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V eruTTeY wrt 84 rt Sia Ji re “ y 4 Ww ‘3 a ‘ wtp ¥ ’ . ; . w *y NUN vy y bad UU Tgp er te a = AA. a MO gd tre 1 WV YRGee Ee hee Unyf Wer yf [Pry with... ed | } A re 4 a v ‘, Ww iv gece w'd | ‘ ye A UVyQguwe or en ‘ : ’ - & ive "ey yw v ey i] Tr Le | ‘s Yu ‘ aa i a Se e | ar oan a wy; ad q oe . ng ep Og wy! pare Artie te FO Se PA Bb, ~ * om ; \ os ; . 4 - 4 : ; . f , a ie Pt ame T ig ‘ 4 a ~ : he m * J a Ly \ JOURNAL a } OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY > OF SCIENCES VOLUME 18, 1928 _qqsttl¥¥ fis; BOARD OF EDITORS AGNES CHASE JouHN B. RuxEsipe, JR. Epear W. WooLarD BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL MUSEUM GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. ApAMs S. A. RoHWwER PHILOSCPHICAL SCCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. StosE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griees ’ J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY RoceErR C. WELLS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ———————————— rep ee omen ERRATA AND ADDENDA Vol. 18, 1928 Page 21: at end of line 14: add ‘‘and one other tone.”’ Page 54, line 10 and footnote 5: for ‘‘Todd”’ read ‘‘Ladd.”’ Page 86, upper table, bottom of second column: for ‘‘.65’’ read ‘‘.0361.”’ Page 86, upper table, end of fifth line: for ‘0.96’ read ‘‘0.996.”’ Page 86, lower table, middle of last column: for ‘‘.8355” read ‘‘.8535.”’ Page 126, lines 25 and 27: for ‘‘(6)’’ read ‘‘(8).”’ Page 150, line 22: for ‘‘has” read ‘‘have.”’ Page 157, line 15: for ‘‘William”’ read ‘‘Walter.”’ Page 187, line 21: for ‘‘appears’”’ read ‘‘appear.”’ Page 195, line 10, and page 196, line 18: References to the single type specimen of pusio are inexact, as shown by two additional citations.—Cope 1869 (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soe. 11:178) records having found four or five specimens under a stone not more than 300 feet from the entrance of Erhardt Cave. Horn 1883 (Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 10: 272) states he had seen three male specimens of pusio. If these specimens are preserved, they were overlooked as uncertain and subsequent additions in the Horn Collection.—H. S. Barber. Page 223, line 16: for ‘‘pahpatlanuac’’ read “‘pahpatlahuac.”’ Page 224, line 6: for ‘‘Nuhuatl”’ read ‘‘Nahuatl.”’ Page 224, line 22: for ‘‘nora’”’ read ‘‘mora.”’ Page 231, line 48: for ‘‘M. E. ODELL”’ read ‘‘N. BE. ODELL.”’ Page 316, line 25: for ‘6.757 X 1071? ‘‘read’”’ 6.046 X 1072.”’ Page 360, figure 1, last column: for ‘‘Carlin’’ read ‘‘Carlim.”’ Page 375, line 24: delete comma after ‘‘fenster.’’ Page 377, line 26: insert side-head ‘‘Formations of Silurian age.—’’ before sentence beginning ‘“The upper part....’’ and begin new paragraph. Page 413, line 25: for ‘‘absorb”’ read ‘‘adsorb.”’ Page 423, line 28: for ‘‘course’’ read ‘‘coarse.”’ Page 428, line 36: for ‘‘capabara”’ read ‘‘capybara.”’ Page 432, line 3: for ‘‘expansion’”’ read ‘‘extension.”’ Page 488, line 4: for ‘‘melandra’”’ read ‘‘melanandra.’’ Page 564, line 20: for ““Scuwartz” read ‘‘Scuwarz.”’ ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THe WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was organized in 1898 through the joint action of the Joint Commission and the component societies. It was incorporated February 18, 1898. Its objects are to (a) acquire, hold, and convey real estate; (b) hold meetings; (c) publish and distribute documents; (d) conduct lectures; (e) conduct, endow or assist research; (f) acquire and maintain a library; and (g) transact any business pertinent to an academy of sciences. It acts as the federal head of the affiliated societies. There is a vice-president from each affiliated society, nominated by the society and elected by the ACADEMY. 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Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Ezchanges.—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vor. 18 January 4, 1928 No.1 PALEOBOTANY.—Weichselia from the Lower Cretaceous of Texas.’ Epwarp W. Berry. (Communicated by J. B. REEsIDE, JR.) The specimen which forms the subject of the following note is con- tained in a weathered half of a chert nodule picked up on the surface along the banks of a small upland stream 2 or 3 miles from Sweetwater, Nolan County, Texas. It was collected by Ernest J. Palmer, to whom I am indebted for the privilege of studying it. Over perhaps more than half of Nolan County strata of Comanchean age rest uncon- formably on the Permian. ‘These Cretaceous rocks are usually con- sidered to represent the Fredericksburg Division, but they have never been studied in detail. Little is known of the flora of the Lower Cretaceous in the Texas region. The only considerable contribution is that by Fontaine,? published in 1893 and describing plants from the Glen Rose beds. About 25 species are more or less satisfactorily named, and the bulk are small scraps of coriaceous conifers and cycads, much macerated. In my review of the Lower Cretaceous floras of the world’ these plant- bearing beds were correlated with the Aptian stage. The present specimen is unusual in the mode of preservation. Evi- dently its presence in the limy marine mud was the locus for the reduc- tion of the silica from solution and the formation of the nodule. It is unique in showing features of the frond hitherto unknown. The specimen shows parts of 8 subopposite pinnae of the usual elongate linear Wetchselia type: these are disposed at angles of about 45° to the rachis. The rachis at the proximal end of the specimen is 2.5 milli- meter in diameter; above the fourth pair of pinnae it becomes abruptly 1 Received December 1, 1927. 2W.M. Fontaine. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 16: 261-282. 1893. 3 E. W. Berry. Maryland Geol. Surv., Lower Cretaceous, p. 135. 1911. 1 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 attenuated and bears pinnules similar to those of the regular pinnae except that they tend to be more remote and to have their proximal margins decurrent—often markedly so. Laminar reduction and coalescence are usual in the distal end of fronds but I know of no recent ferns in which the pinnae retain their normal form and the distal rachis bears what are to all intents and purposes normal pinnules rather than reduced pinnae, although there is an approach to this feature in some species of Pieris. , } The usual specimens of this widespread form, Wetchselia, which have been collected and figured by authors, are coarse segments of the median Figure 1.— Weichselia reticulata. part of fronds or small distal fragments of pinnae. In so far as I have been able to determine from the literature, the present specimen is the first distal portion of a frond that has come to the notice of a paleobot- anist. This, I believe, explains the rapid diminution of the rachis, the more ascending pinnae, their more nearly opposite arrangement, and the presence of pinnules on the rachis for some distance below the tip. This last feature of the specimen is unique, so far as I know. JAN. 4, 1928 _ BERRY: WEICHSELIA FROM LOWER CRETACEOUS a The leaf substance is thick and the specimen shows the impression of the upper side of the pinnules with the characteristic midvein, or the weathered cherty replacement of the leaf substance. In no pinnule can the characteristic venation be positively seen in this coarser friable substance, but a number show suggestions of aerolation much like that seen in sandstone casts of the species, and in one or two of the pin- nules sufficient detail is shown to render reasonably certain the con- clusion that the venation was of the Wetchselia type. « The genus Weichselia was proposed by Stiehler in 1857 and includes fern-like impressions earlier referred to Pecopteris and Lonchopteris. It has been discussed in recent years by Seward,‘ Zeiller,?> Bommer,® Gothan,’ Florin, and Berry.’ Despite the fact that the first speci- mens were figured over a century ago (1824) it is by no means settled that itis afern. Itisso often found in sandstone, especially in central Europe, that Gothan suggested that it was a dune plant, and while it might seem that this suggestion is borne out by the xerophytic charac- ter of the stomata studied by Florin, its frequent presence in mudstones and in association with lignites renders such an interpretation doubtful. Bommer’s conclusions, based upon the study of material from the Wealden of Bernissart in Belgium, are so at variance with those of all other students that one is forced to conclude that his material was not that of Weichselia, but represented Laccopteris or Matonidium. It is perfectly conclusive from the material which I have examined that the fronds of Wezchselia were bi- or tri-pinnate in habit and not digitate. Both Seward and Gothan lump all of the fossil records into a single species which the former calls Wetchselia mantelli and the latter Weichselia reticulata, the latter the correct name if priority isrecognized. Many authors dissent from the conclusion that but a single botanical species is represented and it certainly is anomalous to suppose that a - single species ranges from the late Jurassic to the Upper Cretaceous and over at least five continents (Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America). Some years ago Zeiller presented satisfactory evidence for the specific distinctness of the abundant South American occurrences and in this he was followed by the present writer. The genus has 4A.C. Sewarp. The Wealden flora, pt. 1, pp. 113-121. 1894. 5 R. ZEILLER. Rev. gén. bot. 25 bis: 10. 1914. 6C. Bommer. Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 47: 296-304. 1910. 7W. GotTuan in H. Potonir&. Abbild. Beschr. foss. Pflanzen 7 (126): 1-114. 1910. 8R. Frorin. Svensk. Bot. Tidssk. 18: 305-312. 1919. 9K. W. Berry. Johns Hopkins Stud. Geol. 4: 52-55. 1922. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 hitherto been very doubtfully represented in North American Meso- zoic strata, but this doubt is more apparent than real, since I have studied a large amount of fragmentary but perfectly characteristic material from the Black Hills, and the present occurrence extends its range to Texas. It has not yet been recognized in the Kome, Kootanie, Potomac, or Pacific coast Mesozoic floras, but these are all so imper- fectly known that no conclusions based upon negative evidence are legitimate. The Texas material lacks the reflexed basal pinnules, which are the most obvious feature of Weichselia peruviana and may therefore be referred, at least tentatively, to Weichselia reticulata, with the full realization, however, that the latter species is undoubtedly a composite one. Most authors have assumed that Weichselia was a fern, although Florin points out that its stomatal structure is more gymnospermous than filicalian, and it may well be that it represents some Mesozoic cycadophyte. Several authors have figured what they have considered fertile parts of Weichselia, but none of these are very convincing nor do they verify one another. Thus an obscurely fertile fragment? from the Mesozoic of Japan identified by Nathorst as Pecopterts geyleriana is considered by Seward to be.a Wetchselia. Neumann figured" what he considered to be fertile pinnules of Weichselia from Peru. ‘These appear imaginary to me, and, furthermore, in the large amount of material from Peru that I have seen there has been no trace of fructi- fications. ‘Trautschold years ago figured” an obscure fertile fragment which he called Asplenites klunensis from the Klin sandstone of central Russia and which was subsequently considered a Weichselva. Finally Gothan (loc. cit. 1910 fig. 5) figured what appears to be a fertile speci- men from Quedlinburg, Saxony, showing marginal sporangia. All of these are far from clear and all differ decidedly from one another. The ~~ most that can be said is that in the case of the last and most convincing instance cited above, if it be admitted that the object shows fertile pinnae, all it proves is that a form like Wezchselia from Saxony has fructifications of the type portrayed. It would be unwise to assume that fossils called Wetchselia from other localities and horizons had similar fructifications. 10 A.G. Natuorst. Denks. k. Acad. Wiss. Wien. 57: pl. 4, f. 3. 1890. 11R. Naumann. Neues Jahrb., Beilageb. 24: 76. pl. 1, f. 1a, b. 1907. 122. TRaAvuTscHOLD. Nouv. Mém. Soc. Nat. Moscou 13: pl. 20, f. 7. 1870. JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 5 In case of a form-genus like Weichselia, as has been abundantly shown in other Mesozoic form genera—Cladophlebis for example, one cannot generalize from one instance, and my own feeling is that the botanical affinity of Weichselia is by no means settled. BOTAN Y.—Notes on Central American Rubiaceae. Patt C. STAND- LEY, U. 8. National Museum.! A few months ago the National Museum was fortunate in receiving for study from the Botanical Museum of Copenhagen a large number of specimens of plants of the family Rubiaceae, collected in Central America by some of the earliest botanical collectors who visited that region. Of greatest interest were the classic specimens obtained by Oersted, the first botanist who explored Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Oersted was especially interested in the Rubiaceae, upon which he published an important paper, describing numerous new species, some of which have remained obscure, chiefly because they have not been recollected. Included in the recent sending were most of Oersted’s types, particularly in the difficult genus Psychotria. In some instances the National Museum was permitted to retain duplicate type material for future reference. In other cases our material has been compared carefully with the types, and the sheets annotated accordingly. The National Museum has received also on loan a number of type specimens of Central American species of Psychotria from the Berlin Botanic Garden. These have made it possible to determine the status of several species not represented previously in the National Herbarium. The accompanying notes enumerate some of the results of the study of these important collections, for whose loan the writer is deeply indebted to Dr. Carl Christensen and Dr. L. Diels. The reference material now available in the National Herbarium will facilitate materi- ally future study in the United States of tropical American Rubiaceae, above all in the intricate group called Psychoitria. PENTODON PENTANDER (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 25: 231. 1875. An African plant, known to be established as a weed in Guadeloupe. Specimens are at hand also from Central America: Nicaracua: Granada, August, 1869, Lévy 208. 1 Published by the permission of the Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received November 26, 1927. . 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 RONDELETIA COSTARICENSIS Standl. N. Amer. FI]. 32:61. 1918. Here belongs Wendland 792, from San Miguel, Costa Rica, collected in May, 1857, the specimen in the Copenhagen Herbarium. Oersted recog- nized the plant as new, and wrote upon the sheet a specific name, never pub- lished, alluding to the large stipules. DEPPEA COSTARICENSIS Polak. Linnaea 41: 566. 1877. In the North American Flora (32: 90. 1921) this species is reduced to synonymy under D. grandiflora Schlecht., and perhaps properly so. The latter is the only Costa Rican species represented in the National Herbarium by recent specimens, but none of these match exactly Polakowsky’s type in the Berlin Herbarium. The capsules of D. costaricensis are shorter than in typical D. grandiflora, and rounded at the. base. It is probable that D. cos- taricensis is a distinct species, but further collections are necessary to estab- lish the fact. BovvARDIA PALLIDA Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 14: 245. 1924. Described from the Voleano of San Salvador, Salvador. The species may now be reported from another Central American country: GUATEMALA: Las Nubes, Jan. 11, 1857, Wendland 208. HoFFMANNIA GESNERIOIDES (Cerst.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 285. 1891. Ophryococcus gesnerioides Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Viv. Medd. 1852:/53: 741853; The National Museum has received in exchange from Copenhagen a speci- men of the type collection (the only one known) of Ophryococcus gesnerioides, collected by Oersted in January, 1848, on Mount Pantasmo, Segovia, Nicara- gua, at 1,200 meters. Examination of this material proves that Otto Kuntze was correct in referring the plant.to Hoffmannia. It is a well-marked species, not approached closely by any other Central American representative of the genus. The region in which it grows is little known botanically, and it is not surprising that it has not been found by other collectors. Most species of Hoffmannia are narrowly restricted in their distribution. HOFFMANNIA LONGIPETIOLATA Polak. Linnaea 41: 567. 