture, does not itself investigate these questions. When the psychologist speaks of race he is apt to be uncritical, meaning nothing more than a group of common parentage. Psychologists of late have been interested in attempting to mea- ~ sure the intelligence of different groups, but they have not thought of intelli- gence as a race characteristic in the anthropological sense. From their angle, for example, there is no a priori reason to expect nationalities within a single great race to be more alike in intelligence than nationalities selected from different races. The relation between the two sciences is peculiar in this respect—that each is a basal science for the other. Thus the anthropometric and statistical technique of anthropology is essential in the psychological work of testing, while on the other hand, the psychological technique of testing is a desidera- tum of the anthropologist in his study of races. Or again, psychology is basal to anthropology in the interpretation of many cultural phenomena, while on the other hand the scientific knowledge of the cultural background is necessary for the psychologist in tracing the mental development of the individual. 589TH MEETING The 589th meeting was held March 17, 1925, at the National Museum. Program: Dr. M. J. Herssxovirz, of Howard University: Some aspects of of the anthropology of the American negro. Up to the present, the study of racial crossing has yielded few results, due largely to the difficulty of obtaining authentic material. The present study concerns itself with negro-white crossing, data on which have been gathered by the speaker during thepast two years. These consist mainly in a large series of measurements of negro children at Public School 89 and at the Colored Orphanage, both of New York City, and of male students at Howard University. The chief problem in the study of mixed groups is not the determination of the “racial” qualities which they may have, but rather the extent to which such groups are homogeneous or heterogeneous; if homogeneous, how may the group be described; if heterogeneous, what are the forces which are keeping the group so, and, how may it be described? Certain results of the 226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 10 data gathered on these American negroes force one to the hypothesis that the American negro is establishing a rather distinet type, which is relatively homogeneous when compared with the general population. This may be investigated in certain ways; thus, a study of the growth-curve of the negro boys in New York City showed that there was a distinct curve for the negro population,: when compared with the curve for the general white population. Even though living on the poverty line, the colored boys showed an accelera- tion of some five pounds in weight and four to six centimeters in height, age for age, when compared with the curve for the general white population. When the curve is compared with that for the children in the Orphanage, it is found that the effect of environment is such that the Orphanage children, though living in much better surroundings, are retarded when compared with the public school children; and yet the stock is essentially the same for the two series. This follows Boas’ findings? so closely that it implies a “racial” growth curve. The study of heterogeneity or homogeneity, however, is best approached througb the computation of the variability of the averages of the children in families in a given population, the assumption being that in an inbred popula- tion, since any single family would represent the entire population, such variability would be relatively low, while in a mixed one, no one family would be representative. There can be computed both the variability between family lines, and within them, and we find, when we take fraternities of the New York negro population, which are probably a good sample of the country’s population as a whole, that the variability of the family lines is - relatively low, while that within the families is relatively high. This leads to the assumption that there has been a large amount of crossing by this population, but that this has decreased largely in amount, and that for the past few generations there has been consolidation of type through breeding within the group. This hypothesis is so different from that which is generally held to be the case that the element of social selection, which makes it possible, must be sought. It has been asserted that the element of color among the negroes is an important social selective medium.‘ Lightness is at a premium, and therefore the dark man seeks a lighter-colored wife, while the light-colored woman prefers the darker man. The very light men and the very dark women are thus sloughed off from the group, resulting in a concentration somewhere within the extremes. To test this at Howard, I questioned the men whom | measured concerning the relative color of their parents. The replies showed that in over 60 per cent of the total number of cases (or in 75 per cent of the number giving their parents as “‘about the same color” be disregarded) the mothers were lighter than the fathers. Thus we havehere the social selective element necessary to account for our findings. (Author’s abstract.) Joun M. Cooper, Secretary. 1M. J. Herskovits, Some observations on the growth of colored boys. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthro. 7: 439-446. 2 Franz Boas, The growth of children as influenced by environmental and hereditary conditions, School and Society, pp. 305-308. 3M. J. Herskovits, On the Negro-White population of New York City; the use of the variability of family strains as an index of heterogeneity or homogeneity. (To be published in the Proceedings of the 21st Congress of Americanists, part 1, The Hague, August, 1924.) ee _ ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 4 PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL _ Thursday, April 16. The ACADEMY. Program: A symposium on forest science. _ W.B. Greener. E.N. Monns: Timber growing and protection from fire. H. S. Betts: Timber utilization and by-products. H. Metcaur: Forest diseases and their control. F.C. CraiaHEeanb: Forest insects, pests and their control. Thursday, May 7. The Entomological Society. Program: L. O. Howarp: Notes on Albert Koeblele. E.R. Sasscer: Inspection by the Federal Horticultural Board. CONTENTS — ORIGINAL Parzns : Spectroscopy.—Quartet-system multiplets in the are spectrum of vii Muaaunrs and B. E. MOORD... 22.0.2... ice cenecnsec scene eesaeee Entomology.—An _ extraordinary gnyrmpeophile from Panama. SHANNON, 120520 uh ge eo io aise ainraceials Slams cee ete ee eae PRocEEDINGS ‘ ve The Philosophical Society.. Paadpeesnt he ashtray 5 15°07 The Biological Bociety....-./...ssceecseece eserves eeeeerer seen erans OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vernon L. Ketuoae, National Research ‘Counetiee Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiusBEx, Bureau of § ES Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. June 4, 1925 : No. 11 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES iS BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Krnuip D. F, Hewett S. J. MaucHuy NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosp BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY . ‘ GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. 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Oa ais toes ob aes ee matlneiee : Monthly mumbersii.c5 oo cae etcce eds shat eo cae wine cab ele ee hceaae ten eee an ape Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” anc addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. © European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. en Exchanges.—The Journau does not exchange with other publications. __ Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is mad within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special are given to members of scientific societies afiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Von..15 JUNE 4, 1925 No. 11 RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—Long distance radio receiving measure- ments in 1924. L. W. Austin. Laboratory for Special Radio Transmission Research. Two stations, Monte Grande (LPZ), Argentina, and Cayey (NAU), Porto Rico, have been added during the year to the number of those regularly measured in Washington. Monte Grande is interesting; first, because it is 2,000 km. farther away than the European stations, and second, because the waves travel in a south-north direction from the southern to the northern hemisphere; thus producing entirely different seasonal conditions from those encountered in the trans- mission from Europe to America. The station gives nearly the same morning intensity as Nauen, Germany, and the ratio of average observed to calculated values is about three to one. Unfortunately Monte Grande does not send in the afternoon. Cayey has been observed partly because its frequency, approxi- mately 33.8 ke. (8,870 m.), is considerably higher than the other sta- tions and partly on account of its nearly south-north direction of trans- Mission which at certain seasons lies nearly parallel to the sunset shadow wall. It was thought that this might cause eccentricities in reception at about sunset, but no peculiarities have been observed on the rather limited number of occasions when transmission took place at that time. The mean monthly values of the field intensities of the signals from the various stations, and of the corresponding atmospheric disturb- ances, are shown in the tables and curves. Table 1 gives the approximate data concerning the transmitting stations, as far as known. 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. 8. Department of Commerce. 2 Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the American Section of the International Union for Scientific Radio Telegraphy. 227 228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 Tables 2 and 3 give the monthly averages of the received field intensities and of the corresponding atmospheric disturbances in microvolts per meter. It is to be remembered that the signals received in Washington at 10 a.m. from Europe have an all daylight path TABLE 1.—ApprroxiMATE TRANSMISSION Data FREQUENCY] ogra | cuanent | Helga” | DISTANCE oN I h ike: m. amp. mM. km. NavemME OAM Ae eet wee 23.4 | 12,800 | 390 145 | 6,650 Bolinnemk Eee ere een tee 22.9 | 13,100 | 420 51 | 3,920 Bl Cayey NAV. te eee ae eee 33.8 | 8,870 | 150 120 | 2,490 Monte Grande LPZ..s..¢-..00-2-+ + 23.6 | 12,700 | 610 150 | 8,300 intarettaive weet. ae ete 15.9 | 18,900 | 475 130 | 6,160 ie (on gs ke ee Vn pe 20.8 | 14,400 | 380 180 | 6,200 S$ * A 7 ? Moco { WRU eee aes eee 15.0 | 20,000 | 475 180 | 6,200 Malabaryr ox 2s, ¢.cs emanenren amr tt 19.0 | 15,800 | 500 320 | 14,700 Cavie NEOs as ce een 19.3 | 15,500 | 180 120 | 11,800 1 During the year Nauen has used at times an antenna with h. = 175m. and a current varying between 300 and 480 amperes for its 23.4 ke. frequency. TABLE 2.—AvVERAGE SIGNAL AND ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE INTENSITIES IN 1924 FoR LAFAYETTE (LY), Sre. Assiss (UFU), anp Ext Carry (NAU) IN MicrovoLts PER METER A.M. P.M. A.M, P.M. 1924 LY | UFU | Dist. | Ly | UFU | Dist. | NAU | Dist. | NAU | Dist. JANUETY Lene e wee se 130.0} 63.5 21.2] 160.0} 89.6 26.5) — — — _ Hebruaryneene cit 153.0) 64.2 389.3) 125.7) 71.5 70.6, — = _— _— March act sse csi 117.5) 50.3 30.2] 88.3] 46.7 70.4) — = = _ Aprile nc.ctxs seers 136.7) 50.9 65.8] 88.2) 34.7 | 166.5) 73.2] 17.7 | 59.3 47.3 May sem canstacerercier 107.5} 52.2 97.3) 75.8) 34.7 | 180.0] 79.8] 23.3 | 59.9 64.4 JUNE Seer okie cake 120.0} 45.8 | 105.4) 77.3] 36.6 | 605.0) 57.3] 35.4 | 48:5-| 170.0 JUL Ye astrcess seein 113.6] 47.1 | 56.0) 61.8] 22.5 | 267.0} 112.5] 30.0 | 66.5 | 187.0 AUGUStenw eects esi) nosso)! 40.3 87.0] 52.5) 17.7 | 294.0) 57.0] 42.0 | 73.2 | 157.0 September......... 119.7| 55.3 50.0! 88.6) 35.3 | 151.0} 100.2] 19.0 | 92.5 88.0 Octobersesscesee ss 113.7) 54.4 46.0) 187.4] 57.0 | 110.0} 87.0] 10.0 | 67.6 Buh a(0) November......... 87.8] 37.4 | 38.3] 180.9) 66.3 | 66.0] 62.8] 10.8 | 65.1 | 14.0 December.......... 87.6] 50.3 | 30.2] 151.5) 64.2 | 35.9} 56.1) 7.1 | 62.1 7.8 Average.......... 115.0} 50.9 | 55.5) 107.3) 48.0 | 170.2) 76.2) 21.7 | 65.5 | 79.6 although during the short days of winter they are probably disturbed by being transmitted too close to the European sunset time. The 3 P.M. signals are sent during the evening hours and during the winter considerable parts of their paths lie in darkness. Fig. 1 shows the monthly averages of the 10 a.m. signals from Bor- JUNE 4, 1925 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 229 TABLE 3.—AveracE SigNaL anp ArmospHERIC DistuRBANCE INTENSITIES IN 1924 For Ste. AssisE (UFT), Botrnas (KET), NavEen (POZ), anp Monts ‘ GranbD= (LPZ) 1n Microvoitts per METER A.M. P.M. 1924 Fi UFT | KET | POZ | LPZ | Dist. | UFT | KET | Poz | LPz | Dist. January............ SESH en eLG Sonal livevalpsQeaul =) al 24e Qn = 22.1 Rebruany. sect) 4128) || 8054.) 19°3)|| — | 3228 | 8724-69.6| 21.8), — 61.3 Wares ter. cresereic.e -1- 40.7 | 59.9 | 35.7 | 40.1 | 24.0 | 82.5 | 54.4 | 37.0 | — 58.9 Alain lt Capesegaeen oes 39.6 | 56.3 | 28.5 | 33.6 | 53.3 | 21.2 | 47.4] 17.8] — | 136.0 WIEN enc edn ROMEO GOOE 34.3 | 57.4 | 22.5 | 27.2 | 77.3 | 21.4 | 40.6 | 13.1 158.0 JUNE. 2 Saseeesis Scie | 37.0 | 55.4 | 27.1 | 26.1 | 90.4 | 21.5 | 35.0 | 18.9 531.0 UY syste nestles 43.1 | 58.5 | 30.3 | 33.3 | 50.0 | 22.6 | 26.1 | 15.1 238.0 PA SUS tte tere ace 40.4 | 24.5 | 34.9 | 41.3 | 78.0 | 21.8 | 36.3 | 15.7 306.0 September......... 59.5 | 58.9 | 49.6 | 39.3 | 54.0 | 36.5 | 50.8 | 31.2 148.0 October. 222.2... 49.9 | 62.7 | 31.2 | 42.3 | 31.0 | 44.0 | 59.8 | 32.0 81.0 Novem berssacrn 24.3 | 49.3 | 14.5 | 38.4 | 26.0 | 39.0 | 61.2 | 43.8 56.0 Pecembersse--y | 82.7 ) 54.2 | 21.7 | 46.7 | 28.5 | 41.4 | 54.1 | 39.4 25.9 ANGIRYEO.spoote a: | 40.0 | 55.6 | 27.6 | 36.8 | 46.5 | 31.5 | 48.6 | 25.8 156.0 deaux for the years 1922, 1923, and 1924. Fig. 2 gives similar 10 a.m. curves for Nauen. Fig. 3 shows the morning signals for El Cayey and MICROVOLTS PER METER MONTHS Fig. 1.—Lafayette (LY) average signal, 10 A.M., 1922, 1923, and 1924 Monte Grande. Fig. 4 shows the variations in the monthly disturb- ance averages at 3 P.M. for three frequencies. The marked difference 230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 between the disturbances at 24.0 ke. and 33.3 ke. is noticeable. In Fig. 5 the 3 p.m. disturbances for a frequency of 24.0 ke. (12,500 m.) are plotted for the years 1922, 1923, and 1924. Fig 6 gives similar curves for a frequency of 15.0 ke. (20,000 m.) for the same years. These curves for 1922, 1923 and 1924 are given merely as informa- tion. It is too early to attempt to draw any definite conclusions from their variations. Field intensity measurements were made during August and Sep- SSHeitaeaasretseasees sfscessczeeses MICROVOLTS PER METER MONTHS Fig. 2.—Nauen (POZ) average signal, 10 a.m., 1922, 1923, and 1924 tember at San Diego, California, on the high-power arc stations, Cavite, P.I., and Malabar, Java. The distance from Cavite to San Diego is approximately 11,800 km. (6,400 nautical miles) with a differ- ence in time of eight hours, while the distance from Malabar is 14,700 km. (8,000 miles) with a difference in time of nine hours. This is about the greatest distance which can be attained for all daylight and approximately all water communication with the present high-power stations of the world. Even in this case there are only about two hours during the day available for observations without too close approach to sunset or sunrise at one station or the other. The observations JUNE 4, 1925 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 231 were taken with the telephone comparator and the apparatus cali- brated with a radio-frequency generator and attenuation box as in the Western Electric method of measuring signals. The final results were as follows: CAVITE | MALABAR @bserved’averages...eisoe den cease ec en emnaedeeeeae 2.04 wv /m 4.02 pv /m Calevlated (Austin-Cohen formula).................-. 0.69 1.83 MICROVOLTS PER METER J F M A M J J A Ss (e) N D MONTHS Fig. 3—El Cayey (NAU) and Monte Grande (LPZ) average signal, 10 a.m., 1924 During the year experiments have been carried on to determine the effect of heavy atmospheric disturbances on the observed values of the strength of signals by making measurements on the telephone comparator, first with an artificial antenna and then with an elevated antenna on which the disturbances were coming in. It was found: (1) That if the disturbances were separated by intervals of compara- 232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 tive silence, the readings were independent of the intensity of the dis- turbances provided the telephones were removed from the ears suffici- ently to prevent the deafening effect of the crashes. (2) If the dis- turbances were practically continuous but less than about seven times the strength of the signal, the observations were unaffected. (3) With continuous disturbances between seven and sixteen times the strength of the signal the observed values are too low. (4) When MICROVOLTS PER METER J F M A M J J A SS) (0) N D MONTHS Fig. 4.—Average atmospheric disturbances, 3 p.m., 1924, for 15 ke. (20,000 m.), 24 ke. (12,500 m.), and 33.3 ke. (9,000 m.). the disturbances are more than sixteen times the signal strength, the signal is not heard. These experiments have made it possible to make estimates of the signal strength of the weaker stations on the summer afternoons instead of arbitrarily throwing them out, or considering them inaudible. This is a matter of some importance for the deter- mination of the summer afternoon fading. The application of these corrections to the afternoon observations of 1922 and 1923 practically doubles the average values of the summer afternoon readings of the weaker stations, like Nauen. 7 Cm — a aaa ee JUNE 4, 1925 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 233 cae eee === MICROVOLTS PER METER aeeou eal aa Sore D MONTHS Fig. 5—Average atmospheric 24 ke. (12,500 m.). MICROVOLTS PER METER MONTHS Fig. 6.—Average atmospheric disturbances, 3 p.m. for 1922, 1923, and 1924. f = 15 ke. (20,000 m.). 234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 Some work has been done during the year on the weakening of the European stations at about the time of the European sunset. This plays a part in the production of the weak signals observed at 10 a.m., in November, December, and January, and in the afternoon fading observed on the 3 P.M. signals in summer. On account of the limited personnel of the laboratory, it has not been possible to complete this part of the work for presentation. The similarity in the monthly average intensity curves taken at Meudon and in Washington on the U. R. 8. I. signals sent out from Bordeaux (LY) at 3 p.m., Washington time, has continued to be worthy of note. This similarity began to be observed at the time of Bor- deaux’s change in frequency from 12.8 ke. (23,400 m.) to 15.9 ke., (18,900 m.) in May, 1923, as was mentioned in last year’s report. Similar, nearly simultaneous readings have also been taken on Rocky Point, L. I. (WQL), at Meudon and Washington, but in this case no definite correspondence between the two reception curves has been found. ENTOMOLOGY .—A new sabethid mosquito from Panama (Diptera, Culicidae). Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON (Communicated by 8. A. RoHwsR). The species here described has been on hand for more than a year, and recent work on the group requires that it be given a name. Prosopolepis hemisiris, new species Antennae, clypeus (without scales), palpi and proboscis entirely blackish; occiput dark metallic green with purplish cast, whitish on the sides below; mesonotum dark metallic green, no prescutellar setae evident, pronotal areas with silvery white reflection; prothoracic lobes with purplish reflection domi- nant, but also greenish intermixed; pleurae extensively silvery white scaled; lower sternopleurals extending slightly above the lateral metasternal sclerite; two spiracular setae, three prealar setae. Legs bluish black; mid tarsi silvery white on the last three and a half joints below; hind tarsi with last four joints missing, no white on remaining parts. Abdominal tergites bluish black above, their lateral margins silvery white, the colors separated in a nearly straight line, very slightly scalloped, sternites entirely silvery white. Wing scales broad, entirely black. Length about 4.5 mm. Type, female.—Cat. no. 28210, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; France Field, Canal Zone, Panama, collected by a native assistant of Army Sanitary Inspector J.B. Shropshire, possibly from a coconut shell, and bred by us August 16, 1923. The collector’s label on the culture was ‘‘cocoa mosquitoes.” JUNE 4, 1925 COBB: NEW NEMA, TYLENCHUS CANCELLATUS 235 BIOLOGY .—Biological relationships of the mathematical series 1, 2, 4, etc., with a descrtption of a new nema, Tylenchus cancellatus, (Contribu- tions to a Science of Nematology XV). N. A. Coss, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. The behavior of the components of matter, e.g., in chemical reactions, appears to compel discontinuous variation in the evolution of organisms, Organic evolution has been thought continuous, but mutation now suggests that it is discontinuous. Must it not necessarily be discontinuous! from the very nature of the composition of matter? Morphological changes in organisms originate in chemical changes in the matter of which they are composed. Now, a chemical change is one that either takes place or does not take place; nothing intermediate is known. Hence it seems that the fundamental changes in the evolution of organisms, so far as we can conceive at present, i.e., chemical! changes, must be saltatory. But we cannot con- ceive of the greater and obvious (visible) changes, except as summations of these minute changes. The visible changes then must per force be con- sidered of the same character as that of their components, i.e., all visible evolutionary changes in organisms must be of a saltatory nature. The mathematics of the morphology of organic evolution may therefore be considered as, at least mainly, discontinuous,—arithmetical. The material basis of life is discontinuous, but is the only known form of matter so organized as to grow and multiply by assimilation; in this lies the fundamental difference between living objects and all others;—not a mathe- matical difference. Matter is dual, or less abstractly, there exists in matter an exceedingly widespread, probably universal, “bipolarity’’, exemplified, therefore, in organ- isms. The universality of “bipolarity’’ is more or less understood and generally admitted. Its universality might be assumed to prove, and at least very strongly suggests, its necessity. Assuming its necessity, this bipolarity determines that cells, as well as many of their components, multi- plying, do so by binary division in a bipolar manner.* 1 Mathematics. Arithmetic and its derivatives arose through everyday problems connected with matter, which is discontinuous. The Calculus, mathematics of con- tinuity, arose through problems like those of astronomy, where the continuity of space and time impress us most vividly. Quantity. It may be said we cannot conceive of anything so small that it cannot be divided, or so large that nothing can be added to it ; but as the two opposite statements: seem just as true, we find ourselves within two limits at each of which we confront some- thing that must beso, but can’t beso. Between these two irrationalities lie quantities we can handle rationally by mathematics. 2 Thence ‘‘fore-and-aftness’’ and bilateral symmetry in organisms arose (doubtless modified by gravity). Bilateral symmetry seems the invariable result of the growth of what we may call, for lack of a better term, ‘‘untrammeled protoplasm.’’? When proto- plasm is ‘“‘hampered,’’ say by inorganic materials tending to produce other forms of symmetry—as, for instance, through the laws of erystallization—then bilaterality may be more or less masked; otherwise it is manifest. We readily recognize it in nearly all animals and plants. 236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 Ss Me On on > ppll6) A fundamental result of this phenomenon is BO that organisms thus become exact or modified “mph expressions of the mathematical series 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., a comparatively unheeded basic fact "sc bib worthy of careful attention. eo Ts it not possible, simply by way of instance, : ei ea that by eeu yne carefully this more or cS apparent widespread mathematico-biological ex- pression, we may reach a clearer understanding of organic form and of phylogenetic relation- ships? This question suggests others of deeper _ Whad import, since form is largely an expression of the interplay of internal forces. der ~Sucha query leads to counting and comparing more carefully the various features of organ- _lum oe isvas, repetitive and otherwise. Among a multi- Fig. 1—Female Tyl- tude of others, such questions enchus cancellatus n. sp. . Q alec al Jaf The, characters are set as this then arise: Why is it atte fortuna Atore “ont that both the number of \ view of head, followed by Peete 1 mal Aine um Radner’ ee ransverse INS an tions of the body sec- NUMber of longitudinal ele- ee majjnt ents in the cuticle of = ue many nemas Is likely to suggest some definite relationship to the geo- metrical series 1, 2, 4, 8, am 16, etc.? The observed numbers are certainly ’ cellular expressions of the 1, 2,4 series, or varl- ants, but why and according to what law is it that very often the numbers of ele- ments met with are not members of the series but integers lying between? Why is it that chromosome- counts are suggestive _of this same mathe- matical concept? And so on throughout the ‘ range of organic struc- 2. _ _ SS vine 7 94 09mm tures. Are not these a tat gen min int ~ tim JUNE 4, 1925 COBB: NEW NEMA, TYLENCHUS CANCELLATUS 237 numbers not only necessarily and definitely, but perhaps somewhat simply, modified mathematical expressions of the fundamental mathematico-biologi- cal phenomena inevitably arising from the fact that cells (as well as some of their components) divide in accordance with the 1, 2, 4 series? Variations of the 1, 2, 4 series, as expressed in cell multiplication, say in a segmenting egg, can be readily diagrammed. (See Fig. 3.) If im such a cell- division diagram any particular multiplying cell or cellsjbe pictured as halted, while the others continue to divide, the next step will bring about a variation from the geometrical series. If the reader will draw a few simple diagrams, he will find it easy, by such variations, graphically to represent, as existing at successive early stages in the imagined ontogeny, numbers of cells, say, from 1 to 10 inclusive, and will see that conceivably this could ‘so on indefi- nitely, and that therefore any number whatever is a possible biological variation of the 1, 2, 4 series. But this broadening of the possibilities must not be allowed to obscure the basie fact that the numbers are neverthe- less definite mathematical variations of the 1, 2, 4 series due to the binary division of cells and thetr components;—which in turn seems compulsory owing to the nature of matter itself. Our problem seems to be: Which of these numerous variations are the more sig- nificant, and what are their mathematical and biological relationships? A new triplonch, Tylenchus cancellatus n. sp. (Figs. 1 and 2), infesting the roots of peonies, will serve, in a very limited way, to illustrate the foregoing remarks. The figures (Fig. 1) show the existence, near the head, of sixteen external longittidinal grooves. Near the middle of the neck this number changes to eighteen by the splitting, on each side of the nema, of one of the lateral, or sublateral, elements of the series, so that most of the body presents 18 grooves. Posteriorly this number reduces to 14, 10, then 8. (Fig. 1.) This emphasizes the value of pondering the variants of the 1, 2, 4 series. If the numbers of the various elements were con- fined to the 1, 2, 4 series, they would be less significant, hence less useful;—e.g., in the interpretation of relationships. But variations abound, and are, as yet, for the most part unexplained; probably often highlycomplex. It is certain, however, that 7f these variations p, 8 *:,4. can be envisaged and understood, they will serve ‘as ‘basic data. CER Che There seems at present no way of stating jexactly, the upper Si7°,swellinss limit of the numbers representing these variations of the 1, 2, 4 contain Tul series as exemplified in an organism. It may in some organisms '@!¥s- reach twenty figures, and therefore the discovery and interpretation of some of the highest members of this modified geometrical series, as exemplified in organisms, may be beyond our present compass. : Nevertheless, does it not seem likely that relationships traced in this manner may ‘at jleast be set upon a firmer basis than is the case when data of other sorts'are used,—or even upon an entirely new basis? 238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 In a 1, 2, 4 series, let Px be the final product and N its series number, then Py, = 2N-1: thus, 16 = 251. Similarly in a simple organism, at any particular instant in its growth, let Px have a corresponding value,—that is to say, be the number of cells that either actually exist or would have arisen by the uniform and continuous dichotomous division of the single primal cell. Such simple and easily understood organisms occur among the lower forms, and in the early embry- onic stages of the higher forms, but are rare among the adult stages of the higher forms, because in these latter some cells lag or cease in their dichotomy, and because of losses of cells from various causes. Hence, the number of cells actually present in an organism at any particular instant is likely to be Py minus a certain number of cells, (X), due to delay or failure in some part or parts of the dichotomy, or to loss. In this discussion account is taken of all the cells that have been produced during the growth, whether present in the organism at the proposed instant or not. This is in order to allow for worn out or wasted cells; these, possibly vanished, cells are zncluded in Py. The general 1, 2, 4 equation of an organism thus becomes Py = 2N-! — X, ayy Cy 4th 7 iy aK VE My \ rd. st. ‘ ve Ae Ve WwW re oe nd. sty ‘\ wa va aad ae Seual © ioeauation P,=2"-X, i lege Intestine +,@ , Ist. stage © Ectoderm +,@ Fig. 3—Diagram of 8 generations of cells produced by dichotomous divisions;—as, for instance, in asegmenting egg. Three general characters of tissue are shown: (1) Sexual, (2) intestinal and related tissues, (3) ectoderm and related tissues. The sexual and in- te »stinal tissues are shown to have lagged behind those of the ectoderm, so that Py in this instance equals 71. in which X is a whole number and a function of one or more ‘‘p’s” of a lower order, 1.e., of the 1, 2, 4 character, or p = 28-! character, in which, of course p is smaller than P and n is smaller than N. These smaller (ascertainable) groups are 1, 2, 4 groups of cells due to the lag or failure of “‘earlier”’ generations than N. (See the loop (X) in Fig. 3.) Py = 2N-! — X is a general equation, which, when X = 0, represents a strictly uniform and continuous mathematical dichotomy, found only in the lower organisms or in the early embryonic stages of the higher ones. The various ‘‘p’s” from Py down to P = 1, (the primal number) become, therefore, se insignia, indicating particular generations of cells, and may be made the basis of a definite and fundamental mathematico-biological nomenclature applicable to the generations of cells in an organism, and hence to the organism itself. Applications of the equation are endless. JUNE 4, 1925 HAY: CORRELATION OF PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 239 GEOLOGY.—On the correlation of certain Pleistocene deposits and their fossils. OLtver P. Hay, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Recently, Dr. W. D. Matthew! presented a paper entitled “Correla- tion of the Tertiary formations of the Great Plains.” As might have been expected, Dr. Matthew presents many interesting, instruc- tive, and acceptable propositions; there are others from which one may be permitted to dissent. The tone of the paper is somewhat disquieting, and one gets the idea that the geology and paleontology of the Tertiary is in a bad way and needs the services of a reformer. Doubtless there is much justification for his pessimistic conclusions. However, it is not the Tertiary, in which he has done most of his work, that appears to Dr. Matthew so nearly in disorder, but the Pleisto- cene, both of North America and of Europe. In two matters Dr. Matthew has recently afforded me gratification. In 1923? I ventured to refer the Blanco to the Upper Pliocene. Not long ago Dr. Matthew* made the same disposition of it. In a paper read before the Geological Society recently and published in this JOURNAL,‘ I recognized two Pleistocene faunas, an earlier and a later. In his first paper, Dr. Matthew states (p. 747) that it is adequately proven that there are differences between the earlier and the later faunas. However, considering the facility with which he moves up and down the dividing lines between formations, I fear Dr. Matthew will not long adhere to his decision concerning the Blanco proposition. As regards the earlier and later faunas, I doubt that his later and my later will coincide in either depth or superficies. JI am further curious to learn where he finds the “‘proofs” of the differences alluded to. Dr. Matthew thinks (p. 751) that it has not been settled whether the Equus beds of Nebraska and Kansas are at the base of the Pleistocene or on the top of the Phocene. So far as I am aware, he is the only man who stands out, and he only of late. In his correlation table he places the Sheridan in the Pliocene and invites American geologists to accept the transference. It is a fair offer, and we shall await with interest their response. As an argument in favor of this new arrange- ment he states that the genus Equus is quite characteristic of the Upper Pliocene of Europe. This is a disputed point, one of those on which Dr. Matthew expresses an opinion in the fourth paragraph of his page 1 Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 35: 743-754. 1924. 2 Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 322, pp.1, 15. 1923. 3 Nat. Hist., 24: 630. 1924. ‘This Journal, 15: 126-133. 1925. 240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 752. Most European geologists have indeed drawn the line so as to throw a part of the Glacial period, the horses with it, into the Pliocene, but there is a reaction against this. In his great work® Emile Haug places the parting plane at the base of the Villafranchian, because then appeared, as he says, a new fauna, characterized by Elephas, Equus, and Bos, which pushed the old into the background. His arrangement throws into the Pleistocene the upper beds at Val d’Arno in Italy and the Norwich Crag in England. He further declares that the earliest glacial stage, the Scanian, immediately preceded the fluvio- marine Cromerian, which itself presents the first interglacial fauna. Recently, J. Reid Moir has published an article’ on the human arti- facts found in the vicinity of Cromer. Moir places the beds in the Pliocene, but regards the Cromer Forest bed as belonging to the first interglacial, and the Red and Norwich Crags as representing the first glacial epoch of East Anglia. Moir’s paper is immediately followed by one by Sir E. Ray Lan- kester, in which he expresses the opinion ‘“‘that it is high time that the misapprehensions of Lyell and his followers should be discarded and the discoveries of the last 50 years given their true significance, by definitely assigning the Red and the Norwich Crags to the Pleistocene.”’ In the number of the Bulletin of the Geological Society which contains Dr. Matthew’s paper is Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan’s treatise entitled ‘“‘Criteria and status of correlation and classification of Tertiary deposits,’ a communication replete with valuable informa- tion fortified with citations to geological literature. In his “Table No. 1,” prepared under his direction by Dr. Julia Gardner, Vaughan presents the “‘Correlation of the Tertiary formations of Europe.” He had to define the boundary between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene; and this he draws, as did Haug, below the Villafranchian in Italy and the Norwich Crag in England. It appears, therefore, that according to these authorities, the genus Equus is pretty well excluded from the Pliocene of Europe, and that Dr. Matthew has chosen an inauspi- cious moment to urge the incorporation of a part of the Glacial Epoch into our North American Pliocene. It is possible that species of Equus existed in Asia during the late Pliocene, but our classification of forma- tions is not based on Asiatic geology. It is not impossible that species of Equus lived in Asia before any lived in America. Matthew tells us that Hipparion migrated to Asia and there developed species which were larger and more progressive than the native American forms. In 5 Traite de Geologie, 1767. 1911, 8 Nat. Hist., 24: 637-658. 1924 JUNE 4, 1925 HAY: CORRELATION OF PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 241 like manner, another equine form may early have reached Asia and, under the stimulating environment of that continent, have given rise to advanced species of Equus. When the movement of the fauna of northern and temperate Asia into America began, those horses may have returned to the land of their ancestors. In the latest Pliocene known, the Blanco and the San Timoteo, close approaches to Equus are found. In the earliest Pleistocene that has furnished any con- siderable number of fossils there are numerous species of one-toed horses. It seems hardly possible that during that interval the genus Pliohippus should in America blossom out into more than a dozen species of Equus. Some of the early Pleistocene horses, as Hquus baudistensis, E. occidentalis, and E. idahoensis are primitive in many respects. Others, as EL. fraternus, E. pectinatus, E. scotti’, all belong- ing to the early Pleistocene, are far more advanced. It appears possible that the primitive forms may have been natives of this coun- try; the others have been Asiatic immigrants. Dr. Matthew does not greatly appreciate the attempts made to correlate the Pleistocene faunas with the interglacial and glacial stages. He credits these correlations to Osborn and myself; but, inasmuch as Osborn has, to my knowledge, made no serious efforts in that direc- tion, so far as America is concerned, I think that he at least might have been spared. Dr. Matthew gives it as his opinion that the position and unity of the Aftonian are distinctly doubtful and its exact correlation with the Sheridan also questionable. He seems disposed to reach in and shake the insecure foundations of the correlations. Iowa is the most interesting area of the North American glaciated regions, possessing sheets of drift of all the glacial stages and the deposits, erosions, and weatherings of all the interglacial times. Its glacial and interglacial phenomena have been investigated by prob- ably a greater number of capable geologists than those of any other state, and their researches are yet being vigorously pursued. The glacialists welcome the suggestions made by all competent investiga- tors and any contribution from Dr. Matthew will command attention. A large part of the surface of the state is occupied by Kansan drift. This is known to extend, at some points at least,to the Missouri River and beyond. Beneath this drift sheet there exists, over much of the state, another, the oldest known, the Nebraskan. This too is known to reach the Missouri at points, and has been supposed to do so all 7 See Iowa Geol. Sur., 23: 183. 1914. Figs. 68, 69. 242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 along the western border. Between these two drifts are found, over a large part of the state, evidences of a long interglacial stage when there was a mild climate and an abundant flora, doubtless an equally abundant fauna. During this time too the upper surface of the Nebraskan drift became deeply weathered and leached. This inter- glacial time is the Aftonian. Along the Missouri, near or not many miles away, where erosion has trenched the Kansan drift, or where it has been penetrated by wells and railway cuts, the bones and teeth of many mammals and the shells of land and freshwater mollusks have been discovered. These have been referred to the interglacial Aftonian. Fossils have been discovered in supposed Aftonian deposits in about 20 localities. In 7 of these only mollusks were found; in 8, only mammal bones and teeth; in at least 5, both molluscan and mammalian remains. According to Shimek, 26 species of mollusks have been determined, and these all belong to species yet living in western Iowa. Eighteen at least of these species were found in one pit, at Turin. The unity, or homogeneity, of this molluscan assemblage can not be questioned. The species could not have been redeposited from older formations. Of the vertebrate species we may count about 25 species. Of these, 19 have been collected in one pit at Missouri Valley. At Turin, 8 species of vertebrates were collected, associated with the 18 or 20 species of the mollusks mentioned. Six of the vertebrates appear to be of the same species as those secured at Missouri Valley. The other two, Megalonyx and Castoroides, are common Pleistocene fossils. The Hipparion remains found at Afton Junction, Iowa, may appear to be an intrusive relic of an older fauna. However, this is not the only case of the occurrence of Hipparion in the Pleistocene. Calvin reported a tooth of the genus from Rockport, Missouri, where it was associated with Equus, Elephas columbi, and a large camel, probably Camelops. The writer described a species of Hipparion collected by Cragin in western Kansas. In the same collection are Mylodon, two species of Equus, Camelops, Elephas, and Canis. That Hipparion was a companion of Equus in the early Pleistocene appears certain. Possibly some of those progressive species came to America with the Asiatic contingent early in the Ice Age. The facts presented show, I think, that the fauna found in the so-called Aftonian deposits of lowa is a homogeneous one, not one made up of elements of two or more geological stages of epochs. We may now ask whether these mammals and mollusks belong to the Aftonian or to another stage. I think all who understand the JUNE 4, 1925 HAY: CORRELATION OF PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 243 question will agree that the fauna belongs somewhere between the beginning of the Nebraskan and the early part of the Kansan. Dr. George F. Kay, State Geologist of Iowa, has expressed the view that the remains are not found between the two drifts but in one or the other or both of them. I believe that this is an error which Dr. Kay will soon correct. The probabilities are strongly against the occur- rence of sands and gravels containing bones and teeth and delicate shells within the drift in so many localities and along such an extent of country; especially since in all the rest of the glaciated region of North America bones or mollusks are rarely, if ever, found in the drift. Dr. Kay’s theory is that the animals lived in front of a glacier re-advanc- ing over ground which it had occupied not long before and then abandoned. Buried in the gravels of the earlier advance, the bones and teeth were covered over by the till of the return movement; and thus they are involved in the drift of one glacial stage and not between the drifts of two stages. Formerly, the apparent inclusion of some of those fossiliferous sands and gravels in the drift was explained on the theory that they had been ploughed up in frozen masses by the on-coming glacier. Even if those mammals and mollusks lived near the approaching glacier, they were the not distant descendants of the species of the Aftonian and hence a part of the same fauna. However, the writer maintains that the animals found fossilized in those sands and gravels could not have lived anywhere near the glacial front. The plants and animals of British America could exist neither beneath the glacier nor upon it. ° They were obliged to move on south of it or perish. Wherever they were driven, the arctic animals, the musk-oxen, the reindeer, the birds, the fishes, had to have a climate to which they had been accustomed and the plants which they had learned to eat. The insects needed their arctic and subarctic climates and many a species required a particular kind of plant to which it had become structurely adapted. When the glacier was approaching Iowa, the state must have had a far colder climate than previously; and this climate did not form a narrow belt along the glacial front. Inasmuch as local glaciers existed in the mountains of Nevada and southern Cali- fornia, and even in the Andes near the equator, the average tempera- ture of our whole continent was reduced. The seasons along the Gulf were cooler than before. From this chilled coast the average annual temperature decreased gradually northward to the arctic cold at the foot of the ice sheet. Perhaps one or two species of elephants, some musk-oxen and reindeer, and a few hardy carnivores, found existence 244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 possible in Iowa; but we may be sure that the camels that had lived there, and the bisons, and the horses, and peccaries, and especially the ground-sloths, had long before abandoned the region, seeking better pastures. Dr. Matthew states (p. 746) that the correlation of the Sheridan beds as the exact equivalent of the Aftonian is also questionable. One must not be too sure. Some three or four hundred miles out on the plains there might have existed a different species of muskrat or prairie dog, but the assemblages of mammals were probably as nearly alike as they are today. About 25 species have been found in the supposed Aftonian of Iowa and about 20 or more in Sheridan County, in each case doubtless only a small part of those existing in the locali- ties. It is possible, too, that the Iowa animals lived a few hundred years earlier or later than those along Niobrara River. Hence, some of the differences may be explained. In the writer’s opinion, there is not a species in either list which may not any day be added to the other. Dr. Matthew ought to tell us where his Sheridan fauna belongs if not in the first interglacial stage. He must consider it an older fauna than the Aftonian, for he has chosen it to depress into the Upper Pliocene. If it does not belong to the first interglacial, corresponding to the Aftonian of Iowa and the Cromerian of England, he may assign it to the first glacial stage. Two objections present themselves. On the one hand, there is not a species which suggests a cold climate, no musk- ox, no reindeer. On the other, there are only Megalonyx and Platy- gonus that can be regarded as Pliocene species. Several other genera of remarkable mammals are known to have come high up into the Pliocene; but they do not appear in the Sheridan list. These Plio- cene mammals must have been suddenly destroyed by the invading Asiatic hordes. The reference of the Sheridan to the Pliocene does not quite satisfy Dr. Matthew. The Equus fauna must begin still further back. A new fauna containing Equus, found by Gidley in Arizona, is, Matthew tells us, considered as Middle or Upper Pliocene. It is apparently taken as older than the Sheridan and as falling outside the Glacial epoch. Apparently the Equus entourage has no known limits downward, just as in Dr. Matthew’s correlation scheme it is not limited upward. Now, to refer that Arizona fauna to the Pliocene is to prejudge the ease. It is certainly younger than the Blanco and therefore nearer to the Sheridan. The larger animals, except a mastodon and a glypto- JUNE 4, 1925 HAY: CORRELATION OF PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 245 don, have not been described. The mastodon is closely related to Sheridan and Aftonian species. The other mammals comprise 2 or 3 species of Equus, a Pliohippus, a Hipparion, a Lama, a Procamelus, a Pliauchenia, a peccary of possibly a known Pleistocene species, and deer of the genera Odocoileus and Merycodus. All of the rodents belong to existing genera and most of them are closely related to existing species. It is not necessary to step down directly from the Aitonian and the Sheridan into preglacial terranes. The possibility exists that the Arizona fauna belongs to the Nebraskan glacial stage. Tt has the transitional features to be looked for in such a position. It is possible, however, that Dr. Matthew does not recognize any Nebraskan stage; or if he does, he may think that it was a spell of weather rather disagreeable, but otherwise of little importance. In reality some of those barren “intermediate” beds (his p. 751) may find their place in the Nebraskan. It is interesting to consider some other features of Dr. Matthew's correlation table. While he seeks to adjust the Sheridan nicely in the Pliocene he leaves the La Brea in the Pleistocene, and apparently not in the lowest. Yet most of the genera which he has named as charac- teristic of the Equus fauna are common to the two localities, Canis, Arctotherium, Smilodon, Mylodon, Equus, Elephas, Camelops, Antilo- capra, Bison, and Capromeryx. We have here the representatives of an impressive assemblage of mammals which it is proposed, by the location of an arbitrary plane, to apportion to two distinct geological periods. In the second column of Matthew’s table no line is drawn between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene. Perhaps this treatment is as good as any, considering the prevailing uncertainty; and it might have been profitably applied in some other cases. We are told also that Osborn, Merriam, and Matthew have agreed to transfer the whole of the Hip- parion zone to the Pliocene. I note with surprise that, as one of the contracting parties, my friend has not stood up to his bargain, having assigned the major portion to the Miocene. The impression one gets from that table is that the Tertiary faunas have very uncertain rela- tions to the accepted geological periods; as is indicated also in the case of the Equus fauna. For example, it would now be hazardous to affirm that any species of Hipparion belonged to the Miocene. Dr. Matthew has offered his suggestions regarding Pleistocene cor- relations in the hope that they will lead to fixity of views. They will scarcely do this. To refer the Sheridan beds to the Pliocene will be to exchange a natural and determinable plane of division for an arbi- 246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 11 trary one, and will introduce into the Pleistocene the confusion that seems to have sway in the Tertiary. It will put us back to the time when one distinguished vertebrate palaeontologist referred our Pleistocene animals all to the Champlain stage, and another recognized two “faunas,” which, however, during the whole Pleistocene, lived side by side and were really one and the same thing. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Apert H. Kampr, who graduated in engineering from George Washington University in 1924, has been appointed observer on the staff of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The Baltimore-Washington section of the American Ceramic Society met at the Lee House on Saturday, April4. Program: H. G. Wourram, of the Bureau of Standards: Enamels; J. W. Greta, of the Geophysical Laboratory: The formation of mullite from cyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite; H. F. Srauey, of the Metal and Thermit Corporation: Pottery and enameling prac- tice on the Pacific Coast. ns of the meetings of the affiliated ems will appear on this page editors by the ad and the twenty-seventh day of each month. uy CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS ee Radiotelegraphy.—Long distance radio receiving measurements in PANIBITUN 50 0'0)« sin mlaiain, s\n obnis-o]alntefe ar o egy v/vie sebeeat gt comity ieee ae Entomology.—A new sabethid mosquito from Panama (Diptera, Harrison G. Dyar and RaymMonp C. SHANNON.............. Biology.—Biological relationships of the mathematical series, 1, 2, 4, ete. description of a new nema, Tylenchus cancellatus. N. A. Goan: Geology.—On the correlation of certain Pleistocene deposits | and OLivER P. 0 oe ene Scientific Norms nis NEGro wd Lees ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY _ : President: VERNON L. ee National Research Council. 15 JUNE 19, 1925 No. 12 JOURNAL IASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS ' ie c _ E.P. Kru D. F. Hewett S. J. MaucHiy ONAL MUSEUM a GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ~~ ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A, Ronwer PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griees ; J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WicHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royau anp Guitrorp AVES, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office, rep Madisuns the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special Ovid in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authog Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences . This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, ai resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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One European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. ' Exchanges-—The Journat does not exchange with other pupbeean Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that clai within thirty days after date of the following issue. : i *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. ‘Special r are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy ; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 JUNE 19, 1925 No. 12 BIOLOGY.—Embryological evidence of the evolution of man.! ADOLPH H. Scuuttz, Carnegie Institution of Washington. INTRODUCTION Our knowledge of the evolution of man is being constantly increased by contributions from four distinct fields of science which are closely codperating. Direct evidence is furnished by paleontology, the results of which are supplemented by those of comparative anatomy. The latter study really includes embryology, since there is no dis- tinction in principle between the finished form of an adult animal and the changes which it has undergone during growth. The fourth field comprises the investigation of individual variations, which so frequently either represent a recapitulation of ancestral conditions or foreshadow future steps in evolution; in other words, an individual, or parts of an individual, may show retardation or acceleration in comparison with the state of evolution of the species as a whole. This paper is devoted to a brief discussion of some of the evidence, derived from embryological findings, of the evolution of the human race. While it is thus restricted chiefly to the third of the four sciences enumerated above, it will be necessary, here and there, to enter the field of comparative anatomy and also that of variations. Few biological theories have brought about so much controversy as Haeckel’s well-known biogenetic law. According to this, which today is more properly called the recapitulation theory, individual 1 Slightly enlarged address given by the author in the symposium on The origin and evolution of man at the joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Anthropological, the Archaeological, and the Biological Society of Washington, Jan- uary 20, 1925. Other papers in this symposium were given by J. C. Merriam, Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Ales Hrdli¢éka, U.S. National Museum. Further data on the same and closely allied subjects may be found in two other papers by the author: Fetal growth in man, Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthropol. 6. 1923; Growth studies on primates bearing upon man’s evolution, Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthropol. 7. 1924. 247 248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES * WOL. 15, No. 12 development repeats, generally speaking, ancestral conditions; in other words, embryology in a sense corroborates paleontology. In spite of the many attacks upon this theory, the author, for one, can see ample grounds for its right to existence, but realizes also that its uncritical application in phylogenetic speculations is beset with pit- falls. This theory, which fills the réle of a working’ hypothesis, should never be pressed into service where there are other more direct explanations for embryonic phenomena. There is no doubt, however, that the rudimentary, non-functioning teeth? in embryos of the so-called toothless whales can not be interpreted in any other way than by assuming that the progenitors of this animal at one time possessed teeth, not only in an early growth stage but also in adult life, where they served a definite purpose. Similarly, what other explanation could we find for the transitory appearance of gill clefts in the human embryo than the forceful conclusion that they represent a phyletic contraction, a purposeless survival of conditions of our remote past which points to one and the same stem for man and fish? Illustrations such as these, in support of the recapitula- tion theory, could be listed by the hundreds. They all go to show that many parts of the human body change in the course of growth in a manner resembling the successive changes which these parts have undergone during the process of evolution. This comparison of ontogeny with phylogeny—although in many respects still very hypothetical—is of the utmost value for the study of both, but for embryology particularly it furnishes explanations for phenomena which otherwise could not be understood. Two general groups of embryological observations having a bearing upon problems of evolution can be distinguished. Into the one fall all those normal structures of a passing ontogenetic duration which | can only be interpreted in the sense of atavisms. As examples may be mentioned the so-called milk lines of human embryos, indicating more than one pair of nipples in the remote ancestors of man; then the short-lived occurrence of an os centrale in the wrist of the human embryo, a carpal element which is present throughout life in many of the lower vertebrates. In this class belong also many of the em- bryonic changes in shape and relationships of the various parts of the body, such as the ontogenetic rotation of the foot or the gradual formation of the typically human promontorium on the spine, proc- esses bearing at their beginning a striking resemblance to conditions in adult lower primates. The second group comprises all the cases 2 Milk teeth as well as those of a second dentition (Kiikenthal). JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 249 of closely corresponding developmental changes in different animals which prove merely some close evolutionary relationship but do not contribute, as does the first group, to a hypothetical reconstruction of ancestors. TRUNK Man, in the embryonic state, still possesses a true external tail, as shown, for instance, in figure 1. On the tip of this tail occurs a small appendix or so-called caudal filament which con- Fig. 1—Caudal region of a human embryo (14 mm. crown-rump length) showing external tail with caudal filament. tains no vertebral rudiments and _ be- comes distinct when the embryo has an approximate length of 12 mm. and disappears again in embryos over 30 mm. long. Exactly the same filament is found in fetuses of many other primates, but it seems to appear later and persist s longer in the tailed monkeys* than in : man. Occasionally this filament may persist throughout life. A number of such cases in man are reported in Fig. 2—External tail, 9 inches hie literature ;! figure 2 gives an ex- long, in a 12-year old boy from ci French Indo-China (after ‘‘Scien- ample of such a so-called soft tail, tific American,” 1889, p. 296). 2 In Cebus capucinus, for example, the caudal filament was not yet present in an embryo of 13 mm. crown-rump length, but was well developed in one measuring 107 mm. According to Schwalbe (Studien tiber Entwicklungsgeschichte der Tiere, H. 15. Wies- baden, 1911), a fetus of Macacus fuscatus, measuring 58 mm. CR., had no caudal filament as yet, whereas this structure was present in six older fetuses of the same species, ranging in size from 77 to 196 mm. 4 Harrison, R. G., 1901. On the occurrence of tails in man. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bull. 12. Sarasin, P. 1914. Uber ein menschliches Schudnzchen. Verhandl. d. Naturforsch. Ges., Basel 25. 250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 which has the record length of 23 cm. This filament has also been found to persist in an adult chimpanzee and in an orang-utan, which are normally tailless, like adult man. Furthermore, the exceedingly short stump of a tail in the Barbary ape (Jnuus ecaudatus) contains no vertebrae,® and therefore in all likelihood represents an embryonic caudal filament which in this species persists in every individual throughout life. In the human embryo the tail projects for a considerable distance beneath the level of the anus, but soon thereafter it becomes over- grown by the neighboring parts, so that it disappears from the surface and in adult life the tip of the last tail vertebra lies high above the anal level, as shown in figure 3. A still more marked reduction in a cranial direction occurs in the spinal cord, the lower end of which reaches beyond the thirty-eighth vertebral rudiment in the early embryo, but only as far as the twenty-first vertebra in the adult. In young embryos there are anywhere from 7 to 9 vertebral rudi- ments in the caudal region; in adult man this number has dwindled to 4 or 5 coceygeal vertebrae. Incidentally, in orang-utan this reduc- tion in the number of tail vertebrae has gone even farther, namely, to only 3 or even 2 vertebrae. In a human embryo of 7.5 mm. crown- rump length, the tail measured 1.2 mm. in length’—that is, 16 per cent of the former dimension—whereas in adult man the percentage relation between corresponding measurements, 1.e., the length of the row of coceygeal vertebrae and the sitting height, averages only 3.5. These data demonstrate strikingly the tremendous ontogenetic reduc- tion of the human tail. On the ventral side of the caudal vertebrae in the human embryo haemal processes are found,’ rudimentary structures which correspond unmistakably to the haemal arches or chevron bones on the proximal tail vertebrae of many monkeys. ‘This occurrence of haemal arches in the human embryo would in itself constitute sufficient proof for a larger and well-functioning tail in our forebears; but, as shown 5 Waldeyer, E., 1896. Die Caudalanhénge des Menschen. Sitz.-Ber. KX. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., phys.-math. Il. 34. 6 Kunitomo, Kx., 1918. The development and reduction of the tail and of the caudal end of the spinalcord. Contributions to Embryology, 11. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. No. 271. i 7-y. Schumacher, S., 1906. Uber Haemalbogen bei menschlichen Embryonen. Anat. Anz., Erg. H. 29. Favaro, G., 1907. Il canale edivasi caudali negli Amnioti, con particolare riguardo alle specie umano. Arch. d. Anat. e di Embriol. 6. JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 251 above, embryology furnishes abundant additional proof for such a claim. In early prenatal stages of all primates the transverse diameter of the chest is about the same as the sagittal diameter, but in the course of growth the chest becomes proportionately much broader in man and in the anthropoid apes, while just the opposite, a relative nar- spinal chord = sninal column <= Ist coudal vertebra Ast caudal verlebra ANAL LEVEL AHS Fig. 3—Diagrammatic sagittal sections through a human embryo and an adult man, showing reduction of the external embryonic tail, of the spinal column and the spinal cord. (Embryo modified after Kunitomo, Contributions to Embryology, 11. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 271, 1918.) rowing of the chest, occurs in the monkeys and lemurs. ‘The close correspondence in chest shape of all primates early in ontogeny and the subsequent different growth changes in the lower and higher forms, is a good example of the absence in early development of what apparently are fundamental distinctions between the different groups. The deep and narrow chest of adult lower primates and of adult quadrupeds in general is due to the action of gravity on the thoracic organs, which exerts a constant pressure downward upon the partly cartilaginous framework of ribs. In man and higher apes gravity acts in a different direction—more on the diaphragm, so that the 252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 chest is unhampered and free to follow the broadening influence of the shoulder muscles. Man has the lowest placed nipples of any of the primates. This extreme position is not reached, however, until growth is completed, the nipples being situated relatively higher on the trunk in the fetus than in the adult. In relation to the ribs, the nipples overlie the second intercostal space in very young fetuses, but have shifted down to the fourth or even to the fifth rib in the adult.8 In fetuses of monkeys and apes the nipples occupy a relative position on the Dyfi NEW - CALEDONIAN Fig. 5—New-Caledonian man, show- Tig. 4.—Human fetus of 10 weeks, ing the ascending clavicles in a normal showing the ascending clavicles (head position of rest. (After Sarasin, Atlas was not drawn, since, in its natural zur Anthropologie der Neu-Caledonier position, it would overlap the clavicles). und Loyalty-Insulaner, Berlin, 1922). trunk similar to that in human fetuses, but, in contrast to man, they shift, if at all, upward in the course of growth. From this it is justifiable to argue that both the extremely low position of the nip- ples in man and their exceedingly high position (close to the axillae) in such primates as the orang-utan or the howling monkey, are com- paratively recent specializations, and that the common ancestors of man and other primates had nipples situated somewhere between these extremes. In the human fetus the shoulders lie high above the suprasternal notch, so that the lateral ends of the clavicles are directed upward (fig. 4). In adult whites the collar bones, when in a normal posi- tion of rest, are almost or quite horizontally posed, but in adults of 8 In a fetus of the howling monkey (Alouatta pailiata, 68 mm. CR.) the nipples over- lay the third ribs, whereas in the adult of the same species they were situated over the second intercostal space. JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 253 primitive races they have descended less from their fetal position (fig. 5). In view of the fact that in all monkeys and apes the clavi- cles stand very steep and do not descend during growth, it seems justifiable to conclude that the relatively low position of the shoul- ders in the white race is phylogenetically a progressive condition. HEAD In absolute size, the brain part of the head in man surpasses that of any other primate. However, if the head size is expressed in relation to the size of the trunk, man is found to stand well within ANT. TRUNK H. Fig. 6—Exact body proportions in new-born macaque, man, and orang, all reduced to the same anterior trunk height. the range of this proportion among primates, and this, too, at any stage of development. At birth, for example, as shown by figure 6, the orang has a considerably larger head than man, and in relative head size man shows little difference from the macaque. In all primates the relative size of the head, especially its brain part, dimin- ishes with advance in growth, but it has not decreased as far nm some adult monkeys as it has in adult man. The average diameter of the head (length, width, and height, divided by 3), expressed in per- centage of the trunk length, amounts in man to 57 at birth and to 31 in adult life. These figures are equalled or even surpassed in many primates, the new-born gibbon and orang each having an index of 61, and among the lower forms the new-born spider monkey has an index of 56. Among adults, Cebus apella exceeds man by 8 units in this proportion. These figures deprive man of the distinc- 254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 tion of having the relatively largest head, and the analogous onto- genetic process of diminishing relative head size in all primates con- stitutes further support for the close relationship of man, apes, and monkeys. The eyes move relatively closer together with advance in growth, not only in man, but in all the other primates (fig. 7). Early in human fetal life the relative interocular width is as great as in adults of most other groups of animals. In approximation of the eyes, man stands at any age well within the range of variation exhibited by his simian relatives. Many of the latter? have become more highly specialized in this respect than man, whose interorbital sep- FETUS, J0WEEKS ADULT Fig. 7.—Head of a human fetus, 10 weeks old, compared with the head of an adult, showing the decrease in the relative distance between the eyes with advancing growth. tum is comparatively broad, particularly in some of the lower races, such as the Hottentots. The relation in size between the outer ear and the head changes in all primates with advance in growth. Generally speaking, the ear grows faster than the head, i.e., the relative size of the ear increases. In the gibbon, for instance, the index expressing this relative ear size amounts to 1.7 in a fetus of 21 mm. crown-rump length, 9.9 in a newborn, and 13.6 in an adult. In a few primates, notably those with small ears, the relative ear size, while increasing as in others during prenatal growth, decreases after birth. In man the relative ear size averages 1.3 in fetuses of 9 weeks, rises steadily to 5.9 at birth, but drops thereafter to 4.7 in adults.° In orang-utan this ° The distance between the inner angles of the eye clefts, expressed in percentage of the greatest distance between the zygomatic arches, amounts in man to 52 in fetuses of 9 weeks, to 25 in newborns, and to 23 in adults; in the orang it is 19 in the newborn, and 12 in the adult; in adult Lasiopyga rubella this index is 13.3, in L. callitrichus 15.7, in adult Cebus capucinus 15.1, and in C. apella 16.3. 10 During old age there occurs often a secondary increase in ear size, which, however, is due to a general flattening out of the ear cartilage and a decreased elasticity of the skin rather than to actue! growth of the ear. JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 255 index was 2.5in a fetus of 145 mm. length, 5.3 in an infant, and only 1.4 in an adult. This late ontogenetic decrease in relative ear size in man, orang, and probably in gorilla, i.e., in those forms which have the smallest ears among the primates (fig. 8), may be inter- preted as an indication that in phylogeny, too, the outer ear of man and of these apes has independently become smaller, and is even continuing in this tendency. This view is further strengthened by the fact that the relative size and shape of the ear," as well as the finer configuration of helix and ant-helix, are enormously variable in man. It is generally conceded that great variability characterizes CHIMPANZEE Fig. 8—Side views of heads of anthropoid apes and man, to show the relative size of the outer ears. such structures as are undergoing a process of reduction and have become rudimentary, as, for instance, the coccygeal vertebrae. EXTREMITIES The total length of the upper extremity is comparatively much shorter in adult man than in any adult anthropoid ape. This limb length, expressed in percentage of the anterior trunk height, amounts. in man to 153, in chimpanzee to 180, in gorilla to 188, and in orang to 224.2 Jncidentally, there exists a greater difference in this proportion between orang and chimpanzee (44 units) than be- tween the latter and man (27 units). In all the lower primates the relative length of the upper limb is, as a rule, markedly shorter than in man; the only exceptions to this consist in some highly specialized forms, such as the spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyt, 170) and some woolly monkeys (Lagothrix infumata, 167). Man, therefore, occupies a conservative position in regard to his relative arm length; however, he far surpasses any other primate in relative length of his lower 1 The index of the relative ear size in adult white men ranges from 3.9 to 5.8. Negroes have on an average slightly smaller ears than whites, but the ear is equally variable in the two races. The ear shape is even more variable, the morphological ear index ranging from 84 to 196 in whites and from 110 to 223 in Ainus (R. Martin, Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, Jena, 1914). 