1877. The type, in the Berlin Herbarium, was collected on Cerro de la Carpintera, Costa Rica, Polakowsky 134. Although I have paid special attention to the collection of this genus, and have visited the Carpintera twice, I did not find this species there. The type is well matched, however, by the following collections: Costa Rica: Viento Fresco, Prov. Alajuela, alt. 1,600-1,900 m., Standley & Torres 47766, 47784. XEROCOCCUS ConGESTUS Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: BA 1853: The type specimen, in the Copenhagen Herbarium, was collected at Tur- rialba, Costa Rica, at an altitude of 900 meters, by Oersted. The genus is a quite distinct one, related, evidently, to Hoffmannia, and consisting of a single species. The plant seems to have been overlooked by later collectors in Costa Rica, and no additional material of it was obtained, apparently, until 1924, when I collected a good series of specimens. Further material was gathered in 1925— 26, and there are now in the National Herbarium over 20 sheets representing the species. Why the plant should have escaped other collectors it is hard to understand, for it is abundant in the wet mountain forests at middle elevations and it is, moreover, a large showy plant, with dense, bright red inflorescences. The small juicy fruits are white when ripe. Nr za — tt stag = SE a Ii A Se ea lap UR sdb Glediniaiaieeaes he on ame a a — ee — ‘JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 7 IxoRA FLORIBUNDA (A. Rich.) Griseb. Cat. Fl. Cub. 134. 1866. Although reported from Sapod, Nicaragua, by Hemsley, this species has not been represented in the National Herbarium by Central American speci- mens. It may now be reported from Salvador: Between San Miguel and Jocorro, Feb. 2, 1857, Wendland 437. PSYCHOTRIA CHIAPENSIS Standl. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 1390. 1926. Cephaelis tetragona Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 61: 376. 1916. Not P. tetragona Seem. 1865-67. Psychotria chiapensis was based on a single collection, Purpus 6963, from Chiapas. The type of Cephaelis tetragona was collected at Tuis, Costa Rica, Tonduz 11352. I had not seen the type of the latter when P. chiapensis was published. The differences between Psychotria and Cephaelis are altogether artificial, and Cephaelis can be maintained only as a matter of convenience. It is difficult to determine where a line shall be drawn in referring plants to the two groups, but it seems preferable to refer this plant to Psychotria. A large number of additional specimens of P. chiapensis have appeared in recent collections, and these are listed below. The plant is so widely dis- persed that it will be strange if an older name is not discovered for it, but so far I have been unable to find one. Mexico: Misantla, Veracruz, Purpus 5982. Jovo, Liebmann 11771 (Rubiaceae no. 113). Without locality, Liebmann 11775, 11770 (Rubiaceae no. 111), 11769 (Rubiaceae no. 93). Matlaluca, Liebmann 11768 (Rubiaceae no. 16). Lacoba, Liebmann 11773 (C; Rubiaceae no. 92). Tlapacoyo, Inebmann 11772 (C; Rubiaceae no. 112). GUATEMALA: Puerto Nuevo, Tonduz 586. Chama, Johnson 248. Finca San Luis, Depart. Retalhuleu, Rojas 589. Quirigud, Standley 24691. Escoba Standley 24847. _ British Honpvuras: Stann Creek, October, 1925, N. Stevenson. Middle- sex, Record 11. Costa Rica: Las Vueltas, Tucurrique, Inst. Fis. Geogr. C. R. 12997. Valley of Rio Tuis, Pzttier 8212. Livingston, Rowlee & Stork 737. Panama: Lincoln Creek, Carleton 86. Western Panama, Sterk 17. Bocas del Toro, Carleton 274. Known in British Honduras as “‘casada;” in Guatemala as “‘palo de agua.” Sor ELONGATA Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 32. 1853. | _ This species, collected on the Voleano of Mombacho, Nicaragua (the local- ity given on the label is ‘‘ad Granada’’), appears to be a valid one. It is not matched by any Central American Psychotria in the National Herbarium. PSYCHOTRIA GLOMERATA H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 362. 1818. ie microdesmia Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: PSO RSTG The type of P. microdesmia, from Jaris, Costa Rica, is evidently identical with P. glomerata H. B. K., a conclusion confirmed by Urban. This species, strangely enough, is not represented in recent Costa Rican collections. PSYCHOTRIA GRACILIFLORA Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 35. 1853. The type was collected at Naranjo, Costa Rica, by Oersted. It is well matched by the following collections: Costa Rica: La Palma, Standley 38035, 38200, 33127. La Colombiana Farm, Standley 36759. La Ventolera, Standley 34715. Cerro de la Car- 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 pintera, Standley 35521. Suerre, J. D. Smith 6602. Cafias Gordas, Pittier 11090. Fraijanes, Standley & Torres 47573, 47459, 47600. Gudpiles, Standley 37279, 37051, 37038, 37149. La Hondura, Standley 37831. La Tejona, Standley & Valerio 45852. Viento Fresco, Standley & Torres 47856. PANAMA: Between; France Field and Catival, Standley 30178. Fort Sherman, Standley 31070. PSYCHOTRIA GRANDIS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind Occ. 48. 1788. Psychotria subsessilis Benth. ; ; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 32. 1853. The type of P. subsessilis was collected at Turrialba, Costa Rica. The name should be referred to synonymy under P. grandis. PSYCHOTRIA HORIZONTALIS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 44. 1788. Psychotria longicollis Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kj6benhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 23. 1853. P. longicollis is represented in the Copenhagen Herbarium by several speci- mens of Oersted’s collection from Costa Ricaand Nicaragua. The name evi- dently should be referred to synonymy under the widely distributed P. horizontalis Swartz. PSYCHOTRIA LIMONENSIS Krause, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 54: Beibl. 119: 43. 1916. Psychotria limonensis var. laxinervia Loes. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 18: 361. 1922. The types, in the Berlin Herbarium, of both the species and the variety have been examined. The variety, from Palenque, Chiapas, differs in no impor- tant character from the type of the species, which was collected on Uvita Island, Limon, Costa Rica, Pittier 12681. The following specimens in the National Herbarium represent the same species: GUATEMALA: Escoba, Standley 24857, 24822. Puerto Barrios, Standley 25084. Torold, J. D. Smith 2042. Escuintla, J. D. Smith 2754. Cubil- quitz, Tuerckheim 8404. Costa Rica: Limén, Cook & Doyle 440. Panama: Fort Lorenzo, Piper 5986. Barro Colorado Island, Standley 31313, 40827, 41043. Be oor MAGNA Standl. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 131. Feb. 11, 1916. Psychotria compressicaulis Krause, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 54: Beibl. 119: 44. Oct. 4, 1916. The type of P. compressicaulis, in the Berlin Herbarium, Pittier 12412, agrees in every respect with that of P. magna, from Loma de la Gloria, Panama, Pzttier 4092. PSYCHOTRIA MARGINATA Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 43. 1788. Psychotria nicaraguensis Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 34. 1853. P. nicaraguensis is clearly a synonym of P. marginata, a fact which has al- ready been published, I believe, by Urban. PSYCHOTRIA PARVIFOLIA Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 35. 1853. The type material was collected by Oersted on the Volcano of Barba and at Naranjo, Costa Rica. This species resembles closely P. graciliflora in general appearance. In P. graciliflora the branches are glabrous and the inflorescence pedunculate; in P. parvifolia the branchlets are puberulent and a OT ET TTI ns ania ms eee PUNE MEER 1S aE UTA? a : ¥ ‘ Fn a ati lt JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 9 the inflorescence sessile. The following specimens are referable to P. parvifolia: Costa Rica: Cerro de la Carpintera, Standley 35578. La Ventolera, Standley 34676. Cerros de Zurqui, Standley & Valerio 50396, 50271. Yerba Buena, Standley & Valerio 49194. Santa Maria de Dota, Standley & Valerio 44076; Standley 42857. Cerro de las Caricias, Standley & Valerio 52044, 51953, 52223. Fraijanes, Standley & Torres 47571, 47566. PanaMA: El Boquete, Maxon 4958. PSYCHOTRIA PUBESCENS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 44. 1788. Psychotria glauca Polak. Linnaea 41: 569. 1877. Examination of the type of P. glauca, from San José, Costa Rica, Polakow- sky 377, shows that it is a synonym of the widespread P. pubescens. This identification is confirmed by a note by Urban attached to the type sheet in the Berlin Herbarium. PSYCHOTRIA QUINQUERADIATA Polak. Linnaea 41: 570. 1877. Psychotria Morae Polak. Linnaea 41: 570. 1877. The types of both species, in the Berlin Herbarium, have been examined. P. Morae is merely a form of P. quinqueradiata with slightly wider leaves, and it is difficult to understand why it should have been published as a distinct species. The type material of P. quinqueradiata is from San José and Car- pintera, Costa Rica; that of P. Morae from San José. The plant seems to be rare in this region at the present time, but it is one of the common shrubs of Guanacaste. The following collections agree well with the type of P. quin- queradiata: Costa Rica: El Silencio, Guanacaste, Valerio 124. Tilardn, Guanacaste, Standley & Valerio 44193, 44231, 44986, 45691. Las Cafias, Valerio 111. Quebrada Serena, Guanacaste, Standley & Valerio 46135, 46219. San Pedro, near San Ramon, Tonduz 17687. La Tejona, Guanacaste, Standley & Val- erto 45904, 45833. Rio Jesus, between San Ramon and San Mateo, Brenes 14531. Finca Las Céncavas, Standley 41455. Los Ayotes, Standley & Valerio 45479. PSYCHOTRIA SIGGERSIANA Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 289. O25, One additional specimen, probably the first ever collected, may be cited for this species: Costa Rica: San Miguel, May 12, 1857, Wendland 779. Psychotria Wendlandiana Oerst., sp. nov. Shrub 2.5-3 m. high, the branchlets stout, subterete, very densely short- villous with brownish pubescence, the internodes mostly 1-2 cm. long; stip- ules caducous, thin, oval, 5-6 mm. long, prominently bicostate dorsally, shortly bimucronate at the rounded apex, brownish-puberulent or short- villous; petioles slender, 1—2.5 cm. long, densely short-villous with spreading hairs; leaf blades ovate-oblong to oblong or oblanceolate-oblong, 9-15 cm. long, 3-5.5 em. wide, gradually or usually abruptly acuminate or long-acumi- nate, narrowed toward the base but the base itself’ broad and varying from truncate to deeply cordate, thin, deep green above, glabrous, beneath slightly paler, densely short-villous along the costa, puberulent on the nerves, between them glabrous or nearly so, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves very slender, about 14 on each side, ascending at a wide angle, arcuate, irregu- larly anastomosing close to the margin; inflorescence terminal, cymose-panicu- Se 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 late, the panicle about 5 cm. long and 4.5 em. broad, borne on a peduncle 1.5-3 em. long; panicle composed of about 3 remote whorls of short spreading branches, the branches densely brown-villous with short spreading hairs, the bracts short, ovate, bicuspidate, the flowers sessile in dense glomerules at the ends of the ultimate branches; calyx and hypanthium together 1 mm. long, short-villous, the limb 5-dentate, the lobes broadly triangular, obtuse or acut- ish; corolla yellow, 2.5-3 mm. long, puberulent outside, the tube cylindric- campanulate, the 5 lobes ovate, obtuse, spreading or recurved, the tube short-villous within the throat; anthers included, inserted at the middle of the tube; style slender, long-exserted. Type in the herbarium of the Botanical Museum, Copenhagen, collected at San Miguel, Costa Rica, May 138, 1857, by H. Wendland (no. 781). Dupli- cate specimen of the same collection in the U.S. National Herbarium. To this species are referred the following collections: Costa Rica: Guapiles, Prov. Limén, alt. 300 m., Standley 37224. La Hon- dura, Prov. San José, alt. 1,300 m., Standley 37773. The two specimens collected by myself had been recognized as representing an undescribed species, but the material was too imperfect for description. The Wendland specimen in the Copenhagen Herbarium bears Oersted’s manu- script name, andis accompanied by an exquisite pen and ink drawing show- ing the characters of the flowers. Psychotria Wendlandiana is a well-marked species, easily recognized by the unusual shape of the leaves, and especially by their cordate or truncate bases. | PALICOUREA SUBRUBRA Polak. Linnaea 41: 571. 1877. This appears to be a valid species, of rather rare occurrence. The type in the Berlin Herbarium, from Cerro de la Carpintera, Costa Rica, Polakowsky 200A, is well matched by the following collections: Costa Rica: Finca La Cima, north of El Copey, Standley 42565. Frai- janes, Standley & Torres 47579. PANAMA: El Boquete, Mazon 5002. BOTANY.—Shantzia, a new genus of African shrubs related to Gossy- pium.! FRepERIcK L. Lewrton, U.S. National Museum. Several months ago in one of the greenhouses on the grounds of the Agricultural Department at Washington, there came into flower for the first time in the United States a malvaceous shrub having large showy blossoms resembling the flowers of tropical species of cotton. This shrub having been under the observation of the writer for several years and its identity having only recently been established, it is be- lieved that an account of its introduction and identification is worth recording. ‘The plant is one of five grown from seed collected near Kafue, Northern Rhodesia, by Dr. H. L. Shantz, then Agricultural Explorer for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, on December 6,1919. These seeds were planted in pots in one of the quar- antine greenhouses under control of the Federal Horticultural Board, 1 Received November 23, 1927. JAN. 4, 1928 LEWTON: SHANTZIA 11 in March, 1920. The young seedlings, when observed by the writer a few weeks later, were found to be apparently identical with other seedlings growing in the same house, under the name Gossypium, which had come from seeds collected in the same region in Africa by Dr. J. Burtt Davy of the Department of Agriculture, Union of South Africa, for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. (J. Burtt Davy: no. 63, Matoppo Hills, Matabeleland, S. P. I. 48250; no. 109, Zimba, Northern Rhodesia, S. P. I. 48461; no. 189, Elizabethville, Belgian Congo, 8. P. I. 48462.) All of these seedlings after developing their sixth or seventh leaf were checked in their growth and seemed to stand still for several years. It was not until they had been repotted several times into more roomy quarters or removed from the pots and set in open beds under glass that they took on any pronounced growth with the formation of flower buds. Up to the present, seven plants have come into flower, five from the seed collected by Dr. Shantz, and two from the seed collected by J. Burtt Davy at Elizabethville, Belgian Congo. One of the latter, at: the date of this writing, bears two nearly mature fruits. Dr. Shantz preserved an incomplete herbarium specimen con- sisting of a short leafy branch and one mature capsule picked from the ground beneath the small tree found by him at Kafue, as the plant was not in flower at the time he was there. ‘The involucral bracts, so important for identification in this group of plants, were wanting and appeared to have been broken off and the other evident characters were not sufficient to enable me to identify the shrub with any known species. Having very recently come across a paper by Miss E. C. Steedman? on the “Trees and Shrubs of Southern Rhodesia” in which there is described under the name: Thespesia Garekeana, a shrub called ‘“‘Wild Hibiscus” or ““Mtohwi,” the writer has recognized in that description the identity of the unnamed African shrubs. 