12 Mollison, Th. 1910. Die Kérperproportionen der Primaten. Morphol. Jahrb. 42. 256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 extremity. During individual development these different special- izations In man and anthropoid apes make their appearance at quite different periods. As shown by figure 9, in apes the extreme arm length is already well defined at birth; on the other hand, the un- equaled length of the lower limb, characteristic of adult man, is not even indicated at birth, since the two apes slightly surpass the human ae we z =) c F « = « Ww rs Zz < ORANG-UTAN CHIMPANZEE MAN Vig. 9.—Diagrammatie representation of the exact body proportions of new-born orang, chimpanzee, and man, all reduced to the same anterior trunk height. Note the different lengths of the limbs. newborn in length of lower limb. In view of the fact that the typical and marked lengthening in the upper extremity in apes develops so much sooner than the unique increase of lower limb length in man (fig. 10), it seems fair to assume that this human specialization is phylogenetically a later acquisition than the former characteristic of apes. This, naturally, is only a speculation, not a conclusive argument; further advance in our knowledge of growth may bring forth a different and more direct explanation or reasons for contra- dicting and replacing the application of the recapitulation theory. The posterior limbs of the jumping mouse are proportionately as extremely lengthened as those of man. As in man, also, this extreme condition is not reached until late in growth, since in new-born jump- JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 257 ing mice the posterior limbs are still as short as the anterior ones. It is not to be doubted that the progenitors of these specialized rodents had shorter posterior limbs and that their ontogeny repeats their phylogeny in this respect. To be consistent, one also has to conclude that the corresponding growth change in man points to shorter legs in human ancestors. The forearm grows faster than the upper arm, not only in man but in apes, monkeys, and lemurs. Although the relation in length between these two segments of the upper limb undergoes strikingly similar ontogenetic changes in all primates, these changes are more marked in many monkeys than they areinman. Man (particularly the white race) and gorilla have the relatively shortest forearms of all-the primates. Inasmuch as the forearm is always proportionately shorter in fetuses than in adults, and since an extreme length of the forearm, exceeding that of the upper arm, is only found in late ontogenetic stages in some primates, such as the gibbon or the Erythrocebus monkey, it can be concluded that man and gorilla are conservative or primal in regard to this proportion, while the gibbon and others have a highly specialized forearm. In connection with the development of the upper extremity, there exists a point of special evolution- ary interest. On the ulnar side of the forearm, close to the wrist, sinus hairs occur in many (mostly arboreal) mammals. They areimplantedinamore Fig.10.—Diagram- or less distinct round elevation or hillock of the matic comparison skin, receive a branch of the ulnar nerve, and are Saas Ber emace ¥ ody proportions of regarded as touch organs. Beddard,* who studied aquit and new-born their distribution among mammals, concludes that human, both reduced they occur almost universally in prosimiae but are ee oe SERS SULIT: entirely missing in monkeys and apes. Since then ne they have been discovered in one of the primitive South American mar- mosets (Hapale jacchus) and among Old World monkeys the author found vibrissae in fetuses of the genus Colobus, as shown by figure 11; in the adult of this monkey no trace of either these hairs or the hillock is left. Apparently the only other primate in which this structure occurs is man, in whom the hillock alone is formed at SITTING HEIGHT 12 Beddard, F. E., 1902. Observations upon the carpal vibrissae in mammals. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1. 258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 an early period of prenatal development and in only a small percentage of cases (fig. 12). No sinus hairs are implanted in this hillock in man, since it develops after the embryo has reached a crown-rump length of 10 mm. and disappears again during the ninth week of fetal life; at this early age no hair could yet be expected. There can be no doubt that this rare and short-lived carpal hillock Fig. 11—Hands of Colobus fetuses (1—Colobus abyssinicus, 112 mm. crown-rump: length; 2—same species, 134mm. CR.; 83—C. angolensis 147 mm. CR.), showing the rudi- mentary thumb and the carpal hillock and vibrissae. in the human embryo is an atavistic structure without any possible function. There are a number of close correspondences in the development: of the hand in all primates. These, like all the previously men- tioned analogies in ontogenetic processes, are claimed, on the basis: of the recapitulation theory, to uphold the direct relationship between man and other primates. The hand is proportionately much broader in a fetus than in the adult, not only in man but in all the other primates as well. However, the human hand remains relatively broader throughout growth than the hand of any monkey or ape. In all primate fetuses the palmar touch pads have a very uniform, arrangement, but they fade sooner and disappear more completely JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 259 in man and anthropoids than in the lower monkeys, especially those of the New World, in which they often persist well marked to adult ae Man has a proportionately longer thumb than any monkey or ape,™ but in all primates the thumb be- comes gradually shorter in relation to the hand length as growth ad- vances. In man this ontogenetic reduction does not go so far as Fig. 12.—Hand of a human fetus (22mm. crown-rump length), showing the carpal hillock at X. it does in other primates, among which the outer thumb has nearly or completely disappeared in two unrelated forms, the African Colobus (fig. 11) and the American Ateles monkey. In 56 out of 58 spider monkeys which the author recently col- lected, there was no trace of an ae b i Fig. 13—Hand of an infantile spider outer thumb at all at any post- monkey (Aleles geoffroyi) with atavistic natal stage of growth. In one reappearance of a rudimentary outerthumb. infantile (fig. 13) and one-adult Two carpal bones, the first metatarsal and 5 the fused phalanges of the thumb, are specimen, however, there was : sketched along side. Normally no trace of a well-defined, although rudi- an outer thumb is found in these monkeys. 14 Only the baboons and some individuals among Capuchin monkeys approach closely to man in regard to the relative thumb length. In baboons this relative measure- ment seems to increase Jate in ontogeny in contrast to the growth changes in other primates. 260 mentary, outer thumb on the left hand only. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, Nond2 While normally evolution has completely eliminated the thumb from the outer hand Fig. 14.—Front view of a human fetus (25mm. crown-rump length). The middle toe is the longest, the great toe short and abduced. its primary position at the base of the index finger. This on- togenetic migration is most pro- nounced in somewhat less in other anthropoids and man, while in platyrrhine mon- keys no such shifting takes place at all, the thumb _ persisting in its typically fetal position throughout life. In all primates with the exception of a large percentage of white men and perhaps some other human races, the fourth finger surpasses the second in length. In negroes this rule holds true likewise, and since the thumb is proportion- ately shorter and the hand narrower in the negro than in orang, of this primate species, in in- dividual cases a thumb may re- appear as a beautiful example of atavism, which proves that the progenitor of Ateles once pos- sessed a thumb. These thumb- less hands must be considered as highly specialized, in direct con- trast to the hand of man with its long thumb, the longest of any primate, a human _ distinction which is ontogenetically, and most likely phylogenetically, the most original or least changed condition. In the course of growth the attachment of the free thumb to the palm shifts proximally from Fig. 15.—Foot of a 3-year old white boy with zygodactyly or skin fusion of second and third toes. The web in this case ex- tends even farther than the normal webbing in the Siamang apes which derived their name (Symphalangus syndactylus) from this condition. JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 261 the white it can be stated that the negro has a more simian hand than the white. In the embryonic life of all primates the soles of the feet stand nearly parallel to the sagittal body axis and thus face inward (figs. 4, 14). In the course of growth the feet rotate until the soles face downward, but in the human newborn, as well as in adult mon- keys, it is still chiefly the lateral edge of the foot which is placed on the ground. This supinatorial position of the feet in the human embryo is the cause of certain conditions in the early development of the tarsus which must be regarded as primitive according to the teachings of comparative anatomy. ORANG-UTAN CHIMPANZEE GORILLA (GORILLA) GORILLA (BERINGER|) MAN Fig. 16—Feet of adult anthropoid apes and man (Orang after a specimen in the author’s collection; chimpanzee after O. Schlaginhaufen, Abhdl. u. Ber. KX. Zool. u. Anthrop.-Ethnogr. Mus., Dresden, 11. 1907; first gorilla, after R. Hartmann, Der Gorilla, Leipzig, 1880; second gorilla, after C. E. Akeley, Natural History 28. 1923). Note the differences in relative length of the toes and in the place of attachment of the great toe. Among adult primates one finds widely different types of feet, but in young human, ape, and monkey embryos the feet are strikingly similar. At this stage of growth the great toe is considerably shorter than the second and stands much abduced in all primates. In monkeys and apes the middle toe surpasses all the others in length, and it is interesting to note that man occasionally also con- forms to this rule, although only for a very short transitory stage in his ontogeny, since in a fair percentage of fetuses at the end of the second or the beginning of the third month the middle toe is the longest (fig. 14). Very soon thereafter the second toe becomes the longest, and not until the fourth month does the great toe begin to 262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 project farther than the others, and then only in a minority of cases. Even in adult man the great toe is shorter than the second in a considerable number of whites and in the majority of negroes. Whereas in man, therefore, the great toe becomes proportionately longer with advance in growth, in all other primates just the reverse condition prevails, namely, a gradual ontogenetic shortening of the relative hallux length. The lateral toes (II to V) are proportionately short in all primate embryos, but, while the digits become relatively still shorter in man towards the completion of growth, they change in just the opposite sense in monkeys and apes, in which these toes are at times ex- tremely lengthened in the adult. In all primates the great toe is found to branch from the sole, just at the base of the second toe, in very early growth stages. This embryonic position is retained throughout life in man, whereas in all other primates the place of attachment of the great toe shifts proximally, similar to the ontogenetic shifting in the attachment of the thumb to the palm from the base of the index finger to a place nearer the wrist. In the gorilla this shifting of the hallux is least pronounced of any of the apes, whereas it is most extreme in the orang, a greater difference existing in this respect between the latter and gorilla than between gorilla and man (fig. 16). Other propor- tions on the foot lead to similar conclusions; in regard to the relative length of toes II and VY, for instance, there exists a greater gap, as shown by figure 16, between the adult orang and gorilla (particularly Gorilla beringeri) than between the latter and man, and the ex- tremely short lateral toes of man are certainly no more specialized than the exceedingly long ones of orang. Finally, if the distance from the tip of the hallux to the heel is expressed in percentage of the total foot length, an approximate relative great toe length is obtained which in adults amounts to as little as 52 in orang, to as much as 88 in gorilla, and to 100 in man, again a greater difference between two apes than between an ape and man. Data such as these are of importance in placing a proper value on some of the human specializations. We know that the great toe in man has become singularly strengthened and adduced, both phylogenetically and ontogenetically. However, fully as marked a deviation from the original type of great toe has occurred in orang, in which the hallux has become rudimentary. This assertion is further borne out by the frequent finding in this ape of a complete lack of a nail and JUNE 19, 1925 SCHULTZ: EVOLUTION OF MAN 263 only one single phalanx in the great toe, symptoms of degeneracy resembling closely those occurring rather frequently in the little toe of man. For a short time during the development of the human foot, just after the digits make their appearance on the foot plate, the toes are united by webs. This webbing between the second and third toes is slightly more extensive and disappears somewhat later than that between any of the others. A web between the second and third toes exists normally in adults of many marsupials, insectivores and prosimiae; furthermore in Cercocebus monkeys, in the Siamang apes, and occasionally in some gibbons. It is of great interest in this con- nection to find not infrequently skin fusion of the same toes in human children (fig. 15) and adults, where this condition is known to be inherited and is described under the term of syndactyly or, more recently, zygodactyly. It is normal in the embryo, persists normally throughout life in many mammals, including various primates, and occasionally persists In man, representing an atavism, not an anomaly. CONCLUSIONS An almost endless number of other embryological findings, bearing upon man’s evolution, could be added to these scattered data which are largely the results of the author’s own investigations. It is hoped, however, that the above discussion suffices to demonstrate that embryology is capable of producing valuable corroboration of evolutionary deductions from comparative anatomy and palaeontol- ogy, as well as of shedding new light on ancestral conditions of the human body. The outstanding conclusions from these embryological studies can be summarized by stating that the many striking resemblances between man, ape, and monkey in early development, and their frequently closely corresponding growth changes can only be under- stood by assuming one common origin for all primates, including man, from which they inherited the tendency for the same onto- genetic processes which have become modified in many instances through a variety of later specializations. Furthermore, there exists ample evidence for the conclusion that the human body is in many points less specialized and hence has remained in some parts phylo- genetically, as well as ontogenetically, more original and “primitive” than have various other primates. 264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 GEOLOGY .—The detection of the Chipola fauna in the Marks Head marl.! JULIA GARDNER, U. 8. Geological Survey. The proposed correlation of the Marks Head marl with the Chipola formation is based, not upon the discovery of a new fauna but upon the new interpretation of an old—that of the Marks Head marl. The Marks Head marl takes its name from Marks Head, one mile west of north of Porter’s Landing on the Savannah River in Effing- ham County, Georgia. The name was introduced into the literature in 1908 by Earle Sloan? in the following section from Porter’s Landing: (a) 64.0 feet—White, yellow and red sands in stratified beds of both fine and coarse grained material. (b) Thin broken line of vertebrate remains, and small pieces of phosphate rock. Miocene, Edisto phase. (ec) 5.9 feet—Ledge of compact yellowish marl inclosing Pecten eboreus, Ecphora quadricostata, numerous Anomias, ete. Miocene Marks Head phase. (d) 27.0 feet—Dun-colored mass of leached marl and indurated sands inclosing many rounded concretions of carbonate of lime encasing variable amounts of sand. Some concretions more than two feet in diameter. The basal portion is a hard concretionary layer (about a half foot thick) formed along a highly irregular surface. Stratum (d) appears at the same level as the Marks Head mar! at its type locality, one mile northwest. Oligocene, Parachucla phase. (e) Oto 1.5 feet—Broken undulatory line of compact fine-grained sand- stone; inclosing Ostrea mauricensis. 0 to 1.7 feet—White sands inclosing a large number of one species of Pecten, and numerous shell fragments. (f) 14.0 feet—Tl ine grained laminated shale with sand partings. The median portion appears in the form of silicified concretions. The base includes a line of rounded pebbles. (g) Oto 6feet—A much-leached marl inclosing Carolia floridana, Pee- tens, sharks teeth, ribs of Cetaceans, and a large number of small discoidal quartz pebbles. Combahee phase (h) Above zero level appears 0 to 8 feet of a lamimated drab shale with arenaceous partings. Incloses molds of the lucinidae, and at Hudson Ferry impressions of the dwarf palmetto. The section was later modified by Vaughan* to read: 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. 2 EaRLE Stoan, Catalogue of the Mineral Localities of South Carolina, South Carolina Geol. Survey., ser. iv, Bull. No. 2, page 273, 1908. 3T. W. VauGHAN, Science, new ser., 31:833. 1910. JUNE 19, 1925 GARDNER: CHIPOLA FAUNA 265 eet F . Pleistocene—white red and yellow sands, with phosphatic pebbles and 6 ZerheDEatenracments ati thelbaseam cena se meee con steers 64 5. Miocene—compact, yellow, fossiliferous marl (Duplin horizon)....... 6 4. Miocene—grayish, fossiliferous marl (Marks Head marl)............. 29 3. Fine-grained, laminated shale with sandy partings, a line of rounded pebbles at the base...... ee Re ca rT me eee Berar ete 14 2. Oligocene—fossiliferous marl (Alum Bluff formation)................ 3 1. Laminated drab shale with arenaceous partings............. Sta aes 8 The descriptions of the sections suggest faunal zones which are not obvious in the collections. The material sent in by Sloan and Vaughan in 1907 from the type locality at Marks Head includes Ostrea normalis (= Ostrea mauricensis auctores), the common Pecten acanikos, and Carolia jfloridana. The three species are also asso- ciated in bed No. 4 of Vaughan’s Porter’s Landing section in material sent in by him in 1909. To be sure, Carolia floridana is compara- tively rare in the upper bed and exceedingly abundant in bed No. 2 of Vaughan, g of Sloan. Later collections by Stephenson in the vicinity of Porter’s Landing have confirmed the association of the species in question. Pecten acanikos and Carolia floridana and Pec- ten acanikos and Ostrea normalis are coexistant at a number of locali- ties in the Chipola formation in northern Florida. However, Carolia floridana has not been recognized at any horizon other than the Chipola, so, from an examination of the literature and the fossils, it seems that all of Sloan’s Parachucla phase belongs to the Chipola epoch, and that the Marks Head fauna may be treated as a unit. The first correlation of the Porter’s Landing section on the following basis was made in 1910 by T. Wayland Vaughan. “The Marks Head marl, which was first named by Sloan, and is represented by bed No. 4 of the section (beds d and e of Sloan’s section) contains specimens of the genus Carolia which suggests an Oligocene‘ age, but every other indentifiable species may be Miocene, and only three of them range downward into the Oligocene. Nine of the species are not known below the Miocene, while the presence of Turritella aequistriata Conrad, Calliostoma aphelium Dall, Ostrea mauricensis Gabb, and Pecien marylandicus Wagner, definitely point to a horizon low in the series, approximately equivalent to the Calvert formation of Maryland. This interpretation was followed by Veatch and Stephenson in the Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia published as Bulletin No. 26 of the Geological Survey of Georgia. C. Wythe Cooke, however, in unpublished field notes suggested a correlation of the Marks Head with the Alum Bluff on the evidence of the lith- 4 The lower Miocene of modern usage. 266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 TABLE 1.—Or1GInaL DETERMINATIONS OF FossILS FROM THE Marks Heap Maru* afe|a 148 Ele) oe [8 ley [een ee s|g|sE | 8 i] Z/2| 2a] 8 . a2) || 2 atl) een al Se |S ce | ee sts 1) 8 : STRATIGRAPHIC RANGE AND Lae | ese) lf ce AD 5 a ea) : (ae j 2/3)2 ok 3 a a a relent rye || cl pommel | A) a | a | sighs z a > > = A B/ 8/8] es )e.|§ illeaed es | Be | a les ese! BE |e S12 2 tors onsen ie a “ ee a a a Turritella aequistriata Conrad | Jericho, N. J. x Neverita duplicata var. perca- | Miocene to Recent x losa Conrad Calliostoma aphelium Dall Jones Wharf and Calvert x Cliffs, Md. Calliostoma sp. x | ex Yoldia laevis Say Arca limula Conrad Miocene and Pliocene x Ostrea mauricensis Gabb Eocene, Oligocene, lower | x | x} x Xx Miocene of Jericho, N. J. Pecten marylandicus Wagner Jones Wharf, Md. ete. Ka | xoN sxag ex x Carolia sp. (floridana Dall?) x x Mytilus conradinus d’Orb. Throughout the Miocene Xen exe ee Astarte yo. (also in the upper x horizon at Porters) : Venericardia perplana var. ab- | Miocene of York River to x breviata Conrad Pliocene Phacoides trisulcatus Conrad Oligocene to Pliocene. x Phacoides crenulatus (Conrad) | Miocene of Jericho, N. J., x to Duplin horizon, N.C. : i Phacoides sp. Jones Wharf, Md., to Dup- 36 J lin horizon, N.C. ; Cardium laqueatum Conrad x } Dosinia sp. x ‘ Macrocallista sp. x Strigilla flecuosa Say Oligocene to Recent x ; Strigilla carnaria (Linn.) Hitherto only Recent x } Donaz 0. sp. Xx |x ‘ Mactra sp. (hinge of large sp.) x Spisula n.sp. x Corbula n. sp. x Balanus 5) exo * Geological Survey of Georgia, Bull. 26, p. 365. ology’ “The Marks Head marl is fine gray sand containing some nodular caleareous concretions and lenses of brittle fullers earth. It 5 C. W. Cookn, Unpublished field notes, April 22, 1922. JUNE 19, 1925 GARDNER: CHIPOLA FAUNA 267 does not differ materially in appearance from the Alum Bluff forma- tion, and I should be inclined to include it in the Alum Bluff if the paleontologic evidence is not conflicting. ” The fossils on which the age determination was based are very TABLE 2.—ReviseD DETERMINATIONS OF FossiILs rRoM THE Marks Heap Maru NAME Turritella alcida bicarinata Gardner mss Natica (Cryptonatica ) sp. cf. N. (C.) platabasts Gardner mss Calliostoma sp. ind. ef. C. aphelium Dall Calliostoma sp. Scapharca staminata Dall? Ostrea normalis Dall Pecten acanikos Gardner Carolia floridana Dall Mytilis conradinus d’Orbigny? Astarte sp. ind. Venericardia (Pleromeris) sp. ind. cf. V. (P.) perplana abbreviata Conrad? Phacoides (Parvilucina) trisulcatus Con- rad? Phacoides (Parvilucina) sp. cf. P. (P.) piluliformis Dall Phacoides (Here) sp. cf. P. (H.) parawhit- fieldi Gardner mss Cardium sp. ind. Dosinia sp. ef. D. chipolana Dall Macrocallista sp. ind. Strigilla n. sp. Donaz n. sp. Mactra sp. ind. Spisula n. sp. Corbula n. sp. Balanus sp. STRATIGRAPHIC RANGE AND OCCURRENCE Chipola formation (‘‘Sopehoppy lime- stone’’) and Oak Grove Formation Chipola formation Jones Wharf and Calvert Cliffs, Md. Chipola formation including the “Sop- choppy limestone”’ Chipola formation (‘‘Sopchoppy lime- stone’’ and ‘‘Hawthorn beds’’) Chipola formation including the ‘‘Sop- choppy limestone”’ Chipola formation (‘‘Sopchoppy lime- stone’’) Chipola formation (‘‘SSopchoppy lime- stone’’) Chipola formation including the ‘‘Sop- choppy limestone”’ Oak Grove Formation Oak Grove Formation Chipola formation including the ‘Sop- choppy limestone”’ imperfect and, in the absence of a good reference fauna, identification would be difficult. Later detailed work upon the fauna of the Chipola formation particularly the “‘Sopchoppy limestone”’ phase, has thrown a new light upon the Marks Head fauna. The original list as pub- lished by the Georgia Geological Survey follows together with the 268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 12 revisions required by our increased knowledge of the lower Miocene fauna. The affinities of the Marks Head fauna, particularly of the dom- inant elements, are so clearly defined that they offer little ground for discussion. Possibly the late Chipola coast in the Floridian region was outlined by sand bars and spits similar to those off the east coast today and the partial isolation offered by those inlets and bays may account for the provincial character of the late Chipola faunas. The Chipola fauna seems to have been much more widely distrib- uted than might be expected from its sketchy occurrence in the environs of the type locality. It has been recognized at a depth of 4325 feet to 4511 feet in the well at Brownsville, Texas, and even so far south as Tampico. The northward extension of the fauna, however, is of particular interest since it approximates the margin of another faunal province. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. L. Sinpersrern lectured at the Laboratory of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution, on April 29, on the subject Some Cosmological consequences of the finite universe. The annual field excursion of the Petrologists Club took place on Saturday, May 9. The feldspar quarries northwest of Ellicott City, Maryland, which locally show the alteration of orthoclase to albite, were visited. Dr. E. A. Eckuarp?, who for six years has been in charge of the Sound Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned this position to join the staff of the newly organized research department of the Marland Oil Com- pany of Oklahoma. Dr. §. F. Buaxe, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, is spending several weeks at museums in Paris, Geneva and London for the purpose of studying type specimens of certain American species of plants. Mrs. AcNrs CHAsg, agrostologist of the Department of Agriculture, re- turned recently from an extended trip to Brazil. Over 2300 specimens of plants were collected, chiefly near Pernambuco, Bahia, Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro and on Mt. Itatiaya. Through the efforts of Dr. Wrt1Am Scuaus of the Division of Insects, U.S. National Museum, the large collection of lepidoptera of Paul Dognin, Les Pipots, France, has been purchased and presented to the National Museum. This collection contains over cighty thousand specimens of moths and _ but- terflies, a large number of which are types of American species. S. H. Carucart, geologist of the Geological Survey, has resigned to en- gage in geological work in Argentina. Joun 8. Brown, geologist of the Geological Survey, has resigned to engage in commercial work. ee > h y s 3 ) = Fe => F aan hye + CONTENTS ORIGINAL PaPEeRs Biology.—Embryological evidence of the evolution of man. Avotrn H Geology.—The detection of the Chipola fauna in the Marka Head m Gardner iy js cesses opiek bo tana a ese ety cities pal eibian Cigees ekt ee Scrmntivic NOTES AND NEWS..........00cceceseceecrcssesceces OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Varnon L. Knutoaa, National Research Council. Corresponding sich Francis B, SItsBEx, sees of Stand ay JuLY 19, 1925 No. 18 JOURNAL OF THE ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 2. BOARD OF EDITORS S E. P. Kru _ DF. Hewerr S. J. MaucHiy NATIONAL MUSEUM ‘ GEOLOGICAL BURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY “9 R. F. Griaes ~ ‘J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 6 E. 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Spe : are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy __ af JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 JuLy 19, 1925 No. 138 PHYSICS.—Some remarks on two-coupled multiply periodic systems, the statistics of quantum theory, and the theory of dispersion. G. Breir, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. (Communicated by L. A. Bauer.) 1. The quantum theory postulates the substitution of discrete states which are to replace the continuous manifolds of the classical theory. However, it says very little about the nature of the interactions which take place between quantized systems. In fact, the only cases about which definite postulates have been made are absorption of radiation in quanta by an atom put in black body radiation, which has been treated by Einstein,! and the behavior of free electrons put in black radiation. The two cases can be considered as special cases of the postulate of Einstein and Ehrenfest. Similar considerations concern- ing the nature of interactions between sound and light waves have been made by Schrédinger.* The writer has performed some calculations on a purely classical basis which seem to have a bearing on the nature of actual (quantum theory) interactions. These calculations deal with a somewhat more general case than that considered by Kramers and Heisenberg? in their recent paper on the scattering of light and optical dispersion and agree in a general way with their results, though the point of view taken by the writer as well as the conclusions drawn are slightly different. It has been pointed out by Burgers‘ that the problem of optical dispersion can be reduced to a consideration of coupled systems, and that as a consequence of this the purely formal quantum theory does 1A. Erystein, Physik. Zeit., 1917; W. Pauut, Zeit. f. Physik.,18:273. 1923; A. Ein- STEIN and P. ExRENFEXT, Zeit. f. Physik, 19:301. 1923. 2 E. ScHRODINGER, Physik, Zeit., 25: 89-94. 1924. ? Kramers and HEISENBERG, Zeit. f. Physik, 31: 681. 1925. * Burcers, Dissertation, Leiden. 269 270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 not account for optical dispersion in a proper fashion, giving rise to absorption bands at frequencies corresponding to the dynamical rather than the quantum values. This fact makes one suspect that the fail- ure of classical perturbation theory in the case of dispersion forms only a special case of a general deficiency, and that by presenting the prob- lem of dispersion in the form of a problem on coupled systems in the manner of Burgers one may hope to generalize the nature of interac- tions between a light wave and an atom to the case of coupled systems. 2. We consider, therefore, two non-degenerate coupled systems, the angular variables w,, the momenta J;, and the energy function H of the first being (wi, et) Wh) Ji, tg ps) HE Gh, peo Jn) and for the second (Wat. fa ee Wn+m) Deas at Jeers) He Geass ar Noe) In the absence of coupling, the motions of the two systems progress independently. The presence of coupling is manifested by the pres- ence of a perturbation term AF (Ji, th AR ier Whi 8 Wa +m) in the total energy HF BS ae (1) The effect of the perturbations may be calculated either by the method of Born and Pauli or by the method used by Van Vleck in studying the interaction of light waves and multiply periodic systems. We prefer in what follows to use the latter’s method because it enables one to use the initial conditions of the system very much more readily than the method of Born and Pauli.® The method used by Van Vleck is based on the fact that for the unperturbed system the transformation from the Cartesian coordinates and momenta to the angular variables and their corresponding momenta is a contact transformation, and also upon the theorem that Hamilton’s canonical equations are invariant under a contact trans- 5 Tn the latter method new variables are introduced at each stage of the approxima- tion. Strictly speaking, it is questionable whether the dispersion problem can be always treated as a multiply periodic system even if the unperturbed system is multiply periodic. The manner in which the new variables w and J depend on initial conditions is not clear unless it is especially determined, and for our present purpose we shall prefer an explicit calculation. JULY 19, 1925 BREIT: MULTIPLY PERIODIC SYSTEMS 271 formation. The calculations are performed, therefore, always for quantities w and J which have the same significance in terms of the Cartesian coérdinates and momenta throughout. This, of course, is true only provided the transformation function w does not involve the time explicitly. Such is the case for all systems which are condition- ally periodic. It must be mentioned, however, that in another connection the method followed by Born and Pauli possesses certain advantages over that of Van Vleck. ‘Thus, if we are concerned with the condition of the two systems while they perturb each other, the method of Born and Pauli enables us to find new angular variables which are suited for the quantization of the whole coupled system. On the other hand, if we are interested in the effect on the two systems of having been exposed to the perturbations arising from their coupling after the cou- pling has been interrupted, then Van Vleck’s method is preferable. If we are interested in a given function of the Cartesian coordinates, both methods may be used and they must both give the same result. Before discussing our general case we shall illustrate the meaning of the quantities used in the special case of a linear oscillator having one degree of freedom. Here, the energy function H has the expression i = Se SOE (1.1) where g is the abscissa of the oscillating particle and p is the corre- sponding momentum. The angular variable w is sin (m 2 q/ yn J Q/r) (CL): 1) ~ De and the corresponding momentum d= Aig JalyKy GES) If we should apply our calculations to this case, they will give us changes in the quantities w, J, where J is obtained from (1.3) with H expressed by means of (1.1) [in terms of g, p] and w is obtained from (1.2) on substituting this value of J. The meaning of w and J in this as well as the general case is thus that of certain explicit functions of w and J, the type of function being, of course, different for different dynamical systems. ®E.T. WHitraker, Analytical Dynamics, p. 309. 272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 It is hardly necessary to state that as soon as the nature of the per- turbation function F’ in (1) is known in terms of the ordinary codrdi- nates g; and their corresponding momenta p;, a direct substitution by means of such equations as (1.2) and (1.3) gives the expression of F in terms of the w; and J;. Since the codrdinates are multiply periodic functions of the w; with period 1, we may write ia HN exp 2 7 i w, (2) where Nts SV tAG RE eee (1.2) Wa aaa Sl TW ie eon tener (2.2) and where it is supposed that the 7. may take the values zero and all the positive and negative integral values. The A, are functions of the J’s only, and the w; may be written as Wi= wit + «6 (2.3) where the w; are functions of the J’s only and the ¢ are constants. Hamilton’s canonical equations are dJx a = —h D2 At; exp(271w,) (3) dw, OA, ; aiUel, 1 186.) —_— — Xr pai >< (ee r a a > SI, exp(2miw,) + ayy (4) We expand Jy = Jy? + ASO + 2,2 + +> (10) We = Wy + AW, + Awe + +5 + (5.2) and substitute in (3), (4). Comparing coefficients of \, we obtain the system of equations Ee 5.31 d= se oem dJi. =e = — 2ri D> (A exp2riw,) (5.32) dJ,. : a) fe) — a jp — x —S) = = ai 2ri | >) (IU a + ow =) (1A.exp2xin,) | (5.33) and JuLy 19, 1925 BREIT: MULTIPLY PERIODIC SYSTEMS 273 dws (5.41) dw, =) cr ) i ©), 2 5.42) dt D(a Tel ING Cee) | ee where the suffix o indicates that ey the Teg aes values of the w and the J must be substituted. Having determined J;! from (5.32) we can substitute it into (5.42), and having then determined wx! we substitute it and J;! into (5.33) which determines J;? ete. We suppose that the coupling between the two systems has been established at the time b SS tle and find from (5.32) that JO = Dar A, w2 [exp2ziw,(t,.) — exp2riw,(t)] (5.5) Substituting this in (5.42) and integrating we have wi (sx, (5°) (epzeiw wt) 7, 1) — E a4 ( ps ce ip, (a) (Ode) = Caeeaair te) A, 0, me Oe Substituting this and (5.5) into (5.33) and integrating < } , A OA, 0 (Ay exp2riw,-(to) Ho = — Bi hn iL? Bene ae CG il Qniw, oie. (exp2riw; — exp2zmiw,(to)) — (2m(w, + w,))— (exp2m(w, + w,)) to) exp2riw, (ty) (5.6) 5 . = C -1 fe) 7! 5 — exp2ri(w,(ts) + we(td)))] + 2A Aya (1 _ ) (cxp(2riw,(ts)) x | (Qriv,)-* (2riw,(t — to) exp27iw, — [exp2riw, — exp2ziw,(to)]) }(5.7) Thus it is seen that if the coupling has been established at the time ¢t = ft, and interrupted at the time ¢, then on the classical theory we should expect in general a rather complex result for the resultant change in the state of the system from the oneit would have had if it had not been perturbed during that interval. In the above calculation the phase of the motion has a very strong 274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 effect. This is quite proper from the point of view of classical theory. On the quantum theory, however, we have indications only of statisti- cal interpretations of the phase, and since we want to establish a con- nection between expectations of classical dynamics and quantum jumps we must eliminate effects of phase in the above results. One way of doing this is to consider forced vibrations. Since, however, a treatment of forced vibrations for a multiply periodic system is connected with difficulties such, for example, as the falling of an electron into the nucleus, we prefer to use the Rayleigh-Lorentz method of interrup- tions which for the case of a classical linear resonator is equivalent to forced vibrations. We consider a number of systems and we wish to know their average state at the time ¢. We suppose that perturbations in these systems have begun to take place some time before ¢ and we assume that the selection of the starting time is governed by the laws of chance so that if then the probability of T being between T and T + dT is ft sy ea e alr) (6.1) We thus find averaging (5.7) that (A,A,,C(w,)) texp2zi(w, + w,) (7) where 271 ACG SSS al 1 + 27i Ty w, (7.1) C(,) = This expression for J/,“°) contains periodic as well as constant terms. The constant terms are by far the more important because they cor- respond to the case eee pn) (8) (74 = — wT; = = T2' etc.) and because C(w, + w,,) becomes 2717’, which is > > (#, + w,,)— pro- ie JULY 19, 1925 BREIT: MULTIPLY PERIODIC SYSTEMS 275 vided the mean period of interruptions is considerably greater than the important period of the motion. We thus see that terms which give large average effects on J;, may be collected into the approximate sum re) , : LO2- Dan 57 Ar A Clo)» 2ni Te (9) col! Here again, only those terms are great for which on O (10) This may be interpreted as a resonance of one part of the dynamical system to another (approach of degeneration). In the case of the influence of a light wave on an atom, this means the approximate equality of the frequency » of the incident light wave to an overtone w, of the atom. 3. According to the view of Burgers referred to above, the problem of optical dispersion is mathematically equivalent with that of a coupled system. We should like to emphasize the importance of this view also in another connection. It is well known that in classical electrodynamics there are two ways of discussing interactions between electrical systems. One simply makes use of the supposedly known laws connecting the electric and magnetic fields with the distribution of charges and currents. The other invokes the concepts of electro- magnetic energy and momentum. The two ways are equivalent and not at all exclusive. Are there analogies to both of these procedures on the quantum theory? So far it has been customary to deal only with the second (field energy, field momentum) point of view. If, however, the direct point of view be also manageable, we must be able to treat the following problem: A sending atom S is coupled to a receiving atom R by means of the dispersing atom D. Required: The effect of D on the absorption of R. The state of the medium between S, D, and R matters only inasmuch as it effects R, and this is always true for actual observation because all experiments deal ultimately with material particles and because our observation of a field always depends on experiments with matter. On the classical theory nothing need be said about the electromagnetic energy or momentum in discussing this problem. Similarly we may suspect that if a proper formulation of quantum theory be found, the same would be true for it as well. 276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Since quantum theory is concerned with sudden transitions in the J’s, it seems natural to consider our problem from the point of view of probabilities of transitions in the quantum states of R. Formula (9) gives the main contributions to steady changes in J; which we would expect on the classical theory. In order to apply this formula to our case we consider our system symbolically as ((S) + (R)) + (D) meaning by this that (D) is first thought of as separated from (S) + (R) and then its coupling is taken into account by means of (9). Now in calculating the effect of D on R it is obviously useful to in- troduce the auxiliary quantity called the electric moment of D, but otherwise it has no significance. It may be shown using Van Vleck’s calculations in a manner analogous to that of § 2 (or else considering the problem as a special case of § 2) that if the wave due to S is of the form E,cos2z7(vt — €)) and D is a triply periodic atom having a charge — e, then the averaged changes of the first order in FL’, caused by the wave in D are To 1 x Av er Bs 2 SG pill. 7 A, exp2zi(w,t = vt + €, = e9) (10) ee: T, — ] >K A,H mek, Da il, w,A, exp2zi(w, + vt + €, = €) (11) and letting us use our previous notation for C(w,), the second order contributions are (A, A. C@, = ») oJ; aT zaliee 5 Ady = — 2 ia Da. Clo, = »y + wo, = »v) fe — (7, + 7) C@s = ») Ap = exp2ri G +o, =p = pvt +e te, ae (12) (A, Clo, = »)) oJ; 2 EY? p ; Ane = — — DC, se) Seo ae 7) fe 7 A, OAc > AAG: 1/ tae Va ~~ —w, Clw, = ») 7’ Ap ad, 5) [Cl@, * ») + Co, = »)] X JULY 19, 1925 BREIT: MULTIPLY PERIODIC SYSTEMS 277 7 aul exp 27i[(o, = (OO ESD SS y) t — G a € Se Gy Sz €0] (13) At the same time the average change in the x coordinate of the elec- tron is as IDE AX = = ln = au, (Clo, == DN = (Gu a) Cl@a ==) >< OA. ! Ay aj 4 exp 2ri [(, + o, = vy) t +e, + e = &] (14) U The quantity Ax when multiplied by —e give the average electric moment. The structure of the terms in (12) and (14) is very similar. The terms for which w, +,’ = 0 in (14) give contributions to the polariza- tion which are synchronous with the incident wave. As remarked by Kramers and Heisenberg and as has been first published by Van Vleck, other terms than those of frequency » are present in the polariza- tion. Kramers and Heisenberg attach a real significance to such terms for which w,’ — »=0. Numerically such terms are great. However, we must note that the corresponding terms in (12) give periodic con- tributions to AJ,. It may be that this must be considered a reason for not attaching a physical significance to such terms because they do not give rise to anything reminding one of a quantum jump. We may be permitted to say now a few words about the theory of optical dispersion advanced by Kramers and the speculations of Born’) on the same subject. We should like to point out that the substitutions of T'(n + 7,n) for [C7]? and of s(n + 7,n) for (7,) are arbitrary (especially the latter). These substitutions involve an element not included in Bohr’s original correspondence principle, the spirit of which is given by Born’s for- mula (29). The original idea seemed to be to obtain quantum quan- tities from classical quantities by taking proper averages. Kramers’s formula regards a quantum quantity (the electric polarization) as an average of a combination of quantum quantities, the most important of these being the actual emission or absorption frequency. Another difference between the procedure of Kramers and older applications of the correspondence principle lies in the fact that the older applica- tions dealt always with an actual jump of the atom. This is so in the calculations of frequency, intensities of lines and selection rules. 7 M. Born, Z2it. f. Paysik, 26, p. 379 and especially pp. 389, 390, 394. 278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 In the application of Kramers the negative virtual oscillators are given a prominent role because it is desired to use the results for atoms which do not perform jumps. Is not this analogous to interpreting the fundamental formula as meaning that in the lowest state the atom emits a negative frequency y haia It seems to the writer to be worth while to consider the meaning of such formulas as (9) and (12) so far as possible extensions to quantum theory are concerned. This has been done by Born (I. c.) in his for- mula (33). The obvious similarity of (9) and (12) and the connection of (12) with Einstein’s B”, terms make one desire to have a similar interpretation of (9). Such an interpretation must satisfy the laws of statistical mechanics if we generalize Einstein’s A”, correctly. If Born’s extension (33) is correct, we have the same state of things in an elastic body coupled to an atom as we have in Einstein’s original problem. If such is the case, we must surmise the general applica- bility of Einstein’s scheme to such cases. The relation of this to Born’s point of view may be seen from the fact that Einstein’s B", may then be thought of as desirable on the Correspondence Principle from (12) and in the generalized case from (7) and (9). This involves an integration over a spectrum of yin (12). We know physically that the singularities of (12) are such values of » which are equal to the absorption (quantum) frequencies and not to the classical frequencies. Therefore we must similarly suppose in (7) and (9) that if our H, and H,, systems have two nearly equal quan- tum jumps a large probability of interaction results and that this probability is given by a dispersion relation the true meaning of eles li ion of formula bein Li Le : as ae € s rS10 i € — — = 5 pays ae teehee AL why, AW=AWo 8 Dr. A. E. Ruark, in a conversation with the writer mentioned that such a possibility of interpreting v has also occurred to him as being a possible one a priort. JULY 19, 1925 FERGUSON: MAGNETIC FERROUS OXIDE 279 PHYSICS.—Note on the use of a light filter in interferometry. Joun BrigHt Frerauson, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto. The Rayleigh-Zeiss type of interferometer! is the type most fre- quently used in chemical work. It may be used either as a zero instrument or as a measuring instrument, and for most purposes white light is employed since the chromatic bands formed by the latter enable one to identify the reference band. When the present writer used a tungsten lamp as a source of light, it was noted that the eyes soon tired and that the identification of the bands became a difficult task. This source of trouble was largely eliminated by the use of a light filter which absorbed a large part of the yellow and blue light. The potassium dichromate, neodymium nitrate liquid filter worked very well. The effect of this filter is to decrease the illumination of the back ground and to make the green and red portions of the chromatic bands purer in color. Visual acuity is known to be increased by the use of monochromatic light and to decrease as the brightness of the background increases within certain limit,? so that the beneficial effect of the filter is quite in accord with our present-day knowledge of the factors affecting visibility. CHEMISTRY.—A Magnetic form of ferrous oxide. JoHN BricgHtT Fereuson, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto. Metallic iron undergoes a magnetic change when it is heated and above 790°C., it is no longer magnetic.!. Similarly ferric oxide pos- sesses a magnetic inversion at 678” and ferro-ferric oxide also an inver- sion of like character at 530°%. If the magnetic properties are atomic in character,* ferrous oxide might therefore be expected to show a magnetic inversion in the same temperature region. Pure ferrous oxide was prepared for the first time in 1921 by Wohler and Balz.* They report that their product was non-magnetic in character. Our own products’ were also non-magnetic. in character. They were prepared above 749° and contained ferro-ferric oxide. In our study of the transformation of these phases into free iron and ferro-ferric oxide and the subsequent recombination of the reaction products, we noted the following abnormal behavior. During the 1 For a description of this instrument see L. H. Apams, This JouRNAL, 5: 265. 1915, or Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 37: 1181. 1915. * LuckxiesH, Color and its applications, New York, 1921 and Elliott, Amer. Journ. Psych. 38:97. 1922. 1 Honpa, Science Reports, Tohoku Imp. Univ. 11:119. 1922. 2 Sosman and Hostetter, Journ. Amer. Chem Soc. 38: 807. 1916. 4 SosMAN, This JouRNAL, 7:55. 1917. 4 Honda, loc. cit. > Wou LER and Batz, Zeitschr. Electrochem. 27: 406. 1921. 5 Fercuson, This JouRNAL, 13: 275. 1923. 280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 recombination of the free iron, the decrease in the magnetic perme- ability did not correspond to the decrease in the free iron content of the sample. Charges containing small amounts of free iron were quite mag- netic after heating for five hours at 610°, but after a similar heat treat- ment at 630° the magnetic property largely vanished. In one case the behavior was of this character though the charge contained no free iron at either temperature. These results would seem to indicate that there is a form of ferrous oxide which is magnetic in character. Whether this form has a stability range from about 630° to the transi- tion temperature at approximately 570°, or whether it occurs as an unstable phase, is a question which cannot now be answered. The probable occurrence of a magnetic inversion in ferrous oxide which is here indicated, is of itself an interesting point when considered with the magnetic behavior of iron and the other oxides of iron. PETROLOGY.—The mineralogical phase rule. N. L. Bowrn, Geo- physical Laboratory. In 1911 V. M. Goldschmidt, in connection with his study of contact metamorphism in the Kristiania region, enunciated a mineralogical phase rule which was stated by him as follows: ‘“The maximum num- ber of solid minerals that can co-exist in stable equilibrium is equal to the number of individual components that are contained in the minerals if the singular temperatures of transition points are excluded.””! Goldschmidt developed it by consideration of solid phases in contact with their saturated solution, a method which has the advantage that it is probably a real picture of what goes on in contact metamorphic processes. It may be developed in a somewhat more general form which includes transformations for which the aid of a solution need not be postulated. Thus the phase rule states that the number of phases plus the number of degrees of freedom exceeds the number of com- ponents by 2 ptf=ece+4+2 Having regard for conditions under which only solid phases are present, and taking for illustration a 3-component system, we could have at most 5 solid phases. This condition could occur only when the temperature and pressure had each a definite value, and since the prob- ability is very small that the conditions of metamorphism of any given 1 Die Lontaktmetamorphose im Kristianiagebiel. Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter I. Math. Naturw. Kl. No. 1, p. 125. 1911. JuLY 19, 1925 BOWEN: THE MINERALOGICAL PHASE RULE 281 rock were exactly those corresponding to these values we may not expect to find a 3-component rock containing 5 solid phases in equi- librium. If there were only 4 solid phases present the system would be univariant, that is, there would be a range of temperatures and pres- sures at which this would represent an equilibrium condition, but for any definite temperature there would be a definite corresponding pressure at which the 4 solid phases could exist. Again, the random conditions of metamorphism cannot be expected to show for any temperature the requisite precise corresponding pressure. We may not, therefore, expect to find 4 solid phases in a three-component rock at equilibrium. On the other hand, if there are only 3 solid phases pres- ent, the system is divariant, that is, for any definite pressure there is a range of temperatures and for any definite temperature, a range of pressures at which this condition can exist. The random conditions attendant upon any particular example of metamorphism cannot but meet these conditions. Therefore the maximum number of solid phases that may be expected in a 3-component rock is 3. The 3- component rock has been chosen merely by way of illustration, and it is easy to see that whatever the number of components chosen it would be found that the maximum number of solid phases to be expected at equilibrium under any random conditions of metamorphism is equal to the number of components. A greater number of phases, assuming that they are in actual contact, indicates a failure to obtain equilib- rium. Sofarthe assumptions involved are thoroughly justifiable and though their application to rocks has: been criticized adversely, for example, by Johnston and Niggli, actual experience with metamorphic rocks has afforded a very considerable degree of confirmation of the results to be expected, and the mineralogical phase rule has been a very useful guide in the study and classification of metamorphic rocks in the hands of a number of workers, among whom may be mentioned Goldschmidt himself, Eskola, and Tilley. Since the number of components actually present in a rock is usually rather large and since systems of many components are difficult to treat, especially graphically, certain simplifying assumptions as to the number of components have been made by some writers. These assumptions are based in part on the fact that under certain conditions two or more of the true components may enter into solid solution and give rise therefore to only one phase. Thus Mg.SiO, and Fe.SiO, form a complete series of mix crystals in the olivines, and though these two molecules may be present in a system in amounts varying inde- 282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 pendently of each other they will form but a single phase and therefore can be grouped together as a single component for the purposes of the mineralogical phase rule. At first sight this assumption seems justi- fiable, but, as we shall see, it must be used with caution. Another assumption, which, if not definitely stated, is at least implied in the writings of some investigators, is that even if the two molecules do not form a complete series but only a limited series of solid solutions, so long as the concentrations involved do not lie beyond these limits the two molecules may be grouped as a single component. This again seems justifiable since they might be expected to contribute but one phase, but it cannot be justified in the ultimate analysis. We may illustrate this fact for the latter case by reference to a determined equilibrium diagram for silicates, a simple one of two components, namely, that of nephelite and anorthite.2 Nephelite shows an inversion at 1248° where it changes to carnegieite. Both nephelite and carnegieite are capable of taking anorthite into solid solution, nephelite up to 35 per cent and carnegieite up to 5 per cent. According to the assumption frequently made in the study of meta- morphic rocks any mixture in which the amount of anorthite did not exceed 5 per cent could be regarded as a one-component mixture since it would give rise to but a single phase except at the transition ‘‘point.”’ What is actually found is that there is no transition point but a transi- tion interval which, in the mixture containing 4 per cent anorthite, for example, extends from 1270°-1350°. It could not be guaranteed that any random metamorphic process did not take place under con- ditions falling within this range of 80° where the mixture consists of two solid phases. Therefore the assumption would not be justified that, for all compositions which do not exceed the limit of solution of anorthite in nephelite or carnegieite (or, stated in another form, the limit of replaceability of soda by lime) only one phase could be expected in the hypothetical metamorphic rock. The grouping of nephelite and anorthite (or of CaO and Na.O) as a single component would therefore be justified only asa convenience. While in the great major- ity of examples no discrepancy would be encountered, nevertheless when a phase too many was found it would not necessarily be the result of failure of equilibrium but might more properly be referred to the inadequacy of the assumption involved in grouping the true components. No metamorphic rock is known approaching the mixture referred to 2N.L. Bowen. Amer. Journ. Sci. 33: 551. 1912. JULY 19, 1925 BOWEN: THE MINERALOGICAL PHASE RULE 283 above, which has, indeed, been chosen merely to illustrate the princi- ple involved. There are, however, many cases where the principle applies. Thus, pyroxene and amphibole no doubt show a relation not unlike that existing between the two phases discussed above, and in some rocks containing these minerals the number of solid phases found is too great for the number of (assumed) components. At times this fact has been considered to indicate lack of equilibrium, one of the phases being regarded as an “‘unstable relic,”’? but in many of these cases there may be no such failure of equilibrium. The difficulty may, in reality, arise from the choice of too small a number of com- ponents. The grouping of, say, ferrous iron and magnesia as a single component may lead to no difficulties in the great majority of rocks, but in those few that are formed under conditions that he within what may be termed inversion intervals, a number of phases too great for agreement with such grouping may be found even with perfect equilibrium. Another limitation should be noted upon the simplification made by grouping the true components in those cases where solid solution occurs. In the three component system MgO-Al1.0;-SiO. there is, no doubt, some range of temperature in which the three solid phases sillimanite, spinel, and corundum can exist together. The tempera- tures concerned were formerly believed to be those immediately below liquefaction, but this cannot now be maintained since it has been shown in both synthetic mixtures and natural rocks that mullite, 3A1,0;°28i0., and not sillimanite is the compound of alumina and silica formed at such temperatures. Nevertheless, natural rocks do show the association noted above and it is unquestionably a stable one under the conditions concerned. There is also, no doubt, another range of temperature in which cordierite, corundum, and sillimanite can coexist. The whole matter has been discussed very fully by Tilley,* to whose paper the reader is referred for details. These two different three- phase assemblages indicate, as Tilley has shown, the possibility of the reaction: 2(MgO-Al.0;) + 5(A1,0;-SiO2.) = 2MgO-2A1,0;-5Si0O. + 5A1.03 spinel sillimanite cordierite corundum 3 A very useful term which weowetoEsxouta. Norsk Geologisk Tidskrift, 6: 149. 1920. 4 Bowen and Greic, Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 7: 238-254. 1924, and Bowszn, Grete and Zigs, This Journat 14: 183-191. 1924. 5 C. E. Trier, Geol. Mag., 60: 101-107. 1923. 284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 All four solid phases can occur together at any given pressure only at a definite temperature, so we may not expect to find all four present at equilibrium in any rock containing only these oxides. We will find one of the four possible three-phase assemblages according to whether the temperature at which the condition was established was above or below the reaction temperature. Now, if ferrous iron were also present, and whether it may replace the magnesia of the two mag- nesian compounds to an unlimited extent or only partially, the rela- tions will be changed. We will then be concerned with the reaction: 2[(Mg,Fe)O-Al,03] + 5(A1,03-Si0.) = spinel sillimanite 2(Mg,Fe)O-2A1.0;-58i02 + 5A1.03 cordierite corundum This reaction will necessarily take place through a range of tempera- tures at any given pressure or through a range of pressures at any given temperature. Given a certain pressure there will be for any temperature within the range a definite composition for each of the two phases of variable composition, but all four phases with appro- priate adjustments of composition may exist together throughout a range of conditions. Again we may not safely assume that the con- ditions attendant upon any specific example of the metamorphic proec- esses did not fall within this range and we might therefore expect at times to find the four phases together even in a rock which had attained complete equilibrium under the conditions of its formation. Thus, Tilley notes in the Comrie area of Scotland the frequent occur- rence of the four-phase assemblage spinel, silliimanite, cordierite, and corundum and appears to consider that it represents failure of equi- librium.® It is to be noted, however, that the four phases could occur together throughout a range of conditions rather than merely at a point and there is no reason why these conditions might not be met in nature. In summary, it may be stated that in all attempts to decide, on the basis of the number of phases, whether equilibrium has been attained in a metamorphic rock it is essential to bear in mind the fundamental assumptions as to the number of components. 6 C. E. Tinuey, Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc., 80: 68, 69. 1924. JULY 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 285 BOTANY.—New plants from Central America—III.t Pauu C, SranD ey, U.S. National Museum.? The new species described in the present paper were all collected by the writer in 1924 in Costa Rica and Panama. Most of them belong to the Rubiaceae, and chiefly to the genus Psychoiria, the largest and most difficult of the American genera of this family. Xylopia xylopioides (Dunal) Standl. Unona xylopiodes Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 117. pl. 21. 1817. Xylopia grandiflora St. Hil. Fl. Bras. Merid.1: 40. 1825. Xylopia longifolia A. DC. Mém. Soc. Genéve 5: 210. 1832. Martius (Fl. Bras. 131: 44. 1841) states that the three names here listed relate to the same plant. If this is true, it is necessary to employ for it the oldest specific name. Colubrina heteroneura (Griseb.) Standl. Zizyphus heteroneurus Griseb. Bonplandia 1858: 3. 1858. Rhamnus biglandulosa Sessé .& Moe. Pl. Nov. Hisp. 38. 1887. Cormonema nelsoni Rose, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 3: 315. 1895. Cormonema biglandulosa Stand]. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 718. 1928. Cormonema multiflora T. S. Brandeg. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 10: 411. 1924. Rhamnus gonzalezii Riley, Kew Bull. 1923: 173. 1923. This species was first described from Panama, where it is abundant, but it ranges northward along the Pacific coast to Sinaloa. It is referable to the genus Cormonema, published by Reissek, but that genus has no character by which it may be distinguished from Colubrina except the presence of spines upon the branches. This is scarcely to be considered a valid generic character. Doliocarpus multiflorus Standl., sp. nov. Large woody vine; leaves short-petiolate, the blades broadly obovate to oblong-obovate, 13-21 cm. long, 5-10 cm. wide, obtuse to attenuate at base, acute at apex or rounded and short-acuminate, remotely and coarsely sinuate- serrate toward the apex, coriaceous, bright green, smooth, sparsely puberulent beneath along the nerves or glabrous; flowers long-pedicellate or rarely subsessile, in densely clustered, few-flowered racemes on old wood, the pedi- cels puberulent; sepals unequal, 3-4 mm. long, glabrous, ciliolate; ovary densely puberulent. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,219,187, collected on brushy slope near Catival, Province of Colén, Panama, near sea level, January 9, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 30285). Fendler 50 from Chagres represents the same species. This is the only species of Doliocarpus with racemose inflorescence known from Central America. In Central America this genus of the Dilleniaceae has been collected only in Panama, where five species are known, but one species grows in Mexico. 1 See this Journat 15, 101-107. 1925. * Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Doliocarpus punctatus Standl., sp. nov. Large woody vine; petioles 8-12 mm. long; leaf blades oblong to oblong- elliptic, 6-15 em. long, 26.5 em. wide, usually long-acuminate or sometimes short-acuminate, rounded to acute at base, coarsely sinuate-serrate or suben- tire, coriaceous, glabrous above, beneath with a few short appressed hairs along the nerves, densely white-punctate; pedicels slender, much longer than the flowers, densely clustered in the axils of the leaves, puberulent, often 2 cm. long; sepals very unequal, brownish, minutely and rather sparsely seri- ceous, the inner about 8 mm. long; petals white; anthers oblong; fruit globose, red, 1 em. in diameter, hirtellous-scabrous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 2293, collected near Chagres, Panama, February, 1850, by A. Fendler (no. 305). The following collections also belong here: Panama: Near Catival, Province of Colén, Standley 30323. France Field, Canal Zone, Stevens 1337. Agua Clara, Canal Zone, Pittier 3988. Rio Faté, Province of Colén, P7ttier 3949, 4187. Gatun, Hayes 22. Near Puerto Obaldia, San Blas Coast, Pittier 4339. Related to Doliocarpus dentatus (Aubl.) Standl. (Tigarea dentata Aubl. Pl. Guian. 920. pl. 351. 1775), but in that species, which occurs in Panama, the leaves are not punctate, and the ovary is glabrous. Hybanthus anomalus (H. B. KI.) Standl. Tonidium anomalum H. B. lk. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 381. pl. 500. 1821. Eugenia zetekiana Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 2.5-4.5 m. high, with few branches, the branchlets densely ferrugi- nous-tomentose; petioles very stout, 6-12 mm. long, densely ferruginous- tomentose; leaf blades lanceolate or narrowly oblong-lanceolate, about 30 em. long, 6.5-9.5 em. wide, attenuate at apex, rounded at base, coriaceous, glabrous above, beneath tomentose along the costa or glabrate, the venation prominent on both surfaces, the costa stout, the lateral nerves about 20 on each side, divaricate, slightly curved, anastomosing to form a distinct nerve about 2 mm. from the margin; flowers in terminal, simple or branched racemes, these 7-8 cm. long, few-flowered, densely reddish-velutinous, the flowers subsessile; bractlets minute, subulate; fruit subglobose, 2-celled, 1.5-1.8 em. in diameter, densely velvety-tomentose; calyx limb short-produced beyond the fruit, persistent, 5-lobate, the lobes semiorbicular, broadly rounded at apex; seeds one in each cell, hemispheric, 12 mm. long, brown and shining. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,217,607, collected in wet forest on hills north of Frijoles, Canal Zone, Panama, December 19, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 27503). Collected also on hills west of the Canal, near Gattin, Standley 27192. The true position of the plant is somewhat doubtful. It belongs to the genus Hugenia as limited by Bentham and Hooker. It has a strong resem- blance in aspect to the Brazilian Schizocalyx pohlianus Berg, but I doubt that it could be referred to the latter genus, should that group be segregated. Eugenia zetekiana is named in honor of Mr. James Zetek, who has done more than any other person to popularize the advantages of the Canal Zone as a field for natural history studies. He has spared no personal effort in making the resources of the Zone available for the use of students, and no investigator who has worked in that region can fail to appreciate the results of his labors. JULY 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 287 Watsonamra alfaroana Standl., sp. nov. Simple shrub 1-1.5 m. high, the stems obtusely quadrangular or subterete, about 1.5 cm. in diameter; stipules broadly oblong, 5-5.5 em. long, very obtuse, brown, finely striate, glabrous within, thinly sericeous outside; petioles 8-20 cm. long, naked below, narrowly winged above the middle, thinly sericeous or glabrate; leaf blades broadly ovate, 40-50 em. long, about 40 cm. wide, when young sparsely pilose above with minute appressed hairs, beneath densely short-sericeous when young, much of the pubescence persistent in age, the blades pinnatifid two-thirds the distance to the midrib, the segments again pinnatifid, the lobes broadly ovate-oblong, acute, the terminal segment less deeply lobed or merely angulate; cymes dense, few-flowered, sessile or nearly so; fruit globose, 12-15 mm. in diameter, densely tuberculate, capped by the withered calyx; calyx in fruit 2 em. long, the lobes oblong, obtuse, united below; seeds numerous, brown, acutely angulate. _ Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,712, collected in moist forest along the Rio Grande de Tarcoles, near Capulin, Costa Rica, altitude about 80 meters, April 2, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 40194). Related to W. gymnopoda Standl., of the Atlantic coast of Panama, but in that species the leaves are merely once pinnatifid, with narrow, nearly glabrous segments, and the stipules are acuminate or attenuate. The species is named for Don Anastasio Alfaro, Director of the National Museum of Costa Rica, one of the most distinguished of Central American scientists. To him the writer is indebted for many favors received during the course of botanical work in Costa Rica, among others a delightful visit to the impressive Volcano of Pods. Psychotria tonduzii Standl., sp. noy. Simple shrub, about 1 m. high, the stems green, glabrous; stipules green, broadly triangular, about 4 mm. long, at least the base persistent; petioles 2.5-7 cm. long; leaf blades elliptic to obovate-oblong, mostly 19-85 em. long and 7-14 cm. wide, obtuse or rounded at apex and abruptly contracted into a short broad acute acumen, acute to long-decurrent at base, rather fleshy, glabrous, deep green above, paler beneath; flowers cymose-paniculate, the panicles axillary, usually sessile and branched from the base, sometimes short- pedunculate, with few stout puberulent branches, the flowers sessile in dense heads; bracts and bractlets broad, green, surpassing the calyx; hypanthium puberulent, 1.5 mm. long; calyx 1.5mm. long, green, puberulent, the 5 lobes broadly ovate, acutish; corolla creamy white, 3 mm. long, minutely puberu- lent outside, the lobes about equaling the limb. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,160, collected in wet forest at La Estrella, Province of Cartago Costa Rica, March 27, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 39461). The following specimens also belong here: Costa Rica: Orosi, Province of Cartago, Standley 39797, 39850. El Maufieco, south of Navarro, Province of Cartago, alt. about 1,400 meters, Standley 33585, 33658, 33439. Boca de Zhorquin, Talamanca, Tonduz 8621. La Hondura, Province of San José, alt. about 1,400 meters, Standley 36490, 37789. Related to P. anomothyrsus Schum. & Donn. Smith and P. aggreguta Standl., both of which have long-pedunculate inflorescence. 288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Psychotria torresiana Standl., sp. nov. Shrub, about 3 m. high, much branched, the branches slender, green, glabrous; stipules 4 mm. long, green, persistent, closely sheathing, emarginate at apex with a deep broad sinus; petioles slender, 1-2 em. long; leaf blades lance-linear, 9-16 cm. long, 1.5-2.5 em. wide, long-acuminate and usually subfaleate at apex, acute or attenuate at base, thin glabrous, deepgreen above, pale beneath; inflorescence terminal, open-paniculate, many-flowered, slender-pedunculate, about 11 cm. long and 9 cm. wide, the primary branches divaricate or refracted, glabrous, the flowers sessile or short-pedicellate in few-flowered slender-pedunculate cymes, the bracts linear-lanceolate, green, the bractlets minute; calyx 1 mm. long, shallowly 5-dentate; corolla not seen; fruit subglobose, blue, 5 mm. long, the 2 stones coarsely costate dorsally. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,178, collected in wet forest near Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 30, 1924, by Paul C,. Standley (no. 39769). Nos. 39725 and 39883 from Orosi also represent the species. Easily recognized among the Costa Rican species of the genus by the very narrow leaves. This species is named for Prof. Rubén Torres Rojas to whose courtesy I owe several pleasant excursions. Psychotria jimenezii Standl., sp. nov. Shrub or small tree 2.5-4.5 m. high, the branchlets terete, ferruginous- tomentose; stipules triangular, acute, 1 cm. long, brown, early deciduous from the base, tomentulose; petioles 3 mm. long or less; leaf blades oblong- oblanceolate, 9-14.5 cm. long, 2.5-4 em. wide, long-acuminate, attenuate to the base, deep green above, glabrous, beneath paler, puberulent along the nerves; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, long-pedunculate or often branched from the base, open, many-flowered, about as broad as long, the branches fulvous-tomentulose, divaricate or ascending at a wide angle; flower sessile in few-flowered headlike cymes; bracts and bractlets small, deciduous; calyx 1 mm. long, very shallowly 5-lobate, the lobes broad, acutish, obscurely puberulent; corolla creamy white, 2.5 mm. long, glabrous, the lobes erect, with incurved tips, nearly as long as the tube; stamens shorter than the corolla lobes. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,107, collected in wet forest at La Hondura, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1,400 meters, March 16, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37892). Nos. 36555 and 37955, from the same locality also belong here. The species is named for Don Otén Jiménez, well known as one of the en- thusiastic botanists of Costa Rica, to whom I am under obligations for many favors received during a recent visit to Costa Rica. It was in his company that the type of the species was collected, during a visit to the rich valley of La Hondura, on the Atlantic watershed. Psychotria orosiana Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 1-3 m. high, much branched, the branchlets glabrous; stipules 5 mm. long, early deciduous, bilobate, the lobes subulate, ferruginous-tomen- tose, the sheath glabrous; petioles 2 mm. long or less; leaf blades oblong- obovate or elliptic-obovate, 6-12.5 cm. long, 2-4.5 em. wide, rather abruptly acute or acuminate, with an obtuse tip, gradually or abruptly long-attenuate JuLY 19,1925 KILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 289 to the base, thin, glabrous, paler beneath; inflorescence terminal, cymose- paniculate, long-pedunculate, the panicles 4-6 cm. broad, broader than long, many-flowered, open, the branches slender, glabrous, divaricate or ascending at a wide angle, the bracts and bractlets minute; flowers sessile or short- pedicellate, in few-flowered cymes; calyx glabrous, 1 mm. long, shallowly 5- dentate; corolla greenish white, glabrous, 2.5-3 mm. long, the lobes nearly as long as the tube. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,182, collected in moist forest near Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 30, 1924, by Paul .C, Standley (no. 39803). The following specimens also represent the species: Costa Rica: Orosi, Standley 39766, 39768, 39861. El Muneco, south of Navarro, Province of Cartago, alt. about 1,400 m., Standley 33444. P. orosiana is well marked by the practically sessile leaves. Psychotria siggersiana Standl., sp. nov. Shrub, 1-1.8 m. high, the stems simple, green, sparsely villous-hirsute of glabrous; stipules green, about 7 mm. long, rounded-deltoid, usually glabrous, finally decidous from the persistent sheath; petioles 4.5—9 cm. long, hirsute or glabrate; leaf blades elliptic or broadly elliptic, 20-34 em. long, 11-17 em. wide, abruptly short-acuminate at apex or rounded and short-acuminate, acute at base, somewhat fleshy, copiously villous-hirsute on both surfaces, or sometimes glabrate above; inflorescence axillary, cymose-paniculate, many- flowered, ample, sometimes 20 cm. broad, the peduncles shorter than the cymes, the branches villous-hirsute; flowers sessile, usually densely clustered, the bracts large, green, villous, equaling or exceeding the flowers; calyx about 1 mm. long, sparsely short-villous, the 5 lobes deltoid-ovate; corolla 8 mm. long, greenish white, salverform, sparsely short-villous outside; fruit sub- globose, red, 5-6 mm. long, the 2 stones deeply concave on the inner face. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,058, collected in wet forest near Gudpiles, Province of Limén, Costa Rica, altitude about 500 meters, March 12-13, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37210). The following additional specimens belong to this species: Costa Rica: Gudpiles, Standley 37268, 37047, 37228, 37206. Tuis, alt. 650 m., Tonduz, 11465. Related to P. tonduzzi, but differing conspicuously in the broad leaves with copious pubescence. The species is named for Mr. Paul V. Siggers, of the United Fruit Company, who accompanied me upon two very agreeable and profitable collecting excursions to the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica. BOTANY.—New tropical American species of Urticaceae.1 Euus- wortH P. Kiiuip, U. 8. National Museum. Most of the species described in this paper belong to the genus Pilea and are based upon material collected in Central America. One new species of this genus from Mexico and five from South America, as well as a new Pouzolzia, are included. A species is transferred from the genus Urera to Pilea. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Pilea tridentata Killip, sp. nov. Herbaceous or suffrutescent, 40 cm. high or more, glabrous throughout; stem woody below, sulcate; stipules deltoid-ovate, 0.5 mm. long, deciduous; leaves penninerved with 6 to 8 pairs of nerves, opposite, those of a node con- spicuously unequal and dissimilar, the larger 5 to 8 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, oblong-spatulate, 3-toothed at apex (or the upper occasionally subentire), tapering to a petiole 1 to 1.5 mm. long, the margins subequal at base or the upper side shorter, the smaller leaves 3 to 4 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, ovate or suborbicular, obtuse, sessile, very unequal at the base, the upper side oblique, the lower side auriculate, the upper surface densely, the under surface sparse-- ly, covered with narrowly fusiform cystoliths 0.4 to 0.5 mm. long; plants dioecious (or monoecious?) ; staminate cymes 2 or 3-flowered, the peduncles 2.5 mm. long, the pedicels 2 mm. long, the perianth globose, 1.5 mm. in diameter, the tips of the segments acute, 0.38 mm. long; pistillate cymes 3 or 4- flowered, the peduncles 1.5 mm. long; pistillate flowers whitish, the middle perianth-segment elongate, 1.2 mm. long, the lateral segments 0.5 mm. long; achenes narrowly oblong, 1 mm. long, 0.6 mm. broad, minutely roughened. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 799,669, collected near Coban, Department of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, 1,500 meters altitude, November 7, 1907, by H. von Tiirckheim (no. 2011). Tiirckheim’s 2491, from the same locality, is also this species. Pilea tridentata resembles P. pleuroneura Donn. Smith, but in that species the leaves are crenate to the middle, symmetrical at base, and proportionately longer. Pilea argentea Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, glabrous throughout; stems erect, up to 35 em. (or more?) high, apparently simple, succullent, copiously covered with linear cystoliths; stipules broadly triangular-ovate, barely 1 mm. long, soon decidu- ous; leaves of a pair nearly equal, oblong, up to 8 cm. long, 3 em. wide, acu- minate, obtusish at apex, subauriculate and often slightly oblique at base, 3- nerved at base (nerves pale beneath, the lateral nerves reaching apex of blade), penniveined along midnerve, sessile or on petioles not more than 1 cin. long, entire at margin, thick, the upper surface green, densely covered with linear, straight or curved, and punctiform cystoliths, the under surface silvery-lustrous, with very numerous elongate-linear cystoliths on the nerves and conspicuous, elevated,curved or straight, linear cystoliths elsewhere; plants apparently diocecious; staminate inflorescence in axillary panicles near end of plant, the flowers in subglobose culsters, the perianth about 0.5 mm. long, pale proximally; pistillate inflorescence in panicles at nodes of upper half of plant, the flowers in few-flowered, subcontiguous, small clusters, the segments orbicular, subequal; achenes suborbicular, about 0.5 mm. long, narrowly winged, the surface minutely rugulose. Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected in forest east of Neiva, Department of Huila, in the Cordillera Oriental, Colom- bia, altitude 1500 to 2000 meters, August 1-8, 1917, by H. H. Rusby and F. W. Pennell (no. 654). Another specimen (no. 938), collected at the same time, also belongs to this species. Pilea argentea is related to P. parietaria (L.) Blume, a common species of JuLY 19,1925 MKILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 291 tropical America. It may be distinguished by the sessile, or nearly sessile, proportionately longer and thicker leaves, and its coarser, more erect habit. Pilea chiriquina Killip, sp. nov. Plant glabrous, suffrutescent; stem decumbent and rooting at the base, the branches erect, 35 to 60 cm. high, simple; stipules deciduous; leaves triplinerved to apex, crenate-serrate, dark green above, paler beneath, the eystoliths of upper surface fusiform, minute; leaves of a pair very unequal, the larger oblong-lanceolate or oblanceolate, 4 to 5 em. long, 1.2 to 2 cm. wide, caudate-acuminate, subauriculate at base (lower margin slightly the longer), the petioles 3 to 4 mm. long, the smaller leaves ovate or ovate- lanceolate, 1 to 1.3 em. long, 0.6 to 0.9 em. wide, acute, unequally sub- cordate at base (lower margin conspicuously auriculate), the petioles 1 mm. long; flowers dioecious, the pistillate borne in a compact flat-topped cyme 9 to 11 mm. wide, the peduncle 8 to 10 mm. long, the divisions of the perianth subequal, 0.9 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide, bearing linear cystoliths on the outer surface. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,010,199, collected in the humid forest along the upper Caldera River, 8 miles north of El Boquete, Province of Chiriqut Panama, altitude 1,650 meters, February 11, 1918, by E. P. Kallip (no. 3546). Duplicates of this collection are in the herbarium of the Pei estce Academy of Science. This species is to be distinguished from Pilea pansamalana by the longer peduncles of the pistillate cymes, by the subauriculate, rather than cuneate, leaf-bases, and by its erect, not prostrate, habit. Pilea caudata Killip, sp. nov. Glabrous throughout; stem erect, simple; stipules deltoid, 0.7 mm. long, 0.8 mm. broad, acute; leaves thickish, triplinerved, dark green above, paler beneath, bearing densely on the upper surface, sparselv on the lower surface, punctiform cystoliths, reticulate-veined (nerves and veins impressed and conspicuous beneath), cuneate at base, those of a pair conspicuously unequal, the larger lanceolate-elliptic, 10 to 15 em. long, 2 to 4 em. wide, caudate- acuminate (tips 2 to 3 cm. long), denticulate in upper third, the teeth 3 to 6 on a side, acute, 0.4 mm. long or less, the petiole 1 to 2.5 em. long, chan- neled, swollen at base, the smaller leaves narrowly lanceolate-elliptic, 3 cm. long, 0.8 to 1 cm. wide, acuminate, entire or obsoletely serrulate at apex, the petiole 2 to 3 mm. long; plants dioecious?; staminate flowers in dense, axillary glomerules, globose, 0.8 mm. in diameter, the tips of the segments 0.2 mm. long, acute; pistillate flowers not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 408318, collected at Secoyocté, near Finca Sepacuité, Department of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, April 14, 1902, by O. F. Cook and R. F. Griggs (no. 609). The texture and venation of the foliage of this species resemble that of Pilea riparia. There is, however, a much greater diversity between the size of the leaves of a pair than in the case of P. riparia. The larger leaves, more- over, are much longer, the tips are shallowly, but distinctly and sharply denticulate, the margin is not thickened, and the cystoliths are uniformly punctiform, not linear at the margin of the blade. 292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Pilea donnell-smithiana Killip, sp. noy. Erect herb, about 1 meter high, glabrous throughout; stem simple or few-branched near base; stipules minute, triangular-ovate, soon deciduous; leaves ovate or elliptic, crenate-serrate nearly to base, 3-nerved or subtrip- linerved (nerves extending to apex of blade), rounded or subauriculate and often oblique at base, faintly marked with minute linear cystoliths on both surfaces; leaves of a pair conspicuously unequal, the larger 10 to 20 em. long, 4 to 7 em. wide, caudate-acuminate, their petioles 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long, the smaller leaves 1.5 to 3 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, acute, their petioles 0.3 to 0.5 em. long; plants dioecious; staminate flowers borne in subglobose, dis- tinet, usually pedicellate clusters.in small axillary panicles 2 cm. long, or less, the perianth segments 0.5 mm. long; pistillate flowers in few-flowered sub- globose heads about 5 mm. wide, the peduncles 2 to 3 mm. long, the middle perianth segment twice as long as the outer segments; achenes ovate, about 2.5 mm. long (large for the genus), strongly flattened. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 799,603 (staminate), collected at La Palma, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1460 meters, Sep- tember, 1898, by A. Tonduz (Herb. Inst. Phys.-geogr. Costa Rica no. 12,655; J. D. Smith no. 7467, distributed as P. costaricensis). Additional specimens examined: Costa Rica: La Hondura, Proy. San José, 1300-1700 meters, Standley 37841, 37866, 37899. Panama: Along Holcomb’s trail, about 10 miles above El Boquete, Proy. Chiriqui, 1700 meters, Killip 3562. The description of the pistillate inflorescence is based on Standley’s 37841 (U.S. N. H. 1,229,574). From P. costaricensis Donn. Sm. this new species differs in both staminate and pistillate inflorescence. The staminate flowers are in small distinct glomerules on short few-branched panicles; in P. costaricensis they are in very dense, nearly sessile cymes. The pistillate flowers are in globose, few-flowered heads, while in P. costaricensis they are in compact sessile cymes. The achenes of P. donnell-smithiana are fully twice as large as those of its near relative. It is quite fitting that a species of Pilea should be named for Captain J. Donnell Smith, who has been one of the few botanists in the last half-century to study critically this interesting genus. Pilea cornmanae Killip, sp. noy. Plant herbaceous, erect, up to 60 cm. high, the stem branched, yellowish green, densely covered with elevated linear cystoliths, glabrous; stipules orbicular or ovate, about 5 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, obtuse, persistent, yellow- ish green, mottled with red; leaves coarsely serrate (teeth 2 to 3 mm. long, acutish), dark green above, paler beneath, densely covered on both surfaces with linear cystoliths about 0.3 mm. long, occasionally sparsely strigillose above with hyaline hairs; leaves of a pair unequal, the larger ovate-lanceolate, 3 to 7 em. long, 1.5 to 3 em. wide, acuminate at apex, acute and often oblique at base, the petioles 1.5 to 4 em. long, the smaller leaves broadly ovate or suborbicular, 1.5 to 2 em. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, acute at apex, subrotund and oblique at base, the petioles 4 to 5 mm. long; plants monoecious (or dioecious), the heads unisexual, the staminate and pistillate often borne at the same axil; staminate flowers densely clustered in globose heads 9 to 10 mm. in diameter, the peduncle slender, 1 to 3 em. long, the perianth globose JuLy 19,1925 KILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 293 or subturbinate, 2 mm. wide, the segments long-caudate, erect; pistillate flowers loosely clustered in subglobose heads 4 to 5 mm. in diameter, borne on peduncles 5 to 7 mm. long, the perianth segments subequal; achenes broadly ovate or suborbiclar, about 1 mm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,010,196, collected in dense forest along the Rio Caldera, 7 miles north of El Boquete, Province of Chiri- qui, Panama, altitude 1650 meters, February 11, 1918, by Mrs. L. R. Corn- man (Killip 3543). A duplicate of the type is in the herbarium of the Roches- ter Academy of Science. Additional specimens examined: Costa Rica: La Hondura, Prov. San José, 1300-1700 meters, Standley 37779, 37822. Because of the striking differences in size and shape of the leaves at each node this species should probably be placed in Weddell’s section Heterophyllae. In general appearance, in the texture of the stem and leaves, in the large persistent stipules, the cystoliths, and the peculiar hyaline hairs on the upper leaf-surfaces, it bears a close resemblance to P. auriculata Liebm., a species of the group Pubescentes Longipedunculatae. The elongate segments of the staminate flowers and the differently shaped leaves clearly distinguish it, however, from P. auriculata. Pilea rusbyi (Britton) Killip, comb. nov. Urera rusbyi Britton, Bull. Torrey Club 28:310. 1901. Pistillate plants of this specis in the Buchtien Herbarium, recently acquired by the National Museum, show that it is of the genus Pilea rather than Uvera, and is related to P. anomala Wedd. Because of this additional material it seems advisable to amplify the earlier description. Stipules ovate, 1 to 2mm. long, acutish, connate; petioles up to 6 cm. long; leaves abruptly acuminate (acumen up to 1.5 em. long), often oblique at base, 3-nerved or subtriplinerved, above bearing numerous punctiform cystoliths, nearly destitute of cystoliths beneath but punctate with incon- spicuous dark dots; plants dioceious; panicles much branched, wide-spreading, 20 (or up to 30?) em. wide; staminate inflorescences on peduncles up to 4 em. long, the perianth segments ovate, 1 mm. long; pistillate inflorescences on peduncles up to 7 cm. long, longer than the accompanying petiole, the perianth segments ovate, subequal or the lateral two-thirds as long as the middle segment, the achenes ovoid, 1 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, acutish. Specimens examined: Borryv1a: Yungas, 1800 meters, Rusby 1774 (type collection of Urera rusbyi). Polo-Polo, near Coroico, North Yungas, 1100 meters, Buchtien 3754. Pilea pauciserrata Killip, sp. nov. Low slender herb, glabrous throughout, the stem repent, at length erect, about 15 em. high, the internodes 1 to 2 cm. long; stipules ovate, 1mm. long, obtuse; leaves narrowly obovate, 6 to 20 mm. long, 2 to 5 mm. wide, cuneate- attenuate at base, coarsely serrate above middle (serrations 4 or 5 on each side, triangular, up to 1.5 mm. long, acute, the upper margin of each serra- tion at right-angles to the midrib), entire at base, penninerved (lateral nerves faint), membranous, sessile or short-petioled (petioles up to 2 mm. long), bearing on upper surface, especially near margin, a few small, fusiform or 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 linear cystoliths, on under surface a few punctiform cystoliths; plants ap- parently dioecious; staminate flowers 3 mm. wide, purple above, pale at base, sessile or short-pediceled in few-flowered pedunculate heads (peduncles slender, up to 1.5 em. long), the perianth segments ovate, 1 mm. long, mucro- nulate, bearing linear cystoliths on outside. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,157,852, collected at Unduavi, North Yungas, Bolivia, altitude 3400 meters, November, 1910, by O. Buch- tien (no. 2811). This species resembles P. serrulata (Sw.) Wedd., having leaves of much the same shape. The leaves, however, are of thinner texture, and the cystoli- thie marking is wholly dissimilar. Pilea pauciserrata is distincly herbaceous, having none of the shrubby habit of its relative. Pilea gracilipes Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, glabrous throughout; stem repent, the branches erect, simple, 8 to 40 cm. high; stipules minute, triangular-ovate, 1.2 to 1.5 mm. long, acute, deciduous; leaves ovate-lanceolate or elliptic, 1 to 8 em. long, 0.7 to 2.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded or acutish at base, crenate-serrate (teeth 0.5 to 1 mm. long, acute or often mucronulate), 3-nerved (nerves extending to upper third of blade), bright green above, paler and often glaucescent beneath, both surfaces bearing numerous faint linear cystoliths; leaves of a pair similar in form, subequal in size or one three-quarters as long as the other, the petioles of the smaller up to 1.5 em. long, those of the larger about twice as long; plants monoecious or dioecious, the staminate and pistillate inflorescences often arising at the same axil; staminate flowers in globose, 12 to 20-flowered heads 5 to 7 mm. wide, the peduncles filiform, 2 to 3.5 em. long, the perianth marked with linear cystoliths on outside, proxi- mally yellowish, distally dark green, the tips of the segments barely 0.1 mm.; pistillate flowers in loose glomerules in interrupted spikes or racemose- paniculate, the peduncles filiform or linear, 2 to 5 em. long, usually much exceeding the petioles, the middle perianth segment linear-oblong, 1 mm. long, cucullate, the lateral segments suborbicular, about half as long; achenes lance-ovate, 1 to 1.2 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, acute. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 675,809, collected on a wet brushy slope in the humid forest at Los Siguas Camp, southern slope of Cerro de Horqueta, Province of Chiriqui, Panama, altitude about 1700 meters, March, 1911, by. W. R. Maxon (no. 5426). The following specimens, all from Costa Rica, at altitudes varying from 1200 to 2500 meters, have also been examined: Copey, Tonduz 11805, 11925. Tablazo, Tonduz 7927; Coliblanco, Mazon 309. Santa Clara de Cartago, Mazon 8165. La Estrella, Prov. Cartago, Cooper 384 (J. D. Smith 5950); Standley 39091, 39099, 39234, 39454. Cerro de la Carpintera, Prov. Cartago, Standley 34493, 35524. Volcan de Pods, Standley 34630; Tonduz 10790. Las Nubes, Prov. San José, Standley 38540, 38541, 38824. Much of the material here cited was distributed as P. awriculata, a species with smaller rotund-rhombic leaves, pilose with hyaline hairs on the upper surface, large persistent stipules, and the middle segments of the pistillate flowers auriculate. Pilea gracilipes more closely resembles P. dauciodora, but is at once distinguished by larger, differently-shaped leaves and long- peduncled staminate flower-clusters. Or JuLy 19,1925 KILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 29 Pilea angustifolia Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, glabrous throughout; stem repent at base, erect, simple or few-branched, 40 to 45 em. high; stipules deltoid, 0.8 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, deciduous; petioles enlarged at base, those of a pair usually unequal, the longer 4 to 8 mm. long, the ‘shorter 2 to 3.5 mm. long; leaves narrowly lanceolate, 4 to 10 cm. long, 0.8 to 1.2 em. wide, those of a pair similar in shape, subequal in size (or the one four-fifths as long as the other), tripli- nerved (nerves extending to upper third of blade), acuminate at apex, nar- rowed to a cuneate or subcordate base, serrulate (teeth acute, often mucro- nulate, 1 mm. long), bearing on both surfaces minute linear cystoliths; plants monoecious; staminate flowers densely congested in globose heads 0.6 to 1 em. in diameter, the peduncles very slender, filiform, 3 to 4 em. long, the pedicels 1 to 1.5 mm. long, the perianth segments With tips about 0.4 mm. ‘long; pistillate flowers congested in sessile cymes 3 to 5 mm. wide, the middle seg- ment linear-oblong, about 1 mm. long, the lateral segments ovate, 0.6 mm. long; achenes eblong, 1 mm. long, 0.7 mm. wide, acute, smooth. Type in the U. National Herbarium, no. 473,969, collected at Juan Vifias, Reventazén v alley, Costa Rica, altitude 1000 meters, April 21, 1903, by O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle (no. 181). Related to P. gracilipes, this differs in its proportionately narrower leaves, nearly sessile pistillate cymes, and in the unusually slender peduncles of the large staminate heads. Pilea chiapensis Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, 30 em. high or more, glabrous throughout; stem angu- late, grooved, slightly flexuous; stipules early deciduous; leaves of a pair very unequal and dissimilar, the larger oblanceolate or oblong (upper often falcate), 7 to 11 em. long, 2 to 2.5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex (acumen up to 2 cm. long), narrowed to an oblique base, remotely and irregularly serrulate along upper fourth of margin (teeth obtuse or acutish, somewhat callous-thickened), otherwise entire, 3-nerved to apex of blade, the petioles 3 to 5 mm. long, the smaller leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 1.5 to 2.5 em. long, 0.5 to 1 em. wide, acuminate or acute at apex, narrowed at base, subsessile or with petioles up to 2 mm. long, 3-nerved to apex, entire or crenate-serrulate at apex, both kinds of leaves faintly marked with linear and punctiform cystoliths on upper surface, destitute of cystoliths but sparsely black-punctate on under surface; staminate cymes subsessile, densely flowered, 5 to 7 mm. wide, the flowers on pedicels about 2.5 mm. long, the perianth globose, 2 mm. wide, the teeth minute, barely 0.3 mm. long; pistillate cymes subsessile, 5 mm. long, the flowers sessile, the segments unequal; achenes ovate, 0.5 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, collected at the junction of the Teapa and Amatdn rivers, Chiapas, Mexico, August 6, 1890, by J. N. Rivirosa (no. 938). This species should be placed among the Heterophyllae, though it is quite unlike any other species of that section. In many respects it resembles P- mexicana Liebm., of the section Glabratae Brevipedunculatae, which, however, has the opposite leaves equal. Pilea pallida Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, glabrous throughout, or the nerves of the very young leaves pubescent beneath; stem simple, 30 cm. high or more, stipules lanceo- late, 3 mm. long 1.5 mm. wide, acute, densely striate without with linear 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 cystoliths; petioles 1.5 to 4 cm. long, those of a pair subequal; petioles 1.5 to 4 em. long, those of a pair subequal; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, 8 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, caudate-acuminate (tip up to 2.5 em. long), tapering to petiole, triplinerved to base of tip, serrate (teeth obtuse, often mucronulate, 2 to 4mm. long), densely covered with fusiform and punctiform cystoliths, dark green above, paler, slightly silvery-lustrous beneath; plants dioecious; staminate flowers densely congested in sessile subglobose clusters 3 to 4mm. wide, the perianth globose, the tips about 0.4 mm. long; pistillate flowers in much-branched flat-topped cymes, shorter than the petioles, about 1 cm. long, 1.2 cm. wide, in the axils of the upper leaves, the branches of the inflorescence and the outside of the perianth densely striate with linear cys toliths, the middle perianth segment linear, 1 mm. long, obtuse, the laterat segments ovate, 0.2 mm. long, acute, scariose at margin; achenes ovoid, about 1 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, acute, wing-margined, the surface black, minutely papillose. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,036,444, collected at Sibubi Falls, Sixaola Valley, Panama, June 6, 1918, by W. W. and H. E. Rowlee (no. 376). This species differs from P. quichensis Donn. Sm., to which it is clearly allied, in the shape, texture, and particularly the cystolithic marking of the leaves. Pilea lippioides Killip, sp. nov. Plant apparently suffrutescent, glabrous throughout, the stem branched, marked, especially at nodes, with linear cystoliths; stipules oblong-lanceolate, about 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, bearing elongate linear cystoliths, at length deciduous; petioles filiform, those of a pair unequal, the longer 3 to 4 em. long, the opposite ones about half as long; leaves of a node essentially equal and similar, ovate-elliptic, 2.5 to 6 em. long, 1.5 to 2.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex (acumen about 5 mm. long), tapering to petiole, coarsely crenate- serrate to base (teeth subimbricate, mucronulate), penninerved (lateral nerves 5 to 10 pairs, impressed above, conspicuous beneath), the upper surface dark green, with numerous short linear cystoliths, the under surface paler, with linear cystoliths on the nerves and veins and punctiform cystoliths else- where; plants monoecious; staminate flowers in dense globose heads borne singly in the axils of the upper leaves on slender peduncles 1.5 to 2 em. long, each head subtended by an involucre of 8 bracts, the outer 4 orbicular, about 6 mm. in diameter, the inner 4 oblong, about 4 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, obtuse, the bracts of the same texture and cystolithic marking as the stipules, and completely enveloping the flowers before anthesis; staminate perianth segments 3, about 4mm. long, with long linear tips; pistillate flowers in small, loosely about 10-flowered, subglobose clusters on peduncles 5 to 10 mm. long in the axils of the lower leaves, the perianth segments subequal, triangular- ovate, about 0.8 mm. long; achenes suborbicular, 1.5 mm. long, smooth. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 531,410, collected near Rio Flautas, Rfo Paez Valley, Tierra Adentro, Department of Huila, in the Cordillera Central, Colombia, altitude 2900 meters, January 26, 1906, by H. Pittier (no. 1216). This species is remarkable for the conspicuous involucre subtending the staminate inflorescence, the general aspect of the plant strongly suggesting Lippia. In Weddell’s monograph? of the family it would come nearest P. 2 DC. Prodr. 16: 144. JuLY 19,1925 KILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 297 serratifolia Wedd., an Ecuadorean species which, from description, also has a conspicuous involucre but which differs in venation and cystolithic marking of the leaves as well as in the shape of the staminate perianth segments. Pilea buchtienii Killip, sp. nov. Succulent herb, glabrous throughout, the stem at first repent, at length erect, about 20 cm. high, the internodes 3 to 6 em. long; stipules ovate, 2 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, obtuse, soon deciduous; petioles 1 to 3.5 cm. long, succulent, canaliculate; leaves of a node similar and equal, ovate-elliptic, 8 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 6 em. wide, acuminate (acumen up to 1.2 em. long), tapering at base to petiole, doubly crenate-serrate, entire at base, tripli- nerved (nerves reaching to base of acumen), reticulate-veined (nerves and veins conspicuous beneath), the upper surface dark green, bearing numerous punctiform and minute fusiform cystoliths, the under surface destitute of eystoliths, punctate with numerous spots scattered among the nerves; plants monoecious, the staminate and pistillate flowers borne in glomerules in separate few-branched panicles often at the same node, the peduncles of both inflorescences subequal, 1.5 to 2 em. long, slightly shorter than the subtending petioles; perianth segments of staminate flowers oblong, 1.2 mm. long, obtuse, the stamens slightly longer; perianth segments of pistillate flowers ovate, subequal, about 0.5 mm. long, concave; achenes conical, 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, strongly flattened. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,156,963, collected at An- tahuacana, Espiritu Santo, Bolivia, altitude 750 meters, June, 1909, by O. Buchtien (no. 4526). Nearest to P. marginata Wedd., this species is distinguished by its propor- tionately wider leaves with margins doubly serrate, and by the longer pedun- cles. Pilea marginata is said to be dioecious, while P. buchtiendi is monoeci- ous. The foliage of this species, especially in the venation, resembles that of P. rusbyi (Britton) Killip, though the leaves are thicker and the margin differently cut. Pilea rusbyi, however, is dioecious, and the peduncles are much longer. Pilea hitchcockii Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, the stem repent below, erect, about 30 cm. high, slender, ferruginous-strigillose, especially above, leafy near summit, the internodes at middle and toward base 3 to 4 em. long; stipules ovate-orbicular, 4 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 4 mm. wide, rounded or subtruncate at apex, sparingly pubescent, persistent; petioles up to 4 mm. long, strigillose; leaves of a node similar but often slightly unequal, narrowly elliptic, 2 to 7 em. long, 0.7 to 1.5 cm. wide, acute or acuminate at apex, acute or rarely slightly rounded at base, coarsely crenate-serrate or often sinuate-serrate (teeth obtuse or acutish), penni- nerved (lateral nerves 12 to 15 on each side), the upper surface dark green and glabrous, faintly marked with numerous fine linear cystoliths, the under surface much paler, densely strigillose on the nerves, otherwise glabrous, densely covered with minute punctiform cystoliths; plants monoecious; the cymes unisexual (staminate at lower nodes, pistillate at upper), dichotomous, up to 4 em. long (including peduncle),the flowers sessile or subsessile; perianth segments of staminate flowers ovate, 1.5 mm. long, acute, glabrous; perianth segments of pistillate flowers ovate-lanceolate, 0.5 mm. long, acute, the apex often reflexed; achenes broadly ovoid, 1 to 1.2 mm. long, the margin thickened. v 298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,195,706, collected on a tree stump, in the valley of the Pastaza River, between Bafios and Cashurco, 8 hours east of Bafios, Province of Tungurahua, Ecuador, altitude 1300 to 1800 meters, September 25, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21825). This species, having much the general appearance of narrow-leaved forms of Euphorbia heterophylla, belongs with the long-peduncled, pubescent species of the section Dentatae, though it is apparently the only species with penni- nervation. The venation is similar to that of P. fallax Wedd., a species with dimorphic leaves, and of P. abetiaefolia Killip, a very distinct Colombian plant. Pilea pittieri Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, decumbent or erect, up to 40 em. high, the stem simple or few-branched, glabrescent below, sparingly pubescent above, densely marked throughout with linear cystoliths; stipules linear-oblong, 5 to 6 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, obtuse, deciduous; petioles 1 to 5 cm. long, those of a pair subequal (or one 2 or 3 times as long as the other), pubescent; leaves ovate or ovate- lanceolate, 3 to 10cm. long, 1.5 to 7 cm. wide (those of a pair similar but slightly unequal), long-acuminate at apex, rounded or subcordate at base, 3 (or occasionally 5)-nerved (inner lateral nerves three-fourths length of blade), reticulate, serrate or serrate-crenate nearly to base (teeth obtuse or acute, minutely undulate-crenulate), the upper surface dark green, glabrous, bearing numerous minute linear cystoliths, especially along the nerves, the under surface paler, densely pubescent on nerves and veins, punctate on veins, bearing less numerous similar eystoliths; plant monoecious (or occasionally dioecious?); staminate cymes solitary in the axils of the lower leaves or at the leafless nodes of the rooting portion of the stem, subsessile (or on pedun- cles up to 3 em. long), pubescent, densely flowered, the perianth segments linear-spatulate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 1.2 mm. wide, striate on outside with linear cystoliths; pistillate spikes solitary in the axils of the upper leaves, 4 to 5 em. long, the peduncles slender, glabrous, 2 to 4-forked, the flowers borne in subglobose clusters 3 to 4 mm. wide, the middle perianth segment 0.6 to 0.8 mm. long, cucullate, twice as long as the lateral segments; achenes ovate, 1 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, acute, flattened, unicostate at center of both faces. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,080,422, collected along the Rio de la Paz, Sarapiqui Valley, Costa Rica, altitude 1300 meters, May 5, 1901, by H. Pittier (Herb. Inst. Phys.-geogr. Costa Rica 14149). Additional specimens examined: Costa Rica: (Province Cartago) La Estrella, Standley 39204. Orosi, Standley 39730, 39760, 39811, 39862. El Mufieco, Standley 33943. (Province San José) La Hondura, Standley 37713. This species is related to P. acuminata Liebm., a dioecious plant with staminate and pistillate inflorescences similar and having much larger leaves, and to P. pubescens Liebm., a species with androgynous spikes and with the upper leaf-surface strigillose. Pilea standleyi Killip, sp. nov. Plant herbaceous, the stem decumbent, at length ascending to about 20 em., slender, pellucid, green, glabrescent below, pubescent above, particularly at the nodes; stipules suborbicular, 3 to 4mm. long, rounded, persistent; petioles up to 3 em. long, densely pubescent, those of a pair subequal; leaves JULY 19,1925 KILLIP: AMERICAN SPECIES OF URTICACEAE 299 ovate-elliptic, 2 to 6 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, acute at apex, rounded or acutish at base, crenate-serrate nearly to base, 3-nerved (lateral nerves ex- tending to upper fourth of blade), dark green and glabrous above, paler beneath, densely pubescent on the nerves, bearing numerous linear cystoliths on both surfaces; plants dioecious; peduncles of pistillate inflorescence up to 5 em. long, in the axils of the upper leaves, slender, glabrous, dichotomous, the flowers borne in contiguous clusters at the ends of the branches, the perianth segments unequal, the middle segment about 0.7 mm. long, the lateral segments less than one-half as long, hyaline; achenes suborbicular, about 0.8 mm. long, narrowly wing-margined, not costate on faces. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,229,585, collected at Las Nubes, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1500 to 1900 meters, March 20-22, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 38697). The principal character by which this species may be distinguished from P. pittieri, which it resembles in general appearance, is in the smaller, con- spicuously wing-margined, ecostate achenes. Pouzolzia phenacoides Killip, sp. nov. Shrub 1 to 1.5 meters high, branched, the branches hirsutulous above, glabrate below; stipules lanceolate, 5 to 6 mm. long, acuminate, pilosulous on midrib without, soon deciduous; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 6 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, petiolate (petioles up to 1.5 em. long, slender), coarsely dentate-serrate except in lower quarter, 3-nerved at base, sparsely strigillose above with stiff white hairs, appressed- pilosulous on the nerves beneath; plants monoecious, the flower clusters androgynous or unisexual; staminate flowers in small, axillary, 1 to 5-flowered clusters, short-pedicellate, the perianth 4+lobed, about 1.5 em. long, pubescent without, slightly exceeded by the stamens; pistillate flowers 1 to 5, short- pedicellate or subsessile, at base of staminate inflorescence, the perianth tubular, about 2 mm. long, contracted at the short 4-toothed beak, about 12- nerved, finely puberulous without; achenes ovoid, about 2 mm. long, dark brown, shining. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,229,521, collected on the Cerro de Piedra Blanca, above Escasti, Province of San José, Costa Rica, January 31, 1924, by P. C. Standley (no. 32484). Standley’s 34679, from La Ventolera, on the southern slope of the Voledn de Pods, altitude 1700 meters, is also this species. This is apparently the only known American species of Pouzolzia with toothed leaves. The flowers are much like those of P. occidentalis (Liebm.) Wedd. The general appearance of the specimens suggests Phenax hirtus or Phenax mexicanus. 300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFLILATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 183D MEETING The 183d meeting of the AcapEMy was held on January 7, 1924, in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club. The program consisted of brief addresses constituting a Symposium on Coal Program: GrorGE Oris Smiru, Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey, Coal a national issue. Under a classification that is more practical than scientific there are two kinds of coal—the coal that we think we can not get along without, and the coal that we actually can not get along without; coal for which there are substitutes, and coal for which there are no substitutes; the luxury fuel, anthracite used by the favored few, and the industrial fuel, bituminous coal, used by the whole country. The one is used in the homes of a few States in the East; the other by the industries of the whole country. We mine as much bituminous coal in a day as anthracite ina week. Of our anthracite resources one-fourth has been mined; of the bituminous re- sources less than one per cent. In recent years anthracite production has failed to keep pace with population; by way of contrast, bituminous con- sumption per capita has increased 10-fold in a lifetime. Bituminous coal is indispensable because upon it rest transportation and industry. Interstate commerce is really what puts the ‘‘United”’ into United States, and American industry as we know it today surpasses that of other nations in the degree to which we strengthen the arm of labor with mechani- cal power. The 3} horsepower or more of prime mover capacity with which the average wage earner is equipped means an annual consumption of about 10 tons of coal per wage earner for power alone, and power generation is only one of the uses of coal in industry. The uninterrupted mining of coal and its transportation and country-wide distribution thus make up an indispens- able service. Shut down the coal mines or stop the coal-laden trains and the whole country would soon be not only cold and dark but idle and hungry. The uninterrupted operation of the coal mines is a vital function of working America, and it thus becomes a national issue whether or not the coal industry performs this service so as to meet the public need. Call it public utility or not, coal mining is absolutely essential to the general welfare. As we discuss the function of the coal industry it is well to realize the magnitude of its daily task of supplying the country with fuel. An average day’s output of the bituminous mines would load a coal train extending from Washington nearly to New Haven, and if to this is added the daily ‘quota of anthracite cars the coal train would extend to Hartford. Four years ago Mr. Tryon and myself described what is wrong with the coal industry by the phrase ‘Bad load factor.” Unfortunately this load factor is notimproved. The law of supply and demand, however, works out differently with anthracite and bituminous coal. The undercapacity of the anthracite mines to meet even the ordinary demand is in marked contrast with the overdevelopment of the bituminous mines whose capacity far exceeds even the peak demand. In the anthracite industry restraint of trade is un- necessary for the overdemand maintains price levels. In the bituminous industry no combination or monopoly of producers has ever controlled either supply or prices. The insistent demand from buyers is the immediate cause JULY 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 301 of exorbitant prices whenever supply has been inadequate. Herein lies the opportunity of the consumer; to help stabilize production and prices by stabil- izing demand. Uncertainty and irregularity of demand are not the only causes of the present unfortunate condition of too many bituminous mines and too many miners. How wasteful is this overdevelopment may be seen in the fact that in 1921 the bituminous mines turned out a million less tons than in 1910 but employed 100,000 more men, a difference suggesting decreased skill on the part of the mine worker but in fact due wholly to the shorter working year— 149 days in 1921 as against 217 days in 1910. This is not progress. The outstanding cause of this wasteful use of labor and capital in the bituminous industry is the uncertainty of its labor supply. The present monopoly of mine labor has followed in the trail of the Union’s necessary beneficial work in behalf of the mine worker. But that makes labor mon- opoly no less injurious to the general public, and its power needs to be curbed. The open threat of tying up the commerce of a nation and shutting down its industries is the menace of economic chaos and therefore the real issue today concerns the sovereignty of the American people in their relation to those who own coal mines or work in coal mines: Is the people’s right to an uninter- rupted supply of coal the dominant right? On this issue, President Coolidge has declared that “‘the public interest is paramount” and that selfish failure in service is “such a betrayal of duty as warrants uncompromising action by the government.” (Author’s Abstract.) Davin L. Wire, Operator’s costs and profits. The practical use made of cost-of-production information is twofold: to assist the operator in the in- telligent conduct of his own business, and to furnish information required of him by the Government. One of these requirements has been due to the administration of the Federal Income and Excess Profits tax; the other to the position of coal as a basic industry, which caused Government regulation of it during the war, and to almost continuous investigation from 1917 on, by Congressional committees, or governmental commisssions. Costs of production vary greatly from mine to mine, and from field to field, due partly to physical conditions, and partly to different conditions of labor, transportation facilities, investment in labor-saving equipment, man- agement, etc. The sales realizations also show wide variations, due to the use made of the coal, the competitive conditions in the markets, ete. In fixing prices for a field under price regulation, the average cost must not be taken as a basis, but instead, a cost at the 75 or 80 per cent level of production, in order not to curtail needed output. Large margins can be sometimes ob- tained by low-cost operators who show sales realizations below the field average. Margins must not be confused with net profits to the operator as they do not show return on actualinvestment. (Auwthor’s Abstract.) H. Foster Barn, Director of the Bureau of Mines, Hazards of the coal industry. Among the costs of coal society must pay is the cost of death and disability among miners. Health hazards in mining are not greater than in industry in general; accident hazards apparently are greater than most but not all American undustries. While the loss of life per ton of coal is less than abroad, it is much larger in number per 1000 workers. This follows from the fact that we work thicker beds, which more frequently lie at low angles, but we use more machinery and have speeded up production. Part of the difference is in the national spirit, whichis venturesome; our own men are disposed to take chances. It will be impossible to prevent accidents entirely, but it is not impossible to decrease their number and to limit their extent in a 302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 mine. This is especially true of the great mine disasters. It should also be possible to decrease the number of haulage accidents. For these things scientific and technical research is still necessary. To decrease accidents due to fall of rock, which account for half the deaths in mines, campaigns of education such as the Bureau of Mines first-aid instruction are needed in order to inculcate safety thinking by the men. (Author’s abstract.) F. G. Tryon, of the U.S. Geological Survey, Overdevelopment of the bitumi- nous coalindustry and its cure. In the bituminous coal industry there are 150,000 miners and 200,000,000 tons of mine capacity in excess of what can be continuously employed. This results in a higher cost of production, which must ultmately be borne by the public, and in unrest among the miners through intermittent employment. It makes difficult the negotiation of wage agreements, and is thus an indirect cause of strikes. Plans to reduce overdevelopment include requiring a license to open a new mine, distributing railroad coal cars to well-established mines in preference to speculative enter- prises, permitting combination and codperative marketing among producers, and encouraging voluntary agreements between operators and employers to provide for unempoyment insurance or for methods of wage payment that will encourage steady operation. All of these plans are shown to be open to serious objection, either on legal or economic grounds. The attitude of the industry is shown to be opposed to regulation and in favor of a policy of laissez-faire. Unless sweeping changes in existing laws are to be made, the means of reducing overdevelopment are confined to overcoming the specific causes that have promoted it, that is, by gradual improvement of the tech- nique and business methods employed by the industry. (Author’s abstract.) Cuarues P, Neritu, Manager of the Bureau of Information of the South- eastern Railways, Wages in the coal industry. O. P. Hoop, Consumers’ Economics. Cheap fuel has always been available in America, leading to unthrifty habits in its use. Each new price level has made old equpment less satisfactory, and we find ourselves with ample room for improvement in the use of fuels. A change in attitude of the public mind towards fuel resources is needed. Various economies are being practiced by the several groups of consumers, namely, the railroads, the largeindustries, public utilities, the small industrial plants, and the domestic consumer. The application of our scientific knowledge to the problem of combustion and heat absorption in the various industries is our most effective means of meeting advancing prices. The domestic consumer in the east will ultimately have to learn to use bituminous coal, and when really careful attention is given less tons of coal will be used and satisfactory service obtained, but with no more effort and thought applied than with anthracite the results will always be unsatisfactory. (Auwthor’s abstract.) 184TH MEETING The 184th meeting was held jointly with the Geological Society and the Philosophical Society in the Auditorium of the Interior Department building on January 23, 1925. T. A. Jaccar, Director of the Hawaiian Volcanological Observatory, gave two addresses, one on the Tokyo Earthquakes, and the other on the Hawaiian Volcanoes. These were illustrated by lantern slides and motion pictures. The Tokyo Earthquake—The earthquake of September 1, 1923, which produced the fires that so nearly destroyed Tokyo and Yokohama, had its epicenter, according to the Tokyo seismographs, in the middle of the oceanic depression near Oshima Island between the Awa and the Izu peninsula. The seismic damage, however, was not at its maximum on Oshima Island. The JULY 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 303 bottom of Dagami bay, north of Oshima, showed changes in depth in places as great as 200 fathoms. It looks as if block-faulting had occurred in the bottom of the bay in coincidence with the earthquake, the sea-bottom north of Oshima showing a drop of 900 feet. The greatest seismic disturbance was at Manazuru Point on the west side of Sagami Bay, at Kamakura and Yoko- suka on the Sagami Peninsula, and at Tateyama on the Awa Peninsula. These places all suffered intense vertical shaking that resembled an up and down pounding from below; at Manazuru this sort of violent disturbance was re- peated again and again during twenty-four hours. The shore-line was lifted from | to 9 feet. The dying away of the earthquake effects from Sagami Bay outwards is rapid towards the west in the hard voleanic rocks of the Izu region, and more gradual towards the northeast in the soft river deposits of Tokyo Bay. The center of actual damage was about the town of Yokosuka. The intensity of the damage is remarkably dependent upon topography and on quality of construction. In some of the districts where the damage was most severe, honestly built and new houses stood up in extraordinary fashion. One of the interesting features of the great earthquake is the apparently freakish way in which the damage was distributed. Some small villages were almost totally thrown down in the midst of a region where large neighboring farm houses stand almost uninjured. In Tokyo itself some persons in the suburbs thought that the earthquake was less severe than the one they had experi- enced in April, 1922. Beyond Tokyo to the north and east the damage by earthquake dies away very rapidly within two or three miles, and there is very little damage on the east side of the Awa Peninsula. According to re- ports from the mining districts on the west side of the Izu Peninsula, there were miners working underground who did not know that an earthquake had occurred, and they perceived no falling of materials in the stopes or other signs of disturbance. Indeed, in some places in the Suzenji district it is said that the shock was not perceived even on the surface. In Tokyo the earth- quake effects were much stronger on the bottom land and near the canals than they were in the hilly suburbs, and in general the earthquake in Tokyo, could it have been measured on the solid rock, would not rank as a shock of very great magnitude. The damage due to the earthquake was enormously greater in Yokohama. Fires were set in all the larger towns; this includes Ogowara, Kamakura, Yokosuka, Hojo on the Awa Peninsula, Yokohama, and Tokyo. Most of Yokohama was burned and about half of Tokyo. There was a high wind on the day of the earthquake and about 120 fires are reported to have started in Tokyo alone. The earthquake occurred at 11.59 a.m. when fires were burning in all kitchens; the wooden houses and the crowded blocks with traffie con- gestion and much gasoline make it impossible to deal with fire when many fires are started at the same time during a high wind. The situation was com- plicated by a change of wind from southwest at noon to northerly in the even- ing. This increased the loss of life, for crowds which had taken refuge to windward of the first fires found themselves to leeward, and in attempting to shift positions became surrounded and hopelessly lost. The loss oflife will never be known accurately, as the official statistics involve large numbers of missing in addition to the known dead. The loss of life certainly greatly exceeded that of the Messina earthquake, 140,000, and may have been as large as 400,000. Tn the last 21 years there have been eleven great disasters; the earthquakes of San Francisco, Valparaiso, Kingston, Messina, Cartago, Guatemala, Avezanno, and Tokyo, and the volcanic eruptions of the Caribee Islands, 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Vesuvius, and Sakurajima. Lives lost have averaged 30,000 per year and property destroyed $500,000,000 a year. The increase of intense catastrophes is due to concentration of population, not to increase in the frequency or the violence of earthquakes or eruptions. Any of the cities of our Pacific coast may be visited by another severe earthquake, and the regions farther east can not be considered exempt, as is shown by the New Madrid earthquake of 1812, the Charleston earthquake, and the earthquakes of 1755 and 1797 in the northeastern part of the country. The 1755 earthquake at Boston was as strong as the Charleston shocks of 1886. Precaution should be taken accord- ingly, particularly with regard to the danger from the fires that an earthquake usually starts. The presence of automobiles in the streets and large stores of gasoline complicate the problem. The Hawaiian Volcanoes.—The speaker gave a brief account of the geog- raphy of Hawaii with especial reference to its volcanoes, and described the work of the Voleano Observatory on Kilauea. Inside the crater the topog- raphy is continually changing. When there is a rapid rise of lava, it is generally around the edge of the crater as if the central part had been plugged by solidifying lava. The hourly observation of the liquid lava discloses fluctuation of level, pre- sumably tidal in character. .There is a twice-a-day fluctuation of from two to seven feet, a daily variation of from three to five feet, and a monthly shifting of the times of maximum and minimum level. The hard lava floor of the crater also showed a daily change in level of about one foot, but the times of maximum and minimum were nearly opposite to those for the liquid lava. Seasonal tilting of the ground was also found of from 15 to 25 seconds of are. Seasons in which this tilting was cumulative away from the center of island and of least monthly range showed the least voleanic activity, and a declineof the lava column both at Kilauea and Mauna Loa. It is indicated that the ob- servations, particularly those of the tidal movements, will ultimately be of value in predicting future eruptions. (Abstracts revised by author ) 185TH MEETING The 185th meeting was held jointly with the Geological Society in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club on February 21, 1924. Program: ALFRED C, Lane, Professor of Geology at Tufts College, The age of the earth and the oceans. There are at least 41 different ways of figuring age. The first group of methods includes those depending upon the loss of heat of the sun or the earth; they have ceased to have any great value at present owing to the un- certainty of the effect of radioactivity and the uncertainty as to the tempera- ture from which to start. The second group may be called the ledger, or debit and credit, methods. The methods of this group depend upon the process of deposition and erosion which is always going on; the stuff that is eroded has to be deposited somewhere. Therefore there must be a balance, like a trial balance on books of account. Thus the lime is concentrated in limestones and the sodium goes into the salt of the ocean. The ocean, like any other great salt lake, has slowly acquired its sodium, while the water and the chloride have been furnished by voleanoes; the ocean is probably growing in volume. A separate account may be opened for each element and all these methods should check, as they do fairly well, indicating an age for the earth not far from 100,000,000 years. On the other hand, the methods of attaining the age of the earth by atomic disintegration give much longer times. The atoms of uranium explode like kernels of corn, and if we knew the rate at which the corn popper was popping JuLY 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 305 and the amounts of popcorn made, we could know how jong the machine had been running. Also in both cases helium gas is given off and finally in the process of popping, the atoms fly off with such velocity as to produce a halo of disturbance in the surrounding mica or other material. All these methods have been used to estimate the age of the earth, and ages as great as one thousand million to 15 hundred million years have been obtained. The question arises at once how this discrepancy can be reconciled. Atten- tion was called to the work of the Committee on Atomic Disintegration of the National Research Council as calculated to throw light on this important sub- ject, as well as to have practical value in separating the granites of different ages. This would have at times commercial value. Perhaps the reason for the difference in ages is that in the ledger type of determinations we have to figure from the present rate at which processes take place. It is more likely that atoms have been exploding at the same rate indefinitely than that the forces in action upon the earth’s crust have always been uniform, and it seems more probable that events are happening more rapidly nowadays than they have on the average in the past, so that the rate of accumulation of sodium and its transportation by the streams now is a good deal faster than it has averaged in times past. Water D. Lampert, Recording Secretary. THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 91STH MEETING The 918th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, April 4, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President Fuemine at 8:15 with 35 persons in attendance. Program: F. WENNER and F. M.Sovuur. Measurement of cyclic changes in electrical resistance, (presented by Dr. WENNER). (Illustrated by lantern slides and by experimental demonstrations.) Three methods were described for measuring a cyclic change in the resist- ance of a conductor when this change can be definitely synchronized with a test current. These differ from the methods generally used in which the re- sistance is measured first under one set of conditions, and then under another. They also differ from the one direct method seldom used, in that the test cur- rent is not passed through a galvanometer. In one of these methods an inductor is placed in series with the galvanometer while the conductor under investigation is placed in parallel with this com- bination. In another, the potential drop in the conductor is balanced by the potential drop in an adjacent arm of a Wheatstone bridge. In the third, the potential drop in the conductor is balanced by the potentiometer arrange- ment. Each depends for its action upon the rectification produced when an alternating or varying current is passed through a conductor in phase with the cyclic change in its resistance. They are extremely sensitive and extremely selective. The sensibility is such that under favorable conditions, it is possible to detect a cyclic change in resistance when the amplitude of this change is no larger than 10-° times the resistance of the conductor in which it occurs. The selectivity is such that it is possible to detect such a cyclic change in resistance, of the same frequency as and in phase with the test current, when the amplitude of this change is no larger than 10~? or even 10-* times the amplitude of other changes which may be occurring at the same time. Further, they have the advantage that they do not require exceptionally high grade nor in general specially constructed apparatus for their application. 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 Attention was directed to a number of applications of these methods and the mathematical relations which apply for some of the simpler arrangements. The possible application to an investigation of telephone loud speakers and the acoustical qualities of auditoriums was illustrated by an experimental demon- stration. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wu1tr, HAWKESWORTH, Foorr, TucKERMAN, EckKHARDT, and HUMPHREYS. I. G. Priest.—Gray skies and white snow. (Illustrated.) At the Boston meeting of the Optical Society of America, October, 1924 (and previously), A. Ames, JR., showed that reproduction, in a plane picture, of the accurate pro- jection of an ‘‘objective scene” may result in an effect on the beholder of the picture which is neither natural nor artistic. Mr. Ames has shown that much more natural pictures, which recall the visual impression of the “objective scene” more pleasingly and vividly, may be made by introducing certain aber- rations into the picture. In the oral discussion of Mr. Amegs’ paper, I pointed out that a similar, paradox may exist between the “values” (A. H. Munsett, ‘Color Notation,” pp. 18 and 112) in a picture and the brightnesses in the “‘objective scene.” My present purpose is to substantiate this proposition by specific experiments and quantitative photometric data. The following major propositions have been demonstrated by experimental data. (1) In viewing an actual scene of snow-covered ground and overcast sky, the sky may be perceived as “‘gray’”’ and the show as “‘white”’ even though the brightness (technical photometric sense) of the snow be much less than the brightness of the sky. (2) The observer may be conscious that the sky is “brighter” than the snow in spite of the fact that he perceives it as “gray,” and the snow as “‘white.” (3) This paradox cannot be wholly explained by assuming that the snow appears white because of contrast with neighboring dark objects. (4) If a virtual image of the “gray” sky be brought into juxtaposition with the direct view of the ‘‘white” snow, the snow may appear “gray” and the image of the sky “white.” (5) A vertical wall illuminated by half of the sky on an overcast day may be perceived as ‘‘white”’ and the sky immediately above and beyond it as “oray’’ even though the sky be much brighter than the wall. (6) Photographs which render the relative brightness of sky and white ob- jects approximately as they would be measured photometrically may produce quite unnatural effects. (7) To give a faithful rendition of the visual effect, the artist may be obliged to make the relative brightness on his canvas in reverse order of the corre- sponding brightnesses in the ‘‘objective scene.’’ (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wuitg, Ives, HAawKEs- WORTH, CRITTENDEN, Eckuarpt, L. H. ApAMs, GisH, Foors, and others. 919TH MEETING The 919th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, April 18, 1925. ‘The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:14 with 32 persons in attendance. Program: C. W. Kanour. Non-flammable liquids for low temperature thermostats. (Illustrated by charts.) Thermostats are usually constructed with a stirred liquid bath. When the bathis to be used at a low temperature the liquid must be one that will not freeze at the temperature employed. Such JuLy 19,1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 307 liquids as gasoline, petroleum ether and toluol have commonly been used for this purpose. Several very serious accidents have occurred in laboratories when such fammable liquids were used, especially when liquid air has been used for cooling. The evaporation of liquid air leaves liquid oxygen, and the conden- sation of a combustible vapor in liquid oxygen produces an explosive. A mild explosion or the collapse of a glass vacuum vessel may throw ignited liquid upon the operator. The purpose of the investigation has been to find liquids which will not burn, which have very low freezing points and are otherwise suitable for ther- mostat liquids. The materials tried are chlorine and bromine derivatives of methane, ethane and ethylene and mixtures of these derivatives. By mixing the substances in suitable proportions it is usually possible to obtain mixtures having lower freezing points than any of the constituents. The eutectic compositions and temperatures of mixtures of two, three and four components have been determined, and some mixtures of five components have been investigated. Viscosity and corrosiveness have also been studied. Suitable non-flammable liquids have been found that can be used at tempera- tures down to —150°C. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Stimson and L. H. ADAMS. E. W. Wootarp.—A problem in mathematical expectation and its bearing on statistics. In order that the mind may grasp the significance of a great mass of numerical data, and detect the laws and relations, if any, concealed in the figures, special methods of representation and of analytical treatment, known as statistical, are necessary. A common procedure is to replace the original body of data by a small set of summary coefficients which resume in them- selves all the features of the complete data that are essential or relevant to the purposes in hand. The statistical coefficients pertaining to a single variable that are now in common use, such as the mean, the standard deviation, etc., characterize only the features of the frequency distribution. In many cases, however, including those in which statistical methods and the theory of “errors” are applied to meteorological problems, the order in which the values of a time-variable occur is of importance, and it becomes desirable to have a coefficient characterizing the order of succession in a sequence of values: Conclusions seriously in error may be drawn if statistical formulae are applied to problems in which the conditionsin Nature do not conform to those under which the mathematical formulae are valid. For example, the mean temperatures of consecutive days are not independent of each other whereas the theorems of the theory of “errors” presuppose, in general, independent events. GOoUTEREAU and Maret, in 1906, showed that in a sequence of numbers drawn at random from a Gaussian distribution, the ratio of the mean variability to the mean deviation is equal to 1 2, where by the mean variability is meant the mean of the absolute values of the differences between consecutive numbers in the sequence. The author has obtained a formula, readily adapted to numerical computa- tion, which gives the value of the mean variability in a random sequence drawn from a frequency distribution of any form. A comparison of this theoretical value with the actual value in any given series will give some indication of whether or not the series is a random one. The formula has been tested ex- perimentally. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. LAMBERT and TUCKERMAN. P.R. Heri. Some thoughts on the inertia of energy. For the discovery of the 308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 principle of the inertia of energy we are indebted to Ernsrrern, who pointed it out about 20 yearsago. He first deduced it from the special theory of relativity, but shortly showed that it might be deduced as a corollary of Maxwell’s elec- tromagnetic theory without introducing relativity at all. Its pedigree there- fore is unimpeachably classical, though the concept itself is subversive of much that was held to be firmly established in the nineteenth century. There is a parallel to be drawn betsveen the inertia of energy and the me- chanical equivalent of heat. The latter principle asserts that there is a heat equivalent of energy, 4.2 < 107 ergs per calory. The former doctrine asserts similarly that there is a mass equivalent of energy, 9 X 102° ergs per gram. The difference in dimensions between the erg and the gram is made up by the fact that the numerical coefficient (9 10?°) has the dimensions of the square of a velocity, being in fact the square of the velocity of light. The great importance of the concept from a philosophical point of view is that it correlates the two fundamental concepts of matter and energy. It also shows potential energy in a new aspect, always accompanied by a slight change of mass, thus removing it from the ‘imponderables.” In his general theory of relativity Ervsrern still further elaborates this doctrine of inertia of energy, showing that it leads to the concept that matter and energy are two different aspects, static and kinetic, of the same thing, space curvature. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Mussrs. TucKERMAN, HAWKEs- WORTH, and SILSBER. 920TH MEETING The 920th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, May 2, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President Fuemmne at 8:19 with 36 persons in attendance. Program: F. Neumann. Larthquakes of 1925—the problem of determining epicenters. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The Quebec earthquake was less severe than several others occurring in Asia during the early part of 1925. This is based particularly on the ground movements registered on the seismo- graph at the Honolulu Magnetic Observatory. In the United States the rec- ords of the Quebee earthquake of February 28th are complex, making a pre- liminary determination of the epicenter very uncertain. The effect of earthquake waves on movable bodies in the disturbed region surrounding the epicenter is discussed with special reference to resonance effects and the doubtful possibility of using this kind of information to locate a definite epicenter. The necessity of compiling more data concerning the variations in the veloc- ity of earthquake waves is stressed. The Honolulu Observatory is cited as a station where particularly wide variations are in evidence. The Alaskan earthquake of February 23d is cited as an instance in which five observatory records give fairly satisfactory results regarding both location and time of origin. It is shown how, at four observatories in the United States, several interpretations are possible in determining the epicenter of the Quebec earthquake. No positive statement is made concerning its exact location. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Laporte and Hrcx. H. D. Houtzer. A method of studying electrode potentials and polarization. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) A resistance-coupled electron-tube amplifier was used to operate an oscillograph for observing the variations in the potential of an electrode without requiring any current from the electrode under investi- gation. By making oscillographic photographs of the electrode potential at JULY 19,1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 309 the instant of interrupting a direct current through the cell under investigation it was possible to obtain a continuous record of the variation in potential. In eases where the polarization potential disappeared slowly enough, distinction could be made between the electromotive force of polarization and potential difference due to resistance. By superposing alternating current upon the electrode under investigation and the half cell, it was possible with the use of the amplifier and a separately excited wattmeter, to measure the true alternating potential across the elec- trode. From this potential and the current passed through the cell, the bound- ary resistance at the electrode was computed from Ohm’s law. This was per- missible because the potential and current, as shown by the oscillograph were in phase, there being a negligibly small capacity effect. The boundary resistance varied considerably with the different kinds of electrodes. The resistance of platinized platinum, lead, and carbon in sulphuric acid was small; that is, several hundredths of an ohm, while that of smooth platinum and copper in the same electrolyte was high, several tenths of an ohm. The resistance of copper in copper sulphate and zinc in zinc sulphate was also small. The results show that in some cases the electrode potential as measured by the potentiometer when current is flowing is more than 0.2 volt too high because of the potential due to resistance. In the cases where the boundary resistance was high, it decreased rapidly as the current was increased. N.H. Hecx. The path of sound waves through sea water. (Illustrated.) At first thought it might appear that a sound wave due to an explosion at a point off-shore would take a straight path to a hydrophone near the shore, and there- fore the velocity would correspond to that of the warm surface layer. In tests made of the radio acoustic method of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in which the sound wave from an explosion of a small bomb 30 to 50 miles off-shore ar- rives at the hydrophone with sufficient energy to automatically send a return signal from a shore radio station to which the hydrophone is connected by cable, it was found that the velocity averaged considerably lower than for the surface layer. It was found further that it did not correspond to the straight line path, taking the earth’s curvature into effect. Tests made in July, 1924, off the coast of Oregon showed that the average temperature was 7°.1C. as the mean of surface to bottom temperature at several sections between the explosion and the shore. The corresponding velocity from Table 13, Special Publication No. 108, Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey, is 1475 m. per second, while the measured velocity, based on visual deter- mination of the position of the ship which fired the bomb, was 1473 m. per second. In October the corresponding figures were: average temperature 10°.9C., and the corresponding velocity 1491 m; measured velocity 1493 m. It was shown by means of a diagram that a part of the wave front in the warm surface layers would travel faster and therefore the wave surface would be disturbed. Rays drawn from the bomb explosion normal to the successive wave fronts were bent downward; accordingly for successive wave fronts the energy per unit of area would be less near the surface than further down. For this reason, above a certain distance, perhaps ten miles, there would not be sufficient energy from the direct wave in the surface to send the signal. On the other hand, the waves which strike the bottom are reflected. For paths near the vertical the reflections are numerous and there is loss of energy at each reflection. It would appear then, that having given position of explosion and hydrophone, the required amount of energy reaches the hydrophone by a path which is based on maximum energy for a minimum number of reflections. As the depth of the water is small compared to distance, the actual path makes 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 13 very little difference in distance determination. The indication that the theory advanced is correct is upheld by the agreement of measured velocity with the theoretical velocity for the average temperature, top to bottom, and it is fur- ther upheld by the fact that in some cases a shoal projecting well above the bottom, but by no means up to the path of the straight line from bottom to hydrophone, actually blocks the transmission. (Avthor’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Mussrs. VauGHAN, W. M. Davis, STEPHENSON, Marmer, and HAWKESWORTH. By request. Pror. W. M. Davis gave a formal talk on the Significance of the discovery of a shoal in China sea, and pointed out the bearing of this discovery on Darwin’s theory of coral reefs. 921sT MEETING The 921st meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, May 16, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLemine at 8:16 with 34 persons in attendance. Program: L. B. TuckerMAN. Full walled sturdy columns in theory and prac- tice. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) Sixty-nine large columns of H-shaped section, part rolled in one piece and part fabricated from plates and angles or from channels, were tested at the Bureau of Standards in coédperation with the American Bridge Company and the Bethlehem Steel Company. The cross sectional areas were approximately 35 and 85 square inches, the lengths 12, 18 and 24 feet and the slenderness ratios ranged from 38 to 92. All were tested as ‘‘flat end” columns in the Bureau’s ten million pounds vertical testing machine. To determine the properties of the material over 1,000 tensile coupons were tested, so that the material in these columns was better known than in any other series of similar large columns. The tests results indicate that the strength of solid walled sturdy column within this range of slenderness depends only slightly on the manner of con- struction, slenderness ratio or small accidental eccentricities, either of structure or of test conditions. The column strengths, however, correlate closely with the weighted average yield point as determined by the coupon tests, indicating that the strength of the columns is determined largely by the properties of the material in the neighborhood of the yield point. A study of various details of the behavior of the columns in the tests, espe- cially the anomalous lateral deflections, and the “pick-up” of load, indicate that the behavior of these columns can be best explained by means of the ‘double modulus” theory, first proposed by ConsmEere, developed and experimentally confirmed by KarMaN on small specimens, and later independently proposed by SouTHWELL. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. L. J. Briees, TRuscorr, and PAWLING. I. C. Garpner and F. A. Casr. Photographing the interior of a rifle barrel, (Presented by Mr. GarpNeER.) (Illustrated by lantern slides.) In order to study the progress of the erosion in the 0.30 caliber service rifle and machine gun barrels a camera has been designed for photographing the interior surface of the barrel. The apparatus consists essentially of a periscope of unit magnification of such dimensions as to permit entry into the bore of the rifle. A small electric lamp, also placed in the bore of the gun, provides the illumination. «The peri- scope projects an image of a small portion of the bore on a strip of motion pic- ture film. The barrel to be photographed is slowly drawn along the periscope —_— JuLy 19,1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 311 and simultaneously the film is moved at such a rate that there is no relative motion between image projected by periscope and film. If the barrel is drawn its entire length along the periscope, one obtains a picture on the film showing a strip of the interior of the bore of the same length as the barrel and including approximately one-sixth of the circumference. Six such pictures provide a photographic record of the entire surface of the bore upon which the detailed defects arising from the erosion can be clearly seen. The instrument is also excellently adapted for a visual examination of the interior of the barrel. A microscope magnifying 20 or 30 diameters can be used to view the image in the focal plane, and the different characteristics of the surface of the bore stand out clearly in good contrast. This camera is intended to be used to study the manner in which different steels resist erosion. (Awthor’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. SinsBeE and Hawkegs- WORTH. 922ND MEETING The 922nd meeting was a special meeting held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Chemical Society of Washington, May 28, 1925, in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club. It was called to order at 8:30 by Dr. L. H. Adams, president of the Chemical Society of Washington, with 110 persons in attendance. Program: HeRBERT FreuNpiicH. The state of aggregation and shape of colloidal particles. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The X-ray has been applied to the study of colloids, and by its use we have been able to decide whether particles of a sol are crystalline or amorphous- solid (or liquid). It has been found that the particles of very many sols are crystalline, e.g. sols of gold, silver, Al,O3, and FesO3. The state of aggregation of particles depends on the velocity of their formation; there is according to HaBrer a competition between a grouping velocity and an orientation velocity. If the period of precipitate formation is very short, definite orientation does not take place. The particles remain in a state of disorder and the precipitate is amorphous as in the case of quickly precipitated Al(OH); and Fe(OH);. But where Al.O; or Fe.O3 sols are formed by hydrolysis and if the tendency to crystallize is great enough, there is time for the process of orientation and consequently the particles crystallize. The shape of amorphous particles is, as a rule, spherical. Non-spherical particles, due to their shape, exhibit manifold phenomena. One of these is that of pronounced scintillation of light, i.e., not a continuous radiation of light as in the case of spherical particles. V2O; is a characteristic sol of this type. The aged sol shows particles with a definite rod-like struc- ture. The particles are crystalline. In old and non-coagulated concentrated sols the particles do not lie irregular, but in cloud-like swarms. Such groups are made up of very small colloidal particles. When such swarms are viewed through an ultra-microscope using a so-called azimuth diaphragm, long thread-like particles standing nearly parallel to one another may be seen. They possess weak scintillations caused by the Brownian movement. Old and concentrated Fe.O0; sols show this same phenomenon still more pro- nounced. But their particles are lamellar, and they settle down in regular spaced layers and an iridescent green color is reflected or refracted similar to the iridescent light of butterfly wings. Double refraction is also a property of the sols composed of non-spherical particles. A simple explanation of this property is that these sols contain small crystals which are double refracting. Double refraction is only visible 312. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 13 in dilute sols, when the particles are arranged in a regular order. This may be achieved by different methods. Theoretically, double refraction is correlated with dichroism. Many sols, especially the sols of V2O; and Fe.O;, do not only exhibit a strong double refraction, if th» particles are oriented in a regular way, but also show a pronounced dichroism. The change of double refraction and dichroism with the wave-length of light are correlated by a general rule. The non-spherical shape of colloidal particles is not always caused by this crystalline state. In the case of latex, the sap of the india-rubber tree, for instance, the particles are pear shaped because a solid skin encloses an inner viscous fluid. This structure seems to be important for the stability of latex and there also seems to be a parallelism between their structure and the nerve of the india-rubber product. (Author’s abstract.) H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. ae progranis of the ecetiiak of the affiliated societies will appear on this page : to the editors by ate thirteenth and the dia ar ah a day of each month. ‘ 4 CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS ‘Physics.—Note on the use of a light filter in interferometry. JoHN | HR GUBON os oe joss -n' a'als al Yio Se aecors Seale otal occle SRR Oe SRR tee cian Chemistry.—A magnetic form of ferrous oxide. Jonny Brienr Frrevso: Petrology.—The mineralogical phase rule. N. L. BowEen.............. Botany.—New plants from Central America—III. Paur C. Sranpury.. Botany.—New tropical Americanspecies of Urticaceae. ELLSWORTH PROCEEDINGS The Acapamy .¥oA, «senha kaaess cate ave Senate Cees (ee Ne eae The Philosophical Society... 0... 0... 2.00. 14s shee eae ey see sme ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vernon L. Kniioace, National Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SitsBex, Bureau of Stand Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Surv Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ‘3 Aueust 19, 1925 No. 14 = JOURNAL OF THE ~ WASHINGTON ACADEMY | OF SCIENCES ; BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kinurp D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuiy Se NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SUBVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S, A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoupMAN G, W. Stross BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F, Grices J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY E. 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Fs os shag ale aia vis ijeie ia Stole 9 tiae wicinte wiaietecalaletersa eam Seite Monthly mumberss 455s ceo Ue ae cae Dew apni Saeco ses anee Be aa ae Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” an addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. 7 Exchanges.—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. = Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ihe j *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vo. 15 Avaust 19, 1925 No. 14 GEOPHYSICS.—Some geophysical problems... R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Geodetic operations.—In the beginning of geodetic operations the controlling interest appears to have been to arrive at a more certain knowledge of the exact size and shape of the Earth; and, again, to find some exact and reproducible natural unit of linear measure. The next application of the trigonometric method was in fixing of control points (their latitudes and longitudes) upon which to con- struct topographic maps of land areas of countries; and yet a little later on, to hydrographic surveys for charting the sea coasts and connecting waters. Today the immediate application of geodetic operations finds its practical and economic use for mapping and charting purposes, and in the fixation of international, state, and other boundary lines. Geodetic data for maps and charts—The general topographic mapping of the United States has been recently wisely recognized by our National Congress as a project of the Federal Government, to be carried out in a definite period of years. This project will require, for its proper execution, a more detailed extension of geodetic control over the whole country than exists at the present time. Vith this will also come, of necessity, further extension of the lines of precise levels over the country, so that the elevations shown on the maps may also have the proper control, and all be referred to a uniform datum, which is now the generally accepted one of mean sea level. Importance of maps and charts—It is perhaps unnecessary to restate here the great importance of accurate maps and charts in the 1 Paper read by the chairman of the Section of Geodesy of the American Geophysi- cal Union, at the annual meeting, May 1, 1925. 313 ul 4 MST Xe i AUG 28 1925 x, tv, at [iw 314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 commerce and the industrial activities and development of our country, and in the economic utilization of our national resources. None of these things can be properly considered or initiated without the assistance of topographic maps as a guide in their establishment. From the standpoint of the so-called natural sciences topographic maps are essential to a clear presentation of many important facts and relations. In comparative biology, for example, the geographic position and elevation are important facts in the classification and arrangement of fauna and flora, just as at sea the configuration of the ocean bottom, temperatures, currents, and the depth of water are essential to a clear understanding of marine life and its develop- ment and growth. The geologist must have maps, or his geologic surveys and studies can not be correlated. In fact, a roster of those who must make use of maps includes those who work in almost every branch of science, industry, and commerce. In this day, maps are an every day necessity. When the importance of maps in the daily life of a nation is thoughtfully considered it is at once seen that the project recently adopted by Congress for the mapping of our country was indeed a wise provision for the promotion of the public welfare. Mean sea level.—Reference has been made to mean sea level as a datum plane for topographic mapping. The determination of mean sea level is also a fundamental problem of geophysics. Its deter- mination is not the simple problem that a casual view of the ocean surface might lead any one to infer. Mean sea level is a local phenomenon where stations are individ- ually considered, as in the case of its application to topographic mapping. But as a geophysical problem it is found to have varia- tions from year to year, and through a period of years. Neither are all of its variations yet known nor are their causes understood in detail. So it is yet a problem of prime importance for systematic observation and study. Velocity of light, a linear measure-—Our unit of geodetic measure is the length of an arbitrary metal bar under certain prescribed physical conditions. The recent experiments of Dr. Michelson in the determination of the velocity of light when carried to further verifica- tion and completion give promise of yielding a new method of measur- ing terrestrial distances which will have a very practical bearing on geodetic operations, especially in regions of difficult accessibility, such as the Alaska peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. This method for distance measure, together with latitude observations and radio longitude determinations, would greatly expedite the geodetic opera- august 19, 1925 FARIS: SOME GEOPHYSICAL PROBLEMS 315 tions of ascertaining geographic positions in such regions. It is hoped that Dr. Michelson may pursue those experiments to a success- ful conclusion. The standard spherotd.—l have emphasized the practical applica- tions of geodetic operations more especially, inasmuch as the earlier intent of geodetic work (that of the determination of the size and shape of the Earth) seems now to have been satisfactorily concluded in the adoption of the Hayford Spheroid by the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union at the meeting in Madrid last year. The dimensions of this spheroid will serve all practical purposes for the future; and possibly for scientific purposes as well, as it appears from a study made by Lambert, “that Hayford’s Spheroid of 1909, with corrections for topography and isostatic compensation, may be taken as representing our best present knowledge, and it seems probable that future determinations will give nearly the same results.” Tsostasy, an established fact—For more than half a century the degree of stability of the Earth’s crust (the so-called lithosphere) has been a live question for observation, study, and hypotheses. At the last meeting of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union the results of these studies reaped their reward by a definite recog- nition by that expert international body, of the validity of the theory of isostasy which the late Prof. Hayford did so much to establish as a fact of geophysics. It would appear that investigators in other lines of geophysics may now study the question of the application of the fact of isostasy to their problems, inasmuch as isostasy does tell us of certain sub- crustal conditions that could not be so definitely arrived at in any other way. It seems proper to inquire if their theories should not now be revised so as to better harmonize with the known facts of isostasy. This will require an alteration in the accepted views con- cerning certain aspects of some of the geophysical sciences. Never- theless, the facts of isostasy must now be reckoned with, and no longer denied their rightful place in the consideration of the mechanics of the Earth’s crustal evolution. Gravity observation on land and sea.—Gravity observations have now been satisfactorily carried out at sea by Dr. Meinesz of the Dutch Geodetic Commission by using pendulums on board a sub- marine. It is most desirable that many more gravity observations be made at sea in order that more certain knowledge may be had of the isostatic condition of the Earth’s crust under the vast ocean areas. While the observations of Meinesz gave good results yet it 316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 seems to be of importance to devise, if possible, some instrument and method which will give the required results with less effort of observa- tion and computation, so that the determinations of gravity at sea may be expedited, and the amount of needed data may be increased more rapidly and to the desired extent. On land, the gravity determinations, in addition to furnishing data for the determination of the shape of the Earth and for isostasy investigations, also have useful applications in other branches of geophysics, and in the exploration of our natural resources. It is desirable, therefore, that instruments for gravity determinations may be simplified to the end that more data may be obtained with less use of time and effort than is possible with our present apparatus and methods. Variation of latitude——The purposes for which the variation of latitude stations were established, have since taken on a new sig- nificance in view of recent theories regarding the Earth’s crustal movements. The observations at these stations, in conjunction with the proposed world belt of radio longitude determinations, should in time yield data sufficient to enable us to evaluate the probability of the truth of such hypotheses. Should such crustal movements be found to exist, we may then find the need to revise our ideas concern- ing a number of the phases of geophysical problems including the variation of latitude itself, in the event that such crustal movements should be found to have an element of periodicity in them. The carrying out of the radio longitude determinations and the con- tinuance of the variations of latitude observations give much promise of definite results of much value aside from their prime astronom- ical purposes. aueust 19, 1925 AUSTIN: SUNSET RADIO DIRECTION VARIATIONS 317 RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—A new phenomenon in sunset radio direc- tion variations: L. W. Austin, Laboratory for Special Radio Transmission Research.” The observations on the deviations preceding sunset? have been continued. The phenomena, it will be remembered, are as follows: The apparent direction of the long-wave stations, New Brunswick and Tuckerton, to the northeast of Washington, begins to shift toward the east two or three hours before sunset. This deviation reaches a maximum of 10° to 15°, roughly an hour before sunset. The bearing returns to normal before sunset and then usually shifts to the west and passes into the irregular night deviations. The remarkable thing about this phenomenon is its uniformity, the only variations from day to day being differences in the amount of deviation and the exact time when the bearing returns to its cor- rect value. It seems to occur with regularity only with stations at certain distances, not over 300 km. and not less than 100 km. As the only stations suitable for these observations le to the northeast of Washington, attempts have been made to interest observers in taking observations in other directions. Work covering only two or three days by Mr. Englund at Cliffwood, N. J., indicated that Annapo- lis, about 270 km. to the southwest, showed deviations first to the west and later to the east, that is, in the opposite sequence to those observed on the northeasterly stations at Washington. According to Eckersley’s theory,‘ direction deviation is due to an indirect wave reflected or refracted from the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, which comes down with its magnetic field non-parallel to the earth’s surface, thus having a vertical component which cuts the top and the bottom of the radio compass coil and produces an EMF which destroys the true minimum and requires turning the compass coil to bring the electromotive forces again into balance. If we could assume that the conducting layer is horizontal, and that there is a regular reflection, it should be possible to restore the bearing to the true direction by rotating the frame carrying the compass coil around a horizontal axis at right angles to the line joining the stations. Then, at the vertical angle which restores the true horizontal bearing, 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. S. Department of Commerce. * Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the American Section of the International Union of Scientific Radiotelegraphy. 2 Proc. I. R. E. 13: 3. 1925. 4 Radio review 2: 60. 1921. 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 the compass coil should be at right angles to the direction of the indirect wave and from the assumptions should enable the height of the reflecting layer to be determined by triangulation. This experi- ment has been tried but failed to restore the true bearing. It did however show a new series of phenomena which, while not so far explained, show apparently the same regularity of sequence as the before-sunset deviation already described. It has been -frequently noticed that the rotation of the normal axis of the compass coil around a horizontal axis at right angles to the true direction of the sending station frequently produces a great sharpness of minimum at a certain Bakelite sttips MeThod of winding wire Fig. 1—Double axis compass coil. Frame A, 3’ 8’’ by 5’ 2’ by 7’’; frame B, 3/ 1” by 4’ 63’’ by 7’; 72 turns No. 20 D. C. C. wire wound in three layers; layers spaced + inch apart; turns spaced 3% inch; 24 turns on each layer. vertical angle. It is now found that the angle for the sharpening of the minimum apparently varies regularly with the changes in bearing deviation during the before-sunset period. The “sharp minimum” vertical angle starting at 0° to 20° increases with the deviation of the horizontal bearing until at about an hour before sunset just before the horizontal bearing deviation has reached a maximum, it reaches 50° to 80°. Then, as the horizontal bearing returns toward the true direction, the vertical “sharp minimum”’ angle decreases rapidly so that before the horizontal bearing has become correct, the vertical Bearing degrees P minimum egrees C Shar auaust 19, 1925 AUSTIN: SUNSET RADIO DIRECTION VARIATIONS 319 angle has returned to zero and gone up to 50° to 80° on the other side, that is, with the main axis of the compass coil tipped forward. Fig. 1 shows the double axis compass coil and Fig. 2 a typical set of curves. A few points in regard to the curves are worthy of notice. The sharp minimum vertical angle always begins to rise some time before the bearing of the station begins to shift. The vertical angle, so far as has been observed, always returns to zero at the same moment that the easterly bearing deviation begins to drop. The vertical angle curve cuts the axis again nearly at the same time that the westerly deviation starts to decrease. The negative maximum 3:30 4:00 4:30 mageicd Fao : G00 G50 T:00 Time Fig. 2—Typical sunset deviation curves, New Brunswick (WIL). Received at Washington. of the vertical angle always nearly coincides with the passage of the bearing through its true value in going from the easterly to the westerly deviation. Enough observations have been made to convince us that we have a perfectly regular natural phenomenon apparently occurring daily, which is probably connected with the deionization of the atmosphere as the sun sinks toward the west. It seems probable that similar deviations take place after sunrise but these have not as yet been investigated. As it may be a long time before the physical processes involved are understood, I am publishing the observed facts for others to verify and, if possible, explain. 320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 ACCUSTICS.—An experiment on the recognition of speech sounds by touch. Ropert H. Gautt,! Northwestern University. (Com- municated by E. P. Kruiip.) The subject matter of this paper belongs to the psychology of sensation and interpretation of sensory impressions; sensations of touch specifically. It is a partial report on an experimental invasion of the ‘‘great archeological field of the psychologist ;” i.e., the extended pattern of organs of touch in the skin. ‘These are the primitive sense organs. Our remotest ancestors in the series of animal forms had no other avenues through which they could become acquainted with their world. Possibly these tactile organs, if they were rightly approached, could be made the gateways through which our deafened neighbors could be made aware of speech and its forms. If so, it is not too great a strain upon the imagination to see them learning to under- stand speech by the aid of the touch sense alone as a substitute for the sense of hearing. Certainly one can feel vibrations of speech. When a heavy-voiced person is sitting in a solid chair and reading aloud, place your finger tips lightly upon his chair, and be convinced. A simple observation of this sort, in itself, is enough to set one off upon an experiment such as I propose to discuss in the following pages. In fact, it was just this sort of phenomenon, and a crude experiment in which a long speaking-tube played a réle, that were responsible for ushering in the present investigation. Close over one end of the tube was the palm of the hand of a “‘listener’’ if I may tease the term for a moment, because hearing was eliminated from the situation. At the other end was the speaker? or experimenter. The column of air in the tube, vibrating with the speaker’s vocal organs, stimulated the sensitive palm of the subject or “‘listener,’”” and he became able to distinguish many words by their feel. Here is the point of setting off; and we require the most efficient possible instrumental means of communicating the vocal vibrations of a speaker to one or another sensitive skin area of a subject. The work has interesting scientific aspects that bring attention to the lately all but unbelievable capacity of touch organs to discriminate in cases where the differences amongst stimuli are as small as the proverbial ‘‘mote in thy brother’s eye’”’—if I may confuse the tactual and visual. This is, in addition to the fascinating probability, 1QOn leave with the National Research Council. ? See Journ. Abnor. Psy. and Soc. Psy. 19: No. 2, July—-Sept., 1924. aueust 19, 1925 GAULT: SPEECH SOUNDS BY TOUCH 321 already suggested, of developing a new method whereby the deaf may learn to interpret speech. Other probabilities are along the way and are tempting to diversions but they are afield from the purpose of this paper. THE. STIMULI The stimuli are vibrations of the vocal apparatus in speech, com- municated through the air into a microphone, and from what corre- sponds to the receiver or ear-piece of a telephone that is held closely in the hand, through a thin cushion of air to the palm. The contact has been varied on occasions, for experimental purposes, by allowing the subjects to hold their finger tips directly upon the diaphragm of the ‘“‘ear-piece.”’ In the last analysis, therefore, the stimuli are tactual impressions occasioned by the alternating compression and release of this air cushion under the action of the diaphragm. We are not yet able to say how nearly the vibratory behavior against the area of contact corresponds to that of the air at the lips of the experimenter when he is in the act of speaking. In more detail, the stimuli that have been employed in the course of the experiment thus far are: 1. Those that occur while uttering a group of 20 sentences, each one composed of six monosyllabic words. 2. Those that occur in uttering each of a list of 27 words of one or more syllables; words not included in the sentences referred to above, and not combined in sentence form, but in isolation. 3. The vibrations that occur in speaking short sentences and bits of conversation made up of words in (2) above. 4. The vibrations that correspond to the spoken long vowels. 5. Those that correspond to certain diphthongal sounds. This paper is limited to an account of our experience with the long vowels alone, some of which are, as a matter of fact, diphthongal. The results reported here were all obtained during the period March 11 to April, 1925. THE APPARATUS AND ITS ADJUSTMENT TO THE SUBJECT The apparatus in use to communicate speech vibrations to the tactual organs of the subjects consists of a microphone, a three tube amplifier, and nine receivers. Each receiver has a resistance of 58 ohms and all are connected in series so that the stimuli are applied simultaneously to as many subjects. The cap on each receiver has been cut so as to expose almost the entire area of the diaphragm. 322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 15, No. 14 In the course of an experiment the receiver is held in the hand of the subject with the exposed diaphragm toward the palm. An air cushion, already referred to, intervenes between the diaphragm and the tactual organs. In the last analysis, as I have said, the stimuli are the compression and release of this air cushion in reaction to the swinging diaphragm. Other types of receiver have been in use, but not in the section of the experiment that is being discussed in the present paper. THE SUBJECTS We have chosen deaf and very hard-of-hearing subjects so that their reports upon what they feel may be complicated as little as possible, or not at all, by auditory reactions. It is difficult, though not impossible, to eliminate the possibility of hearing when normal subjects are employed. Fifteen deaf subjects have cooperated in the portion of the work that is being reported here. The following tabulation includes pertinent data relative to the subjects: TABLE 1.—AGer oF SuBsEcTS AND CAUSE OF DEAFNESS uumaex || yon | Aes EN DRArm || chogg on anmroee a eee R L 1 23 63 Scarlet fever 5- 5 2 17 10 Cerebral meningitis 10-15 3 20 15 Spinal meningitis 20-20 4 23 Congenital 35-40 5 21 7 Spinal meningitis 5- 5 6 22 5 Spinal meningitis 45-15 if 20 3 Spinal meningitis 20-15 8 32 (fe Spinal meningitis 0-10 9 22 12 Spinal meningitis 5-0 10 17 9 i 55-45 11 21 Congenital 30-30 12 19 Congenital 55-50 13 19 13 ze 50-50 14 21 8 ? 15-45 15 31 4 ? 25-35 Note: The Audiometric record 5-5 indicates that the subject, in each ear, has 5 per cent of normal reaction to simple tones. No corresponding figures in the table above are necessarily indicative of a capacity to understand spoken words. METHOD The subjects report at the laboratory one period daily five days a week. The period of actual practice is not more than 25 or 30 min- utes, after deducting for checking up, etc. All are seated in a small Aueust 19, 1925 GAULT: SPEECH SOUNDS BY TOUCH 323 room with pencils and prepared paper. Before them upon the wall are the letters A, E, I, O, U plaimly visible. Each one holds his receiver firmly in one hand with the exposed diaphragm toward the palm. The experimenter is at the microphone in an adjoining room. An assistant in the room with the subjects instructs them by writing or by sign at the beginning of the period devoted to this section of the work, that the long vowels will be pronounced in succession into the microphone in the adjoining room while they attend to the tactual impression upon their hands corresponding to each utterance in turn. The assistant points to each letter as the experimenter pro- nounces it. This reading in the known order for drill is repeated two or three times. Thereupon the experimenter pronounces a series of ten in an unknown order. Between every two utterances about 20 seconds lapse. In the interval each subject writes the letter that seems to him to correspond to the complex of vibrations that he has just now felt upon his palm. At the end of each series experimenter and subjects check up. Each subject then knows how he and every other member of the group has succeeded. An observa- tion of the confusions that were made suggests the points at which emphasis should be placed in further drill before another series is presented for report and record. In the course of the period referred to—March 11 to April 9— only two or three series of vowel sounds were presented at a sitting, for experience has taught us that here as elsewhere variety is the spice of life. The remainder of the session was devoted to practise with other forms of stimuli—words and sentences for example—the results of which will be reported at another time. RESULTS Chart ‘‘A” below shows the degree of successful identification by the entire group and also the confusions that were made. Chart “B” makes the corresponding showing for the most successful sub- ject. The figures on the extreme left designate the total number of reports received upon each vowel. The figure 54 (Chart ‘“B’’) cpposite “I” in the vertical column on the left and beneath ‘‘I” in the horizontal line above, indicates the number of times “‘I’’ was identified by the most successful subject. This is 66.7 per cent of the total number of times the stimulus occurred—81 (left column). The figures under “‘O”’ on the same line represent the confusion of “O” with “I.” Figures in corresponding positions on Chart “A” indicate the like facts for the group as a whole. 324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 It should be said in this connection that the most successful sub- ject, whose record is in Chart “B,” is a young woman of 19 years whose audiometric record is 55-50. Her condition is described as congenital. The record of the medical examination indicates no reaction to the whisper test. There is reaction, however, to a loud voice at six inches. She does not understand speech and she has practically no use of voice in speech. Her close second in these A 398 43.1 per cent 135 15.2 per cent 127 14.1 per cent 162 17.0 per cent 162 19.1 per cent E 135 14.6 per cent 414 46.7 per cent 81 9.0 per cent 99 10.4 per cent 127 15.0 per cent I 130 14.1 per cent 83 9.4 per cent 415 46.1 per cent O 145 15.7 per cent 93 10.5 per cent 142 15.8 per cent U 114 12.3 per cent 156 17.6 per cent 128 14.2 per cent 19.4 per cent] 43.1 per cent | 9.7 per cent 63 7.4 per cent 18.1 per cent 39.8 per cent Chart A, showing degree of successful identification of sounds experiments is a young man of 23 years. He is reported as having acquired his deafness from scarlet fever and diphtheria at the age of 3 years. His audiometric record is 5-5 and his reactions are nega- tive to the whisper and to the low and loud voice. He also has practically no use of voice in speech. Returning to Chart “A” it will be observed that when “E”’ is given, if confusions occur, they are most frequent with “U.” “T” AuGust 19, 1925 GAULT: SPEECH SOUNDS BY TOUCH 325 and ‘‘O” are likewise confused. Other points of conflict are easily read in the chart. In the main the records in the two charts are in agreement each with the other, and the confusions illustrated in Chart “A” agree in detail with those the writer tended to make when a year ago, he was acting as a subject in the course of prelim- inaries to this experiment, working in a sound-proof situation. It is interesting to observe that the confusions that occur in these A E a O U A 52 9 4 14 1 80 65 per cent J 11.3 per cent} 5.0 per cent | 17.5 per cent} 1.3 per cent E 13 63 3 3 2 S4 15.5 per cent] 75.0 per cent] 3.6 per cent | 3.6 per cent | 2.3 per cent I 4 54 23 81 4.9 per cent 66.7 per cent 28.4 per cent O 14 24 42 ! 1 81 17.2 per cent 29.6 per cent} 51.9 per cent} 1.2 per cent W 3 4 1 i 80 88 3.4 per cent | 4.5 per cent | 1.1 per cent 90.9 per cent Chart B, showing success in identification by most successful subject tactual experiments—especially between “K’’ and ‘‘U’’—are the confusions that occur frequently in conversation over the telephone; for the reason, apparently, that the higher pitched components of the vowel sounds—the most potent determiners—are not carried by the instrument. 326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 CONTROL TESTS AND RESULTS Two questions arise that call for control tests: 1. Do any of our subjects have the advantage of bone-conduction to the inner ear? We have put this question to the test. An assistant, sitting between two subjects, held a receiver against the temple of the subject on his right and the one on his left. A doubled sheet of light paper was between the receiver and the skin for partial elimination of the tactual sensation factor. An entire group of six subjects was handled in this manner. The usual .program of drill and stimulation for written report was brought into requisition. Eight stimuli were employed, a, 6, i, 6, U, oi, ou, ander. (The last three of these have been intro- duced since April 9, the end of the period covered by the body of this paper.) The results certainly do not support the hypothesis that stimulation of the palm in our procedure reaches the inner ear, in any effective measure, by way of bone conduction. There is no good evidence that our subjects thus obtain auditory clues to aid them; such subjects, I mean, as have an auditory nerve that is capable of performing its function at least minimally. For the average performance of members of this group during the three days preceding the control test, was 35. The range was 21 to 68 identifications in a hundred (eight stimuli). Under the conditions of the control test the average performance was 25 identifications, and the range was 20 to 30. This is considerably above a chance result when there are eight stimuli. It is impossible to tell how far this degree of success may have been due to interpretation of tactual stimulation of the temple that occurred in spite of the obstruction afforded by the paper that lay between the receiver and the temple. It is obviously impossible to eliminate this factor without at the same time throwing out the possibility of stimulating the inner ear by way of bone conduction. If auditory stimulation due to bone conduction were an important factor in our experiments we ought to obtain a better record of identifications under the control conditions than we have under the usual precedure, for the reason that the receiver against the temple undoubtedly affords the subject a much more intensive auditory stimulation than does the same receiver against the palm. Further- more, my own experience as a subject in this experiment during the academic year 1923-1924 must be construed as in opposition to the hypothesis of hearing by bone conduction, though not conclusive, to be sure. I learned to identify the long vowels by impressions aueust 19, 1925 GAULT: SPEECH SOUNDS BY TOUCH 327 upon the palm, after the manner of the present experiment. At best, I attained an accuracy of 91 correct reports in 100 trials. If hearing by any means had been an effective factor I should not have required several months of painstaking effort a half hour daily. But it was a very tedious process. 2. Do any of the subjects in our experimental situation ‘have the advantage of hearing by normal means, i.e., through the air? This question is suggested by several facts: (a) When the experimenter is speaking into the microphone the assistant in the adjoming room with the subjects can hear him, though not with great distinctness. (b) The vibration of the diaphragm in each receiver can be heard by a normal hearing person at a distance of a few feet. By giving very close attention to these stimuli alone he could learn to understand what is being spoken at the other end of the system. (c) We have two subjects whose residual hearing in one ear is as high as 55, and one stands at 50 for each ear. For the purpose of discovering whether our subjects have any advantage in our experiments from auditory impressions we devised two control experiments as follows: (a) The work of a session was carried on under the usual conditions excepting that each receiver lay open upon the chair arm. The sub- ject had no contact with it and consequently he received no tactual impressions from it. The auditory stimuli were present as in other circumstances: the experimenter’s voice sounded through the wall and the diaphragms in the receivers continued to affect the air. If these impressions are of any avail the subject should be able to make a record despite the fact that he received no tactual cues. The assistant in the room with the subjects gave them a signal everytime the experimenter pronounced a stimulus. They were instructed to write a guess as to the nature of the stimulus. Result: The only subject who reported correctly in more than a chance number of instances in 100 trials is he whose audiometric record is 0-10. It is impossible that he heard. All others gave a chance distribution, or less, of correct reports. This is what we should expect if hearing through the air is not a factor in our experiments. (b) The microphone was removed to a distant part of the building; so far away that a normal hearing person in the room with the sub- jects could not hear the experimenter’s voice at the microphone. A sound proof box, 24 x 22 x 22 inches, outside measurement, was built; a box within a box. The space between the walls—8 inches— 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 is filled with sand. An aperture through the box-walls on one side is so equipped with rubber collars that a hand holding the receiver can be thrust through. The collars grip the fore-arm. A person with normal hearing with his hand in this position can not distinguish the voice of the experimenter at the transmitter and, assuming that the collars are properly fitted to his fore-arm, he can not hear the receiver within the box. Our subjects make at least an average record in the conditions of this control. This, too, is what should be expected if hearing through the air is not a factor in our work, but if tactual impressions alone are effective. CONCLUSION Aside from the bearing of this research upon general psychology it is probable that it may lead to a new avenue through which the totally deaf may be enabled to interpret speech, as has already been indicated in an introductory paragraph. Not only so, but it may supply a supplement to residual hearing. It may afford additional clues that will aid the teacher and learner of the art of lip-reading. There is likely to develop also a very im- portant addition to present methods in vogue in schools for the deaf for teaching and learning the art of vocal control. These forecasts presuppose improvements of our methods and devices—improvements that are quite within reach. They assume also the completion of an elaborate program for further research. But, more than all, they summon the subjects of this experiment to a great adventure in taking pains, and the experimenters to a high level of skill in the art of provoking their subject’s zeal. The writer very gratefully acknowledges the aid of his assistants, Mr. George Crane and Mr. Irving 8. Fusfeld. auGust 19, 1925 sOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 329 MINERAL CHEMISTRY.—Ferromagnetic ferric oxide, artificial and natural.1. Roprert B. SosMan and E. Posnsax, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Ferric oxide (Fe.O;) can exist at atmospheric temperatures in two different forms. One, the mineral hematite, is paramagnetic, like most of the compounds of iron. The other form is ferromagnetic, like magnetite and metallic iron. Although the existence of a ferromagnetic modification of FeO; has been known for over sixty years, comparatively little experi- mental study has been made of this interesting substance. Further- more, it has been known heretofore as an artificial product, and only within the past few years has it been observed in nature. The purpose of this note is to set down some experimental facts obtained by us several years ago concerning this ferromagnetic oxide, particularly the relation of its structure and magnetic proper- ties to those of magnetite, and to describe a natural occurrence of the oxide. DISTINCTION FROM ‘‘MAGNETIC HEMATITE”’ It is important at the outset to distinguish clearly between so- called ‘“‘magnetic hematite’ and ferromagnetic ferric oxide. Natural hematite, particularly in its well-crystallized varieties, is seldom if ever quite free from ferrous iron, held in combination as an oxide of some kind. The ferrous iron may be present as a con- stituent of intergrown magnetite (Fe;0.,); or it may be present as a constituent of a solid solution.? In either case, the specific magnetic susceptibility (susceptibility per gram) increases with the percentage of ferrous iron, starting at about 0.000 02 for pure Fe.Q;, and cul- minating at magnetite, whose maximum susceptibility per gram is of the order of 2. The series thus covers a range of 100,000-fold in susceptibility. Correspondingly, we have found? that the force exerted by a non- uniform magnetic field upon powdered specimens of the oxides covers a range of about 1 to 5000. A particular specimen of natural oxide of iron may fall anywhere in this series, with a content of FeO any- where between zero and 31.03 per cent. 1 Received July 5, 1925. *Sosman anp Hostetter, The oxides of iron. I. Solid solution in the system Fe.0--Fe:0;. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 807-833. 1916. ?Sosman anpD Hostetter, The ferrous iron content and magnetic susceptibility of some artificial and natural oxides of iron, Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 58: 409-433. 1917. (Also Bulletin, pp. 907-931.) 330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 Since the magnetic susceptibility mounts so rapidly with the ferrous iron content, there is required only a few tenths of a per cent of FeO to cause the powdered specimen to move visibly in a magnetic field. This is particularly the case when tests are made with the ordinary small horseshoe or bar magnet, because the gradient found near the surface of such a magnet may be fairly intense. For this reason, specimens containing relatively little ferrous iron may be classed by the prospector or the mineralogist as ‘‘magnetic hema- tite’ or “magnetic iron ore,’ because they will adhere to a hand magnet. TRUE MAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE Very different is the true ferromagnetic oxide which forms the subject of this paper. It contains no ferrous iron, yet is as magnetic as magnetite itself, at least so far as can be told from the properties of the. powdered oxides. Ferromagnetic ferric oxide has been obtained only in finely divided form. The intensity of magnetization obtainable with any powder is very much less than that obtainable with the same amount of material in the form of a single continuous fragment, especially if in the shape of a bar or rod. The ferromagnetic oxide must there- fore be compared with magnetite powdered to a similar degree of fineness. The intensity of magnetization also varies with the size of the grains, their shape, and their relative orientation. Hence two ferro- magnetic substances in powdered form can not be compared with any great exactness. The effects of size and shape of grain, however, may cover a range of twofold or threefold, while ferromagnetic sub- stances differ from paramagnetic by many thousandfold. There need never be any question, therefore, whether or not a given pow- dered substance is ferromagnetic, nor whether its susceptibility is of the same order of magnitude as that of some other substance taken as a standard for comparison. HISTORICAL REVIEW The earliest recorded observation of the properties of ferromag- netic ferric oxide is that of Robbins,* in the “Notes and Queries” of the first volume of Chemical News. He prepared it by the oxida- tion of magnetite, both by heating in air and by fusion with KNOs. He showed that the product was free from ferrous iron when dissolved. 4 Roppins, J., Magnetic peroxide of iron, Chem. News 1: 11-12. 1859. auGust 19, 1925 sOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 331 The oxide was independently discovered by .Malaguti® a few years later; he prepared it by oxidation and ignition of precipitated ferrous hydroxide, and also by ignition of certain hydrated oxides. Thirty years later Liversidge® observed that various specimens of oxide produced by the rusting of iron in air were ferromagnetic, although most of them contained no ferrous iron. Similar speci- mens were also made artificially. The most complete data are by Hilpert,’7 who made the ferromag- netic oxide by oxidizing either precipitated magnetite or ferrous hydroxide with soluble oxidizing agents. Within the present year the oxide has again been rediscovered twice; first by Abraham and Planiol,’ who have added no new informa- tion to the facts already known, and again by Chevallier,? who obtained some new data on its.-magnetic properties. Sarzeau’® and J. Lawrence Smith! may have been dealing with this same ferromagnetic oxide, but the evidence is nct clear, since it is also possible that they had magnetic ferrites or ferric oxide con- taining magnetite. PREPARATION OF ARTIFICIAL FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE Cur specimens of the oxide were made from precipitated mag- netite. To a warm solution containing ferrous and ferric sulfates, in the proportion of one equivalent of ferrous to two of ferric iron, was added a warm solution of sodium hydroxide. The black mag- netic precipitate was filtered off and washed. Part of it was shaken up with a warm solution of ammonium persulfate, NH.SO,, until completely oxidized. (No. 2005.) Analysis showed the presence of *Matacutt, F., Sur le sesquioryde de fer attirable 4 Vaimant, Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 55: 350-352. 1862. Ann. Chim. et Phys. (3) 69: 214-224. 1863. 5 LivERSIDGE, A., On iron rust possessing magnetic properties, Rep. Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci. 1892: 302-320. 7 Hinpert, §., Ueber Beziehungen zwischen chemischen Konstitution und magne- lischen Eigenschaften bei Eisenverbindungen, Ber. Deutsch. Physik. Ges. 11: 293-299. 1909. Also Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 42: 2248-2261. 1909. Journ. Iron and Steel | Inst. 82: 65-68. 1910. * Apransam, H., anp Puaniou, R., Sur le sesquioxyde de fer magnétique, Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 180: 1328-1329. 1925. 9 CHEyaLLier, R., Sur l’oxyde ferrique ferromagnétique, Compt. rend. Acad. Paris 1280: 1473-1475. 1925. 10 Sarzeau, Chem. News 1: 137. 1860. ii Santa, J. Lawrence, Singular anomaly of the sesquioxide of iron as prepared from meteoric iron, Amer. Chemist 5: 356-358. 1875. Chem. News 31: 210-212. 1875. Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 80: 301-304. 1875. Original researches in mineralogy and chemistry (1884) pp. 480-486. 332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 0.7 per cent FeO. Another part oxidized spontaneously in air when dried at about 105°. (No. 2007.) A second preparation of precipitated magnetite (No. 2006), made in the same way, was preserved by drying over sulfuric acid and then over phosphorus pentoxide in a vacuum, but even with these pre- cautions was found, after the magnetic tests, to be nearly half oxidized, containing 17.4 per cent FeO, 80.1 per cent Fe.O;, and 1.35 per cent H.O0." Several years later, after having stood at room temperature in air, it was found to have changed in color to the brown shade characteristic of ferromagnetic Fe.O; (No. 2006a). We find also that the dehydration of the mineral lepidocrocite, Fe.O;-H.O, yields a ferromagnetic ferric oxide, while similar dehy- dration of goethite, the other form of the monohydrate, yields only paramagnetic Fe.O;. These two are the only clearly defined ecrys- talline hydrates of ferric oxide.” This interesting reaction, the production of a ferromagnetic from a paramagnetic substance by dissociation, is being further studied. The only specimen available for quantitative examination was made from lepidocrocite from Easton, Pennsylvania, by heating it in a glass dish for 10 days at 320°, and was only about half as magnetic as magnetite; but it was not homogeneous, as it contained portions of much greater and much less susceptibility than the average for the whole. Whether the reaction produced a certain proportion of inert oxide, or whether an original product of high susceptibility has under- gone irreversible change during the long heating at 320° (see p. 338) remains to be seen. The product contained no detectable ferrous iron. NATURAL FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE While these experiments were being conducted (in 1916) we re- ceived from Messrs. L. C. Graton and B. S$. Butler a specimen of polarized magnetic ferric oxide (No. RC1487). The specimen was in the form of a light chocolate brown powder containing yellowish brown specks, and was collected from a gossan deposit, at Iron Moun- tain, in the Shasta County copper district, California. A partial analysis by J. C. Hostetter yielded the results shown in Table 1. The tests described in later paragraphs show that this specimen corresponds in properties to artificial ferromagnetic ferric oxide. Unfortunately it is not very pure. In particular, it contains 2.40 2 Analysis by J. C. Hostetter of this Laboratory. 18 PosngAK, E., anp Merwin, H. E., The hydrated ferric oxides, Amer. Journ. Sci. 47; 311-848. 1919. AuGusT 19, 1925 sOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 333 per cent of FeO, which might be suspected of causing a part at least of the high magnetic susceptibility. But the presence of considerable volatile matter in addition to water suggests that this ferrous iron may be present largely as carbonate and sulfide. Even if it were all in solid solution or in the form of magnetite, it could account for only about one-eighteenth of the observed susceptibility. TABLE 1—AnatysiIs oF PoLarizED Magnetic FERRIC OXIDE PER CENT Rerrous mironcalculatedsaswheO waa acepcte cies ecient ec ree eer 2 Wisster-sremovedtatired heate- gos oncsaa cheers ce se ee rot cae anaes 3.1 Other volatile matter, removed at red heat.......................... 2 Insoluble in HCl, mostly quartz, with few large opaque crystals, mrobablyspycite o<* dos eA ees eicn ste een eo Desa By r ony ne ees 1.80 @alcrumvoxdet CaO by creases oa si tafo eae erases Ste age eee aye esac Present REETIGTOXIGePHEsOs1( So Ol ANS SO.) ate ee erie epee e eis re eef Ene 85.3 A natural ferric oxide differing from hematite in physical proper- ties as much as this one does deserves a separate mineral name. It would be desirable, however, before assigning such a name, to have a type specimen which was more nearly pure Fe.O; than the one in hand. MAGNETIC APPARATUS The apparatus used for magnetic tests will be more fully described in another publication. It consists of two concentric solenoids, of which the inner furnishes a uniform magnetic field while the outer furnishes a field having a gradient. The two can be independently varied. The force acting on a specimen suspended in the axis of the solenoids is weighed directly on an analytical balance sensitive to 0.01 mg. 1 With a paramagnetic substance such as ferrous sulfate the force is proportional to the magnetic susceptibility, the field strength, and the field gradient, and absolute measurements of the susceptibility of the compounds of iron can be made with an accuracy of two per cent or better. But with a ferromagnetic substance, as already noted, the force depends not only on the factors mentioned but also on fine- ness of grain, shape of grains, shape of the charge as a whole, and previous magnetic history. Therefore only somewhat crude com- parative results are obtainable with a ferromagnetic powder, but the method has the advantage of being adaptable, without change in the apparatus, to a wide range of susceptibilities. 334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 MAGNETIC RESULTS Reproducibility. A set of 5 measurements on Mineville magne- tite No. 3b, 170 to 200 mesh, confirmed the conclusion reached in our earlier measurements with a cored electromagnet,“ that the attraction per gram on a ferromagnetic powder of given size of grain and shape of charge is reproducible within one per cent. The charge was taken out and mixed between measurements, and the effect of depolarizing it by gradual withdrawal from an alternating field was also tried. Effect of position. The field and gradient, and hence the force, vary with the position of the charge with reference to the solenoids. The charge was always suspended so as to be coaxial with the sole- noids, and the position of its center, with reference to the top of the outer solenoid as zero, was measured to 0.2 mm. The variation as actually measured agreed with that calculated from the dimensions of the solenoids. Shape of charge. The shape of the sample is without effect on the force exerted upon a paramagnetic substance. With a ferromag- netic substance, on the contrary, it is one of the most important variables. Measurements were therefore made with varying amounts of the ferromagnetic powders contained in cylindrical ‘brass con- tainers of 6 and 10 mm. diameter. The results are incorporated in figures 1 and 2. All of these measurements were made in a field whose intensity on the axis was about 700 gilbert-per-cm., with a gradient of 14.5. The shape of the curves depends upon the complex relation existing between the demagnetizing factor of the individual grain, due to its individual shape and size; the mutual inductive effect of the grains, depending on their relative position and distance apart; and the demagnetizing factor of the charge as a whole, depending upon its over-all shape and size. The important fact brought out by the curves for magnetite in figure 1, and for artificial ferromagnetic Fe.O; and the corresponding natural oxide in figure 2, is the agreement in order of magnitude of the magnetization, as indicated by the force. All are seen to be ferromagnetic, and to have similar values of susceptibility, although the absolute values can not be deduced from these data. Also, the curves for the three are similar in form. Effect of grain size. Three sizes of grain of natural magnetite are M4 Sosman anD Hostetter, Op. cit. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 58) p. 414. AuGusT 19, 1925 SOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 335 500 400 t — S a dS a v YL > <& ~ § 4300 a £ ° & £ g nw ° 2 6 w 200 O Magnefite, 0.12 mm grain, [0-mm cylinder x Artificial ferromagnetic oxide, 6-mm cylinder ] s c O.07 - Oars cS g O Natural ” “ lo- « " o - 0.07 - - 6-- - o : . G5 0" x - Oo = = 6-" + 4 a Q ane heated Tt iT 6a A i precipitated, partly eeidiced (heated To about Goo") } 100 Natural ferromagnetic oxide, OG heated to 750° In ° Ratio length to diameter > Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Figs. 1 and 2—Comparative magnetic susceptibilities of magnetite and artificial and natural ferromagnetic oxide. 336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 compared in figure 1: one collected between sieves having 170 and 200 meshes per inch, average grain size 0.12 mm.; another between 300 and 325 meshes, 0.07 mm.; and a third size separated by means of the I-mm. jet in an air elutriator,” grains about 0.01 mm. The results confirm the general statement made in the earlier paper, that diminution in grain size diminishes the magnetization. In both cases the change from 0.12 to 0.07 mm. average diameter corre- sponds to a decrease of about 3 per cent. TABLE 2.—ComparatTivE Data ON SUSCEPTIBILITY AND REMANENCE OF OXIDES or IRON a z 5 & 5 & |& El ¢ | & (age = z 5 Bae SUBSTANCE FORM & is Es | a z 2 eS a 5 a D 2 Dn = mm. m7 Magnetite, Mineville, N. Y........ 170-200 mesh 10 3b 598 Magnetite, Mineville, N. Y........ 300-325 mesh 10 3b 580 5* Magnetite, Mineville, N. Y........ 300-325 mesh 6 3b 652 Magnetite, Mineville, N. Y........ Elutriated 6 3b 595 11 powder Precipitated Fe;0,, partly oxidized.| Very fine pow- 6 2006 | 670 4 der Artificial ferromagnetic Fe.O;.....| Very fine pow- 6 2005 | 597 3 der Artificial ferromagnetic Fe.03..... Very fine pow- 6 2007 | 576 4* der Natural ferromagnetic Fe2O;...... Coarse powder] 10 | RC1487 | 568 15* Natural ferromagnetic Fe2O3...... Tine powder 10 | RC1487 | 560 15 Natural ferromagnetic Fe2O;...... Fine powder 6 | RC1487 | 606 14 Natural ferromagnetic Fe20; (heated to about 600°).......... Fine powder 6 | RC1487 | 558 Same, heated to 750°............... Fine powder RC1487 4.20) 400 | 19 Terrous ammonium sulfate, Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H20........... Powder | 6211 0.33! 31 Purest ferric) Oxid@rac--eeisseer Powder ; 1041 0.21) 20 * See curve in figure 3. The artificial (precipitated) and partly oxidized magnetite (No. 2006) is much finer than the natural fractions, but is nevertheless of somewhat higher susceptibility. The maximum values are compared in Table 2. 18 SosMaAN AND Hostetter, Op. cit. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 58) p. 414. Iii bid tps 45: aveust 19, 1925 sosMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 337 Remanence. The remanence (also called ‘‘residual magnetization,” ‘Dermanent magnetization,” or “magnetic polarization’) of mag- netite and ferromagnetic oxide could also be compared in the appa- ratus described. For the measurement, the current of the outer sole- noid was kept constant, maintaining a constant gradient, after the cur- rent in both solenoids had been carried through a cycle from maximum positive to maximum negative and part of the way back. Bycontinu- ing the cycle with the current of the inner solenoid, the field intensity Soo mg per gram ny 8 Force of attraction , 200 Fic. 3—Relative forms of hysteresis loops of magnetite and ferromagnetic ferric oxides. at a given point on the axis was thus brought twice to the value zero. The mean value of the force of attraction at these two points gives some idea of the remanence. As before, we get only a rather crude relative value, since the demagnetizing factors of grains and of charge enter into the effect, in addition to the fundamental fact that only an apparent remanence, dependent on the coercive force of the material, can be measured on a specimen in other than ring form. 338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 The results, expressed in percentages of the maximum attraction, are included in Table 2. Hysteresis loop. The remanence is only one of the characteristics of the hysteresis loop, whose relative form can also be compared by means of the apparatus described. Typical curves are shown in figure 3. The form of curve is found to be distinctly different for natural magnetite, artificial ferromagnetic oxide, and natural ferro- magnetic oxide. This may indicate that the natural specimen was formed in some other way than by oxidation of Fe;O,, but further study of hysteresis loops as correlated with mode of formation is needed to clear up this question. The effect of degree of fineness is not known with certainty, although fine-grained magnetite gave a curve similar to that shown in figure 3, and not like those of the ferromagnetic ferric oxides. INVERSIONS IN THE FERROMAGNETIC OXIDE Ferromagnetic ferric oxide undergoes two types of inversion at high temperatures: (1) A reversible inversion, consisting in a relatively sudden change from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic at a temperature not far above 500°. On cooling, the ferromagnetic condition is again assumed. This inversion is similar to those in metallic iron and in magnetite, although at a different temperature. (2) An irreversible inversion, consisting in a complete loss of the ferromagnetic property, the oxide becoming like ordinary para- magnetic Fe,O; and perhaps identical with it. This change occurs at an increasing rate as the temperature rises, being slow at 500° while it is complete in a few minutes at 650° and higher. The sample of natural ferromagnetic oxide described in preceding paragraphs remained ferromagnetic after the heating to determine water and volatile matter. Its characteristics after being heated are seen in one of the curves of figure 2. Heated for 15 minutes at 750° the natural oxide became para- magnetic, lowering the force of attraction per gram to the value shown near the bottom of figure 2. Some natural magnetite which had been partially oxidized by heating in moist oxygen at 400 to 470° for 20 to 45 hours yielded only a paramagnetic oxide, as shown by the fact that the suscep- tibility was about that corresponding to the ferrous iron content.” 17 SosMAN AND Hostetter, Op. cit. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 58) p. 428. ee ee AuGtust 19, 1925 sOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 339 COLOR OF THE FERROMAGNETIC OXIDE Some data on the colors of the powders of the natural and artifi- cial ferromagnetic oxides are assembled in Table 3, with similar data on specimens of ordinary ferric oxide for comparison. The numbers and names are those used by Ridgway.'s Those familiar with Ridgway’s system of numbering colors will see at once that the color of the ferromagnetic oxide is distinctive. It is further toward the yellow than the paramagnetic, and of a slightly deeper shade, and so tends toward a “chocolate brown” color. The difference is not cne that could be produced by a differ- ent degree of fineness. TABLE 3——Cotors or OxipEs orf IRoN IN PowpDER Form SPECIMEN COLOR NUMBER NUMBER | COLOR NAME Natural magnetite, Mineville........ | 3b Black, lustrous Artificial ferromagnetic Fe.O3........ | 2005 | 6’m Hessian brown to liver brown Artificial ferromagnetic Fe.O3........ 2007 | 7m Bay Natural ferromagnetic FeO; coarse. .}| RC1487| 9’’m Burnt umber Natural ferromagnetic Fe.O; fine ...} RC1487| 11’k Hazel Natural ferromagnetic Fe.O; heated SOPADOUG OOUg tres cin rs: RC1487| 69’’’’m | Aniline black Natural ferromagnetic FeO; heated CORT OU sae ee ae hse SNe .....| RC1487| 77 Vinaceous-rufous to Hay’s russet “Reagent” Fe,O;, Merck............. 1041 | 5/7 Ocher red to Prussian red Fe:0; from hydrolysis of nitrate..... 231 | 54) Dragons-blood red to brick red Oxidized magnetite, not ferromag- TO cee eat eee ae eae eee ae 242 11k Mineral red Specular hematite, L. Superior....... 1058 | 5k Morocco red “Magnetic hematite,’ Juragua, Cuba.| 1092 | 69’’’k | Anthracene purple Natural goethite, Diamond Hill, 17d ee eae ee eae 17879 | 13’m Mars brown Natural limonite, Urals, Russia...... 40352 | 17’k Dresden brown Cther investigators have also observed this color difference. Abraham and Planiol call the ferromagnetic oxide ‘“‘a slightly yellowish brown,” and Chevallier, “more yellowish than ordinary ferric oxide.” REFRACTIVE INDEX OF FERROMAGNETIC OXIDE‘? The refractive index is difficult to measure because of the fineness of grain. The natural oxide (RC1487) is mostly either isotropic or 1s Ripeway, R., Color standards and color nomenclature, Washington, 1912. 19 We are indebted to Dr. H. E. Merwin of this Laboratory for this examination. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 in such fine-grained aggregates that no birefringence is evident, but a few distinctly birefringent fibrous aggregates are present. The grains are porous, as is evident from the penetration of liquids used for mounting. The refractive index of grains which the liquid has penetrated is about 2.52 for red light. This is somewhat nearer to the average index of goethite (Fe.O;-H.O) than to that of hematite (Fe,O;). As the specimen contains 3.1 per cent of water, this measurement is not decisive as to the index of the ferromagnetic oxide. The maximum index obtained with the oxide derived from lepidocrocite is equal to the minimum index of hematite (2.74). It is evident, then, that the indices of the ferromagnetic oxide are not radically different from those of hematite, but no more exact quantitative statement can be made until visible crystals are available. STRUCTURE OF FERROMAGNETIC OXIDE One of the most interesting facts about the ferromagnetic oxide is the close relation of its structure to that of magnetite. TABLE 4.—Data SHowine APPARENT IDENTITY OF STRUCTURE BETWEEN MAGNETITE (Fe;04) AND FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OxIpE (Fe:03) MAGNETITE. | OXIDIZED PRECIPITATED OXIDIZED PRECIPITATED MINEVILLE, 3b MAGNETITE NO. 2605 MAGNETITE NO. 2006 ci I oe ann I cal ann I pe 2.51 oo 0.300 | 2.62 5 0.292 | 2.61 5— 0.293 2.97 10 0.2535 | 3.055 10 0.252 | 3.06 10 0.251 3.59 4 0.210 3.66 3 0.210 3.65 4 0.2105 4.10 (?) 1/2 0.187 4.50 (?)| 1/2 0.171 4.685 6- 0.161 4 84 6 0.159 4.81 7 0.160 5.12 8 0.1475 | 5.245 9 0.147 5.26 9 0.147 5.94 2 0.128 6.15 (?) 1/2 | 0.126 6.28 (?)| 1/2 0.121 | 6.58 (?) 1/2 0.116 | eO2) Pn — | On LOO a ierpestitha((2))1 etl 2 0.1095 7.92 [Pe Following up a suggestion made in 1917,° one of the authors (E. P.) made some X-ray diffraction measurements on natural magnetite and ferromagnetic ferric oxide, by the so-called powder method. The films were made in 1922 but the results have not heretofore been published. 20 SosMAN, R. B., p. 67 of Some problems of the oxides of tron, This JouRNAL 7: 55- 72. 1917. auGusT 19, 1925 sOSMAN AND POSNJAK: FERROMAGNETIC FERRIC OXIDE 341 Table 4 shows the comparison. Under each substance is given: first, the distance (x) of each spectrum line from the central un- deviated image, obtained by measuring the distance between corre- sponding lines on opposite sides of the center of the film and dividing by 2; second, the relative intensity (/) of the line, judged visually; third, the fractional spacing of atomic planes (d/n) corresponding to the line, in mu (10-* mm.). This third quantity is based upon the equation n\ = 2d sin 6, in which n is the order of reflection, \ is the wave-length of X-rays used (Ka line of molybdenum, 0.712 A.), d is the distance between like planes of atoms, and @ is the angle of reflection, determined from x with the aid of a calibration of the X-ray camera with sodium chloride. The table shows practically complete identity between the three patterns. The only discrepancy which seems in excess of the normal error is in the line closest to the center; at this line, agreement is complete between the two ferric oxides but the magnetite shows a greater intensity and slightly larger spacing. But it should be remarked that the films are rather weak, with much scattering (the technique has since been improved) and it cannot be asserted that this one difference is real. Welo and Baudisch2! have recently reported confirmation of this identity of pattern, with the aid of X-ray photographs by W. P. Davey, but their results have not yet been published in full. The theoretical importance of this transformation has already been commented upon,” but the explanation for the persistence of mag- netic properties and of structure is not yet clear. If the identity of X-ray pattern shall be found to be complete, it will furnish a second instance of two compounds which differ in com- position and physical properties but give the same X-ray pattern.” SUMMARY The ferromagnetic modification of ferric oxide, long known only as an artificial product, has now been found in nature. The proper- ties of this specimen are compared with the properties of Mineville magnetite and of artificial ferromagnetic Fe.O; made by oxidizing precipitated Fe;O0,. The three are similar in magnetic susceptibility, 21WeLo, L. A., anp Bavpiscu, O., The two-stage transformation of magnetite into hematite, Abstract of paper before American Physical Society. Physical Rev. 25: 587. April, 1925. 22 Sosman, Op. cit. (This Journat 7: 66). 22 The other case is that of sillimanite (Al,O;- SiO») and mullite (3A1.0; - 2Si02). See Bowen anp Greic, Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. 7: 253. 1924. 342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 and give the same X-ray pattern, in spite of the radical difference in composition between Fe;0, and Fe.,O;. The ferromagnetic oxides are similar in color and differ in color from ordinary Fe.0;. The natural specimen gives a different hysteresis curve from the artifi- cial oxide and from magnetite. The ferromagnetic property of Fe,O,; is lost reversibly at a definite temperature a little above 500°, and irreversibly at 650° and possibly lower, depending upon the time of heating. A ferromagnetic oxide has also been obtained by the dehydration of lepidocrocite, one of the two crystalline forms of the monohydrate Fe.0;-H,O, while the other form, goethite, yields only paramagnetic Fe.QO3. MINERALOGY .—Petzite from the Last Chance mine, Cornucopia district, Oregon. By Earu V. SHANNON,! U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by D. F. Hewett.) A specimen of rich telluride gold ore recently collected in the Last Chance Mine in the Cornucopia district, Oregon, by Mr. Clyde P. Ross of the U. 8. Geological Survey has been forwarded to the writer for identification. This has been analysed in the museum laboratory and found to be petzite. The results of this work are considered to be of sufficient interest to deserve record in the present brief article. The mineral is massive and occurs in a gangue of quartz with some white calcite. Some areas in the ore up to 2 centimeters across consist of about equal volumes of the telluride and the gangue. The calcite seems to be intimately associated with the petzite. In color the telluride is lead gray with a faint suggestion of red which becomes more definitely perceptible with exposure. It is very soft and sectile but is brittle enough to be readily pulverized in a mortar. The luster on fresh fracture is brilliant metallic. There is no trace whatever of any cleavage and the fracture is perfectly conchoidal. The analyzed material was submitted to a metallographic exam- ination by Mr. M. N. Short of the U. 8. Geological Survey who reports it pure except for less than 1 per cent of chalcopyrite. The results of his microscopic examination are given as follows: Color of polished surface silvery white; very soft and sectile but gives a little powder on edges of the scratch. In polarized reflected light shows medium anisotropism with pink and blue colors of about the 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Aueust 19, 1925 SHANNON: PETZITE FROM OREGON 343 same intensity as arsenopyrite. With the standard microchemical reagents of Davy and Farnham, it gives the following reactions: HNO; tarnishes black differentially with no effervescence; HCl tarnishes iridescent to brown; KCN brings out scratches and pits surface, action slow and rather feeble; FeCl; instantly tarnishes iridescent; KOH, negative, HgCl. tarnishes differentially iridescent. These data agree fairly well with those of hessite given by Davy and Farnham and present some essential differences from their data for petzite. This work is in line with the efforts of Mr. Short to record such microchemical and microscopic properties of opaque ore minerals as made upon analyzed material. The material for analysis was ground and the gangue removed by floating in methylene iodide. The mineral was insoluble in either nitric or hydrochloric acids alone but dissolved readily in mixtures of the two with separation of silver chloride. The solution in the mixed acids was evaporated to dryness and after freeing from nitric acid by repeated evaporation on the steam bath with hydrochloric acid was taken up in hydrochloric acid, diluted largely and boiled. The silver was thus separated as chloride together with a little gold and the insoluble quartz. This mixture was treated on the filter with ammonia to remove the silver chloride which was recovered later by acidification of the extract with nitric acid, filtered on a gooch and weighed. The small amount of gold remaining with the quartz was separated, after ignition, by solution in aqua regia. The first filtrate from the silver chloride, etc. was treated with oxalic acid and the gold separated and weighed as metal. The tellurium was then precipitated by saturating the solution with sulphur diox- ide; it was filtered on a gooch crucible and weighed as the element. The iron and copper were recovered from the filtrate by ordinary methods. Sulphur was determined in a separate portion by the ordinary method. The results of the analysis are given in Table 1. The results are of interest in several respects. This represents a new locality for this mineral although hessite is reported from the North Pole mine, near Sumpter. Its composition is, nevertheless, in line with the results indicated by Dana who, on the basis of sev- eral good analyses considered petzite to represent a definite double salt in which gold telluride and silver telluride were combined in the ratio of 3 to 1. Dana includes this mineral in the galena group, a wrong interpretation since it is essentially a telluride of univalent metals quite devoid of the cubic cleavage characteristic of the lead 344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 TABLE 1.—ANaAtysiIs or PETZITE FROM OREGON 1p Il. OREGON THEORY Quarter fn 8 . 3ccrarops eters 28 siepP Qoauet si Poe egret eerie 0.60 Gold CAN eee ereirh oto caste cee ets einer eer 23 .04 Qoe5 Silivert(Ate hc 8 oe Sheds. dasa cabo ee te ose reea re 42.00 42.0 Tron hle) oes. Aly arses base ee ee oe eee 0.44 Copper (Cw) tic dcctargtep tn at escent oe erne 0.32 SUlpNUn (Slee mcs tetiaya teats sre ety eee nao eee 0.12 Tellurium (Le) Ve\-piso. nace oer eraeter eens eee 33.44 32.5 99 .96 100.00 I. Analysis of Petzite from the Last Chance mine. Il. Theoretical composition of Petzite 3AgeTe.Auw.Te. sulphide, telluride and selenide. The examination of Wherry’s classification of the sulphide minerals finds that petzite is definitely assigned a 3:1 silver-to-gold formula, these elements not being regarded as isomorphous and not mutually replaceable.2 Moreover the mineral is not, as in Dana’s mineralogy, included in the galena group, a group of bivalent-metal sulphides characterized by cubic cleavage, but is relegated to a non-crystallized section of the chalco- cite group (orthorhombic). No crystals of petzite have ever been obtained but the marked anisotropism observed by Mr. Short and recorded above would seem to place the present mineral, at least, in a crystalline and non-isometric group, presumably the chalcocite group. This analysis confirms several previously recorded ones and the composition of this mineral can now be considered to be well established. The investigated specimen is numbered 95,185 in the U. 8. National Museum catalog. 2, T. Wherry, The nomenclature and classification of sulphide minerals. This JOURNAL, 10: 492. 1920. auaGustT 19, 1925 PEATTIE: CASUARINAS OF AMERICA 345 BOTANY .—Casuarinas of America identified by branchlets and seeds. Donatp CutLross Pratrin, Washington, D. C. (Commun- icated by E. P. Kiuure.) In the task of identifying specimens of Casuarina sent in to the Bureau of Plant Industry from various parts of the country, the writer was faced with the perplexity that the majority of samples consisted only in branchlets, while the keys in all books are based mainly on flowers and fruits. In order to overcome this difficulty a special study was made of the branchlets of plants known from their reproductive characters to be correctly identified, and a simple key to species was then based on branchlets. Another useful diagnostic character was found in the seeds which authors have much neglected, though they are quite distinctive. As most of the plants of Casuarina received from foreign correspondents consist only in seeds and these, as it has proved, often wrongly labelled, it has seemed of value to indicate how Casuarinas may be identified from seeds. All specimens of Casuarina in the National Herbarium, the Eco- nomic Herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the seed collection of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction have been examined, as well as those in the herbarium of Professor L. H. Bailey. Casuarina, an Australasian genus, is now extensively grown in this country. As an ornamental and economic genus it is of coming importance. In using the following key it should be recalled that the apparent leaves are really branchlets, and that the true leaves are reduced to teeth in a sheath around the nodes, as in Hquisetum. Measurements, particularly of the branchlets, are important; as they are made in very small units it is essential to be accurate. A micrometer caliper is best for this purpose, though a millimeter ruler, read with a mag- nifying glass, will do. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CASUARINA CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES A. Teeth 6-16, branchlets round or somewhat angular B. Internodes on full grown branchlets 7 mm. long or less. C. Branchlets 0.7-0.85 mm. thick; teeth 7 (6-8) in number, rarely more; mature cones about 1.3 em. thick; seeds 6-8 mm. long, 1-3 1Jn Plant Immigrants, no. 217, the author has described the economic and ornamen- tal uses of the Casuarinas growing in America. Descriptions of the trees as a whole are found there, as well as their horticultural ranges and histories in America. 346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 mm. broad, pale brown throughout, the wing thickish, twice as long. asthe seed body.) ms sack eee C. equisetifolia C. Branchlets 0.4-6.5 mm. thick, teeth 6-10 D. Mature cones 13 mm. or more in diameter, seeds 3-4 mm. broad, 6.5-8 mm. long, the wing thin, pale brown, twice as long as the seed body, which is handsome chestnut brown; male flower- spikes interrupted; teeth 6-8....................... C. suberosa D. Mature cones 10 mm. in diameter at the most, but generally much less; seeds 1-2 mm. broad, 3-4.5 mm. long, dull grayish white, with a short, thickish wing; male spikes dense; teeth S=NOL ee Rn Oe TR AE eek Oe de C. Cunninghamiana B. Internodes on full grown branchlets more or less glaucous, thick (0.85— 1.50 mm.) E. Branchlets 0.85-0.95 mm. thick; internodes 8-10 mm. long, teeth erect or appressed, not spreading, mostly 16 in number; cones about 12 mm. broad, seeds about 4 mm. long and 2 mm. broad, grayish white or pale brown, dull, the wing fairly thickand narrow, the midnerve not extruded; male spikes dense............ C. glauca E. Branchlets 0.95-1.50 mm. thick, internodes 13-27 mm. long, the approximately 10 teeth often spreading. Cones 25 mm. or more thick; seeds 8-12 mm. long, 3-4.5 mm. broad, the seed-body choco- late brown flecked with white, the wing broad, long pale, thin, with decidedly excurrent midnerve. Male spikes elongated and at first dense, at maturity loosely flowered.................. C. stricta A. Teeth only 4; branches markedly quadrangular F. Internodes about 7 mm. long; branchlets not forking, about 0.5 mm. thick; seeds 7-9 mm. long, 3-4 mm. broad, somewhat shining brown, not wrinkled, the wing thin and transparent.............. C. torulosa F. Internodes 3-4 mm. long; branchlets forking, the ultimate divisions about 0.7 thick; seeds 12-18 mm. long, 4-8 mm. broad, dull brown and wrinkled; wing relatively thick................... C. sumatrana auGust 19, 1925 LONGLEY: POLYCARY, POLYSPORY AND POLYPLOIDY 347 CYTCLOGY.—Polycary, pelyspory, and polyploidy in citrus and citrus relatwes. A. E. Loneuny, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by G. N. CoLiins.) During the past two seasons the writer has made a study of chromo- some conditions in the large and representative collection of citrus and citrus relatives in the greenhouse of the Cffice of Crop Physiol- ogy and Breeding at Washington, D. C. This was undertaken because a knowledge of the relationship between forms might possibly be an aid in planning future breeding work, and with the hope of shedding some light on the origin of this important group of culti- * vated plants. All material was obtained from type plants growing in the green- houses at Washington. The study was confined to a determination of the numbers and behavior of chromosomes at meiosis of the pollen mother cells and to the mature pollen, where the presence of dwarf grains indicate some abnormality in pollen formation. Mother cells were stained in Belling’s! iron-acetocarmine, and chromosome counts promptly made. Duplicate material was killed with chromo-acetic killing solution, embedded with Heidenhain’s haematoxylin, but this method had few advantages over the quicker method for making chromosome counts. Mature pollen was stained with chloral-iodine solution to make classifying and counting less difficult. Early in the study it was found that counts of heterotypic and homotypic metaphases gave, with few exceptions, 9 as the haploid chromosome number. Frost? in a recent publication has made similar determinations for three citrus forms. He found neither polycary nor polyspory. The writer frequently observed both phenomena in many of the forms as they flowered in the greenhouse. In addition Fortunella hindsw (fig. 1, a) was discovered to be a tetra- ploid form. Table 1 has been prepared so as to show the conditions observed in twenty-five citrus and citrus relatives. Only one species, Fortunella hindsti the sole representative of the subgenus Protocitrus,? had more than 9 bivalent chromosomes at diakinesis. 1Beiiine, J. Counting chromosomes in pollen mother cells. Amer. Nat. 55: 573- 574. 1921. 2? Frost, H. B. The chromosomes of citrus. This Journau 15: 1-3. 1925. 2Swinete, W. T. A new genus of kumquat oranges. This Journau 5: 165-176. 1915. a $2/ 62/8 — 4, xe 6 yenbuny [BAQ [ap Burmg (aney) vpwvbwow vyaunjJoy £2/ 92/8 — IT |e8t 6 yenbuny Baroy ¥C/ 92/998 LIGOT JOST |CLTT SI qeunbuny pyIM Suoysu0py atl eed ae 6 val L 1% — |r |T16r 6 autszasuny Koueq =—}/— | — 6 ULIVPUBUL JVI] MOTTA vz/s /9 — |€0€ |T09 6 aSuvso vuns}Tg ¥G/ €1/% — |206 |€9¢ ’ 6 aSuBIO BIDUITE A FG! 8Z//8E°F|0E |S0Z |288 TASS ECACEGS GY LEE? 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NC chee See LOh pypOfrweng DUULIAIS Ma eae ee matte tai he ge Nedert cam. 1 cota ied a “JUV (TD) DIDYOLUL SNMLIUWO Waar otk ah sha pa eT ea a: oa “OLSUING povuodnl D)POUND LOT 349 350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 The few counts of pollen tetrads given were made from prepara- tions in which anomalies were frequent. No attempt was made to study tetrads of all forms. The results of a study of mature pollen are included and the percentage of dwarf pollen grains given. This per cent indicates the occurrence of irregularities in chromosome distribution and tetrad formation. E Fig. 1—Poiiten Moruer Ceuts or Cirrus anp Cirrus RELATIVES A. Homotypic metaphase of Fortunella hindsii; B. heterotypic metaphase of Citrop- sis schweinfurthii; C. polyspory in Citrus aurantifolia; D. homotypic metaphase of Fortunella japonica; E. polyeary in Citrus grandis; F. polyspory in Fortunella marga- rita X (citrus sinensis X Poncirus trifoliata) (Figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida, using a Leitz 1.5 objective and for a, b, d and e an X18 ocular, for ce and f an < 15 ocular. Reduced 2/3 on reproduction). Irregularities in chromosome pairing at diakinesis and in their distribution at meiosis (fig. 1, e) were frequently noticed. The out- come of such irregularities was the presence of tetrads containing more (fig. 1, ¢ and f) or less than the expected four pollen grains. Polyspory was often noted in limes, grape-fruit, and limequats. It is believed that there may be a relation between irregular chromo- some distribution that produces pollen. cells with varying chromo- some numbers and the production of citrus forms with supernumerary chromosomes. There are two factors that hinder the spontaneous appearance of august 19, 1925 LONGLEY: POLYCARY, POLYSPORY AND POLYPLOIDY 351 such forms, the likelihood that’ only sex cells with 9 chromosomes are viable and the very infrequent use of seeds as a means of propagation. The importance of a tetraploid Fortunella seems to be in the possi- ble opportunity it affords the breeder to obtain hybrids with closely related diploid forms, and thus multiplying the chances of obtaining forms with unusual chromosome complexes. In many of our polymorphic genera, variability seems to be asso- ciated with polyploidy, but the author has found that in three groups, citrus and its relatives, Zea and its relatives,t and Irises (unpub- lished), polyploidy is rare while variability is general among culti- vated diploid forms. It seems probable that this variability is the outcome of long cultivation where selection and hybridization would naturally occur. The question before us is, will the presence of a tetraploid form in such a group as the citrus be useful in bringing about new chromosome combinations? And are we to expect added variability as the outcome of unusual chromosome complexes? Unless we reverse the prevalent idea of the origin of polyploidy and derive the numerous diploid citrus forms from ancestors with higher chromosome numbers we must conclude that the wild species Fortunella hindsiz is not primitive but represents a branch from the common ancestral trunk of the citrus group. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 678TH MEETING The 678th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, March 28, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President Rohwer in the chair and 89 persons present. New members elected: ANNE Benton, Dr. E. A. Back, J. E. Grar, C. H. PopEnor. P. B. Jounson described his observations of certain animals in the zoolog- ical gardens at New York and Philadelphia. The great anteater, after feeding on milk, was seen to suck the end of his tail. An echidna at Phila- delphia was watehed as it took its meal of milk. The white-handed gibbon at Philadelphia is active, and often goes erect on its hind feet, with its hands on its head, while the one at New York is comparatively quiet. A. 8. Hircucock mentioned a grass, described from a collection supposed to have been made by Haenke at Nootka Sound, which is now found to be a Peruvian species. 4Lonctey, A. E. Chromosomes in maize and maize relatives. Journ. Agri. Re- search, 28: no. 7, 673-687. 1924. 352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 14 Program: H. C. OBBRHOLSER: The future of the Potomac Valley below Great Falls (illustrated) —The speaker described the scenic beauties of the Potomae Valley between Washington and Great Falls and its importance as a field for the outdoor study of natural history. The possibility of its destruction through the building of a dam at the District line, for the pur- pose of developing water power, was discussed, and the desirability of pre- serving the region as a public park. In conclusion, the speaker presented a resolution which had been recommended by the Council for passage by the Society. After discussion by R. F. Griacas, R. M. Lrssy, L. O. Howarp. 8. C. Brooks, A. A. Doourrrye, A. K. Fisher and W. B. GREELEY, leading to the elimination of one paragraph, the resolution was passed as follows: Whereas, the Potomac Valley, from Great Falls to Chain Bridge, provides one of the best fields for general biological observation and collecting in the vicinity of Washington, and is as yet comparatively unspoiled and worthy of preservation for purposes of outdoor recreation and education in natural history in this region, and whereas, The contemplated construction of a high dam at the District line, if carried out in accordance with legislation which has been and may again come before Congress, will forever deprive the inhabitants of Washington of this great natural playground and outdoor laboratory, which can never be replaced, Therefore, be it resolved, That the Biological Society of Washington oppose the building of any dam below Great Falls until a thorough study shall have been made of the possibilities of this area as a publie park by the Capital Park Commission, the Fine Arts Commission of the District of Columbia, and representatives of organiza- tions interested in the preservation of wild life and opportunities for outdoor recreation, W. B. Greetey: The national forests of the United States (Illustrated) — The extent of the national forests was described, and their importance as a source of timber for various purposes, as a protective covering for water- sheds, and for recreational purposes. The first aim of the Forest Service is the protection of the forests from destruction by fire. Improvements in methods of fire-fighting were described and illustrated by slides. The princi- ples of reforestation leading to a continuous supply of lumber for commercial uses were discussed. The importance of Alaskan forests as a source of - supply of woodpulp was especially emphasized. 5. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. eS ee ¥ - fot, 3 Bae ‘fs, : a hee 7 } of th magetinest a the affiliated societies will appear on this page ~ of the meeti f t feces See ; tors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. — of poe 3 ‘CONTENTS OrIGINAL PAPERS : Sas Geophysics .—Some geophysical problems. R.L. Faris. Rr eee snipes Sos alae on the recognition of speech sounds a touch. ua B. Sosman and EB. Posnsak.. Rereeey. : a Mineralogy.—Petzite from the Last iChange mine, Comucopia district, Bart V. SHANNON Pate RAO Na Sere Sete 8 Mie ey AT Pe SEPTEMBER 19, 1925 No. 15 JOURNAL : OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY | OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS _E.P. Kmur D. F. Hewett S. J. MaucHLy — NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLtpan G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Gricas J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WicHEERs CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE : WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Roya anp Guitrorp Aves. Bautrmmore, MaryLaNp Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences by yAj Pita) This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aimsto present a brief record of current scientific workin Washington. Tothisendit publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JournALisissued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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Special rates — are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 SEPTEMBER 19, 1925 No. 15 GENERAL SCIENCE.—The second revised edition of the Academy’s List of One Hundred Popular Books in Science. Rosert B. Sosman, Chairman of the Committee on Popular Books in Science. The “first revised edition’ of the Popular Science List was pub- lished by the American Library Association in 1923 in the form of a twenty-page pamphlet, and a report on the revised list was pub- lished in this Journal.2. The edition having become exhausted about two months ago, the Library Association inquired of the ACADEMY whether any revision was desired before the list was reprinted, as there seemed to be a continuing demand for such a list.* The President of the AcapEmy, by a vote of the Board of Mana- gers, thereupon appointed a special committee, consisting, as before, of the Vice-Presidents of the AcapEmMy, with the writer as chairman. Since the affiliated societies, now numbering seventeen, usually make an annual change in the Vice-Presidents by whom they are represented, the appointment of this group as the dctive Committee automatically insures not only a broad representation of the branches of science, but also a personnel different from that of previous Com- mittees. For general comments on the character of the list, and a history of its original compilation, reference may be made to the last report.! The new Committee has met, and has approved the following changes. 1 Received July 13, 1925. 2 This JouRNaL 12: 469-476. December 19, 1922. 3 See news item in This Journat 15: 206. May 4, 1925. 4 Op. cit. 1922. 353 354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 ADDITIONS Stosson, E. E. Keeping up with science. New York, Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1924. 355 pp., 30 pls. WissLer, Crark. Man and culture. New York, Crowell Co., 1923. 371 pp. Happon, A. C. The races of Man and their distribution. New York, Macmillan Co., 1925. 201 pp., 10 pls. This work was included in the Preliminary Edition of 1921, but was removed in 1922 because it was then out of print. A new edition is now available. Humpureys, W.J. Weather proverbs and paradoxes. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co., 1923. 125 pp., 16 pls. Brooks, Cuartes F. Why the weather? New York, Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1924. 310 pp., 26 pls. TautMAN, CuHarues F. Our weather, what makes it and how to watch tt. New York, Reynolds Publ. Co., 1925. 384 pp., 21 pls. Batt, W. W. Rousz. Mathematical recreations and problems. Tenth Ed. London, Macmillan & Co., 1922. 508 pp. The Committee would have liked to include F. Roru: First book of fores- try (Boston, Ginn & Co., 1902) among the botanical books, but finds it to be out of print. REMOVALS To keep the list at exactly one hundred, the following have been removed for the reasons indicated: TuHomson, J. ArtHuR, Editor. The outline of science. The principal objection to this work isits bulk. It was originally published in England in two large volumes, and has been republished in the United States as four volumes, too large a work to carry home conveniently from a library. Mason, O. T. Woman’s share in primitive culture. Not so well adapted to the purpose of the list as the author’s Origins of invention, which remains on the list; goes too much into descriptive detail. McCotuium, E. V. The newer knowledge of nutrition. This work has been considerably enlarged in its later editions, and is believed to contain far too much detailed evidence for a book suited to popular reading, although it is indispensable to the specialist. Moraan, T.H. A critique of the theory of evolution. Written for students of college rank as regards preparation in biological sciences, and is too speci- alized for this list. CHAMBERLIN, T. C. Origin of the Earth. This book contains much material that is still the subject of controversy among geologists and cos- mogonists. Although a stimulating book, it might give to a reader approach- ing the subject for the first time a misleading impression of geology as a highly speculative science. sEpT. 19, 1925 SOSMAN: POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 355 GEIKIn, ArcHIBALD. The founders of geology. As stated in the last report, this book was put on the list as a temporary extra item, awaiting a new edition of Merriny’s First hundred years of American geology, which was then in press and is now available. Lemprert, R. G. K. Weather science. This book was written primarily for British readers, and being devoted mainly to weather forecasting, has little reference to conditions in the United States. Meteorology and the weather provide such unusually suitable material for popular science that the Preliminary List contained several books touching these subjects, but all except one were rendered ineligible for the First Revised List through being out of print. This gap has recently been filled by three excellent books, those by Humphreys, Brooks, and Talman. Suaw, James Byrnie. Lectures on the philosophy of mathematics. This work requires too extended a knowledge of mathematics to serve the pur- poses of this list. REARRANGEMENTS The order of arrangement and the grouping of the books have been altered somewhat, but will still be found unsatisfactory by many readers. When we consider the numerous and complex ramifications of science it is not surprising that a logical linear classification of one hundred titles is difficult to achieve. The complete list, as published by the American Library Associa- tion, contains a descriptive paragraph about each book, with con- necting paragraphs joining the groups of books, in order that even the reader who does nothing more than glance through the list may gain some feeling of the unity of scientific knowledge and the inter- relations of its branches. These paragraphs need not be reprinted here, but the complete list of authors and titles is given below for reference. A GENERAL VIEW: 1. Huxuey, THomas Henry. Selections from Hucley. 2. SLtosson, Epwin E. Keeping up with science. 3. Curtis, WINTERTON C. Science and human affairs. SCIENCES OF MAN: Psychology: 4. THORNDIKE, Epwarp L. The Human Nature Club. 5. James, Wiuu1am. Psychology. 6. WoopwortyH, Rogpert §. Psychology; a study of mental life. Anthropology: 7. OsBorN, Henry Farrrietp. Men of the Old Stone Age. 8. WissLeR, CuarK. Man and culture. 356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 9. 10. ta Mason, O. T. The origins of invention. Happon, A. C. The races of Man and their distribution. Hovey, Wautter. The Hopi Indians. Human physiology: 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. SHERMAN, H. C. Food products. Eppy, Watter H. The vitamine manual. Jorpan, E. O. Food poisoning. Keen, Witiram Wrutams. Medical research and human welfare. Huntinaton, Ettswortu. Civilization and climate. SCIENCES OF LIFE: Heredity: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Darwin, CHarues. The origin of species. East, E. M., and Jones, D. F. Inbreeding and outbreeding. CastLe, W. E., Couttrer, J. M., Davenport, C. B., East, E. M., and Towrr, W. L. Heredity and eugenics. Conxkuin, E. G. Heredity and environment. Gatton, Francis. Hereditary genius. PoprENnon, Pau, and Jounson, R. H. Applied eugenics. General biology: 23. 24. 25. Tuomson, J. ARTHUR. The wonder of life. Tuomson, J. ArTHUR. The haunts of life. Locy, Witu1am A. Biology and its makers. Zoology: 26. . Netson, E. W. Wald animals of North America. . RoosgvettT, THEopoRE. African game trails. . Bersr, C. W. Jungle peace. . StonE, Witmer, and Cram, W. E. American animals. . CHAPMAN, FRanK M. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. . Fasre, J. H. Social life in the insect world. . Bouvier, E. L. The psychic life of insects. . Marteruinck, Maurice. The life of the bee. . JENKINS, OttveR P. Interesting neighbors. 36. 37. Bucktey, A. B. The winners in life’s race. BuatcHiey, W. 8. Gleanings from nature. Mayer, AtFrrep G. Sea-shore life. Botany: 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. Ganone, W. F. The living plant; a description and interpreta- tion of its functions and structure. OstrerHout, W. J. V. Experiments with plants. SoRAvER, Paut. A popular treatise on the physiology of plants. Harpy, Marcezt E. The geography of plants. Darwin, CHartes. Insectivorous plants. TownsEND, C. W. Sand dunes and salt marshes. sEPT. 19, 1925 SOSMAN: POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 357 Microscopic life: 44 Ancie 45 46 SCIENCE 47. . VaLery-Rapot, Rent. Louis Pasteur, his life and labours. nt life: . Lucas, F. A. Animals of the past. . Hutcarmson, H.N. Extinct monsters and creatures of other days. S OF THE EARTH: Grecory, J. W. Geology of to-day. . HawxswortH, Hautuam. The strange adventures of a pebble. . Luty, R. S., and others. The evolution of the Earth and its inhabitants. . COLE, GRENVILLE A. J. Rocks and their origins. . Merritt, Grorce P. The first one hundred years of American geology. . SempLe, ELvten Cuurcuriin. Influences of geographic environ- ment. . Spurr, J. E., Hd. Political and commercial geology and the world’s mineral resources. . BricoamM, ALBERT P. Geographic influences in American history. The Earth’s surface: 55 56 57 58 59. . TynDaLL, JoHN. The forms of water in clouds and rivers, ice and glaciers. . Bonnsy, T. G. The work of rains and rivers. . Bonney, T. G. Volcanoes, their structure and significance. . Russeuu, IsraEet C. Volcanoes of North America. Davison, CHartes. The origin of earthquakes. The air and the ocean: 60 61 62 63 64 SCIEN 65 72. SCIENCE . Humpureys, W. J. Weather proverbs and paradoxes. . Brooks, CHartes F. Why the weather? . Tauman, C. F. Our weather; what makes it and how to watch it. . Warp, R.pe C. Climate, considered especially in relation to Man. . Murray, JoHN. The ocean. CES OF THE HEAVENS: . Batt, Ropert 8. The story of the heavens. . Dyson, F. W. Astronomy. . Hatz, Georce E. The new heavens. . ABBOT, CHaRLES G. The Sun. . Lewis, Isapet M. Splendors of the sky. . Murpuy, E.G. A beginner’s star book; by Kelvin McKready, pseud. . Turner, H. H. A voyage through space. Berry, Artuur. A short history of astronomy. S OF THINGS AND EVENTS: Chemistry: 73 . Stosson, E. E. Creative chemistry. 858 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 74. Henprick, Enuwoop. LHveryman’s chemistry. 75. Futter, Henry C. The story of drugs. 76. Fapre, JEAN Henri. The wonder book of chemistry. 77. Duncan, Ropert Kennepy. The chemistry of commerce. 78. Martin, Grorrrey. Modern chemistry and its wonders. 79. Soppy, FrReprRiIcK. The interpretation of radium. 80. Venasue, F. P. A short history of chemistry. 81. Smita, Epear Faus. Chemistry in America. Physics: 82. Soppy, Freperick. Matter and energy. 83. Mitts, JoHn. Within the atom. 84. ErysrEIn, ALBERT. Relativity. 85. Fuemina, J. A. Waves and ripples in water, air and aether. 86. Miuuer, Dayton C. The science of musical sounds. 87. Braac, Wituiam. The world of sound. 88. Lucxinsu, M. Color and its applications. 89. Boys, C. V. Soap bubbles; their colours and the forces which mould them. 90. Macu, Ernst. Popular scientific lectures. 91. Soppy, FrepEericK. Science and life. SCIENCES OF FORM AND RELATION: 92. Batt, W. W. Rousz. Mathematical recreations and problems. 93. WuirEHEaD, A. N. Introduction to mathematics. 94. Conant, Levi Leonarp. The number concept, its origin and development. 95. Younc, JoHN Wustey. Lectures on the fundamental concepts of algebra and geometry. 96. Dr Morcan, Avaustus. On the study and difficulties of mathe- matics. 97. Smita, Davip Eucrenr. Number s‘ories of long ago. HISTORY OF SCIENCE: 98. Lippy, WALTER. An introduction to the history of science. 99. Sepewicxk, W. T., and Tyter, H.W. A short history of science. 100. Wuitr, ANDREW D. A history of the warfare of science with theology in Christendom. SEPT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 359 GEOPHYSICS.—On some of the greater problems of physical geology. CLARENCE E. Dutton. The greatest problems of physical geology I esteem to be: Ist, What is the potential cause of volcanic action? 2d, What is the cause of the elevation and subsidence of restricted areas of the earth’s surface? 3d, What is the cause of the foldings, distortions, and fractures of the strata? The voleanie problem is at present unsolved. Every theory or hypothesis thus far offered to explain it goes to pieces at the touch of criticism. For elevations and subsidences we are also without any satisfactory explanation. But the third problem, the cause of dis- tortions and fractures in the strata, looks much more hopeful, and it is my intention to propose this evening a solution of it, not a new one, let me say, but an old one remodeled. Before proceeding to discuss it, it is proper to advert to a hypothesis which has long been in favor, and which is looked upon by some authorities as affording an explanation. This is sometimes called the contractional hypoth- esis. The earth is regarded as being hot within and undergoing secular cooling by conduction of heat through its external shell and its radia- tion into space. This loss of interior heat is presumed to be ac- companied by a corresponding loss of interior volume, thus depriving the cold exterior shell of a part of its support. In a body so large as the earth the tangential strain set up by this loss of interior sup- port is demonstrably so great that the outer shell or crust, as it is usually called, must be crushed or buckled by it and collapse upon the shrinking nucleus. The objection to this explanation is twofold: In the first place, we cannot, without resorting to violent assumptions, find in this process a sufficient amount of either linear or volume con- traction to account for the effects attributed to it. In the second place, the distortions of the strata are not of the kind which could be produced by such a process. As regards the first objection I will confine myself here to a mere reference to the very able analysis of the problem by Rev. Osmond Fisher. I see no satisfactory reply to his argument. As regards the second objection, which, if pos- sible, is more cogent still, it may be remarked that the most striking 1 An address read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, April 27, 1889. and published in the Bulletin, 11: 51-64. 1889. It is reprinted here on the recom- mendation of the General Committee of the Philosophical Society of Washington, because it is the earliest summary of the theory of isostasy which is receiving wide- spread attention and the original source is readily accessible to few persons. 360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 features in the facts to be explained are the long, narrow tracts oc- cupied by belts of plicated strata and the approximate parallelism of the axes of their folds. These call for the action of some great hori- zontal force thrusting in one direction. Take, for example, the Appalachian system, stretching from Maine to Georgia. Here is a great belt of parallel synclinals and anticlinals with a persistent trend, and no rational inquirer can doubt that they have been puckered up by some vast force acting horizontally in a northwest and southeast direction. Doubtless it is the most wonderful example of systematic plication in the world. But there are many others which indicate the operation of the same forces with the same broad characteristics. The particular characteristic with which we are here concerned is that in each of these folded belts the horizontal force has acted wholly or almost wholly in one direction. But the forces which would arise from a collapsing crust would act in every direction equally. There would be no determinate direction. In short, the process could not form long, narrow belts of parallel folds. As I have no time to discuss the hypothesis further I dismiss it with the remark that it is quantita- tively insufficient and qualitatively inapplicable. It is an explanation which explains nothing which we want to explain. In proposing another view of the problem we may first turn our attention to those obvious and universally conceded forces which determine the figure of the earth. That figure we know to be one which a liquid or viscous body of large size will take when sub- ject only to the forces arising from rotation around an axis and to the mutual gravitation of its own parts. This form is an oblate spheroid. The spherical form, however, is only approximate. We find large portions of its surface protruding into continents and islands, while others are sunken to form oceanic basins. How did these inequali- ties arise? If the form of the earth is nearly spheroidal why is it not exactly so? It has always been supposed that this nearly spheroidal form implies that the earth, if not liquid, is certainly not rigid enough to maintain any other form against the forces of its own gravitation. Even if the earth were a mass of unbroken steel no great departure from this shape could be maintained fora moment. It would straight- way collapse and flow into a spheroidal form. But if gravitation compels it to take a nearly spheroidal shape why should it stop short of making it perfectly so? Perhaps it will be said that while the rigidity of rocks may be insufficient to permit a great deformation of the normal spheroid it may be sufficient to permit a small one. SEPT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 361 Before discussing this point it will be necessary to introduce a con- sideration which has seldom been touched upon by geographers or geologists. If the earth were composed of homogeneous matter its normal figure of equilibrium without strain would be a true spheroid of revolution; but if heterogeneous, if some parts were denser or lighter than others, its normal figure would no longer be spheroidal. Where the lighter matter was accumulated there would be a tendency to bulge, and where the denser matter existed there would be a tendency to flatten or depress the surface. For this condition of equilibrium of figure, to which gravitation tends to reduce a planetary body, irrespective of whether it be homogeneous or not, I propose the name isostasy. I would have preferred the word isobary, but it is preoccupied. We may also use the corresponding adjective, iso- static. An isostatic earth, composed of homogeneous matter and without rotation, would be truly spherical. If slowly rotating, it would be a spheroid of two axes. If rotating rapidly within a certain limit, it might be a spheroid of three axes. But if the earth be not homogeneous—if some portions near the surface be lighter than others—then the isostatic figure is no longer a sphere or spheroid of revolution, but a deformed figure bulged where the matter is light and depressed where it is heavy. The quest-on which I propose is: How nearly does the earth’s figure approach to isostasy? Mathematical statics alone will not enable us to answer this ques- tion with a sufficient degree of approximation. It does, indeed, enable us to fix certain limits to the departure from isostasy which cannot be exceeded. This very problem has been treated with great skill by Prof. George Darwin. But this problem may be approached from another direction with more satisfactory results. Geology furnishes us with certain facts which enable us to draw a much narrower conclusion. There are several categories of fact to which we may turn. One of the most remarkable is the general fact that where great bodies of strata are deposited they progressively settle down or sink seemingly by reason of their gross mechanical weight, just as a railway embank- ment across a bog sinks into it. The attention of the earlier Appa- lachian geologists was called, as soon as they had acquired a fair knowledge of their field, to the surprising fact that the paleozoic strata in that wonderful belt, though tens of thousands of feet in thickness, were all deposited in comparatively shallow water. The 362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 paleozoic beds of the Appalachian region have a thickness ranging from 15,000 to over 30,000 feet, yet they abound in proofs that when they were deposited their surfaces were the bottom of a shallow sea whose depth could not probably have exceeded a few hundred feet. No conclusion is left us but that sinking went on pari passu with the accumulation of the strata. When the geology of the Pacific coast was sufficiently disclosed, the same fact confronted us there. As investigation went on the same fact presented itself over the western mountain region of the United States. One of the most striking cases is the Plateau Country. This great region, nearly 100,000 square miles in area, lying in the adjacent parts of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona, discloses from 8000 to 12,000 feet of mesozoic and cenozoic strata. Here the proof is abundant that the surface of the strata was throughout that vast stretch of time never more than a few feet from sea level. Again and again is emerged from the water a little way, only to be submerged. At many hori- zons grew forests which are now represented by those abundant and beautiful fossil woods which of late have become celebrated. In the cretaceous we find many seams and seamlets of coal or carbonaceous shale; but they are included between sandstones which are cross- bedded and ripple-marked, or between shales and limestones which abound in the remains of marine mollusca. Here the evidence seems conclusive that the whole subsidence went on at about the same rate as the surface was built up by deposition. In short, it may be laid down as a general rule that where great bodies of sediment have been deposited over extensive areas their deposition has been ac- companied by a subsidence of the whole mass. The second class of facts is even more instructive, and stands in a reciprocal relation to those just mentioned. Wherever broad moun- tain platforms occur and have been subjected to great erosion the loss of altitude by degradation is made good by a rise of the platform. In the western portion of the United States there occur mountain ranges situated upon broad and lofty platforms from 20 to 60 miles wide and from 50 to 200 miles in length. Some of these platforms contain several mountain ridges. All of them have been enormously eroded, and if the matter removed from them could be replaced it would suffice to build them to heights of eight or ten miles; yet it is incredible that these mountains were ever much loftier than now, and may never have been so lofty. The flanks of these platforms, with the upturned edges of the strata reposing against them or with gigantic faults measuring their immense uplifts, plainly declare to sEepT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 363 us that they have been slowly pushed upwards as fast as they were degraded by secular erosion. Tt seems little doubtful that these subsidences of accumulation deposits and these progressive upward movements of eroded moun- tain platforms are, in the main, results of gravitation restoring the isostasy which has been disturbed by denudation on the one hand and by sedimentation on the other. The magnitudes of the masses which thus show the isostatic tendency are in some cases no greater than a single mountain platform, less than 100 miles in length, from 20 to 40 miles wide and from 2500 to 3500 feet mean altitude above the surrounding lowlands. From this we may directly infer that in those regions the effective rigidity of the earth is insu‘ficient to up- hold a mass so great as one of those platforms if that mass consti- tuted a real deformation of isostasy; and if an equal mass were to be suddenly removed the earth would flow upward from below to fill the hiatus; hence we must look to considerably smaller masses to find a defect of isostasy. It is extremely probable that small or narrow ridges are not isostatic with respect to the country round about them. Some volcanic mountains may be expected to be non-isostatic, especially isolated volcanic piles. Thus the geologic changes which have taken place may be regarded as experiments conducted by Nature herself on a vast scale, and from her experiments we may by suitable working hypotheses draw provisional conclusions, both as to the degree in which the earth approximates to isostasy and also as to the mean effective rigidity of large portions of the subterranean mass. The approach to isos- tasy is thereby inferred to be very near, while the mean rigidity of the subterranean masses is also inferred to be far less than that of ordinary surface rocks, and even approaching more nearly the rigidity of lead than to that of copper. Pure physics alone would not have enabled us to reach such a conclusion, for the equations employ con- stants of unknown value. But geologic inquiry may, and I believe does, furnish us with narrow limits within which those values must be taken. Thus the two sciences must work coéperatively and supple- ment each other. There is, however, one other branch of physical inquiry which bears directly on the foregoing questions. This is the investigation of terrestrial gravitation by means of the pendulum. I regret that I have never had time or opportunity to acquaint myself thoroughly with the results thus far reached by this branch of investigation, and can only speak from general knowledge. Pendulum observations 364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 are far too few for the wants of geographic or geologic science. So far as they go they are highly suggestive in the present connection. The pendulum, as a rule, does not show any appreciable variation of gravity, such as would be expected if the mean density of all the outer parts of the earth were uniform. It indicates rather that the elevated regions and continents are composed of lighter matter and the depressed regions and ocean basins of denser matter. The ex- ceptions are of a character which prove the general rule, and occur where we should look for them. The results obtained by the India survey upon the Himalayan mass were regarded by Archdeacon Pratt as indicating that the plateau was composed of lighter matter than the lowlands to the southward. A similar result has been obtained in the great bulge which forms the western half of the United States. In other words, the pendulum indicates that those elevated regions are nearly if not quite isostatic. On the other hand, the observations of Mendenhall on Fujiyama, in Japan, indicated a slight excess of mass, and a similar result would seem to follow from Mr. Preston’s work in the Hawaiian Islands. From the nature of the process by which volcanoes are built these results are to be expected. It would also seem natural to expect that the plumb-line would give some indications upon this subject; but experience has shown that most of the observed deflections of the plumb-line are inexpli- cable. They occur where we would least expect them—upon broad and level plains, where there is nothing to indicate any cause of deflection. They are found on the tundras of Siberia and the monot- onous expanse of British North America, where the surface of the earth is but feebly diversified. In mountain regions they are often conflicting and unintelligible, but along the sea coast the indications are more systematic. On both the Atlantic and Pacific shores the deflection of the plummet is almost invariably towards the ocean, and is often of considerable amount; but it is along the shore that the isostatic theory would lead us to look for just this deflection, for it is along the margins of the continents that great bodies of sediment accumulate; and so long as the earth possesses any noteworthy degree of rigidity, enabling it to sustain in part the resulting defor- mation of isostasy, so long must we expect to find these sediments constituting an excess of mass whose attraction will make itself felt upon the plummet. The theory of isostasy thus briefly sketched out is essentially the theory of Babbage and Herschel, propounded nearly a century ago. sEpT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 365 It is, however, presented in a modified form, in a new dress, and in greater detail. We may now proceed to deduce some important consequences. A little reflection must satisfy us that the secular erosion of the land and the deposit of sediment along the shore lines constitute a continuous disturbance of isostasy. The land is ever impoverished of material—is continuously unloaded; the littoral is as continuously loaded up. The resultant forces of gravitation tend to elevate the eroded land and to depress the littoral to their respective isostatic levels. Whether these forces shall become kinetic and produce actual movement or flow will depend, first, upon their intensity; second, upon the rigidity of the earth by which such movement js resisted. Let us consider, then, the intensity of the forces: The littoral belts upon which sediments are thrown down are co- extensive in length with shores. Their widths are no doubt variable, but must often reach a hundred miles or more with considerable thickness, and are not wholly unimportant at much greater distances. The thickness of the deposits may vary much, but may be propor- tional to the time of accumulation, and here time is measured by the geologic standard. The gross weight of such masses of sediment must be vast indeed. If there is any viscous yielding at all the problem becomes essentially that of the flowing solid, which is in a large measure governed by hydrostatic laws. The intensity of the force must have a maximum value proportional to the thickness which lies above the isostatic level and also proportional to its specific gravity. The area covered by the deposit enters as a quantity factor, but not as an intensity factor. The greater the area, the greater is the total potential energy of movement without any necessary increase of the intensity of the force. This intensity, being propor- tional to the thickness of the sediments, may become almost indefi- nitely great or it may be small. Indeed, it may, and in fact does, become negative when we apply the same statical theory to the move- ment or stress of the denuded land areas. : But whether these forces are sufficient to produce actual flow is equally dependent upon the rigidity, or, as we may here term it, the viscosity of the masses involved. We have already seen reason to infer that the mean viscosity is not great, being far less than that on the surface rocks alone. Beyond this rather vague statement I perceive no way of assigning a value to the resistance to be over- come. It remains to inquire what is the resulting direction of motion. 366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 15 The general answer is, towards the direction of least resistance. The specific answer, which must express the direction of least resistance, will, of course, turn upon the configuration of the deposition on the one hand, and of denudation on the other, and also upon the maner in which the rigidity or viscosity varies from place to place. Taking, then, the case of a land area undergoing denudation, its detritus carried to the sea and deposited in a heavy littoral belt, we may regard the weight of each elementary part of the deposited mass as a statical force acting upon a viscous support below. Assuming that we could find a differential expression applicable to each and every element of the mass and a corresponding one for the resistance offered by the viscosity, the integration for the entire mass might give us a series of equipotential surfaces within the mass. The resul- tant foree at any point of any equipotential surface would be normal to that surface. A similar construction may be applied to the ad- joining denuded area, in which the defect of isostasy may be treated as so much mass with a negative algebraic sign. The resultants normal to the equipotential surfaces would, in this case, also have the negative sign. The effective force tending to produce movement would be the arithmetical sum of the normals or of a single resultant compounded of the two normals. From this construction we may derive a force which tends to push the loaded sea bottoms inward upon the unloaded land horizontally. This gives us a force of the precise kind that is wanted to explain the origin of systematic plications. Long reflection and con- siderable analysis have satisfied me that it is su‘icient both in in- tensity and in amount unless we assume for the mean viscosity of the superficial and subterranean masses involved in the movement a much greater value than I am disposed to concede. The result is a true viscous flow of the loaded littoral inward upon the unloaded continent. There may be in this proposition some degree of violence to a certain mental prejudice against the idea that the rock-ribbed earth, to which all our notions of stability and immovableness are attached, can be made to flow. It may assist our efforts if we reflect upon the motion of the great ice sheet which covers Greenland. Here the masses involved are no greater than some masses of sediment. The specific gravity of ice is only about one-third that of the rock masses. The forces called into play to carry the glacier along horizontally do not seem to differ greatly in intensity or amount from the de- scribed forces, and the rigidity of the ice itself may not exceed the mean rigidity of the rock masses beneath the littoral. SEPT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 367 We may now proceed to inquire how this theory adjusts itself to the actual facts. And, firstly, where do systematic plications occur? (1) It is a remarkable fact that they occur among sedimentary beds of great and variable thickness, which were rather rapidly accumulated. They seldom, and, so far as I now recall, never occur among strata which are of small thickness, slowly accumulated with uniformity over large areas; and the theory requires that they should occur in the heavy deposits or along their margins, and should have their greatest development there, for the forces called into play must be proportional to the masses involved. (2) They occur in their systematic form along the ancient shore lines. This is but another way of stating the preceding proposition. It has its uses, however, for in so far as the continents have preserved approximately their old shore lines since the ages in which the plica- tions were formed there is a conspicuous parallelism of the axes of plication to the neighboring coast. This is true of the Pacific coast of the United States. As regards the Appalachian plications, we have the remarkable fact that in paleozoic time the ocean lay to the west of those vast bodies of folded strata instead of to the east of them, as now. We must look to a paleozoic Atlantis for the origin of a great portion of those sediments. The flow of the earth was from west northwest to east southeast. (3) The parallelism of the folds and their occurrence in long, narrow belts formed by horizontal forces acting in one direction be- come a consequence so obvious as to need no comment. It is in strong contrast with the contractional theory, which gives a force without any determinate direction. (4) Another important fact is that these systematic flexures were mainly formed at the times the sediments were deposited. This is a fact of geologic observation. The contractional hypothesis gives no determinate time for the formation of these flexures. It holds up to us a process continuous through all geological time, proceeding at a rate which diminishes but slowly as the ages roll by. These plications, according to the isostatic theory, are the results of the disturbance of isostasy, and follow immediately upon that distur- bance or after it has reached a sufficient amount, and cease with it. These folds, however, have been subject since their first forma- tion to great erosion, which is also a disturbance of isostasy, and thus the original plication may have been increased or modified thereby. The theory may also be applied in a most satisfactory manner to the explanation of subordinate features associated with plication. 368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 15 (5) One of the features of plication which has attracted great attention and occasioned great perplexity to geologists is the so-called fan-structure. This is very striking in the Alps, and has its counter- part in the inclined folds of the Appalachians of Pennsylvania, where the northwestern branches of the anticlines are steeper than the southeastern branches. If we assume that as the rocks lie deeper in the earth they are softened somewhat by the increasing heat, it follows that in the flow of the mass the movement would be easier and more rapid below than above. Thus a horizontal force arising from this differential movement acts upon the inverted arches of the synclines and carries their lower vertices forward in the direction of motion. Thus the general theory here proposed gives an explanation of the origin of plications. It gives us a force acting in the direction re- quired in the manner required, at the times and places required, and one which has the intensity and amount required and no more. The contractional theory gives us a force having neither direction nor determinate mode of action, nor definite epoch of action. It gives us a force acting with a far greater intensity than we require, but with far less quantity. To provide a place for its action it must have recourse to an arbitrary postulate assuming for no independent reason the existence of areas of weakness in a supposed crust which would have no raison d’etre except that they are necessary for the salvation of the hypothesis. Before closing this discussion it will be necessary to advert to another one of the great problems of physical geology, viz., the cause of general elevations and subsidences. I do so, not with the idea of throwing light upon it, but to guard against a misapprehension which would otherwise be sure to occur. Geologic history discloses the fact that some great areas of the earth’s surface which were in former ages below sea-level are now thousands of feet above it. It also gives us reason to believe that other areas now submerged were in other ages terra firma. Our western mountain region at the beginning of cenozoic time was at sea level. It is now, on an average, 6000 feet above it. The great Himalayan plateau contains early cenozoic beds full of marine fossils which now lie at altitudes of 14,000 feet or more. The whole North American Continent has, since the close of the paleozoic, gained in altitude. Now, it is sufficiently obvious that the theory of isostasy offers no explanation of these permanent changes of level. On the contrary, the very idea of isostasy means the conservation of pro- sEpT. 19, 1925 DUTTON: PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY 369 files against lowering by denudation on the land and by deposition on the sea bottom, provided no other cause intervenes to change those levels. If, then, that theory be true, we must look for some inde- pendent principle of causation which can gradually and permanently change the profiles of the land and sea bottom. And [I hold this cause to be an independent one. It has been much the habit for geologists to attempt to explain the progressive elevation of plateaus and mountain platforms, and also the foldings of the strata by one and the same process. I hold the two processes to be distinct and having no necessary relation to each other. There are plicated re- gions which are little or not at all elevated, and there are elevated regions which are not plicated. Plication may go on with little or no elevation in one geologic age and the same region may be elevated without much additional plication in a subsequent age. This is in a large measure true of the Sierra Nevada platform, which was in- tensely plicated during the paleozoic and early mesozoic, but which received its present altitude in the late cenozoic. Whatever may have been the cause of these great regional uplifts it in no manner affects the law of isostasy. What the real nature of the uplifting force may be is, to my mind, an entire mystery; but I think we may discern at least one of its attributes, and that is a gradual expansion, or a diminution of the density, of the subter- ranean magmas. If the isostatic force is operative at all, this expan- sion is a rigorous consequence; for whenever a rise of the land has taken place one of two things has happened; the region affected has either gained an accession of mass or a mere increase of volume with- out increase of mass. We know of no cause which could either add to the mass or diminish the density, yet one of the two must surely have happened. But the difference of the two alternatives in respect to consequences is immense. If the increase of volume of an ele- vated area be due to an accession of matter, the plateau must be hoisted against its own ri idity and also against the statical weight of its entire mass lying above the isostatic level. But if the increase of volume be due to a decrease of density there is no resistance to be overcome in order to raise the surface. Hence I infer that the cause which elevates the land involves an expansion of the underlying magmas, and the cause which depresses it is a shrinkage of the magmas. The nature of the process is, at present, a complete mystery. 370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOU. 15, No. 15 BOTANY.—A new acid-soil onion from West Virginia. Epaar T. Wuerry, Bureau of Chemistry. The widespread Nodding Onion, Alliwn cernuum Roth, grows on limestone ledges, in alluvial soil, and in other situations where the soil is circumneutral in reaction. In the course of the writer’s studies of the relations between soil reaction and the distribution of native plants, a relative of that species was found to occur in south- eastern West Virginia and adjoining Virginia, where the soil reaction is often decidedly acid. In the usual keys this runs down to A. cernuum, but close examination indicates it to be sufficiently different to justify its recognition as a distinct species. In view of its pref- erence for acid soil habitats, it may be named Allium oxyphilum. Its features are as follows: Allium oxyphilum sp. nov. Plants occurring in scattered small colonies on rocky or gravelly slopes over shale and sandstone, and in residual clay over limestone, the soil reac- tion being more or less strongly acid. Bulb slender, tapering gradually upward; coatings membranous, outermost gray, inner white to dull reddish (Ridgway purplish vinaceous, 1/’’b). Leaves basal, 10-25 em. long, 2-7 mm. wide, flat toward the tip, keeled and crescentic in cross-section toward the base. Scape 25-45 em. long, 1-3 mm. thick, in cross section rhombic with the acute angles prolonged, thus appearing two-edged. Umbel nodding in anthesis, becoming erect in fruit, of 10 to 40 flowers, subtended by two secarious bracts formed by the splitting of the spathe which surrounds the buds. Pedicels slender and flexuous, 2-4 em. long. Flowers campanulate, green at the base of the sepals, otherwise pure white or exceptionally pale pink. Perianth segments oblong-ovate, obtuse, concave and somewhat keeled, of two sorts, the sepals 4-5 mm. long, spreading, the petals 5-6 mm. long, connivent. Stamens in two groups, those opposite the petals elongat- ing and maturing a day or two earlier than those opposite the sepals. Cap- sule at maturity triangular-top-shaped, about 4mm. high and 5 mm. broad; the 6 narrowly deltoid crests grouped in pairs, and the members of each pair lying practically in the same plane; crests 1.5-3 mm. long, slightly erose, granular-margined. Blooming period from mid-July to late August. As the type locality may be designated open woods along the road 2 km. (1} miles) westnorthwest of Lillydale, Springfield Township, Monroe County, West Virginia (Alderson quadrangle, U.S.G.8.). Type specimens collected there by Messrs. W. A. Benfield, F. W. Gray and the writer August 12, 1924, have been deposited in the U. S. National Herbarium. The rock there is limestone, but it is covered with dense residual clay of minimacid reaction. The plant has been observed growing at a number of other places in the Appalachian Valley and Appalachian Plateau provinces in south- western Virginia and southeastern West Virginia, but so far as known is endemic in an area not more than 100 km. (60 miles) in diameter. It is particularly abundant in subacid to mediacid soil in open woods on shale rock, growing in association with other endemics such as Trifolium vir- ginicum Small and Pseudotaenidia montana Mackenzie. It has been found to grow well in cultivation, and should make a desirable addition to any rock SEPT. 19, 1925 WHERRY: NEW. ACID-SOIL ONION 371 garden. When planted in neutral soil it produees few viable seeds, and so does not spread as rapidly as do some species of Allium. It may be assigned the common name of Acid-soil Onion. — ; The most striking differences between this new species and A. cernwum, evident in field and herbarium alike, lie in the flower color and the length of the pedicels. In addition, the race of A. cernuwmn which grows in the same general region has the petals and sepals less differentiated, the stamens matur- ing more nearly together, and the crests on the capsule shorter, more broadly deltoid, and with more markedly erose and notched margins, while the Fig. 1.—Allium oxyphilum, sp. nov. Lillydale, West Virginia members of the pairs lie at considerable angles with one another instead of being essentially coplanar. It also blooms two to three weeks earlier than A. oxyphilum, all of these divergences remaining constant when the two are cultivated side by side. Fresh material of western races of A. cernwwm or of A. allegheniense Small have not been available for comparison; de- scriptions and herbarium specimens indicate that they may approach the new species in having distinct sepals and petals, but not in the other re- spects enumerated. In order to complete the characterization of Allium oxyphilum as a distinct species, two photographs of it by the writer are here reproduced. 372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 The first (Fig. 1), taken at the type locality, brings out the general aspect of the plant, which is sufficiently different from that of A. cernuwm to enable the two to be distinguished at a distance, or from a moving vehicle; the promi- nent divided leaves in the background are those of Delphinium exaltatum Fig. 2.—Aldium oxyphilum, sp. noy. In cultivation, Washington, D.C. YL } ) Ait. The second (Fig. 2), taken in the writer’s garden in mid-August, 1925, shows the long flexuous pedicels, the separation of the perianth segments into two groups, and even the dimorphism of the stamens, in that only three of these are in evidence in any one flower, the other set being still included in the corolla or withered away. sEpT. 19, 1925 ALLEN: CELLS OF THE VISCERAL TRACT 373 MAMMOLOGY.—Localization of the cells of the descending visceral tract in the cst and guinea-pig (preliminary communication). Wiiu1am F. Auten, Department of Anatomy, University of Oregon Medical School, Portland, Oregon. As a result of a study of several Nissl-stained brain stems of cats and guinea-pigs in which the spinal cords had been hemisected, it was found that practically all of the cells in the nucleus commissuralis and in the nucleus tractus solitariz were altered cells. That is, these cells had undergone Nissl degeneration or chromatolysis. Many of these cells were in an advanced stage of degeneration, exhibiting considerable vacuolation and disintegration. It is of interest to record that no altered cells are present in the cephalic and middle portions of the nucleus tractus solitarit, an area which was described in a previous paper, as showing chromatolytic cells after severing the lemniscus medialis of the opposite side in the mid-brain region. Furthermore, to note that the area portraying degenerate cells in the caudal part of the nucleus tractus solitarii and in the nucleus commissuralis in these experiments, is identical to the area that showed no chromatolytic cells in the previous work,! where the lemniscus medialis was severed. It is obvious that the degenerated cells in these experiments, belong to the nucleus tractus solitarti and the nucleus commissuralis, and not to some adjacent nucleus, for the reason that they were shown in a still earlier paper? to occupy iden- tically the same sensory regions that were supplied by degenerated fibers from the tractus solitarius, brought about through severance of the sensory root fibers of the VII, IV, and X cranial nerves. Since some experiments in which the hemisection of the spinal cord extended over to the opposite side, to include the ventral column of that side, demonstrated a degeneration of the cells of both com- missural nuclei and the caudal ends of both solitary tract nuclei, it can be concluded that the descending fibers arising from these, nu- clei on one side, cross to the opposite side as internal arcuate fibers, and descend with the ventral cortico-spinal fibers of the opposite side. 1Allen, W. F. Origin and destination of the secondary visceral fibers in the guinea- pig. Jour. Comp. Neur., 35: 275-311. 1923. 2 Allen, W. F. Origin and distribution of the tractus solitarius in the guinea pig. Jour. Comp. Neur., 35: 171-204. 1923. 374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 679TH MEETING The 679th meeting was held April 11, 1925, at 8:00 p.m. in the new as- sembly hall of the Cosmos Club, with President RoHwer in the chair and 73 persons present. Miss Katuerine Stuarr exhibited specimens of solitary bees which have been very abundant in Oxford, N. C., for two successive springs. They raise little red nest domes of clay and have ruined many lawns. ‘The speci- mens have been identified by Mr. Ronwer as Andrena sp. M. K. Brapy described the discovery of a nest of Cryptotis parva con- taining about 20 young. Dr. A. E. Imms, of Rothamsted Experiment Station, introduced by Dr. L. O. Howarp, described the history of the Rothamsted Experiment Station. J. E. Lawns, who had discovered the value of superphosphate as a fertilizer and made considerable money from its exploitation, devoted the proceeds to study of agricultural problems. He was associated with the chemist Henry Giupert. The Station was established in 18438, and work was done in a barn. In 1854, with the aid of subscriptions, the first real laboratory was built. A new laboratory was built in 1919, and another since. The station is supported with the aid of a government grant, and is devoted to the study of soil science in the widest sense. The speaker described his own work on the reproduction and migration of Aphis rumicis. The whole experimental stock was bred from one agamic female. It is found that many more young are produced with increased illumination. The broadbean is attacked much more than its supposed ancestor, Vicia narbonensis. W. F. Tuompson, introduced by Lewis Rapcuirre, spoke briefly on the treaty between Canada and the United States for the protection of the halibut. Program: L. O. Howarp, Something about estimates of loss through insect damage.—The speaker discussed the past loss to agriculture due to the de- predation of insects. Marlatt’s estimate is that the damage done in 1919 was $2,200,000,000. The subject is a very complicated one. The difference in the value of the product raised, due to a raise in price caused by reduced quantity, is probably offset by secondary losses due to reduction in the amount of manufacturing, as in milling, cotton manufacturing, etc. The loss from diseased insects, stored product insects, and insects feeding on cloths is vast but extremely difficult to estimate in figures. The loss from the cotton boll weevil has been estimated at $524,000,000 in one year. Very much damage is also done by post and powder beetles. In conclusion the speaker showed a moving picture illustrating some of the principal insects damaging wood and their work. Vernon Battery, Making pets of insect-eating bats —The speaker exhibited a large brown bat which has been kept as a pet in his house for over a month. It makes its home under an Indian basket on the wall and flies about freely at night. It has learned to go to one place to be fed and watered, drinks eagerly from a spoon or from drops on the finger tip, and eats a great variety of insects, as well as raw or cooked meat, fish, lobster and ice cream. It SEPT. 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 375 refuses slugs, angleworms, ants, rough centipedes and one kind of soft beetle. Contrary to ordinary belief bats are exceptionally free from parasites, are harmless, cleanly, intelligent and very useful animals and do not get in ladies’ hair. More interesting house pets would be hard to find. 680TH MEETING The 680th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club April 25, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHweEr in the chairand 42 persons present. New members elected: Wint1am P. Harris, Jr., Dorotuy H. PorENOE, WILSON PopPENOE (life member). A. A. Doouitrie exhibited an ostrich egg from the Zoo which he had boiled and cross-sectioned. The yolk showed concentric lines. The weight of the egg was 51 oz. He also described a method of water-proofing labels for fluid specimens by infiltrating the labels with paraffin, used either melted or as a solution in xylol. S. F. Buaxe described a curious family of cats seen in the city. The mother is black, with a slight white mark on the throat. Hertwokittens are pure white, and in each the right eye is green and the left bright blue. L. N. HorrMann reported the capture of a young specimen of Clemmys muhlenbergizt near Stubblefield Falls, Virginia, which has been identified by Dr. L. StesNecer. It was kept through the summer, but lost sight of, and was later found dead in the yard. This is the first record for this species in the vicinity of Washington. S. A. Rouwer reported since the last meeting, further lots of bees (And- rena sp.) had been received from northern Virginia and from New Jersey. In both localities the same habit of damaging lawns by nest building was reported. Program: Smita Rey, Forest fires and wild life-——The speaker described the abundant animal and plant life of a large area in northern Idaho and western Montana. The effect of extensive forest fires in this area in the dry year 1910 was then discussed. Not only were large numbers of the larger game animals, such as elk, deer, and bear, destroyed, but innumerable small animals and birds. The heat was so intense that great numbers of fish were killed even in rapidly flowing mountain streams. The indirect damage to wild life, through destruction of cover and food supply, was far- reaching but impossible to measure accurately. The conditions described in this area are typical of the damage done by fires in the great forested re- gions of the western States. Witson Popenog, Peruvian agriculture of Pre-Columbian days (Illustrated). —Among the civilized peoples of Pre-Colombian America, the Maya of Guatemala and Yucatan excelled in the development of a written language and of a highly intricate and exact calendar system; the Aztec of Mexico in the arts of warfare; and the Peruvians in agriculture, in weaving, and in social organization. The agriculture of the ancient Peruvians was noteworthy in several respects. On the rocky slopes of the high Andes they built series upon series of stone terraces, filled them with rich alluvium from the fertile valleys below, and irrigated them artificially from the mountain streams above. They brought many wild food plants into domestication and through con- scious or unconscious selection carried some of them to a high degree of agri- cultural perfection, and they understood the use of artificial fertilizers. Their achievements are all the more remarkable when it is recalled that they were practically without metal implements; that they had no draft 376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 animals worthy of the name; and that they never developed a written lan- guage with which to pass on the accumulated information of generations. Other countries have profited greatly in modern times, through the intro- duction of some of the plants first domesticated by the ancient Peruvians. The potato is a food crop of major importance in Europe and North America, while the tomato and the peanut are extensively grown in many regions. (Author’s abstract.) 8. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary. THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 370TH MEETING The 370th meeting of the Entomological Society was held December 4, 1924, at the National Museum, with President Bovine in the chair and 34 persons present. Officers elected for 1925 were: President, R. A. CusHMaAN; First vice- president, J. M. Aupricu; Second vice-president, J. A. Hysuop; Editor, Carn Henrico; Recording secretary, C. T. GreENE; Corresponding Secretary- Treasurer, S. A. Rouwer; Executive-Committee; A. N. CaupEuu, W. R. Watton, J. E. Grar; Vice- president of the AcADEMY, S. A. Ronwer. Program: Wm. Scravs: Mimicry and the Entomological Society of Lon- don. The speaker read abstracts from the proceedings of the Society’s meetings on the subject of mimicry. Many of the theories held by mem- bers of the society the speaker considered far-fetched. The so-called mime- tic groups of butterflies, which vary according to distribution, all the species showing the same change under similar conditions, simply represent a de- velopment along parallel lines. Coloration is aggressive rather than pro- tective. All these species are devoured, the Heterocera being especially attractive to birds. R. C. SHANNON discussed mimicry in the Syrphidae. Dr. W. M. Mann spoke of mimicry among the army ants, calling attention to the numerous species of beetles which greatly resemble these ants, and live in their nests. Notes and Discussion: M. C. Lane spoke of the study of wire worms in the State of Washington. Dr. Mann gave an account of this recent trip to Europe, in the course of which he visisted museums in Spain, Portugal, Paris, Genoa, Switzerland, Leiden, and England. 371SsT MEETING The 371st meeting was held January 8, 1925, at the National Museum, with President CusHMAN in the chair and 46 persons present. The Editor reported that the last volume of the Proceedings contained 56 articles, 54 of which were systematic papers, and 235 pages. The following were elected to membership in the Society: Henry Goon, Alabama Polytechnic Institute; Miss Gracrk H. Griswoup, Cornell Uni- versity; Donatp T. Ricn, Ithaca, New York. Dr. A. G. Bovine was elected to represent the Entomological Society as Vice-president of the Academy, in place of Mr. Ronwenr, resigned. Presidential Address by Dr. A. G. Bévine: A summer trip in Iceland southeast of Vatna-Jékul. The paper was illustrated by several charts. Fritz JOHANSEN, Ottawa: The speaker dealt with the explorations and scientific work carried out by the Canadian Arctic expeditions of 1913- 1918, under Stefansson. Sailing from Vancouver Island in 1913 the expedi- tion separated into a northern and a southern party. The former, in the SEPT. 19, 1925 PROCEEDINGS: THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 377 “‘Karluk,” was frozen into the ice north of Alaska, and carried over to north- east of Wrangle Island, where the ship went down in January 1914, and its company marooned, until the following summer. The southern party wintered in Camden Bay, close to the boundary line between Alaska and Yukon, from September 1913 to July 1914; then sailed to new winter quarters in Dolphine and Union Straits, where it remained until July 1916, examining the copper-bearing rocks and studying the Eski- mos, and the flora and fauna of this area. The explorations of the new northern party in 1915-1917, the discovery of new islands north of the western part of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and Storkersen’s eight months’ drift with the ice north of Alaska in 1918, were all recounted. The speaker emphasized the necessity for entomological collecting on the Alaskan Arctic Coast between Bering Strait and Point Barrow, in order to connect up the entomological work that has been done in southern Alaska with the detailed investigations made by this Canadian expedition, east of Point Barrow, where almost 100 new species and many biological data were obtained. 372D MEETING The 372d meeting was held February 5th, 1925, at New National Museum with President CusHMAN in the chair and 37 persons present. Resolutions on the death of Colonel THomas L. Casry were adopted. Austin H. Ciark was elected a member of the Society. Program: R. E. Snoperass: Senses, and the morphology of the sense organs of insects. The structure of the sense organs must be taken into consideration in any study of insect senses. A knowledge of the senses of insects is essential for general studies of insect tropisms and ecology; and extend research in those fields, by furnishing a better understanding of the nature of insects as living things, is most likely to lead to the development of new methods of control, as well as to a better appreciation of old methods of control of in- jurious species, and of the propagation of beneficial species. The sense organs of insects were discussed under the heads of (1) hair- like organs, (2) campaniform organs, (3) plate organs, (4) the organ of Johnston, (5) chordotonal organs, (6) eyes. This paper was discussed by Messrs. McINpoo and RoHWER. 373D MEETING The 373d meeting was held March 5, 1925, at the National Museum, with President CusHMAN in the chair and 39 persons present. The Secretary read a communication from the Russian Bureau of Infor- mation in Washington expressing the desire that more cordial and intimate relations be established between scientists in the United States and those in the Union of Soviet Republics. The Bureau offered to assist in the exchange of literature between scientists of the two countries. Resolutions on the death of Paut Reverr Myers were adopted. Program: Entomological taronomy (in three parts): (1). From an eco- nomic aspect by A.C. Baxer; (2) from an educational aspect by E. D. Batt; (3) from a taxonomic aspect by 8. A. RoHwErR. Dr. Batt stated that true taxonomy is an expression of the actual rela- tionship of existing forms of life to each other. It is an interpretation of the path of evolution and as such is one of the most profoundly interesting and profitable fields of biological research. Evolution takes place in all 378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 lines—in structure, function and habit. It is only when we consider all of the factors in their relations to each other that we arrive at a true concept of the path. If text-books of entomology were based on a truly evolutionary taxonomy it would be much easier for the student to obtain a ground work in the fundamentals of entomological science. In many cases the accuracy of taxonomic interpretations can be checked, as in the parallel evolution of the mammals and their external and internal parasites; also in the case of groups of insects and their internal parasites. The independent working out of these phylogenies has shown so close an agreement as to make it practically certain that they are accurate. This type of taxonomic studies is of the highest educational value, and should be a part of the life work of a much larger number of entomologists. Notes and Discussion: Dr. J. M. ALpricH announced that Colonel THomas L. Casry had bequeathed his collection of beetles and his extensive library on the order to the National Museum. This is the largest gift of insects ever received by the Museum, containing, as estimated, the types of more than five thousand species. R. C. SHANNON spoke of the need of a name which would be applicable to all Arthropoda exclusive of the Crustacea. He said this need is particularly felt in Medical Entomology where there is frequent need to refer to all of the poisonous, bloodsucking, disease-carrying, and parasitic (on vertebrate hosts) Arthropods as a single group. In view of the fact that a common well-known name is highly desirable and especially one that would be cor- rectly applicable to all of the members of the group, he wished to propose the use of the name insect for this purpose. The use of the name in this sense would be in keeping with the definition of the word and in its frequent popular application. If this were done the phylum Arthropoda would be accordingly divided into two subphyla, one the Crustacea and the other the Insecta. The true insects would then be called the Insecta, sensu stricto, or by the other name for the Insects, the Hexapoda. Mr. Hernricu objected to Mr. SHANNON’s change of the definition of the word insect. He said that definition of words should be more precise, and urged adherence to the present definition of the word insect. Mr. Rouwer said that a single common term to cover all of the animals usually treated by entomology was desirable; he thought that the use of the word insect could well be expanded so as to include all of them, and that for technical use entomologists might use the word hexapod instead of insect and the word herapoda instead of the word “‘insecta.”’ The subject was further discussed by Messrs. Howarp, Hystop, Mann, Scuaus, and THONE. Mr. Rouwer exhibited six lantern slides showing nests of three different species of social wasps. One of these was of Vespa carolina, the photograph of the nest being made from specimens from Orlando, Florida. He pointed out the similarity between the underground nest and the aerial nest of the bald-faced hornet. Another nest illustrated was that of Polistes versicolor, an ordinary polistine. The third nest was that of Polistes goeldiz, which is composed of two parallel cells arranged so as to form a long whip-like nest, the dorsal part being dark brown in color, the ventral being white, thus giving the nest the appearance of a snake. For this reason the natives of South and Central America commonly call this nest the snake nest. 374TH MEETING The 374th meeting was held April 2, 1925, at the New National Museum, with President CusHMAN in the chair and 33 persons present. sepr. 19, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 379 Program: W. M. Mann: An entomological journey across Lower California. Notes and Discussion: E. A. Back gave an informal talk on Some fabric pests. He exhibited numerous specimens of fabrics, books, and a chair, all of which were badly damaged by insects. R. C. SHannon exhibited material of a species of botfly (Cuterebra) which infests the howling monkeys of tropical America. He also showed a piece of the hide of a howling monkey, collected by J. L. Barr in Darien, Panama, which is literally riddled by the bot larvae. A third exhibit consisted of two adult specimens of Cuterebra reared from the red howler of British Guiana. The primate host of this botfly is a very unusual one as Cuterebra is addicted to the use of rodents and opossums for hosts. Dr. Ewrne exhibited a tree frog (Hyla arenicolor) from Southern California, which had several specimens of a new species of mites of Trombicula. 375TH MEETING The 375th meeting was held at the National Museum May zB ae with President Cusu@an in the chair and 42 persons present. CARL DRAKE was elected a member of the Society. Program: L. O. Howarp: Notes on Albert Koebele. An outline of the career of this distinguished entomologist, who died in December 1924, was given by the speaker. E. R. Sasscer: Inspection by the Federal Horticultural Board. Notes and Discussions: S. A. Ronwer reported the occurrence of Euro- pean sawfly larvae boring in cherries in the United States. R.A. SHANNON exhibited a species of Microdon from Panama which possesses the unusual character of having the third antennal joint divided.! This species may prove to be the adult of the extraordinary larvae described recently from Panama by Professor WHEELER. Cuas. T. Greene, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS On August 4, 1925, after a long illness, Professor Jay Backus WoopWwoRTH of the Department of Geology and Geography at Harvard University and a member of the AcapEMy, passed away in the sixty-first year of his age. He had been connected with the University since the year 1890. After serving as instructor in geology, he was promoted to an assistant professor- ship in 1901 and to an associate professorship in 1912. Many thousands of students have been introduced to the science of geology by Professor Woodworth. He served the University, not only as an enthusiastic and respected teacher but also as an administrator, serving on many committees and for some years as Chairman of the Department. Throughout most of his professional career he was a member of the United States Geological Survey and published many valuable memoirs under the auspices of that organization. Another of his leading contributions to science was a pro- longed exploration in the geology of Brazil and other parts of South America. This expedition was financed by the Shaler Memorial fund, which is con- trolled by the Division of Geology at Harvard. It was appropriate that Professor Woodworth could have been the first investigator to be aided by this fund for he was the trusted friend of his master, Professor Nathan- iel Shaler, who organized the present department of geology and geography at the University. As a labor of love, Professor Woodworth undertook the 1See this JouRNAL, 15: 211. 1925. 380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 15 rather arduous task of organizing and continuously administering the Har- vard Seismographic Station, which has been in continuous operation since the year 1908. Professor Woodworth was one of the American pioneers in the scientific study of earthquakes and the records from his station have been among those most prized by the seismological stations of the whole world. This is especially on account of the accurate timing of the records. It is important to note that Professor Woodworth steadily held the opinion that according to the testimony of both human history and the geological facts in hand, the city of Boston is not in serious danger from earthquake shocks. Like all other scientific students of New England earthquakes, he recognized that New England is sure to have small shocks at irregular intervals but he strongly deprecated the effort now being made in certain quarters to lead the public to the opinion that facts of science support the claim of considerable danger to Boston, and New England in general, from earthquakes. Professor Woodworth’s other chief researches have been in the field of glacial geology, where he was the recognized authority; and in the structural geology of New England, particularly Massachusetts. Professor Woodworth has served for some years on the National Research Council, his most important contribution to the work of that Council per- haps, being his service as Chairman of the Committee on the use of seismo- graphs in war, 1917-18. He was active in the American Association for the Advancement of Science and in the administration of the Geological Society of America, of which he has long been a fellow. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; past president of the Seis- mological Society of America; a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, of the American Geophysical Union, the Meteorological Society of America, Boston Society of Natural History, and other societies. He is survived by a daughter, Miss Ethel Woodworth. Professor Woodworth was born at Newfield, New York, the son of the Reverend Allen Beach Woodworth. Dr. 8. 8. Apams received the honorary degree L.L.D. from Georgetown University at the annual commencement exercises this year. Messrs. ARTHUR L. Day and E. T. ALLEN of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, are making a reconnaissance of the hot springs and geysers of the Yellowstone National Park. E. F. Burcuarp of the U. 8. Geological Survey has been granted four months leave of absence to examine iron ore deposits for the Argentine government. C. Wuitman Cross and Wiiu1amM H. Datt, senior geologists, Joun H. RENsHAW, well-known maker of artistic shaded relief maps for the Topo- graphic Branch and Grorce M. Woon, veteran editor, all of the U. 8. Geological Survey, were retired from active service on July 1 on account of age. The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. ORIGINAL PAPERS © Durros, 4) CONE ets WAIT, Tp ERR oe ie Botany.—A new acid-soil onion from West Virgin. Epaar T. Pe Mammalogy.—Localization of the cells of the descending viscers and guinea-pig. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Von. 15 OcroBER 4, 1925 No. 16 GEOLOGY :—Review of Dr. Giinther Schlesinger’s paper on Mastodons. Outver P. Hay. Carnegie Institution of Washington. In a paper published! jin 1912 Dr. Giinther Schlesinger presented a classification of the mastodons, proceeding on the theory that they all belonged to one genus, but that subgenera were indicated. He expressed his indebtedness to a friend for instruction in the laws of nomenclature and of priority; and this instruction led him to adopt for all mastodons Cope’s generic name Tetrabelodon. It rendered him also competent to join in a protest? against the strict application of the law of priority. Inasmuch as in that paper under his subgeneric names, chlesinger cited species only as examples, not choosing types, consideration of these subgenera will be passed. In his recently published? essay Schlesinger presents a similar scheme of classification, but with some changes. He disavows his former choice of Tetrabelodon on the ground that its use was not, after all, in accordance with the rules of nomenclature, and he now places the generic primacy on Mastodon. He also selected a type species for each of his subgenera. In choosing Mastodon as the generic name Schlesinger grants that there is no valid reason why Mammut should not be employed; but he rejects it on the ground that, being used in German literature as a name for the Siberian elephant, confusion would result. For the same reason, one may think, our modern Greek zoologists and paleon- tologists might object to the use of Hipparion for a three-toed horse, whereas they apply it to the existing one-toed equine; also to the use of Corydalus for a neuropterus insect, whereas it is the modern Greek word for the sky-lark. . 1 Jahrb. geolog. Reichsanst. Wien, 62: 135. # Ziegler, Zool. Anz., 33: 268. ? Denkschr. naturh. Staatsmus.,1: 1. 1921. 381 382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 Mammut, however, is not wholly shorn of authority. It is simply required to take a less conspicuous seat and is there permitted to preside over Mastodon americanus and its near kin. Being retained in a somewhat obscure position, it is less likely to be mistaken for an elephant. Tetrabelodon likewise has suffered a reduction in rank and now represents only Mastodon pygmaeus Depéret. Inasmuch as M. pygmaeus had not been heard of by Cope when he established Tetrabelodon, much less included under the name, it cannot be made the type of this genus. Besides, Cope expressly stated that the type of Tetrabelodon is T. angustidens. It may be well to point out here again, as the writer has already done,‘ that the oldest generic name for angustidens, if withdrawn from Mastodon, is Gomphotherium; that the oldest specific name is lepto- don;> and that hence the species is properly to be known as Gompho- therium leptodon Fischer de Waldheim; and the name will, in this paper, be used for the species. In Schlesinger’s scheme this species is recog- nized as the type of Vacek’s genus Bunolophodon. Already, in 1918, Dr. W. D. Matthew® had made angustidens the lectotype of this genus; a lucky stroke, inasmuch as Bunolophodon became thereby a synonym of Tetrabelodon, therefore of Gomphotherium, and hence apparently permanently side-tracked. For Mastodon arvernensis Dr. Schlesinger proposes a new subgenus Dibunodon. This appears superfluous, however, inasmuch as Anan- cus presents claims for the honor. This name was first used in 1854 by Aymard’ for a mastodon called Anancus macroplus, but there was no description, and the name was a dead letter. The writer has recently explained’ the status of this name. Suffice it to say that if Mastodon arvernensis requires a generic or subgeneric name Anancus must be used, credited to Lartet, 1859. Moreover, it must include all other mastodons not withdrawn on valid generic characters. For the type of Cope’s genus Dibelodon Schlesinger proposes Mas- todon humboldtii, but Cope at the time of establishing this genus made Leidy’s M. shepardi the type. Unless it can be shown that this species is a synonym of M. humboldtii, which would appear to be a task beset with difficulties, Schlesinger’s proposal will hardly be 4 Pan-Amer. Geol. 39: 109. 1923. 5 Op. cit., p. 112. § Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38: 200. 1918. 7 Ann. Soc. Agric. Sci. du Puy, 19: 597. 1854. 8 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 66, art. 35, p. 4, 1925. OCTOBER 4, 1925 HAY: SCHLESINGER ON MASTODONS 383 accepted by people who have any regard for established rules of nomenclature. The genus Dibelodon was based on a tusk and a tooth, but nobody can at present be certain that these belonged to the same species or even genus, and the probability appears’ to be that there were long tusks in the lower jaw. This, however, does not necessarily put the species in the genus Gomphotherium, as was wrongly concluded by the present writer on the page quoted. Schlesinger’s use of Mastodon tapiroides as a type of Zygolophodon appears to be legitimate. It seems to have been selected by Matthew” in 1918. Schlesinger makes Mastodon. pentelici the type of his Choero- lophodon. The animal appears really to belong to a distinct genus, not so much on account of its teeth, perhaps, as of its remarkable skull. Without any desire to question Dr. Schlesinger’s knowledge of pro- boscideans, it seems necessary to say that that author has no proper conception of the significance of a genotype. When once properly chosen and announced, it should be inseparably joined to its genus, but the writer here reviewed evidently regards it as possible to detach that species and attach it as type to any other genus that may suit his wishes. If he does not so regard a genotype, how can he make pyg- maeus the type of Tetrabelodon when Cope said Cuvier’s angustidens was to be taken as the type? Practices of this kind tend to produce confusion in biological nomenclature. In pursuing his theme Dr. Schlesinger pays his respects to some of the primitive mastodons of America. One finds it difficult to deter- mine what he has in mind when he writes about Mastodon shepardi. When he mentions W. obscurus he evidently refers to the tooth described by Leidy from California, first as M. shepardi, later as M. obscurus. These are different species, one found on the eastern border of the continent; the other, on the western. He likewise makes the mistake of attributing Cope’s type of M. productum (= Gompho- therium productum) to Mexico, instead of New Mexico. It might be regarded as improbable that, starting at any point between France and New Mexico, any species of proboscidean would not in its journey to the two countries undergo specific modifications. Among living mammals it is rare to find the same species in southern Europe and the southern United States. Schlesinger finds it other- 3 Hay, O. P., Pan-Amer. Geol., 39: 111. 1923. 10 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 38: 200. 1918. 384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 wise. He assures us that he cannot distinguish Cope’s Gomphotherium productum from G. leptodon “forma typica,’”’ and that Leidy’s M. obscurus represents “forma subtapiroidea.”’ Dr. Schlesinger discovers much to complain of in Cope’s description of G. productum. He finds fault with Cope’s expression regarding the cross-section of the tusk. Cope quoted Falconer’s statement that the symphyseal tusks of Gomphotherium leptodon frequently have a channel on the superior and inner sides and then he wrote: “In M. productus the tusk is without channel.’’ Schlesinger says that this is an error of Cope’s; but he himself is wrong in that he supposes that Cope referred to the fine longitudinal channeling which the ivory shows when the smooth outer layer is removed. Cope, however, had in mind the broad shallow channel or groove which is present on the upper surface of the lower tusk of Gomphotherium leptodon. If Schlesinger’s section is compared with that figured by Cope" it will be seen that he was correct and that the tusks described by him are quite different in section from those figured by Schlesinger. That Cope observed what Schlesinger calls “kannelierung” is shown by Cope’s statement: ‘“The dentine is longitudinally, weakly, closely striate. It is usually covered by a thin layer of cementum.” Schlesinger questions Cope’s statement that the symphysis of his G. productum was shorter than that of G. leptodon. In Cope’s figure,” as noted by Schlesinger, it is seen that a part of the bone is restored in plaster, and Schlesinger concludes that the jaw has been wrongly restored and was originally much longer. But Schlesinger could not see whether there was natural contact between the two parts on the lower side or in the interior. Why, then, his confident conclusion? As a matter of fact, the present writer finds nowhere actual contact superficially between the proximal and the distal halves of the sym- physis. What is hidden beneath the surface is unknown. Never- theless, the conformation of the parts indicates that no important gap was closed up. The concave and the convex surfaces of the basal portion of the symphysis pass in a natural way into the corresponding surfaces of the anterior part. At least, nobody has the right to say positively that the symphysis has, in the middle of the length, been artificially shortened. Furthermore, if Schlesinger means to say that the front end of the symphysis as figured by Cope is not the natural termination, he is wholly mistaken. The bone ends as represented. Schlesinger likewise attacks the position of the two lower tusks of Cope’s specimen and states that these must have been, in life, closely 11 Wheeler, U. S. Geogr. Sur. west 100th merid., vol. VI, pl. LXX, fig. 3. 12 Op. cit., pl. LXX, figs. 1-3. OCTOBER 4, 1925 HAY: SCHLESINGER ON MASTODONS 385 applied, one against the other, as they are in G. leptodon; whereas in the restoration they stand apart about 15 mm. This is another error. The two teeth are separated by 12 mm. of bone thoroughly fossilized and never disturbed, and the symphysis has its natural width, 120 mm. Again, there is nothing either in the description or in the restoration of the specimen to indicate that Cope did not know that the lower incisors extend far back into the jaw. When he fitted the two parts of the symphysis together he could not help seeing this. Besides, on his page 307, Cope speaks of the longitudinal concavity on the underside of the beak “which occupies the space between the alveolar ridges of the enclosed tusks.” In the U. 8. National Museum is the lower jaw which Leidy described in 1873. In this jaw are both lower tusks, and these have exactly the same oval section as those of Cope’s type. Cope was aware of Leidy’s specimen and the description, and knew, therefore, that the tusks extended backward to near the hinder end of the symphysis. One tusk is exposed nearly its whole length. It must be said further that throughout their length these tusks are separated by a septum of bone 14 mm. thick. That the symphyseal portion of the jaw of G. productuwm is not the same as in G. leptodon is shown by the proportions of the parts. In G. leptodon the anterior mental foramen is placed much farther for- ward than in G. productum, as shown both in Cope’s and Leidy’s specimens. According to Schlesinger’s restoration of the lower jaw of G. leptodon, the greatest width near the distal end is only 0.265 of the distance from the distal end to the anterior mental foramen; in Cope’s type the corresponding value is very close to 0.5; in the sym- physis described and figured by Leidy the value is close to 0.4. A computation based on Leidy’s specimen shows that Cope’s type was not shortened more than 25 or 30 mm., if at all. The difference may be due to individual or sexual variation. In other respects the sym- physeal portion of the jaw of Gomphotherium productum is quite dif- ferent from that of G. leptodon. In the latter, this part is relatively long, slender, constricted in the middle of the length, and spatulate at the distal end. In G. productum the part is broader in proportion to the length and its right and left borders are nearly parallel. In G. leptodon the length of the tooth row, M,-M; following Schlesinger’s restoration, is two-thirds the length of the symphysis. The tooth row of Cope’s type, M.—Mz, lacks little of equalling the symphyseal length of Leidy’s specimen, and it is to be remembered that this 12 Extinct Vert. Fauna West. Terrs., p. 235, pl. XXII, figs. 1-4. 386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 belonged to a larger animal. In the type the beak-like lower jaw is much more bent downward than it is in G. leptodon. Cope gives the amount of deflection as 35°. This seems to be measured in the upper border of the beak. Dr. Schlesinger tells us that the teeth of Cope’s type of G. produc- tum are indistinguishable from those of G. leptodon “forma typica.” To the present writer they appear distinctly different. At hand is a fine specimen of the lower left hinder molar of G. leptodon sent from southern France by Lartet. It is in nearly the same stage of wear as the corresponding tooth of Cope’s type. The two teeth have the fol- lowing dimensions: TABLE 1.—MeasurReMENTS OF THtRD Lower Mo.uars IN MILLIMETERS G, LEPTODON G, PRODUCTUM IV ytd Nab asednnaD docusgoN OD Dao ban Hoop Ss Jena gdonoUéaDdo. 157 158 Widthvat second!crest 5.0. cic oe oretctove.c ets vie sree tee 68 75 Height of first posttrite cone: .4- : ih ..a. cece eee eee ee 50 75 Height of second posttrite cone........0...6.5.+20 en. 50 65 Heicht of third posttrite cone. ....20. 0s cs.s «senses 53 55 Height of fourth posttrite cone......- 2.0.5. .0+cc5 38 45 In these measurements allowances are made as carefully as possible for loss by wear and injury. The height of the cones is measured perpendicularly to the base of the crown, not along the slopes. The lower third molar of G. leptodon is narrow and has relatively low crests and the first three are of nearly the same height. In G. productum the tooth is broad and has high crests which diminish in height from the first to the last, as shown by figure 3 on Cope’s plate LXXI. InG. leptodon the principal cones, especially the outer ones, are columnar and broadly rounded at the summits; in G. produc- tum they are conical and their summits are narrow. In the specimen of G. leptodon at hand the second lower molar lacks its front crest. Its width at the third crest is 60 mm. In G. productum this molar is 102 mm. long, 75 mm. wide at the rear, and 60 mm. in front. The teeth of G. productum had reached ahigher stage of development than those of G. leptodon. Dr. Schlesinger is no doubt correct in his identification of the upper teeth figured'* by Cope. They are the third and fourth premolars and the first and second molars. On his page 53, Schlesinger mentions the lower tusk illustrated by Cope by his figures 8 and 8a; and Schlesinger regards this tusk as 14 Wheeler, U. S. Geogr. Sur. west 100th merid., pl. LX XI, figs. 1, 2. OCTOBER 4, 1925 HAY: SCHLESINGER ON MASTODONS 387 demonstrating his view that Cope’s species is identical with G. lep- todon. That might be the case if he could be sure that the tusk belonged to the same species as Cope’s type. The writer believes that it belonged to another species. The fragment is 220mm. long. How much of the distal end is missing cannot be determined; it may be that it was but little longer or twice as long. The proximal end has the pulp cavity filled with sandstone. The greater diameter is 56 mm.; the shorter, 39 mm. Its section, as shown by Cope’s figure, is wholly different from that of the tusk of Cope’s type and from that of the symphysis figured by Leidy. On both the upper and lower faces there is a broad shallow groove or channel. It belonged to an animal evidently larger than G. productum and possibly one having a shorter jaw. Dr. Schlesinger, on his pages 51 and 228, identified the tooth described by Leidy from California under the name Mastodon obscurus as identical with Schlesinger’s ‘‘forma subtapiroidea.” When the cast of that lower tooth, if lower it is, is placed alongside of the subtapiroid lower teeth of Schlesinger’s plate VIII very distinct differences are observed. When the cast is compared with upper teeth of Schlesin- ger’s subtapiroid form (his pl. IV, fig. 2; pl. VII, fig. 3) there is still less agreement, although the common possession of a pretrite cingulum is shown. On his page 36, Dr. Schlesinger noted the fact that Gaudry had described a species, Mastodon pyrenaicus, (now regarded as a synonym of G. leptodon) which presented characters resembling those of M. tapiroides. Schlesinger concluded that this form pyrenaicus is prob- ably a synonym of his subtapiroideus, in case the tusks should not exclude its union with G. leptodon. A remark or two are suggested. In nomenclatural parlance subtapiroideus would be a synonym of pyrenaicus not vice versa. Why should Schlesinger burden the litera- ture with his new name before he had determined that the two forms are different? Why did he not give to Cope’s proavus and Leidy’s obscurus the benefit of the qualifying phrase which he used in refer- ring to pyrenaicus? In maintaining these objections to Schlesinger’s views the writer does not deny that the animals in question are closely related, that G. productum tay have descended from G. leptodon; but he believes that the first constitutes a form sufficiently different to be regarded as a species. As long as it is not demonstrated that the two are identical he does not see what is to be gained by insisting that they are identi- cal. Cope’s ideas regarding species may have been narrow, but pos- sibly Schlesinger’s may be thought by some to be somewhat too broad. 388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 ENTOMOLOGY.—Some generic transfers and synonymy in Ichneu- monidae. (Hym.) R. A. CusHman, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHwmEr.) The following notes are brought together and published at this time to make the new combinations and synonymy available for use in the forthcoming list of New York insects. Accepted names are in bold face type and synonyms in italics. In generic transfers the origi- nal genus is printed in Roman type and inclosed in parentheses. (Ichneumon) Trogomorpha ferrugator (Fabricius) = Trogomorpha trogiformis (Cresson). Amblyteles annulipes (Cresson) 2 = Amblyteles scitulus (Cresson) o. This synonymy is based on a gynandromorph in which the thorax, body and left legs are female and the head and right legs male. This specimen is in the National Museum collection. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles ater (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles aterrimus (Provancher). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles atrox (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles bimembris (Provancher). Amblyteles cincticornis (Cresson) 2 = Ichnewmon galenus Cresson o’. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles citimus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles corvinus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles creperus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles funestus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles fuscifrons (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles humillimus (Dalla Torre). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles inconstans (Cresson). Amblyteles jucundus (Brulle) 2 = Amblyteles flavizonatus (Cresson) &. The synonymy of these two species is based on a mated pair captured by Dwight Isely at North East, Pa., on July 7, 1915; and also on one specimen of each sex reared by H. Bird from pupae of Papaipema circumlucens Mliger at Chicago, Ill. There are two males in the National Museum with the ab- dominal color pattern of the female. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles lachrymans (Provancher). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles leucaniae (Fitch) = Amblyteles seminiger (Cresson). (Cryptus) Amblyteles mellicoxus (Provancher). The transfer of this species to Amblyteles is based on a homotype (Rohwer) in the National Museum collection. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles mellipes (Provancher). Amblyteles nanodes, new name, = Ichnewmon nanus Cresson (1877), not Ratzeburg (1848). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles pervagus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles pilosulus (Provancher). Amblyteles provancheri, new name, = Ichnewmon bifasciatus Provancher (1875) not Foureroy (1785) nor Say (1828). OCTOBER 4, 1925 CUSHMAN: SYNONYMY IN ICHNEUMONIDAE 389 (Ichneumon) Amblyteles proximus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles pullatus (Cresson) = Ichneuwmon subcyaneus Cresson. The former name has page precedence. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles putus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles restrictus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles rubicundus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles scelestus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles scriptifrons (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles solitus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles stygicus (Provancher). Amblyteles sublatus (Cresson) o& = Ichnewmon pravus Cresson @. This synonymy is based on a series of seven specimens, including both sexes, reared under Gipsy Moth Laboratory No. 10092 E 19 from pupae of Hemerocampa guttivitta Walker at Tamworth, N. H. These are in the National Museum. There are also in the collection two specimens, one of each sex, reared from the same host at the Maine Experiment Station. (Ichneumon) Amblyteles trunculentus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles ultimus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles uncinatus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles vescus (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles vitalis (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles vittifrons (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles vivax (Cresson). (Ichneumon) Amblyteles volesus (Cresson). (Phygadeuon) Glyphicnemis crassipes (Provancher). - (Phygadeuon) Stylocryptus maculatus (Provancher). (Phygadeuon) Stylocryptus vulgaris (Cresson). (Cryptus) Plectocryptus contiguus (Cresson). (Phygadeuon) Plectocryptus major (Cresson). The sexual antigeny of the above two species is very great, but I suspect they are the sexes of the same species. (Phygadeuon) Chromocryptus planosae (Fitch) = Chromocryptus nebras- kensis (Ashmead). The types of both names are in the National Museum collection. Tribe Cryptini. Cryptint, Tribe V, Ashmead, Smith’s Insects of N. J., 1899 edition, p. 570. 1900. MesostEnint, Tribe VI, Ashmead, loc. cit. The tribe Mesostenini is separated from the Cryptini entirely on the size and form of the alar areolet. There is no sharp division between the two tribes on this character, as becomes more evident when the tropical forms of the group are studied. I therefore consider them as the single tribe Cryptini. (Cryptus) Chaeretymma lata (Provancher) = Phygadewon occidentalis Pro- vancher. 390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 S. A. Rohwer examined the types of latws and occidentalis and was of the opinion that they are synonymous. He brought back to the National Museum a homotype of occidentalis, and it is on the basis of this specimen that I transfer the species to Chaeretymma. (Cryptus) Chaeretymma velox (Cresson). (Cryptus) Compsocryptus retentor (Brullé). (Cryptus) Spilocryptus atricollaris (Walsh). A female specimen from Illinois in the National Museum with the name label in Walsh’s handwriting is hereby designated as the neotype. Spilocryptus extrematis (Cresson) = Cryptus imitator Provancher. (Cryptus) Hoplocryptus apicatus (Provancher). Hoplocryptus incertulus, new name = Cryptus incertus Cresson (1869) not Ratzeburg (1852). In Dalla Torre’s ‘‘Catalogus Hymenopterorum” Cryptus incertus Cresson is synonymized with Phygadeuon latus (Provancher). Viereck, recognizing it as Cryptine rather than Phygadeuonine and as distinct from latus Pro- vancher, has written the name in Dalla Torre under Cryptus and opposite it has written” = [tamoplex incertulus Vier., n. n.”’ But I have. been unable to find any publication of this name. (Cryptus) Idiolispa limata (Cresson). Genus Trychosis Foerster. Idiolispa Foertser, Verh. Nat. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl. 25: 188. 1868. Ethaemorpha Viereck, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 44: 565. 1913. The types of these two genera are, in my opinion, entirely congeneric. (Cryptus) Trychosis rufoannulata (Provancher). (Ethaemorpha) Trychosis similis (Cresson). Genus Cryptus Fabricius. Itamoplex Foerster, Verh. Nat. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl. 25: 188. 1868. There seems to be no reason to doubt the propriety of referring (Cry yptus americanus Cresson) = Itamoplex vinctus (Say) to Itamoplex. This species 1s entirely congeneric with Cryptus viduatorius Fabricius, genotype of Cryptus. If, however, the Erlangen list is to be recognized, Itamoplex will have to be used in place of Cryptus. Cryptus persimilis Cresson is a typical Cryptus. (Itamoplex) Cryptus vinctus (Say) = Cryptus purnert Dalla Torre = Cryptus nigricornis Provancher. (Mesostenus) Crypturopsis candidus (Cresson) = Crypturopsis albomaculatus (Ashmead). (Mesostenus) Crypturopsis fortis (Cresson). Genus Listrognathus Tschek. Listrognathus Tschek., Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges., Wien., 20: 153. 1870. Mesostenoidens Ashmead, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 23:45. 1900. Viereck has synonymized Mesostenoideus with Polycyrtus Spinola. In this he is in error, for the only character mentioned by Spinola in his description of Polycyrtus that is shared by Mesostenoideus albomaculatus (Cresson) is the frontal horn; while it differs markedly in its opaque and densely punctate integument and short and weakly impressed notauli. It is, however, entirely OCTOBER 4, 1925 CUSHMAN: SYNONYMY IN ICHNEUMONIDAE 391 congeneric with Listrognathus tricolor Tschek. as represented in the National Museum, and is presumably so with the genotype of Listrognathus. It should be noted that albomaculatus will not run to Mesostenoideus in Ash- mead’s key, because of its possession of the frontal horn. (Mesostenoideus) Listrognathus albomaculatus (Cresson). (Mesostenus) Listrognathus leucocoxus (Ashmead). Polyaenus spinarius (Brullé) = Mesostenus delawarensis Dalla Torre = Mesostenus albopictus Cresson. Polistiphaga, new genus. Genotype.—Mesostenus arvalis Cresson. Temples narrow and sharply sloping; eyes bulging; frons mutic; clypeus elevated, depressed at apex, in profile nose-shaped; antennae slender, filiform. Thorax moderately robust, opaque punctate or granular; dorsal anterior angles of pronotum tuberculate but without carinae; notauli sharply defined though not especially deep, prescutum not strongly gibbous; scutellum moderately convex, margined only at base; propodeum nearly completely areolated, only the areola incomplete laterally, its space more or less rugose longitudinally, apophyses strong, compressed, petiolar area deeply impressed, spiracles nearly circular; areolet small to very small, open at apex, recurrent near apex; nervulus antefurcal, nervellus broken below middle; legs slender, front basitarsus nearly as long as tibia. Abdomen moderately stout, very minutely and densely punctate opaque; first seement with ventral margin strongly decurved, postpetiole broad, spiracles at or near apical third; second tergite with minute pit-like gastrocoeli removed from base; ovipositor short, compressed, subsagittate at apex, sheath not or barely as long as first tergite, In Ashmead’s and Schmiedeknecht’s keys of the tribe Mesostenini the genotype runs best to Mesostenus Gravenhorst. From this genus it is at once distinguished by the form and areolation of the propodeum, the form of the clypeus, ete. Except that the frontal horn is lacking it agrees much better with Listrognathus Tschek, especially in the form of the clypeus, wing vena- tion, and shape of abdomen. Here again the propodeum distinguishes it» though less sharply than from Mesostenus. The genotype and an undescribed species are parasitic in the nests of various species of Polistes. (Meniscus) Syzeuctus elegans (Cresson). (Meniscus) Syzeuctus michiganensis (Davis). Lissonota americana (Cresson) = Lampronota amphimelaena Walsh = Harrimaniella relativa Viereck. (Lampronota) Lissonota angusta (Davis). (Lampronota) Lissonota jocosa (Cresson). (Lampronota) Lissonota punctata (Cresson) 2 = Lampronota punctulata Cresson 2 and Lampronota albifacies Provancher &. In his key to the species of Lampronota Cresson employed punctata and in the description of the species, punctulata; punctata has page precedence. Provancher’s male species was synonymized by Provancher himself with pleuralis Cresson. It is, however, the male of the present species. Lissonota rufipes (Cresson) #@ = Lissonota tegularis (Cresson) o. 392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 16 (Meniscus) Asphragis mirabilis (Cresson) = Asphragis pulcherrimus Ash- mead, Clistopyga pleuralis Ashmead, Meniscus ostentator Davis. (Pimpla) Epiurus alboricta (Cresson) = Pimpla investigatrix Walsh @. Tromatobia rufopectus (Cresson) = Pimpla defensator Davis, Pimpla landerensis Viereck, Pimpla scriptifrons Cresson. Zaglyptus incompletus (Cresson) 2 = Cylloceria lemoinet Provancher. (Pimpla) Delomerista novita (Cresson). (Rhorus) Spanotecnus bicolor (Cresson). (Catoglyptus) Stiphrosomus fucatus (Cresson). (Mesoleptus) Callidiotes albopleuralis (Provancher) & = Atractodes nitens Provancher @. The above transfer and synonymy are based on homotypes of both species,. that of albopleuralis by 8. A. Rohwer and that of nitens by A. B. Gahan. — Metacoelus mansuetor (Gravenhorst) = Hyperacmus tineae Riley, Hyperac- mus ovatus Davis. The inclusion of mansuetor in Metacoelus rather than in Polyclistus, where it is placed by many of the European authorities, is based on Foerster’s manuscript. (Limneria) Olesicampe argentifrons (Cresson). (Limneria) Nemeritis ruficoxa (Provancher). (Limneria) Angitia tibiator (Cresson). (Limneria) Eulimneria valida (Cresson). (Limneria) Dioctes salicicola (Ashmead). Pristomerus fuscipennis Cushman = Pristomerus aciculatus Ashmead MS. Ashmead’s name was published in Smith’s Insects of New Jersey, (1899) 1900, p. 584. A specimen labelled ‘‘aciculatus Ashm. type’’ and others are those paratypes of fuscipennis recorded from Oswego, N. Y. (Atractodes) Leptopygus politus (Ashmead). (Orthocentrus) Plectiscus carinatus (Provancher). This transfer is based op a homotype (Rohwer). On a misdetermination Davis placed the species in Atmetus Foerster. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The name of the Land Classification Branch of the U. 8. Geological Survey has been changed to the Conservation Branch, of which HERMAN STABLER is chief. The following divisions have been created: Mineral Leasing, J. B. Tovueu, chief; Mineral Classification, J.D. Norrurop, chief; Homestead, A. EK. Aupous, chief; Power, B. E. Jonsrs, chief. On July 1, the Division of Mineral Resources of the U.S. Geological Survey was transferred to the U. 8. Bureau of Mines. F. J. Karz, chief of the divi- sion, F. G. Tryon, B. L. Jounson and A. H. Reprrexp, geologists and mineral geographers, were transferred at the time. F. L. Hass, geologist of the Geological Survey, has been appointed chief of the Division of Mineral Technology of the Bureau of Mines. H. D. Miser, geologist of the Geological Survey, has been granted leave of absence to serve as state geologist of Tennessee for one year, effective September 1. ~ s 4 4 1 ibe iiaic ~ v f 4 - \ & i +i} x = - , ; ~ ‘ { “> ‘ } ai \ \ ‘ } * fe 2) ; ‘ i i —~ ee ‘The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page ___ if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. — - } " en : 4 ‘ ‘ é “A 4 bn ay z 5 i: A ‘x , ) be ; f { 2 i e ra — , - \ ‘ j / 5 \ J ~ x ‘ / CONTENTS ~~ ae ORIGINAL PAPERS Geology.—Review of Dr. Giinther Schlesinger on mastodons. Oxiver P. H Entomology.—Some generic transfers and synonymy in Ichneumonidae. R CUBHMANY tiie vb trent teak ee ib cle Tisia sels intbuat tle Vaiss a rte a RR Beste Screntiric Notes anp NrEws.:........... sia Ri eda OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Vernon L. Ketioca, National Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SrusBexr, Bureau of Standards. : Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ph Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic sitet af OcroBER 19, 1925 No. 17 JOURNAL WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | - 4 BOARD OF EDITORS _ E.P. Kinup D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucaty NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L.H.Apams _ __ S. A. Ronwrr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL socinry E. A. GotpMaNn G. W. Srosr ~ BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY > R. F. Griags J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL BOCIETY E. 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Leaves ensiform, flattish, grayish, rather large, 4 100 cm. or more, toothed to within 20 em. of the end; spine chestnut-colored, glossy upward, granular, slenderly conical and sharp, very round-grooved, the margin scarcely decurrent for more than its length, little intruded into the green tissue, 3 X 20 mm.; teeth glossy chest- nut- or garnet-colored, 10-20 mm. apart or even more, upcurved or hooked, narrowly triangular from narrow lenticular bases 3-5 mm. wide, the inter- vening margin nearly straight. Inflorescence tall, openly paniculate, with rather slender, purplish, glaucous branches; pedicels short (6mm.). Flowers (2). Capsules ellipsoid, 2.5-3 X 3 em., short-stipitate; seeds (?). Bulb- iferous. In hedges, Hacienda El Platanar, San Miguel, El Salvador (Calderén 2084; type in the U.S. National Herbarium); also Calderén 2082, from same locality, collected in January, 1924. Called “maguey silvestre.” Agave Letonae I’. W. Taylor in litt., sp. nov. (TeQuinaNak.) Caulescent, suckering. Trunk about 50 & 150 cm. Leaves oblong-lanceolate or ensiform, slightly concave, glaucous, large (8-10 * 125-200 em.); spine dull brown, rather glossy toward the end, low- granular on the back, arcuately and triquetrously conical, round-grooved, with acute edges below the middle, the acute margin very shortly decurrent, slightly intruded dorsally and ventrally into the green tissue, 4-5 & about 25 mm.; teeth chestnut-colored, 15-35 mm. apart, 2-3 mm. long, mostly upcurved or hooked, slender from lenticular bases about 5 mm. wide, the intervening cartilaginous margin nearly straight. Inflorescence paniculate, about 7 meters tall, rather openly branched; pedicels about 5 mm. long. Flowers (?). Capsules ellipsoid, about 25 * 40 mm., slightly beaked, stipi- tate; seeds dull, 8-9 XK 1lmm. Saidtobe bulbiferous. (Tig. 1.) El] Salvador. Source of Letona fiber. Cultivated at Sucesién Letona, San Miguel (Milner, October and November, 1923); from plants grown by the Indians from a very early date. Type in the herbarium of the University of Ilinois. 393 394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 17 Fig. 1.—Details of leaves and fruits of Agave Letonae. Natural size. oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 395 Agave Letonae marginata, var. nov. Differing from the type in having the leaves rather broadly bordered with bright yellow. Hacienda El Platanar, San Miguel, El Salvador (Calderén 2081; type, sheets 1169878-9 in the U. S. National Herbarium). Agave lempana, sp. nov. (TEquILANAE.) Acaulescent. Leaves prickly only at base, oblong- lanceolate, nearly flat, grayish or slightly glaucous, large (15 X 120 cm. or more); spine chestnut-colored, glossy upward, somewhat low-granular on the back below, broadly conical, pitted and round-grooved below the middle, the margin acutely decurrent for several times its length, somewhat intruded into the green tissue, about 6 X 20 mm.; teeth confined to the lower third of the leaf, glossy garnet- or chestnut-colored, 10-15 or 20 mm. apart, straight or upeurved or recurved, narrowly triangular from lenticular bases 2-4 mm. wide, the intervening green margin nearly straight. Inflorescence unknown. El Salvador. Planted (?) at the railroad station on the Lempa River (F. W. Taylor, February 15, 1924). Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois. Agave parvidentata, sp. nov. (GUATEMALENSES.) Acaulescent; not cespitose (?). Leaves slightly glaucescent, oblanceolate-oblong, acute, smooth, 15 xX 100 cm. or more; spine brown, apparently conical, somewhat intruded into the green tissue and decurrent, 5 mm. thick; teeth dull brown, 10-25 mm. apart, thick, firm, small (scarcely 2 mm. long), from abrupt lenticular bases 83-5 mm. wide, the intervening margin somewhat concave. Inflorescence paniculate, apparently with short branches and closely bunched flowers; pedicels moderate (2 X 15 mm.). Flowers orange, 40-50 mm. long; ovary 20-30 mm. long, equaling or surpassing the perianth, oblong; tube conical, scarcely 5 mm. deep; seg- ments 15 mm. long, shorter than the ovary; filaments inserted nearly in the throat, about 30 mm. long. Capsules unknown, and not known to be bulbiferous. Cultivated in San Salvador, El Salvador (Calderén 2085, in 1924; type, sheets 1169884-5, in the U.S. National Herbarium), under the name “‘maguey.”’ ENTOMOLOGY .—New termites from the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Archipelago. Tuos. E. Snyprr, Bureau of Entomology. Dr. W. M. Mann visited Fiji in 1915 and the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean in 1916. On these islands in Oceania he collected fourteen species of termites, representing seven genera or subgenera and three families; all of these species are apparently new to science. They were carefully compared with descriptions of known termites from the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions. Often, however, the descriptions and illustra- tions of known species are not as adequate as is necessary, without 396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 17 specimens for comparison. Careful measurements and camera lucida illustrations accompany the descriptions of the new species, where special characters are to be noted. No mound-building, fungus-growing termites of the Termes group were found, although they occur in this general region. Species of the family Rhinotermitidae were well represented in the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz. Species of Nasutitermes (sens. lat.) are more or less restricted to certain islands, as in the West Indies. These termites found by Doctor Mann are the first and only speci- mens ever reported as having been collected on these islands in the South Seas. The specimens were deposited in the Museum of Com- parative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass., and were lent to the writer for study through the kindness of Dr. 8. Henshaw and Mr. Nathan Banks. All types have been returned to the Museum of Comparative Zoology, but where there was sufficient material, paratypes were retained for the collection of the United States National Museum; no definite holotype has been designated. The termites of the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Archipelago apparently represent isolated, distinct, old, island fauna of Melanesia. The closest relations are apparently with the Malay Peninsular and there are indications of continuation of the fauna of Papua to these islands. It is, however, difficult to draw definite conclusions from this small series of termites alone. _One new species in the family Kalotermitidae and eight in the family Rhinotermitidae are described herewith; five new termites in the family Termitidae will be described in a subsequent paper, as part IT. Family KALOTERMITIDAE Genus Kalotermes Hagen Subgenus Neotermes Holmgren The subgenus Neotermes is closely related to Kalotermes. The numerous species are widely distributed throughout the world, from the subtropics of southern Florida to the tropics of South America and New Zealand, as well as throughout the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere. Species of Neotermes are forest-inhabiting and are greatly dependent upon moisture for life; they are wood-boring and do not burrow in earth. Neotermes sanctae-crucis, new species Winged adult—Head light castaneous (reddish brown), broadly oval (with mandibles), or quadrate, rounded posteriorly, with a few scattered, long hairs. Compound eyes black, not round, projecting, separated from lateral margin of head by a distance nearly equal to long diameter of eye. Ocelli hyaline, suboval, slightly projecting, at an oblique angle to and nearly oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 397 touching eyes. Labrum yellow-brown, tongue-shaped, broader than long, slightly shallowly coneave at apex, with long hairs. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 20-21 segments; segments-broadest at middle, narrowed near base and apex, with long hairs; third segment sub- clavate, longer than second or fourth segments; segments becoming longer towards apex; last segment narrow, elongate and semielliptical. Pronotum about same color as head, broader than head, broadest at middle, not twice as broad as long, broadly, deeply, and roundly emarginate anter- iorly, shallowly and roundly emarginate posteriorly, the sides round to posterior margin, with fairly numerous, long hairs. Wings grayish, with tinge of yellow, costal area yellow-brown; membrane reticulate or finely punctate; in fore wing, subcosta approximately reaching basal third of wing, radius extending for approximately two-thirds of wing, radius sector with 4 long sub-branches to costa and shorter sub-branches near apex; median close to and parallel to radius sector and reaching apex of wing; short transverse branches to radius sector near apex; cubitus running slightly below middle of wing, not reaching apex, with about 15 or 16 branches or sub- branches to lower margin, those nearer the base (the first) the most distinct. Wing scale as long as pronotum. In hind wing, subcosta rudimentary; radius joining the costa beyond middle of wing; radius sector parallel to costa and reaching apex of wing, with fewer branches than in fore wing; median originating from radius sector not far from base of wing (approximately 2.75 mm.) ; cubitus nearer to middle of wing than in fore wing; indications of rudimentary anals. Legs yellow, tibia darker; pulvillus present, with long hairs. Abdomen about same color as head; tergites with two transverse rows of long hairs; cerci and styli present, the cerci not elongate. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adults (males and females), 18-19 mm.; length of entire dealated adults, 11-12 mm.; length of head (to tip of labrum), 2.8 mm.; length of head (to anterior margin), 2.1 mm.; length of pro- notum, 1.8 mm.; length of hind tibia, 2.2 mm.; length of an- terior wing, 13.5 mm.; diameter of eye (long Fig. 1.—Kalotermes (Neotermes) sanctae-crucis Snyder. diam.), 0.55 mm.; width Soldier. View of mandibles to show marginal teeth. at head (of eyes), 2.25 mm.; width of pronotum, 3 mm.; width of anterior wing, 4.8 mm. Soldier —Head light castaneous (light reddish-brown), darker anteriorly, quadrate or broadly oval, longer than broad, broadest posteriorly, rounded posteriorly, convex dorsally, shallow depression at epicranial suture on front slope of head, with scattered, long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, suboval at right angle to margin of head. Gula very narrow at middle, width nearly one- third that anteriorly. Mandibles black, reddish-brown at base, stout, incurved at apex, where sharp-pointed; left mandible with two pointed, marginal teeth near apex, a smaller tooth and a molar near middle, and a pointed tooth at base; right mandible with two marginal, broad, pointed teeth at about middle, its edge roughened. (Fig. 1.) Labrum light yellow, broad, broader than long, broadly pointed at apex, with long hairs. Antenna yellow-brown, with 16-18 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; where there are 18 segments, third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments; fourth shorter than second segment; last segment narrow, shorter and subelliptical. 398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, NO. 17 Pronotum dirty white tinged with yellow, roundly and shallowly emargi- nate anteriorly, convex posteriorly, twice as broad as long, broadest at middle, not as broad as head; sides round to posterior margin, with scattered long hairs. Legs yellowish, tibiae darker, femora not markedly swollen, with long hairs. Abdomen dirty white tinged with yellow tergites with two transverse rows of fairly long hairs; cerci and styli fairly elongate and prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 13-13.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 5.7 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 3.7 mm.; length of left mandible, 2.1 mm.; length of pronotum 1.5-1.6 mm.; length of hind tibia: 2.4 mm.; width of head anteriorly (back of antennae), 3.3 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 3.5 mm.; width of pronotum, 2.9-3 mm. Type locality —Graciosa Bay, Santa Cruz Archipelago. Described from a series of winged adults collected with soldiers and nymphs at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann, in July, 1916. Winged adults and soldiers were also collected by Mann on Santa Anna Island, Solomon Islands, in August, 1916. Type, winged adult—Cat. No. 15284, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; morphotype, soldier; paratypes in U.S. National Museum and with Hill in Australia. Family RHINOTERMITIDAE Genus Prorhinotermes Silvestri The genus Prorhinotermes was established in 1909 by Silvestri for the species znopinatus from Samoa. Only eleven described species are included, and these occur on islands from southern Florida to Central and South Ame- rica, in Formosa, the Philippine Islands, Samoa, Krakatoa, Ceylon, Mada- gascar, and the Seychelles. Several species are found in localities south of the equator and all of the species are confined to the tropics or subtropics. Prorhinotermes is an island genus. Prorhinotermes manni Snyder from Santa Cruz Archipelago and P. solomonen- sis Snyder from the Solomon Islands are two new species from the South Seas, making a total of thirteen species for the genus, all of which are in general more or less closely related. Species of Prorhinotermes are wood-boring in habit and burrow through the hardest woods; their colonies are located in moist logs, stumps, and dead trees; they do not burrow in the earth. In southern Florida P. simplex Hagen occurs on keys, at Miami Beach, and on the mainland near Home- stead—the only known record of any Prorhinotermes occurring on the main- land. Prof.S. F. Light has shown from his study of two species of Prorhinotermes, both taken from the Island of Luzon in the Philippines, that they are very different; also P. manni and P. solomonensis from Santa Cruz Archipelago and the Solomon Islands are quite distinct, although oddly from closely adjacent islands. Hence it is quite possible that a more thorough study of P. simplex Hagen occurring in southern Florida and islands of the West Indies will show that more than one species is involved, instead of a single, variable, widely distributed species. oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 399 Large numbers of apterous reproductive forms occur in the colonies of species of Prorhinotermes and all of these species, as has already been noted, occur on islands; it seems probable that the species of this genus are dispersed in driftwood and that the winged adults do not play an important part in geographical distribution of this group. Prorhinotermes manni, new species Soldier —Head yellowish, much broader posteriorly than anteriorly, narrowed and markedly tapering anteriorly, with few scattered long hairs arranged in several transverse rows; fontanelle hyaline, a round, distinct spot, situated on a line connecting the front of the eyes; a fairly distinct groove from fontanelle to anterior margin. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval, and convex (slightly projecting). Lab- rum tongue-shaped about as long as broad, with two long hairs at apex. Gula relatively broad at middle. Mandibles reddish-brown, except at base, where yellow-brown, slender and elongate. Antenna yellow, elongate, with 16-18 segments, with very long hairs; segments becoming longer and broader towards apex; third segment sub- clavate and usually longer than second; fourth segment shorter than third, almost as long as second segment; last segment narrow, elongate, and sub- elliptical. Maxillary palpi very elongate, nearly as long as mandibles. Pronotum yellow, not twice as broad as long, broadest anteriorly; anterior margin markedly emarginate, somewhat arched; sides roundly taper poster- iorly; posterior margin slightly convex (nearly a straight line), with scattered long hairs. Mesonotum only slightly broader than pronotum. Legs whitish with tinge of yellow, elongate and slender, with short and long hairs. Abdomen yellowish; tergites with a row of long hairs at the base of each, also short hairs. Cerci elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.8 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.6 mm.; length of left mandible, 1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.65-0.7 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.25 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.4 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.95 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.9 mm.; width of pro- notum, 1.2 mm. Winged adult unknown. Type locality.—Graciosa Bay, Santa Cruz Archipelago. Described from a series of soldiers collected with workers, also winged adults of Nasutitermes (Subulitermes) sanctae-crucis Snyder at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann in July, 1916. Type, soldier —Cat. No. 15285, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass.; paratype in the U. S. National Museum. Prorhinotermes manni is darker colored and larger, and has more segments to the antenna than P. krakataui Holmgren, from Krakatoa. The head is longer than in P. inopinatus Silvestri, of Samoa, and is smaller than in either canalifrons Sjéstedt, of Madagascar, or luzonensis Light, from the Philippines. The antenna has more segments than gracilis Light, from the Philippines, 400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 17 and fewer than flavus Bugnion & Popoff of Ceylon, and the pronotum also is of different shape. P. manni has also more segments to the antenna, is larger, and has a more tapering head and larger pronotum than solomonensis Snyder from the Solomon Islands. It is smaller than japonicus Holmgren, from Formosa, and is probably closest to inopinatus from Samoa. Prorhinotermes solomonensis new species. Soldier.—Head yellowish, flat, while broader posteriorly than anteriorly, more or less oval (not so tapering as in manni Snyder, from Santa Cruz Island) with few scattered long hairs arranged in several transverse rows; fontanelle a hyaline, round, distinct spot, situated posteriorly to a line connecting the front of the eyes, with a fairly distinct groove from fontanelle to anterior margin. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval, and convex (slightly projecting). Lab- rum tongue-shaped, slightly longer than broad (but not as broad asin mannt), with two long hairs at apex. Gula relatively broad at middle. Mandibles reddish-brown except at base where yellow-brown, slender (more slender than in mannz) and elongate. Antenna yellow, with 14 or 15 segments; segments with very long hairs, becoming longer and broader towards apex; third segment subclavate, usually much longer than second or fourth; fourth segment shorter than second; last segment slender and subelliptical. Maxillary palpi very long and slender, as long as the mandibles. Pronotum yellow, broadest anteriorly, nearly twice as broad as long (not as long as in mannz); anterior margin less deeply emarginate anteriorly than in manni, roundly narrowing posteriorly; posterior margin nearly a straight line (slightly convex); scattered long hairs present. Mesonotum broader than pronotum. Legs tinged with yellow, elongate and slender, with short and long hairs. Abdomen yellow; tergites with a row of long hairs at the base of each, also short hairs. Cerci elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5.25-5.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.5-2.6 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.5 mm.; length of left mandible, 1.15 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5-0.6 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.2 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.25-1.35 mm.: , width of head anteriorly, 0.95 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 1-1.1 mm. Head of soldier more oval and less markedly tapering than in most species of Prorhinotermes. Winged adult unknown. Type locality —Auki, Malayta Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a series of soldiers collected with workers at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann, in May and June, 1916, with minor soldiers of Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) solomonensis Snyder and soldiers of Copto- termes solomonensis Snyder. Type, soldier —Cat. No. 15286, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass.; paratype in the U. S. National Museum. Prorhinotermes solomonensis has a more oval, less markedly tapering head than manni Snyder from Santa Cruz Archipelago; is darker colored and larger, and has more segments to the antenna than krakataui Holmgren, from Krakatoa; is smaller and has fewer antennal segments than znopinatus oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 401 Silvestri, of Samoa; is smaller than canalifrons Sjéstedt, from Madagascar, or luzonensis Light, of the Philippines; and is smaller than japonicus Holmgren from Formosa. The antenna has fewer segments than gracilis Light, from the Philippines, or flavus Bugnion & Popoff, from Ceylon. P. ponapiensis Oshima, from Ponape Island in the Caroline Islands, is known from the winged adult only. Genus Coptotermes Wasmann Coptotermes was established in 1896 by Wasmann as a subgenus for Termes gestrot Wasmann from Burma. In 1902 he described the genus Arrhinotermes for the new species hezmz from Ceylon, based on adults only. A. hetmi is a Coptotermes and, being the type of Arrhinotermes, Arrhinotermes becomes a synonym. Banksin 1920 replaces Arrhinotermes by Prorhinotermes, described by Silvestri in 1909. Coptotermes includes approximately thirty-five valid species, widely dis- tributed throughout the tropics of the world. Some of the most injurious termites to both woodwork and living trees are contained therein. A viscous milky fluid is secreted from the short tubular frontal gland situated at the anterior margin of the head; this secretion dissolves lime mortar. Coptotermes grandiceps, new species Soldier —Head yellow-brown to light castaneous, area of frontal gland distinct, lighter colored, and arched; head markedly longer than broad, broadest posteriorly, narrowed anteriorly (sides of head more straightly than roundly tapering) ; posterior margin rounded; hairs fairly numerous, scattered, long. Eye spot visible, not distinct. Frontal tube light castaneous, fairly long, and prominent. Gula at middle more than half as broad as the greatest anterior width. Mandibles reddish brown, yellow-brown at base, sabre- shaped, broad at base but narrowed and incurved at sharp, pointed apex; left mandible with 3 or 4 fairly distinct marginal teeth at base; right with a narrow, sharp, pointed marginal tooth. Labrum light castaneous, elongate, subtriangular, sharply pointed at apex where hyaline and constricted, two long hairs at apex. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 16 segments; segments becoming longer and broader towards apex, with long hairs; third segment ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; fourth shorter than second segment; last segment narrow, elongate, and subelliptical. Pronotum tinged light yellow, twice as broad as long, deeply and roundly emarginate anteriorly, shallowly emarginate posteriorly; sides angularly narrow to posterior margin; hairs numerous, scattered, long. Legs with tinge of yellow, slender, elongate, with long hairs. Abdomen dirty white, with tinge of light yellow; tergites with numerous, scattered, long, golden hairs, apparently not arranged in transverse rows, but if so, faling in Holmgren’s key with the posterior row longest and most prominent; cerci and styli prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5.25—5.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.7 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.7 mm.; length of left mandible, 1 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.3 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.4-1.5 mm.; width of head ante- riorly, 0.9-0.95 mm. ; width of pronotum, 1 mm. 402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 17 Type locality.—Tulagi Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a series of soldiers collected with workers at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann, in May, 1916. Type, soldier—Cat. No. 15287, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass.; paratype, U.S. National Museum. Some species of Coptotermes are known only from the winged adult and cannot be used in comparison, but the soldier of C. grandiceps appears to be distinct; the large head, somewhat straight sides of the head, and number of antennal segments are distinguishing characters. Coptotermes pamuae, new species Soldier.—Head yellow-brown to light castaneous, area of frontal gland lighter colored and arched, sides of head lighter; head longer than broad, broadest posteriorly, narrowed anteriorly, the sides roundly tapering; pos- terior margin of head rounded; hairs scattered and long. Frontal tube light castaneous, darker on rim of opening, fairly long and prominent. Eye spot not distinct. Gula at middle more than half as broad as where broadest anteriorly. Mandibles light castaneous at base, reddish brown, sabre-shaped, broad at base but narrowed and incurved at apex where pointed; left mandible with slight indications of several marginal teeth at base; right with no marginal teeth. Labrum light castaneous, subtriangular, sharply pointed at apex where slightly hyaline and constricted; two long hairs at apex. Antenna tinged with yellow, with 14 segments; segments becoming longer and broader towards apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, usually approximately subequal with second and fourth segments, variable, last segment elongate, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum tinged with yellow, not twice as broad as long, deeply and roundly emarginate anteriorly; sides of anterior margin high before median emargination, roundly sloping posteriorly; posterior margin shallowly con- cave at middle, with long hairs. Legs tinged with yellow, slender, elongate, with long hairs. Abdomen tinged with yellow; tergites with dense long hairs, the posterior row longest; cerci and styli prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4-4.3 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2 to 2.1 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior) 1.35 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.77 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.45 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head posteriorly (where widest), 1.15-1.2 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 0.9 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.75 mm. Type locality —Pamua, San Cristobal Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a series of soldiers collected by Dr. W. M. Mann with workers and Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) solomonensis Snyder at the type locality in August, 1916. Type, soldier—Cat. No. 15288, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass.; paratypes in U. 8. National Museum. Fig. 2.—Coptotermes pamuae Snyder. Soldier. View of pronotum to show marked emargination. Coptotermes pamuae is a small species, but is larger than C. parvulus Holmgren, from India; it is close to C. travians Haviland, from the Malay oct: 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 403 Peninsula and Borneo, but has a longer pronotum which is also deeply emarginate anteriorly. (Fig. 2.) Coptotermes solomonensis, new species Soldier —Head light yellow, area of frontal gland distinct, lighter colored and arched, markedly longer than broad, broadest posteriorly, narrowed anteriorly (sides of head more straightly than roundly tapering); posterior margin of head rounded; hairs fairly numerous, scattered, long. Eye spot indistinct. Frontal tube light castaneous, fairly long. Gula broad in middle, more than half as broad as where broadest anteriorly. Mandibles reddish brown, yellow-brown at base, sabre-shaped, broad at base but narrowed and incurved at sharp pointed apex; left mandible with 3 or 4 more or less broad marginal teeth at base. Labrum light castaneous, elongate, subtriangular, sharply pointed at apex, where hy aline and constricted; two long hairs at apex. Antenna yellow, with 15 segments; segments become longer Sra broader towards apex, with long hairs; third segment short and ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; fourth segment shorter than second: last segment narrow and subelliptical. Pronotum tinged with yellow (margins darker), not quite twice as broad as long, deeply and roundly emarginate anteriorly, shallowly emarginate posteriorly; sides angularly narrow to posterior margin; hairs numerous, scattered, long. Legs with tinge of yellow, slender, elongate, with long hairs. b Abdomen dirty white, with tinge of piece eae 2 light yellow; tergites with numerous long, Fig 3—Contrasting views of the golden hairs, apparently not arranged in ™andibles of major soldiers of new regular transverse rows, but if so, running Schedorhinotermes to show marginal in Holmgren’s key with the posterior row teeth on left mandible. : longest and most prominent; cerci and (a) Rhinotermes (S.) marjoriae styli prominent. Snyder, both left and right mandibles. Measurements.—Length of entire (b) Rhinotermes (S.) sanctae-crucis soldier, 6.5 mm.; length of head with Snyder. (ce) Rhinotermes (S.) solo- mandibles, 3mm.;length of head without ”onensts Snyder. mandibles (to anterior), 1.8 mm.; length of left mandible, 1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.6 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.25 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.45 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 0.95 mm.; width of pronotum: 1 mm. Type locality. —Auki, Malayta Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a single soldier, collected with workers, together with soldiers and workers of Prorhinotermes solomonensis Snyder and minor soldiers of Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) solomonensis Snyder at the type locality, in May and June, 1916, by Dr. W. M. Mann. Type, soldier. —Cat. No. 15289, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass. Coptotermes solomonensis is lighter colored and larger, and has a narrower, longer head and longer pronotum than C. grandiceps Snyder, from Tulagi Island, Solomon Islands. S 404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 17 Genus Rhinotermes Hagen Subgenus Schedorhinotermes Silvestri The subgenus Schedorhinotermes was established in 1909 by Silvestri for Rhinotermes intermedius Brauer, from Australia. Sixteen species are in- cluded, which occur only in the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere—in Africa, the Philippines, Nicobar Isles, Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo (Sarawak), Celebes, Java, New Guinea, Bismark Archipelago, and Australia. The winged adult has the clypeus less strongly projecting anteriorly than in Rhinotermes. There are two types of soldiers, the large, mandibulate major soldier and the minor soldier with the relatively broad labrum nearly or quite as long as the mandibles, which have marginal teeth. Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) marjoriae, new species. Winged adult.—Head yellow-brown, area of frontal gland distinct; sides parallel; posterior margin rounded; outline of head with eyes and labrum round; hairs few, scattered, long. Fontanelle hyaline, round, located on a line connecting ocelli posteriorly, or at beginning of raised area at front of head. Median groove running from fontanelle to labrum. Post-clypeus yellow, lighter colored than head, broader than long, convex anteriorly and somewhat raised as a nasutiform projection overhanging the labrum, not so prominent as in Rhznotermes. Labrum yellow, about as long as broad, arched and constricted anteriorly, placed nearly vertical. Eyes black, suboval, prominent, projecting, close to lateral margin of head. Ocelli hyaline, suboval, projecting, separated from eyes by a distance about equal to the long diameter of an ocellus (closer in translucens Haviland). Antenna yellow to light yellow-brown, with 19 or 20 segments; segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth; fourth shorter than second segment; last segment short, slender and subelliptical. Pronotum yellow-brown, flat, slightly inclined anteriorly, twice as broad as long, not emarginate; sides roundly narrowing posteriorly; long hairs present. Wings yellow; costal veins slightly darker; membrane irregularly and coarsely reticulate; in fore wing, median vein free, intermediate, but closer to cubitus than to subcosta, branching to apex of wing, with 4 to 7 branches or sub-branches; cubitus with 12 to 16 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing. Median separating into branches nearer middle of wing than in translucens Haviland. Legs light yellow-brown, elongate, slender, with long hairs. Abdomen yellow-brown; tergites with dense long hairs; cerci not prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 12.5 mm.; length of entire dedlated adult, 6+ mm. (shrunken?); length of head (posterior to tip of labrum), 1.8-1.85 mm.; length of head to anterior, 1.45 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.8 mm.; length of fore wing, 9.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 2.2 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.45 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 1.8-1.85 mm.; width of pronotum, 1.6 mm.; width of fore wing, 3.3 mm. The pronotum and wing are smaller than in translucens Haviland. Major Soldier —Head yellow-brown, lighter than in R. (S.) solomonensis Snyder but darker than in R. (S.) sanctae-crucis Snyder, with scattered long hairs. Gula at middle more than half as wide as at widest part anteriorly. oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 405 Mandibles intermediate between those of sanctae-crucis and solomonensis (Fig. 3a). Antenna with 16 segments; third subclavate, longer than second or fourth segment; fourth shorter than second segment. Abdomen with tergites having short hairs and a row of long hairs at the base. Measurements, Major Soldier.—Length of entire soldier, 4.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.4 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.6 mm.; length of left mandible, 1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.6 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.5 mm.:; width of head posteriorly, 1.65 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 1.2 mm.; height of head at middle, 1 mm.; width of pronotum, 1 to 1.1 mm. Minor Soldier —Head yellow-brown; transverse rows (at least three) of long hairs on head. Mandibles with apex less incurved; teeth more parallel to the margin than in solomonensis. Antenna with 15 segments; third slightly shorter and more slender than second or fourth segments. Abdomen with tergites having denser hairs than in solomonensis. Measurements, Minor Soldier —Length of entire soldier; 3.4 mm.; length of head with mandibles. 1.6 mm.; length of head with labrum, 1.65 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1 mm.; length of left mandi- ble, 0.65 mm.; length of labrum (together with post-clypeus), 0.7 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.45 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.1 mm.; width of head (at antennal sockets where widest), 0.95 mm.; height of head at middle, 0.7 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.65 mm. Type locality —Uegi Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a series of major and minor soldiers and winged adult collected with workers at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann, in July and August, 1916. Named in honor of my wife Marjorie. Type, Major Soldier—Cat. No. 15290, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; morphotypes, minor soldier and winged adult; paratypes in U.S. National Museum Rhinotermes (S.) marjoriae is close to translucens Haviland, of Borneo, Java, Macassar, and German New Guinea. The shape and teeth of the mandibles of the soldiers appear to present excellent specific characters in Schedorhinotermes (Fig. 3). Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) sanctae-crucis, new species Major Soldier —Head yellow-brown, lighter colored than R. (S.) solomonensis Snyder, from the Solomon Islands, the head larger, with fairly numerous, scattered, long hairs. Gula at middle more than half as wide as at widest part anteriorly. Mandibles more slender and elongate than in solomonensis (fig. 3b and c), the apex more slender and less incurved, and the marginal teeth farther from apex. Antenna with 16 or 17 segments; third segment subclavate, much longer than second or fourth segment; fourth segment shorter than second. Pronotum broader than in solomonensis. Abdomen with denser hairs than in solomonensis. Measurements, Major Soldier —Length of entire soldier, 5 mm.; length 406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 17 of head with mandibles, 2.5-2.6 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.5 mm.; ‘length of left mandible, 1.15 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.4 mm.; width of head posteriorly, eff roava0) 2 width of head anteriorly, 1.1 mm.; height of head, 0.9 mm.; width of pro- notum: 1 mm. Rhinotermes (S.) sanctae-crucis, except for the differences noted, has a major soldier close to that of solomonensis; the head and mandibles present the greatest differences. Minor Soldier.—Head yellow-brown, lighter colored than in solomonensis, smaller, but with denser long hairs, at least three transverse rows on head. Mandibles with apex more elongate and slender and less incurved between tip and marginal teeth. Antenna broken, 11+ segments; third segment slightly smaller than second or fourth segments. Abdomen with denser hairs than in solomonensis. Measurements, Minor Soldier.—Length of entire soldier, 3 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.4 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 0.8 mm.; length of head with labrum, 1.45 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.6 mm.; length of labrum (together with post- -clypeus), 0.65 mm.; - length of pronotum, 0.35 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.95 mm.; height of head at middle, 0.5 mm.; width of head (at antennal sockets, where widest), 0.8 mm.; width or pronotum, 0.55 mm. Type locality —Graciosa Bay, Santa Cruz Archipelago. Described from two major soldiers and one minor soldier collected with workers at the type locality by Dr. W. M. Mann in July, 1916. Type, Major Soldier.—Cat. No. 15291, Museum of Comparative Zoology; morphotype, minor soldier. Rhinotermes (S.) sanctae-crucis has a lighter colored, smaller minor soldier than solomonensis, with differences in mandibles and hairier head. Rhinotermes (Schedorhinotermes) solomonensis, new species. Major Soldier.—Head light castaneous brown, area of frontal gland lighter colored; head quadrangular posteriorly; sides narrowing sharply and con- verging anteriorly, rounded at posterior margin. Fontanelle hyaline, round, distinct, opening flat, located on a line connecting antennal sockets; shallow groove running from fontanelle to tip of labrum, widening anteriorly, with margins darker colored than head; head with sparse, scattered, long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, suboval, near rim of depression around antennal socket. Labrum light yellow- brown, grooved medianly, tongue-shaped, longer than broad, the apical part bilobed, not reaching tip of mandibles, with fringe of short hairs and scattered, fairly long hairs. Gula at middle about half as wide as at widest point anteriorly. Mandibles light castaneous brown at base, reddish brown at apex, broad at base, slender and incurved at apex, where pointed; left mandible with two subequal pointed marginal teeth about at middle; right mandible with one similar tooth located at a point between the two teeth on left mandible. Antenna yellowish, with 16 segments; segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments; fourth shorter than second segment; last segment short, slender and subelliptical. Pronotum light yellow-brown (margins darker), flat; anterior margin with sides converging anteriorly to median where convex; sides straightly narrow oct. 19, 1925 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 407 posteriorly; posterior margin shallowly concave at middle; margins with scattered long hairs. Legs tinged with yellow, slender, elongate, with long hairs. Abdomen light yellow-brown (straw-colored); tergites with short hairs and a row of long hairs at base; cerci and styli prominent. Measurements, Major Soldier.—Length of entire soldier, 4.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.35 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.5 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.95 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of ‘hind tibiae, 1.8 mm.; : height of head at ‘middle, 0.9 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.5 mm.; w idth of head (anteriorly), 1 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.9 mm. Minor Soldier —Head yellow-brown (area of frontal gland lighter), slightly, arched; sides broadening from rounded posterior margin to antennal socket thence narrowing toward anterior margin. Fontanelle hyaline, round, on a line between antennae, a deep groove running from it to tip of labrum; epicranial suture sharply declined anteriorly; head with a row of long hairs anteriorly and posteriorly. Labrum light castaneous brown, slightly longer than mandibles, broadest posteriorly; sides slightly concave; median groove deep, broadening anteriorly; labrum widened at apex, where hyaline and bilobed, with a dense fringe of short hairs and longer hairs. Mandibles yellow at base, reddish brown at apex, slender, elongate, pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with two pointed marginal teeth on apical third; right mandible with one tooth located at a point between the teeth on left mandible. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 15 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, short and narrow, shorter than second or fourth segments; fourth shorter than second segment; last segment short, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum yellow -brown; anterior margin convex; posterior margin con- cave medianally; margins w ‘ith long hairs. Legs yellowish, slender, elongate, with long hairs. Abdomen yellow-brown (straw-colored) ; tergites with short hairs and a row of long hairs at base; cerci prominent. Measurements, Minor Soldier -—Length of entire soldier, 3.7 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.45-1.5 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 0.9 mm. - length of head with labrum, 1.55-1.6 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.6 mm.; length of labrum (together with post-clypeus), 0.65 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.35-0.40 mm. length of hind tibia, 0.95 mm.; height of head at middle, 0.5 mm.; width of head (at antennal sockets, where widest), 0.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.55-0.6 mm. Type locality— Pamua, San Cristobal Island, Solomon Islands. Described from a series of major and minor soldiers collected with workers at the type locality in August, 1916, by Dr. W. M. Mann; also minor soldiers collected by Mann at Auki, Malayta Island, Solomon Islands, May and June, 1916. Type, Major Soldier—Cat. No. 15292, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; morphotype, minor soldier, paratypes in the U.S. National Museum. Rhinotermes (S.) solomonensis is smaller than most species in this subgenus. 408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 1 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS S. Kk. Anuison and G.S. TuNneELL, graduate students at Harvard University, and C.8. Pracor, formerly with the research laboratory of the U.S. Industrial — Alcohol Co., have joined the staff of the Geophysical pe Carnegie — Institution of Washington. ii ae c - The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Botany.—New species of Agave from the Republic of Salvador. WiLL1aM TRELI Entomology.—New termites from the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Archipel THOR. Bi SNYDER. 235s: 2 WEA belo stig ath oh ace eteasceeeres SEtawrthe Notts tp NEWS... cccsecccecssssetevsuesseesees OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: VeRNon L. Ket.oaa, esau Research Council. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SinsBex, Bureau of Stagdaed Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Sur Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Const and Geodetic Survey. ey Vol. 15 NovEMBER 4, 1925 No. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY ‘OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kinurp D. F. Hewett 8. J. Maucuiy NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams 8. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GotpMAan G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Gricas J. R. Swanron BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY . E. WicHERSs . 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Special Bear are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Lame JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 NoveMBEr 4, 1925 No. 18 SPECTROSCOPY .—Some remarks on primed terms in the spectra of the lighter elements! By Orro Laporte, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by W. F. Mrccmrs.) I. In recent investigations by Heisenberg? and by Hund? it has been shown that in series spectra of elements with several valence electrons the quantum number which is related to the term character SPD .:-.- - in the following well known way iS) Ie Dig 13 SC Lab eoy ales 2 Fis Be GS (Gan o-o ic is not identical with the azimuthal quantum & of the last bound elec- tron, but has to be regarded as a resultant of the moments of momenta of all the valence electrons, obtained by space quantization. In building up a shell of orbits of equal n and k, as pointed out by Pauli,* no two electrons may occur which possess the same values? of n, k, M1, M2 or n, k, mj, m;. By applying these principles to a shell con- sisting of 3; and 4, electrons, Hund was able to derive all the empiri- cally found terms of the are spectra of Ca, Sc, Ti etc., from a few low terms of their first spark spectra. Russell and Saunders,® to whom we owe the idea of the quantization of the individual k values, have shown in the case of Ca, that assum- ing the nineteenth electron to be in a 4, orbit gives rise to the ordi- nary are spectrum of SPD - - - andspd- - - terms, whereas assum- 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce. 2 Zs. f. Phys. 32:841. 1925. 3 Zs. f. Phys. 33: 345. 1925. 47Zs.{. Phys. 31:765. 1925. 5 Compare also S. Goudsmit Zs. f. Phys. 32: 794. 1925. 6 Astrophys. Journ. 61: 38. 1925. 409 410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 ing it to be in a 3; orbit leads to the well known system of primed terms.” II. Recently an interesting (PP’) group of the doublet systemhas been discovered by A. Fowler’ in the first spark spectrum of Si (Si II) and by Bowen and Millikan® in the are spectrum of Al and the analogous spark spectra P III, S IV, Cl V and C II, N III, OIV. The low term ?P;,2, well known from the series 2P;,. — 12S, and 2P; 2 — n*D»2,3, combines with a very high (in Al I even negative) term 2P,.5 whose separations are of the same order of magnitude as that of 2P,5. In their explanation of the (?PP’) group Bowen and Millikan proceed in the following way: If the (Al) atom is in its normal state, two of its electrons are in 3s, one in 3p orbits. We obtain the 2P’ state, when one electron is in 3s and two in 3p. The author cannot agree with such considerations. It is impossible and in contradiction with the general formulation of the alternation law to have several electrons move in the same doublet-energy- diagram and to place several electrons in the same s or p orbit. On the contrary the investigations of Wentzel on double electron jumps and especially the recent successful work of Hund have shown that the are spectrum has to be built up from the spectrum of the ionized atom; and that all the terms of an even arc spectrum (let us say) have to be derived from the odd terms of its first spark spectrum. (The same objection holds also for the explanation of the *P — 8P’ group of Mg I, Al II etc., as given by Bowen and Millikan.) In order to understand the explanation given below, it is of impor- tance to know that besides the PP’) group numerous other groups exist in the ‘three electron system” of Si II’, which ap- parently involve a double jump: these are the combinations of n’P and n2F with a 2D»,; term, which Fowler calls X,,2, because it does not belong to any of the established term sequences. In its combinations with Al = 1 this term reminds us of the terms #P” and *F” of Ca which Russell and Saunders found combining with 8D. We therefore propose the notation D”,,; for X:». The explana- tion of *P’ and 2D” must be given simultaneously, as they are likely 7 Dr. G. Wentzel kindly informs the author that new data on these terms in Ca, Sr and especially Ba are being published by himself and Dr. Bechert. 8 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A225: 1. 1925. 9 Phys. Rev. 26: 150, 1925; Proc. Nat. Acad. 11: 329. 1925. 10 A. Fowler, 1.c. 8. In CII, PIII, SIV, also an x term has been found, but it seems to bea single level. (Fowler, Proc. Roy. Soc. 105: 299. 1924; Millikan and Bowen, Phys. Rev. 25: 600. 1925.) Since the analysis of these spectra is not very com- plete we must leave it undecided whether these terms correspond to our ?S” or 7D’. nov. 4, 1925 LAPORTE: SPECTRA OF THE LIGHTER ELEMENTS 411 to arise from similar configurations. They cannot come from the same term of the preceding spark spectrum, in which case they ought to have almost equal magnitudes like numerous term groups in Ca, Se, Ti, ete. In Si II the terms in question have the magnitudes: =P, = 131500; 2D”; = 76500; ?P’, = 48050 cm—. A term °S,2P, 2D - - - of the ordinary doublet — series system with 1 = 1, 2, 3 --- belongs obviously to the arrangement iem—sleiccse— lio le owe Ineklundssimotation weuniay, write 2P (443) for the lowest term of Al I, Sill, etc. The only other simple configuration which we may regard as responsible for other terms is $33o0rk; =1;k, =2;k; = 2. The configuration 4 3 corre- sponds to a singlet and a triplet P term. We obtain the following terms by adding one more # electron and observing Pauli’s rule as we have now two equivalent 3, electrons. i 3p ZN VA | IN Vie IN pS Bh yey as ae! DY? This is the only reasonable way of obtaining the terms ?P’ and 2D”. (The terms 28S” and ¢#P’ are not yet found.) As consequences of our scheme are the following combination relations for Si, which, of course, cannot be proved yet on account of the lack of higher series members: oo 2P — co 2)" — 315 — 33P = 39330 o 2=P — o 2p’ = 315 — 3!P = 82860 We have used total quantum numbers and numerical values for the Si spectrum. It may be noted that 3?P — 32D” = 55000 and 32P — 3?P’ = 83706, but we do not wish to attach too much weight to the agreement in the second case. Finally, we call attention to the fact that we have used orbits with total quantum number 3 and 2 (for Boron) only. We therefore have no difficulty in understanding that the frequencies of (2PP’) follow the irregular doublet law in the series Al I, Si II, ete., and BI, CII, ete. We predict the same for the groups PD”) also. Ill. Since the new development of the theory of series spectra has shown that it is possible to produce terms involving excitation of two electrons in several different ways, one might as well abandon Went- zel’s idea that in the *P’ terms of Mg I, Al II etc., the next to the last x 412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 electron is in a 3; orbit, as it is in the primed terms of Ca, Sr, Ba. We believe it to be in a 3, orbit. This gives the following scheme: ae le 1G" 3p’ iD”, 38, 1P and *D being forbidden according to Pauli’s principle.4! The configuration $ 3 is the only one which gives new terms, as # 4 is equivalent to + 3 and a possible configuration $ 3 is not allowed to combine with ?P (4 #) and *P(4 3) according to Heisenberg’s new selection rule. Wecan now understand why no other primed terms of the triplet system were found in Mg, Be, ete., whereas in Ca, Sr, Ba numerous primed terms are known. If the suggested configuration is true we have the relation: 2 §P — x» 3p’ = 328 — 32P for Mg I, AI II, ete. = 2°5 — 22P for Be I, B II, ete: We give a few numerical values: reo ne roo alee 33P — 38P’ 325 — 32P 22P — 22p’ 25— 22P Whereas cietaaystes 36000 35700 Bests ie diyere tebe 7700 32000 ANE ery h maa 56700 54000 BE: She hospriees. 61500 48400 'S) Meacoeeomaranes 77000 71700 Gi. notice owen 85100 64500 PR AAs alas aistemens¢ 97000 89500 INR Breet ciate 108300 80000 epee oewlord tions 117000 107200 O erijectereistae elas 131000 Cl acters ers 137000 125000 The agreement with the above asserted relation is quite satisfactory, although we do not regard it as conclusive proof. We are led to a much more convincing result by applying Heisen- berg’s” formula for the computation of term separations: 1 ki? = ko? a l? — F a ket — ik? Se 1 ve 4 i) = 9Ge De) ; —— | 6 ki ¢ -3) Ge) where /, and i» represent respectively the two azimuthal quanta of the two electrons, and / is their resultant, the quantum number which defines the term empirically. c(k,) and c(k2) are constants which are characteristic for the two electron orbits. In the special case of kz = 34 we get, because! = ki =k: Agi c Av (3,k) =4979 + 17. 11 Tt is very probable that a level which coincides with 5D represents the thus pre- dicted 1D” term, because its magnitude is almost equal to that of =P’ (Compare Green and Peterson, Astrophys. Journ. 61: 301. 1924.) 27s. f. Phys. 32: 841. 1925. Noy. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 413 But we obtain the same expression by computing the separation of a term whose two electrons have the same azimuthal quanta k, = ke = k; hence: Av (4, k) = Av (k, k). Putting k = 3 we have the result that the ordinary *P term in the “two valence-electron-system’ *P (4 $) and the primed P term sp’ ({ 3) have the same separations. This agrees fully with the experimental facts. It has been known for a long time, that the GPP’) groups of Mg I, Al II etc., and Be I, etc., for man almost per- fectly symmetrical group of five equidistant lines on account of the equality of the A P and A P’. The main lines *P, — °P’;, and *P, — ’P’, therefore fall together and can only be separated with spectro- graphs of high resolving power.¥ It may be pointed out that this fact, which distinguishes empiri- cally the @PP’) groups of MgI, Bel and their analogous spark spec- tra from the (?PP’) groups of Ca, Sr, Ba, cannot be obtained by assuming the next to the last electron to be in an n; or % orbit. Another advantage of our viewpoint is, that in using orbits with the same total quantum number (2 for Be, etc., 3 for Mg, etc.) we are able to understand the important discovery of Millikan and Bowen that the (PP’) groups follow approximately the irregular doublet law. VOLCANOLOGY.—Scientific papers and discussions at the 1925 meeting of the Section of Volcanology, American Geophysical Union.} The fifth Annual Meeting? of the Section of Volcanology of the American Geophysical Union was held in the Board Room, National Academy of Sciences, on April 30, 1925. Abstracts of the reports of committees have been published.’ The following pages contain the original papers or abstracts thereof, together with a report on the discussions, prepared by the Secretary and approved by the speakers. The report of the Chairman of the Section, presented before the general meeting of the Union, is also included, as it was received from Hawaii too late for publication in Bulletin 53. Rozert B. Sosman, Secretary. % For Bel comp. E. Back, Ann. d. Phys. (4) 70: 333. 1923; for Mg I: J. B. Green and M. Peterson, Astrophys. Journ. 61: 301. 1924. 1 Received Sept. 11, 1925. 2 This is the second meeting at which a program of scientific papers has been pre- sented. The first of these meetings included the Symposium on Hot Springs held in 1923, the papers having been published in Journal of Geology, 32: 177-225, 291-310, 373-399, 449-471. 1924. 2 National Research Council, Bull. 53: 80. 1925. 414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 Laccoliths and sills. W.M. Davis, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Massachusetts. In the Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley and New Jersey there occur both overflow sheets such as the Hanging Hills by Meriden and the Watchung Mountains back of Newark, and intrusive silts such as West Rock by New Haven and the Palisades of the Hudson. Both types came into place before monoclinal tilting and faulting occurred. Their composition is practically the same. The horizontal spread of the sills may be 30 to 50 times their thick- ness. Laccoliths, on the contrary, usually have a horizontal spread only 5 or 10 times their thickness. The mechanism of the formation of laccoliths is best treated by Gilbert‘ in his description of the Henry Mountains; but there has been no corresponding treatment of the mechanism of sills. The simplest explanation for the difference between sills and lacco- liths is found in a difference in the fluidity of the molten rock, sills being more fluid and laccoliths being viscous; but this explanation will not hold for the laccoliths of the Henry Mountains. It appears necessary to believe that the laccoliths there began with the horizon- tal penetration of a very thin layer, which was thickened vertically after its horizontal spread was accomplished; for it does not seem possible that horizontal strata could first have been bent and then straightened out again, as would be necessary if the laccolith began as a small dome at the center and spread outward and upward. Gilbert gave good reasons for believing that a laccolithie intrusion ceases to spread and begins to swell when the lifting force, which increases with the square of the radius of spread, comes to exceed the resistance to flexure in the overlying strata, which increases with the radius. The rate of intrusion may also be a factor. Rapid intru- sion may demand a thickening of the intrusion and hence a flexure of the overlying strata when the limiting size of a laccolith is reached, while slow intrusion may give opportunity for a wide-spreading sill of small thickness. Discussion. H. F. Ret suggested that the mechanical relation between the radius and the square of the radius meritioned above would be dependent also upon the rigidity of the strata. W. Cross referred to his discussion, published in 1895,° showing that the *G. K. Gilbert, Geology of the Henry Mountains, U. 8. Geogr. Geol. Survey Rocky Mtn. Region, 1877 and 1880. 5 W. Cross, The laccolitic mountain groups of Colorado, Utah and Arizona, U.S. Geol. Survey, Ann. Rep. 14: 157-241. 1895. Noy. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 415 intrusive rock type of the Henry Mountains laccoliths occurs not only in other isolated mountain groups, more or less similar to the Henry Mountains, but also in the structurally complex mountains of Colorado. It occurs throughout the sedimentary section from the base of the Paleozoic to lower Eocene and in all manner of intermediate forms from simplest sill to ideal laccolith, as well as in many unsymmetrical shapes. Further observation since 1895 amply confirms the generalization that while laccoliths closely comparable with Gilbert’s ideal one occur mainly in the Cretaceous beds, all other intrusive forms of the same magma may also occur in them. The mechanical problem of the ideal laccolith of Gilbert is inseparable, geologically, from the broad physical problem presented by the wide range of occurrences of the rock type in question. Incidentally, Hobbs’ hypothesis that the laccoliths of the Plateau Province represent shale fused in situ ignores the known facts as to this diversified occurrence. F. E. Wricut mentioned the sills in the Karroo formation of South Africa (Permian to Jurassic). Sills are very numerous but there are no laccoliths. The sills follow the bedding. Dutoit assumes that the underlying strata fall away as the sill spreads. The molten basalt and the shale do not differ much in density. The area as a whole is cut into many blocks. Differential vertical movement is actually shown in outcrops. Gases in volcanic activity. ARTHUR L. Day, Geophysical Labora- tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. In explaining voleanism, data are going to be needed on the follow- ing points: (1) The fluidity of the molten rock when gases are present as con- trasted with the loss of fluidity after the gases have escaped. (2) The state of the material beneath the lava lake of Kilauea dur- ing the years preceeding the explosions of May 1924. During these explosions the size of the hole was increased about ten times, but among the debris there is no vitreous material and there is no trace even of contact of the fragments with a liquid. This underlying material has always been concealed by talus. It may have been relatively cold, the lake being fed through narrow tubes extending to greater depths. There has been evidence of lava inlets at no less than three different places. The absence of clearly distinguished tides is perhaps due to the small depth of the lake. Outbreaks of lava at points near each other horizontally but at different levels show that there could not have been hydrostatic equilibrium. These outbreaks may have differed in their points of origin and also in their tempera- ture and pressure. The absence of chemical equilibrium in the gases is consistent with these facts. 416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 Discussion. In reply to questions from E. W. Brown and W. M. Davis as to the density of the lava when full of gas the speaker stated that there were no quantitative data; the density varies from that of a clear liquid containing dissolved gas but no bubbles, over to a light foam consisting mostly of gas bubbles. The gas occurs both in the form of large free bubbles and in the form of bubbly lava masses moving asa unit. The density of the lava when saturated with dissolved gas is probably not very different from its density when free from gas. In reply to a question from Davin Wuirs, T. A. Jaacar stated that the geothermal gradient had not been measured in the Hawaiian Islands except in a shallow boring in the Kilauea crater. Down to eighty feet there was no change in temperature and the temperature was lower than in the rocks outside of the crater. The temperature is probably controlled largely by gases and water travelling through the rocks. In reply to a question from Pror. Davis, Dr. JAGGAR gave the approximate dimensions of the voleano as follows: diameter of the mountain 60 miles (100 km.), diameter of the crater 3 miles (5 km.), diameter (1925) of the pit about 0.6 mile (1 km.). Sonic soundings show that the slope of the mountain is a continuous curve from above sea-level down to a depth of 16,000 feet (4.9 km.). Plus and minus volcanicity. T. A. Jaccar, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, U. 8. Geological Survey. The explosive eruption of Kilauea in 1924 was dominantly a sub- sidence and an engulfment of wall rock. There were ejected 28 mil- lion cubic feet (0.0008 cubic kilometer) of rock and there were engulfed 7 billion cubic feet (0.21 km.*). This engulfed matter would make an underground fill in the form of an upright cylinder of breccia 3000 feet deep and 1500 feet wide (about 1 x 4km.) The fill thus extends below sea-level. The ratio of ejecta to engulfed matter is 1:253. This ejection- engulfment ratio was here measured for the first time and the maxi- mum enlargement of the pit by engulfment occurred after the maxi- mum of explosion had passed. Collapse and engulfment are com- mon at Kilauea at the end of short lava-flow periods without any explosion. Explosion appears to be pseudo-voleanic, due to meteoric water, and confinement of steam due to lowering of the lava column . below ground-water. While the Kilauea engulfments are in progress, the surrounding country tilts inward; the centripetal tilt amounted to 70 seconds at the Observatory in two months, April-June 1924. These phenomena may be called ‘‘minus voleanicity,”’ in contrast to “plus voleanicity”’ characteristic of rising lava with expulsion of lava gases, centrifugal tilting, overflows, doming of country rock, and ris- ing temperatures where an active solfatara is succeeded by incan- nov. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 417 descence. Both plus and minus classes of volcanic change have been measured at Kilauea. The actual ground levels measurably change. The normal sequence in a cycle begins with plus movements, the voleano yields, and minus movements then lead to engulfment with or without explosion. Minus voleanicity is dominant in all post- Tertiary volcanism, with down-faulted craters, much explosion, and decadence of external lava activity. Lava activity had reached a maximum in Tertiary time. It seems probable that lava pressure creates intrusion and a dom- ing strain in the larger crust units, whereas yielding of edifice, effu- sion, gas collapse with lowering of lava, plugging of craters, inrush of ground-water and steam explosion are features of the topographic units. Engulfment may take place among the larger units’ where general collapse follows outflow. Thus engulfment may occur in upright chasms amid intrusives such as form long batholiths. It is a question of interest whether such engulfment in deep voids occa- sions earthquake. Phenomena of engulfment and consequent ‘“‘graben”’ faulting apply to all types of eruption. Rhythmic phenomena, with alternation of magmatic pressure and crustal yielding, may be compounded of a greater or less amount of heating by oxidation of magmatic gas as suggested by Shepherd. The ratio of active volcanoes to extinct is 1:5. Pseudo-eruption is dominant today. Since 1500 A.D. 72 cubic miles (800 km.*) of explo- sive matter have been ejected on the Earth and only 12 cubic miles (50 km.*) of lava. By the 1:253 ratio the engulfed matter would equal 18,000 cubic miles (75,000 km.*) for this 425 years; if engulf- ment for the same period were active amid intrusive magma under the recently “extinct’’ volcanoes, another 90,000 cubic miles (375,000 km.*) of crustal matter might have been engulfed and assimilated. The visible lava flows of this period, by this reasoning, are as 12 to 108,000 in comparison with the volume of the possible intrusive breccias of the volcanic districts of the world with autogenous heat supply. This takes no account of the Tertiary and earlier volcanic districts of the crust wherein intrusion and engulfment may be seismically and thermally active on a gigantic scale. 418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 Note on the chemical significance of engulfment at Kilauea. HE. 8. SHEPHERD, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The problem of the energy supply at Kilauea is one of the most puzzling. The temperature of the lava lake has been found to be a scant hundred degrees above the crystallizing temperature of the lava and this temperature is maintained over amazingly long periods. This temperature is that of the hottest lava observed and therefore seems to negative the idea that the heat is maintained by the rise of heated lava from below. It will be remembered: that Jaggar’s measurements of temperature and depth showed that the highest temperature was just below the lake surface instead of being deter- mined by a continuous rise with depth as had been expected. It is also observed that the places at which the lava is rising steadily are apparently cooler and much quieter than places where the lava is flowing back down carrying the lake crusts with it. These as well as other characteristics of the voleano led Jaggar to his ‘‘surface combustion” hypothesis. He deduced that the foundering crusts carried down entrapped oxygen which combining with the voleano gases furnished a part of the necessary heat to maintain the lake temperature. This hypothesis is undoubtedly sound as far as it can reach but the amount of oxygen thus obtainable seems insufficient to furnish the energy required. It has seemed to us that the problem was essentially a gas problem and for that reason the collection and analysis of the gases from the volcano has been followed up with some vigor. These collections, culminating in the splendid 1919 collection made by Professor Jaggar, have supplied us with all that we may hope to learn from the gases as they reach the surface. If we review the entire series of gases col- lected from this crater the most striking thing about them is that they are almost completely oxidized. They average about 80 per cent by volume of H,O with a scant one per cent of components capable of further oxidation. Obviously the gases as they reach the surfate are incapable of doing any significant amount of chemical work. It seems improbable that bubbling steam through the lava could maintain the temperature, no matter how superheated the steam might have been at its source, nor is it readily believed that the neces- sary amount of gases could be forced lengthwise of the several thou- sand feet of semi-solid magma column at a sufficient speed, no matter ® Read by the Chairman in the absence of the author. Noy. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 419 what pressures might be postulated. It is one thing to assume that at a depth of a few thousand feet the solubility of the gas in the magma may reach several thousand liters per kilogram and a differ- ent matter to imagine the mechanism whereby such a gas could be moved at relatively high speed up through the solid or pasty column. There remains the possibility of obtaining heat if the magmatic gases contain a reasonable amount, say five per cent, of combustible gases which can be oxidized in the upper part of the lava column. Here, however, we face the difficulty of applying our reagent, oxygen in some available form, at the proper place and in sufficient quantity. To the writer it seems unnecessarily hazardous to assume that atmos- pheric oxygen or even water can diffuse through the volcano edifice and into the lava column, surrounded as it is by its chilled conduit lining. It is at this point that Jaggar’s recent observation of engulfment comes to our rescue. According to this observation the recession of the lava at the great eruption precipitated something like seven billion cubic feet of ash and oxidized wall rock several thousand feet deep into the heart of the mountain. The ferric iron in this breccia may easily reach five per cent and probably approaches the complete oxidation of theiron present. The new lava frothsits way up through this oxidized breccia. On a small scale this mechanism has been frequently observed and such an occurrence was photographed by Day in 1912. It is clear that we have not only a porous breccia which is a good heat insulator but also an ample supply of available oxygen which can react with the oxidizable magmatic gases. While such calculations are far from precise it can be shown that if the ferric iron of the breccia be only three per cent, which is reduced by the magmatic gases again to ferrous iron, enough heat can be thus obtained to raise nearly two million cubic meters (0.002 km.*) of breccia from 20° to 1200°C. We have not taken into account other sources of heat and it is of course obvious that it is not necessary to remelt the entire breccia. The essential point is that a supply of oxygen sufficient to maintain the lava temperature is thus available. This explanation has several advantages. It does not require that the upper portion of the lava column be fresh lava continuously brought up from great depths. It avoids the continuous solid—we have too long regarded it as liquid—column through which the gases would be compelled to rise at a rapid rate, and it explains the chan- nels and tunnels in the lake bottom which have been observed at times of sudden draining off of the lake. We conceive the mecha- 420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 nism more or less as follows: the gas-charged magma starts frothing up some crack in the breccia. It fuses out a small and probably tortuous channel for itself taking up oxygen and being heated as it rises. Probably many such channels are formed. When the oxygen supply is exhausted these passages freeze and others are formed. It is not necessary to assume that the breccia is ever completely remelted, in fact the upper portion of it is being constantly renewed during the long periods of quiet activity. At the same time the brec- cia may be raised or lowered by the forces acting on the main magma in depth in whatever manner seems best. The eccentric currents in the lake find here an easy explanation. In passing, attention is called to the significance of engulfment in concentrating the rock distillates, that is, the less volatile constitu- ents. For example, sulfur is notably abundant around volcanic vents. This has led some to suppose that the magmatic gases at volcanoes were different in character from magmatic gases in general. Such an assumption is unnecessary. During the prolonged periods of quiet activity this relatively non-volatile element is concentrated in the cooler parts of the breccia and walls. Engulfment continues the working-over and further concentration of this element while the more volatile constituents escape. In a similar way many elements present in minute amounts in the magma become concentrated until with the decadence of the vent there is only enough energy to bring them to the surface and hold them there. Discussion. F. E. Wrrcur mentioned the kimberlite pipes of South Africa. These consist of brecciated material and contain, at depth, fragments of the Beaufort shale which belongs stratigraphically 2000 feet (0.6 km.) higher and has since been removed by erosion. These pipes have been followed to a depth of 3500 feet (1.1 km.) where they have narrowed down to a size too small to pay for further deepening. Dr. JagGar mentioned the throwing out of sedimentary rocks in explosions at Vesuvius. In reply to questions from H. T. Stearns and E. T. ALien, the speaker stated that the origin of aa lavais not yet clear. It may result from a remelt- ing of the breccia. The basaltic magma below carries the gases which rise and by their reactions produce the heat for remelting the breccia. Mauna Iki, the new mountain of 1920, may be of this origin. The aa lava, however, contains no visible solid fragments but may contain microscopic, or nearly microscopic, fragments. L. H. Apams mentioned the possible effect of such fragments in causing gas to be released from a super-saturated liquid although it would be held in solution if the liquid were clear and homogeneous. nov. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 421 Gravity and underground lava. F. E. Wricut, Geophysical Labora- tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. One characteristic of voleanoes is the transfer of large quantities of material from one place to another. The methods used in geophysi- eal field surveys may, therefore, be applicable. The problems are, in some respects, similar to those met with in oil exploration. The E6tvés torsion balance is particularly sensitive in showing the varia- tions of gravitational attraction due to inhomogeneities beneath the surface. This method might be applied near a volcano, to find the distribution before and after an explosion. Similarly, methods for detecting changes in the Earth’s magnetic field (dip-needle, magnetom- eter), or in electromagnetic fields produced in the Harth, may be of service: also the seismic methods and possibly the new sonic methods. Discussion. In reply to remarks by Davin Warts and T. A. Jaaaar, the speaker stated that the price asked for the Eétvés balance seems too high; that the photographic apparatus sometimes attached to it is complicated and not necessary in field work. The balance has a sensitivity of 1 x 107° dynes per gram. W. D. Lampert remarked that the balance measures the gravity gradient so that the effect varies inversely as the cube of the distance; nearby inhomogeneities, therefore, have a large effect. Tides in lava. KE. W. Brown, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Solar tides are difficult to distinguish from atmospheric effects. Lunar tides, on the contrary, are distinguishable with certainty by analyses of the records over a number of days. Observations by the staff at Kilauea have been made at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes over a period of 27 days. ‘These indicate tides in the lava crust on the bottom of the pit of Halemaumau with periods of one half and one lunar month and an amplitude of about 3 to 5 cm. but their existence is not certain. On the other hand, the absence of such tides is also not proved. ‘The ocean tides may have an effect through the inter- mediate distortion of the Earth’s crust. A fuller report has been recently published.’ Discussion. In reply to questions from A. L. Day and T. A. Jaaear, the speaker stated that the Earth’s bodily tide would probably not be detectable in the volcano. It does not seem likely that the release of gases could be influenced by the bodily tide. Dr. Jaccar suggested that a structure which was long enough in an east and west direction might show some effect. There is a ridge under the 7. W. Brown, Amer. Journ. Sci. 9: 95-112. 1925. 422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 Pacific 2000 miles or more in length, with Hawaii at one end and it is con- ceivable that the bodily tides might affect any volcanic phenomenon which depended on movements of this ridge as a unit. W. D. Lampert mentioned that tides had been distinctly observed in certain lignite mines in Bohemia which had been flooded with water. Prof. Brown suggested that the water levels at the two ends of a pipe leading from the crust in the pit to the outside slope of the mountain would show the effect of the bodily tide. Dr. JaGGar referred to the use of the horizontal pendulum as a very sensitive instrument for the measurement of tilt, whether due to tides or to the movements of the volcano. Oxygen and volcanism. Roxsert B. Sosman, Geophysical Labora- tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Jaggar and Shepherd have called attention to the great importance of oxidation reactions in the activity at Kilauea, but it has been diffi- cult to find a means of supplying oxygen beneath the floor of the crater in amounts sufficient to explain the reactions. The phase rule relationships in the system iron-oxygen and in silicates containing the oxides of iron would allow of a possible supply of oxygen from the deep interior of the Earth. From researches on the systems Fe:O, Fe: C:O, and Fe: H:0O, it appears very probable that the oxide FeO resembles other oxides of the metals of the eighth group of the Periodic System in being stable only at higher temperatures, decomposing as the temperature falls. The decomposition temperature for FeO appears to be between 500 and 600° and occurs according to the following reaction: 4FeO = Fe;0; + Fe It is entirely possible, though not yet shown experimentally, that a similar relation may hold, at some temperature, for a given silicate melt containing iron oxides, and that as the temperature falls metal- lic iron and oxygen may be separated from the liquid. | Under ordi- nary conditions the metallic iron would sink towards the center of the Earth. Under special conditions such as a rapid rush of deep-seated magma, metallic iron might be carried along with the liquid. This would account for the appearance of metallic iron in the basaltic rocks of Greenland and elsewhere. The oxygen would normally rise toward the surface, producing oxidation reactions at higher levels. This would account for the known occurrence of such reactions at levels below the circulation of meteoric water, such as the formation of sulfates and of martite. The hypothesis would also explain the existence of oxygen in the nov. 4, 1925 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 423 atmosphere of the Earth in spite of the fact that its presence there seems at first inconsistent with an originally molten body whose supply of oxygen was so deficient that it now possesses an iron core. Discussion. DDavip Wuite referred to experiments by 8. C. Lind and others on the bombardment of water by alpha particles and its decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen as a possible source of deep-seated oxygen. Dr. Sosman replied that if this were the origin of atmospheric oxygen, the quan- tity of helium in the atmosphere should be larger than it now is, unless it can be shown that the helium, like hydrogen, would be nearly all lost by diffusion into space. T. A. JaGGarR emphasized the view that ferric oxide might be the principal reacting substance in the rocks underlying Kilauea, according to Shepherd’s hypotheses, and that neither atmospheric oxygen .nor deep- seated oxygen would necessarily have to be called upon directly to account for the deep-seated oxidation of gas described by Shepherd. Keeping up the supply of ferric oxide over long periods of time is still another problem. Other communications H. T. Stearns, of the U.S. Geological Survey, presented some informal notes on the present condition of the volcanoes in Japan, Java and Italy, from observations which he had made on a trip around the World during the months just preceding. In Japan, Oshima and Sakurajima were steaming, Kirishima was in a fumarolic stage, Aso had been recently explosive, Osama was smoking, and Fujiyama was quiet. In the Philippines, a lake was found in the crater of Taal with no activity visible. In Java, the volcano Papandajan 1s about to become eruptive, to judge from the increasing activity of hot springs; liquid sulfur is being shot out 200 feet at a new solfatara and there have been eleven phreatic explosions in the past few months. Galoenggoeng and Tangon Kaprahol are steaming, Bromo has just completed an eruptive cycle. Smeroe shows its usual activity, giving off jets of steam at three-minute intervals. At Merapi, a volcano of the Fujiyama type, the dome of andesite is expanding. At Lamongan, seismic activity indicates that a dome is rising. In Italy, at Stromboli, there were two boccas, one of which was shooting lava to a height of about 120 feet at intervals of 3 to 15 minutes. The tem- perature is increasing at Vuleano. Etna and Vesuvius are both in a Strom- bolian phase. In closing the meeting, Dr. Jaccar spoke of the possible use of the sonic sounding method, as developed by Hayes, in studying volcano structures. He thought also that some method of direct listening to underground sounds of volcanic origin would yield valuable information, provided that some method of recording these sounds could be developed. It will be necessary first that the rocks involved shall be calibrated with artificial explosions. The use of a 424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 water-well for the transmission of sounds from rock to instrument, the latter being suspended in the water, gives promise of improvements in the record. Progress of volcanology during 1924.8 T. A. Jaacar, Hawaiian Voleano Observatory, U. 8. Geological Survey. During the past year volcanologic services have made progress in Java, Japan, the Philippines, Hawaii and Italy, a new service with a travelling investigator has been established in New Zealand, and a new service has been proposed in Reunion. Provision has been made by the International Union for international libraries at Naples, Catania, and Hawaii. The Hawaiian observatory was transferred July 1, 1924 from the U. 8. Weather Bureau to the U. 8. Geological Survey. Seismology has been transferred from the Weather Bureau to the U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, which will result in placing teleseismic work under the latter. Under the new administrations voleanology thus becomes attached to physical geology in Hawaii, California, Alaska and the Philippines; the Carnegie Institution of Washington investigates macroseismic problems in California; and the Coast and Geodetic Survey cares for those world problems of mathematical seismology which are closely related to gravity and magnetism. Dr. Friedlaender’s Volcanological Review (Zeitschrift fiir Vulkan- ologie) continues to be the best of its kind. The Section of Volcan- ology of the International Union is now publishing a useful Bulletin Volcanologique edited by Dr. Malladra at the University of Naples. A new series of Annali of the Royal Vesuvian Observatory is announced. ‘The Hawaiian Volcano Research Association is issuing a weekly Volcano Letter. Two splendid monographs have been issued by the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, on ‘‘Vesuvius” and on “Lassen Peak.’”’ The world of volcan- ology very greatly needs publications on routine activities of the volcanoes of Chile, Iceland, Galapagos, Kamchatka and Hast Africa. Some volcanic events of the year have been the explosive eruption of Kilauea in May, 1924, continued upbuilding of the lava floor of the Vesuvian crater, somewhat alarming signs of growing heat and activity in Papandayan, and an eruption on Albemarle Island of the Galapagos group. 8 Report of the Chairman of the Section of Volcanology to the Sixth Annual Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, May 1, 1925. Previous reports by chairmen of this section have been published as follows: First Annual Meeting, H.S. Washington, Proc. National Acad. Sci. 6: 583-592. 1920. (Reprint No. 11, National Research Council). Fourth Annual Meeting, A. L. Day, National Res. Council, Bull. 41: 71-73. 1923. Nov. 4, 1925 FISHER: NEW CACTUS WEEVIL FROM TEXAS 425 The Anderson-W ood torsion seismometer promises great usefulness in macroseismic measurement with high magnifications. Optical magnifications of two million have recently been attained in the Wiechert laboratory in Géttingen. The Eétvés balance and electri- cal sonic ranging both appear applicable to voleanology. William- son, Adams, Washington, Bowie, Jeffreys, Holmes, and Joly have produced important discussions of the interior of the Earth. Brown has discussed the lava tide at Kilauea. Oxidation, tilt, creep, and changes of elevation are becoming increasingly measurable and demonstrable in relation to underground magma; there are growing new cooperations in voleanological science; and slowly methods of measurement are emerging which promise much for purposes of fore- casting, and for setting the observer free from dependence on such discontinuous phenomena as “eruptions.” ENTOMOLOGY.—A new cactus weevil from Texas. W.S. FISHER, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHWER). The cactus weevil described below was obtained in connection with the prickly-pear insect investigations being conducted by the Com- monwealth of Australia at Uvalde, Texas, and was sent for identifica- tion by Alan P. Dodd. Mr. Dodd is anxious to have a name for the species to use in papers dealing with cactus insects. Gerstaeckeria (Philopuntia) doddi, new species Black, with the antennae reddish brown; clothed with white, yellowish, and brownish scales. Head with the front sulcate, and densely clothed with white and yellowish scales; beak long, shining, densely punctate, and some- times longitudinally carinate, in which case the surface is rugosely punctate; eyes rounded above, acute beneath, and separated from each other by two- thirds the width of the beak. Pronotum wider than long, widest at middle, with the sides arcuately rounded and strongly narrowed to apex; surface moderately convex, longitudinally carinate at middle, coarsely, confluently punctate, and sparsely clothed with yellowish and blackish brown scales, with a few whitish ones intermixed. Scutellum invisible. Elytra oval, not wider at base than pronotum, but about one-third wider than pronotum at middle, and without a post-humeral prominence; interspaces wide, and the alternate ones not more densely scaly; strial punctures large, round, rather shallow, and each bearing a large scale; surface rather densely clothed with dark brown and yellow-brown scales, with a few white ones intermixed, the sutural interval more densely clothed with yellowish brown scales, ornamented with a distinct white post-humeral fascia, and a short, irregular, transverse, white fascia just before the apical declivity. Abdomen beneath coarsely, densely punctate, and clothed with whitish scales; second, third, and fourth segments about subequal in length; femora unarmed, and mottled with whitish and yellowish brown scales; claws small and approximate. 426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 18 Length, 6-7.75 mm. Type locality—Uvalde, Texas. Other localities —San Diego and New Braunfels, Texas. Type and paratypes —Cat. No. 28519, U.S. N. M. Described from eleven specimens; six (one type) collected at the type locality in July, 1924, and August, 1925, by Alan P. Dodd, for whom the species is named; three collected at the same locality, December 11, 1920, and January 30, 1924, by J. C. Hamlin; one from San Diego, Texas, May 7 (Hubbard and Schwarz); and one from New Braunfels, Texas, November 17, 1895 (H. Soltau Collection). This species belongs to the subgenus Philopuntia Pierce,! and is closely allied to porosa Le Conte and opuntiae Pierce. From the former it can be distinguished by the elytra not one-half wider than the pronotum, and from both species by the tarsal claws being approximate, and not widely divergent. It resembles fasciata Pierce, from Florida, which also has the tarsal claws approximate, but the elytral markings are different. The markings on the elytra are fairly constant in this species, but the dens- ity of the scales is quite variable. In some specimens the surface of the beak is rather finely punctured and without a longitudinal carina, in others the carina is quite distinct and the surface rugosely punctate. 1 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 42: 163. 1889. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Brayton Howarp Ransom, chief of the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry and one of the leading parasitologists in the world, died in Washington, D. C., on September 17, 1925, after a brief illness of three weeks. Dr. Ransom was born in Missouri Valley, Iowa, on March 24, 1879. He was graduated from the University of Nebraska with the B.S. degree in 1899, with the M.S. degree in 1900, and with {the Ph.D. degree in 1908. He came to Washington in 1902 as assistant in zoology in the Hygienic Laboratory of the U.S. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, and in 1903 he was trans- ferred to the Bureau of Animal Industry as assistant in charge of the zoologi- cal laboratory in which capacity he served until 1906 when he was raised to the rank of Chief of the Zoological Division. Under Dr. Ransom’s leader- ship the Zoological Division developed to great importance in the organiza- tion of the Bureau of Animal Industry contributing to the solution of many important practical and purely scientific problems pertaining to parasitology and related subjects and thereby achieving a world wide reputation. In the solution of these problems Dr. Ransom played the most conspicuous rdle, his own researches in parasitology constituting an enviable record of scientific accomplishment. ; In recognition of his work Dr. Ransom had many honors bestowed on him. He was a member of the following scientific societies: The American Micro- scopical Society (President), The American Society of Naturalists, The American Society of Zoologists, The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science (Fellow), The American Society of Tropical Medicine (Secre- tary-Treasurer), The American Veterinary Medical Association (Honorary Member), The Biological Society of Washington, The Helminthological nov. 4, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 427 Society of Washington (Past President), The Washington Academy of Sciences (Vice-President), The American Society of Parasitologists (Councillor), the Société Pathologie Exotique (Foreign Correspondent) the Reale Academia d’Agricoltura di Torino (Foreign Correspondent). He was honorary Assistant Custodian of the Helminthological collections of the U.S. National Museum, and a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Parasitology and the American Journal of Tropical Medicine. He was a U.S. delegate to the Seventh International Zoological Congress, a delegate to the Fourth Fisheries Congress, and a delegate to the First Pan-American Scientific Congress. He was a recipient of the gold medal of the Seaman’s Tropical Disease Research Association of Kobe, Japan, in recognition of his contributions to the life history of Ascaris. His scientific contributions involve numerous publications dealing largely with the morphology, taxonomy, and life history of parasitic worms and with the practical application of facts ascertained by himself and by others to the prevention of parasitic diseases in man and in domestic animals. Richly endowed with a healthy scienific curiosity, with resourcefulness, thorough- ness, and the ability to apply himself unswervingly to the solution of baffl- ing problems, he brought these qualities to bear on his work, his writings being thoughtful, finished, and scholarly productions. His many charming personal qualities, his unassuming dignity, his thoughtful consideration for the feelings of others, his high sense of justice, and his frankness are reflected in his scientific papers which are singularly free from personal criticism, from unwarranted conclusions and are liberal in acknowledging the contributions of other scientific workers. It is a great tribute to Dr. Ransom’s scientific achievement that despite his extensive and highly important contributions to parasitology and medical zoology covering a quarter of a century none of his major scientific work has ever been challenged. Dr. J. N. Ross, associate curator of the Division of Plants, National Museum, has received the degree of LL.D. from Wabash College. Dr. Joun M. Courter, head of the botany department of Chicago Uni- versity since 1896, has joined the resident staff of the Boyce Thompson Insti- tute for Plant Research at Yonkers, New York. The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTEN TS” Ontenvar PArERs ScumnTiric Se rs) 0, Ms k Vol. 15 NoveMBER 19, 1925 No, 19 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kruuip D. F. Hewett 8. J. MaucHiy NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL 5URVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER \ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ? E. A. GotpMANn G, W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices * J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCINTY E. WicHERs CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mt. Roya anp GuILForp AVEs. Bautimore, MaryLanp Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. 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Specs at are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy : JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 15 NovEeMBER 19, 1925 No. 19 PHYSICS.—Glaser’s experiments and the orientation of molecules in a magnetic field. G. Brrr, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton. (Communicated by L. A. Baurr.) It has been shown by Glaser that the diamagnetic susceptibility of H., N2, COs is proportional to the pressure for sufficiently high pres- sures, but that at a certain pressure [in the particular experiments about ; atmosphere] another non-linear law is followed. At suff- ciently low pressures the susceptibility is again proportional to the pressure. Glaser and Debye suggest that the transition region is due to the finite time which is required for the establishment of space quantization.'?.* Without discussing the mechanism which orients the molecules, we can derive some restrictions as to the laws which govern this phenomenon. ‘These restrictions are discussed below with the conclusion that some of the apparently simplest laws may contradict Glaser’s results, while others are in agreement with them. We begin by supposing that every collision destroys the orientation of a molecule. We consider the time ¢ = 0 as representative of the general state, and we approximate the relative number of molecules, which have suffered a collision for the last time ¢ seconds before t = 0, by eta() where 7’ is a constant for a given pressure. This group at the time f = 0 consists partly of oriented and partly of unoriented molecules. Our first hypothesis is that the number of molecules which are not t oriented at f = Oise 7. Denoting the specific susceptibility by x and using suffixes Q, C to denote quantum and classical values of x 1 Glaser, Ann. der Physik, 75: 459. 1924. ? Debye, P., Amer. Physic. Soe. Bull., Feb. 14, p. 8, 1925. 2 A different interpretation of the mechanism of passing into the oriented condition is contained in Rvark and Breit, Phil. Mag. 59: 504. 1925. 429 430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 19 [corresponding to the oriented and unoriented condition respectively] we have E r t eat T Xe Ig = E Be ar XQ (1 = &') Je ta(#) = fee XQ (1) e/o z iG a 1 ka a ge at The absolute (volume) susceptibility « may be written as « = kx/T for a given temperature, k being a constant, as long as the gas is not too dense. Hence e ™ e + KQ ee at ook @) i a where k k Ko op Xo KG) T XQ: Taking in accordance with Glaser xg = 3x. and letting Kop Be Xe, X 7 (3) we have 2; e=x(1+ 7.) (4) Here x is proportional to the pressure and we may compare (4) directly with Glaser’s curves. It is seen that the asymptote to (4) does not pass through the origin (curve 1) and that the point of inflection char- acteristic of Glaser’s curves is absent in (4). Thus Glaser’s results show the probabilities of orientation are not given by a simple ex- ponential relation. t We investigate next in what manner the function e 7 should be changed in order to give such a dependence of « on x that the asymp- tote should pass through the origin. We suppose that the probability ch CCST : of an atom being unoriented a time ¢ after a collision is ‘) where 7 is constant for a given magnetic field. We have Nov. 19, 1925 BREIT: MOLECULES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 431 [fOr Olea © eo ccera(® =a [[r-Q]ee © We wish that « — «, should vanish for large x. This means that the and integral in (6) must vanish faster than a Since x is large we are only concerned with values of f for small values of the argument, and we have therefore the condition that 1 — f(y) for small y must vanish faster than y. The physical meaning of this is that the number of molecules in an oriented state at time ¢, since the group considered suffered a collision, must for small¢ vanish faster than t. Since + must be supposed to depend on H and since small values of H give large values of 7 we have another physical interpretation, viz., that in weak fields the number of oriented atoms at a given time ¢ since the last a : 1 collision must vanish faster than -. How 7 depends on H cannot be de said without forming a hypothesis as to the mechanism which estab- lishes the orientation. However, experiments on the variation in Glaser’s curves with H will surely establish the nature of this relation- ship. Experiments on resonance radiation may be interpreted in terms of the dependence of son H. ‘Thus it is known that if the polarization of resonance radiation in a field H be P, then (Ge) ; <0. The depolar- ization of resonance radiation on our hypothesis is mainly due to the presence of atoms which have acquired their final orientation in the magnetic field. For weak fields at the mean instant of falling from the excited to the unexcited level the number of ‘‘depolarized’”’ atoms is proportional to 1 — i(‘) where t, is the mean life of the atom. Now Ty 1+6 this number for large 7 is of the form (‘*) where 6>0 or else it van- ae ishes still more strongly than that. If 7 should be inversely propor- tional to H, then P for small H would be approximately proportional to H'*’ and (SH) would vanish as H. It seems probable H=0 432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 19 therefore that 7 has the character of H~* where g is a proper fraction = (0 < q < 1) for then a is proportional to H**~1! which does not In particular we note that if 6 = 1, then g = vanish if g = 1 - x 9° We shall see presently that 6 = 1 is in fair agreement with Glaser’s 1 9 If an atom behaves as a magnetic doublet of fixed moment the magnetic field H exerts a moment on it which is proportional to H, and if during the orienting process the field exerts a sensibly constant moment, a given angle @ is passed in a time 7, such that 6= A Hr? where A is constant. This explains why the time constant 7 may be results, and we consider therefore the physical significance of q = il ae : taken to be ~—— because it is reasonable to suppose that a certain VH angle must be turned through in order to assume the final orientation. i : lee, é Needless to say, the relation a is not the only. possible one. V However, the writer thought it of interest to show that the restrictions on f are not of such a nature as to be inconsistent with experiments on the depolarizing influence of a magnetic field on resonance radiation. The question of the magnitudeof éinthe above formula we leave open. A closer examination of numerical values shows that it may be roughly the ratio of the period of the electron to the mean life of an atom. We have proved that for small y the function 1 — f(y) must vanish more strongly than y. In our proof it has been assumed that the number of molecules which, when referred to t = 0, have suffered their t last collision in the interval of time —t, —t + dtis Ne ™d - where N is the total number of molecules. Let us suppose now more generally that this number is N¢ (..)al a): We have [-Gale)=2 @ and in place of (6) we obtain co cna ne (2 - 1) E ig (:)| o(t)dt (8) e/o nov. 19, 1925 BREIT: MOLECULES IN-A MAGNETIC FIELD 433 Again the experimental results require that the integral should vanish : a er . more rapidly than = if x is large. If now for small y the function 1 — i(y) vanishes as y the integral in (8) cannot vanish faster than = unless J , to(t)dt vanishes. However, this integral cannot vanish because both t and o(t) are positive by definition throughout the range of integration. Thus our conclusion as to the behavior of 1 — f(y) at y = 0 is independent of the form of 6 as long as this form is in the range of physically possible forms. If ohh _ t'e(t)dt should be divergent for q>q., we have the additional requirement that 1 — f(y) should vanish more rapidly than y*e. 190 Scale of X Fig. 1—Theoretical dependence of susceptibility on pressures Using special forms of f which satisfy the derived condition and making ¢(y) = e-%, (1) Tf f(y) = 1, (O] ere) <| & LOCALITY a B,y | a-v 2V 2E 4 Gill 2 COLOR £8) £ Sialigs BerdellsiColowree sence etic 1.494|1.536)0.042} 9°-16° 16°-24°|(—)} ‘|| | Grayish buff Owyhee Co., Idaho........ 1.488}1.527/0.039} Small (—)} || | White biaxial Nashville Arky. 4 .ccctea- ee 1.517|1.549|0.032} Small (—)} || | Gray to light biaxial gray Spokane, Wash............ 1.523|/1.572|0.051} Small (—)} || | Pistachio biaxial green Wagon Wheel Gap, Colo. . .|1.495/1.537|0.042) Small (—)} || | Gray biaxial Tables 1 and 2 give the analyses of beidellite from four localities and the optical properties of beidellite from five localities: The indices of refraction are moderately low for the nearly iron-free material but increase greatly for those containing ferric iron. The birefringence is high for the low-iron samples and very high for the iron-rich one from Spokane, Washington. 4E. V. Shannon, Amer. Mineralogist 10: 159-161. 1925. pec. 19, 1925 LOTKA: THE MEASURE OF NET FERTILITY 469 GENETICS.—The measure of net fertility. ALFRED J. LorKa, Metro- politan Life Insurance Co., New York. There can hardly be any divergence of opinion regarding a suitable definition of gross fertility. This is evidently measured by the total number of children born per female, in a life time. At most, doubts might arise as to whether the ratio should be formed with respect to children of both sexes, or with respect to daughters only. But this is of little consequence, since these two alternatives would in any case be distinguished only by a constant factor of 2.06, the sex ratio at birth plus unity. As soon, however, as we begin to discuss net fertility, difficulties arise. Ji we loosely define this quantity as the number of surviving children (or daughters) per female, in a life time, the question is imme- diately asked: surviving to what age? If we decide this question by setting an arbitrary age, then we obtain as many different arbitrary measures of fertility as we posit arbitrary ages of survival. This is not an ideal state of affairs. An alternative which has sometimes been adopted is to compute an aggregate sur- vival to an arbitrary standard population.! This procedure, also, is obviously not satisfactory. Net fertility seems to depend solely on two things: Number of children born, and survival rates. An arbi- trary standard population is extraneous to the question at issue. It should be possible to define and measure net fertility in terms of the two factors: children born, and, survivals, alone. The measure should contain only two functions, (1) the maternity frequency 6s of women at age x; and (2) the survival factor 1., the well known life table function which tells us what proportion l, out of any (large) number of persons (in particular, females) born survive to age x. Now there is a simple measure which satisfies these conditions, and is free from reference to any arbitrary standard. It is singular that this fact should have escaped attention. The measure in question is simply the ratio of total births in two successive generations. One writer has come very near to formulating this measure, but, as we shall see, his formula, though outwardly resembling the one here to be developed, differs essentially in principle, and materially in arithmeti- cal value, from the measure here proposed. If we trace a batch of births of N females through their subsequent 1 Karl Pearson, Chances of Death 1: 70, defines net fertility as the number of children surviving after fifteen years of married life. 470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 life, at age x a number N |, survive, and these reproduce at the rate of 6. daughters per annum. ‘The total number of daughters born of these N females throughout life is evidently given by the integral of N1..6.dx extended over the whole range of life; or, what amounts to the same thing, over the range of the reproductive period, since Bx is zero outside this range. In forming the ratio of the births in the original generation to those in the generation of daughters, N cancels out, and we have for this ratio, simply R, =| Bx dx Z (1) The gross fertility, on the other hand, would be reckoned by the ratio of total births in two successive generations if no deduction had to be made for deaths, so that we may write for the gross fertility Ria if Wace (2) For the United States in 1920 the values of R, and R,, computed on the basis of central values of 1,, (6. being given for five year groups) are as follows: Re =2)420 1s = il as Ro a (IY R, Thus in the United States in 1920 the net fertility was 82 per cent of the gross. An interesting relation is brought out by effecting a transformation of the integral for R,. It can be shown that if the age schedule of maternity frequency 6,, and of mortality l., remains fixed for a suffi- cient length of time, the population settles down to a fixed age distribu- tion and increases at a constant fractional rate r given by the trans- cendental equation for r 1 Sion 1, Bx ax (3) while the (constant) birthrate per head is then given by b= uf Bata Rok (4) Multiplying (3) and (4) together, and expanding the exponential function under the integral sign, we find psc. 19, 1925 LOTKA: THE MEASURE OF NET FERTILITY 471 it Te R, — Tpit 97k a aint DSS Rane NEAR SRE Fame a) (5) Lo aie ihn ID + 21 Dp 50000 where Ra =|) x ao: IE To Cob:< n es La = Oa llkebs If r is sufficiently small we have, in first approximation Da = (6) or R, > b Meg (7) It is thus seen that the net fertility, as measured by the ratio of the total births in two successive generations, is given by the product of the mean length of life L, and that particular 6 which results ultimately from the given age schedule of mortality and maternity frequency. Now this expression is very similar, in outward form, to a measure of net fertility suggested by G. H. Knibbs,? who proposes to measure the net fertility by the product of the observed birthrate b’ and the mean length of life. Now the very fact that Knibbs’ formula is in form identical with the expression (7) for the ratio R, between total births in two succes- sive generations, shows that in general Knibb’s product cannot be good measure of net fertility. Perhaps the most obviously convincing argument is a numerical example from actual observation. In the United States in 1920 the observed birthrate was 6’ = 0.0234. The ‘ultimate’ birthrate corresponding to the existing age schedule of mortality and maternity frequency was 0.0209. ‘Thus the ratio of total births in two successive generations is given by TR = lolly, = 0.0209 x 57.523 = 1% 2G. H. Knibbs, Mathematical Theory of Population, p. 294, 1917. 3 These figures relate primarily to the female population, but this does not materially affect the argument. For details see the Journal of the American Statistical Association 20: 314. 1920. 472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 whereas, using the observed birthrates, we would find lop, = Wats Thus Knibbs’ figure gives at best, in this case, an estimate of the net fertility which is over 10 per cent too high. In point of fact the omission of higher degree terms in (7) vitiates the figure 1.2 here obtained for R,. The exact value of R, is 1.168,4 still further increasing the divergence from Knibbs’ figure. It should also be noted that Knibbs’ measure of net fertility involves the existing age distribution, which, obviously, should not enter into an absolute measure of net fertility. BOTANY.—New plants from Central America.—V.1 Paut C. STAND- LEY, U.S. National Museum. Except for two Cyperaceae, all the plants described as new in this paper are trees or shrubs. ‘The most interesting are the three species of Ilex reported from Costa Rica, and two new members of the genus Tetrathylacium, of the family Flacourtiaceae, hitherto believed to consist of a single species. Besides the Central American plants, there is described a new Vallesia from southern Mexico. Cyperus nubigenus Britt. & Standl., sp. nov. Subgenus Hucyperus. Erect glabrous perennial, the culms 60-100 cm. high or taller, obtusely trigonous, smooth, stout, leafy below, the lowest sheaths without blades, purplish; leaf blades equaling the culms, 1-2 cm. wide, scabrous on the margins, many-nerved, with very numerous transverse nerves; umbel compound, the primary rays numerous, 4-12 em. long, the secondary rays very numerous, 1-5 em. long; bracts numerous, leaf-like, equaling the rays, 7-15 mm. wide, long-attentuate; spikelets few or numerous in dense glomerules at the ends of the smooth secondary rays, lance-oblong, about 1 em. long, 3 mm. wide, persistent, strongly compressed; scales8-11, oblong-ovate, acute or acuminate, oblique and rather lax, not closely ap- pressed, deciduous (?), dull-vinaceous, the keel green; achene 1 mm. long, elliptic, trigonous, smooth, dull brownish; style branches 3, exserted. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,733, collected on bank of small stream at Las Nubes, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1900 meters, March 21, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 38653). No. 38693, from Las Nubes, also belong to this species. In aspect C. nubigenus is suggestive of C. canus, but it is conspicuously distinct from that and all other species known from Central America. It is a handsome, rather showy plant, frequent on grassy stream banks of the slopes of Irazti, about Las Nubes. 4 See Journ. Amer. Statistical Association. loc. cit. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. See this JouRNAL 16: 457. 1925. DeEc. 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 473 Rynchospora torresiana Britt. & Standl., sp. nov. Planis erect, stout, forming large clumps, with thick, somewhat woody thizomes; culms 1-2 m. high, multinodose; leaves elongate, very numerous, 9-13 mm. wide, pale green, glabrous, the margins scaberulous; spikelets sessile or nearly so, very numerous, in dense headlike cymes 2-2.5 em. in diameter, the heads few, solitary on long, slender, axillary and terminal peduncles, rarely sessile, sometimes in clusters of 3 on the peduncle, the lateral heads then subsessile; bracts 1-3, elongate, resembling the leaves but narrower; spikelets 1 em. long, with about 6 scales, these ovate, mucro- nate, firm, glabrous, pale greenish, often mottled with pale red-brown; bristles 4, usually slightly shorter than the achene, one of them sometimes slightly exceeding the achene, antrorse-scaberulous; achene obovoid-orbic- ular, plano-convex, rounded at apex, 2.5-3 mm. long, pale brownish, finely reticulate, the beak 4-5 mm. long, green, its base about one-third as bread as the achene. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,725, collected in wet forest at El Mujiieco, south of Navarro, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, altitude about 1400 meters, Febr. 9, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 33846). No. 33635, from the same locality, also represents the species. This species is named for Prof. Rubén Torres Rojas, of Cartago, in whose company the specimens were collected. In its gross characters and general appearance the plant is very unlike any Rynchospora reported previously from Central America. Neea orosiana Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 1.5-2.5 m. high, the branches terete, pale, glabrous, or when young sparsely and minutely ferruginous-puberulent; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 5-7 mm. long, glabrate; leaf blades mostly oblong-oblanceolate, some- times oblong-obovate, 15-27 em. long, 5.5-7.5 em. wide, rather abruptly very long-acuminate, gradually narrowed from about the middle to the narrow obtuse base, thin, glabrous, the lateral nerves conspicuous beneath, about 10 on each side, arcuate, laxly and irregularly anastomosing near the margin; pistillate inflorescences axillary, few-flowered, cymose-paniculate or subracemose, the branches at first obscurely ferruginous-puberulent but soon glabrate, the peduncles in fruit 46.5 em. long, the flowers on very short stout pedicels; fruit red, ellipsoid-oblong, 12 mm. long, 5 mm. thick, con- spicuously striate. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,228,760 collected in moist forest near Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 30, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 39738). No. 39801, from Orosi, is referable here. Neea orosiana is related to N. pittieri Standl."and N. psychotrioides Donn. Smith, but in both those species the leaves normally are broadest at the middle, and in N. psychotrioides they are usually much smaller. The very short petioles and large fruit of N. crosiana also are noteworthy. Hyperbaena smilacina Standl., sp. nov. Slender woody vine, the branchlets terete, striate, glabrous; petioles slender, 3-4 cm. long, glaucescent; leaf blades subcoriaceous, ovate to rounded-ovate, 7.5-9 cm. long, 4.5-7 em. wide, obtuse or rounded at apex and abruptly short-acuminate, at base broadly rounded or truncate or 474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 somewhat concave, glabrous, 5 or 7-nerved at base, the lowest pair of nerves very close to the margin and almost confluent with it, the innermost pair of nerves arcuate and extending nearly to the apex; staminate panicles axillary, solitary, equaling or shorter than the petioles, many-flowered, the flowers partly sessile and partly pedicellate, the branches glabrous or nearly so, glaucescent; bractlets minutely hispidulous; sepals and petals glabrous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,206,159, collected at Arenal, Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude 600 meters, May 5, 1923, by Juvenal Valerio (no. 15). In Diels’ key to the species of Hyperbaena? this plant runs to H. tonduzii Diels, which also is a Costa Rican species, but a tree, and not at all closely related to this plant of Guanacaste. Sterile specimens collected by the writer (no. 36921) at La Colombiana, Province of Limén, Costa Rica, in March, 1924, are probably referable to H. smilacina. In Mexico and Central America the family Menispermaceae (to which Hyperbaena belongs) is represented chiefly by the genus Cissampelos,C. pareira being one of the most abundant plants of the region. A few isolated species of other genera have been described, however, and the writer has material of several others, most of which are not in satisfactory condition for diagnosis. In several cases the generic position is uncertain and it will be necessary to await the collection of more complete material before the species may be described. There are at hand sterile specimens of two Central American Menisper- maceae which, with little doubt, are referable to the genus Hyperbaena. Although the description of new species from sterile specimens is not to be recommended, in the present instance it has been adopted as a means of calling attention to the plants involved, and for purposes of record. Ex- cepting only Cissampelos pareira, it seems to be difficult in Central America to find plants of this family in flower, and it is probable that their flowering season is a very short one. Hyperbaena panamensis Standl., sp. nov. Slender woody vine, the branchlets slender, terete, green, thinly puberu- lent; petioles slender, 1-2.2 cm. long, terete, puberulent; leaf blades oblong-ovate or ovate, 8-13 cm. long, 4.5-6 em. wide abruptly and shortly obtuse-acuminate, rounded or shallowly emarginate at base, subcoriaceous, somewhat lustrous, glabrous above, the costa impressed, the other nerves prominulous, beneath very sparsely and minutely puberulent, 5-nerved at base, the basal nerves slender and inconspicuous, remote from the margin at first but finally anastomosing with it, the inner pair of nerves very promi- nent, extending nearly to the apex, the few and irregular lateral nerves diver- gent from the costa nearly at right angles. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,218,122, collected in moist forest near Gamboa, Canal Zone, Panama, Dec. 26, 1923, by Paul C. Standley (no. 28417). 2In Engl. Pflanzenreich ITV. 94: 199. 1910. DEC. 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 475 Hyperbaena panamensis resembles H. smilacina, but in that species the leaves are relatively much broader, and their venation different. A sterile specimen collected by the writer (no. 39638) at Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, is perhaps referable to H. panamensis, having the same pubescence and nearly, but not quite, similar leaves. Hyperbaena guatemalensis Standl., sp. nov. Tree 9 m. high, the branchlets striate, at first densely puberulent but soon glabrate; petioles stout, 1.5-2 em. long, striate, puberulent; leaf blades oblong, 10-14 em. long, 3.5-6 em. wide, acute or acutish, obtuse or rounded and slightly unequal at base, thick-coriaceous, thinly and finely puberulent above or glabrate, slightly rough to the touch, the costa and lateral nerves prominent, beneath rather densely soft-pubescent, pinnate-nerved, the lateral nerves 6 or 7 on each side, arcuate, laxly and irregularly anastomosing near the margin. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,080,620, collected at Bar- ranquillo, Department of El Progreso, Guatemala, altitude 540 meters, March 15, 1920, by Wilson Popenoe (no. 965). Perhaps related to H. phanerophlebia Standl., of Salvador, but in that species the leaves are glabrous, narrow at base, and with different venation. The vernacular name of H. guatemalensis is given as “bailador.”’ Capparis lankesteri Standl., sp. nov. Small tree, glabrous throughout; petiole 10 cm. long, terete; leaf blade rounded-ovate, 30 cm. long, 21 cm. wide, broadly rounded at base, at apex rounded and abruptly short-acuminate, the tip 1.5 em. long, thin, lustrous above, the lateral nerves 9 pairs, arcuate, anastomosing near the margin; pedicels 8-9 cm. long; sepals imbricate, broadly ovate, 4 mm. long, rounded at apex; petals oblong, about 2 cm. long and 8 mm. wide, rounded at apex, obtuse and sessile at base; stamens very numerous, 5 cm. long or more; ovary globose-ovoid, verrucose, much longer than the gynophore. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,207,618, collected at sea level, along the Reventazén River, Costa Rica, in dense woodland, December, 1922, by C. H. Lankester (no. 697). The flowers are said to be pink. Although known only from incomplete material, consisting of a leaf and detached flowers, this plant is evidently distinct from any species of Capparis known previously from Central Amer- ica. It is related perhaps to C. discolor Donn. Smith, also of Costa Rica, which has linear-oblong leaves. Lonchocarpus trifoliolatus Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets terete, with numerous large pale lenticels, the young shoots densely pubescent with short spreading hairs; leaves 3-foliolate, the petiole 1.5-3.5 em. long, the rachis 1-1.5 em. long, densely pubescent; terminal leaflet broadly ovate or rounded-ovate, 9-14.5 cm. long, 7-9 cm. wide, acute or short-acuminate, rounded at base, densely velutinous-pubescent on both surfaces; lateral leaflets broadly ovate to orbicular-ovate, acute or subob- tuse, 3.5-7 em. long, racemes axillary, solitary, the rachis in fruit about 8 em. long, densely pubescent, many-flowered flowers neary sessile, the calyx 476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 turbinate-campanulate, 2.5 mm. long, minutely sericeous; lezume 1-seeded, elliptic, the stipe about 7 mm. long, the body 44.5 em. long and 2 em. wide, glabrous or nearly so, glaucous, the valves very thin, thin on both margins but with a slender elevated nerve close to the dorsal margin, the apex of the pod obtuse or acute and short-beaked. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,208,138 collected in the De- partment of Chalatenango, El Salvador, in 1924, by Salvador Calderén (no. 2162). Among the known Central American species this may be recognized readily by its trifoliolate leaves. Lonchocarpus calderoni Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets slender, terete, brown, furnished with numerous pale lenticels; petiole and rachis together 7-11 em. long, slender, glabrous; leaflets usually 11, oblong or lance-oblong, 2-4 em. long, 0.8-1.6 em. wide, narrowed to the broad emarginate apex, the terminal leaflet acute at base, the lateral ones obtuse or acute and very unequal, obscurely puberulent above along the costa, beneath densely short-barbate at base of costa, elsewhere glabrous; racemes axillary, solitary, 7-15 em. long, many-flowered, glabrous, the flowers partly solitary but mostly on 2-flowered peduncles, the peduncles about 3 mm. long, the pedicels equaling or shorter than the peduncles, gla- brous; calyx broadly campanulate, 3-3.5 mm. long, glabrous, the margin minutely ciliolate, with very short, broad, remote teeth; standard 1 cm. long, sparsely and minutely sericeous outside near the base; ovary linear, the sides glabrous, the margins minutely appressed-pubescent. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,169,951, collected on Cerro del Guayabal, El Salvador, January, 1924, by Salvador Calderén (no. 2022). So far as I know, no species of Ilex has ever been reported from Central America. It was, therefore, with some surprise that I found trees of this genus frequent in the humid forest about La Estrella, Costa Rica, in March, 1924. Later, specimens of Jlex were collected at Las Nubes, and specimens taken earlier on La Carpintera also represent the genus, although their identity was not recognized at the time of collection. Study of these col- lections has revealed the fact that not one but three specimens are repre- sented. It is remarkable that the genus was not discovered by some of the earlier collectors in Costa Rica. Ilex lamprophylla Standl., sp. nov. Shrub or tree 2-7.5 m. high, glabrous throughout; branchlets subterete, blackish when dry, bearing scattered large pale lenticels; petioles stout, 4—7 mm. long; stipules pale, trangular-subulate, 1 mm. long; leaves persistent the blades elliptic or rarely oblong-elliptic, broadest at the middle, 5-10 cm. long, 2.5-5 em. wide, obtuse at base, acute at apex or abruptly short-acumi- nate, with obtuse tip, subcoriaceous, coarsely crenate or crenate-serrate nearly to the base, the crenations about 10 on each side, each with a short incurved mucro; upper surface of blades very lustrous, blackish when dry, the lower surface paler, the lateral nerves about 10 pairs, divergent at an angle of about 65°, straight, laxly anastomosing remote from the margin; pistillate flowers axillary, in fascicles of 3-8; pedicels stout, 6-10 mm. long, DEC. 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 477 the bractlets ovate-triangular, borne near the base of the pedicel; calyx 2.5 mm. broad, shallowly 4-lobate, the lobes broadly triangular, acutish, spreading, glabrous; fruit (immature?) green, lustrous, oval, 5 mm. long, 3.5 mm. thick, conspicuously costate; nutlets 4, 5-costate dorsally. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,228,657, collected in wet forest at La Estrella, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 27, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 39440) The following collections also belong here: Costa Rica: La Estrella, Standley 39297, 39367. Orosi, Province of Cartago, Standley 39666. Ilex carpinterae Standl., sp. nov. Tree 6 m. high with dense rounded crown, glabrous throughout, the branch- lets subterete, “pale brownish, the lenticels few and inconspicuous; stipules triangular-subulate, 1 mm. long, pale, persistent; petioles stout, 5-8 mm. long; leaves persistent, the blades oblong or elliptic-oblong, 3.5-6 em. long, 1.5-2 cm. wide, acute or acutish at base, acute at apex, the tip obtuse, coria- ceous, practically entire, but faint crenations indicated by remote minute mucros; blades dark green and slightly lustrous above, the nervation faint and inconspicuous, beneath paler, the lateral nerves 8 or 9 pairs, divergent at an angle of 60° or more, nearly straight, laxly anastomosing near the margin, the costa very stout and prominent; pistillate flowers axillary, in few-flowered fascicles; pedicels stout, 4-5 mm. long, the bractlets broadly triangular, borne near the base of the pedicel; calyx 2 mm. broad, shallowly 4-lobate, the lobes very broadly rounded, appressed; fruit (immature) ovoid-globose, 2.5 mm. long, lustrous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,226,682, collected in moist forest on Cerro de la Carpintera, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, altitude about 1800 meters, February, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 34491). This may be only a form of I. lamprophylla, but it seems to differ suffi- ciently from that in its narrower subentire leaves, short pedicels, and rounded calyx lobes. Tlex vulcanicola Standl., sp. nov. Shrub about 1 m. high, the branchlets subterete, ochraceous, densely pubescent with minute spreading hairs; stipules triangular, pale, scarcely 0.5 mm. long; leaves persistent, the petioles stout, about 3mm. long, puberu- lent; leaf blades broadly elliptic to nearly orbicular, 15-23 mm. long, 12-17 mm. wide, broadly cuneate at base, rounded or very obtuse at apex, coria- ceous, remotely and shallowly crenate in the upper two-thirds, the teeth tipped with a minute incurved mucro; blades deep green and somewhat lustrous above, with priminulous venation, beneath paler, sparsely and minutely puberulent, especially on the costa, sparsely dark-punctate, the lateral nerves 4 or 5 pairs, divergent at an angle of about 45°, laxly anatomos- ing near the margin; pistillate pedicels in axillary fascicles of 2 or 3, 4-5 mm. long, sparsely and minutely pubescent or glabrous; calyx glabrous, 2 mm. broad, shallowly 4-lobed, the lobes obtuse; fruit sub-globose, 4 mm. in diam- eter, lustrous, glabrous; nutlets smooth. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,228,373, collected in wet forest at Las Nubes, Province of San José, Costa Rica, March 21, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 38729). According to my notes, the shrub was epiphytic upon a tree, but this may be an error. 478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 Sloanea faginea Standl., sp. nov. Large tree, the branchlets terete, with scattered coarse lenticels, minutely tomentose; stipules early deciduous; petioles stout, 1.5-3.5 em. long, minutely tomentose or glabrate; leaf blades obovate or elliptic-obovate, 12-21 cm. long, 7-12 em. wide, narrowed to an obtuse base, at apex obtuse or rounded, subcoriaceous, with sinuate or subentire margins, sparsely and very minutely tomentose along the costa, elsewhere glabrous or nearly so, the lateral nerves about 10 pairs, slightly arcuate, divergent at an angle of about 50°, irregularly and indistinctly anastomosing close to the margin; flowers in axillary simple racemes, or the pedicels solitary, simple, and axillary, the racemes mostly 3 or 4-flowered, the rachis about 3 em. long, the pedicels stout, 1.8-2.5 em. long, finely tomentose; sepals about 7, linear-oblong, 4 mm. long; capsule globose-ovoid, 2.5 em. long, the 4 valves hard and woody, densely covered with stiff spines, these 3.4 mm. long, stout, unequal, antrorse-scaberulous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,166,464, collected at Peralta, Costa Rica, in 1923 by H. E. Stork (no. 483). The following collections also are referable here: Costa Rica: Peralta, Stork 481. EL Mufieco, south of Navarro, Province of Cartago, altitude 1400 m., Standley 33685. Sterile material collected in British Honduras by H. C. Kluge (no. 6) in December, 1924, may represent the same species. The only related species known from Costa Rica is S. medusula Schum. & Pittier, which has larger and more numerous. flowers. From S. faginea, as well as from the two species described below, S. medusula is distinguished by its very large leaves, which are densely covered beneath with a fine pale tomentum. Sloanea guapilensis Standl., sp. nov. Tree 6 m. high, the branchlets slender, terete, thinly hirtellous; stipules linear-subulate, 83-4 mm. long, persistent; petioles slender, 1-2 cm. long hirtellous; leaf blades obovate-oblong, 12-17.5 em. long, 4.5-6 em. wide narrowed to the rounded base, acute or abruptly short-acuminate at apex irregularly and shallowly sinuate, especially toward the apex, thin, green above, glabrous or nearly so, beneath paler, sparsely hirtellous along the costa and principal nerves, elsewhere glabrous or nearly so; raceme axillary 2-flowered, the rachis 1.5 em. long, the pedicels scarcely 1 em. long; capsule about 2 em. long, very densely setose, the setae slender, unequal, thelonger 1.5-2 em. long, densely antrorse-scaberulous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,227,904, collected in wet forest near Gudpiles, Province of Limén, Costa Rica, altitude about 500° meters, March 12, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37352). Easily distinguishable from S. faginea by the different pubescence, and by the long bristles of the fruits. Sloanea macropoda Standl., sp. nov. Medium-sized tree, the branchlets stout, finely and densely tomentose; stipules deciduous; petioles slender, terete, 9-11 em. long, minutely brown- ish-tomentose; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, about 35 cm. long and 14 cm. wide, obtuse at base, short-acuminate at apex, thin, irregularly sinuate finely tomentose along the costa and lateral nerves, elsewhere glabrous or pEc. 19, 1925 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 479 nearly so; racemes axillary, solitary, 15-22 em. long, several-flowered, matur- ing 1 or 2 fruits, the pedicels about 3 cm. long, tomentose; capsule globose- ovoid, 2.5 em. long, densely covered with slender spines 2=2.5 cm. long, these stiff, sharp-pointed, minutely puberulent; capsule valves hard and woody, 2.5 mm. thick. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 578466, collected in forests of Boca Culebra, Pacific coast of Costa Rica, altitude 50 meters, Jan. 21, 1898, by H. Pittier (no. 12168). Vernacular name, “‘abrojo.”’ This collection has been determined as S. macrophylla Spruce, but the latter, according to description, differs in several details. The fruit of S. macropoda is much like that of S. guapilensis, but the leaves are much larger, of different shape, and on longer petioles, while the pubescence is quite unlike in the two species. The genus Tetrathylacitum Poepp. & Endl. is a member of the family Flacourtiaceae. The original species, and the only one recognized hereto- fore, is T. macrophyllum Poepp. & Endl., of Peru. However, Seemann later described as the type of a new genus, Hdmonstonia, another plant which has been recognized as congenerice with Tetrathylacum, and his species has been considered as synonymous with 7. macrophyllum. Notes furnished by Mr. I. Hutchinson would indicate that Seemann’s plant probably represents a distinct species, for which the proper name is the following: Tetrathylacium pacificum (Seem.) Standl. Edmonstonia pacifica Seem. Bot. Voy. Herald 98. pl. 18. 1853. Edmonstonia pacifica was described in Seemann’s ‘Flora of the Isthmus of Panama,” and the type locality was given as “Cape Corrientes, Darién,” but this locality is in Colombia. The genus Tetrathylactwm has not been reported heretofore from Central America, but it is now possible to record the two species described below. Tetrathylacium johanseni Standl. Tree 6 to 30 m. high the branchlets brown, somewhat puberulent when young; stipules foliaceous, green, deciduous, 8-17 mm. as lanceolate to oblong, somewhat falecate, conspicuously nerved; petioles 3-5 mm. long; leaf blades oblong or elliptic- oblong, 13-24 em. long, 4-8 em, wide, cuspidate acuminate (acumen often falcate), often somewhat narrowed toward the rounded or subcordate, slightly unequal base, subcoriaceous, lustrous, bright green, glabrous, remotely low-crenate or nearly entire, the venation prominent on both surfaces, the lateral (secondary) nerves 6-8 pairs, arcuate- ascending, gradually anastomosing with the margin, the tertiary nerves very numerous, divaricate at a right angle from the costa and oblique to the secondary nerves, finely reticulate; spikes subsessile, 3.5-4.5 cm. long, the rachis puberulent, very densely flowered, the flowers crowded, compressed by the crowding and 4 or 5-angled; corolla 2 mm. long, glabrous, not gibbous below; fruit (immature) obovoid-globose, 1 cm. long, glabrate, apiculate, many-seeded. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 690299 collected near Gattin, Canal Zone, Panama, February 10, 1911, by E. A. Goldman (no. 1863). The following specimens also represent this species: 480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 Panama: Rio Indio de Gattin, Canal Zone, Pittier 2772. Mount Hope Cemetery, Canal Zone, Standley 28767. Rio Tecumen, Province of Panama, Standley 29408. Canal Zone, July, 1923, Johansen 4. Puerto Obaldfa, San Blas coast, Pittver 4300. The species is named for Mr. Holger Johansen, Director of the Plant Introduction Garden at Summit, Canal Zone, to whom the writer is indebted for many favors while engaged in botanical work in Panama. Mr. Johansen’s recently (February, 1925) published ‘‘Handbook of the Principal Trees and Shrubs of the Ancon and Balboa Districts” is the only publication ever issued devoted wholly to the plants of the Canal Zone. Tetrathylacitum johanseni is easily separable from T. costaricense and T. pacificum by the short, densely flowered spikes, which strongly resemble those of the genus Piper. The crowding of the flowers, resulting in a 4 or 5- angled corolla, does not occur in the other species. The flowers are quite as tightly packed as in Piper spikes, and give the same effect of a pavement or mosaic. The nervation of the leaves in T. johansenz is like that of T’. cos- taricense. Tetrathylacium costaricense Standl., sp. nov. Large tree, the branchlets brownish, conspicuously lenticellate; petioles stout, 5-10 mm. long; leaf blades oblong, 18-28 em. long, 5-8 cm. wide, abruptly acuminate, deeply cordate at base, subcoriaceous, glabrous, remotely and very obscurely crenate, the nervation prominent on both surfaces, the lateral (secondary) nerves 10-12 pairs, arcuate-ascending, gradually merging with the margin, the tertiary nerves numerous, nearly straight, divergent at a right angle from the costa and oblique to the secondary nerves, closely reticulate; spikes about 7 em. long, much interrupted, the flowers remote, solitary or in clusters along the minutely puberulent rachis; corolla glabrous, 3 mm. broad, deeply 4-lobed, much broader than high. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 579332, collected on plains of Currfs, along the Rio Diqufs, Costa Rica, altitude 100 meters, March 4, 1898, by H. Pittier (no. 11968). The vernacular name is said to be ‘‘sapote.”” This species is distinguished from 7. johanseni by the interrupted spikes and 4-lobed, not compressed corollas. It is closely related to T. pacificum but, as indicated by Mr. I. Hutchinson (in letter of September, 1910) and in Seemann’s plate of his new species, it differs in the venation of the leaves. In T. pacificum the lateral nerves anastomose at some distance from the margin to form an intramarginal nerve; also, the tertiary nerves are almost at right angles with the secondary ones, and not perpendicular to the costa. The dimensions given by Seemann for the leaves of the Colombian plant are much larger than in the Costa Rican specimen. Mr. Hutchinson states, further, that the leaf venation of T. macrophyllum is different from that of the Costa Rican tree. Vallesia conzattii Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets densely whitish-tomentose; petioles stout, 3-5 mm. long, tomentose; leaf blades narrowly lance-oblong, 7-9 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, pDEc. 19, 1925 ROHWER: THREE SAWFLIES FROM JAPAN 481 acute or acutish, at base rounded or truncate, above glabrous except along the costa, beneath densely tomentose; peduncles 10-18 mm. long, simple or bifid, tomentulose, the flowers numerous, umbellate, the pedicels about 4 mm. long, glabrous; calyx lobes 1 mm. long, glabrous, triangular-ovate, acutish; corolla glabrous, the tube 6 mm. long, strongly enlarged slightly above the middle over the anthers, the lobes narrowly oblong, obtuse, 4 mm. long; fruit narrowly obovoid, sessile, 1.5 em. long, 6-7 mm. thick, rounded at apex. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,306. collected at Tlaco- lula, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude 1600 meters, June 11, 1925, by C. Conzatti (no. 4626). Collected also in the Valley of Oaxaca in 1918 by Blas P. Reko (no. 3945). Vallesia conzattii is a very distinct species, differing from the three others known from Mexico in the dense tomentum of the leaves and branches. Aegiphila valerii Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets obtusely quadrangular, stout, covered with a pale-ochraceous tomentum of short appressed hairs, the leaf scars large and elevated; petioles about 1 em. long, pubescent like the stems, the blades cuneate-obovate, 11-17 em. long, 5-7.5 em. wide, acute or short-acuminate, cuneately narrowed to the petiole, entire, green above and sparsely and minutely puberulent, beneath somewhat paler, rather densely covered with very minute, appressed hairs, the lateral nerves about 10 pairs; flowers in small dense short-pedun- culate axillary cymes 1.5-2 cm. long, the whole inflorescence densely and minutely appressed-tomentose, the flowers sessile or short-pedicellate; calyx obeonic, 4-5 mm. long, truncate, in age verruculose, subglobose and enclosing the fruit (5-6 mm. in diameter), with only small aperture at apex; corolla glabrous, the tube equaling the calyx, the 5 lobes oblong, 3 mm. long; fruit globose, 4 mm. in diameter. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,206,252, collected at Tilardn Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude 750 meters, June 27, 1923, by Juvenal Valerio (no. 148). Related to A. anomala Pittier, also of Costa Rica, in which the flowers and fruit are twice as large. The vernacular name of A. valerii is “taba- quillo.” ENTOMOLOGY .—Three sawflies from Japan. S. A. ROHWER. Bureau of Entomology. The two new speciesof Dolerus described below are of some economic importance. The descriptions are published at this time so that the names will be available for use in a paper dealing with the habits and biology of these forms. Dolerus hordei, new species. Female-—Length 9 mm. Anterior margin of the clypeus with a broad, deep, U-shaped emargination, the lobes broad and roundly truncate; front coarsely punctato-reticulate; vertex shining, with large, distinct punctures, the punctures in the postocellar area being smaller; vertical furrows straight, 482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 15, No. 21 deep and well defined; third antennal joint slightly longer than the fourth; prescutum with small, close, uniform punctures, except in the posterior mid- dle, sharply defined and angulate posteriorly; scutum polished, with small, scattered punctures; scutellum with large, well defined punctures which are much closer posteriorly; post-tergite (scutellar appendage) shining, with an indistinct median carina; mesepisternum coarsely punctato-granular; meso- sternum without lateral furrows, shining, with small, widely separated punc- tures; sheath narrow, rounded apically and convex below. Dark metallic blue; pronotum, tegulae and scutum rufous; scutellum aeneous; very sparsely clothed with gray hair; wings hyaline, the venation black. Male.—Length 8 mm. ‘The sculpture of the male agrees well with that of the female except that there is an oblique furrow extending from the superior orbits to the vertical furrows; the postocellar area is strongly convex and the post-tergite is finely granular. Entire body blue and clothed with long, gray hair. Hypopygium narrowly rounded. Type locality— Yamanashi, Japan. Described from one female and one male reared April 15, 1924, from larvae feeding on barley, and sent for identification by 5. I. Kuwana (no. 1). Type.—Cat. no. 27303, U.S. N. M. Dolerus yokohamensis, new species. This species seems to agree better with bimaculatus Cameron (not Geoffroy) than with any other species. It differs from Cameron’s description in the absence of white marks on the tergites and in the third and fourth antennal joints being subequal. Female.—Length 10 mm. Anterior margin of the clypeus with a deep U-shaped emargination; the lobes very broad, rounded; front coarsely, closely punctured; vertex with punctures separated and slightly larger than those on the front; vertical furrows curved, deep, broad; prescutum with large, close punctures laterally, medianly shining and with a few small punctures; lobes of the seutum shining, with a few punctures which are closer medianly; scutellum shining anteriorly but posteriorly with close, large punctures; post-tergite (scutellar appendage) polished; mesepisternum closely, coarsely punctured; sternum without lateral furrows, shining, but with rather small, scattered punctures; sheath straight above, acute at the apex, broadly rounded below, basally nearly parallel sided. Dark aeneous; both lobes of the scutum dark rufous, rather densely clothed with silvery pile; wings hy- aline, venation black. Male.—What may be the male of this species is entirely black and clothed with rather dense, long, white hair; the post-tergite finely aciculate. Length 8.5 mm. Type locality—Yokohama, Japan. Described from a single female and male collected April 14, 1924, and forwarded for identification by 8. I. Kuwana (no. 3). Type.—Cat. no. 27302, U. 8. N. M. Macrophya japonica Marlatt Forsius! suggests that japonica is only an indistinct color variety of tumida Smith. Since publishing the brief note on japonica? I have seen two females, from Yokohama, Japan, which agree with Smith’s and Kirby’s descriptions 1 Act. Soc. Fauna & Flora Fennica 56, no. 4: 13-14. 1925. 2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 39: 120. 1910. DEc. 19, 1925 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 483 of timida. If these specimens are correctly determined, japonica Marlatt may easily be distinguished from timzda Smith by the angulate (not arcuate) emargination of the clypeus, and by the feebly punctured scutum. (In my specimens of timida the scutum is covered with distinct, rather close punc- tures.) SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The first of a series of public lectures under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington was given in the assembly room of the Institution on November 17. Prof. Anotpa H. Scuuttz, Associate Professor of Physi- eal Anthropology in the Johns Hopkins Medical School, lectured on Varia- tions in Man and their evolutionary significance. The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on November 14. H.S. Wasurnaton, of the Geophysical laboratory, gave some Reminis- cences of geologic exploration in Italy and Greece. Reports of the season’s work of members of the Geological Survey were given by C. H. BirpsryE of the Topographic Branch, HERMAN StaBueEr of the Conservation Branch, W. C. MENDENHALL of the Geologic Branch and P.S. Smrrx of the Alaskan Branch, O. E. Mervzsr of the Water Resources Branch. The death of Jack Hitters on November 14 removes one of the few sur- vivors of the early personnel of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was a photographer, and accompanied Major J. W. Powell in his western journeys, notably in the wonderful voyage down the Grand Canyon in 1873. Fora long time, later, he was in charge of the Photographic Laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey in Washington. His numerous large photographs of notable western geologic features were not only of highest technical quality, but admirable in lighting and composition. They have been used extensively for illustrating geologic reports and text books, for transparen- cies and for lantern slides, which have been of great value to teachers of geology in this and other countries. INDEX TO VOLUME 15 A ; denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated Society. A § indicates an item published under the head Scientific Notes and News. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washington. Biological Society of Washington. Entomological Society of Washington. Geological Society of Washington. Philosophical Society of Washington. Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings: 134, 225. Proceedings: 59, 220, 351, 374. Proceedings: 79, 136, 376. Proceedings: 182. Proceedings: 15, 56, 214, 305. Proceedings: 10, 300. AUTHOR INDEX Apams, O.S. Maps, new world, derived from elliptic functions. 216. Atpricu, J. M. jDiptera from Green- land in the National Museum. 81. Auten, W. F. Localization of the cells of the descending visceral tract in the cat and guinea-pig. 378. Austirx, L. W. Long distance radio re- ceiving measurements. 227. — Sunset radio direction variations, new phenomenon. 317. — Transpacific radio field intensity Measurements. 139. Battey, VERNON. jBats, making pets of insect-eating. 374. —— jGlacier National Park, observa- tionsin. 59. Baty, H. F. 7Coal industry, hazards of. 301. BALDENSPERGER, P. J. fauna. 60. Barker, A. C. jEntomological taxon- omy, economic aspect. 377. Batt, E. D. 7Entomological taxonomy, educational aspect. 377. —— Treehoppers, new North American. 200. Barser, H.S. 79. Barrtscu, Paut. Asiatic blood fluke, new intermediate hosts of. 71. Brrcer, ALWIN. Roseocactus, new genus of Cactaceae. 43. Bicnowsxy, F. R. Electromagnetic the- ory of quanta. 187. 7Palestine and its TBeetles, smallest known. Bowen, N. L. Mineralogical phase rule, the. 280. Bowin, W. Isostasy in the southern Pacific. 445. Breit, G. Glaser’s experiments and the orientation of molecules in a magnetic field. 429. jInductance and resistance of a coil encircling the Earth. 217. — Two-coupled multiply periodic sys- tems, statistics of quantum theory, and theory of dispersion. 269. BripweEL., J. C. {Bruchidius ater, unre- corded immigrant from Europe. 80. Brown Epcar. {Longevity of buried seeds. 222. Brown, E.W. Tidesinlava. 421. Casz, F. A. 7Photographing the in- terior of arifle barrel. 310. Cuausen, C. P. Entomological investi- gations in the Orient. 81. Cogs, N. A. Biological relations of the 1, 2,4, etc., mathematical series. 235. — Nema, new, Tylenchus cancellatus. 235. Costentz, W.W. j{Measurement of plan- etary temperatures. 56. Cotirxs, W. D. j;Temperatures of air and water. 58. Cooke, C. W. Coastal Georgia. 184. Cusuman, J. A. Pseudotextularia and Guembelina, the genera. 133. CusuMan, R. A. Ichneumonidae, generic transfers and synonymy in. 388. terraces of 485 486 Davis, W. M. Laccoliths and sills. 414. Day, A. L. Gases in volcanic activity. 415. Dean, G.A. {Cornborer situation. 136. —— t+European corn borer in America. 61. Depyr, P. {Quantum theory and its bearing on laws of conservation of energy and momentum. 219. Drypen, H. L. {Flettner rotor ship. 214, Durton, C. E. Physical geology, the greater problems of. 359. Dyar, H. G. Mosquito, new sabethid, from Panama. 234. — Mosquitoes from Brazil, new. 39. Mosquitoes of Peary’s North Pole expedition of 1908. 77. EHRENBERG, Kurr. +Present day pale- ontologie work in Austria. 183. Fasry, Cu. {Spectroscopy with the interferometer, thirty years with. 18. Faris, R. L. Geophysical problems. 313. Frercuson, J. B. Light filter in inter- ferometry. 279. — Magnetic form of ferrous oxide. 279. Frewxes, J. W. tAnthropology of south- eastern United States. 134. Fisoer, W.S. Cactus weevil from Texas, new. 425. Fisk, H.W. {Magnetic secular change in Latin America. 216. Freunpiicu, Hersert. }{Colloidal par- ticles, state of aggregation and shape of. 311. Frost, H. B. Chromosomes of citrus, the. 1. Garpner, C. +tPhotographing the in- terior of a rifle barrel. 310. GARDNER, JuL1A. Chipola fauna in the Marks Head marl. 264. Gautt, R. H. Experiment on recogni- tion of speech sounds by touch. 320. Gisu, O. H. tEarth-current measure- ments at Watheroo, Australia, pre- liminary results of. 15. Grar, J.E. jWeevil, sweet potato, eradi- cation. 79. GREELEY, W. B. United States. +National Forests of the 352. AUTHOR INDEX Greene, C. T. {Puparia of muscoid flies. 81. Grecory, H. EB. {Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress—resolutions adopted at, by Congress on International Coopera- tion in Scientific Research. 12. Griees, R.F. tKatmaiexpedition, scien- tific results of. 221. GRINNELL, JosppH. {Faunal changes taking place in California. 63. Hann, R. M. Addition compounds of 3, 5-dibromo-o-toluidine with metallic salts. 163. Haruan, H. V. fAbyssinia, plant ex- plorationin. 223. — {Punjab and Kashmir, plains and hills of. 64. Hay, O. P. Mastodons, paperon. 381. —— Pleistocene deposits and their fos- sils, correlation of. 239. —Pleistocene Period in North America, revision of, based on glacial geology and vertebrate paleontology. 126. Hazarp, D. L. Terrestrial magnetism in the twentieth century. 111. Heck, N. H. {Compass compensation, application of force diagrams to. 58. {Sound waves, path of, through sea water. 309. Hersxovirz, M. J. tAnthropology of American Negro. 225. Heyt, P.R. fInertia of energy. 307. Hoiier,H.D. jElectrode potentials and polarization, method of studying. 308. Hoop, O. P. {Coal; Consumer’s eco- nomics. 302. Howarp, L. O. {Insect damage, esti- mates of loss through. 374. ; Howe.t, A. B. Alimentary tracts of squirrels with diverse food habits. 145. —— Mice that livein trees. 220. Hrpouréxa, Axes. {Anthropology of southeastern United States. 134. Imus, A. E. +Rothamsted Experiment Station. 374. Jacecar, T. A. {Hawaiian volcanoes. 304. Plus and minus voleanicity. 416. of voleanology during Schlesinger’s — Progress 1924. 424. — {Tokyo earthquake. 302. AUTHOR INDEX JOHANSEN, Fritz. {Canadian Arctic. Ex- pedition, 1913-1918, under Stefansson. 376. Kanott, C. W. jfThermostats, non- flammable liquids for low tempera- ture. 306. Krirre, E. P. Urticaceae, new tropical American species of. 289. —— Urticaceae, Peruvian, of Marshall Field exploration. 48. —— Valeriana, twelve new species of, from the Andes of South America. 451. Kine, J. L. Japan. 81. Lampert, W. D. 7Distance between two points on the Earth. 16. Lane, A.C. jAge of the Earth and oceans. 304. Laporte, Orto. Primed terms in the spectra of the lighter elements. 409. Larsen, E. 8S. BEIELLITE, a new mineral name. 465. Lewrton, F. L. Cottons, taxonomy of American and Mexican. 65. — Hibisceae, value of anatomical characters in classifying. 165. Lrxcotn, F.C. {Bird-bandingin Europe. 62. Loneteyr, A. E. Polycary, polyspory and polyploidy in citrus and citrus relatives. 347. Lorxa, A.J. The measure of net fertility. 469. Mann, W.M. Beetle guests of army ants, Entomological work in new. 73. —— 7jSinai and Palestine, collecting trip in. 224. MansrFietp, G. R. 7Physiography of southeastern Idaho. 182. Marner, H. A. jfMeansealevel. 219. Meccers, W. F. Are spectrum of yttrium. 207. Mereiam, J. C. Congress. 10. Merwin, H. E. {Optical effects of iron in certain glasses. 219. Mircuett, C. L. {West Indian hurri- canes and other tropical revolving storms in the north Atlantic. 217. Moorg, B. E. Arc spectrum of yttrium. 207. 7Pan-Pacific Scientific 487 Morey, G. W. {Optical effects of iron in certain glasses. 219. Moniz, O. J. j{Sheep, Alaska range. 223. Neumann, F. jfHarthquakes of 1925, problem of determining epicenters. 308. OspEeRHoLsER, H. C. j{Potomac Valley below Great Falls, future of. 352, Parker, J. B. {7 ricrania, beetle para- site on solitary bee. 82. Preattie, D. C. Casuarinas of America identified by branchlets and seeds. 345. PopeNnor, Wrtson, {Peruvian agricul- ture in Pre-Columbian days. Possnak, E. Ferromagnetic ferric oxide, artificial and natural. 329. Priest, I. G. jGray skies and white snow. 306. ReinHarD, E. G. Wasp, Hoplisus cos- talis, hunter of treehoppers. 107. — Wasp, Nysson hoplisivora, a parasitic relative of Hoplisus costalis. 172. Ritey, Smita. jfForest fires and wild life. 375. Rouwer, S. A. Heterosphilus, five bra- white, of the chonid parasites of the genus. 177. — jEntomological taxonomy, taxo- nomic aspect. 377. — Three sawflies from Japan. 481. Ross, C. S. The chemical composition and optical properties of beidellite. 467. Russety, H. N. {Stars, recent advances in knowledge of interior of. 16. Sanrorp, R. L. {Magnetic analysis, de- tection of flaws by. 218. Scuaus, Wirtt1am. +tMimicry and the En- tomological Society of London. 376. Scuzrrer, T. H. tMountain beaver (Aplodontia) and moles in Puget Sound country. 60. Scuutrz, A. H. Embryological evidence of the evolution of man. 247. SuHannon, E. V. Boulangerite from the Cleveland mine, Stevens County, Washington. 195. Magnesite and kammererite from Low’s mine, Cecil County, Maryland. 434, — Petzite from Last Chance mine, Cornucopia district, Oregon. 342. 488 SHannon, E. V. The chemical composi- tion and optical properties of beide- llite. 467. SHannon, R. C. {Dermatobia, human bot-fly, egg-laying habits of. 137. — Mosquito, new sabethid, from Pan- ama. 234. — Mosquitoes from Brazil, new. 39. — Mosquitoes of Peary’s North Pole expedition of 1908. 77. — Myrmecophile from Panama. 211. —— {Parasitic flies in man and animals. 224. SHantz, H. L. Africa. 222. SuepHerD, BE. 8. Kilauea, chemical sig- nificance of engulfment at. 418 Snore, Henry. Thermoelectric meas- urement of cutting tool temperature. 85. Sitver, JAMes. European hare in North America—is it a menace? 224. Smiru, G. O. +tCoal a national issue. 300. Snoperass, R. E. tAnatomy as a basis for research in entomology. 81. {Senses and the morphology of sense organs in insects. 377. Snyper, T. E. Rugitermes from Panama, new. 197. — Termites from Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Archipelago. 395, 438. —— Termites, new American. 152. Sosman, R. B. Ferromagnetic ferric ox- ide, artificial and natural. 329. One hundred popular books in Science, revised list. 353. Oxygen and voleanism. 422. — Volcanology, papers on, at 1925 meeting of American Geophysical Union. 413. Soutzr, F. M. jfElectrical resistance, measurements of cyclic changes in. 305. {Collecting in East AUTHOR INDEX Spencer, G. C. Addition compounds, 3, 5-dibromo-o-toluidine with metallic salts. 163. SranvueEy, P.C. Plants, new, from Cen- tral America. 3, 101, 285, 455, 472. Srrsnecer, Lronnarp. Lizard, new scincid, and new burrowing frog from China. 150. — New species and American turtles. 461. Swanton, J.R. fAnthropology of south- eastern United States. 134. TRELEASE, WILLIAM. Agave, new species from Salvador. 393. Tryon, F. G. {Coal industry, bitum- inous, overdevelopment of, and its cure. 302. TuckerMAN, L. B. {Full walled sturdy columns in theory and practice. 310. Van Ostranp, C. E. Empirical repre- sentation of production curves. 19. VaucHan, T. W. {Pan-Pacific Scien- tific Congress. 10. Waker, E. P. {Blue fox farming in Alaska. 222. Watters, F. M. Jr. Nickel, regularities in the are spectrum of. 88. WennNER, F. Electrical resistance, meas- urement of cyclic changes in. 305. Wuerry, E. T. Onion, new acid-soil, from West Virginia. 370. — bBeidellite, a new mineral name. 465. Wuire, W. P. Golf, scientific aspects of subspecies of the game. 215. Wine, D. L. Coal, operator’s costs and profits. 301. Woopwortnh, R. 8. tAnthropology and psychology, relations of. 225. Wootarp, E. W. {Mathematical expec- tation and its bearing on statistics. 307. Wricut, F. E. Gravity and under- ground lava. 421. SUBJECT INDEX 489 SUBJECT INDEX Acoustics. Experiment on recognition of speech sounds by touch. R. H. Gatit. 320. Agriculture. {Pan-Pacifie Scientific Con- gress. T. W. VauGHAN and J. C. Merriam. 10. 7Punjab and Kashmir, plains and hills of. H. V. Hartan. 64. See also Botany, Entomology. Anthropology. jAmerican Negro, anthro- pology of. M. J. Herskovitrz. 225. TPan-Pacific Scientific Congress. T. W. VaucHan and J. C. Merriam. 10. TPsychology and anthropology, rela- tions of. R.S. WoopwortH. 225. jSoutheastern United States, anthro- pology of. J. W. Frwxkers, ALEs HrpuiéKa, and J.R.Swanton. 134. Apparatus. {Photographing the interior of a rifle barrel. C. GarpNER and F.A.Casr. 310. Archeology. {Peruvian agriculturein Pre- Columbian days. Witson PorEnor. 375. §Yucatan, excavations at Chichen Itza. 42. Astronomy. {Planetary temperatures, measurement of. W. W. CoBLentz. 56. jStars, recent advances in knowledge of interior of. H. N.Russreuu. 16. Biology. jAfrica, East, collecting in. H.L.SHantz. 222. jBats, making pets of insect-eating. VERNON Battery. 374. {Canadian Arctic expedition, 1913-1918, under Stefansson. Fritz JOHANSEN. 376. Embryological evidence of the evolution ofman. A.H.Scuuntz. 247. TForest fires and wild life. RILey. 375. Mathematical series, 1, 2, 4, etc., bio- SmirH logical relations of the. N. A. Coss. 235. Nema, new, Tylenchus cancellatus. N. A.Coxps. 235. Parasitic flies in man and animals. R. C. SHANNON. 224. TPotomac Valley below Great Falls, future of. H.C. OBrRHoLsER. 352. jRothamsted Experiment Station. SD ava nas aa; 228. x ~ Ba Ra abe F ty ~ AAR = AAA AASARASA a BAAnAhlansn:acnssacaacaasscaas canvases mantORiiina AHARAA mr aranasoe nat Aar AAA, RAN SAAR Aas a taAa annannanal! SRRARARLAAA AR - NN AA AV a sO 5 ~RE WON; IAAL ale le le A AARS AAD r yas! VAY \ MY * = me a, mhe NA ’ . aa. RB @ . > Be i nw A esasa saan AC NAY al | nf ey Ucn ge” 8 WAREEI “eet en fcr lg RAAT Se wee NAS eR ; oy q ~ = ahan Con maran na me ho LIN Oe Ure NA eae amas awa’ vn. & NCL. OY ae f& one WANYVY VIiVvyY rer nelle’ V laa APA RR PAA N\A G8 AAaAAaa . 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