7 The name given in Miss Steedman’s list was evidently a typographi- cal error for Thespesia Garckeana, credited in Index Kewensis to Ferdi- nand Hoffmann. The referencethere given, however, disclosed the fact that a copy of Hoffmann’s paper was not to be found in any library in Washington. Through the courtesy of the Arnold Arboretum and the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, the writer was enabled to ex- 2? STEEDMAN, E.C. Trees and shrubs of Southern Rhodesia, Pt. 1. Proc. Rhodesia Sci. Assn. 24 (1924-1925): 13, pl. 11, Bulawayo, 1925. ee ————— 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 amine a copy of Hoffmann’s inaugural dissertation published for the University of Jena in 1889, and containing the original description of his Thespesia Garckeana. Because of the apparently very limited distribution of Hoffmann’s inaugural dissertation, at least in this country, the original description of this species is given herewith: THESPESIA GARCKEANA Fred Hofftm.? Arborea? ramuli fohaque novella albido- vel ferrugineo-tomentosa; folia petiolata, cordato-rotunda, triloba lobis rotundatis, coriacea, supra stellato- aspera, subtus tomentosa, 7-9 nervia nervo medio subtus uniglanduloso; flores axillares solitarii; pedicellus 2 cm. longus, apice articulatus; bracteolae 12, lanceolatae, margine saepe complicatae, calyce duplo longiores; calyx cupuliformis truncatus integerrimus; stylus apice clavatus, 5-sulcus, albido villosus; stigmata 5, sessilia, e summo styli radiantia, sigmoidea; ovarium 5- loculare loculis pauci-ovulatis. “Gonda, 1. Nov. 1882, V. H. No. 145a.”’ Wahrscheinlich ein Baum. Zweige stielrund, die jungeren mit gelbweissem schiilfrigen Sternfilz bedeckt. Blattstiel 5 em lang, weiss-sternfilzig. Blattflache 10 cm lang, herzférmig- rundlich mit 3 abgerundeten Lappen, lederig, beiderseits sternhaarigfilzig, oberseits, wenn ausgewachsen, rauh, 7-9 nervig, der mittlere Nerv unter- seits etwa 13 bis 2 cm tiber dem Blattstiel eindriisig. Bliiten einzeln, blatt- winkelstindig, ihr Stiel 2 cm. lang, an der Spitze gegliedert, ebenso wie der Kelch graubraun- der grauweiss-sternfilzig. Die Knospen sind kugelig, er. 2 em lang; der Aussenkelch zeigt 12 lanzettliche meist am Rande nach innen imgebogene und daher pfriemlich erscheinende, cr. 1 em lange Blattchen, die den becherférmigen, ganz ungeteilten Kelch etwa um das Doppelte iibertreffen; Staubblatter sehr zahlreich, ihre Séule oben gezahnt; Griffel keulenférmig, nach oben zu 5-rinnig und in den Furchen weiss-wollig; die 5 vom Scheitel des Grifiels S-formig ausstrahlenden Narden sind ebenfalls ge- furcht; Ovarium 5-facherig. Durch die abgerundeten Blattlappen und die 12 Aussenkelchblatter leicht kenntlich. Miss Steedman states in her paper :4 “This shrub or small tee is abundant on the gold belt and is difficult to get rid of when once it is established, owing to the suckers. The wood is soft and pliable, and the long shoots are used as whip sticks by the natives. The bark 1s grey and smooth and the inner bark is used for fiber.”’ The following is quoted from a letter from Miss Steedman to the writer, written from Gwelo, Southern Rhodesia: “The shrub, Thespesia Garckeana, is very common around here. It has an underground rooting stem and it spreads all about. It is in flower now 3 HOFFMANN, FERDINAND. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Flora von Central-Ost-Afrika. Inaugural-Dissertation of the University of Jena. p. 12. Berlin, 1899. ‘SreEpMAN, E.C. Trees and shrubs of Southern Rhodesia, Pt. 1. Proc. Rhodesia Sci. Assn. 24 (1924-1925): 13, pl. 11, Bulawayo, 1925. atid a” > Fig. 1.—Shantzia garckeana. Upper portion of plant flowering in greenhouse of U. 8. Dept. Agr., April, 1926. Grown from seed collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue, Northern Rhodesia. For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. (Nat. size.) 13 Fig. 2.—Shantzia garckeana. Upper portion of plant growing in greenhouse of U. S. Dept. Agr., Oct., 1927, from seed collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue, Northern Rhodesia. For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. A. Mature fruit collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue, Dec. 6, 1919. For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 1,235,736. B. Mature fruit collected by J. Burtt Davy at Zimba, 1919. For. Pl. Introd. No. 48461. (All nat. size.) 14 JAN. 4, 1928 LEWTON: SHANTZIA 15 (December 28). 1 am always rooting it up. With regard to your question as to the fruit being edible: The inner layers of the pericarp become glutinous enclosing the seeds. The natives peel off the rind and suck this part, spitting out the seeds. It induces a great flow of saliva, hence the Dutch name ‘‘snot apple,’ from the verb snotteren to snivel. Later the layers dry up and the fruit dehisces by five valves. The fruit to eat must be gathered when it is green and juicy. Europeans don’t eat it, except children. Another interesting thing about this shrub is that it harbours the so-called cotton stainer, a red and black beetle (Dusdercus), so, as we are just beginning to cultivate cotton in Southern Rhodesia, we think we should destroy the shrub.”’ The mucilaginous property of the inner layers of the pericarp men- tioned by Miss Steedman was observed by the writer when examining the dried capsule. One of the five valves was soaked for a few hours in a large test tube in about five cubic centimeters of water. The muci- lage thus extracted formed so stiff a gelle that it could not be poured out of the tube. A valve from a capsule of ordinary cotton subjected to the same conditions yielded only a slight amount of mucilage. Several authors have at various times placed in the genus Thespesia five or six quite different species of tropical trees or shrubs having as a common characteristic an involucre composed of from 3 to 12 narrow bracts, adnate to the base of the calyx, which are dropped be- fore the opening of the flower. A careful examination of the gross morphology of all of these included species develops differences far more fundamental than their agreement as to the form of involucre, so that the reference of several of them to other genera is regarded by the writer as justifiable. ‘The Rhodesian shrub described above is one of these and it is further believed that it represents a new genus which the writer takes pleasure in naming in honor of Dr. Homer L. Shantz, who first brought it to his attention. Shantzia Lewton, gen. nov. Shrubs or small trees, 2 to 5 meters high; woody throughout. Leaves petio- late, cordate, entire or lobed, palmately veined, with a slit-like nectary on the mid-vein below. Flowers usually single in the axils of the uppermost leaves; borne on short fruiting branches usually formed of but one internode and sometimes bearing a leaf. Peduncle bearing at its base 2 subulate, deciduous bracts. Involucre formed of 9 to 11 linear caducous bracts. Calyx cupuli- form, entire, or with 1 to 5 minute teeth. Ovary 4- to 5-celled with 2 or more ovules in each cell. Capsule ovoid or obovoid, ligneous, opening tardily, the valves containing much mucilage and sugar. Seeds obovoid, angled on the ventral side, rounded on the dorsal, densely covered with short reddish-brown tomentum. Cotyledons punctate with brown dots. Species two or three; Southwest Africa. Type: Thespesia garckeana Ferd. Hoffmann. Two specimens in the U. 8. National Herbarium represent the genus: Sheet no. 1,235,735, a specimen grown in a greenhouse on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 Washington, from seed collected by J. Burtt Davy, no. 189, Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction no. 48462; sheet no. 1,235,736, collected by Dr. H. L. Shantz, no. 325, at Kafue, Northern Rhodesia, Foreign Seed and Plant In- troduction no. 49590. _ Shanteia may be distinguished from Thespesia by (a) its regularly dehisc- ing capsule, with thick woody valves containing sugar and a great quantity of mucilage; and (b) the involucral bracts numbering 9-11 instead of from 3-5. ETHNOLOGY.—The melodic formation of Indian songs.1 FRANCES DrnsMorE. Bureau of American Ethnology. The study of Indian music must be done with little codperation on the part of the Indian beyond his willingness to sing into the horn of a phonograph. If an old song is under consideration he will say that it was received in a dream—perhaps by his grandfather. If one asks how his grandfather prepared himself to receive the song, the Indian replies, “By going without food, and going away by himself for several days.”’ One may ask, ‘‘Did you ever see your grandfather?’ ‘The reply will probably be, ‘‘I do not mean my father’s father. I mean aman who lived very long ago. Maybe my father’s grandfather.” The next question might be, ‘‘Where did you learn that song?’ The Indian might reply, ‘‘From my father. That song is handed down in my family.’’ The foregoing would be a typical conversation except that its facts are too familiar for such detailed inquiry. Many songs are also obtained from old men who themselves have received them in fasting dreams. The first student of Indian music was Theodor Baker who wrote that ‘‘The Indians say that the songs connected with religious con- cepts were of supernatural origin and that the newer songs are only imitations of these songs.’’? ‘The Indians had nothing corresponding to our popular music and it appears that practically all the old songs were received in dreams. ‘This was the observation of Miss Alice C. Fletcher and is that of the present writer. It is scarcely necessary to state that the fasting dream (or trance) was the means by which the old Indians believed that they received - enlightenment on all important subjects. In a dream the medicine man accompanying a war party received knowledge of the enemy’s location, or a doctor learned what ailed his patient, or a man located lost articles. If the dream promised power to accomplish some diffi- cult undertaking there came to the mind of the dreamer a song which 1 Received November 23, 1927. 2 Baker, THEopDoR. Uber der Musik der nordameritkanischen Wilden. Leipzig. 1882. a? “fo = wa ad JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 17 he was told to sing in order to obtain the promised power. It is apart from the purpose of this article to discuss the stimulus to the brain produced by lack of food, and the interesting element of rhythm pre- sented by the resultant song. ‘The data are sufficient to show the futil- ity of searching in such material for a conscious, preconceived tonal system. There is a wide gulf between a belief in a dream and. the knowledge of the monochord and its mathematical divisions which formed the basis of the musical system of the Greeks. Turning from the realm. of inspiration we seek information concern- ing the actual composition of songs. For example, the Indians say that a returning war party composed a song concerning its victory, composing the song in one of its camps and singing it in the victory dance that followed its return. If there were a ‘professional musi- cian’’ or some person corresponding to a ballad-singer in the war party we should find that the composing of the song was entrusted to him. Instead, I am informed that ‘‘the warriors made up the song,” indicat- ing that several men collaborated in producing the melody. A song was recorded among the Sioux that was the work of several men in co- operation. The song differed from the older songs in a lack of unity and coherence. It contained too many peculiarities. The same quality characterised a Winnebago song said to have been composed in the same manner. A song was never changed after being approved by the group composing it, but no trace of a system in their composition has been found. In some tribes it appears that a steady physical motion was con- sidered an aid to musical composition. Thus two women at Neah Bay, Washington, said that when they were young girls they com- posed songs together when sitting in a swing, and that a young boy was accustomed to swing them while they “made up songs.” ‘They said that they “‘thought of something pleasant, were swung to and fro, and pretty soon they could sing about what they were thinking.” An Indian of British Columbia said that songs “‘came to him”’ as he walked, and the Indians living on the west coast of British Columbia are accustomed to go out in a “‘gasoline boat’? when they wish to com- pose songs, remaining in the boats until the song is finished. None of these procedures suggests a definite system governing the form of musi- cal compositions, nor a technical training as preparation for the work of producing songs. If these are lacking, are we not confronted by the sense of pleasure as a determining factor in the selection of tones? It is the purpose of the present article to show, by accumulated data, that the tones which give pleasure (or satisfaction) to the Indians 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 bear a relation to the natural laws of sound. It will be shown that the upper partials of a fundamental constitute the framework of many Indian melodies. Whether the Indians received this suggestion from sounds in nature, from the sound of the wooden flute, or from very early contact with the white race must remain a matter of conjecture. The writer has been informed of a statement that ‘In 1640 or near that date, the missionaries to the Indians found that they took very kindly to the hymns and other songs of the white man and were often heard singing them.’ ‘This was mentioned “in contrast with the Japanese of about 1850, the Egyptians and Syrians, all of whom when visiting Eng- land were much bored with European music.” , It is known that musie travels far among primitive folk and we cannot, at this time, deter- mine to what extent the songs of the Atlantic seaboard were carried to the middle west, but, in the writer’s observation, the upper partial tones of a fundamental are more in evidence among the songs of Indians belonging to Algonquian and Siouan stocks than among the Indians of the Mexican border and the Northwest Coast. It is scarcely possible to trace the antiquity of a song more than 150 or 200 years, which does not bridge the distance to the first contact between the Indians and members of the white race. The permanence of a melody is proven by repeated renditions by the same or other singers. If a song is repeated after the lapse of days or months it will be found, on comparing the phonograph records, that the tempo and pitch as well as the note-values are identical, providing the records are made by a competent singer. The repetition is made with the accuracy that depends upon memory without the aid of any notation. It is the writer’s custom to record several consecutive renditions of a song, the phonograph cylinder sometimes containing 8 or 10 renditions, these being uniform in every respect. The rhythmic accuracy is like that of a metronome except in songs where a rubato is employed, as in some of the songs for treating the sick. The melodic accuracy is naturally that of a human voice, not a mechanism, and, if recorded by a tonodeik or similar apparatus, would not show the accuracy of a cultivated voice nor of an instrument. We must allow the Indian the same latitude in “keeping the key” that we allow a member of our own race, and even more. If we do not attribute the slight variations in pitch to his peculiar manner of singing, combined with the human quality of the material under observation, we must assume that he has an ability to produce and consciously repeat minute gradations of pitch, his ability far surpassing that of our own singers. Such gradations of pitch are used intentionally and for effect by vio- JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 19 linists but not by our singers. There is no doubt, as indicated, that the Indian produces tones distant from one another less than the interval of a semitone but his manner of tone production is entirely different from ours and the tone may often be described as unfocused. It should be clearly understood that the piano scale is used as standard of ~measurement by the present writer because the deviations from that scale are not given by the Indians with a consistency and sureness that justifies the use of a more finely graded standard. It would scarcely be possible to show, by any system of notation, the gradations of pitch that occur in the singing of many Indians during a period of an hour, and it would be even more impossible to study the music of a tribe or group of tribes by such a method. Individuals differ, the singing of some persons being more steady in tone and easier to trans- eribe in ordinary notation than the singing of others. The student of Indian music must learn to detect the kernal or center of gravity in the tone produced by the Indian. In my observation, the Indian usually sings the tones corresponding to the octave, twelfth and fifth of the piano scale with an accuracy that would be considered acceptable in a singer of our own race. Other musicians listening to records of Indian songs have corroborated this statement. Generally speaking the intonation on the fourth and seventh above the keynote are the most uncertain, but these are the tones that occur with least frequency in Indian songs. The major third is usually given with reasonable accuracy but the interval transcribed as a minor third is more often a distinct non-major third than a minor third according to the piano scale. The accuracy of intonation varies from the overtones of a fundamental, already indicated as reasonably correct, to tones which are exceedingly difficult to determine and transcribe. If a tone is persistently sung less than a quarter tone above the pitch of a tone in the piano scale it is the writer’s custom to place a plus sign above the note in the transcription. A tone persistently sung less than a quarter tone below the piano pitch is indicated by a minus sign below the note. These are the only deviations from ordinary musical notation used by the writer, the purpose being to show the characteristics of Indian songs in a simple manner, thus making it possible to analyse a large amount of material. Mention should here be made of the Indian’s ability to keep the in- tonation on the octave when it occurs as the boundary of a melody as well as when it is a direct progression. Many Indian songs have a compass of 8 tones and the singer may vary the accuracy of the inter- vals within that octave, but the highest and lowest tones of his song 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 will be an octave apart. The same feeling for a true octave appears in songs of larger compass, and is the more interesting as the lowest tone of the octave frequently does not appear until the close of the song. In all considerations of Indian music it should be borne in mind that. our conclusions are based upon the evidence of a recording apparatus that is adapted to field work and is used under varied conditions. We have not a laboratory apparatus nor ideal working conditions but we have reliable old-time Indians, working under circumstances that place them at their ease. Whatever peculiarities appear in the record are natural to the Indians, who are conscientiously trying to sing their old songs correctly in order that they may be preserved for posterity. The same Indians, if taken to a city where a more elaborate mecha- nism were available, might be less able to concentrate upon their sing- ing and thus give less reliable material. In a majority of her work the writer has used a Columbia graphophone, with specially constructed recorders. This is manipulated as quietly as possible, every effort being used to keep the Indians in an easv, happy frame of mind. The work is done chiefly with men between the ages of 55 and 80. In some Indian songs the key is established (to use the musical phraseology) while in a lesser number of songs the relation of the tones. to a keynote is less in evidence, or altogether absent. The descriptive analyses that follow such songs contain a statement that the signa- ture indicates the pitch of certain tones but does not imply the exist- ence of a key, in the musician’s use of that term. ‘The signature is a simpler manner of indicating the pitch than the use of sharps and flats, scattered throughout the melody. The question may be asked whether the selection of a keynote is not a matter of education and therefore not germane to Indian songs. It has been shown that the Indian apparently has no musical system, and the designation of keynotes in his songs should not be understood as implying that he has such asystem. Weare accustomed to keynotes and a melody is more readily understood if we refer its tones to one basic tone. Moreover, the use of a fundamental and its upper par- tials as the framework of an Indian melody seems to justify the desig- nation of the fundamental as the keynote. In songs without such a framework the keynote is inferred from the tonal material, the final tone of the song, except in a very small number of instances, being the tone which we would consider the keynote in a melody of our own race, or else its third or fifth. Thus if a song contains the tones D, E, F sharp, G, B and C sharp, with D and F sharp as prominent accented tones and D as the final tone we seem justified in giving the transcrip- JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 21 tion the signature of the key of D and analysing the song in that key. It will be observed that in the tone-material cited the fifth is absent; the same course would be followed if the seventh were omitted, pro- vided the sequence of tones suggested D rather than G as keynote. In a typical melody having the upper partials of D as its framework the principal accented tones would be D, F sharp and A, but, in many melodies, these tones appear only at the opening or at the close, the remainder of the melody being in a free form. Only 6 per cent of the Indian songs collectively analyzed (987 in number) contain all the tones of the diatonic major or minor scale. The five-toned scales (described below) constitute 32 per cent while the remainder of the songs contain from 3 to 7 tones in a wide variety of groups. Next to the largest group is that of songs containing only the tones of the major triad (fundamental and its simplest overtones) this group constituting 14 percent of the total number. Songs con- taining four tones are classified as based on a major or minor triad with one additional tone. Songs that contain five tones (apart from the accepted five-toned scales) or six tones are classified as lacking certain tones of the complete octave. The largest of these groups are those in which the seventh is lacking, these groups constituting 18 percent of the total. The percentage of songs containing six tones of the octave is not large enough, in the writer’s opinion, to justify the use of the term “‘six-toned scale.”’ In the matter of five-toned scales, the writer has adopted the designation used by Helmholtz, giving no con- sideration to songs omitting tones other than the fourth and seventh of the major diatonic octave. This is the familiar series of tones repre- sented by the black keys of a piano. In the designation by Helmholtz, the first five-toned scale (if thus played on a piano) had C sharp as its keynote, the second and fourth have D sharp and F sharp respectively, the third has G sharp and the fifth has A sharp as its keynote. The second five-toned scale, commonly called the minor pentatonic, oc- curs in 10 percent of the group already cited, while the fourth five- toned scale, commonly called the major pentatonic, appears as the basis of 20 percent of this group. The first five-toned scale forms the tone-material of J percent, and the fifth five-toned scale appears in only 2 of the 987 songs thus analysed. The keynote, in these as in the diatonic major and minor keys, is determined by the tones and their sequence, the keynote being that which would be so designated if the melody had originated in our own race. The songs comprised in the foregoing analyses are those of the following tribes: Chippewa, Sioux, Ute, Mandan, Hidatsa and Papago. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 The songs of the Pawnee, Yuma, Cocopa, Yaqui, Makah, Menominee — and Winnebago, as well as songs of the Indians of. British Columbia and Vancouver Island, and songs of the Tule Indians of Panama, are - not included as yet in the large total, but each song has been analysed. In some instances the study of the tribe has not been completed and the material is not considered ‘“‘closed”’ until this has been done. The Pawnee, Menominee and (probably) the Winnebago will be found similar in characteristics to the first five of the tribes in the collective analysis but interesting differences appear in the songs of the tribes living on the Mexican border and on the Northwest Coast. For example, a structure that seems peculiar to the Makah is small in com- pass, usually consisting of four tones with either the second or third of the compass as the most prominent and final tone. A comparison of the music of the several tribes is too large a subject for present considera- tion. About 1700 songs have been recorded, transcribed and analysed during the writer’s study of Indian music for the Bureau of American Ethnology, covering a period of more than twenty years. Almost two hundred songs are awaiting transcription, and the large number of songs heard but not recorded has afforded valuable material for com- parison. : In the method of analysis, already mentioned, the songs are classified under the following headings: (1) Tonality, determined by the dis- tance of the third and sixth above the keynote, (2) Relation of the first tone to the keynote, (3) Relation of the last tone to the keynote, (4) Relation of the final tone to the compass of the song, (5) Number of tones (scale-degrees) comprised in song, (6) Tone material, (7) Acci- dentals, (8) Structure, melodic or harmonic, (9) First progression, up- ward or downward, (10) Total number of progressions, (11) Intervals in downward progression, and (12) Intervals in upward progression. This is followed by a similar tabulation of rhythmic characteristics. These bases of classification were devised for convenience. Consist- ently and steadily used they obviate all ‘‘tests by the ear,’’ which lead to dangerous generalizations. ‘They are a system of measurement in order that collective results can be determined. Nothing is claimed for them beyond the foregoing statements. In the songs of the Mexican border and the Northwest Coast there are a considerable number of songs now classified as “‘irregular.”” They are repeated accurately, by reliable singers, but they do not conform to the above system. Some of these contain a majority of the tones of the diatonic octave but do not end on the first, third, fifth or octave. Others are entirely free in a i ah A " JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 23 melodic form. Further study of this group may produce interesting results but at present there is no attempt to explain them. It is often said that ‘‘Indian songs have a minor sound,” but the col- lective table of 987 songs shows 53 percent having a major and 42 per- cent having a minor tonality, a majority of the remainder being ‘Srregular,” or lacking the third above the keynote, while 5 songs have two sections, one being major and the other being minor in tonality. In this table, 20 percent begin on the octave above the keynote, 10 percent on the twelfth, 30 percent on the fifth, and 10 percent on the keynote. The songs ending on the keynote comprise 54 percent, on the fifth 33 percent, and on the third 10 percent, showing the feeling for the upper partials already mentioned. The impression of a “minor quality’? in Indian songs may be ex- plained by the frequency of the minor third which constitutes 30 percent of the descending intervals and 25 per cent of the ascending intervais in the total of 987 songs. The only interval exceeding this in frequency is the whole tone which, with a semitone, often comprises a minor third with a “passing tone.” The total number of intervals in these songs is 26,777 and the average size of an interval is 3.08 semi- tones. As a minor third contains 3 semitones it will be seen that the average size of an interval is approximately a minor third. The dif- ference between the tribes is very slight in this respect. There is a general impression that Indian songs are descending in trend. This is shown by the fact that 60 percent of the 26,777 inter- vals in the songs under collective analysis are descending intervals. Sixty-one percent of the songs begin with a downward progression, and in 74 percent of the songs the last tone is the lowest tone of the com- pass. It is particularly interesting to note this descending trend since the tone material of Indian songs has been shown to be so closely con- nected with the ascending harmonic series. Occasionally an Indian sings the fundamental tone of this series softly before beginning to record his song, as though ‘‘getting his balance,”’ but this does not occur with sufficient frequency to be considered important. Mention should be made of the large number of songs that a good Indian singer has at his command. The writer has recorded more than eighty from some individuals and been assured that a good singer has several hundred songs held in his memory. In many ceremonies the insistence upon accuracy is so strict that a singer who makes a mistake in a song must pay a heavy fine and begin the song over again. Songs are learned by Indians visiting another tribe and accredited to that tribe when used. It is also customary to credit a song to its origin 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1 within the tribe. Thus the songs belonging to a medicine man long dead are said to have been his property, and the songs in honor of warriors are kept by generations that have forgotten his deeds of valor. The recording apparatus of the phonograph or dictaphone has made possible the preservation of Indian songs, but the opportunity for that work is rapidly passing away. The old songs are remembered correctly, with the information pertaining to them, by only the old men. It is possible to obtain old songs from men in middle life but they often do not know the meaning of the words and are uncertain of the information regarding the songs, beyond the fact that the songs belonged to the previous generation. In some instances I have recorded a song from an old man on one reservation and a middle-aged man on another reservation and found that the latter had smoothed out the interesting irregularities in the rhythm. The young Indians, now in Government Schools, have little interest in the old songs except as they occasionally learn an old melody in order to adapt it for use in a school band or © orchestra. ‘There will be no trace of the songs in imperishable stone for future archeologists to decipher. The songs given to human beings by the spirits of the night, the morning star, the dwarfs of the mountains, the birds of the air and the animals of the plain—these will have gone forever. The Indian of the present day does not hear these voices. He can only say, ‘‘My grandfather received this song in a dream.” SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS At the celebration in honor of the Centenary of Marcelin Berthelot held in Paris on October 24, and several days following, the Washington Academy of Sciences was represented by Dr. W. E. Tispaue of the International Education Board, who on behalf of the AcaApEMy presented an address at a formal meeting presided over by Monsieur Doumergue, President of the French Republic. On the occasion of his seventieth birthday, August 13, 1927, in recogni- tion of his forty years of research work in Tropical America, the honorary degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences was conferred upon H. Prrrrer by the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, “to distinguish the merits of ‘his work concerning the natural history of Canton de Vaud (Switzerland) and Latin America and to acknowledge*his efforts in the promotion of colonial agriculture.” MENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THEACADEMY AND eh AFFILIATED SOCIBTIES oe Janu . Edgar oe . : ‘ans of ‘the meetings a the affliated societies. will on ‘this page if 2 ie ws y py , ef i . . $e ha 1 Or * ™ wrk , ’ x | X . ’ es 7 es * * sa * 4 a 4 = y' ; +4 : y . ; Yes a>: ? ™ CONTENTS Onramat Paras Hialessdeeslesoriane Sinan rca ore Botany.— Notes on Central American Rubiaceae. Paut C. STANDLEY eee a new genus of African mae related to Coenen, AT A i ili il i se _ OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY - President: ALEXANDER WETMORE, Smithsonian Institution. Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckmrman, Bureau of Stands Recording Secretary: W. D. Lamprrt, Coast and Geodetic § Sur y Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. "January 19, 1928 JOURNAL ASHINGTON ACADEMY BOARD OF EDITORS “ age Joun -B. Ressipe, Jr. EB. W. Wootrarp Cae NATIONAL MUSEUM ie WEATHER BUREAU a nd es Pegs ste " x | } . + 2 | "ASSOCIATE EDIRORSR Sc soe eas ‘ | S.A. Ronwer Be . ar : oA x BA TORUHOGICAD BOOIRTE te a W. Stross E GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY . EAS _ J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY — Roger C. Wetis | | i ‘CHEMICAL SOCIETY _ be Sie “ a PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ‘ ie EXCEPT IN see AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY