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D “fel Gd SAME NO ed Se ee Oe TS et ce) POO RENO EE O08 WOO OOO 4 eh ee ee oY ile Be oe ee ed Ce ee PTR OREM PO ey eae Se ee ee ee ee OSes nr il Die ee ee Z 1 y, i 3 9 oe si 1 { iS 2 = is ( Ay =k) 1 ' . ary é x 3 * : K : | a f 7 : I fe > ve i a 7 ’ 7 > ‘ae ee = A , JOURNAL WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 44, 1954 BOARD OF EDITORS JOHN C. EwERSs R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE, JR. U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HOFFMAN BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY DEAN B. CowleE Puitie DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE y Davin H. DuNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND gL OE TEEN EY LES eae Up. = AN =f a Cy ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 44 No. 1, pp. 1-82, January 20, 1954 No. 2, pp. 33-64, February 22, 1954 No. 3, pp. 65-96, March 24, 1954 No. 4, pp. 97-1382, May 3, 1954 No. 5, pp. 1383-164, May 27, 1954 No. 6, pp. 165-200, June 16, 1954 No. 7, pp. 201-2382, July 28, 1954 0. 8, pp. 233-264, August 13, 1954 0. 9, pp. 265-296, September 28, 1954 o. 10, pp. 297-832, October 22, 1954 o. 11, pp: 333-3876, November 22, 1954 0. 12, pp. 377-408, December 22, 1954 A De Vou. 44 JANUARY 1954 No. 1 \ FEBI1 1954 ) JOURNAL i LinnaRy pf a rad ee ee OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS J. P. E. Morrison JoHN C. EwrErs R. K. Coox U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS F. A. Cuacsz, JR. EvBert L. LITT es, JR. ZOOLOGY BOTANY J. I. HorrMANn Puitie DRUCKER CHEMISTRY ANTHROPOLOGY Dean B. CowiE Davip H. DuUNKLE PHYSICS : @EOLOGY ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | Mount Rorau & GurILForD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNaAL is issued ‘monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. ces aay AS ee eS 2A Sat JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 44 January 1954 No. 1 PHYSICS.—On research and education—in fluid dynamics.! RAYMOND J. SEEGER, National Science Foundation. “Many of the physical sciences seem to have abandoned the laboratory for stu- dents.”’ This observation was made by G. E. Erikson of Harvard University in I. B. Cohen’s and F. G. Watson’s General education in science (1952). Another in- teresting remark is one by 8. J. French of Colgate University that ‘“‘general education is only an improved version of liberal edu- cation.’”’ Both these statements take us back to the Academy which Plato conducted for 41 years in the Athenian grove honoring the Greek hero Akademos. The disciples who gathered about him there outside the city were eager to learn, not special informa- tion peculiar to observed phenomena, but rather general principles underlying uni- versal knowledge.” Two academic emphases have had an influence upon education long after the closing of the Academy by Jus- tinian nine centuries later. Inasmuch as Plato was not interested in the imperfect material triangles that one observes, wooden triangles, metal triangles, etc., but rather in the idea of a perfect triangle, his followers were intent primarily upon contemplating this thoughtful world. The Greeks had a word for such an attitude, viz., theory (from the same root as the Greek word for theatre—meaning, to view). Aristotle later contrasted this point of view with the practical (meaning, to do) business of doing. Consequently, there has been a persistent trend in traditional humanistic education to keep it divorced from progressive scien- tific research about things. 1 After-dinner address, Fluid Dynamics Divi- sion, American Physical Society, July 2, 1953, Pennsylvania State College. 2 Sarton, G. History of science. Cambridge, 1952. On the other hand, the enterprise of scien- tific research was initially disassociated from education. The classic document along this line was Francis Bacon’s New Allantis, published incomplete in the year of his death, 1626.4 You may recall that in his Timaeus Plato mentions a lost island of Atlantis somewhere west of Gibraltar. Re- garding the discovery of America as vir- tually that of Atlantis, Bacon visualizes a new Atlantis some place in the Pacific west of America. In this book, he describes an ideal research institute, Salomon’s House, which had the following objective: ‘The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes and secret motions of things.’’ His proposal in many respects is quite novel, even modern. Salomon’s House contained specialized facilities for various types of investigations. There were deep caves for exploring phe- nomena beneath the earth, as well as high towers on mountains for observing meteoro- logical phenomena. There was a _ special laboratory for high-temperature investiga- tions, one for optics, one for acoustics. A special room was provided for the artificial production of rain. One room contained primarily engines, including some for ord- nance. Finally, there was a mathematical room filled with appropriate instruments. It was recognized that the proper utilization of these facilities would requisition the entire time of the workers. Novices and apprentices were to be differ- entiated from what we- nowadays all ' professional personnel, 36 fellows in all, grouped as follows: 12 merchants of light who roamed about the earth in search of 3 Famous new deals of history. New York, 1935. $6m% 5 @ ines 2, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES observed data; 3 deprepators who sought such data in books; 3 individuals who col- lected data from current experiments; 3 pioneers who collected data from new experi- ments, and 3 compilers who classified and tabulated all these data. In addition, there were 3 benefactors whose primary function was to determine how to use all the results; 3 planners of new experiments, 3 others who performed these experiments and reported on them, and finally 3 who interpreted all the discoveries thus made. It is to Bacon’s credit that he sensed the importance of a cooperative enterprise of specialists having available unusual equip- ment and books. Although Bacon himself was not a scientist and failed even to recog- nize the outstanding scientists of his day, such as Galileo, Gilbert, and Harvey, never- theless, he successfully sowed and propa- gated the concept of a research organization. The New Atlantis went through ten editions before 1670. Its influence may be seen in that the frontispiece of the first (1667) History of the Royal Society by Thomas Sprat has as a central figure the bust of Charles II, on one side the President of the Royal Society, and on the other side, Francis Bacon himselt.* Another description of a utopian learned society, this time with satirical intent, ap- peared exactly 100 years later (1726) in Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. In A Voyage to Laputa (Part 3), attention is called to the flying island Balnibarbi with its Academy of Projectors in Lagado, the metropolis. The academy had more than 500 rooms, each with more than one pro- jector (in charge of a project). A comment by the guide, a former projector, is perti- nent: ‘“The only inconvenience is that none of these projects are yet brought to perfec- tion and in the meantime the whole country lies miserably waste, the houses in ruins, and the people without food and clothes.” To cite a celebrated instance, for eight years one man had been ‘‘extracting sunbeams out of cucumbers, which were to be put into vials hermetically sealed and let out to warm the air in raw inclement summers.”’ An old established custom was the begging 4 Stimson, D. Scientists and amateurs—a history of the Royal Society. New York, 1949. vou. 44,.No. 1 by the projectors for funds to carry on their work. On the other side of the academy, there were ‘‘projectors in speculative learn- ing,’’ such as a universal artist who had been for 30 years employing his thoughts for the improvement of life. Meanwhile, the serious development of scientific interests began to necessitate special funds for apparatus. Up to the middle of the seventeenth century, support for scientific investigations had been largely the personal concern of individuals. We recall that Archimedes had been supported by Kang Hieron of Syracuse. Galileo later spent much effort to obtain his final appoint- ment at the court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He was succeeded in his position there by Evangelista Torricelli. Occasion- ally, the church was found supporting un- usual priests, such as Edmé Marriotte. It is noteworthy that in all these instances the individuals apparently had adequate leisure and freedom to carry on their own in- vestigations in addition to fulfilling certain obligations of a more applied or engineering character. Now and then a person like Rob- ert Boyle had sufficient wealth in his own right to carry out his researches. Otto von Guericke, the mayor of Magdeburg, was apparently able to use $20,000 of available funds for his experiment with the famous hemispheres. The increased interest in science in the early 17th century made the acquisition of funds of paramount importance. In view of the Pope’s condemnation of Galileo’s opinions, it 1s not surprising that scientific research was little supported by the uni- versities of that day. Academies of science, therefore, were organized primarily for this purpose.® An early society was the Acca- demia dei Lincei in Rome from 1600 to 1630; it included Galileo in its membership. The more active Accademia del Cimento of Florence (1657-1667) was the first organ- ized scientific academy; it was made up largely of members of universities in the vicinity. They pursued a careful program of measurements guided by the motto, ‘‘Pro- bando e Reprobando,” while cautiously avoiding any theoretical interpretations in 5 ORNSTEIN, M. The role of scientific societies in the seventeenth century, ed. 3. Chicago, 1938. JANUARY 1954 view of Galileo’s indiscretions. In 1662, the second year of the Stuart Restoration, Charles II founded the Royal Society in England, essentially a group of amateurs of science. The French Académie des Sciences was established in 1666 by Louis XIV. In- eluding laboratory work, it was generally supported and regulated by the government. Each academician was asked to submit a program of his own work. Following Bacon, Christian Huygens organized cooperative research for compiling and amassing facts. For example, there were two scientific ex- peditions: one to Uranienburg and one to Cayenne, as well as two well-known co- operative projects, a history of animals and a history of plants. The Berlin Academy was founded in 1700 through Gottfried W. Leibniz by Frederick the Great. It is significant that even when outstand- ing scientific research emanated from a university little stimulation might be given a man like Isaac Newton by his colleagues there. Indeed, the Cartesian physics which Newton himself had disproved was. still taught at his own University of Cambridge in 1718 long after he had left. It is note- worthy also that the Royal Society, whose charter originally permitted the forming of a college, definitely rejected such an institu- tion as not being conducive to research in view of its primary obligation to teaching. (Abraham Cowley actually proposed the support of such a college from the profits out of resulting scientific inventions.) The scientific academies did not pursue their objectives without popular ridicule. In “The Clouds” Aristophanes had long ago poked fun at Socrates in his phronis- terlum (thinking house).° There Socrates is found suspended in a basket. In reply to a question as to what he was doing Socrates said, “I walk on air and contemplate the sun.”’® Charles II himself is credited with haying slyly proposed to the members of the Royal Society at their charter banquet a question as to why a pail of water weighs - the same when two live fish are put into it. After considerable discussion on this sub- ject by the members he admitted knowing that such a pail actually weighs more. He ® Coopmr, L. Fifteen Greek plays. Oxford, 1950. SEEGER: FLUID DYNAMICS 3 is said to have laughed also at the professors at Gresham College who weighed air. In 1673, the poet laureate, Thomas Shadwell, culled data from the publications of the Royal Society and wrote a play called “The Virtuoso.”’ The leading character was Sir Nicholas Gimerack, who suspended him- self on a rope from the ceiling and imitated the motions of a frantic frog swimming in a nearby bowl of water. When asked why he did not learn swimming by immersing himself in water, Sir Nicholas replied, ‘I content myself on the speculative part of swimming....I care not for the practice.” Later critics were Samuel Butler, Joseph Addison, and Richard Steele. The private views of scientists will always be open to public criticism by non-scientists. Thus we see that as traditional education had developed independently of research, so cooperative research originated inde- pendently of education. It is not surprising that these two merged later into research and education. The first such program, strangely enough, was organized by Aristotle.’ After studying with Plato, he started a school outside Athens on the side of town opposite the Academy in a grove sacred to Apollo Ly- ceius. For 13 years, he was the head of this peripatetic Lyceum, which combined formal lectures with organized research, both personal and collective. Those of us who are physicists are prone to pass over Aristotle’s contributions to research because of certain flagrant errors in his physics which retarded its growth when scholasticism later popu- larized Aristotelianism. One of the promi- nent errors was based on a false interpreta- tion of observations in fluid dynamics. For example, looking at matter in motion Aristotle had perceived that the greater the force applied to a body at rest the greater the speed the body acquires and that the greater the resistance of the medium tra- versed the less the speed the body develops. One might say that speed in this instance is roughly proportional to the ratio of the initiating force and the resisting force. On this basis, a vacuum, which has zero resist- ance, would produce an infinite’ speed. 7 Sarton, G. Op. cit. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Believing that so great a speed is impossible, Aristotle rejected the underlying assump- tion, namely, the concept of a vacuum. The phrase, ‘‘Nature abhors a vacuum,”’ became proverbial. Galileo, on the other hand, re- viving this rejected idea of a vacuum, con- cluded correctly that speed in this case is proportional to time (Aristotle had _ erro- neously decided that speed is proportional to distance). Aristotle, however, was suc- cessful in other observations of phenomena such as those associated with meteorology. Isolated cases of combined research and education are found in the 17th and 18th centuries. For example, Galileo achieved his most outstanding scientific successes while he was at Venice’s University of Padua, prior to 1610, when he moved to Florence. It was in the earlier period that he conducted fundamental investigations on his two new sciences (motion, including that of projectiles, and the strength of materials, including the power of a vacuum). It was in these years, too, that he invented a thermoscope, as well as the telescope which he used in discovering the moons of Jupiter early in 1610. Daniel Bernoulli participated in the St. Petersburg Academy for 8 years, but he published his famous book on ‘“‘Hy- drodynamica”’’ during his later tenure as professor of physics at the University of Basle. An interesting development was the Collegium Curiosum sive Experimentale at Altdorf University. Christopher Sturm, the professor of physics and mathematics there, set up a laboratory with instruments for teaching his university students in his home. He is said to have trained many skilled experimenters. Two volumes of experiments were published and subsequently served as a textbook of experimental physics. The culmination of these isolated in- stances and the initiation of a new era oc- curred in the establishment of the Hcole Polytechnique in 1797, a byproduct of the French Revolution. The first professor in Mathematics was J. L. Lagrange who had spent most of his life engaged in research at the Berlin Academy although earlier in his life he had attempted to establish a research institute in connection with his teaching at the Turin Royal Artillery School. It is worth noting that Lagrange had been vot. 44, No. 1 recommended by Laplace who had once examined a pupil by the name of Napoleon in the Ecole Militaire. The mid-nineteenth century became replete with university posts filled by men who combined research and education interests. We naturally think of pioneers in fluid dynamics such as G. G. Stokes at Cambridge, W. Thomson, Lord Kelvin, at Glasgow, H. von Helmholtz at Bonn and Heidelberg, and L. Prandtl at Gottingen. Nowadays such activity is not unusual. In conclusion, I should like to say a few words about some of the motivating princi- ples underlying the National Science Foun- dation’s program in fluid dynamics. It is rather significant that the 1950 Act. which established the Foundation stresses ‘‘the promotion of basic research and education in the sciences.’’ Not education per se, not research per se, but rather research and education. Some of us have begun to feel that the most important word here is the connective, ‘‘and’’. We find our minds meditating on the concept of the great scientist-scholar. You know, and I know, individuals who have been great teachers despite their lack of competence in research. We have known also great research people who have been impossible as teachers. The average teacher, however, would undoubtedly be a better teacher because of some research and the average researcher would probably be better in his research because of some teaching. In any event, the great scientist-scholar must be motivated by superior intellectual curiosity whether he engages primarily in research at a university or engages mostly in teaching at a college. I am reminded of a statement made by Prof. A. M. Tyndall of the University of Bristol when he was president of Section A of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1952. He quoted from Prof. C. F. Powell’s Nobel Prize citation: ‘“‘His special claim to consideration is, In my view, the fact that he has shown that discoveries of funda- mental importance can still be made with the simplest apparatus.’’ Powell had used a photographic emulsion to record the tracks of charged particles. Sometimes in our awareness of the increasing importance of JANUARY 1954 CAMPAIGNE: NUMBER OF HYPERGROUPS IN A GIVEN ORDER 5 large-scale facilities in pushing back the frontiers of science, we forget that behind the facilities there must be an individual, and that behind the individual there must be an idea. The Foundation is interested in supporting such individuals with ideas. The Foundation has no preconceived notion as to whether these individuals will be found primarily in the north or the south, in the east or the west; in university or college; whether they will belong predomi- nantly to any one race or creed, to any one nation or class. Another fertile concept is that of the great university or college. One readily recognizes three areas of influence of any modern educational institution. Initially there is the fundamental concept of teaching. Developing from this central moti- vation is the sensitizing region of basic re- search, while spreading from this stimu- lating field is the outgrowth of public MATHEMATICS.—A lower limit on the Howarp H. CAMPAIGNE. An outstanding problem in groups is to determine the number of distinct groups of a given finite order n. It is of some interest to study this problem with the group axioms relaxed. In this paper a lower bound for the number of hypergroups of order n is shown to be 8 X 11”-*. An upper bound can readily be found. A hypergroup is a set H of elements satisfying three postulates. 1. If a and b are any two elements of H, then there is associated with this ordered pair a subset of H, not necessarily proper, called the product ab. If A and B are subsets of H, then their product AB is defined to be the union of all ab, for ain A and 6 in B. If O is the null sen tnen Ob =O = BO. | 2. If a, b, and c are elements of H, then a(bc) = (ab)ec. 3. If a and b are any elements of H, then there are elements x and y, not necessarily unique, such that b is in each of the sets ax and ya. Although the product ab is not neces- sarily proper it cannot be void. service, including applied research and development. It does seem, however, that the third function has often overbalanced the other two which are the proper domain of an educational institution (except pos- sibly in times of national emergency). Assuming that a college will be primarily concerned with teaching, that a university will be primarily concerned with research, and that both have some responsibility for public service, we believe the urgent need today to be the establishing of more research in colleges and the shifting of emphasis from applied research to basic research in uni- versities, at least insofar as fluid dynamics is concerned. In pursuit of these ideals of the American scientist-scholar in the American college and university, the National Science Foun- dation is genuinely desirous of assisting individuals interested in research and educa- tion in fluid dynamics. number of hypergroups of a given order. In a hypergroup of order n there are 2” — 1 subsets which might appear as products. There are n? products to be defined. Therefore there cannot be more than (2” — 1)’ hypergroups of order n, and a crude upper limit is established. In order to establish a lower bound we will give rules for constructing a number of distinct hypergroups. This will be done by induction, that is, from each hypergroup of order n will be constructed 11 of order n + 1, which will be shown to be distinct. The complete proof is tedious with special eases, so only an outline will be given here. Our problem then is to adjoin an ele- ment a to a hypergroup H in such a way as to form a new hypergroup G. Let hi, hy, °-- be elements of H, and h;h; mean a product in H, while h,h; means a product in G. First define hih; = h;h;. Then for a ‘general hypergroup HH exhaustive trials show that there are only six ways of defining the products ah;, a’, and h,a so that G satis- fies the three postulates. These are listed below in tabular form. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 1 Tyre 1 |d(xh)}. Furthermore any symmetric func-_ rule ah; a hia tion of one of these sets is an invariant. By 1 s H oO means of these invariants we will show the 2 a G a : : : : 3 GC i GC various extensions of H to be isomorphically 4 G G G distinct. 5 a G G Lemma |. Given any two nonisomorphic 6 G G a There is another possibility for h,h;, that is to have the element a adjoined to it, that is, define h;h; = h;h;ua. Again there are six ways of defining the remaining products. Typr 2 rule ah; a? hia 1 G a G 8 jee a H 9 G H G 10 G G G il H a G 12 G a H There is a third type of rule conceivable for which some products h;h; contain a and others do not. If there is such a rule depend- ing in no way on the hypergroup H then it must apply to groups as well as to hyper- eroups. Examining the application of the rule to a group it appears that if zy = xy Ua, Where xy = w, then a cannot be adjoined to any product r-s ~ w. Further- more w and a are inseparable, for if ts = w, then ts = w Ua is a necessary consequence. Now turn our attention to the hypergroup T which has for every pair of elements ¢;t; = T. If a is always associated with some ele- ment then it is in every product ¢,t;. For T then the rule is indistinguishable from a type 2 rule, and therefore useless to us. Thus only the twelve rules tabulated above are pos- sible. In order to show that these extensions are distinct we will need certain auxiliary theory, which we outline here. Let d(h,h;) be the number of distinct elements in the product h;h;. Then the unordered set of n? numbers D(H) = j{d(h:h;)}, where h; and h; run through the hypergroup H, is an in- variant under isomorphism. A necessary and sufficient condition that H be a group is’ that DG1)* consist. of all 1’s: The-set S(H) = {d(h?)} of n numbers is also an in- variant. The set J, = {d(ha)} where x ranges through the n values of H, is also an in- variant. By convention d(h?) is always the last number in this set. Similarly i, = hypergroups H and K of order n, with H extended by a to hypergroup G, and K ex- tended by b to hypergroup J. Then G and J are not isomorphic provided rules 9 and 10 are not both used. Outline of the proof. Suppose that the rule used on K has a rule number not less than that used on H. This is convenient and quite general. Now suppose the contrary of the lemma, that G is isomorphic to J under a mapping f(G) = J. Then f(a) ¥* 6b, for otherwise f(H) = K, contrary to hypothesis. Observe that d(h,h;) <,nif Gis formed by a rule of type 1 and d(h,;h;) > 2 if the rule is of type 2. A complete proof would require the consideration of each rule applied to each of the hypergroups H and K. In order to shorten the exposition we will do only a few rules on H. Rules 7, 8, 11, and 12. In G we have d(a?) = n + 1, which implies that J, if it is isomorphic to G, was not formed by a rule of type 2. Therefore these cases are impos- sible. Rule 9. Hypergroup K can have rules 9, 10, 11, or 12 applied to it. If rules 11 or 12 then d(b?) = 1 in J, and G cannot be iso- morphic to J. If rule 9 is applhed to K to form J, and if Gis isomorphic to J, f(G@) = J, then there is an automorphism ¢ of J defined as follows. Let é(6) = f(a), andi) — 3a Ii f(a) # k # b then define t(k) = k. The mapping tf(G) = J is a second isomorphism of Gto J withif(a) = b. Thereforetf(H) = Kk, contradicting the hypothesis. But J can be formed from K by rule 10. In fact, if a hyper- group A is extended by rules 9 and 10 to give hypergroups B and C, respectively, and if these are extended by rules 10 and 9 to give B’ and C’ respectively, then B’ and C’ will be isomorphic, but B and C will not be. By similar arguments all pairs of rules can be excluded except 9 and 10, and this will establish lemma 1. There remains the possibility that the same hypergroup H could be extended by two different rules to isomorphic results. JANUARY 1954 MAMAY: Lemma 2. If H of order greater than 1 is extended by two different rules to hyper- groups F and G, then F and G are not iso- morphic. Outline of proof: Suppose F isomorphic to G under the mapping m. We have F = mua andG = Hub, andF = m(G). Evi- dently a # m(b) by the definitions of the various rules. Let p = p(#H) be the sum of all the numbers in D = {d(h;h;)} over H. Then p(G) is given for the 12 rules by the follow- ing table. rule p(G) 1 p + 3n 2 p+e3n-+ 1 3 p + 2n? + 2n + 1 4 p+ 2n? + 3n+ 1 5 and 6 p+ n* + 3n--+ 1 i p+ 3n?+ 2n+ 1 8 p + 3n? + | 9 p jon —-- on 10 p -- dn? —- on -+-1 11 and 12 p+3n?t+tn+1 It is evident that in general no two of these are equal. There may be specific values of n for which equality occurs; we will take them up later. : By rule 5 we have f, = {n+ 1,n+4 1, -,n + 1}. By rule 6 there is no element having this property. By rule 11 we have d(a?) = 1, and by rule 12 there is no element g except 6 for which d(g?) = 1. The lemma has now been proved except for those values of n mentioned above. These exceptional values are n = 2 and 3. For n = 2 rules 3 and 8 might conceivably give isomorphic results. But if s(H) is de- PERMIAN DISCINITES CONE ré fined to be the sum of all d(h?), we see that s(F) — s(G@) = n = 2. Thus the results are not isomorphic. For n = 2 rules 4 and 11 or 12 might give isomorphic results. But by rule 11 we have J,°= {2, 2, 1}, and by rule 4 every J; contains a 3. For rules 4 and 12 we have J, and J, similarly inconsistent. For n = 38 rules 4 and 8 might give iso- morphic results. By rule 8 we have J, = {3, 3, 3, 1}, and by rule 4 there is a 4 in Jj. This completes the proof of the lemma. For n = 1 we can write out all the exten- sions. There are exactly eight hypergroups of order 2, and these are all given by our twelve rules applied to the identity group. Theorem: The number of distinct hyper- groups of order n + 1 is at least 11 times the number of order n, for n > 2. Because rules 9 and 10 are exceptional we discard one of them. Then the theorem follows. Theorem: The number of hypergroups of order n > 3 is greater than 8 X 11”-. For this many could be constructed by starting with the hypergroups of order 2 and iterating the constructions. The groups of order n > 3 are not among these, and they bring the total above 8 x 11". Other ways of extending a hypergroup can be invented, such as adjoining one hyper- group to another, or adjoining several ele- ments simultaneously. But to prove the re- sults isomorphically distinct by the methods used here is too formidable to undertake lightly. PALEOBOTANY.—A Permian Discinites cone.! Serctus H. Mamay, U. 8. Geo- logical Survey. (Communicated by James Stark Williams.) The Paleozoic plant collections in the United States National Museum include an abundance of interesting Permian mate- rial from the southwestern United States. Aside from a few small lots, these collections were made by the late David White and C. B. Read, both of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. With the exception of White’s de- scription of Gigantopteris americana (1912) and Darrah’s paper on Tingia (1938), ac- 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. counts of these floras have not been pub- lished. Recently the writer’s curatorial efforts have primarily concerned these collections. During the course of this preliminary survey, conducted with the purpose of undertaking -a long-range investigation of the Permian floras of the American Southwest, several unusual floristic features have been noted; one of these is the presence of Dzscinites, a genus not previously known to occur in strata as young as the lower Permian. Four fragmentary specimens (U.S.N.M. numbers 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 40626-40629) were found, representing two localities in north-central Texas. Specimen no. 40626 bears the U.S.GS. locality number 8959. This collection was made by C. B. Read and H. W. Ervin in October 1940. Their collecting label reads: “Upper part of Belle Plains formation in e. central part of Emily Irish Grant, south side of Salt Fork of Brazos River, Baylor County, Texas. 16 to 1614 miles scaled due southeast of Seymour, Texas.”’ Specimens 40627-40629 bear the U.S.G.S. locality number 8877; these were among collections made by David White in 1910. According to White (1912, p. 495), this locality is at: ‘‘...the bank of the stream at the crossing of the old road, one-fourth mile south of the ford of Little Wichita River, 4 miles southeast of Fulda, a station in Baylor County.” Material from this lo- eality was the source of White’s paper (1912) dealing with Gigantopteris americana; this exposure, as well as that from which the C. B. Read collection was made, occurs in beds of the Wichita group, which is re- garded as lower Permian (Moore, 1949). Discinites is a genus of Paleozoic cones that differ from other contemporaneous strobiloid fructifications in that they possess the following unique combination of struc- tural features: | 1. The cones are verticillate, with a disc of laterally fused sporophylls arising from each node. 2. The upper surface of each disc is cov- ered by numerous, closely set, apparently sessile sporangia. 3. The cones are heterosporous, both mega- and microsporangia being produced in the same whorl. ; Several species of Dziscinites are known, all of pre-Permian age. The genotypic species, D. bohemicus, was reported from the Westphalian C of Czechoslovakia by K. Feistmantel, founder of the genus, in 1879. Subsequently several additions to the genus were made from the Westphalian of Czechoslovakia. These are: D. major Nemejc (1937), D. raconensis Nemeje (1941), D. Hlizae Nemejc (1941), and three addi- tional entities simply referred to by Nemejc 941) as Do spp. 7) 2) and: The Westphalian of Holland has produced vou. 44, no. | one additional species, D. Jongmansii Hir- mir (1940), and the known geographic distribution of the genus has been extended to the United States by Arnold’s (1949) report of D. delectus (Arnold) Arnold and D. Jongmansu among the Pennsylvanian plants described in his flora of the Michigan coal basin. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIMENS The transverse aspect of the cone is shown by specimen 40626, which consists of the compres- sion and counterpart of a single sporophyllar disc, compressed parallel to its upper surface. This dise, with its attached sporangia, is shown in figures 1 and 2. The specimen is in a matrix of blue-gray, fine-grained shale; there is little carbonaceous material left in the specimen, parts of its surface having been replaced by a powdery white calcite deposit. However, such features as the margins of the disc, position of the cone axis, and the size and distribution of the sporangia may be made out reasonably well. The circular sporophyllar dise is about 2.5 em in diameter, exclusive of the marginal teeth; at one side of the specimen the margin is partly buried in the matrix (broken line at the right of Fig. 2). At the center of the disc there is a slight elevation, which represents the cone axis (Fig. 2, a). This is a rather stout axis, measuring about 4 mm in diameter. Part of the margin is completely flattened; in this part several separate marginal teeth may be seen (Fig. 2, mt). The teeth are 4 to 6 mm long and about 1.5 mm wide at their bases, taper- ing gently to blunt tips. Judging from their size in relation to the diameter of the disc, there were probably 40 or 50 teeth to the margin of the disc. Aside from the central portion that represents the cone axis, the surface of the disc is covered by a pattern of closely fitting diamond-shaped marks that doubtless represent the sporangia (fig. 2, sp). They are slightly elongate in the radial direction, reaching 3 mm in that dimen- sion. There is no evidence to indicate the method of sporangial attachment to the disc; nor can the differences between mega- and microspo- rangia be made out, if both kinds were present in this whorl]. The sporangia cannot be accurately counted, but, judging from the areas where they can be counted and the sizes of these areas in relation to the total area of the disc, probably 100 to 150 sporangia were attached to this disc. JANUARY 1954 The size of this specimen and its attached sporangia compares closely with that of the specimen designated as Discinites sp. 1 by Nemeje (1941, fig 1). In the shape of the spo- rangia, however, it compares more closely with D. bohemicus (cf. Nemejec, 1937, figure 2), and in the toothed margin of its sporophyllar disc, the specimen recalls D. Jonymansii (Hirmer, 1940, figs. 1-10). The remainder of the material consists of MAMAY: PERMIAN DISCINITES CONE 9 three fragmentary specimens (40627-40629) that clearly present the longitudinal aspect of Dis- cinites (figs. 3-5). These are all from lo ality no. 8877 and are preserved in a rather coarse- grained, light-brown, sandy shale. The largest fragment (specimen 40629) is about 4.5 em long and 2 em wide (fig. 5). It contains parts of 11 consecutive discs, each of whose closely arranged sporangia may be seen. The dises are about 2 mm apart. Figs. 1-5.—Discinites sp.: 1, 2, Upper surface of a sporophylar disc (specimen 40626), Fig. 2 retouched with white ink to show more clearly the marginal teeth (mt), the sporangia (sp), and the cone axis (a) ; 3, Fragment of a longitudinally compressed specimen (no. 40627) showing parts of nine successive whorls; 4, Fragment. of a longitudinally compressed specimen (no. 40628) showing parts of 13 successive whorls; 5, Fragment of a longitudinally compressed specimen (no. 40629) showing parts of 11 successive whorls. Faint impressions of several of the upturned marginal teeth of the sporophyllar discs may be seen at the right. (All figures 1.5.) 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The sporangia appear to be in their natural erect positions, apparently having undergone little compaction during the process of preserva- tion. They average about 2 mm in height and 1 mm in width as seen on their tangential surfaces (Figs. 3-5). There is little organic matter left in these specimens, and it was therefore im- possible to isolate spores for comparison with those of previously described Dviscinites speci- mens. As in specimen 40626, there is no evidence concerning the relative distribution of micro- and megasporangia or the mode of attachment to the discs. At one side of specimen 40629, several up- turned marginal teeth of the discs may be seen (Fig. 5). As far as can be determined, these are approximately the same size as those seen in specimen 40626 (Figs. 1, 2), and they appear to demonstrate the natural positions of the teeth. The specimens shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 compare favorably with D. delectus (ef. Arnold, 1949, pl. 28, fig. 6). However, there is no suggestion of pairing of the sporangia, as originally described by Arnold (1944) when he first assigned his specimens to the genus Bowmanites. Although the generic characters of Discinites are clearly demonstrated by the Texas speci- mens, a specific designation for them is not offered here, because of their imperfect preserva- tion. There are close resemblances, pointed out in previous paragraphs, between the Permian specimens and certain of the older ones, but the differences in both geographic and stratigraphic occurrences present a strong likelihood that additional material may eventually warrant the erection of a new species for the Texas specimens. DISCUSSION The vexing problem of natural affinities of detached reproductive organs of fossil plants presents itself again in connection with this occurrence of Dzscinites. While there is some agreement that Dzscinites is most probably referable to the Noeggera- thiales, the broader relationships of the Noeggerathiales in themselves are contro- versial. The whorled construction of Dzs- cinites, Tingiostachya, and other included genera suggests a sphenopsid alliance for this group, and although this feature alone is insufficient evidence for an incontestable assignment of the Noeggerathiales to the Sphenopsida, such an interpretation seems VOL. 44, No. 1 preferable to Hirmer’s (1940) inclusion of the Noeggerathiineae within the Filicales. A full discussion of the systematic position of this group of plants is quite beyond the scope of this paper; however, it should be pointed out in passing that the reference of these plants—with their strobiloid fructifica- tions—to the Filicales represents a radical and, in the writer’s opinion, unwarranted departure from the established tenets of fern morphology and systematics. The more immediate problem lies in the identity of the vegetative parts of the plant that bore Discinites. On the basis of associa- tion alone, Nemeje (1937) and Hirmer (1940) have suggested the probability that Discinites is the fructification of the same plant that bore Palaeopteridium foliage; this association has also been noted by Arnold (1949) in the flora of the Michigan coal basin. This Permian occurrence of Discinites throws doubt on such a proposed relationship, however, for as far as presently known, Palaeopteridium is restricted to horizons of pre-Permian age. It is, then, of interest to examine briefly the floristic ele- ments associated with the Texas Discinztes, with the purpose of attempting to shed some light on this problem. White (1912), in his discussion of Gigan- topterts americana, published a list of the plant genera associated with Gigantopteris (locality 8877). The following genera were noted: Annularia, Araucarites, Aspidiopsis, Cordaites, Diplothmema, Gomphostrobus, Neuropteris, Odontopteris, Pecopteris, Poacor- daites, Sigillaria, Sphenophyllum, Taeniop- teris, and Walchia. The writer’s survey of this collection has added the following genera to this list: Aphlebia, Callipteris, Daubreeia, Lebachia, Lepidophyllum, and Odontopteris. A few undetermined strobiloid fructifications are also present in the flora. The following genera have been tenta- tively identified in the C. B. Read collection (locality 8959): Annularia, Aphlebia, Arau- carites, Callipteris, Gigantopteris, Lebachia, Odontopteris, Pecopteris,. Sphenophyllum, Taeniopteris, and Tingia. This flora is essen- tially the same as that of White’s collection | in generic composition; the most outstand- ing difference between the two lies in the JANUARY 1954 apparent absence of 72ngia from the White collection; this genus is very abundant in the Read collection.? Thus far, then, 77ngza is the only vegeta- tive element of supposedly noeggerathialean affinity known in these two floras; if one were to attempt to establish a fructification- foliage alliance for Discinites on the basis of association alone, Jingia might well ‘appear to be the logical foliage genus in these assemblages with which the Dzscinites specimens should be considered allied. How- ever, the fructification of Tingia (Tingio- stachya), as described by Kon’no (1929), differs strikingly from Discinites in some important morphological features. J ingio- stachya bore unfused sporophylls in whorls of four, each sporophyll producing a single synangial group of four sporangia on its upper surface; it seems unlikely that two types of cones as morphologically dissimilar as Tingiostachya and Discinites could belong to one and the same natural genus of plants. All the present evidence considered, then, Discinites still retains the status of a genus of detached fructifications, the identity of whose vegetative parts is not established, even though they themselves may be well known as detached foliar organs under a different generic name. This occurrence of Discinites is of interest, however, in that it provides not only a link between the floras of the Pennsylvanian and the Permian, 2 Darrah (1938) described two species of Tingia (T. taeniata and T. kempiae) from Texas; accord- ing to his locality data, the source of his material is within 1 or 2 miles of the C. B. Read locality (locality 8959), in rocks of the same stratigraphic horizon. HUI-LIN LI: TRAPELLACEAE LL but also an additional link between the floras of Europe and North America. It has also served the writer as one of many illus- trations of the poorly understood nature of American Permian floras, the alleviation of which condition constitutes one of the out- standing needs of American paleobotany. REFERENCES ARNOLD, C. A. A heterosporous species of Bow- manites from the Michigan coal basin. Amer. Journ. Bot. 31: 466-469. 1944. ———. Fossil flora of the Michigan coal basin. Con- trib. Mus. Paleontol. Univ. Michigan 7: 131- 269. 1949. Darra, W. C. The occurrence of the genus Tingia in Texas. Harvard Univ. Bot. Mus. Leafl. 5: 173-188. 1938. FEISTMANTEL, K. Hine neue Pflanzengattung aus bohmischen Steinkohlenschichten. Sitzungsb. Bohm. Ges. Wiss. 1879: 298-303. HirMerR, M. Noeggerathiineae. In: Hirmer, M.., and Guthorl, P. Die Karbon-Flora des Saar- gebeites. Abt. 3: Filicales und Verwandte. Palaeontographica, Suppl. Bd. 9: 3-60. 1940. Kon’no, E. On genera Tingia and Tingiostachya from the Lower Permian and the Permo-Triassic beds in northern Korea. Trans. and Absts. Jap. Journ. Geol. Geog. 6: 113-147, 1929. Moore, R. C. Rocks of Permian (?) age in the Colorado River Valley, north-central Texas. U.S.G.S. Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 80. 1949. Nemesc, F. On Discinites K. Feistm. Bull. Intern. Acad. Sci. Boheme 38: 3-10, 1937. ———. Weitere Fructifikationem vom Typus Disci- nites nebst einigen Bemerkungen wiber die Archaeopteriden der Mittelbohmischen Kohlen- becken. Mitteil. Tschech. Akad. Wiss. 1941: 1-13. Wuitk, D. The characters of the fossil plant Gi- gantopteris Schenk and its occurrence in North America. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 41: 493-516. 1912. BOTANY —Trapellaceae, a familial segregate from the Asiatic flora. Hu1-Lin Lt, Morris Arboretum, University of Pennsylvania. The genus Trapella, like many other genera of plants of temperate eastern Asia, is apparently of a relic nature. It is treated as an anomalous member in the nearest largest family Pedaliaceae, as a result of the earlier prevalent view against unigeneric families. However, the more favored view among taxonomists and morphologists at present is to recognize phylogenetically iso- lated genera as representing distinct families irrespective of their sizes. It seems that a phylogenetic system of classification can be more readily elucidated by recognizing more ‘families with clearcut circumscription rather than fewer, larger, more inclusive but also more ambiguous ones. The tendency now is to segregate more and more such isolated genera into independent families of their own. The case of Trapella is summarized below. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Trapellaceae, fam. nov. Pedaliaceae tribe Trapelleae Oliver in Ann. Bot. 2: 110. 1888; Stapf in Engler and Prantl, Natur. Pflanzenf. IV. 3b: 260, 265. 1895. Herba natans, foliis oppositis petiolatis, in- ferioribus lineari-oblongis denticulatis superiori- bus deltoideo-rotundatis vel cordiformibus cre- nato-denticulatis. Flores axillares solitarii pedunculati. Calyx tubo ovario adnato, limbo libero 5-fido. Corolla perigyna tubuloso-infundibuliforma, limbo pa- tente bilabiato, labio superiore breviter bifido, -labio inferiore trifido; tubo basi abrupte an- gustato, aestivatione imbricata, labio superiore exteriore. Stamina pollinifera 2 epipetala inclusa, antheris bilocularibus, connectivo peltato carno- sulo insidentibus; filamentis filiformibus glabris; staminodia antica 2 elongata; stamen posticum nullum. Ovarium inferum apice tantum lberum biloculare, loculo antico rudimentario, loculo postico biovulato; stylo gracile elongato, stigmate bilabiato; ovula 2, anatropa, pendula, superiore sessili, inferiore breviter funiculato deinde abor- tivo. Fructus angustus elongatus monospermus indehiscens, apice appendicibus 5 coronatus elongatis arrectis apice uncinatim incurvis, 2 brevioribus spinosis subulatis rectis patentibus; pericarpio tenuiter charteceo-lignoso. Semen pendulum, cylindraceum, endospermio tenul, embryonis recti radicula supra, cotyledonibus lineari-oblongis radicula brevioribus. One genus, Trapella, with two species, widely distributed in eastern Asia. Trapella is one of the most interesting plants discovered in China. It is an aquatic plant with the appearance of Trapa but is very different in its characters. At first one species was known for the genus, 7. sinensis Oliver (1887), first de- scribed from central China but later known to occur also in eastern, northern, and northeastern China as well as Japan. Gltick (1939) later dis- covered that the genus is actually composed of two species, one, 7’. sinensis Oliver, in Kyushu of Japan, maritime Siberia, and northeastern as well as northern, eastern, and central China, and another 7. antennifera (Léveillé) Gliick, in Honshu of Japan, northeastern China, and mari- time Siberia only. Trapella, since its discovery, has remained in the Pedaliaceae assigned by the original author. When Oliver first described this plant, he was VOL. 44, NO. 1 very much impressed by its uniqueness. His as- signment of the genus in the ‘‘Pedalineae”’ is, however, tentative, as he noted that exceptions might surely be taken for this action. He did so not because of the agreement of the genus in all essential characters with the Pedaliaceae, but mainly to avoid the alternative of making this the type of a distinct ‘‘order.”’ Oliver noted that Trapella is intermediate in its characters between the Pedaliaceae and Myo- poraceae and that it can be considered as an aber- rant member, taken to aquatic habits, of the Pedaliaceae, which have all other species terres- trial. The genus is distinct from other genera of the family not only in the aquatic habit but also in the geographical distribution. All other genera of the Pedaliaceae are shore and desert plants in tropical Africa, Madagascar, the Indo-Malayan region, and tropical Australia. The tropical and subtropical American genera formerly included in the Pedaliaceae are now separated as a distinct family Martyniaceae. Trapella was treated as representing a distinct tribe Trapelleae in the Pedaliaceae by F. W. Oliver (1888-89) and this was followed by Stapf (1895), who recognized the other genera as form- ing the tribe Pedalieae. A very thorough study on the morphology of the vegetative as well as reproductive structures of this very anomalous genus was made very shortly after its discovery by F. W. Oliver (1888- 89), son of the original author. Young Oliver is of the opinion that Trapella is related more closely to Myoporaceae and Pedaliaceae than other families of the “bilabiate monopetalae.” He regards the wide discrepancies between Pedal- iaceae and T'rapella as due to the change of habit in the latter, and he refrains from making the genus a new family because he considers the Pedaliaceae, Myoporaceae, and other related families as mostly ill-defined. A very detailed de- scription of the genus is given in his paper, basing on the original description of the genus with modifications and additions resulting from his intensive studies. The diagnosis of the family as given above is adopted from his detailed descrip- tion. An intensive taxonomical and morphological study of the genus was made also by Glick (1941). In morphological characters, the chief distinc- tion of Trapella from the Pedaliaceae are the in- ferior ovary and the presence of only two fertile JANUARY 1954 stamens. Its relationship with the Pedaliaceae is indicated with Pedaliwm, in the bilocular ovary with two pendulous ovules. The appendaged fruit forms a strongly analogous character with the Pedaliaceae. In the form and arrangement of the seed it is near the Myoporaceae but it differs in the fruit and the opposite leaves. Trapella thus ean be considered as representing the type of a distinct family somewhat linking the Pedaliaceae and Myoporaceae. CLARK: PRESCRIPTION AS APPLIED TO TAXONOMY 13 LITERATURE CITED Guiick, H. ‘Uber eine neue Trapella des dstlichen Asiens. Bot. Jahrb. 70: 149-152. 1939. Die Gattung Trapella. Bot Jahrb. 71: 267-336. 1941. OuivER, D. Trapella sinensis, Oliv. Hook. Icon. Pr 16 2 pl. 1595. Uss7. OuIvER, F. W. On the structure, development, and affinities of Trapella Oliv., a new genus of Pedalineae. Ann. Bot. 2: 75-115. 1888-89. Starr, O. Pedaliaceae. In Engler and Prantl, Natur. Pflanzenf. IV. 3b: 260-265. 1895. TAXONOMY .—For and against the doctrine of prescription as applied to taxonomy: A historical retrospect. AUSTIN H. Cuarx, U.S. National Museum. In these days of renewed interest in taxonomy and in revisions of and emenda- tions to the International Code of Nomen- clature it is perhaps of interest to put on record the sentiment expressed by the leading zoologists and paleontologists of nearly 50 years ago. In the early years of the present century systematic zoology, including paleontology, was in high favor. Previously unknown species were being discovered in large num- bers by expeditions to various little-known parts of the world and through the intensive exploration of the deep sea, and material that had been collected earlier was being intensively studied. This work, especially the revisionary studies connected with it, naturally focused attention on taxonomy. Many names in general use were found to be untenable according to the strict application of the Rule of Priority. In ac- cordance with the rule of priority an Inter- national Code of Nomenclature had been drawn up, based chiefly on previous codes concerned mainly with terrestrial verte- brates. This code proved of great value in stabilizing zoological nomenclature, but its strict application in certain cases led to the suppression of many well-established names in general use (as for example Holothuria) and also to interminable controversies re- garding species inadequately described by early authors of which the type specimens had disappeared. Furthermore, the fossils did not come under the binomial principle elaborated by Linnaeus; they were made exceptions through ignorance of their true nature. The binomial system was slow in becom- ing established in purely fossil groups, and there was, and still is, much controversy in regard to the binomial status, or other- wise, of many of the works of the earlier authors. Dissatisfaction with the inflexibility of the Code and with its arbitrary interpreta- tion and application at that time was becoming marked, and so in 1909 the Hon. Frank Springer of the Territory of New Mexico, the well-known authority on the fossil crinoids, and leader of the New Mexi- ean bar, and I decided to test the prevailing attitude toward it on the part of our col- leagues. The genera Hnerinus, Pentacrinus, Iso- crinus, and Mullericrinus, among the best known and most firmly established of all the genera of the Crinoidea, are all either untenable or of doubtful availability ac- cording to the strict application of the current code of zoological nomenclature adopted by the International Zoological Congress. In a circular dated Burlington, Iowa, May 1, 1909, Mr. Springer gave a summary of the involved history of the genus Hncrinus and showed that great confusion would result if the genotype were determined according to the strict applica- tion of the rules. Encrinus liliiformis is the best known of all the stalked crinoids. It has been figured and described under that name in countless works, and specimens are found under that name in all the important cabinets and museums of the world. Encrinus Blumen- bach, 1779, is generally accepted, with the 14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES genotype LHncrinus liliwformis Lamarck, 1801. But according to a strict application of the code Hncrinus should date either from Andreaé, 1763, with the genotype E.. coralloides, which is supposed to be the terminal stem branches or roots of a species of Muillericrinus, one of which has been referred to M. echinatus by de Loriol; or from Blumenbach, 1779, with the genotype Isis asteria Linné (= the Recent West Indian Cenocrinus asteria); liliformis was not included in Enerinus by Blumenbach (see A. H. Clark, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 3 (15): 308-310. March 1909). Mr. Springer wrote: The results of either of these applications of the name Encrinus, one or other of which would be rendered necessary by a strict adherence to the International Code, would be to throw the study of the fossil crinoids into intolerable confusion, not so much for the workers in the group, like myself, who can take immediate cognizance of any change, but for the much larger number of students interested in stratigraphy, paleontology, general geology, and allied subjects. The shifting of the names, commonly accepted and heretofore unquestioned, of the commonest genera—genera predominantly characteristic of certain horizons— would impose an intolerable burden upon every one who ever had any occasion to refer to the crinoids in any way. The change, even if it could finally be brought about, would take years to accomplish, and the burden would fall heaviest on those to whom crinoids were only of incidental interest, though of the greatest indirect import- ance, in the identification of strata, or in the instruction of students. The result would be hopeless confusion, would benefit nobody, and could not fail to bring ridicule upon the taxonomic methods now in vogue. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that the fossils did not come under the binomial principal as elaborated by Linnaeus; they were made ex- ceptions through ignorance of their true nature. Thus we find that the binomial system was slow in becoming established in purely fossil groups, and there will always be controversy in regard to many of the works of the earlier authors. The underlying principle of the rule of priority is said, and properly said, to be fixity. Yet by insisting upon its absolute and unbending applica- tion in all cases, without regard to circumstances, we may destroy the very fixity for which we contend. There is no law more deeply rooted in the foundations of civil government, or more essential to the welfare and stability of society, than that of the fixity of the titles to real estate based on priority. But just as that law in actual adminis- tration is subject to exceptions founded upon principles of natural justice and the dictates of public policy, so I think we may find reasonable voL. 44, No. 1 basis for an exception to the rule of priority in nomenclature which will meet such cases as this. This would be that such cases, irrespective of the actual state of the record as to their dates, should be protected under an exception to the rule, simply on the ground of long use, on the doctrine of prescription, which is a principle well known in law, recognized in continental Europe as coming down from the civil law of Rome, and now embodied in statutes in all English-speaking countries. It is that the right of property will be upheld by the courts in favor of one who can show a long, continuous, and undisputed possession of it, under a claim of right, however defective, not- withstanding he has no paper title, and even though the records may show the prior title to be in some one else. This rule of law rests upon the idea that it 1s for the public interest that there be an end of controversy, and that there shall be some reasonable time after which titles may be held safe from attack on any ground. And this end was attained in the beginning, not by denying or abrogating the law governing the conveyance of property by deeds, but by invoking a simple - presumption, founded on the known as usual conduct of men with regard to their interests, that where such long and undisputed possession existed there must have been a good title, the evidence of which is lost. . This principle of jurisprudence is now recog- nized throughout the civilized world as one of the most salutary and beneficial provisions for pre- venting injustice and insuring that repose of titles which the peace and order of society demand. By virtue of its operation a title by lapse of time merely, if properly proven under all the safeguards which are prescribed in practice to prevent the abuse of it, is as good in the actual possessor as a paper title showing priority by an unbroken chain of recorded deeds. If this be true with regard to matters of such vital importance as the titles to our landed property, why may not the same principle be invoked in favor of repose and stabil- ity of names in our scientific literature? It is not a question of ‘‘doing justice’ to any particular ancient author. The proposition is one of far broader significance, and involves the paramount interest of the scientific public. In this way, by analogy to the practice which prevails in courts of justice touching the most solemn rights of property, a presumably just conclusion can be reached independent of the rule of priority, and without impairing its force in cases to which no such considerations of public policy apply. In view of the above, I am in favor of making an exception to the rigid application of the law of priority in regard to the exclusively fossil genus Encrinus, accepting it from. Schulze, 1760,1 by 1 Mr. Springer wrote that Schulze’s work ‘‘was mainly a compilation from former authors, as Linck, Lluyd, Seba, Capelier, and Ellis, and he uses their names in the same manner as they did, with but small pretense to binomial application. JANUARY 1954 which means all the above mentioned genera of erinoids [Encrinus, Pentacrinus, Isocrinus, and Millericrinus| would be retained in the same significance in which they are used today, and have been used for the better part of a century. Mr. Springer concluded “I am asking you to indicate on the enclosed card whether, in view of the above considerations, you are in favor of making an exception to the International Code in favor of Hncrinus, or whether, in your judgment, the best course would be to adhere strictly to it in this case, notwithstanding the deplorable confusion which would result.” The enclosed postal card, which was ad- dressed to me, had two alternatives, each followed by a line for a signature. The alternatives were: (1) I am in favor of accepting Encrinus from Schulze, 1760, and of retaining it and the other crinoid genera affected in the same sense as understood today. (2) I am in favor of a strict adherence to the International Code, regardless of the effect on the present nomenclature. This circular was sent to 1,000 zoologists and paleontologists.” We received 376 replies to the circular, from Algeria, Brazil, Canada, Ceylon, Denmark, Egypt, Eire, England, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Nether- lands, New South Wales, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Portugal, Queensland, Russia, Scotland, South Australia, Sweden, Tasmania, Trinidad, B.W.I., United States, Victoria, and Western Australia. Of these replies 297 (nearly 80 per cent) favored retaining Hncrinus, and 62 (about 20 per cent) favored strict adherence to the Code, a number of them with reluctance. He did not propose Encrinus to represent a genus, but only mentioned, by way of recital, the fact that certain petrifactions resembling a lily have been called the lily-stone, Encrinus (‘Man findet eine gewisse Versteinerung, die, in Ansehung ihrer Gestalt, einige Gleichheit mit einer Lilie zu haben scheinet, daher man dieselbe enfanglich fur die Versteinerung dieser Blume gehalten, und sie den Lilienstein, ENCRINUM, genennen hat.’). On plate IV is a figure of a complete crown of the fossil to which he refers, and in the long description which follows he mentions it four times by the name ‘Lilienstein,’ but never again as ‘Encrinus.’ The figured specimen is EL. liliiformis Lamarck.” 2See Austin H. Clark, The strict application of the law of priority to generic names, Science, n.s., 31 (787): 145-146. January 28, 1910. CLARK: PRESCRIPTION AS APPLIED TO TAXONOMY in To show the broad general interest taken in this matter at that time it may be men- tioned that among those who replied were Alexander Agassiz, Count Arrigoni Degli Oddi, Lord Avebury, E. G. Conklin, Theo- dore Gill, Sir Sydney Harmer, Ernst Hartert, John B. Henderson, Jr., Edgard Hérouard, John C. Merriam, Edward S. Morse, Adam Sedgwick, Sir D’Arcy Thomp- son, A. E. Verrill, Charles D. Walcott, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Following is an analysis of the replies. FOR RETAINING ENCRINUS Of those who returned the cards or wrote letters 243 favored the first alternative, the acceptance of Encrinus from Schulze, 1760, without comment. Among these were: George Abbott, Charles C. Adams, Nicolai Adelung, Alexander Agassiz, M. J. Ahern, A. Aleock, Edward Phelps Allis, Jr., Richard John Anderson, A. W. Anthony, Prof. Dr. Appelléf, Count Arrigoni Delgi Oddi, E. A. N. Archer, Chr. Aurivillius, Lord Avebury [formerly Sir John Lubbock], G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, Walter B. Barrows, R.S. Bassler, F. E. L. Beal, Tarleton H. Bean, C. William Beebe, F. Jeffrey Bell, Charles P. Berkey, S. W. Berger, A. Bibbins, W. B. Ben- ham, M. A. Bigelow, H. P. Blackmore, J. E. V. Boas, L. A. Borradaile, Adam Béving, H. Bolton, Aug. Brinkmann, Hjalmar Brock, Arthur Erwin Brown, J. Buttikofer, W. T. Calman, Oskar Carlgren, J. W. Carr, W. D. Carr, Thomas ‘L. Casey, George H. Chadwick, Robert E. Coker, Leon J. Cole, E. G. Conklin, H. Coutiére, William A. Cunningham, Ulric Dahlgren, W. Boyd Daw- kins, R. Etheridge, W. L. W. Field, G. H. French, John H. Gerould; O: C. Glaser, E. L. Golds- borough, Seitaro Goto, L. C. Graton, Laurence E. Grifin, R. J. Lechmere Guppy, Robert Gurney, H. J. Hansen, Chas. W. Hargitt, Clemens Hart- laub, Sir Sydney F. Harmer, John B. Henderson, Jr., Junius Henderson, P. P. C. Hoek, S. J. Holmes, A. D. Hopkins, Walter Howchin, I. Ijima, Hartley H. T. Jackson, Robert T. Jackson, Otto Jaekel, O. A. Johansen, Lynds Jones, Chaun- cey Juday, Hector F. E. Jungersen, W. C. Ken- dall, John T. Kemp, J. Graham Kerr, H. Kirk- patrick, K. Kishinouye, N. Knipowitsch, K. Kraepelin, B. W. Kunkel, H. H. Lane, Torsten Lagerberg, J. M. R. Levinsen, Edwin Linton, F. A. Lucas, Wiliam Lundbeck, Henry H. Lyman, Richard C. McGregor, A. Gibb Maitland, B. . Pickman Mann, E. L. Mark, Geo. W. Martin, K. Martin, O. Maas, S. E. Meek, E. A. Minchin, John Mitchell, Henry Montgomery, Roy L. Moodie, Carlos Moreira, Edward 8S. Morse, Th. Mortensen, Henry F. Nachtrieb, John Treadwell Nichols, A. M. Norman, Hj. Ostergren, Paul Pallary, Raymond Pearl, G. Pfeffer, A. L. Quaint- ance, Wilhelm Ramsey, Herbert W. Rand, Paul M. Rea, C. Tate Regan, Jacob Reighard, Robert 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ridgway, Alice Robertson, Rudolf Ruedemann, G. O. Sars, R. 8. Scharff, W. L. Selater, E. A. Schwarz, H. H. Scott, Adam Sedgwick, H. W. Shimer, C. Ph. Sluiter, Frank Smith, Grant Smith, John B. Smith, Sanderson Smith, T. Southwell, J. W. Spengel, E. C. Stirling, F. B. Sumner, W. M. Tattersall, Hjalmar Théel, Sir D’Arcy W. Thompson, Charles D. Walcott, P. R. Uhler, HO. Ulrich, A: BE. Vermll; Gens A> W. Vogdes, U.S.A., B. E. Walker, Henry B. Ward, Stuart Weller, W. M. Wheeler, R. P. Whitfield, C. O. Whitman, W. H. Wickes, 8S. R. Williams, 8. W. Williston, Chas. B. Wilson, Herluf Winge, Lorande Loss Woodruff, H. Woods, Horace B. Woodward, J. B. Woodworth, and Dean C. Wor- cester. In addition to these, 54 zoologists and paleontologists were in favor of retaining Encrinus as suggested, but added comments. These may be classified as follows. 1. Questions such as this should be pre- sented to the International Commission to be adjudicated by the Commission itself or by a committee or committees appointed by the Commission. Among those taking this view were: Glover M. Allen, E. P. Bailey, F. A. Bather, James E. Benedict, R. P. Bigelow, A. J. Jukes Browne, Charles B. Davenport, Hubert Lyman Clark, Walter L. Hahn, Reginald Heber Howe, Jr., Charles A. Kofoid, F. B. Loomis, Alfred G. Mayer, Herbert Osborn, Raymond C. Osburne, A.S. Pearse, Charles Schuchert, Hugh M. Smith, T. Wayland Vaughan, and L. B. Walton. | 2. There were 15 replies that favored retaining old established names. These were from: Robert Anderson, Prof. Apstein, J. W. Beede, Lyman Belding, Wesley R. Coe, L. Cuénot, W. R. Dudley, Charles L. Edwards, J. Stanley Gardner, Francis H. Herrick, J.S. Kingsley, Alfred C. Lane, John C. Merriam, Charles 8. Prosser, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Of these, three suggested time limits of general use—20-25 years (Wallace), 30 years or more (Hoek), 75 or 100 years (Beede), and 100 or even 50 years (Belding). 3. Among the replies 11 regarded strict adherence to the Code as leading to con- fusion or to absurd results, as “perfectly idiotic,” or as “rank nonsense.” These were from: T. B. Bonney, Charles A. Chilton, Ludwig Doderlein, J. H. Fleming, R. Fourtau, Robert H. Gordon, L. P. Gratacap, R. Koehler, W. P. Py- craft, Thomas Scott, and W. L. Tower. vou. 44, No. | There were also scattering comments. Oldfield Thomas supported Encrinus on the ground that it is technically valid. William Sorensen said, ‘‘(1) I cannot see that thereby the rules are broken, and (2) one must have a motive to do a thing, but not to do noth- ing.’ G. W. Kirkaldy wrote, “I would have to examine the various papers myself before giving an opinion, but I would point out that Sherborn considers Schulze bi- nomial.’’ David Starr Jordan said, ‘‘Under the Code is not encrinus L. necessarily the type of Hncrinus Blumenbach? I am on the fence at present. The considerations are strong on both sides. I think that if I were a paleontologist I should wait before changing these names. I am not sure that under the Code Encrinus Schulze is not tenable. In any case, this is a very difficult problem. Did Andreaé have Schulze’s work in mind? Is Pentaceros Schulze tenable?” W. L. Mc- Atee wrote ‘Stability of nomenclature at- tained by means however arbitrary is preferable to the continual changing which our best intentioned rules seem powerless to prevent.”’? Warren D. Smith favored the retention of Encrinus, but also favored a strict adherence to the Code in future work. Theodore D. A. Cockerell analyzed in detail the status of Encrinus. In addition to returning the cards, the following wrote at length regarding their views: Thomas L. Casey T. D. A. Cockerell, Leon J. Cole, H. Coutiére, L. Déderlein, J. Graham Kerr, F. A. Lucas, Richard C. McGregor, Th. Mor- tensen, Rudolf Ruedemann, Henry B. Ward, and S. W. Williston. FOR THE STRICT APPLICATION OF THE CODE Of those who returned the cards, 42 fa- vored the second alternative, the strict application of the Code, without comment. Among these were: Paul Bartsch, Wilhelm Blasius, Sergius A. Buturlin, C. Callaway, Morton L. Church, Robert Collett, J. A. Cushman, A. A. Doolittle, C. H. Eigenmann, Barton W. Evermann, W. K. Fisher, C. H. Gilbert, Theodore Gill, O: PP.» Hay. W. ke: Hay, Harold Heath, H. W. Henshaw, Charles W. Johnson, Frederick Knab, F. H. Knowlton, G. W. Lee, M. W. Lyon, Jr., Gerrit 8. Miller, Jr., E. W. Nelson, Harry C. Oberholser, J. Douglas Ogilby, A. E. Ortmann, Henry A. Pilsbry, Franz Poche, JANUARY 1954 Julius Pohlman, Edward A. Preble, Mary J. Rathbun, James A. G. Rehn, Harriet Richardson, Charles W. Richmond, J. H. Riley, R. W. Sharpe, Witmer Stone, W. E. Clyde Todd, George Wagner, and W. M. Winton. In addition to these, 20 zoologists and paleontologists added comments. J. J. Buckman said, ‘“‘I am in favor of a strict adherence to the Law of Priority properly interpreted when I hope it will be proved that it will not have any effect on the present nomenclature. August Busck wrote that “‘similar cases just as tempting to make exceptions of occur in Lepidoptera, on which there is far more literature than on Encrinus. One exception justifies another and gives chance for differences of opinion.” A. N. Caudell noted that ‘“To do otherwise would set a bad example. Many genera in other lines have the same claim on exception.” Frederic Chapman said, “‘It is a bad surgical ease, but I fear there is no way out if we accept the rules.”” M. L. Fuller noted that “This doubtless leads to confusion at times, but on the whole it seems a good policy. The way to uphold and establish it so that in the end the greatest good will result is to avoid making exceptions.’ Ernst Hartert said, “I am in favour of a strict adherence to the International Code, regardless of the effect on the present nomenclature.’ Her- mann von Ihering wrote, ‘‘We have already proceeded against our desires in applying the international rules In many cases and shall do so also in the present....” F. A. Jentink remarked, ‘“‘I am in favor of a strict adherence to the International Code regard- less of the effect on present nomenclature.” - E. L. Morris said that ‘‘priority is the only stable basis for all time.”’ R. I. Pocock was in favor of strict adherence to the Inter- national Code “‘because the anticipated ill effects are always greatly exaggerated, and because if one exception be made a thousand will have to follow, each worker having pet names he would like to preserve in statu quo ante.” However, 11 of those who voted for the strict adherence to the Code were not en- tirely satisfied with it. Louis B. Bishop said, “T was not in favor of any of the recent changes in ornithological names, believing it far better for all to agree to stick to what CLARK: PRESCRIPTION AS APPLIED TO TAXONOMY ay we had that were thoroughly accepted regardless of priority, but it is now too late.” John M. Clarke wrote, ‘The prin- ciples of judicial procedure if applied to authors would ignore the element of equity which is essentially safeguarded by the International Code. The disturbance of conventional use is a temporary incon- venience to which science will eventually adjust itself. Jonathan Dwight, Jr., said, “At present there is no alternative except to play the game according to the rules. Nobody has a right to make exceptions because there is no court of appeal to them, and the whole discussion of Hncrinus is a plea for preference instead of rule.’”’ William H. Dall was in favor of accepting Hncrinus ‘af this can be authorized by the vote of the International Zoological Congress.”’ George H. Girty thought that ‘dropping Encrinus from the literature as not recog- nizable [Encrinus of Andreaé]... might be thought a pity but would not lead, I would think, to much confusion.’’ Edgard Hérouard upheld strict adherence to the Code, but believed it would be useful to modify the Code in this case. Wilfred H. Osgood favored strict adherence to the Code, but said, “I would favor modification of the Code, even very drastically, in order that such names might be retained.” H. E. Summers said that any exceptions should be made by the International Congress. Henry L. Ward wrote, ‘“Taken by itself it would seem advisable to retain Hncrinus, but there are others, and some rule must be enforced, and as we have no courts of law the rules must be self-enforcing.’”? David White was in favor of strict adherence to priority in the binomial usage, thatis, for Encrinus Andreaé. Letters giving their views in detail were received from J. J. Buckman, W. H. Dall, Jonathan Dwight, Jr., C. H. Gilbert, George H. Girty, G. Douglas Ogilby, and Franz Poche. NO OPINION EXPRESSED J. A. Allen, A. J. Bigney, Arthur M. Edwards, and Arthur H. E. Mattingley sent in cards signed without comment in both places. One correspondent said he was not competent to express an opinion, “But in general I deplore the discarding of old 18 and long accepted familiar names in any branch of natural history, resulting as it does in constant confusion and discourage- ment, especially to the uninitiated.” Letters without an expression of opinion were received from Henry B. Bigelow, A. J. Jukes Browne, William E. Hoyle, and Charles Wardell Stiles. Finally, one card from Dorchester, Eng- land, read “I am in favor of accepting Hn- crinus Schulze, 1760... but I should prefer a postal order for five shillings to be sent to ZOOLOGY —On Polyclinum indicum, a India. V. O. SEBASTIAN,! University India. (Communicated by Fenner A. While engaged in a study of the ascidian fauna of Madras coast, I was able to identify a new species of Polyclinum, the structure of the zooid, larva, and postlarval stages of which forms the substance of the present paper. Herdman (1891) has described P. con- stellatum and P. iscacum from the Indian Ocean, and a doubtful species (1906), P. nigrum, from the gulf of Manaar. Sebas- tian (1942) has published an account of the anatomy and larval organization of Polyclinum sp. obtained from a dredge col- lection off the coast of Madras and later (1952) described as P. madrasensis Sebastian. The present form, Polyclinum indicum, n. sp., 1s the commonest synascidian found along the rocky shores of the Madras coast. The colonies are found attached to the under surface of stones and boulders, at the level of the tides, on the Royapuram coast, north of Madras harbor. The places where they grow are always subjected to the action of violent waves. Exiernal appearance-—The colonies vary in shape, younger ones being oval or pear-shaped with narrow bases of attachment and round up- per exposed surfaces (Figs. 1, 2). The full-grown colony has an umbrella-shaped upper exposed surface, the base of attachment being broader, but narrower than the diameter of the upper region (Fig. 3). The mature colony has a diame- 1 | wish to express my thanks to Dr. C. P. Gna- namuthu, director of the University Zoology Re- search Laboratory, for his helpful suggestions, and to the authorities of the Madras University for varied assistance rendered. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. l Timothy Scroggins, Warwick Gaol, and to be given me when I have finished my time.” Since this poll was taken the principle of prescription has been adopted by the Inter- national Commission on Nomenclature, and a list of nomina conservanda has been estab- lished. All the cards and the letters referred to above have been mounted in a scrapbook, which is filed in the Library of the Smith- sonian Institution. new ascidian from the Madras coast of Zoology Research Laboratory, Madras, Chace, Jr.) ter of 2 to 21% inches, and a height of 1144 to 2 inches. The common cloacal openings are found scattered on the exposed surface, raised on coni- eal projections of the outer test. The surface is encrusted with a thin layer of sand. The color is hght brown or pale red in the majority of cases. Rarely the color is dull green, but except for this the anatomical features are the same. Several colonies, large and small, could be seen closely “applied to one another, the different-colored colonies occurring in the same group. The zooids are arranged in systems of about 20 to 40, three or more such systems found around one common cloacal opening forming a pattern (Fig. 4). The branchial openings have a whitish color on their margins. A cross section of the colony (Fig. 5) shows the disposition of the zooids inside the test. They are arranged toward the outer periphery, their long ampullae running throughout the length of the test in various direc- tions. The test is transparent, having a tinge of either red or green according to the color of the colony. Structure of zooids—The length of the zooid (Fig. 6) from the branchial siphon to the tip of the postabdomen is about 2.3 to 3.2 mm. The abdomen is about one-half and the postabdomen three-fourths the size of the thoracic region. The shape and proportion of the various regions of the zooids may vary slightly according to the manner in which each zooid is pressed into the group forming a system. The branchial siphon is 6-lobed. The atrial siphon is a wide space exposing a part of the branchial sac, which is a characteristic feature. At the anterior edge of the atrial siphon there is an atrial languet, which is leaflike, but JANUARY 1954 SEBASTIAN: A NEW the distal extremity is blunt with a few protu- berances. The size and shape of the languets vary according to the distance of the zooid from the common cloacal opening, those farthest being longer and more pointed, those nearest, shorter and blunt. The languet appears to be the en- larged anterior lobe of the opening, the other lobes having failed to develop to their full size. Rarely vestiges of the other lobes are also seen (Fig. 7). The muscle bands are six pairs on the mantle wall, extending only up to about the middle of the thoracic region. The thorax is cylindrical. There are about 13 to 15 rows of stigmata, with 14 to 16 elliptical stigmata in each row. In smaller zooids the num- ber may vary from 12 to 14. Each transverse vessel bears a series of minute papillae on its inner free margin. The dorsal lamina is in the shape of languets. The tentacles are simple vary- ing from 12 to 16, their free ends being slightly swollen. The abdomen when viewed as a whole is kid- pu Tf) f= AX) Be | = = = SI = ! iD =) = EaI=!| iS!) ASCIDIAN FROM INDIA 19 ney-shaped. There is a funnel-shaped esophagus, followed by a midgut and rectum, the whole sys- tem bent and twisted into a U with unequal limbs. The rectum opens at the posterior edge of the atrial siphon, the anal opening situated be- tween two lobes. The postabdomen is connected to the abdomen by a short narrow stalk which gradually widens to hold the gonads and heart. The testis consists of follicles in the shape of bunches of grapes all connected together by narrow ducts. The ovary is found to occupy the middle portion among the mass of sperm bunches, and shows eggs of various sizes. The sperm duct and oviduct run together and open near the level of the rectal opening. Posterior to the gonads and slanting in disposi- tion is the pericardium enclosing the heart. A thin-walled epicardium runs along the side of the gonads (Figs. 8, 9): its posterior extremity comes to the middle bend of the heart. Sexual reproduction—Eggs undergo develop- ment inside the atrial chamber, and tadpole lar- Fics. 1-9.—Polyclinum indicum, n.sp.: 1, 2, Young colonies; 3, mature colony; 4, surface view show- ing the grouping of zooid systems; 5, a thin solid section of a colony; 6, mature zooid; 7, atrial siphon with vestiges of lobes; 8, postabdomen; 9, cross section of postabdomen. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vae when mature are liberated in swarms. Breed- ing occurs throughout the year. Colonies col- lected and kept in troughs of sea water liberate larvae at any time of the day. The egg measures 0.25 mm and has a yellowish tinge due to the presence of yolk. A few stages of developing em- bryos are shown in Figs. 10-12. Tadpole larva.—The tadpole (Fig. 13) measures 1.66 mm from the adhesive papillae to the tip of the tail fin, the trunk measuring 0.32 mm and the tail 1.34 mm. The tunic covers the whole body and tail of the larva. In the region of the tail, the tunic is expanded into the tail fin, which is horizontal in position owing to the rotation of the tail (Fig. 14). Test vesicles (‘‘tunic vesicles,” Scott ’46) are of two sets, one directed anteriorly and the other posteriorly. The anterior ones are club-shaped and arranged in a ring of eight in two rows of four each, arising from the anterior ectodermal margin of the body of the larva, and ZLLL DCE say ASE: 3 ~ ; RNID Ren VOL. 44, No. 1 spreading out with a slant toward the dorsal side. The middle two pairs are longer, measuring 63.2, and the lateral ones smaller, measuring 47.4y. The posterior test vesicles are in the nature of bunches of grapes, one set dorsal and one ven- tral in position, with long narrow tubular stalks from which arise pinnately arranged branches ending in round hollow vesicles containing mesen- chyme cells. They are of ectodermal origin, the stalks arising from the anterior margin of the trunk, from their respective dorsal and ventral sides, at the level of the origin of the anterior test vesicles. Adhesive papillae are three in number and arise from the anterior ectodermal margin of the trunk between the ampullae. Hach one of them has a long narrow tubular stalk, the dis- tal extremity of which swells into a goblet con- taining a central mass of columnar secretory cells, all converging to a point in the central open- ing (Fig. 19). Grave (1921) has stated that the Fias. 10-15.—Polyclinum indicum, n.sp.: 10-12, Developing embryos; 13, tadpole larva, side view; 14, tadpole larva, dorsal view; 15, Transverse section of tail of larva. JANUARY 1954 SEBASTIAN: A NEW secretory cells of the adhesive papillae in Amarou- cium constellatum are modified mesenchyme cells. Sebastian (1942) has found them to be of ecto- dermal origin jn Polyclinwm sp. (P. madrasensis), formed by the intucking and elongation of the ectodermal cells of the papillae, similar to the condition found in the cement glands of certain fishes and amphibian larvae (Asheton, 1896; Jones, 1937; Bhaduri, 1935). Scott (1946), study- ing the larval organization of A. constellatum, has also found that these cells are of ectodermal ori- gin. The same kind of ectodermal origin of the secretory cells of the adhesive papillae in P. indt- cum is illustrated in Figs. 16-19. The mantle or ectodermal covering of the body and tail is made up of one layer of cells with distinct nuclei, con- taining a large number of yolk granules. The layer covering the trunk has cubical cells which gradually become thinner and flattened in the 00602 sieteanst ASCIDIAN FROM INDIA el tail region. In the region of the branchial and atrial siphons these cells are columnar. The nervous system consists of the sensory vesi- cle with the contained ocellus and otolith, visceral ganglion with the visceral nerve, and nerve cord, of the larval action system, and the permanent ganglion and hypophysial duct of the adult system (Figs. 20, 21). The sensory vesicle is situated be- tween the branchial and atrial siphons to the right side. The ocellus consists of three lens cells, pigmented optic cup and associated retinal cells. The otolith is single-celled with a_ perfectly spherical pigmented mass at its distal end. The digestive tract (Fig. 13) is a bent tube in- cluding the pharynx, esophagus, intestine, and a short rectum, which ends blindly near the level of the esophagus. There is a middle mass of yolky cells, conical in shape, the narrow portion being connected with the endodermal layer by a short S50 one Fies. 16-24.—Polyclinum indicum, n.sp.: 16-18, Stages in the formation of the secretory cells of ad- hesive papillae; 19, goblet magnified; 20, sagittal section through the region of the sensory vesicle; 21, section passing through the visceral ganglion; 22, Transverse section of yolky cell mass; 23, magnified view of the posterior extremity of tail of larva; 24, secretory cells of the goblet being shot out. Zp JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES stalk. In transverse sections. it is found to be formed of two squarish portions (Fig. 22), each having a narrow central cavity. The endostyle is placed on the anterior margin of the pharynx, one edge of it touching the anterior edge of the yolky mass. The pharynx has two rows of stig- mata on each side, each row having about eight stigmata. On the ventral side of the yolky mass toward the anterior side is situated the peri- cardvum and heart. The notochord forms the central core of the tail (Fig. 15); it has 40 cells placed one behind another in a row. In the full-grown larva the boundaries of notochordal cells are not clearly seen. Owing to the twist of the tail at an angle of 90° to the left the nerve cord is found on the left and the endodermal strand on the right side of the notochord. The muscle bands situated dor sally and ventrally do not extend up to the pos- terior extremity of the notochord (Fig. 23). Each band is formed of three rows of muscle cells, each row of seven cells, placed one behind the other. There are only two rows of cells on the portion of the notochord. which projects into the body. The muscle cell has a darkly staining cortex, and an inner vacuolated core with cytoplasmic strands and nucleus. The disposition of the striations is oblique, as described by Grave (1921), Conklin 28A VoL. 44, No. 1 (1931), Scott (1946), and Berrill (1947). The ectoderm of the tail forms the outer covering of the muscles. Metamorphosis of the larva.—The free-swim- ming period lasts 5 to 8 hours. At the time of fixation the secretory cells of the adhesive pa- pillae shoot out of the goblet, exuding their secretory product (Figs. 24, 25). The tail gets resorbed, and the anterior ampullae elongate and spread out in an irregular way (Figs. 25-27), at- taining their maximum length of 0.24 mm in 2 hours after the tadpole has become fixed. The heart begins to beat after 3 hours, the siphons contract after the fifth hour, and the intestine functions 10 hours after fixation. Complete re- sorption of the tail does not take place in most of the cases during the changes described above. At least a quarter of the original length, and in some cases even half, of the tail remains un- changed for about 12 hours, and in certain cases for more than 24 hours. The posterior ampullae do not disappear immediately after metamorpho- sis. They enlarge in size and remain all over the surface within the tunic.as pyramidal projections (Fig. 28a, b); their walls are made up of a very thin unicellular layer. The ducts that connect them are not found during this time. These vesi- cles are clearly visible for a week or more, later Fras. 25-28.—Polyclinum indicum, n. sp.: 25-27, Stages in the metamorphosis of tadpole larva; 28a, a functional oozooid, 48 hours old; 28b, magnified view of a single posterior test vesicle. JANUARY 1954 SEBASTIAN: A NEW disappearing by bursting and releasing the mesen- chyme cells lodged inside them. Under labora- tory conditions it has not been possible to keep alive the metamorphosed stages for more than 10 to 13 days; the size attained in 4 to 5 days re- mains without any change for the rest of the days. The abdomen descends partially (Fig. 28a), but the descent of the postabdomen has not been observed. Validity of the Species——Zooids as well as lar- vae of Policlinum are alike, differentiating char- ~ acters being minor. Berrill (1950) remarks that ‘tn zooid structure, though less so in form of colony, species of Policlinwm are very much alike, and even the tadpoles and larvae appear to differ only in size.”’ Van Name (1945) says that ‘‘the true Polyclinum are all very closely related to each other, their zooids apparently having nearly the same structure, so that we must depend chiefly on the gross characters of the colonies for distinguishing them. A supposed difference in the number of branchial tentacles (whether in multi- ples of 4 or 6) appears to be of questionable value as a specific character, multiples of 6 being prob- ably normal, though subject to irregularities.” The present species closely resembles P. planum in shape and number and rows of stigmata, but it differs in the shape of the atrial siphon, the atrial languet and the slanting disposition of the heart. On account of these differences the present form is given the status of a new species, P. in- dicum. LITERATURE CITED ASSHETON, R. Notes on the ciliation of ectoderm of the amphibian embryo. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 38: 465-484. 1896. BerRrRiLL, N. J. Metamorphosis in ascidians. Journ. Morph. 81: 1947. . The Tunicata, 354 pp. Ray Society, London 1950. Buavpurt, J. L. The anatomy of the adhesive appara- tus in the tadpoles of Rana afghana Ginther, ASCIDIAN FROM INDIA 23 with special reference to the adaptive modifica- tions. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 58: 339-349. 1935. GRAVE, C. Amaroucium constellatum (Verrill): LJ, The structure and organization of the tadpole larvae. Journ. Morph. 36: 71-91. 1921. HERDMAN, W. A. A revised classification of the Tunicata, with definitions of the orders, sub- orders, families, subfamilies, and genera, and analytical keys to the species. Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., 28: 558-652. 1891. . Report on the Tunicata collected by Prof. Herdman in 1902. Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries 5: 295-348, 9 pls. 1906. JONES, S. On the origin and development of the cement glands in Etroplus maculatus. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Sec. B 6 (4): 251-261. 1937. SEBASTIAN, V. O. On the anatomy and larval or- ganisation of Polyclinum sp. Journ. Madras University 14 (2): 251-278. 1942. . A new species of synascidian from Madras. Current Science 21: 316-317. 1952. Scorr, F. M. The development history of Amarou- cium constellatum. JJ. Organogenesis of the larval action system. Biol. Bull. 91: 66-80. 1946. KEY TO LETTERING ON FIGURES AB, abdomen; ADP, adhesive papilla; AL, atrial languet; AMP, ampulla; AN, anal opening; AS, atrial siphon; ATV, anterior test vesicle; BS, branchial siphon; BRS, branchial sac; CCL, com- mon cloacal opening; ECT, ectoderm; EN, endo- style; EN.ST, endodermal strand; EP, epicar- dium; HT, heart; LC, lens cell; MB, muscle band; MES, mesenchyme cells; MG, midgut; MUS, tail muscle; NC, nerve cord; NHC, neuro- hypophysial canal; NT, notochord; O, ovary; OES, oesophagus; OT, otolith; PAB, postabdo- men; PC, pigmented optic cup; PGN, permanent ganglion; PH, pharynx; PHW, pharyngeal wall; PTV, posterior test vesicle; R, rectum; RC, retinal cell; SC, secretory cells; SP, sperm duct; ST stomach; SV, sensory vesicle; T, testis; TF, tail fin; TN, tentacle; TU, tunic; VGN, visceral ganglion; VN, visceral nerve; YC, yolky cells connected with the growth of the postabdomen; YK, yolk granules. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 1 HELMINTHOLOGY .—Psilocollaris indicus, n.gen., n.sp. (Psilostomidae Odhner, 1911: Trematoda) from an Indian stork, Dissoura e. episcopus. KUNWAR SURESH SincH, Department of Zoology, Lucknow University. (Communicated by — Robert Rausch.) Seven specimens of an undescribed trema- tode were recovered from the intestine of a stork, Dissoura e. episcopus (Boddaert), shot near Lucknow, India, in August 1950. The trematodes were pink in color when alive and were capable of active movement. Seven genera have been described in the family Psilostomidae: Psilostomuwm Looss, 1899; Psilochasmus Liihe, 1909; Apophar- ynx Lithe, 1909; Sphaeridiotrema Odhner, 1913; Psilotrema Odhner, 1913; Lyperorchis Travassos, 1921; Pszlorchis Thapar and Lal, 1935. The present form differs from all these genera in the possession of a definite collar at the anterior end of the body. It is most closely related to the genera Lyperorchis and Psilorchs. For Lyperorchis, described from the cloaca of Aramus scolopaceus, a slightly developed collar was described by Travassos: ‘‘Ventosa oral ladeada por duas saliencias papillifor- mis.” In the present form, however, the collar is well developed, and clearly of the Echinostome type. Indeed if spines were present, these forms would be regarded as typical Echinostomes. Further, the testes in Lyperorchis are sinuous and much elongated whereas in the present form they are typical of the family (i.e., bean-shaped). The oral sucker and the pharynx in the present form are poorly de- veloped as compared to those of Lyperorchis and other genera. The arms of the Y-shaped excretory bladder are very much elongated and are longer than the stem, extending to the anterior region of the anterior testis. In the present forms the excretory bladder is Y-shaped but the arms are comparatively very small. In Pszlorchis the collar is entirely lacking, the oral sucker and the pharynx are comparatively well developed and large in size, and the stem of the excretory bladder is very small and the arms comparatively very long. Accordingly a new genus is created for these forms, with the following generic diagnosis: Psilocollaris, n. gen. Psilostomidae: Body much elongated; oral — sucker and pharynx weakly developed, pre- pharynx small and oesophagus very long, in- testinal ceca extend to posterior end of body; slightly developed unarmed collar present at the anterior end; ventral sucker well developed and present in the anterior bodyhalf; testes bean- shaped or oval, and situated one behind the other in the posterior region; cirrus pouch small and partly covered by ventral sucker; genital pore just posterior to intestinal bifurcation; small, rounded ovary in posterior half of body; vitellaria consist of many follicles laterally dis- tributed from ovary into posterior end, though a clear midarea is usually present but the vitel- laria may be confluent in regions; uterus with ascending limb only containing many eggs. Parasites of birds. Type spectes.—Psilocollaris indicus, n. sp. Psilocollaris indicus, n. sp. Figs. 1-3 Diagnosis.—Body measures 5.3-16.4 mm in length and 0.384—0.69 mm in maximum breadth. Anterior end is provided with slightly developed collar, not much unlike the collar of an Echino- stome, but spines are absent. When viewed from the side the collar appears as a flaplike process (Fig. 2). Collar measures 0.26-0.3 mm across and is not muscular. Oral sucker and the pharynx are comparatively very small and poorly de- veloped. The oral sucker measures 0.506 x 0.024 mm and the mouth opening is very small, sub-terminal, and leads into a small prepharynx. The pharynx, which is larger than the oral sucker, measures 0.069-0.1 x_ 0.040.046 mm. The oesophagus is very long, measuring 0.88- 2.0 mm in length. It divides into two intestinal ceca which run laterally to the posterior end of the body, but their extreme terminations could not be observed because of the presence of large number of vitelline follicles. Ventral sucker is comparatively very large and muscular and is situated posterior to the intestinal bifurcation in the anterior fourth of body. The sucker is trans- versely elongated, and measures 0.27-0.4 x 0.26-0.4 mm. The body is without spines. JANUARY 1954 The excretory bladder is Y-shaped and the arms are rather wide (Fig. 3). The stem of the bladder extends medially to the posterior end of the posterior testis and the arms are short and do not extend beyond the base of the posterior testis. The excretory pore is situated at the pos- terior end and is terminal. The two testes are present in posterior fourth region of body, one behind the other. The anterior testis, usually slightly smaller than posterior testis, measures 0.43-0.72 x 0.19-0.34 mm. The posterior testis situated about 0.2 mm. posterior to anterior testis, is 0.43-0.83 x 0.21-0.32 mm. Both testes are beanshaped. The cirrus pouch is comparatively small and lies in between the ventral sucker and the intestinal bifurcation. It is somewhat oval and measures 0.16-0.26 x 0.069-0.14 mm. External vesicula seminalis is absent, but a large internal vesicula seminalis is present. Numerous prostate gland cells surround the ejaculatory duct. The genital pore is just posterior to the intestinal bifurcation. Ovary is small and rounded and situated in posterior half of body, anterior to the anterior testis. It measures 0.12-0.184 x 0.099- 0.16 mm. Mehlis’s gland is slightly smaller than ovary and is present just posterior to it. It is almost rounded and measures 0.13-0.18 x 0.18-0.19 mm. The vitellaria consist of nu- merous elliptical follicles distributed mainly 0.2 mm ! a2 A ee Bt Is aE eae & ~ Sicy =P se “ bothek tee eS Seige @ wie 2a rasta Roa = ae SESsSan tee sae Ne ey MINS ESAS GR Baten Petals Daa rien ety ae? ELS FS oe SINGH: PSILOCOLLARIS INDICUS erate, 3 A exe sess ca 2S ‘ ~_ 5) laterally from level of the ovary to the posterior end of the body. In most specimens, the vitellaria leave a clear space in the middle, but sometimes they are confluent anterior to the anterior testis. Two transverse vitelline ducts meet in the region of Mebhlis’s gland and form a_ small vitelline reservoir. Uterus consists of an ascending limb only and after several folds immediately anterior to the ovary it proceeds more or less as a straight tube, opening at the genital pore posterior to the intestinal bifurcation. The eggs are numerous and measure 0.092-0.104 x 0.058 mm, Host.—Dissoura e. episcopus (Boddaert). Locality.—Lucknow, India. Habitat.—Intestine. Remarks.—The genus Psilorchis contains three species, all described from India: P. indicus Thapar and Lal, 1935; P. ajgainis Lal, 1938, and P. thapari Baugh, 1949. In P. indicus the cirrus pouch is present in front of the ventral sucker but in P. ajgainis the cirrus pouch is described as adhering to the ventral sucker and this character has been used to distinguish the two species (Lal, 1938; Lal, 1939). Consequently, the diagnosis of the genus Psilorchis should be emended and should read ‘‘Vesicula seminalis and cirrus pouch retort-shaped, partially or totally in front of the ventral sucker...” Further, the genital pore in P. ajgainis is de- FG iS Paes 6 Ba eet 2% ROPES pee g Mase RISES. SE OR Spee a eh Fics. 1-3.—Psilocollaris indicus, n.g.,n. sp.: 1, Entire worm; 2, collar, lateral view; 3, posterior end, showing excretory bladder. 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES scribed as ‘‘in front of the oral sucker, between it and the intestinal bifureation.” (Lal, 1938, p. 260) An obviously typographical error occurs here. The excretory system in the family Psilo- stomidae has been described as ‘‘comprising a subcutaneous net-work of vessels and two main lateral canals which unite in front of the ventral sucker to form a long median stem” (Dawes, 1946, p. 99). Unfortunately the details of the excretory system of many of the genera are not known, but in genera like Pstlostomum, Ly- perorchis, Psilorchis, Apopharynx and the present form, the excretory bladder is Y-shaped, the comparative length of the stem and the main branches varying from genus to genus, but in all cases the median stem extends to the base of the posterior testis only. It certainly does not extend anterior to the ventral sucker, as stated by Dawes (1946). Indeed, in the two species of Psilorchis, the Y-shaped excretory system is very small. Beaver (1939), who investigated the life history of Psilostomum ondatrae_ Price, 1931, found that the excretory bladder in the cercaria is not elongated and is confined to the posterior end, posterior to the genital anlagen and the ventral sucker. It retains the same comparative position in the adult, though the median stem becomes elongated and the ex- cretory system looks typically Y-shaped. Hence, in the opinion of the author the excretory ‘system in the family Psilostomidae should be described as Y-shaped, without limiting the length of the median stem. The families Psilostomidae and Echinostomi- dae are closely related and there seems little vou. 44, No. l difference between the two except for the presence of a collar with spines in the family Echino- stomidae. The resemblance is not confined to the adult characters only, since Beaver (1939) found that the miracidia, redia and cercaria of Psilostomes closely resemble those of Echino- stomes and the pattern of the life history is the same. In view of such evidence, the presence of a genus with a collar, but without spines, is especially interesting as it joins the two families and may be considered an intermediate form in the evolution of the families Psilostomidae and Echinostomidae. REFERENCES Bauau, 8. C. On a new avian trematode, Psilorchis thapari (Fam. Psilostomidae), with a record of Psilochasmus oxyurus (Crep.) from India. Ind. Journ. Helminth. 1: 79-84. 1949. Beaver, P. C. The morphology and life history of Psilostomum ondatrae Price, 1931 (Trema- toda: Psilostomidae). Journ. Parasit. 25: 383-393. 1939. Dawes, B. The Trematoda. Cambridge Univ. Press, 644 pp. 1946. Lau, M. B. On a new species of Psilorchis from the intestine of the common teal, Nettion crecca. Livro Jub. Prof. Travassos : 259-262. 1938. . Studies in helminthology. Trematode para- sites of birds. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Sec. B., 10: 111-200. 1989. Lune, M. Die Stisswasser-Fauna Deutschlands 17: 1-217. 1909. TuHapar, G.S., and Lat, M. B: On the morphology of a new genus of trematode parasite from the kingfisher from Lucknow. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Sec. B., 2: 88-94. 1935. Travassos, L. Fauna helminthologica de Matto Grosso. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 21: 309-341. 1928. MALACOLOGY.—Hydrobia totteni, new name for Turbo minuta Totten, 1834 (Gastropoda: Hydrobiidae). J. P. E. Morrison, U. 8. National Museum. The species name still in use for the com- monest New England salt-marsh-inhabiting hydrobiud snail (Turbo minuta Totten, Amer. Journ. Sci. 26 (2): 369, fig. 6. July 1834) was originally thrice preoccupied, by 7’. mi- nuta Brown, 1818; JT. minuta Michaud, 1828; and T. minuta Woodward, 1833. This species has been so ‘‘well-known”’ that no one has given any alternative name, even after Sherborn (Index Animalium 1801- 1850, p. 4101. 1928) listed the homonyms. Since there is no available name known to me, I hereby rename the species Hydrobia tottent in honor of its first describer. Examination of the animals has shown this species to be a true Hydrobia, congeneric mm sensu stricto with the genotype of Hy- drobhia Hartmann, 1821, namely Turbo stagnalis Baster, 1765. JANUARY 1954 NICOL: PELECYPOD CLASSIFICATION 27 MALACOLOGY .—Trends and problems in pelecypod classification (the super- generic categories). Davip Nicou, U. 8. National Museum. Little has been written to guide workers in the various animal phyla in problems of classification in the supergeneric categories. Simpson (1945, pp. 20-24) and Mayr, Lins- ley, and Usinger (1953, pp. 46-59) have contributed valuable suggestions; but gen- eral principles of standardization that could be applied to the higher categories of all phyla are still lacking. The reason is that many of the classification problems of the entomologist or mammalogist, for example, are entirely different from those of the malacologist. From the standpoint of size alone, if not on a morphologic basis, a pele- eypod family or other supergeneric category may not be comparable with a family of insects or mammals; this in itself would tend to create different problems in classification in the Insecta, the Pelecypoda, and the Mammalia. Other differences in higher cate- gories of different classes of animals arise from the percentage of described species and the phylogenetic knowledge in the various groups. Hence, standardization at the level of the phylum would be virtually impossible; in fact, about all that can be hoped for in a large phylum is reasonable standardization within a class. For the purposes of brevity and continuity in this paper, I have decided to treat the Pelecypoda as a class. This has been the most common treatment in the past, al- though I realize that at least some of our problems might be solved if the Pelecypoda were given the rank of, let us say, a sub- phylum... It appears to me that the phylogenetic relationships of the Pelecypoda are not adequately or correctly shown by the pres- ent classifications; but, with the excellent fossil record of the pelecypods, these rela- tionships could be shown and thus the use- fulness of the classification could be im- proved. The ideas and problems presented here are mainly those of a malacologist; however, many valuable suggestions and criticisms were given by Dr. R. E. Blackwelder, entomologist at the U.S. National Museum, and for these I am very grateful. The purpose of this paper is to examine some recent examples of classification of pelecypods used by paleontologists and neontologists, to discuss present trends, and to offer possible solutions to some of the problems. A list of some important works on pelecypod classification is included. THE SUBCLASS, SUPERORDER, SUBORDER ORDER, The first example of classification is taken from the paleontology textbook Jn- vertebrate fossils by Moore, Lalicker, and Fischer (1952). Moore, who wrote the chap- ter on the pelecypods, used a modified version of Dall’s classification based on the hinge teeth. He divides the pelecypods (pp. 409-412) into two subclasses—Prio- nodesmacea and Teleodesmacea. In the first group Moore includes five orders and twelve suborders; in the second, in which he combines Dall’s orders Anomalodesmacea and Teleodesmacea, he includes three orders and twelve suborders. According to Moore, the Paleoconcha are an order of the subclass Prionodesmacea; Dall, however, did not include them in any of his three orders in 1895 (p. 513) but set them aside as incertae sedis, although he later arbitrarily placed them in the Prionodesmacea. Moore discusses the structure of the pelecypod ctenidia at considerable length but gives the ctenidia little importance in his classification—i.e., in the Prionodes- macea, Moore includes pelecypods with protobranch, filibranch, and eulamelli- branch ctenidia. Furthermore, Moore places the anomiids and the spondylids together in the order Isodonta and places the nucu- lids and arcids together in the order Taxo- donta; but on the basis of phylogeny and - morphology it is difficult to see these rela- tionships. In the order Dysodonta, Moore includes the mytilids, pectinids, pinnids, ostreids, limids, and dreissensuds—truly a heterogeneous assemblage. 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The classification used by Shrock and Twenhofel in their book (1953, pp. 386-393) is that of Thiele, 1934, who divided the Pelecypoda into three orders, Taxodonta, Anisomyaria, and Hulamellibranechia, pri- marily on the basis of ctenidia, hinge teeth, and adductor muscles. In the order Taxo- donta are included the nuculids and the arcids. However, in a footnote (p. 389) Shrock and Twenhofel make the following statement: The Areazea are now regarded by some in- vestigators (MacNeil, 1937; Nicol, 1950) as more closely related to certain groups of the Aniso- myaria because the hinge structure is of a later type and may possibly be the result of converg- ence. It may well be, therefore, that this super- family should be transferred to the order Aniso- myaria or used as the basis for a new order. Shrock and Twenhofel imply that the lack of close relationship between the arcids and the nuculids is a new idea, but if the authors — had examined the writings of Pelseneer and Douvillé they would have found that the idea was presented much earher than 1937. Furthermore, if my paper of 1950 had been carefully read (p. 89), the following state- ment would have been noted: Pelseneer, Douvillé, and others have pointed out the fact that the prionodonts are not closely related to the true taxodonts such as Nucula, Nuculana, and Yoldia. . This is but one example of the lack of knowledge of the basic works on pelecypod systematics. A recent and much more comprehensive work is the T'razté de paléontologie edited by Jean Piveteau, 1952. The major portion of the chapter on Pelecypoda was written by Colette Dechaseaux. The main divisions Dechaseaux uses are based on hinge char- acteristics, and she divides the pelecypods into four orders—Taxodonta (with three suborders), Dysodonta, Preheterodonta, and Heterodonta. Only the taxodonts are di- vided into suborders, one of which is the Paleoconcha. By far the largest order is the Heterodonta, which is comprised of more than half of the pelecypod families. Dechaseaux’s classification bears little resemblance to her schematic table on the evolution of the pelecypods (page 229). This vou. 44, No. 1 is Just one example of workers who, although cognizant of phylogenetic evidence, do not base their classification on phylogeny but, instead, follow the line of least resistance by using the outmoded classification of a prede- cessor. As long as this attitude occurs, little progress can be made in the classification of the pelecypods. Another work worth analyzing is that of T. Habe (1951-1953), who uses Dall’s classi- fication with few modifications. Habe di- vides the Pelecypoda into three subclasses— Prionodesmacea, Teleodesmacea, and Anom- alodesmacea. The first subclass is di- vided into four orders, and the Teleodes- macea is divided into two orders. Habe does not group the Anomalodesmacea: above the level of superfamily. The categories superorder and suborder he does not use at all in his classification of the pelecypods. Habe places the nuculids and arcids in the order Taxodonta, although, as has been pointed out before, they bear only a super- ficial resemblance to each other. Further- more, although most of the Cenozoic arcids and nuculids do have similar hinges, the hinge teeth of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic arcids and their allies are generally quite unlike those of the nuculids. Thus, from the practical standpoint of classification, disregarding phylogeny, this grouping is not workable. Little attempt is made by Habe to show relationships in the order Heterodonta, to which he assigns 14 superfamilies and 34 families. : The comprehensive treatment of the classification of the Pelecypoda by Cotton and Godfrey (The molluscs of South Aus- tralia, 1938) is also noteworthy. These authors subdivide the class into the three orders proposed by Dall. The order Priono- desmacea is subdivided into five suborders— Palaeoconcha, Taxodonta, Schizodonta, Iso- donta, and Dysodonta—which are in turn divided into superfamilies and _ families. The order Anomalodesmacea is not grouped above the level of superfamily; however, the authors use the category ‘‘section”’ be- tween the superfamily and family. Cotton and Godfrey subdivide the order Teleodes- macea into five suborders—Pantodonta, Diogenodonta, Cyclodonta, Teleodonta, JANUARY 1954 and Asthenodonta—and these suborders are further divided into numerous super- families. Once again we find the unlike nuculids and arcids grouped together in the suborder Taxodonta. Cotton and Godfrey place the pteriids, ostreids, unionids, and _ trigoniids in the suborder Schizodonta; certainly the ostreids do not belong with such primitive nacreous groups. The grouping of the ven- erids, tellinids, solenids, and mactrids in the suborder Teleodonta seems arbitrary and appears to be based on little or no phylogenetic and morphologic evidence. All the foregoing examples show certain common characteristics which are important as well as interesting. They are as follows: 1. In none of the treatments reviewed of the classification of the class Pelecypoda are all the common categories used, 1.e., sub- class, superorder, order, suborder, super- family, family, and subfamily. 2. None of the classifications is basically new. With one exception, each author fol- lows one authority almost exclusively with perhaps minor modifications; the one ex- ception uses a combination of basic char- acters and classifications. The fundamental concepts for classifying the Pelecypoda were mainly promulgated between the years 1889 and 1912. It was during this period that the morphologists, embryologists, and evolutionists were most intensively working on natural, or phylo- genetic, classifications of the Pelecypoda. Since that time only a few details of classi- fication have been added. Even thorough review and synthesis of the classifications have received little interest lately. This basic pattern of the development of classi- fication may have counterparts in other groups of animals. Indifference to the classification of the Pelecypoda began in 1913 and has con- tinued for 40 years since. As a result, lack of knowledge of the basic works on the subject is continually being exhibited. One solution to our present state of stagnation is to re- examine the ‘‘classics’”’ on pelecypod classi- fication—papers by Neumayr, Dall, Pelse- neer, Bernard, Jackson, and Douvillé. Each classification and set of facts on morphology, NICOL: PELECYPOD CLASSIFICATION 29 embryology (including growth stages of the Shell), and paleontology should be thor- oughly studied and the evidence evaluated. (Douvillé’s classification might have been more widely accepted if he had assigned definite categories for his three-fold division of the Pelecypoda.) Incorrect data and conclusions should be deleted. 3. Little or no attention is paid to phy- logeny in classification even when the evi- dence is clear and the author is aware of it. This has led to serious errors in classifica- tion from the standpoint of practical mor- phology as well as phylogeny. For the past 40 years work on phylogeny has been con- sidered relatively unimportant and unre- warding; however, at the ordinal level of pelecypod classification a careful analysis and synthesis of the classical work on pelecypods is our first need. Further work is needed on pelecypod morphology and shell structure, including more anatomical work on the soft parts. Further studies on the nepionic and later stages of the shell are also needed. The greatest lack, and probably the most fruitful line of investigation, is careful work on Triassic and Paleozoic pelecypods, for this work would lead to a better understanding of the relations of the varlous major groups of pelecypods. THE SUPERFAMILY, FAMILY, SUBFAMILY The superfamilies, families, and sub- families have been undergoing some changes in number and scope within the past quarter of a century. The changes have been brought about slowly by the great increase in num- ber of proposed genera and subgenera. The result has been for malacologists to group genera into new subfamilies, families, and superfamilies by redefining and restricting them. Two examples of this occurrence should show the involved problems. Frizzell (1936) raised the family Veneridae to the rank of a superfamily and excluded the petricolaceans and glaucomyaceans from the Veneracea. The superfamily was then subdivided into nine families, and two of the families were further subdivided into sub- families. Since 1936 other workers have erected more genera and subgenera of veneraceans, and the total 1s now about 200. 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Recently Keen (1951) downgraded the Veneracea to the rank of a family, in which eleven subfamilies were included. In a more recent paper Tremlett (1953) followed Kkeen’s classification and made the following comments (p. 1): D. L. Frizzell (1936), in one of the most recent works on this group, has suggested that they should be regarded as a superfamily Veneracea, with the same limits approximately as the family Veneridae as the term was used by Dall (1903), Jukes-Browne (1914), Palmer (1927), and others. I cannot see the advantage in raising the status of the group which is thereby separated from the closely related Petricolidae, and also from the Oncophoridae which are probably related to it; furthermore it unnecessarily increases the number of superfamilies. Even though the Veneridae are one of the largest families of pelecypods, the char- acters defining it are of about the same importance as those defining other families. Frizzell’s families obviously have close similarities, and I prefer to regard them as subfamilies and retain the term Veneridae in its old sense. The 11 subfamilies included by Keen in the Veneridae do not all have the same morphologic distinctness. How can _ these subfamilies be grouped to show the relation- ships? One solution that has been adopted is the one taken by Frizzell. Certainly the commonly used categories are available, and to raise the rank of several of the larger pelecypod families to the rank of' super- family would not create chaos in the classi- fication. This course of action would prob- ably be most acceptable to the malacologists and paleontologists. However, another solu- tion is possible, if, as Tremlett claims, the morphologic characters defining the Vener- idae are equal to, or of the same importance as, the morphologic characters defining other pelecypod families. This solution is to insert additional categories between the subfamily and the genus—for examples, the categories tribe and subtribe. The entomologists have vou. 44, No. 1 done this for classifying many of the large families of insects. Three ways of classifying a part of the veneraceans are shown on Table 1. To add to the difficulties of an already large family, there are undoubtedly some aberrant groups which are venerids or veneraceans. I have considered the genus Euloxa a veneracean; but in order to fit it into the classification, I used Frizzell’s arrangement, considered the Chionidae as — a family, and subdivided the Chionidae into two subfamilies—the Chioninae and Eu- — loxinae (Nicol, 1953, p. 60). This type of problem was also encountered in the genus Pliocardia. Once again I (1953a) used Friz- zell’s classification in order to show the systematic position of the genus. In each of these cases the only other reasonable solution would have been to create a cate- gory, such as tribe, between the subfamily and the genus. It is true that some of the pelecypod genera and families have been split un- reasonably (e.g., the genus Jnoceramus); but the veneraceans do not appear to have received such disproportionate treatment, at least at the generic level, and Keen dis- agrees not with the number of groups desig- nated by Frizzell, but with the rank to which he assigns them. Furthermore, one of Tremlett’s main ob- jections to Frizzell’s classification—namely that the morphologic characters defining the Veneridae are of about the same importance as those defining other families—apparently overlooks the fact that much of our classifi- fication of the pelecypods is based on the size of the group in question rather than on morphologic differentiation. For example, on the basis of morphologic characters the Cretaceous genera Pseudocucullaea and Lopatinia are quite distinct from all other prionodont genera; but, as they have few TABLE 1.—THREE WAYS OF CLASSIFYING A PART OF THE VENERACEANS. Frizzell, 1936 Keen, 1951 Another proposed solution Superfamily Veneracea Family Meretrecidae Subfamily Meretrecinae Subfamily Pitarinae Family Veneridae Subfamily Meretrecinae Subfamily Pitarinae Family Veneridae Subfamily Meretrecinae Tribe Meretrecini Tribe Pitarini JANUARY 1954 species, they have not been placed in a separate subfamily or family. The Glycy- meridae, on the other hand, although no more distinct morphologically than Pseudo- cucullaea or Lopatinia, have approximately 700 described species, ranging from the Cretaceous to the Recent, and have there- fore been classified as a family. Although I do not assert that rank should be based upon size, it is nevertheless true that in many cases size has apparently been the decisive factor, and Tremlett’s attitude is not realistic. However, my objection to the ideas of Keen and Tremlett is not primarily that the rank should be Veneracea rather than Veneridae, but that their classification does not allow for enough categories to show adequately the relationships among the 200 genera and subgenera of the group. A comparable situation is present in the arcaceans. The latest classification (Frizzell, 1946, p. 41) raises the rank of the family Arcidae to a superfamily, in which two families are included, the Arcidae and the Noetiidae. Of these, the first is subdivided into three subfamilies, and the second into two subfamilies. If Frizzell’s arrangement is compared with the conservative arrange- ment of Reinhart (1935, pp. 11-12), one is astounded. Reinhart divides the Arcidae into three subfamilies—Arcinae, Anadarinae, and Noetiinae. The subfamily Litharcinae of Frizzell is relegated to the rank of a sub- genus of Arca by Reinhart. Although I have found no published objection to Frizzell’s arrangement of the Arcacea, objections similar to those of his classification of the Veneracea could, and probably will, be raised in the future. My preference for Frizzell’s treatment of both the veneraceans and the arcaceans over more conservative classifications is that it has more categories in which to show more morphologic and phylogenetic relationships. Whether all the relationships as shown by Frizzell’s classi- fications are correct or not is a matter to be investigated further. Blackwelder (personal communication) has suggested to.me the most objective and probably only satisfactory way of solving the type of problem exemplified by the NICOL: PELECYPOD CLASSIFICATION 3] Veneridae versus the Veneracea and the Arcidae versus the Arcacea. The genera of the family or superfamily being studied should be examined for morphologic simi- larities and inferred phylogenies. ‘These genera can then be grouped, and the groups can likewise be grouped in a series of ascend- ing categories. The number of categories necessary in order to show the relationships can then be ascertained. What category should be used for the group as a whole should be based primarily on what has been used in related groups; and when the rank of the group studied is decided, then the vari- ous subdivisions of the group should fall into place. In the case of the pelecypods this will not be easy because the entire classifica- tion at the familial levels is nebulous. How- ever, much progress could be made if these problems were approached in as objective a manner as possible. Such studies would undoubtedly result in many major changes in the classification of the pelecypods above the generic level. There has been a tendency to redefine, restrict, and propose more subfamilies, families, and superfamilies, apparently as a result of the rapid increase in the number of proposed genera and subgenera of pelecy- pods. This tendency has met with some opposition, but some of the objections to creating more families or raising the various groups to higher categories seem to be ill- founded. As MacNeil (1938, p. 1) stated: With our increasing knowledge of the structure and phylogeny of the Pelecypoda it becomes more and more obvious that their supergeneric classi- fication is short of satisfaction, the principal defect being that not enough groups of high ordinal rank have been recognized. Recognition of more groups of high ordinal rank would undoubtedly alleviate many of our present problems of pelecypod classifica- tion. Another solution might be to create categories for groups between the generic and subfamily levels as the. entomologists, for example, have done. To improve the classification more work is needed at the genus and family levels, and it should include a careful analysis of all morphologic, embryologic, chronogenetic, and geographic data. Many of the basic 32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES data are in the literature—but careful analysis and synthesis of the data are needed to ascertain phylogenetic relationships. SOME BASIC PELECYPOD LITERATURE A thorough understanding of the following references is necessary as a starting point for a classification of the Pelecypoda. This list is not intended to be complete, but it should form a good basis for the student who is interested in this group of mollusks. BERNARD, Fruix. Sur le développement et la morphologie de la coquille des les lamelli- branches. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 3 (23): 104-154; (24): 54-82, 412-449; (25): 559-566. 1895-1897. . Recherches ontogéniques et morphologiques sur la coquille des lamellibranches. Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool. et Pal., sér. 8 (8): 1-208. 1898. Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, etc.: Part III. A new classification of the Pelecypoda. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia 3 (3) : 483-570. 1895. DovuvitLe, H. Classification des lamellibranches. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 4 (12): 419-467, 69 figs. 1912. Jackson, R. T. Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda, the Aviculidae and their allies. Mem. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist. (4) : 277-400, pls. 23-30, 53 figs. 1890. Neumayr, M. Bevttrdége zu einer morphologischen Eintheilung der Bivalven. Besonders Ab- gedruckt aus dem 58 Bande der Denkschriften der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissen- schaften: 101 pp. Wien, 1891. PELSENEER, Pauu. Sur la classification phylo- génétique des pélécypodes (communication préliminaire). Bull. Sei. France, Belgique: 27-52, 4 figs. Paris, 1889. . A treatise on zoology (edited by E. Ray Lankester), Part V, Mollusca: 355 pp., 301 figs. London, 1906. Les lamellibranch2s de lVExpédition du Siboga, partie anatomique. Monograph 53a: 125 pp., 26 pls. Leiden, 1911. RipEwoop, W. G. On the structure of the gills of the Lamellibranchia. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London, ser. B (195): 147-284, 61 figs. 1903. vot. 44, No. 1@ REFERENCES Cotton, B. C., and GoprreEy, F. K. The molluscs of South Australia, Part I. The Pelecypoda: 314 pp., 340 figs. Adelaide, 1988. FRIZZELL, Don L. Preliminary reclassification of veneracean pelecypods. Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique 12 (34): 84 pp., 1 fig. 1936. . A study of two arcid pelecypod species from western South America. Journ. Pal. 20 (1): 38-51, pl. 10, 13 figs. 1946. Hass, T. Genera of Japanese shells: 4 vols., 326 pp., 770 figs. Tokyo, 1951-1953. Keen, A. M. Outline of a proposed classification of the pelecypod family Veneridae. Minutes of the Conchological Club of Southern California. Minutes 113: 2-11. September, 1951. MacNeIL, F. 8. The systematic position of the pelecypod genus Trinacria. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 27 (11) : 452-458, 1 fig. 1987.. . Species and genera of Tertiary Noetinae. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 189-A: 49 pp., 6 pls., 2 figs. 1988. Mayr, E., Linstey, E. G., and Usinemr, R. L. Methods and principles of systematic zoology- 328 pp., 45 figs. New York, 1953. Moorg, R. C., Laticker, C. G., and FIscHER, A. G. Invertebrate fossils: 766 pp. New York, 1952. Nicou, D. Origin of the pelecypod family Glycy- meridae. Journ. Pal. 24 (1): 89-98, pls. 20-22, 2 figs. 1950. . Systematic position of the pelecypod EKuloxa. Journ. Pal. 27 (1): 56-61, 8 figs. 1953. . Systematic position of the pelecypod Plio- cardia. Journ. Pal. 27 (5) : 703-705, 7 figs. 1953a. PIVETEAU, JEAN. Traité de paléontologie (2): 785 pp. Paris, 1952. REINHART, P. W. Classification of the pelecypod family Arcidae. Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique 11 (13): 68 pp., 5 pls. 1935. Surock, R. R., and TwENHOFEL, W. H. Principles of invertebrate paleontology: 816 pp. New York, LO53: Simpson, G. G. The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85: 350 pp. 1945. THIELE, J. Handbuch der systematischen W evcntier- kunde 3: 779-1022, figs. 784-893. Jena, 1934. TremuettT, W. E. English Eocene and Oligocene Veneridae. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 30 (1-2): 1-21, pls. 1-4, 1 fig. 1953. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences EEE al OPC TUN Oe aad Ok ke Ala aid bse wien F. M. Serzurer, U. S. National Museum re F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards ee secon e > Vaw's kas ne Jason R. Swauuen, U.S. National Museum Preasurer......... Howarp S. RappueyE, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) I ea Gre eins wake we A JOHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications ; Harawp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Eeapsophical Society of Washington.................5....02.c ees A. G. 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Mason, R. J. SEEGER MET TP VANOOETS....... 2. eee eee es All the above officers plus the Senior Editor mera earers and Associate Editors. .......... 0... 0s ete ee nee ee [See front cover] iecememne COmmitee..............----- F.M. Serzurer (chairman), F. M. Deranporr, J. R. Swatuen, H.S. Rappiteyve, W. W. RuBEY Committee on Membership...... EK. H. Waker (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, C. L. Crist, JoHN Faser, ANaus M. Grirrin, D. BREESE JONEs, FRANK C. Kracex, Louis R. Maxwe.u, A. G. McNisu, Epwarp C. REINHARD, REESE I. Saiter, Leo A. Suinn, Francis A. Smita, Heinz Specut, Horace M. TRENT, ALFRED WEISSLER Commutiee on Meetings......:.......... Watson Davis (chairman), JoHun W. ALDRICH, AustTIN CLARK, D. J. Davis Commitiee on Monographs (W. N. FENTON, chairman): fo panuary 1954..........° EAM ad Mea eet 208 a ad ee S. F. Buaxe, F. C. Kracex NEIERIEDIS RC wih a) ko. Pk eR see ei ek ee oboe W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE Mermmemmrty VI5G cs. de le eek eee G. ARTHUR CoopER, JAMES I. HOFFMAN Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (A. V. ASTIN, general chairman): For Biological Sciences...... HERBERT FRIEDMANN (chairman), Harry A. Bortu- WICK, Sara E. BRANHAM, [RA B. HANSEN, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, T. DALE STEWART For Engineering Sctences...... SAMUEL Levy (chairman), MicHAEL GOLDBERG, E. H. Kennarp, E. B. Roperts, H. M. Trent, W. A. WILDHACK For Physical Sciences...... G. B. ScouBAUER (chairman), R. 8. Burineton, F. C. Kracek, J. A. SANDERSON, R. J. SEEGER, J. S. WILLIAMS For Teaching of Science..M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, Monroe H. Martin Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research............... Karu F. HERzFELD (chairman), Hersert N. Eaton, L. KE. Yocum Committee on Policy and Planning: ES UG (Ga dal Lo 5. rr ee ae H. B. Couurns, W. W. Rusey (chairman) Po damMary LOG 2 oOo. oe. oem es NE etree atte heared Cacia L. W. Parr, F. B. SItsBEE AiR tae TAN LT I ye lc 5. ats ce Bom oink ansPongdn ease mi? eiaaie oS E. C. CritrEnDEN, A. WETMORE Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPHERson, chairman): TO EG rt NG a oe ea ee J. M. CaLtpwE.u, W. L. Scumitr PPG SANIE AEA OT IDs eta.) poise aa's Siu dels ahah biel ado' sim o Sere 3s A. T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap Perea UINE POEM POPS eRe coe cl oad safle ccs ays Singmge w Bodin ide oes AusTIN CuarK, J. H. McMILuENn mepeescuinipe On, Counc Of A A. Al Qs.) cence as cock veate ok amiss esa Watson Davis Committee of Auditors....... Loutst M. Russewu (chairman), R. 8. Dri, J. B. REESIDE Committee of Tellers...... C. L. Garner (chairman), L. G. HenBrest, Myrna F. Jones CONTENTS Puysics.—On research and education—in fluid dynamics. RAYMOND Js SEEGER: 286 Si cian sy eds ae eye ea Oe ames ole ee MatueEmatics.—A lower limit on the number of hypergroups of a given order. Howarp H. CAMPAIGNE...). (0.02.05... ...2. 2.5) ae PALEOBOTANY.—A Permian Discinites cone. SERGIuS H. MAMay...... Botany.—Trapellaceae, a familial segregate from the Asiatic flora. Hut- Jane Ta os as ae Taxonomy.—For and against the doctrine of prescription as applied to taxonomy: A historical retrospect. AusTIN H. CLARK.......... ZooLoey.—On Polyclinum indicum, a new ascidian from the Madras coast of India... VO. SHBASTIAN 2.) c0. si one oer Ae HELMINTHOLOGY.—Psilocollaris indicus, n. gen., n. sp. (Psilostomidae Odhner, 1911: Trematoda) from an Indian stork, Dissoura e. epi- scopus.’ KUNWAR SURESH SINGH. ........... 64-60: 5-2 MauacoLocy.—Hydrobia tottent, new name for Turbo minutia Totten, 1834 (Gastropoda: Hydrobidae). J.P. EH. MorrIson............ MatacoLtoGy.—Trends and problems in pelecypod classification (the supergeneric categories). .Davip Nicol............:2.heeeeeee This Journal] is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Page VoL. 44 FrBruary 1954 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS JoHN C. EWERS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. 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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44 MATHEMATICS—Inequalities restricting the form February 1954 No. 2 of the stress-deformation relations for isotropic elastic solids and Reiner-Rivlin fluids. M. Baker and J. L. Ericksen, Naval Research Laboratory. M. Trent.) According to the natural state theory of elasticity, the principal values t,, ts, ts; of the stress tensor for an isotropic, perfectly elastic material are given in terms of the principal extensions 6; , 62 , 63 by” 20 OD OD OD eee = rt —— |) + (1 +8,) po ( al .) ar | OD 1 ae ue olf (1 + 6;)? if the material is compressible, and by oD if —— +2 (1 +5) - 2 2 BBN Ss Parra + 6” 2 if the material is incompressible. Here, > the strain energy, is a function of he (1 + 6)" sgl te 2) + (1 + 53)’, LS aes 1) (1 + 69)” ay (1 + 63)°(1 + 63)" ae ie be): eee 6). and I/IT = (1 + 61) (1 + 6.)°(1 + 63), p is an arbitrary hydro- static pressure, p is the density in the deformed state, and p) the density in the undeformed state. The condition for incom- pressibility is 77 = 1 so that 2 = ZU, IJ) in (2). Truesdell” has given a physical argument which shows that, for an incompressible material, the inequalities 6] O> (+0)? = +> all ee 1 See, e.g., TRUESDELL, C. A., The mechanical foundations of elasticity and fluid dynamics, Journ. Ratl. Mech. and Anal. 1: 173-182. 1952. 2 TRUESDELL, C. A., op. cit.: 181-182. 33 (Communicated by Horace should always be satisfied. Rivlin’ derived a special case of this inequality and used it to obtain qualitative information about the Poynting effect. These inequalities also gave information concerning the propaga- tion of waves in such materials.’ By considering general isotropic func- tions, we shall deduce certain inequalities which follow from conditions imposed on the eigenvalues of the tensors involved. We shall then discuss the significance of these conditions as applied to elastic solids and viscous fluids, and determine the form which these inequalities assume in the different physical situations. In particular, we shall see that inequality (3) should hold for both incompressible and compressible materials. Suppose that the 3 X 3 real symmetric matrix A is an isotropic analytic function of the 3 X 3 real symmetric matrix B. We then have’ Sta oe Bl Be (4) where the scalars f; are functions of the three principal invariants of B. Now, if B’ exists, we can also write A in the form A = gol +g4iB™ + giB, (5) where the scalars g; are also functions of the three principal invariants of B. Equation (4) 3 Rivuin, R. S., and SaunpgErs, D. W., Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials VII. Experiments on the deformation of rubber, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (A) 248: 251 288. 1951. 4 ERICKSEN, J. L., On the propagation of waves in isotropic, perfectly elastic materials, Journ. Ratl. Mech. and Anal. 2: 329-837. 1953. 5’ TRUESDELL, C. A., op. cit.: 131-132. 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES implies that the eigenvalues a, , d2, a; of A are related to the eigenvalues 6, , bs, bs of B by a; = fo + fib; + fob, (6) while (5) yields a; =g +91/bi + mdi. (7) We want to determine necessary and suff- cient conditions that the inequality a; > a; hold whenever b; > b; . Let us first consider (6), which yields Oi = Oy = (b; ray b [fi + foll: =e b;)|. Thus a necessary and sufficient condition that b; > b; imply a; > a; is that fi + fo(b; + 6;) > 0, (8) whenever 6; > b;. Since (8) is unaltered if b; and 6; are interchanged, this inequality must hold unless 6; = 6; (¢ ¥ 7), in which case (8) is replaced by the weaker inequality hh Ste fe (b; aie b;) aa Hal fe 2fob; 22) (peed Davie latter condition follows from the fact that A is a continuous function of B. Similarly, from (7), we obtain, as an alternative neces- sary and sufficient condition, gi > g-r/b.b; , (9) unless: b;:— -b,.,, and. ¢).. @=1/ 0j0 7, —s0 4/6; Oe — Oral e Let T denote the stress tensor in a con- tinuous medium. At any point P, each of the three perpendicular planes whose nor- mal vectors are eigenvectors of T has the property that the stress vector acting on it at P is normal to it. These normal forces (per unit area) are the eigenvalues 4 , fo, ts of T. A positive eigenvalue corresponds to a tension, a negative eigenvalue to a pres- sure.. We assume the eigenvalues ordered sO that ty a to 2 ts : In an isotropic, perfectly elastic body, the principal directions of T coincide with the directions of principal extension. We re- strict our attention to these directions. For such a material, it is reasonable to suppose that the greatest (least) tension occurs in the direction corresponding to the greatest VoL. 44, NO. 2 (least) extension. Expressing these condi- tions analytically, we obtain t; > t; whenever 6; > 6;. (10) It may be possible to get further conditions by comparing forces and extensions in other directions. One might, for example, compare normal stresses and extensions normal to an arbitrary pair of perpendicular planes. How- ever, because of the fact that a pure shear- ing stress acting on a plane may give rise to extensions normal to this plane, the validity of results obtained from such a comparison is questionable. Comparing (1) and (7), we see that (10) implies (9) with b; = (1 + 6,)°, 91 = 2(p/p) 02/0L, g-1 = —2(0/po) III dz/dll. Since p/p > 0, we have for 0 Ze i, az TOE a> | ap his ea ta (1+ 6)2(1 +6207] i (11) z al a> 7 ae ea Geeyesc j for a compressible material. Since //J = (1 +8) +5) = 6.)*, the imequalidtes (11) become eae = 20 on ae ax ‘ = + (1+ 5)# = > 0 | if 8; ¥ & (i, j,k ), | + (2) a> babe | | if 6; = 6, (7,7, k ¥). Comparing (7) with (2), we see that (10) implies (9) with b; = (1 + 6,)’, g: = 202 /al, g1 = —20z/odlI. Using the incompressi- bility condition //7J = 1, one can show that the resulting inequality reduces to (12), which is in agreement with Truesdell’s result (3). Results of a number of experiments on rubber,” which is virtually incompressible, show that d2/ol > 0, @2/oll > 0 fora wide range of values of J and JJ so that (12) certainly holds in this case. Now, in the classical linear theory of elasticity, the stress tensor T is given in 6 Rivuin, R.S., and SaunpERs, D. W., op. cit. FEBRUARY 1954 terms of the infinitesimal strain tensor E by T = dX 1 + 2uE, where 2d and wp are the Lamé constants. Application of the above analysis to this expression for T leads im- mediately to the condition u > 0, which is certainly true for all materials which are adequately described by this theory. According to the theory of compressible, highly viscous fluids proposed by Reiner,’ the stress T is an analytic isotropic function of the rate of deformation D, so that T=fol + fiD + f2D’, (13) where the scalars f; are functions of the three principal invariants of D. In terms of the eigenvalues d,, d., and d3 of D, these in- variants are d; + dz + d3, didz + dods + d3d,, and d,d.d;. Rivlin’s theory® differs from this only in that D is assumed to satisfy the condition of incompressibility, d; + d2 + d; = 0, and —f is replaced by an arbitrary hydrostatic pressure p. That 1s, Beer 1 fiD + f2D?. (14) At a given point P at a given time, the rate of increase of distance between the material particle at P and particles lying on a sphere of fixed radius r about P will take on stationary values for certain par- ticles on this sphere. The directions de- termined by drawing the radius vector from P to these particles approach the principal directions of D as r tends to zero. In first approximation, the stationary values men- tioned above are obtained by multiplying the appropriate eigenvalue of D by r. Let us restrict our attention to the principal direc- tions of D which, in a Reiner-Rivlin fluid, are simultaneously principal directions of T. It seems reasonable to suppose that, at a point P in such a material, the greatest (least) tension will be exerted across a plane whose normal is in the direction in which the rate of increase of distance between the 7 REINER, M., A mathematical theory of dt- latancy, Amer. Journ. Math. 65: 350-362. 1945. 8 Rivuin, R. 8., Hydrodynamics of non-New- tonian fluids, Nature 160: 611-613. 1947. BAKER AND ERICKSEN: STRESS-DEFORMATION RELATIONS 35 particle at P and particles equidistant from P is greatest (least). That is, we should have t; > t; whenever d; >d;. | (15) It then follows from (6), (8), and (13) that, for a compressible material, fi + fo(di + d;) > 0 | (16 fitfld: +d;)20 ifd; =d;( #)). From (6), (8), and (14) it follows that (16) must also hold for incompressible materials. In this case one can, using the incompressi- if dj + hae bility condition d; + d, + d; = 0, write (16) as fi —fed; > 0 I a; CS Oe Gist, =), (17) fi —fod; 2 Ty e— Ned CO Iles For a plane motion of an incompressible fluid, d. = O and d; = —d,, so that (17) becomes fe 0 te fo ed at ay = 0 fiz0 (18) if di = 0, If d, = 0, then d, = d3; = 0, so the motion is instantaneously rigid. From (18), ay fod except perhaps when d; = OQ, in which case the ratio on the left may be indeterminate. It has been shown? that, in such a motion, the equation f; + fod: cos 2¢ = O determines two characteristic directions for the equa- tions (14). According to (19), there exists no real angle ¢ for which this equation is satisfied. | In the classical theory of isotropic viscous fluids, fo = O and f; = 2u, where uw is the coefficient of viscosity. Since uw is always positive, (16) holds for materials to which this theory applies. Silt (19) 9 HRIcKSEN, J. L., Characteristic surfaces of the equations of motion for non-Newtonian fluids, Zeitschr. fiir Angew. Math. u. Physik 4: 260-267. 1953. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 2 PALEONTOLOGY .—The development of the-hingée of Veniella conradi (Morton) and some conclusions based on its study. University. While studying Cox’s excellent report on Cretaceous and Eocene fossils from the Gold Coast (1952) the writer’s attention was struck by a statement (p. 19) made during his comparison of the hinge of Venzella conradi (Morton), the type species of Veniella Stoliczka (1870, p. 181), with that of ‘“V.”’ undata (Conrad), the presently ac- cepted name for the type species of Roudairia Munier-Chalmas (1881, p. 74). This state- ment may be paraphrased as follows: If good figures of the interior of the shell of Veniella conradi ‘“‘are compared with those of the hinge of V. wndata . . . it may be seen that hinge-structure of the right valve is essentially the same in the two species. In the left valve of V. undata the anterior lateral consists of two narrow, divergent prongs united at the top, whereas in the single satisfactory illustration of the left valve of V. conradi (that given by Stephen- son [1923, p. 66, fig. 4]) the same tooth ap- pears to be thicker and its bifid character is less obvious. The fine transverse crenula- tion of the posterior laterals of V. conradz, shown in Stephenson’s figures, has not, been observed in V. undata, but this may be due to imperfect preservation.”’ This suggestion of a difference in the left valves of the two species without a corre- sponding divergence in the right led me to examine the series of specimens of V. conrad in our collections, and especially those in the Wade collection from Coon Creek, Tenn. where the species is common and well-pre- served. It was found that while the condi- tion of the left anterior lateral in all the adult left valves agreed with that figured by Stephenson, in other respects the specimen figured was in a somewhat immature stage of development. On the other hand, certain ‘“adolescent”’ individuals show some trace of bifidity of the anterior lateral, though never is this as pronounced as in the illustrations of “V.” undata given by Quaas (1902, pl. 34, fig. 22: as Roudairia Drui) and by Per- vinquiére (1912, pl. 15, fig. 11b). Further- more, a comparison of right valves with those figured by Pervinquiére (1912, pl. 15, H. E. Voxrs, The Johns Hopkins fig. 12a), and by Rennie (1930, pl. 21, fig. 9; as Veniella druz), shows that there are dif- ferences in the anterior area of the hinge that correspond with those of the left valve. Another fact that became apparent dur- ing the examination of these specimens was that there was a pronounced change in the nature and orientation of the anterior ele- ments of the hinge structure during the development of the individual. An examina- tion of the published literature indicates that this fact has not been noted by previous students, and since it may have some sig- nificance in elucidating the ancestry of the veniellid type, it seems desirable to record the observed facts at this time. The hinge of the adult right valve has been well figured by Wade (1926, pl. 24, fig. 16), while illustrations and descriptions of some- what less mature examples of this hinge have been given by Gardner (1916, pp. 643-5, pl. 38, fig. 4) and Stephenson (1923, pp. 257-62, pl. 66, fig. 5; 1941, pp. 168-70). Miss Gard- ner (1916, pl. 38, fig. 3) also figures, but without comment, the hinge of an immature right valve of somewhat unusual outline. Meek (1876, pp. 147-8, text figs. 9-11) re- figured Morton’s type specimen, a right valve, but misinterpreted the nature of the hinge. Douvillé (1921, p. 121, text fig. 16) gives a very diagrammatic drawing of a right valve from ‘‘la Craie superieure du Tennessee,’ presumably the Coon Creek locality. The only adequate figure of a hinge of the left valve is that of the somewhat immature specimen furnished by Stephenson (19238, pl. 66. fig. 4). DEVELOPMENT OF THE HINGE OF THE RIGHT VALVE The smallest complete right valve available for study has a length of 7.6 mm and a height of 6.6 mm. There are two well-developed con- centric lamellae on the exterior of the shell. A very similar specimen has a length of 8 mm and a height of 7 mm. From these minima a rather complete series of specimens up to adult valves has been studied. The largest valves are 61.5 mm long and 50.5 mm high; and 57 mm FEBRUARY 1954 long and 52.5 mm high, respectively. Fragments of valves smaller than the smallest mentioned above give suggestions as to earlier stages of the hinge development but are too incomplete to permit certain conclusions. In the smallest complete specimens the hinge of the right valve (Fig. 1) consists of cardinals 3a and 3b. Tooth 3a is long, relatively thin, and sub-parallel with the anterior dorsal margin of the valve. Its anterior end terminates at a point approximately midway across the narrow hinge plate. The posterior cardinal, 3b, is oblique in position, subtriangular in shape, moderately heavy and weakly grooved; in adult specimens it is weakly bifid. The anterior end of the tooth is, in the smallest specimen, definitely continu- ous with the posterior end of 3a, although the lamina from which these two teeth have been derived is greatly thinned and the connection is quite tenuous. In addition to the two cardinals the hinge carries long, deep anterior and posterior lateral sockets, bordered on their ventral sides by rela- tively strong laminae, AI and PI, and with low, but sharp ridges on their dorsal sides marking the position of laminae AIII and PIII. The sides of both anterior and posterior sockets are finely transversely grooved. The most striking feature of this assemblage is the presence of a relatively strong, elongate and moderately high tubercle on the posterior half of AI. The tubercle, which represents 1 in the Bernard system of numbering, is here clearly lateral in position, being located parallel with the ventral margin of the hinge- plate, and having its posterior end distinctly in front of and slightly ventrad of the anterior end of 3a. 4 The socket between 3a and 3b is an elongate triangle, whose apex lies approximately at the posterior two-thirds of its total length. Tooth 3a margins the anterodorsal side of this socket, but its anterior termination is furnished by the posterior end of the tubercle 1 on AI. A comparison of this hinge (Fig. 1) with the adult hinge (Fig. 4) reveals that the principle modifications have occurred in the anterior part of the structure, particularly in the shape and position of teeth 3a and 1, and in the total reduc- tion of the remaining part of the anterior lateral lamina AI. On a purely mechanical interpreta- tion, the changes might be ascribed to the pos- terior migration of the tubercle 1, from its anterior lateral position to one that is almost wholly VOKES: HINGE OF VENIELLA CONRADI od subumbonal. This migration has brought it into approximate contact with 3a and has forced that tooth to change its shape from a narrow lamina to that of an inverted triangle that has its apex on the ventrad side where it is in juxta- position with 1. Coincidental with this change in shape there is a sharp change in the orienta- tion of the tooth. Initially it is subparallel with the anterodorsal margin so that its long axis virtually intersects the anterior extremity of the valve (Fig. 1); in its maximum distortion, in what must on other characters, be considered gerontic individuals, the axis of the tooth has been shifted to a position where, if projected, it would intersect the posteroventral margin of the valve (Fig. 4). The change in shape and the migration of the axis of 8a markedly alters the shape and propor- tions of the socket separating that tooth from 3b. Initially the socket is elongately triangular with its anterior termination well in advance of the umbo; in the gerontic individuals, it has become narrow, with subparallel sides, and has its long axis trending posteroventrally. The migration of 1, and its conflict with 3a changes the shape and position of the former, from its initial structure as an elongate tubercle parallel with the ventral margin of the hinge plate, to a heavy, triangular structure, whose apex is directed dorsally toward the anterior end of the base of the inverted triangle that is 3a. In the gerontic stage of development, 3a and 1 come to represent what is essentially a unit transverse to the hinge plate that is formed of two triangles in juxtaposition, the posterodorsal side of 1 being parallel to and separated only by a very narrow but deep groove from the. antero- ventral side of 3a. It is to be emphasized, as shown in Fig. 12, that the change in shape and migration of teeth 1 and 3a is a dynamic process that does not appear to have become stabilized at any time during the development of the individual. DEVELOPMENT OF THE HINGE OF THE LEFT VALVE The changes in the hinge of the left valve are, as would be expected, essentially similar to those that mark the right. The smallest complete specimen of this valve available for study has a length of 10.56 mm and a height of 10.2 mm. There are, however, smaller though incomplete individuals that probably did not exceed 6 mm in length, in which the hinge is adequately pre- 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF'SCIENCES served for the purposes of this study. The largest specimens in the collection have lengths of 60.7 and 61.8 mm, and heights of 58.0 and 52.0 mm, respectively. The immature hinge of the left valve (Fig. 5) consists of a long, thin anterior lamella that is parallel to the: ventral margin of the hinge plate. This lamella bears two elevations on its outer face that are separated by a somewhat lower area which is, however, distinctly raised above the general level of the hinge plate itself. The anterior of these elevations clearly represents AII; the posterior, which is somewhat swollen toward its obliquely terminated posterior end, represents 2, but there is no feature visible that would distinguish it as either 2a or 2b, or as a union of both. In addition to these elements there is a thin, obliquely transverse 4b, and an elongate, strong, PII that is markedly transversely striated. In the smallest specimens available, the AII is smooth, but it too, soon becomes transversely striate, the striae being well developed on a specimen 10.5 mm. in length. The subsequent modification of this hinge is, like that of the right, mechanically a factor of the migration and enlargement of 1. In the earli- est stages there is a slight flattening of a portion of the ventral side of AII (Fig. 6) marking the position of tubercle 1, which is still located on the lamella AI. This becomes enlarged, particularly in the low area between AII and 2, until the lamella of which these two are a part is disrupted with the posterior end of AII being deflected dorsally. At this stage (Fig. 7), tooth 2 is elon- gately triangular and relatively quite heavy. The apex of.the triangle so formed lies immediately below the umbo, the posterior dorsal slope is short, almost vertical, while the anterior dorsal slope is at least two and a half times as long as the posterior and trends obliquely forward. As the progressive posterior movement of 1 continues and involves the 3a, these two teeth encroach into the space between AII and 2, completely separating them and resulting in a progressive modification of their shape. Cardinal 2 becomes more and more equilaterally trigonal, and tends to develop a broad ‘‘V”’ shaped groove on its ventral side; AII tends to maintain the position of its anterior part at the ventral margin of the hinge-plate, while its posterior part is more and more deflected dorsally, with the result that the anterior part becomes elongately trigonal vou. 44, No. 2 in- Shape, with.a relatively tenuous “‘tail’’ pro-— jecting posteriorly from the apex of the triangle formed of the posterior part of the original lamella! (Fig. 8). A continuation of this “tail” across the interspace between AII aind the antero- ventral edge of 2 forms the low, acute ridge — that separates the interspace into sockets for the — reception of 1 and 3a of the right valve. This stage of development of the left hinge might be termed an adolescent one and is the stage that was figured by Stephenson (1923, pl. 66, fig. 4). Continued modification eventually results (Fig. 9) in a 2 that is broadly heavy, rather than trigonal in shape, and which trends obliquely posteriorly, so that a line drawn through the axis of the tooth and prolonged to the shell margin would approximately cut the middle of the posterior end of the valve. At the same time AII loses its ‘‘tail’” and becomes more and more strongly triangular in shape eventually forming a strong, almost equilaterally triangular tooth. It is probably significant, however, that the ridge crossing the ‘interspace’? between AII and 2 separating it into sockets for the reception of 1 and 3a continues to connect the posterior side of the apex of AII with the anteroventral edge of 2. ON THE DENOMINATION OF TOOTH 2 Douvillé (1913, 1921) has shown that in the development of the arcticid (ecyprinid) hinge the left anterior lateral AII becomes extended to the center of the hinge where it abuts against 3b, and is bent down at its posterior end to form a chevron with its apex just beneath the umbo. This downbent portion develops as 2b. He then considered that the umbonal end of the remain- ing portion of AII later differentiated to form 2a, leaving AII of the later forms as only the anterior end of the original lamellar tooth. Casey (1952, pp. 123-5, text fig. 1) postulates a lucinoid ancestor for the cyprinoid group. In a series of drawings he shows the lucinoid ancestor as having a bifid 2 and a distinct AII. In the next stage, which he labels the “‘cyprinoid”’ stage, the two limbs of the bifid lucinoid “2” are designated as 2b; and 2bs, and a distinct 2a is forming on the anterior end of AII. In his “ad- vanced cyprinoid” and ‘early cyrenoid” stages 1 Since this is clearly part of the original lamella it cannot be called a vinculum (Casey, 1952, p. 124), since that term by definition is applied to second- ary shelly matter only. FEBRUARY 1954 VOKES: HINGE OF VENIELLA CONRADI 39 2a becomes strengthened and begins to separate AIT and assumed a position identical with that from the posterior end of AII as it migrates pos- — originally held by prong 2a). teriorly, displacing the anterior prong 2b, of the Since there is never more than one element of lucinoid tooth. In the final stage, ‘“cyrenoid” the tooth 2 complex visible in the Veniellid stage 2a has become completely separate from hinges available for study it is not clear just Fics. 1-11.—Veniella conradi (Morton): 1-4, Development of the hinge of the right valve: (1)X 5; Wren (e+) KL. 5-9, Development of the hinge of the left valve, (5) X 6, (6) X 5; (7) X 2; @, Or. 10-11, Exterior of left and right valves: (10), same specimen as Fig. 8, X 1.3; (11) same specimen as Fig. 1, X 3. Figs. 2, 7, specimens from Ripley formation, Owl Creek, Miss.; others from Coon Creek tongue, Ripley formation, Coon Creek, Tenn. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES which part is represented. In the earliest stages (fig. 5) there is a suggestion of a down-bending of the posterior end of the AII-2 lamella that 1s very similar to the figures given by Douvillé (1921, p. 118, fig. 6) for the hinge of Hotrapezvum germart (Dunker), the types species of Hotra- pezium Douvillé, considered by Douvillé as representing the primitive stage in the develop- ment of the cyprinid hinge. It soon loses this characteristic, however, becoming first a broadly triangular structure and later a heavy simple tooth that comes to trend obliquely posteriorly. It seems best, therefore, to designate it as tooth 2, recognizing that, since it is certainly continuous with AII in its earlier stages, it prob- ably was formed as a complete fusion of ele- ments 2a and 2b. It cannot be demonstrated, however, whether or not the 2b element arose as a result of the downward bending of AII, as postulated by Douvillé, or as a separate element that was joined by 2a, as postulated by Casey. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS | Relationships of Veniella and Roudairia.— Available illustrations of the hinge of Roudairia undata (Conrad), the presently accepted name for the genotype species of Roudairia Munier- Chalmas 1881 are not wholly satisfactory for comparison with those of Veniella. Perhaps the best are those given by Pervinquiére (1912, p. 230, pl. 15, figs. 9-138, especially figs. 11b and 12a). By a particularly good fortune these are re-illustrations of Munier-Chalmas’ types of his Roudaria drut |=Opis undata Conrad] and hence represent the specimens upon which he based his genus. The most striking difference between the hinges there figured and those of Veniella conradi is the persistence, in Roudairia, of the right anterior lateral AI, which is lost in Veniella, and in the effect this tooth has on the left anterior lateral AII. This tooth instead of being broadly triangular and heavy, as in Veniella is split into an inverted ‘‘V’’-shaped unit whose two narrow prongs margin AI anterodorsally and posteriorly. This condition is particularly well-shown by Quaas (1902, pl 24, fig. 22). These hinge differences, in conjunction with the differ- ences in weight of the shell and in external orna- mentation, mentioned by Olsson (1934, p. 39) justify the retention of Roudairia as a separate genus, rather than relegating it to the synonymy of Veniella, as has been done by Newton (1909, p. 69), Wade (1926, p. 77), Rennie (1929, pp. voL. 44, No. 2 26-8; 1930, p. 191), Cox Q952. pp) ie i1oe and others. Roudairia and Veniella were, so far as can be determined from published records, contem- poraneous genera. Both ranged from the Turon- ian? through the Maestrichtian, and both seem to have been most abundantly represented in the upper Campanian and the Maestrichtian.? It is to be assumed therefore that the two genera represent separate essentially parallel evolution- ary developments within the very plastic arcticid stock. The specimens from Pondoland and Zulu- land identified by Rennie (1930, pp. 192, 244, pl. 29, figs. 1-5) as ‘“Veniella forbesiana (Stoliczka)”’ are now considered as being of upper Campanian or Maestrichtian age and can not, therefore, be considered as having an intermediate position between the two genera, despite the fact that they show a greatly reduced, essentially tubercle-like, AI with a corresponding strengthening of AII, called the left anterior cardinal by Rennie. These, together with the strong transverse striations developed on the posterior laterals closely approach the conditions observed in VY. conradi. The illustrations of Stoliczka (1870, pl. 9, figs. 2-8) are too diagram- matic to permit certain comparisons. There seems, however, to be differences in the posterior laterals and possibly also in the shape of 3a, that would justify at least a question as to the identity of Rennie’s species. The Albian species 2'The specimens of Veniella mortoni Meek figured by Stanton (1898, pl. 23, figs. 6-9) were collected on the Arkansas River, 18 miles west of Pueblo, Colo., associated with a fauna including such characteristic Carlile species as Collignoni- ceras hyattt (Stanton), Inoceramus fragilis Hall and Meek, and Ostrea lugubris Conrad. Stoliczka’s ‘“‘Cyprina’’ forbesiana (1870, p. 192, pl. 9, figs. 2-8) was described from the Tri- chinopoly Group of India, now generally consid- ered as being of Turonian age. The figured hinge of the left valve shows the characteristic split AII of Roudairia, while that of the right valve seems to lack an anterior lateral, thus suggesting Veniella. Since, however, the species clearly pos- sesses the strong carinate post-umbonal ridge of Roudairia, its reference to that genus seems more correct. 3 It is recognized that the application of Euro- pean stage names to the geologic range of Veniella applies a precision of intercontinental correlation that is not wholly in accord with the present state of our knowledge. Nevertheless, since these corre- lations are based mainly upon the distribution of ammonite genera who seem to have had a more rapid rate of migration than the heavy-shelled pelecypods, it is believed that the correlations im- plied above are sufficiently close to have real significance when applied to the genera under consideration. FEBRUARY 1954 “Veniella’” etheridgei Newton, as figured by Rennie (1931, p. 242, pl. 31, figs. 1-3) differs entirely in the nature of the posterior lateral and in the bifid condition of tooth 2 of the left valve. The drawing of the hinge is such as to make it uncertain just what condition exists with respect to AIT; it might be that the tubercle-like struc- ture shown at the posterior end of the structure represents 2a, in which case the bifid tooth would be 2b and the species would be entirely separate from the Veniella-Roudairia complex. In general, the hinge suggests a closer relationship to Venzl- cardia than to Veniella. Relationship of Cicatrea Stoliczka.—Stoliczka (1870, p. 191) described the subgenus Cicatrea with Cyprina (Circatrea) cordialis Stoliczka (1870, p. 199, pl. 10, figs. 1, a, b, c, 2) as the type species. Among the important generic characters mentioned were: (1) ‘‘a rather short but deeply bifureate groove in which the ligament is lodged.”’ (2) “The posterior cardinal teeth are rather narrow in both valves...the two anterior cardinals in the left valve are very large, the same superimposed teeth in the right valve, however, very small.” (3) ‘‘The anterior muscu- lar impression is anteriorly margined by a sharp ridge.” Douville (1904, p. 216), on the basis of a speci- men from Madagascar, which he unfortunately did not figure, concluded that Cicatrea cordialis was actually a Roudmria and that Cicatrea Stoliezka was therefore a prior name for Munier- Chalmas’s genus. He refused, however, to adopt the Stoliczka name on the grounds that it had not been accurately defined. Rennie (1929, p. 27) discusses the matter at some length and points out that the difference between the nymph struc- ture described by Stoliczka and that observed in Roudairia is probably due to imperfect prepa- ration of the Indian specimens. It should be pointed out, however, that the heavy, triangular “left anterior cardinal” described and figured by Stoliezka (pl. 10, fig. 2) is totally unlike that to be seen in illustrations of Roudairia undata, but is entirely like the condition found in adult specimens of Veniella conradi. In neither genus, however, is there any suggestion of the ‘‘sharp ridge” in front of the anterior muscle scar, de- seribed by Stoliczka, and no structure has been observed that corresponds to the peculiar feature shown in this area in his illustration. If it is not actually present in the species and represents extraneous material impressed into the shell, VOKES: HINGE OF VENIELLA CONRADI 4] then it seems more likely that Cicatrea may be regarded as a synonym of Veniella rather than Roudairia. Since Veniella Stoliczka is a new name proposed as a substitute name for Venilia Morton, 1834, and also has page priority in Stoliezka’s work, Cicatrea could safely be dis- carded, without endangering Roudairia. Petalocardia Vincent.—In 1924 E. Vincent (1924, pp. 59-62, text figs. 1, 2) proposed Petalo- cardia as a subgenus of Venvella, with “Venus ?” pectinifera Sowerby, from the Upper Eocene, Bartonian, of England, Belgium and France as the type species. This is a small form that has in common with Veniella external lamellar flanges and a moderately sharp posterior umbonal ridge. In the right valve 3a trends diagonally forward across the hinge-plate coming into apposition with the upturned posterior end of AI, which, in Vincent’s figure seems to possess a small tu- bercle possibly representing an incipient cardinal 1; 3b is strong and broadly grooved, while PI (labelled LP2, by Vincent) is strong and smooth, with a broad, deep socket above it for the recep- tion of PII. In addition, however, there is a well- developed AIII. The left hinge has a triangular 2 (labelled 2a by Vincent), and a lamellar 4b, both of which are similar to those in immature Fig. 12.—Relative position of the trend of the ventral, later posterior, margin of 3a during the development of the individual. The lines indicate the relative trend of the margin with respect to the outline of the valve in specimens whose length is indicated, in millimeters, adjacent to the trend line. The specimen of 46.7 mm length represents an unusually obese gerontic individual from Brightseat, Maryland. Specimens of 24.9 and 28.8 mm length are from the Ripley formation at Owl Creek, Miss. All others from the Coon Creek tongue of the Ripley formation, Coon Creek, Tenn. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES specimens of Venvella conradi (see fig. 7); AII is transversely elongate and shows no evidence of former connection with 2, while PII (called LP1, by Vincent) is short, with a peculiar ventral projection from the hinge plate to accommodate the socket for PI. The inner margin of both valves is strongly crenulate. Externally, as figured by Glibert (1933, p. 156, pl. 9, fig. 9) and Cossmann (1883, p. 169, pl. 6, fig. 7, 7a), surface of the valves between the flanges shows a well-developed radial ornamentation. The external radial ornamentation, denticulate inner margins, and, in the right valve, the pres- ence of AIII and the smooth PII, together with, in the left valve, the distinct separation of AII from 2, and the short discreet PII with its un- usual ventral socket arrangement, all serve to distinguish Petalocardia from Veniella. These factors, together with the long time interval between the last known representatives of Venella and the appearance of Petalocardia, justify the divorcement of the latter from Veniella, and its recognition as a distinct genus. Comparison with Arctica Schumacher s.s.— A comparison of the figure of a specimen of “Cyprina” islandica (Linné) with a length of but 6 mm, given by Bernard (1895, p. 129, text fig. 14) with specimens and figures, such as those given by Nicol (1951, p. 1038, text fig. 103) or Theile (1934, p. 856, text fig. 819), seems clearly to indicate that the development of the hinge here described for Veniella conradi is also essentially that which occurs in Arctica‘ islandica. The principal differences between the two so far as the anterior portion of the hinges are concerned are: in the immature specimens, in tooth 2 which is distinctly divided into two limbs, so that elements 2a and 2b are easily recognized at this stage of development, even though later they apparently unite to a single element; and, in the more adult valves, in the great variability of the strength of the anterior elements, 1 in the right valve and AII in the +The name Arctica Moehring 1752, as repub- lished in the 1758 translation by Nozeman and Vosmaer under the title of Geslachten der Vogel, was clearly not validated by that translation, being analogous with the names Grus and Coturniz, also used in that translation, that were discussed by Hemming in the re-issue of Opinion 5 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomen- clature. (see ‘‘Opinions and Declarations. . . ete., vol. 1, pt. 14, esp. pp. 120-122, 1944). Arctica Moehring, therefore, does not invalidate Arctica Schumacher, 1817, and the latter is the valid name for the present genus (see also Nicol, 1951, p. 102). vou. 44, No. 2 left. In many specimens of Arctica these are reduced to deeply corrugated remnants, or, as in the diagrammatic drawings given by Cox (1947, p. 144, text fig. 8a, b) to minute tubercles. In other specimens, however, notably in that figured by Nicol, both of these teeth are strongly and heavily developed, being very similar, in~ this respect to the condition that is maintained in Veniella conradi. Developmental stages in the growth of the Veni- ella hinge —It has already been pointed out that Douvillé considered the earliest stage in the evolution of the arcticid hinge to be that in which AII becomes extended to the center of the hinge line and is bent down at its posterior end to form a chevron with its apex just below the umbo. This he designated the “‘Hotrapezium stage.”’ The smallest left valves present in our collection show this condition. No equally minute right valves are available for study. However, there is a suggestion of a small socket dorsal to the AII-2 combination in the lefts that suggests the presence in the right valves of a small 3a; if present it would indicate that even at this small size, the species had passed beyond the Eotrapezium stage, since a 3a is not present in that genus.°® Cox (1947, p. 142) in a review of the British Jurassic species, recognizes three groups of species within the family, stating: ‘‘In the right valve, at a slightly more advanced stage than that of Eotrapezvum, a small excrescence appears at the posterior end of AI and is the origin of tooth 1. In one group of forms, which includes the Recent Cyprina, this remains merely a tubercle, and an anterior cardinal 3a develops close to the lunular margin with its apex touch- ing that of 3b below the umbo. In other forms, such as Pronoella and Eocallista of the Jurassic and Pygocardia of the Miocene, 1 develops into a strong triangular tooth with its apex close to the umbo; it thus becomes a median cardinal tooth inserted between 3b and 3a, although when it is very prominent the develop- ment of 38a may be impeded....In the poste- riorly carinate Pseudotrapezium and the globose Rollierella 1 is halfway between a tubercle and a triangular tooth and 3a is quite well developed.” ’ Casey (1952, pp. 134, 136) who provisionally accepts the genus Hotrapeziwm on other grounds, considers that the development of 3a is so variable in the arcticids as to have no taxonomie signifi- cance. Chavan (1952, p. 83, fft. 1) does not agree with this conclusion. FEBRUARY 1954 It seems to the writer that the most important factor in this grouping is the relative position of teeth 3a and 1 at the time of their early develop- ment. If 1 first appears ventral, or posteroven- tral, to the anterior end of 3a then it may migrate posteriorly and assume a median position without coming into conflict with the developing 3a; if it first appears anterior to the anterior end of 3a its posterior migration seems to be impeded by the development of 3a, unless the latter tooth remains as a thin lamella adjacent to the dorsal margin of the valve. An examination of the many illustrations, often unfortunately diagrammatic, available in the literature for the old world Jurassic and Cretaceous -arcticidae, especially the excellent figures of Cox (1947) and Casey (1952), suggests that the immediate post-Eotrapezium stage in the development of the hinge of Veniella would resemble the hinge of the Middle Jurassic, Great Oolite species, Anisocardia (Antiquicy- prina) loweana (Morris and Lycett) (see Cox, 1947, pl. 9, figs. 75, 76; Casey, 1952, text figs. 49a, b, 50) the type species of the subgenus Antiquicyprina Casey (1952, p. 153). This hinge is almost identical with that observed in the smallest right valve of Veniella in our collection, except that 1 is somewhat stouter in the Creta- ceous specimen. The available figures of the Upper Jurassic, Kimmeridgian species Anisocardia (Anisocardia) elegans Munier-Chalmas are too diagrammatic to be of certain help here (see Douvillé, 1921, text fig. 6; Cox 1947, text fig. 5). They do, how- ever, suggest that it is within this group of spe- cies that the continuation of the development of the Veniellid type of hinge is to be found. On the other hand, the figures of the Middle Jurassic Antsocardia (Anisocardia) — truncata (Morris) given by Casey (1952, text fig. 48a, b) and said to agree “‘in all features,” in the right valve at least, with that of A. elegans is clearly not in an ancestral position. Tooth 1 is very large and heavy, completely anterior to 3a which has assumed a position where it crosses the entire hinge plate in an anteriorly oblique position, and seems to be displacing 2a of the left valve in such a way that the latter could not unite with 2b, as it clearly has at this stage in Veniella. In the latter genus, 1 impinges against, deflects, and later almost completely obliterates the anterior end of AII, not 2a. VOKES: HINGE OF VENIELLA CONRADI 43 Certain species of the genus Venilicardia represent well the expectable Lower Cretaceous stage in the development of the Roudaria and Veniella-type of hinge. The figures of the Upper Greensand species Venilicardia lineolata (Sow- erby) given by Woods (1907, pl. 22, figs. 5a, b, 6a, b, 7, 8) depict a form that in all characteris- tics save the nature of the left posterior lateral, PII, agrees with the condition found in “adoles- cent”? specimens of Veniella conradi similar to those figured by Stephenson (1923, pl. 66, figs. 4, 5). If, therefore, we may accept Douvillé’s postulation of an Hotrapeziwm stage in the an- cestry of the later Arcticidae, we would have such a stage represented in the, at present little known, representatives of Veniella that were less than 6 mm. in length. At approximately that length the hinge shows an Antiquicyprina-like arrangement, that seems to pass through a modi- fled Anisocardia-like type to enter a Venilicardia- form arrangement at lengths of 30 to 40 mm. The fully developed, characteristic Veniella hinge does not appear until late in the life of the individual specimen. It is to be emphasized that this is a series of stages in the ontogeny of the individual hinge and that no suggestion of actual evolutionary ancestry for Veniella is implied or is to be read into the generic hinge types with which the growth stages of the Veniellid hinge are here compared. The genus Veniella is a North Amer- ican Cretaceous group so far as our present knowledge of its distribution is concerned,® and it is quite probable that the ancestral types were North American in their distribution also. Our present knowledge of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous pelecypod faunas of this continent is so very inadequate that it is not possible at this time to even consider possible ancestral types for Veniella. Whether the types mentioned were significant in the ancestry of Rouwdairia can only be decided by an examination of a series of immature specimens of species referable to that genus. 6 The specimens from the Cameroon discussed and figured by Riedel (1932, p. 54, pl. 1, la, 2, 2a, 2b) as Veniella mortont Meek do not represent that species, the left hinge of which has been figured by Stanton (1893, pl. 23, fig. 9), nor do they seem to be correctly identified generically. Two genera may be represented, Riedel’s fig. la show- ing a bifid cardinal 2, while fig. 2b has an entire 2. 44 REFERENCES CITED CasEy, R. Some genera and subgenera, mainly new, of Mesozoic heterodont lamellibranchs. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 29 (4): 121-176, pls. 7-9, 100 text figs. 1952. Cuavan, A. Les pelecypodes des sables astartiens de Cordebugle (Calvados). Mem. Suisses Paleont. 69: 132 pp., 4 pls., 82 text figs. 1952. CossMANN, M. Description d’especes nouvelles du Bassin de Paris, part 4. Journ. de Conchyl. 23 :153-174, pls. 6, 7. 1883. Cox, L. R. The lamellibranch family Cyprinidae in the Lower Oolites of England. Proc. Malac. Soc., London 27 (4): 141-184, pls. 8-10, 56 text figs. 1947. Cretaceous and Eocene fossils from the Gold Coast. Gold Coast Geol. Surv. Bull. 17: 68 pp., 5 pls. 1952. DovvitieA, H. Sur quelques fossiles de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 4: 207-217. 1904. Classification des lamellibranches. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 12: pp. 419-467, 69 text figs. 1913. La charniére dans les lamellibranches hétérodontes et son evolution. Cyprines, Iso- cardes et Cythérées. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 21: 116-124, 27 text figs. 1921. GARDNER, J. Systematic paleontology. Upper Cretaceous, Class Pelecypoda. Maryland Geol. Surv., Upp. Cret.; 511-733, pls. 19-45. 1916. GLIBERT, M. Monographie de la faune malacologi- que du Bruzellien des environs de Bruxelles. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belg., Mem. 53: 214 pp., 11 pls. 27 text figs., map. 1933. MEEK, F. B. A report on the invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils of the upper Missouri country. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Territories (Hayden) 9: lxiv + 629 pp., 45 pls. 1876. MuNIER-CHALMAS, E.. Paléontologie. Mission Com- mandant Roudaire dans les Chotts Tunisiens: 59-79, pls. 1-4. 1881. Newton, R. B. Cretaceous gastropods and Pelecy- poda from Zululand. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 1: 106 pp., 9 pls. 1909. Nicou, D. Recent species of the veneroid pelecypod Arctica. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41 (3) : 102-106, 4 text figs. 1951. Ousson, A. A. Contributions to the paleontology of northern Peru: The Cretaceous of the Amotape JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 2 region. Bull. Amer. Paleont. 20 (69): 104 pp., 11 pls., 2 text figs. 1934. PERVINQUIERE, L. Etudes de paléontologie tunit- sienne. II. Gastropodes et lamellibranches des terraines Crétacés: xiv + 352 pp., 23 pls. Paris © 1912; Quaas, A. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Fauna der obersten Kreidebildungen in der libyschen Wiiste. Palaeontographica 30 (2) : 153-336, pls. 20-33. 1902. RENNIE, J. V. L. Cretaceous fossils from Angola (Lamellibranchia and Gastropoda). Ann. South African Mus. 28: 1-54, pls. 1-4, 2 text figs. 1929. RENNIE, J. V. L. New Lamellibranchia and Gas- tropoda from the Upper Cretaceous of Pondo- land (with an Appendix on some species from the Cretaceous of Zululand). Ann. South African Mus. 28: 159-260, pls. 16-31, 3 text figs. 1930. RIEDEL, L. Die Oberkreide vom Mungofluss in Kamerun und thre Fauna. Beit. geol. Erforsch. deut. Schutzgebiete 16: 154 pp., 33 pls., 47 text figs. 1932. Stanton, T. W. The Colorado formation and its Seneniebr aie fauna. U. 8S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 106: 288 pp., 45 pls. 1893. STEPHENSON, L. W. The Cretaceous formations of North Carolina. I. The invertebrate fossils of the Upper Cretaceous formations. North Caro- lina Geol. and Econ. Surv. 5: xi + ye pp., 102 pls., 6 text figs. 1923. SroticzKa, F. The Cretaceous fawna of Soukeen India. hive The Pelecypoda, with a review of all known genera of this class. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica: xvii + 5388 pp., 50 pls. 1870-71. THEILE, J., Handbuch der systematischen Weich- teerkunde 2 (3): 779-1022, text figs. 784-893. Jena, 1934. VINCENT, E. Observations sur la place systématique de Venus pectinifera Sow. Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. Belg. 55: 59-62, 2 text figs. 1925. Wave, B. The fauna of the Ripley formation on Coon Creek, Tennessee. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 137: 272 pp., 72 pls. 1926. Woops, H. A monograph of the Cretaceous Lamel- libranchia of England. Paleontolographical Soe. 2: 133-180, pl. 20-27. London, 1907. MYCOLOGY .—Some Discomycetes new to Alaska. Epirn K. Casu, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. The extensive collections of fungi made in Alaska by Dr. Roderick Sprague during the summer of 1952 included a large number of Discomycetes which were referred to the writer for examination. Four collections were made of an apparently undescribed Peziza, which is therefore named here as new. Several species hitherto unreported from Alaska are proposed as new combina- tions, and twenty additional species of Discomycetes are also briefly listed for which Dr. Sprague’s collections constitute the first reports from Alaska. 1. Peziza alaskana, n. sp. Apothecia dispersa, carnea, cupulata, margine leniter undulato, ex parte in terram arenosam sepulta, extus fusco-nigra, furfuracea, hymenio Fepruary 1954 glabro, purpureo-atro vel atro, 5-12 mm in diam., 3-8 mm alta; asci teretes, apice obtusi et leniter jodi ope azurescentes, gradatim basim versus attenuati, 275-3800 x 15-18 uw; ascosporae oblique uniseriatae, hyalinae, ellipsoideae, utrinque an- gustatae, subtiliter echinulatae, hyalinae vel pallide brunneolae; paraphyses numerosi, api- cibus brunneis et usque 6-8 yu inflatis, in mazae- dium brunneum agglutinati; textura excipularis hyphis pallide brunneis, laxe intertextis extus obseurioribus et furfuraceis composita. Hab. ad terram arenosam, Alaska. Apothecia scattered, fleshy, partially buried in sand, deep cup-shaped, margin slightly un- dulate, exterior fuscous-black,! furfuraceous, hymenium smooth, dull purplish black, 5-12 mm in diameter, 3-8 mm deep; asci terete, obtuse at the apex, faintly blue with iodine, gradually attenuated toward the base, 275-300 x 15-18 yu; ascospores obliquely uniseriate, hyaline, ellipsoid, narrowed at the ends, minutely echinulate, hyaline to pale brownish, 22-24 x 9-10 u; para- physes numerous, brown and swollen to 6-8 yu at the tips, becoming agglutinated into a dark brown mazaedium; exciple of pale brown, loosely interwoven, rather thin-walled hyphae, the outer layer darker and roughened by loose ends or clumps of hyphae. | Auaska: Mendenhall area, July 9, 1952, R. Sprague 3?; Crocker Station no. 1, Mendenhall Glacier area, July 11, 1952, 20, type; Herbert Glacier area, July 19, 1952, 100; base of Red Mountain, Glacier Bay National Monument, August 12, 1952, 259, and Bear Track Cove, Glacier Bay National Monument, August 23, 1952, 469. ; This small black Peziza resembles Peziza brunneo-atra Desm. in some respects, but the spores are narrower and more pointed and finely echinulate rather than verrucose. The apothecia in P. alaskana also remain deep cup-shaped, never becoming applanate as in P. brunneo-atra, and the hymenium is purplish-black, not tinged with green. The pale brown spores suggest Aleurina but they are evenly and finely echinu- late, not reticulate. 1 Color readings are from Ripeway, R., Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, 1912. 2 Collection numbers throughout are those of Roderick Sprague. CASH: DISCOMYCETES NEW TO ALASKA 45 comb. Helvella arctica Nannf. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 31: 60, illus. 1937. 2. Paxina arctica (Nannf.), n. ALASKA: Glacier Bay National Monument: Anchorage Cove area, August 9, 1952, 232, and Forest Creek area, August 15, 1952, 276 and 282. Helvella arctica was reported from arctic and subarctic regions of Sweden and Spitzbergen by Nannfeldt. The Alaskan collections agree with the original description and illustrations, and with type material issued in Lundell & Nannf. F. Exsice. Suec. 369. The species may be readily recognized by the furfuraceous white margin surrounding the black hymenium. If Pazina is recognized as distinct from Helvella, the species would belong to the former genus. comb. Trichopeziza stipae Fckl. Symb. Mye. p. 297. 1869. Helotium stigmaion Rehm Hedw. 21: 99. 1882. Helotium stigmaion Rehm var. minusculum Rehm Ascom. no. 767. 1883; Hedw. 24: 13. 1885. Phialea stipae (Fckl.) Rehm Kryptogamenfl. Bd. 1, Abt. 3, p. 734. 1893. 3. Helotium stipae (Fckl.), n. ALASKA: on Phleum alpinum, base of Red Mountain, Glacier Bay National Monument, August 12, 1952, 613; Poa alpina, lake shore, Mendenhall Glacier area, July 9, 1953, 52; Poa arctica, Mount Gastineau, July 18, 1952, 264; Poa compressa, Glacier Bay National Monument, August 18, 1952, 743; Poa trivialis, Mendenhall Glacier area, July 10, 1952, 62. This inconspicuous species, apparently con- fined to grasses, is reported by Rehm on Stipa and Phleum. The Alaskan specimens agree with Thuemen Mycotheca univ. no. 2020 on Phleum pratense and Krieger F. Saxon. 1835 on an un- determined grass. No record has been found of its occurrence in North America. 4. Dasyscypha aspidii (Lib.), n. comb. Peziza aspidi Lib. Pl. Crypt. Ard. no. 226. 1832. Trichopeziza aspidit (Lib.) Fekl. Symb. Myce. p. 297. 1869. Lachnum aspidit (Lib.) Karst. Faun. Fl. Fenn. 16: 27. 1888. Meddel. Soc. ALASKA: On Dryopteris sp., Sebree Island, Glacier Bay National Monument, August 19, (1952, 369. As pointed out by Dennis, the use of the generic name Lachnum sensu Rehm for species of Dasy- scypha with lanceolate paraphyses has no justifi- cation; the species is therefore referred to Dasy- scypha. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In addition to the fungi listed above, Dr. Sprague’s 1952 collections include the following Discomycetes not previously reported from Alaska: Ascobolus glaber Pers. ex Fr. on grizzaly- bear dung, Belonioscypha campanula (Fr.) Rehm on Hordeum, Dasyscypha calyculiformis (Schum. ex Fr.) Saec. on Salix, D. lewcophaea (Pers. ex Weinm.) Mass. on Lupinus nootkatensis, D. virginea (Batsch ex Fr.) Fekl. on Populus tricho- carpa and Salix alaxensis, Heloteum caudatum (Karst.) Vel. on Alnus, H. cyathoideum (Bull. ex Fr.) Karst. on Equisetum virgatum, Epilobium latifolium, and Bosnickia, H. leucellum Karst. on Alnus, H. scutula (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. on Dryas voL. 44, No. 2 drummondu and Epilobium, H. virgultorum (Vahl ex Fr.) Fr. on Alnus and Sambucus, Humaria hemisphaerica (Wigg. ex Fr.) Fekl., H. wmbrorum (Fr.) Fekl., Lamprospora amethystina (Quél.) Seaver, L. constellatio (Berk. & Br.) Seaver, and Mollisia uda (Pers. ex Fr.) Gill. on Alnus, (Cke.) Rehm, Pyrenopeziza ~ karstenit Sace. on Agropyron trachycaulum and Poa, Rutstroemia nervisequia (Schroet.) W. L. White on Alnus, Stamnaria persooni (Moug. ap. Pers. ex Fr.) Fckl. on Equisetum, and Tapesia fusca (Pers. ex Fr.) Fekl. on Alnus, Salix, and Shepherdia. Otidea auricula ZOOLOGY .—Description of Eocyzicus concavus (Mackin) with a review of other North American species of the genus (Crustacea: Conchostraca). N. T. Marrox, University of Southern California.1 (Communicated by F. A. Chace, Jr.) In a key to the phyllopods of Oklahoma and neighboring states, Mackin (1939) listed a previously undescribed species under the name Estheria concava. As a result of personal communications Dr. Mackin in- formed me that the original four specimens, on which the key characters were based, had been lost. However, another collection from the same locality contained eight speci- mens which Dr. Mackin kindly presented to me for study. Careful examination of these specimens resulted in the unquestionable decision that the species should be assigned to the genus Hocyzicus Daday, 1915. I was then asked by Dr. Mackin to make a com- plete description of this unusual and in- teresting conchostracan. Meanwhile there appeared in the key to the North American phyllopods by Pennak (1953) a listing of a species, presumably the species here under consideration, indicated as Hocyzicus concava Mattox. The original designation by Mackin must be recognized even though it was based on the following incomplete diagnosis: ‘‘Rostrum shaped like a hatchet blade; with a row of large smooth spines along the mid-dorsal line, one spine for each trunk segment; hand of the male deeply incised at the base of the thumb; shell sway-backed.’’ The diagnosis given by Pennak was: ‘‘Rostrum like hatchet blade; 1 Department of Zoology, Allan Hancock Foun- dation. Allan Hancock Foundation Contribution no. 1243 : with large, smooth spine on the middorsal line of most trunk segments; rare, poorly known; Okla.”’ The specific name must be that of Mackin even though the generic designation is invalid. EHstherza Ruppell 1837 as used for the Conchostraca is a homonym, as the name Hstheria was first used for a genus of Diptera by Robineau- Desvoidy in 1830. The name LHstheria, for conchostracans, is replaced by Cyzicus Audouin, Hocyzicus Daday, Caenestheria Daday, Caenestheriella Daday, Leptestheria Sars, Holeptestheria Daday, Leptestheriella Daday and Cyclestheria Sars. The original trivial name of the species under considera- tion, must be changed to agree with that of the genus, hence the name Locyzicus concavus (Mackin, 1939) is here given. Since the species has not previously been com- pletely described a description is here pre- sented and a neotype is designated. These animals were collected on August 12, 1928, in a temporary pool near Summerfield, Tex. Eocyzicus concavus (Mackin) Description.—Male: The shell is elliptical with a straight dorsal hinge line extending two-thirds the shell length, and with a rounded ventral margin (Fig. 1, a). Posterior to the hinge the dorsal edge is straight extending ventrally at approximately a 20° angle. The anterior shell margin is rounded, extending ventrally very abruptly; the posterior portion is more attenu- ated. The greatest height of the shell is slightly Fepruary 1954 MATTOX: anterior to the middle. The umbone is very con- spicuous extending dorsally above the hinge line and located approximately one-fifth the shell length from the anterior edge. The anterior slope of the umbone extends abruptly ventrad, the posterior slope is more gradual. The form of the umbone gives a ‘“‘sway-backed” appearance to EOCYZICUS CONCAVUS 47 the shell. The lines of growth on the six male shells in the collection varied in number from 18 to 22. The average shell size was 6.9 by 4.2 mm, a shell width-length ratio of 1:1.6. The head of the male possesses the characters typical of the genus as established by Daday (1915). Those characters are the roundly ex- Wy SA & G S as LA WSN ea. cere new = ae oe a Ene: 1.—Bocyzicus concavus (Mackin): a, Shell of male; 6, first gnathopod of male; c, second enathopod of male (4, 5, 6—fourth, fifth, sixth endite); d, lateral view of dorsal portion of trunk and the telson; e, lateral view of head of male; f, lateral view of head of female; g, male third ap- pendage; h, female ninth appendage with eggs attached to epipodite. Seales all equal 0.5 mm. 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tended and shallowly notched occipital region, also the broadly spatulate rostrum when viewed in profile (Fig. 1, e). The dorsal surface of the front is slightly concave. The anterior flagellum of the second antennae is composed of 12 seg- ments, the posterior flagellum of 14 segments. The first antennae are elongate, dorsally papil- lose, up to 20 papillae, and extend to the seventh segment of the second antennae. The body, or trunk, is composed of 19 seg- ments each bearing a pair of appendages. The posterior 11 segments bear a middorsal, smooth spine; the anterior 8 segments bear no spines (Fig. 1, d). The first two pairs of appendages are developed into gnathopods, typical of the group. The palpiform “thumb” of the fourth endite of the first pair of gnathopods is notched at its base (Fig. 1, b). The digitiform fifth endite is shorter than the sickel-shaped sixth endite. On the second gnathopod the notch at the base of the thumb is not as pronounced as in the first (Fig. 1, c). The fifth endite is approximately one-third longer than the sixth. The third pair of appendages is folia- ceous, as are all the others. The fifth endite of the third appendages possesses a digitiform ex- tension approximately twice the length of the sixth endite (Fig. 1, g). The telson is truncate, shortened, with a pair of ventral, curved cercopods extending pos- teriorly beyond the dorsal telson spines (Fig. 1, d). The telson dorsal ridges possess 16 or 17 spines of variable length. The dorsal forked fila- ment arises between the third and fourth telson spines. Female: The shell of the female is similar in form to that of the male; no marked dimorphism VoL. 44, No. 2 © is evident. On the two female shells in the collec- tion each contained 22 growth lines. The head of the female has the form charac- teristic of the genus. The rostrum, in profile, is accuminate; the occipital area is rounded and with a shallow notch (Fig. 1, f). The front is straight, not concave as in the male. The second antennae are as in the male, the flagellae are 12 and 14 segmented. The first antennae are shorter than in the male extending only to the fourth segment of the second antennae and possess 15 to 18 dorsal sensory papillae. The body appendages, 19 pairs, are all similar in form, the typical fohaceous swimming legs. The ninth and tenth pairs have the epipodite elongated for the ovigerous function. The epipo- dite of pair nine is approximately one third longer than that of pair ten (Fig. 1, h). The last 9 segments of the body possess a mid- dorsal spine, the anterior 10 segments are smooth. The telson is similar to that of the male with 16 pairs of dorsal spines. Type locality —Summerfield, Texas. Type.—Deposited in the U. 8. National Mu- seum. Neotype, male, U.S.N.M. no. 95731. As the original specimens of Mackin were lost it is necessary to designate the type as a neotype. One male and one female U.S.N.M. no. 95732, also deposited. Remarks.—Eocyzicus concavus represents the third species of the genus to be described from this continent. H. diguett (Richards, 1895) was described from Purissima, Calif., and EH. van- hoffent Daday, 1915, was described from Mexico, the exact locality being uncertain. In the absence of specimens for direct examination the descrip- E. vanhoffent | E. digueti E. concavus SHELL 8.5 X 3.5 mm. 8.6 X 4.8 mm. 6.9 X 4.2 mm. 1:2.4 shell size ratio 1:1.8 ratio 1:1.6 ratio 14-16 growth lines 26 growth lines 18-22 growth lines Male and female similar Male shell more rounded dorsally Similar in two sexes HeEapD Female rostrum elongate and | Female rostrum short, roundly ac- | Female rostrum regularly accumi- sharply accuminate cuminate nate Occipital notch of female deeper | Occipital notch of male deeper than | Occipital notch of two sexes equal than in male in female Second antennae flagella 12-13 seg- | Second antennae flagella 14-16 seg- | Second antennae flagella 12-14 seg- ments ments ments First antennae with 13-18 papillae First antennae with 14 papillae First antennae with 15-20 papillae TRUNK 16 segments 16 segments 19 segments 14 posterior segments with dorsal | 14 posterior segments with dorsal | 9-11 posterior segments with dorsal spine spine spine Telson with 12-15 pairs of spines 15 pairs of telson spines 16-17 pairs of telson spines APPENDAGES Male “thumb” of gnathopod | Male ‘‘thumb’’ with deep basal cleft | Male ‘‘thumb’’ with shallow cleft cleft deeply Tenth epipodite of female twice | Ninth epipodite of female twice | Ninth epipodite of female one-third length of ninth length of tenth longer than tenth Fespruary 1954 tion given by Daday for vanhéffeni has been used as a basis of comparison. The comparison with digueti has been facilitated by a recent acquisition of a collection of 3 males and 1 female from near Reno, Nev. This represents a new locality record for this species as it had been previously known from only the type locality. In addition to the characters indicated in the foregoing table, concavus differs from digueti in a number of other features. The hinge line is proportionately much shorter, the umbones are less prominent in diguett, and it does not have the “sway-back” appear- ance of concavus. In digueti the first antennae of the male extend only to the fifth or sixth segment HOFFMAN: AMERICAN MILLIPEDS OF FAMILY EURYURIDAE 49 of the second antennae; the telson is more trun- cate, and the cercopods are proportionately shorter than in concavus. Also, the “thumb” of the male gnathopods of digueti are much more deeply cleft at the base than in concavus. A tabu- lated comparison of the three species is given on the opposite page. REFERENCES Dabay DE Drss, E. Monographie systematique des phyllopodes conchostraces. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., ser. 9, 20: 39-330. 1915. Mackin, J. G. Key to the species of Phyllopoda of Oklahoma and neighboring States. Proc. Okla- homa Acad. Sci. 19: 45-47. 1939. PEnNAK, R. W. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States: 769 pp. New York, 1953. ZOOLOGY .—Further studies on American millipeds of the family Euryuridae (Polydesmida). Ricuarp L. Horrman, Clifton Forge, Va. My previous paper dealing with the American euryurids (1951) endeavored to provide‘a summary of the genera recognized by me at the time of its writing in early 1950. Since that time I have accumulated additional pertinent information and have come to realize that my reliance upon Attems’s treatment of the group in Das Tierreich (1938) was in many instances ill- advised. In all, so many changes are neces- sary in the arrangement of the genera of this family that a second paper becomes advisable. While aware of the limitations imposed by the acute lack of critical study material, I am nonetheless convinced that even preliminary attempts at synthesis are badly needed at present. Half a loaf is better than none at all. é In the light of the preceding comments it may seem improper to refer to the works of the late Carl Attems in any vein other than one of utmost respect. Attems was the only recent worker with the industry and ability to produce manuals of the scope of his 3-volume ‘“Polydesmoidea,’’ yet while this magnificent compilation stands as a memorial to its gifted author, its minor imperfections will long be the despair of the uncritical user. Outstanding are Attems’s disregard of the works of some of his col- leagues (notably Cook and Silvestri), and a most remarkable indifference to the principles of type fixation. Some of these idiosyncrasies will be noted further on in the text. | Aside from information gathered from the literature, I have based this paper to a considerable extent upon Central American specimens preserved in my personal col- lection and that of the United States National Museum. This study material is very uneven as regards the genera repre- sented. In the case of Pseudamplinus, I have adequate material to justify the prepa- ration of a generic revision, which is now in progress. There seems to be no advantage in delaying the descriptions of the various new forms in other genera, however; these are given herewith, with at least a modicum of attention to their relationships to es- tablished species. In general the present paper is concerned with changes and addi- tions on a generic level. It is assumed that the reader has access to the earlier paper mentioned above, which lists the species in the various genera not dealt with here. It is with pleasure that I must again mention my increasing indebtedness to Dr. E. A. Chapin, for access to the collec- tions of the National Museum and for much advice and information pertinent to the completion of the present study. I am also grateful to Dr. W. J. Gertsch, through whose cooperation I was able to examine material in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History. Family EuRyvRIDAE Pocock Trachelorhacidae Silvestri, Boll. Mus. Torino 13 (324): 5. 1898 (based upon T'rachelorhacis Silvestri, a preoccupied name). 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Euryurinae Pocock, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Chilopoda and Diplopoda: 1138, 147. 1909. Euryurini Brolemann, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 584. 1915. Euryuridae Chamberlin, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 62: 249. 1918.— Hoffman, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 102: 235. 1951. Genera.—18, of which 13 are found in the Western Hemisphere. Range—North Carolina, western Pennsyl- vania, and Minnesota south through Central America to Ecuador, northeastern Peru, and northern Brazil. Celebes, Halmaheira, Ternate, Timor, and the Solomon Islands. Definition —A small family of the suborder Eurydesmidea (= Leptodesmidi of Brolemann, 1915), resembling the Platyrhacidae in the pres- ence of (1) closely-set antennae each subtended by an oval swelling, (2) small sternites with the legs basally approximate, (3) a broad distally truneate terminal segment (telson), and (4) small, rather simple gonopods in a proportionately small, somewhat diamond-shaped aperture. The gonopods are similar in lacking a definite pre- femoral process. From the Platyrhacidae, the members of this family differ chiefly in that the repugnatorial pores are located in the sides of definite marginal swellings of the keels. The pores in species of the Platyrhacidae are more or less remote from the edges of the keels, and are en- circled by a flat polished area; the keels them- selves have no marginal ridges or thickenings. In the absence of any intermediate condition, it seems best to follow the example of my prede- cessors, who have found it expedient to set the euryurid genera apart in a separate family. Attems, however, lumps the two groups in his recent (1938) survey. With the increasing significance that is being attached to the taxonomic value of the male genitalia, it appears possible to further divide the euryurids into several groups of genera, each rather discrete and readily defined. Since the recognition of such ensembles is a substantial aid to an understanding of the affinities of the genera, I think it advisable to designate them by the use of subfamily names, proposed towards the con- clusion of the discussion. A comment on the use of the family name may be of interest. In 1938 Attems proposed the name Eutheatus as a substitute for Huryurus of Koch, 1847, as the latter name had already been pub- lished in 1815 by C. 8. Rafinesque for a group of polychaete annelids. I have examined a copy of the Rafinesque paper, the Analyse de la nature voL. 44, No. 2 ou Tableau de lVunivers et des corps organises (Palerme, 1815), and find that the name Euryurus is given merely in a list of generic names. There is no description, no reference to a description, and no specific name cited, and the name may be regarded a nomen nudum. According to the Inter- national Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, generic names of this nature may be, if properly proposed, used again for other forms by later workers. Hutheatus in consequence was proposed without justification, it becomes a junior synonym of Huryurus Koch, 1847. Genus Amplinus Attems Amphinus (sic) Attems, Denk. Akad. Wien 68: 281, 396. 1899 (as subgenus of Pachyurus). Polylepiscus (in part) Attems, Das Tierreich 69: 300. 1938 (not Polylepiscus in the sense of Pocock 1909). Phinotropis Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 78: 499. 1941—Hoffman, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 102: 239. 1951 (type, Phinotropis tidus Chamberlin). Type.—Pachyurus (Amplinus) kalonotus At- tems, by designation of Pocock, 1909. Diagnosis —A euryurid genus characterized as follows: head with prominent subantennal swellings, collum as wide as second segment, tergites with prominent quadrate areas, telson broadly quadrate in shape, preanal scale sub- acuminate or rounded and with very small lateral setiferous tubercules. Male gonopods with elongate trachial rods, coxae somewhat rounded-elongate, prefemur and femur fused into a short, straight trunk, a long slender solenomerite and an elongage laminate tibiotarsus are set off from the femur by a per- ceptible joint. Range-——Upper Amazonian basin, in western Brazil, eastern Ecuador, and northeastern Peru. Species.—Five, listed in my 1951 paper under Phinotropis. Remarks.—As originally proposed, Amplinus included six species: Pachyurus kalonotus Attems and P. acuticollis Attems, Polydesmus klugiw Brandt, P. erichsont Brandt, P. abstrusus Karsch, and P. ater Peters. No type species was desig- nated. In 1909 Pocock selected kalonotus as type, and added six more species from Central America to the genus. But within the genus as understood by Pocock there were representatives of two different groups. In one of them (including kalonotus, acuticollis, and presumably ater) the preanal seale is of the usual polydesmoid form— subtriangular to semicircular. In the other group, FEBRUARY 1954 HOFFMAN: AMERICAN however, it is trapeziform in shape, that is to say, distally truncate instead of acute or rounded, with the caudal margin parallel to the basal edge and with the lateral setiferous tubercules con- siderably enlarged. This difference has come to be unanimously regarded by students of diplopods as one of generic value. It is very unfortunate that the name Amplinus has been misapplied, by all workers subsequent to Pocock, to the group having the truncate or concave preanal scale. In his most recent treatment of the poly- desmoids (Das Tierreich, Lief. 68-70) Attems erroneously cites Polydesmus klugiw of Brandt as type of Amplinus, and, moreover, places kalonotus and its relatives in Pocock’s genus Polylepiscus. That this association is untenable taxonomically as well as nomenclatorially is evi- denced by differences in the gonopods of the various species involved. The Guatemalan species included by Pocock in Polylepiscus have, in addi- tion to the spiculiform solenomerite, a somewhat similar branch from the base of the tibiotarsal blade. The South American species under con- sideration lack this additional process, and the tibiotarsus of their gonopods is also longer and more sinuate. Realization that they could not be properly placed in Polylepiscus induced me to group them under Chamberlin’s name Phino- tropis, based upon P. tidws—a Peruvian species which is obviously congeneric with kalonotus. So the discovery that kalonotus is the true type species of Amplinus requires relegation of Phino- tropis to the status of a junior synonym, and proposal of a new generic name for the Central American species heretofore called Amplinus. In reference to its mistaken identity, the group may be called 4 Pseudamplinus, n. gen. Type-—Amplinus orphinus Chamberlin 1922, by present designation. Diagnosis.—A euryurid genus characterized as follows: head with prominent subantennal swellings, collum as wide as second tergite, tergites strongly tesselated in most species, telson broadly truncate distally and quadrate in ap- pearance, preanal scale trapeziform in shape with the lateral setiferous tubercules very large and the margin between them straight or concave. Male gonopods with very long slender trachial rods; coxae rather slender; prefemora and femora fused into a straight trunk; a slender blade-like solenomerite and a thin flattened tibiotarsal branch, both directed at nearly a right angle to MILLIPEDS _ OF FAMILY EURYURIDAE 51 the femoral portion, are set off from this by a per- ceptible joint or suture, both of these terminal elements are directed away from the coxal joint. This is the only genus of the family having the truncate or distally concave preanal scale which is so characteristic of the Platyrhacidae, and may be regarded as a sort of intermediate group. In the form of the keels, however, the relationship is clearly with the other euryurids. Range-—Middle America, from southern Mexico (Guerrero and Vera Cruz) south to Costa Rica, and also northwestern Venezuela. Most of the species occur in Guatemala and in Vera Cruz. Species.—23, as follows: abstrusus (Karsch), areatus (Pocock), armatus (Pocock), beebei (Chamberlin), converus (Carl), crenus (Chamber- lin), eutypus (Chamberlin), erichsont (Brandt), flavicornis (Pocock), klugw (Brandt), leon (Cham- berlin), manni (Chamberlin), nitews (Chamberlin), nitidus (Brolemann), orphinus (Chamberlin), palicaudatus (Attems), pococki (Cook), schmidti (Chamberlin), tajywmulco (Chamberlin), tapa- chulae (Chamberlin), triramus (Pocock), xelitus (Chamberlin), zuniulus (sic) (Chamberlin). Remarks.—Inasmuch as no members of this genus have yet been collected in Panama, the presence of two rather similar forms in north- western Venezuela is of some interest. These species, abstrusus and beeber, agree with each other and differ from other members of the genus in having a rather shortened solenomerite. Karsch’s type came from Puerto Bello, Chamber- lin’s from Rancho Grande, about 35 miles to the south. The similarities between the two suggest synonymy, or at best a subspecific relationship. Redescription of several poorly known species, based upon material in my possession, is planned for inclusion in my forthcoming revision of this genus. Although Pocock clearly disposed of the mystery surrounding the matter of the type species of Orthomorpha—designating Polydesmus beaumonti Le Guillou following the elimination of all other species from the genus Paradesmus by Saussure, a remarkable effort was made by Cook in 1911 to restrict the name Orthomorpha to members of the present genus! But Cook’s proposal was based upon a highly subjective line of reasoning having absolutely no basis in fact, and no subsequent writer has ever discussed or even referred to it. The matter, in brief, may be summarized as follows: in 1859 the genus Para- desmus was erected by Saussure for five species 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES distributed in three groups. The first contained only Polydesmus carolinensis, the second P. klugu, P. erichsoni, and P. pictett, and the third only P. beaumonti. As Pocock pointed out, one of these five species must be the type, the addi- tion of coarctatus in 1860 having no bearing on the question. In 1869 Humbert and Saussure provided the name Euryurus of Koch for caro- linensis, and Pachyurus for the three species of the second group, leaving beawmonti as the only species in Paradesmus. Cook observed that since Saussure had implied in 1859 that beaumont was not a typical member of the genus Para- desmus (in the sense that it differed considerably from the other species), that generic name, and its replacement Orthomorpha) should be properly applied to the members of the second. group— klugit, erichsoni, and pictete. On the other hand, Cook also pointed out that the species described and illustrated as klugit by Pocock in the Biologia differed in several . respects from the type specimen of the species, which he had seen in the Berlin Museum, and suggested the name pococki for the form treated in the Biologia as klugiit. Cook’s perception of specific differences was a good one, and it may be reasonably admitted that he was correct in this particular. I therefore list pococki in the roster of species given above. It is to be hoped that ma- terial from Alvarado, Vera Cruz (the type locality of klugit) will soon be forthcoming to permit a final settlement of the confusion which surrounds application of the name. Genus Polylepiscus Pocock Polylepiscus Pocock, Biologia Centrali-Amer- icana, Chilopoda and Diplopoda: 154. 1909. Euplinus Chamberlin, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 45: 578. 1952 (type: EH. volcanicola Chamberlin, by original designation). Polylepiscus appears to be a genus more or less endemic to the Guatemalan plateau, and individuals seem to be scarce, to judge from the few preserved in museum collections. It is note- worthy that no additions to the genus have been made since Pocock’s original description and account in the Biologia'. It is to that reference, 1 Kuplinus volcanicola has recently been de- scribed as a new genus and species and was con- trasted only with Amplinus in the generic diag- nosis. One can never understand why Polylepiscus, beautifully illustrated and thoroughly described in the Biologica, was not taken into consideration. Not only is Huplinus a junior generic synonym, but furthermore I can not see how volcanicola differs in any respect from P. furcifer Pocock. — VOL. 44, No. 2 therefore, that appeal must be made for informa- tion pertinent to the allocation of the new forms. Pocock found that the genus was divisible into two groups on the basis of several correlated structural features. The following key is based upon that presented by him, with a few changes. KEY TO THE KNOWN FORMS OF POLYLEPISCUS 1. Pores of 19th segment completely lateral; metatergites smooth or nearly so, polygonal areas well-defined or obsolete but not ob- scured by granulation of dorsum........ 2 Pores of 19th segment on dorsal side of keels; dorsum rugulose or granular, the polygonal areas obseured!\.s.; aus ot 4 2. Dorsum entirely smooth, no trace of areas ex- cept a few vaguely defined on keels; a mid- dorsal row of large oval spots present trimaculatus, n. sp. Dorsum with polygonal areas well defined; no middorsal row of spots................. 3 3. Polygonal areas smooth, not tubercular, ex- cept obscurely so on the keels stoll1 Pocock Polygonal areas manifestly tubercular furcifer Pocock 4. Keels of posterior half of body with anterior border basally produced, posterior border from 13th to 18th distinctly shouldered at base, 19th tergite granular actaeon Pocock Keels of posterior half of body with anterior border less produced; posterior border strongly concave, not shouldered, 19th ter- gite granular only posteriorly or smooth. 5 5. Tibiotarsus of male gonopod less curved, not crossing behind tip of tibiotarsal process; 19th tergite granular over posterior half h. heterosculptus Carl Tibiotarsus of male gonopod more acutely bent, in mesial aspect crossing behind tip of tibiotarsal process; 19th segment almost entirely smooth...... h. pococki, n. subsp. It is to be especially noted that, with the excep- tion of stolli (from Cholhuitz, Guatemala), the previously known species have not been recorded from any definite locality. A considerable amount of work thus remains to be done in the way of defining the ranges of the different forms. Ma- terial of trimaculatus, on the other hand, has been obtained at several localities; and hetero- sculptus pococki is here described from north- eastern Chiapas, extending the known range of the genus slightly outside the political limits of Guatemala. Polylepiscus furcifer Pocock Polylepiscus furcifer Pocock, Biologia Centrali- Americana, Chilopoda and Diplopoda: 156, pl. 12, figs. 1-1h. 1909. - FEBRUARY 1954. HOFFMAN: Euplinus volcanicola Chamberlin, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 45: 578, fig. 48. 1952. The type locality of volcanicola, Volein Taju- muleo, Guatemala, provides the first definite locality from which furcifer has been taken. Pocock’s type specimen was without any locality data. Polylepiscus trimaculatus, n. sp. Fig. 2 Type specimen.—Male holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. no. 2098, from Sepaciute, Guatemala, col- lected in March 1902 by O. F. Cook. Allotype a female with the same collection data. Diagnosis—Readily separable from the other members of this genus by the smooth dorsum, trimaculate color pattern, and configuration of the male gonopod. The lateral position of the pores allies this form with stolli and furcifer. The prefemerofemoral portion of the gonopod is pro- portionately smaller in relation to the tibiotarsus than in the other species of which males are known. Description.—The general body form coincides closely with the descriptions given by Pocock. The following notes were made from the type specimens: Length of male, 62, width, 11 mm.; length of female, 60, width, 9.5 mm. Dorsum entirely smooth except for faint indications of areas on the keels; metazonites considerably raised above level of prozonites. Keels of segments 3-19 pro- duced caudad, their caudal margins concave and finely serrate; pores all completely lateral. Telson broadly rounded. Preanal scale subtriangular but distally rounded. Pleurites coarsely granular, with a series of acute tubercules along the caudal margins, becoming larger on the posterior seg- ments, frequently a small cluster of spines just below the projection of the keels. Sternites and basal segments of legs smooth and glabrous. The raised area between the leg- pairs of each segment impressed by a longitudinal and a-transverse furrow, creating a small tumid area at the base of each leg. Distal segments of legs sparingly hirsute. Bases of last pair of legs almost in contact. Gonopod aperture of male rather small and ovoid, with raised margins. Gonopods with long slender trachial rods; the coxae small and cylindri- cal. Basal half of telopodite densely setose. Distal half set off by a distinct groove or suture. Solenom- erite long and slender, unmodified, very slightly sinuous. Tibiotarsus somewhat broader, laminate, AMERICAN MILLIPEDS OF FAMILY EURYURIDAE 53. its distal end bent at a right angle; tibiotarsal process slender, unmodified, gently curved distad toward the tibiotarsus. Color of the preserved specimens as follows: dorsum chocolate brown to blackish; underparts light brown to tan. All of the upper surface of the keels and a large ovate median spot on each segment lighter. Collum with an _ hourglass- shaped mark. A label with the specimens reads “Spots, carinae, legs, and antennae pale grayish, nearly white’, this presumably referring to the condition in life. Remarks.—Additional material of trimaculatus has been seen from the following localities: GUATEMALA.—Pancajche, several taken in May 1905 by G. P. Goll; Trece Aguas, April 21, 1906 and June 1907 by O. F. Cook (all U.S. N. M.). Polylepiscus heterosculptus pococki, n. subsp. Fig. 1 Type specumen.—Adult male holotype, U. S. Natl. Mus. no. 2099, from Tumbala, State of Chiapas, Mexico, collected on June 20, 1906, by O. F. Cook. Diagnosis.—Very similar to P. h. heterosculptus, from which it may be distinguished by the con- trasting features given in the following couplet: Size large, length 80-90 mm, width, 13-15 mm; dorsum with conspicuous transverse rows of tubercules; caudolateral corners of keels of segments 5-16 produced caudally; keels, legs, and antennae reddish brown to blackish brown; 19th tergite granular posteriorly; tibiotarsus of male gonopod slender, distally recurved away from the solenomerite h. heterosculptus Carl Size smaller, length 60-65 mm, width, 9-11 mm, dorsal rows of tubercules less pronounced; caudolateral corners of keels of segments 4-16 produced caudad; legs, antennae, and keels yellowish; 19th tergite entirely smooth; tib- iotarsus of gonopod heavier, crossing behind tip of solenomerite....h. pococki, n. subsp. With the foregoing exceptions, pococki agrees so well with the excellent description of hetero- sculptus given by Carl that a description of my type series seems unnecessary. The differences between the two forms, while not impressive singly, are sufficient when taken in combination to warrant separation of a new subspecies. It is to be regretted that we are ignorant of the prov- enance of Carl’s material. This form is named in recognition of R. I. Pocock’s outstanding contribution to our knowl- edge of the diplopod fauna of Central America. o4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Genus Colomborus Chamberlin Colomborus Chamberlin, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 45: 587. 1952. Type.—Colomborus martanus Chamberlin (= Pycnotropis colombiensis Chamberlin, 1928). Range.—Colombia. Species.—1. Remarks.—There is no doubt that the type of this genus is worthy of systematic recognition. It is interesting to note, however, that Colomborus was proposed as a monotypic genus based upon a new species, despite the fact that this species had obviously already been described. One must presume that Chamberlin, in working up the material for his 1951 paper, did not even take into consideration his own earlier (1923) con- tribution on the millipeds of Colombia in which the species was first recognized under the name Pycnotropis colombiensis. I am unable to discern any specific differences in the illustrations of the male genitalia (19238: fig. 112; 1952: fig. 42). Genus Protaphelidesmus Brolemann Protaphelidesmus Brolemann, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 559. 1915—Attems, Das Tierreich 69: 313. 1988—Hoffman, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 102: 240. 1951. Ptyxogon Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 78: 500. 1941.—Hoffman, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 102: 240. 1951 (type: P. incus Cham- berlin, by original designation). Type.—Platyrrhacus ligula Brolemann. Ranye.—Venezuela; northeastern Peru. Species.—3: ligulus Brolemann, incus Cham- berlin, levigatus Attems. Remarks.—Since completing my first paper on this group, in which Ptyxogon was held distinct on the basis of smooth tergites, I have carefully reconsidered the drawings and descriptions of all three of the species involved, as well as the type of P. incus, and no longer believe that two genera can be recognized. Jeekel, writing on East Indian strongylosomoids, has recently emphasized the intrageneric variability of body form, and re- iterated the primary importance of the male gonopods. I have reached the same conclusions from recently acquired familiarity with several groups of tropical diplopods. The sculpture of the tergites, without substantiating genital features, can scarcely be considered of generic value, Genus Seminellogon Chamberlin Seminellogon Chamberlin, Pan-Pacific (1): 18. 1933. Ent. 9 voL. 44, No: 2 Type.—sS. chitarianus Chamberlin, by original designation. Range.—Costa Rica; Panama. Species.—2: chitarianus Chamberlin, azulensis, Ni. sp. Remarks.—This genus was overlooked in the preparation of my previous paper, primarily be- cause it was described as being closely related to Aphelidesmus and thus listed by Attems in 1937 amongst the “unsichere Gatturgen’’ of the Strongylosomidae. Seminellogon is of course a euryurid, and very close to Amplinus, into which it and several others may have to be withdrawn. A possible generic character, of unproven value, is the location of the pores on the under side of the keels of the 18th and 19th segments. In this respect it differs from the Central American genera, but I have not been able to study the South American forms in this respect. Seminellogon heretofore has been monotypical. A new species is here described from the high mountains of northwestern Panama, and based upon fairly large and homogeneous series. Con- sidering the quality level of the differences, how- ever, it would not be surprising if the new form is later shown to be a subspecies of chitarianus. cerro- Seminellogon cerroazulensis, n. sp. , Fig. 3 Type specimens.——Male holotype, U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 2100, from Cerro Azul, Province of Chiriqui, Panama, collected on March 26, 1911, by E. A. Goldman. Male and female paratypes from Boquete, Chiriqui Province, Panama, January 1940, W. C. Wood (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. A-7175) and from El Volcan, Chiriqui Province, Panama, February 28, 19386, W. J. Gertsch (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.). Diagnosis —Differing from S. chitarianus pri- marily in the characters of the male gonopod, such as the longer and less curved solenomerite; the much more slender tibiotarsus with a promi- nent broadening near its base; and the distinctly shorter basal, setose, portion of the telopodite. Description.—Agreeing in most respects with the description of chitartanus given by Chamber- lin. The following specific notes were made from the type specimen. Length, 44, width, 6 mm. Dorsum, sides, and ventral surfaces all entirely smooth and shining, no evidence of granulation or other roughening. Front edge of keels not shouldered, but forming an even are back to the caudolateral corner. FrBRuUARY 1954 Latter very little produced except on the last few segments. Caudal margin of keels nearly straight, not concave or shouldered basally. Pores lateral on all keels except the 18th and 19th, where they are distinctly inferior, on the under side. Telson almost square, with rounded corners, but slightly longer than broad. Sternites not distinctly impressed, nor lobed at the bases of the legs. Male gonopod (Fig. 3) with a short slender tracheal rod; coxa rather globose and large in proportion to the rest of the gonopod; prefemur- femur short, heavily setose, its front margin produced into a flange overlapping most of the HOFFMAN: AMERICAN MILLIPEDS OF FAMILY On Or EURYURIDAE course of the seminal channel. Tibiotarsus set. off by a conspicuous suture, its basal half broad and laminate with a conspicuous lobe on one side, distad of which it becomes abruptly more slender and sigmoidally bent, tapering gradually to its tip. Solenomerite very long, almost length of tibiotarsus, gently curved and gradually tapering distad, without branches or other modifications. Dorsum light brown with the keels and a large trapeziform area in the middle of each meta- tergite yellow, the latter giving the effect of a continuous, broadly serrate median dorsal band. Prozonites entirely yellow. Color of legs, sternites, and antennae probably also yellow in life. Fries. 1-4+—1, Polylepiscus heterosculptus pococki, n. subsp., left gonopod of paratype, Tumbala, Chiapas; 2, P. trimaculatus, n. sp., left gonopod of holotype, Sepaciute, Guatemala; 3, Sem- nellogon cerroazulensis, n. sp., left gonopod of holotype, Cerro Azul, Panama; 4, Varyomus confluens (Chamberlin), left gonopod of male holotype, Rancho Grande, Venezuela. All figures to same scale, showing gonopod in mesial aspect. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Genus Aphelidesmus Brolemann? Aphelidesmus Brolemann, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 67: 322. 1898; Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 584. 1915—Carl, Mem. Soc. Neuchat. Sci. Nat. 5: 936. 1914—Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 17: 280. 1929; Das Tierreich 68: 128. 1937. Type.—A. hermaphroditus Brolemann, by orig- inal designation. Diagnosis—A genus of the Euryuridae in which the tibiotarsus of the male gonopod is generally elongated and considerably expanded- laminate, forming a shield-like or spathe-like arrangement which partially or entirely encloses the long slender solenomerite. Femur of gonopod distally rotated almost 360°, causing the seminal groove to completely encircle the base of the tibiotarsus before entering upon the solenomerite. Range.—From the State of Para, Brazil, north through the Guianas and Venezuela to Colombia and Ecuador, thence north along the Atlantic coast of Central America to extreme southern Texas. Most of the species occur in Colombia. Species.—29, as follows: albocarinatus (Peters), ambiguus Carl, areatus (Peters), asper Attems, aterromus Attems, atratus (Pocock), bellus At- tems, converus Jeekel, dealbatus (Gervais), dit- vergens (Chamberlin), elongatus (Brolemann), frangens Chamberlin, fumigatus (Peters), glaphy- ros (Attems), goudotr (Gervais), gwianiensis Chamberlin, hermaphroditus Brolemann, hybridus (Peters), atermedius Chamberlin, major Cham- berlin, octocentrus (Brolemann), panamanicus Chamberlin, rivicola (Silvestri), roulini (Gervais), semicinctus (Peters), surinamensis Jeekel, tertius (Chamberlin), tripunctatus (Peters), wncinatus (Peters). Remarks—Many of the species referred to Aphelidesmus were originally described under the generic name Huryurus (including two named by Brolemann six years after he had proposed Aphelidesmus!); and most subsequent writers such as Pocock, Carl, and Chamberlin have as- sociated the genus with other euryurid groups. Despite this body of precedence, however, the genus was removed from the Euryuridae and relocated in the family Strongylosomidae by Attems in his 1929 summary of the group. It was out of respect of his authority that I omitted Aphelidesmus from my 1951 paper. Later con- sideration has convinced me that Attems was 2 Trachelorhacis Silvestri 1898, which has three months priority over Aphelidesmus as a name for this genus, is a junior primary homonym of T’rache- lorhacis Agassiz, 1846. voL. 44, No. 2 in error, an opinion which is shared by my col- league C. A. W. Jeekel, who has worked upon both Aphelidesmus and many strongylosomoid genera from Asia. Mr. Jeekel suspects that Attems may have been influenced primarily by the elon- gated and partly concealed solenomerite of Aphelidesmus species. In other respects, includ- ing the two cited as diagnostic of the Strongyloso- midae by Attems (i.e., median constriction of the gonopod aperture and independence of the gonopod coxae) these species do not qualify as stronglylosomid. This is the largest genus in the Euryuridae, there being some 29 species (many of which are known only from female type specimens); the range extends from Texas to northern Brasil, with most of the forms concentrated in the Colombia-Venezuela region. It seems not un- likely that the group as here comprised may be divided into two or more genera. At least one species described in the genus is not congeneric with A. hermaphroditus, and a new name is pro- posed for its accomodation. Varyomus, n. gen.? Type.—Aphelidesmus confluens Chamberlin 1950, by present designation. — Diagnosis——A euryurid genus characterized as follows: similar in most respects to Aphelides- mus but differing in that the distal half of the gonopod telopodite ‘is not twisted on its axis, and the seminal canal proceeds directly to the solenom- erite without first encircling the gonopod. The solenomerite itself is long and slender and distally protected by several laminate expansions of the tibiotarsus, but even these are different in ap- pearance from the analogous structures in Aph- elidesmus. Range.—Northern Venezuela. Species.—One. Remarks.—Through the kindness of Dr. W. J. Gertsch, I was able to re-examine the type speci- men of Aphelidesmus confluens in the American Museum collection, and provide herewith an illustration of the left gonopod as seen in mesial aspect. It will be apparent that the appendage is considerably different from those of typical Aphelidesmids, and this situation is additional evidence of the futility of drawing gonopods from whatever position happens to be convenient. 3 Named for Dr. Ralph Vary Chamberlin, the describer of perhaps the majority of American milliped species. FEBRUARY 1954 HOFFMAN: AMERICAN SUMMARY It now appears that three groups can be discerned amongst the American genera of the Euryuridae (perhaps the Oriental genera, of which I have not seen material, belong to still another) as reflected by vari- ous trenchant differences in the male genitalia. Two of these have already been recognized by Brolemann, as long ago as 1915, who set Aphelidesmus and_ Pro- taphelidesmus apart in a separate subfamily which he called Aphelidesminae. His ar- rangement of the platyrhacoid diplopods was as follows: Family Platyrhacidae Subfamily Platyrhacinae Tribe Platyrhacini Tribe Euryurini Subfamily Aphelidesminae It will be noted that the Aphelidesminae was given a rank equivalent to what would now be regarded as a superfamily including the Platyrhacidae and Euryuridae (a posi- tion which I believe in the light of present knowledge to be too exalted). That Silvestri was equally impressed by the characters of his synonymical genus T'rachelorhacis is evidenced by the new family which he proposed for the reception of 7. rzvicola. In admitting that the distinction generally accorded Aphelidesmus is probably well- founded, one has to recognize that as much or more difference obtains between Huryurus and Amplinus as between those two genera on one hand and A phelidesmus on the other. Giving these differences a coordinate degree of recognition requires the establishment of a third subfamily. These groups may be distinguished and diagnosed as follows: KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES OF EURYURIDAE 1. Tibiotarsus of male gonopod substantially expanded into a broad sheath, which shields or actually encloses solenomerite branch and which often has one or more small processes of its own Subfamily I. Aphelidesminae Brolemann Tibiotarsus of male gonopod generally long (reduced in one genus), very seldom broad- ened, never forming a protective element for solenomerite (when one is present)........ 2 4This name is proposed as new, being much more limited in its scope than Euryurinae as used by Pocock in the Biologia. MILLIPEDS OF FAMILY EURYURIDAE Da 2. No definite solenomerite present; telopodite of gonopod simple, tibiotarsal joint not set off by a conspicuous articulation Subfamily II. Euryurinae, n. subf.‘ A long slender solenomerite present, arising at base of tibiotarsus; telopodite of gonopod with a definite joint or line of separation between femur and tibiotarsus Subfamily III. Amplininae, n. subf. The genera belonging to these groups may be in turn separated by the following keys: KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE APHELIDESMINAE 1. Tibiotarsus of gonopod twisted almost 360° on axis of telopodite, seminal canal making a complete circuit around gonopod before entering on solenomerite, latter concealed or partly enclosed by tibiotarsus, which forms a 30 5721(0)) Ree eee mg Aphelidesmus Brolemann Tibiotarsus of gonopod not rotated on its axis; seminal canal running directly to solenomer- ite; latter not shielded or concealed by LLC GAIESUIS he ne Mie uO EE Erm Go Ko gun iat 2 2. Solenomerite short, upright, arising from near base of tibiotarsal blade; latter without secondary processes Protaphelidesmus Brolemann Solenomerite long, arising from middle of femoral portion of gonopod; tibiotarsal portion composed of two laminate processes which conceal tip of solenomerite Varyomus Hoffman KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE EURYURINAE 1. Gonopod relatively long and slender, tibio- tarsal portion present and with a small subterminal process........ Euryurus Koch Gonopod short and robust, tibiotarsal portion rudimentary, represented only by a short digitiform lobe........ Auturus Chamberlin KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE AMPLININAE 1. Preanal scale distally truncate or concave, lateral tubercules large (23 species) Pseudamplinus Hoffman Preanal scale subtriangular or broadly rounded, the lateral tubercules very small or absent. .2 2. No subantennal swellings present (9 species) Pycnotropis Carl Prominent subantennal swellings present... .3 3. Male gonopods with a secondary tibiotarsal process in addition to the larger main blade; caudolateral corners of the keels rather pro- longed into spiniform processes (5 species) Polylepiscus Pocock Male gonopod without a secondary tibiotarsal bipaiiGhicres: Ad onde estrone (PGs base oda whine ae) 4 4. Femoral portion of gonopod very stout and short, exceeded in length by the correspond- ingly elongated solenomerite............... 5 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Femoral portion of gonopod long and slender, exceeding the solenomerite and often tibio- barsus Inslemgeila yi 58 Se eee te eet ee i 5. Tibiotarsus of gonopod generally slender, un- modified, distally acuminate (2 species) Seminellogon Chamberlin Tibiotarsus of gonopod distally modified... . .6 6. Tibiotarsus slender, parallel-sided, bladelike, bifid distally (8 species) Thrinoxethus Chamberlin Tibiotarsus broadly sigmoid, widest at mid- length, distally trifid (1 species) Sigmogonotropis Hoffman 7. Tibiotarsus generally distally acuminate, occasionally expanded but never with spinous processes or teeth (5 species) Amplinus Attems Tibiotarsus broadened, blade-like with a conspicuous process at its midlength and several small subterminal teeth (1 species) Colomborus Chamberlin Of the genera admitted to this key, there is considerable uncertainty in my mind concerning the status of the last five enu- merated. Very little in the way of annectant forms would be required to necessitate consolidation of all of these nominal genera back into Amplinus. For the time being, however, they appear to be reasonably discrete and easily recognizable groupings; the gonopods being more distinctive than one would appreciate from the inadequate characterizations in the key. In addition to the pores of the 18th and 19th segments of Semznellogon, another character of unestablished taxonomic value is the presence or absence of subantennal swellings. I have never seen any specimens VoL. 44, No. 27 of Pycnotropis; the information regarding this difference is derived from Attems. Considering the fallability of other char- acters employed in that author’s key to the euryurid genera, this one must be held in suspicion until it has been more thor- oughly investigated. REFERENCES ATTEMS, Cart GRAF. Diplopoden des Belgischen Congo. I. Polydesmoidea. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 17 (3): 2538-878. 1929. . Fam. Strongylosomidae. Das Tierreich 68: 1-300. 1938. . Fam. Leptodesmidae, Platyrhacidae, Oxydes- midae, Gomphodesmidae. Das Tierreich, 69: 1-487. 1938. BROoLEMANN, HENRI W. Essai d’une classification des Polydesmiens. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 523-608. 1915. CHAMBERLIN, Raupu V. The millipeds of Central America. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 60 (8): 1-75. 1922. . Results of the Bryant Walker Expeditions of the University of Michigan to Colombia, 1913, and British Guiana, 1914. The Diplopoda. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan. no. 133: 1-148. 1923. . On a collection of millipedes and centipedes from northeastern Peru. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 78 (7): 478-585. 1941. . Neotropical chilopods and diplopods in the collections of the Department of Tropical Research, New York Zoological Society. Zoo- logica 35 (2): 133-144. 1950. HorrMaNn, RicHarp L. A new genus of Central American milliped (family Euryuridae), with notes on the American genera. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 102: -235-243. 1951. MALACOLOGY .—Leiostracus (?) kugleri, . sp., a new bulimulid mollusk from Venezuela. LoraHar Forcart, Museum of Natural History, Basle, Switzer- land. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) Since 1922 Dr. H. G. Kugler and other Swiss geologists have been sending most interesting scientific collections from Vene- zuela and Trinidad to the Museum of Natural History in Basle (Switzerland). During the war, 1939-1945, when normal communications between South America and Switzerland were interrupted, Dr. Kug- ler sent malacological collections from Venezuela to the U. 8. National Museum in Washington. Dr. H. A. Rehder recently entrusted this material to the author for determination. Shells of a species of Buli- mulidae were identified with those the Museum in Basle received as early as 1926, and of which the revision established that they. belong to a species hitherto unde- scribed. The species is dedicated to Dr. H. G. Kugler, to. whom science owes much for the scientific exploration of Venezuela and Trinidad. Leiostracus (?) kugleri, n. sp. Diagnosis —The shell is solid, elongate-turricu- late, narrowly umbilicated; its color is white with ochraceus stripes, which are faded in worn shells; the apical whorls are yellowish to whitish. Fepruary 1954 The nepionic whorls are almost smooth; the following whorls have more or less distinct ir- regular riblets. The aperture is elongate-ovate, its base some- what angular. The columellar lip is expanded with a straight vertical edge. The internal part of the aperture and the expanded lip are brownish colored. The shells show nearest morphological rela- tions to those of Leiostracus cinnamomeo-lineata (Moricand) from the Brazilian Province Bahia, of which paratypes (Mus. Basle 1489-a) have been compared. Fig. 1.—Letostracus (?) kugleri, n. sp.: Holo- type, X2 and natural size. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY a9 Holotype —Mus. Basle 4950-a. Type locality —Venezuela, Est. Faleén, Distr. Colina, Porta Juela near Cumarebo—leg. Dr. H. G. Kugler and Dr. L. Vonderschmitt 1926. 7? paratypes——S8 (Mus. Basle 4950-a’) from the type locality; 36 (Mus. Basle 4950-c and 4950-d) and 27 (U. S. Nat. Mus. 508834 and 508855) from Est. Faleén, Distr. Zamora, Cuma- rebo Field—leg. Dr. H. G. Kugler 1933-1949; 6 (Mus. Basle 4950-b) from Est. Faleén, Distr. Acosta, near Rio Tocuyo—leg. Dr. H. G. Kugler, 1929. ; Measurements of the shell (in mm).— an | NES QeeU Ree OR | UF Fig !o Fig 11 25 —PO, 25 -CALCIUM AND —PO, 20 20 IS IS Ke) 10 | i | lll 2B SERS NRO: SRM Spe amet! | | Cer ew Se ON 2 oe Fig 12 Fig 13 Fries. 10-13.—Average number of pith cells per internode in the seven basal internodes of the four series of plants. Scale: 1 unit equals 100,000 cells. 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the tissues of the axis in the series minus calcium and minus phosphorus. It seemed most abundant in parenchymatous tissues; a slightly lesser quantity was in the xylem. There was a greater amount of magnesium in the tissues of plants in this series than in any other. Phosphates. No positive reaction for phosphates could be obtained in the seven basal internodes in all four series. Apparently at the time of sampling there was too small a quantity of phosphates in the lower axis to give a reaction. Positive tests for phosphates were secured from branches of the inflorescence and sections close to the apical meristem of the control plants and the plants grown without calcium; none could be detected from these structures in the two series not supplied with phosphates. Nitrates and nitrites were present in fairly large quantity in all four series. The series grown with- out both calcium and phosphorus contained a slightly larger amount of these substances than did the three other series, but the plants in all four series contained what would seem to be adequate amounts. Protein nitrogen was detectable in fairly heavy amounts in the controls and in the series minus calcium and minus phosphorus; the series minus calcium contained by far the greatest quantity. The plants minus phosphorus gave the lowest reaction for protein nitrogen, restricted to the xylem parenchyma, prosenchyma, and _ pith rays. Sulfates and organic sulfur, when present in a tissue, did not seem to be evenly distributed throughout the tissue, but were restricted to certain cells, otherwise indistinguishable except for the concentration of these substances. No sulfates were detected in the series minus calcium nor in the series minus phosphorus. In the con- trols and the series deficient in both calcium and phosphorus a medium amount of sulfates were found in the pith of all seven basal internodes. Organic sulfur was often associated with tannin cells in the cortex, phloem, and epidermis. Potassium was abundant in all tissues of the axis in all four series. Fructose gave a trace reaction in the pith of the controls and the series minus calcium; none was present in the two series lacking phosphorus. Glucose in very large quantities was observed in all tissues of the control plants, and even larger amounts in the series lacking phosphorus, and in that lacking both calcium and phosphorus. The VOL. AA, NO. 3 series grown without calcium alone contained considerably less glucose, but it was still present in rather large quantity. Amylodextrin was indicated only in those series which received calcium. It appeared in special scattered cells in the pith of the con- trol, and in the cortex and epidermis as well in the series lacking phosphorus, but was never generally distributed throughout a particular tissue. Starch was present in considerable quantity in all plants. The series minus calcium contained the largest amount, principally in the pith, while the series minus phosphorus contained less starch than the control. The smallest quantity was observed in the series lacking both calcium and phosphorus. Fats and oils were indicated as small droplets or globules in the cytoplast. Such organelles were markedly associated with the chioroplasts in the green portions of the stem. In the control plants and those grown without calcium only, fats and oils were evenly distributed in all seven internodes studied. Both series grown without phosphorus lacked the small globular cytoplasmic inclusions in the lower internodes, but the nuclei and nucleoli of almost all the cells of these internodes did stain bright red with Sudan IV, presumably from lipoidal materials. In the upper internodes in these series the number of globules of fats and oils in the cytoplast increases, so that in the uppermost internodes all living tissues contain at least traces of these substances. All series of plants had well-developed cuticles on the stems. DISCUSSION In addition to its function as support for the aerial organs and translocation between the various parts, of the plant body, the stem is of necessity the structure through which takes place any coordination of development and func- tion between the component parts of the plant. In particular, cambial activity and the develop- ment of secondary vascular tissues seem to be closely coordinated with the degree of necessity for conduction between and mechanical support of the lateral organs. Knight (1803) and Véchting (1918) demonstrated that in dicotyledons the quantity of mechanical tissue in a stem was directly proportional to the mechanical stress imposed by the lateral organs; Kohl (1886) and Jost (1907) established that the size and number Marcu 1954 of foliage leaves, or the rate of transpiration, or both, directly influenced the development of the conducting tissues in the axis. Although it is possible to conceive all differ- ences in axial structure between the four series of plants grown in this experiment to have been ultimately brought about by differences in mineral nutrition, the basis for the actual amount of cambial activity and development of second- ary vascular structure could in part depend on the functions the axis was called on to perform for the lateral organs. In the deficiency series of plants, where reduced leaf area and loss of foliage at the time of flowering occurred, a correspond- ing reduction in mechanical and water-conducting tissues was noted; its reduction was more or less proportional to the loss of leaf area. The quan- tity of phloem, however, was seen to remain relatively large. Similar observations in castor bean were made by Penfound (1932), who con- cluded that conditions favoring rapid water adsorption and rapid water loss also give the greatest development of vascular tissue. There is little evidence that cell divisions and subsequent vacuolation and elongation near the stem apex are as directly influenced by the size and functions of the leaves. Indirect evidence tends to show the opposite to be the case, with the older foliage sacrificed to the development of fruits and to the continued growth of the apical regions. In the castor bean, plants grown without cal- cium, with or without phosphorus, showed a decrease in the traces of calcium in the protoplasts of the upper internodes, accompanied by a de- crease of calcium oxalate and a marked increase in magnesium. With these changes there was a reduction in length of the internodes, and an increase in the number of cells per internode, but in the series lacking calcium alone the in- crease in cell number was below that in com- parable internodes of the control plants. Similar effects of calcium deficiency have been noted by previous investigators. Loew (1892) pointed out the increased concentration of magnesium in wheat plants deficient in calcium, and subse- quently concluded (1903) that the increased concentration of magnesium in the cells exerted a toxic effect on the tissues. This view was supported by Reed (1907), who stated that in addition to calcium appearing necessary for activity and growth of chlorophyll-bearing tissue, one of its most important functions seemed to be that of VENNING: MINERAL DEFICIENCY IN CASTOR BEAN 79 overcoming the bad effects of magnesium. It has also been suggested (Groom, 1896) that a defi- ciency in calcium leads to an accumulation of oxalic acid, a by-product of protein synthesis, with subsequent toxic effects which are normally overcome by calcium, which precipitates this waste by forming the almost insoluble salt, calcium oxalate. Inhibition of stem elongation in calcium-deficient garden peas, Pisum sativum L., was reported by Day (1928, 1929), in which she noted that the anatomical structure of the stem and root remained constant (as compared to control plants) and that the differences were principally the degree to which the stems had elongated. Davidson and Blake (1936) made a similar observation on calcium-deficient peach trees, and reported the stem growth restricted in length but not greatly restricted in diameter. Fewer cells of smaller size than normal were de- scribed from the stem tips of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., by Davis (1949). The inhibiting of cell division and elongation, as observed in the instances cited above and in castor bean, might be supposed to be caused by (1) the direct necessity for calcium as a protoplasmic compo- nent, together with the toxic effects of an accumu- lation of oxalic acid, or (2) the excess accumula- tion of other minerals, such as magnesium, which are thought toxic in large quantity or when not in antagonism with calcium, or (3) the action of other substances or minerals normally present, whose action on cellular activity is masked by the presence of calcium. Plants in the series lacking phosphorus showed reduction in internodal length and cell size in the upper internodes, with a much greater increase in the number of cells per internode than in the control plants. These differences were associated with a reduced amount of fats and oils in the protoplast, and a smaller amount of protein nitrogen, with an increased quantity of calcium. Similar observations were described for phos- phorus-deficient tomatoes by Eckerson (1931). Disintegration of central pith cells as described in tomato by Lyon and Garcia (1944) was not observed, but many of the central pith cells were dead in the internodes studied. Reduced cell size, as seen in the upper internodes of castor bean, has been reported for phosphorus-deficient tomatoes by Watts (1938); apparently there are no reports of increased meristematic activity in the apical tissues associated with this deficiency. The differences in the upper internodes between 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES this and the control series of plants could be interpreted to imply (1) that phosphorus, in addition to its other metabolic roles, may act as an inhibitor or regulator of cell division, and its deficiency removes a check on this process, or (2) abundant calcium is a stimulator of cell division, or (3) the action of calcium or of other substances normally present is changed by the absence of phosphorus. The series lacking both calcium and _ phos- phorus shows a curious makeup of similarities and differences between the series deficient in only one of these elements and the control series. Like the series deficient in calcium alone, they show a decrease of calcium in the protoplasts of the cells in the upper internodes, a decrease in the amounts of calcium oxalate, and a marked increase in the amounts of magnesium in the tissues. Unlike the series deficient in calcium alone, they contain larger quantities of sulfates, and smaller amounts of fats, oils, and starch. As compared with the series deficient in phos- phorus, these plants were similar in their reduced amounts of fats and oils, but unlike in the smaller amounts of starch, reduced calcium, lack of cal- cium oxalate, and high magnesium content. They showed a greater number of cells in most of the upper internodes than did the controls, but not so large a number as in the series lacking phos- phorus alone. From comparisons between this and the other series, some indications of calcium and _ phos- phorus activity as related to cell divisions are suggested : Calcium has long been thought to play an important part in the process of cell division, not only in the mitotic process, but also in the formation of the cell plate and middle lamella. Numerous experiments in which plants were grown on a complete nutrient solution in which sodium, barium, strontium, or magnesium were substituted for calcium have yielded similar results: erratic cell divisions in the meristems which became fewer and finally ceased, and vacuolation of the cells of the root meristems associated with damage and death to these tissues, and in cases of extreme calcium deficiency followed by death to the plant as a whole (Bruch, 1902; True, 1922; Mevius, 1927; Harris, 1928; Sorokin and Sommer, 1929; Albrecht and Davis, 1929; Nightingale, 1937; Tucker and Burk- holder, 1941; and Davis, 1949). Bamford (1931) performed similar experiments on the roots of wheat and corn seedlings; the root tips were vou. 44, No. 3 permanently injured after one day in solutions lacking calcium, whereas the plants throve in the same solution were calcium present. Bamford’s observations went yet further; no significant root injury was demonstrated after submergence for seven days in distilled water, which of course supplied no calcium. This evi- dence indicated that the rapid root injury ob- served when roots were placed in a nutrient solution from which calcium had been omitted could not have been due to the failure of this solution to supply calcium to the roots. He con- cluded that injury must have resulted from the unbalanced condition of the cultural solution, the components of which were toxic when not antagonized by calcium. The roots of castor bean showed such injury when grown without calcium, whereas similar damage was not apparent to the roots of plants lacking both calcium and phosphorus. Similarly, cell divisions were inhibited in the upper inter- nodes of the plants lacking calcium alone, whereas for the most part there were a greater number of cells per internode in the plants lacking either phosphorus or both calcium and _ phosphorus than in the control plants. Although necessary as a protoplasmic constituent, it would thus ap- pear that phosphorus, when not associated with calcium, has a toxic effect on root meristems and to some extent on apical meristems, and that there are reciprocal effects between ions of calcium and phosphorus which reduce the toxic effects of the latter. The fact that the plants lacking only phosphorus died as a result of fruiting, while those lacking both calcium and phosphorus did not, would suggest that calcium, in the absence of phosphorus, may have deleterious metabolic effects normally masked by phosphorus. The toxicity of magnesium in the plant body would not appear to be as great as previously supposed; comparisons between the series lack- ing phosphorus, with a low magnesium—high calcium content, and the series lacking both calcium and phosphorus, in which the reverse situation of a high magnesium-—low calcium con- tent was found, showed both to have a greater number of cells per internode in the upper inter- nodes than did the controls. Extensive root dam- age in the series lacking calcium, and no root damage in the series lacking both calcium and phosphorus, both of which received large amounts of magnesium, would seem to indicate that the magnesium was not responsible for the damage seen in the one series. Marcu 1954 Both calcium and phosphorus would appear to be necessary for cell elongation, as elongation was eventually reduced in plants lacking one or both of these elements. SUMMARY The basic anatomical pattern and arrange- ment of tissues in the axis of castor bean is conservative; deficiencies of calcium and phosphorus do not affect the basic ana- tomical pattern, but are reflected in the quantities of tissue produced. A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus alone has greater adverse effects to the plant than when both elements are lacking. The effects of calcium and phosphorus deficiency on the growth and development of castor bean are much more profound when the plant is in the flowering and fruiting phases of development than when in vegeta- tive growth. The activity of the vascular cambium, and differentiation of secondary conducting and mechanical tissues in the axis is re- stricted in both deficiencies. This reduction in secondary tissues parallels loss of foliage area, and is probably in part a response to such loss, rather than a response solely to differences in chemical composition of the axis. The number of pith cells per internode provide an index of previous primary (apical) meristematic activity. Calcium deficiency results in a smaller number of cells per inter- node than in control plants, phosphorus deficiency in a much larger number of cells per internode than in the controls, and a de- ficiency of both calcium and phosphorus produced a greater number of cells per inter- node than in the controls, but a smaller number than in plants lacking phosphorus alone. | The phosphate ion appears to be toxic to meristematic cells when not associated with calcium, there being a reciprocal ef- fect be(ween ions of the two elcments which reduces the toxicity of the latter. Calcium appears to have a stimulatory effect on cell division which is somewhat curtailed when associated with. phosphorus. Both calcium and phosphorus appear necessary for cell elongation. VENNING: MINERAL DEFICIENCY IN CASTOR BEAN 81 LITERATURE CITED ALBRECHT, W. A., and Davis, F. L. Physiological importance of calcium in legume innoculation. Bot. Gaz. 88: 310-321. 1929. BamForp, R. Changes in root tips of wheat and corn grown in nutrient solutions deficient in calcium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 58: 149-178. 1931. Brucu, F. Physiological importance of calcium in plants. Landw. Jahrb. 30: Erg. Bd..3: 127- 143. 1902. CHAMBERLAIN, C. J. Methods in plant histology, ed. 5. Chicago, 1932. Davipson, O. W., and Buaksg, M. A. Responses of young peach trees to nutrient deficiencies. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 33: 247-248. 1936. Davis, D. E. Some effects of calcium deficiency on the anatomy of Pinus taeda. Amer. Journ. Bot. 36: 276-282. 1949. Day, D. Some effects of Pisum sativum of a lack of calccum in the nutrient solution. Science 68: 426-427. 1928. . Some effect of calcium deficiency on Pisum sativum. Plant Physiol. 4: 493-506. 1929. Ecxerson, 8. H. Influence of phosphorus deficiency on metabolism of the tomato. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 3: 197-217. 1931. Foster, A. 8. Practical plant anatomy, ed. 2, New York, 1949. Groom, P. On the relation between calcium and the transportation of carbohydrates in_ plants. Ann. Bot. 10: 91-96. 1896. Harris, J. A. Studies of the elements required in only small quantities for the development of the green plant and miscellaneous investigations. Activities of the Department of Botany, University of Minnesota, for 1927. 1928. JOHANSEN, D. A. Plant microtechnique. New York, 1940. Jost, L. Lectures on plant physiology. Berlin, 1907. Knieut, in HABERLANDT, G. Physiological plant anatomy: 194-195. (Transl. 4th German ed. by M. Drummond.) London, 1928. Kouu. Die Transpiration der Pflanzen: 90 et seq. Braunschweig, 1886. Loew, O. Uber die physiologischen Funktionen der Ca- und Mg-Salze im Pflanzenorganismus. Flora 75: 368. 1892. . Unter welchen Bedigugen wirken Mg-Salze shadlich auf Pflanzen? Flora 92: 489. 1903. Lyon, C. B., and Garcia, C. R. Anatomical re- sponses to tomato stems to variations in the macronutrient anion supply. Bot. Gaz. 105: 394-405. 1944. Mevius, W. Kalzium-lon und Wurzelwachstum. Jahrb. fiir wiss. Bot. 66: 183-253. 1927. NIGHTINGALE, G. T. Potassiwm and calcium in re- lation to nitrogen metabolism. Bot. Gaz. 98: 725-734. 1937. ‘PenFounD, W. T. The anatomy of the castor bean as conditioned by light intensity and soil moisture. Amer. Journ. Bot. 19: 538-546. 1932. ReepD, H.S. The value of certain nutritive elements to the plant cell. Ann. Bot. 21: 501-548. 1907. SoroKIN, H., and Sommer, A. L. Changes in the cells and tissues of root tips induced by the ab- 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sence of calcium. Amer. Journ. Bot. 16: 23-39. 1929. True, R. H. The segnificance of calcium for higher green plants. Science 55: 1-6. 1922. Tucker, C. M., and BuRKHOLDER, P. R. Calcium deficiency as a factor in abnormal rooting of philodendron cuttings. Phytopath. 31: 844- 848. 1941. vou. 44, NO. 3 VocutTine, H. von. Untersuchen zur experimentel- len Anatomie und Pathologie der Pflanzen- korpers 2: Tiibingen, 1918. Watts, V. M. Anatomical symptoms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium deficiencies in seedling hypocotyls of tomato Lycopersicum esculentum Mzll.). Bull. Arkansas Agr. Exp. Stat. 366. 1938. MYCOLOGY.—A_ nematode-capturing fungus with clamp-connections and curved conidia. CHARLES DRECHSLER, United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. In earlier papers (Drechsler, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1949) I described as new species six nematode-destroying fungi that may with some confidence be reckoned among the Basidiomycetes, for although they have not been found producing basidia and _ basidio- spores their hyphae are unmistakably furnished with clamp-connections. Four of these fungi, namely Nematoctonus tylosporus, N. levosporus, N. pachysporus, and N. leptosporus, always attack eelworms in the usual manner of parasites: their conidia, after becoming externally affixed to the animal by means of an adhesive secretion, will push through the integument a narrow germ tube which on reaching the fleshy interior widens out, elongates, and ramifies to form an assimilative mycelium extending lengthwise from head to tail. The two other fungi, N. haptocladus and N. concurrens, likewise often attack by intruding a germ tube from an adhering conidium, but in addition they employ adhesive organs of mycelial origin to capture motile eelworms; each captive being subsequently invaded and expropriated of all its digestible sub- stance. A clamp-bearing fungus similarly given to capture of nematodes but differing markedly in its strongly curved conidia from both N. haptocladus and N. concurrens, as well as from the other 4 named species of Nematoctonus, was mentioned (Drechsler, 1941, p. 780) as occurring in Hawaii, though the material available at the time was too poor to justify a full description under a separate binomial. More recently a nema- tode-capturing fungus with clamp-connec- tions and strongly curved conidia developed abundantly in several maize-meal agar plate cultures which after being over-grown by Pythium debaryanum Hesse had been further planted with small quantities of decaying vegetable detritus collected on December 20, 1952, in an open field in southern Louisi- ana. How this fungus is related to the Hawai- ian form remains uncertain. In any case it seems unquestionably distinct from the six species of Nematoctonus to which names have been given, and accordingly merits recogni- tion as an additional member of the genus. A specific epithet compounded of two words (kayumvAos and oropa) meaning “‘bent”’ and ‘‘seed,’’? respectively, may serve help- fully in recalling one of its most conspicuous diagnostic features. Nematoctonus campylosporus sp. _ nov. Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, plus minusve ramosae, plerumque circa 2m crassae. intra vermiculum nematoideum crescentes, post mor- tem animalis hyphas procumbentes (vel rarius ascendentes) extra emittentes; his hyphis pro- cumbentibus incoloratis, aliquid ramosis, ad modum Hymenomycetum septato-nodosis, hic illic (praecipue in nodis) sterigmata ferentibus, saepe 25-200u longis, ex magna parte in cellulis filiformibus 10-50u longis et 1.7—2.5u crassis constantibus, sed cellula paenultima in postica ejus parte saepius 2-3.5u crassa in antica ejus parte vulgo usque 1.5u attenuata et abrupte in aerem flexa itaque fronte in modo columellae ascendente; columella circa 5u alta, 1.6-2u crassa, cellulam ultimam in aere sustentans; cellula ultima saepius 3.5-5u longa, 1.6-2u crassa, medio aliquid constricta, primo nuda sed mox pila glutinis circumdata, denique saepe ad vermiculum nematoideum inhaerente, animal ita capiente, cuticulam ejus perforante, hyphas assumentes intrudente; sterigmatibus 2—5y altis, sursum attenuatis, apice. circa 0.5u crassis, conidia singula ferentibus; conidiis incoloratis, allantoideis, plerumque valde curvis, basi atque apice late rotundatis, vulgo 10-13u _ longis, 2.5-4u crassis. Marcu 1954 DRECHSLER: NEMATODE-CAPTURING FUNGUS 83 C 8 x > % 3 3 é ) Fires. 1-5.—Nematoctonus campylosporus (all parts drawn at a uniform magnification with the aid ‘of a camera lucida; X1000 throughout): 1, Specimen of Eucephalobus sp., which evidently was captured through adhesion to the procumbent hypha a (6-7, procumbent hyphae put forth externally by the assimilative mycelium; 0, adhesive terminal cell; p, conidium borne on sterigma); 2-4, por- tions of procumbent hyphae, showing some terminal adhesive cells, 0, and some clamp-connections; 5 (a-z), 6(a-p), random assortment of detached conidia, showing usual variations in size, shape, and curvature. 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vermiculos nematoideos diversos capiens consumensque habitat in materiis plantarum putrescentibus prope La Place, La. Assimilative hyphae colorless, somewhat branched, mostly about 2u wide, developing within living nematodes, after death of an in- vaded animal putting forth procumbent (or more rarely ascending) hyphae; the procumbent hyphae colorless, somewhat branched, studded with clamp-connections, bearing sterigmata here and there, often 25 to 200u long, for the most part composed of filiform segments 10 to 50u long and 1.7 to 2.5u wide, but the modified penultimate segment frequently 2 to 3.5u wide in its middle or its proximal portion and then often tapering forward to a width of approxi- mately 1.5u in its sharply upcurved distal por- tion which forms a stalk holding the distal seg- ment aloft about 5u above the substratum; this distal segment commonly 3.5 to 5u long, 1.6 to 2u wide, somewhat constricted near the mid- dle, at first naked but soon becoming enveloped in a globule of glutinous material, therewith often adhering to a roving nematode, thus cap- turing the animal, and then, after narrowly pene- trating its cuticle, intruding assimilative hyphae to appropriate its fleshy contents. Sterigmata often arising dorsally from clamp-connections, mostly 2 to 5u high, tapering upward, about 0.5u wide at the tip whereon a single conidium is borne; conidia colorless, allantoid, usually curved . strongly, broadly rounded at both ends, com- monly measuring 2.5 to 4u in greatest width and 10 to 13 in length along the curved axis. Capturing and consuming nematodes of dif- ferent species (including a species of Hucephalo- bus) it occurs in decaying plant detritus near La Place, La. Owing to its usually rather meager mycelial development and to the slenderness of its hyphae Nematoctonus campylosporus offers a charac- teristically frail appearance more _ strongly reminiscent of N. haptocladus than of the sturdier N. concurrens. In my cultures it occurred only in areas immediately adjacent to deposits of plant detritus. Attack on eelworms was always ini- tiated in a predaceous manner—each animal being held captive through adhesion to the distal cell of a procumbent hypha (Fig. 1, a) extended from an assimilative mycelium in a nematode that had been captured earlier. The eelworms taken belonged mostly to a single sharp-tailed species present in large numbers, which Dr. G. VOL. 44, NO. 3 Steiner kindly identified as being referable to the genus Hucephalobus. As a rule the assimila- tive mycelium intruded from an affixed adhesive cell was too badly obscured by the degenerating materials of musculature and organs to permit reliable observations on cross-walls and clamp- connections within captured animals (Fig. 1). While very short external hyphae (Fig. 1, 6) or hyphal branches (Fig. 1, d) may lack clamp- connections, the longer filaments (Fig. 1, c, e-7; Figs. 2-4) extended procumbently are regularly provided with one or more clamps. In general, clamps are associated with all cross-walls be- tween segments in procumbent hyphae, except the cross-wall separating the terminal adhesive cell (Fig. 1, 0) from the supporting upcurved tip of the penultimate segment. In N. campylosporus, as in N. haptocladus, adhesive cells are always formed terminally on axial hyphae or lateral branches, never apparently being produced, as in NV. concurrens, on short protuberant outgrowths arising dorsally and in median positions from intercalary segments. The sterigmata bearing the conidia of Nema- toctonus campylosporus seem rather delicate, since in many instances they collapse almost beyond recognition when a cover glass is placed over them. Like the sterigmata in congeneric species they often arise from the dorsal convex side of a clamp-connection (Fig. 1, p). The strongly curved conidia (Fig. 5, a-z; Fig. 6, a—p) fall off on slight disturbance. They seem generally somewhat smaller than the conidia of N. haptocladus and N. concurrens. In my cul- tures they utterly failed to germinate, in no ob- served instance producing either germ-tube or adhesive organ or secondary conidium. They re- mained for weeks in an unchanged state, many eventually being ingested by large amoebae. Their inert behavior obviously precluded in- fection of eelworms in the manner usual for fungous parasites. The possibility is not to be dismissed that under conditions permitting conidial germination Nematoctonus campylosporus might display a parasitic as well as a predaceous mode of attack. REFERENCES DRECHSLER, C. Some hyphomycetes parasitic on free-living terricolous nematodes. Phytopa- thology 31: 773-802. 1941. . Two new basidomycetous fungi parasitic on nematodes. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 33: 183-189, 1943. Marcu 1954 SPILMAN: A clamp-bearing fungus parasitic and predaceous on nematodes. Mycologia 38: 1-23. 1946. GENERIC NAMES OF THE SALPINGIDAE 85 . A nematode-capturing fungus with anas- tomosing clamp-bearing hyphae. Mycologia 41: 369-387. 1949. ENTOMOLOGY .—Generic names of the Salpingidae and their type species (Cole- optera).! T. J. Spruman, Department of Entomology, Cornell University. (Com- municated by Alan Stone.) Well-conducted taxonomic investigations, establishing morphological, ethological, and distributional relationships between con- generic species, may conclude with the assignment of an incorrect name to the generic group. Such errors can result from various causes, the most common of which are: absence of prior type species designa- tions; ignorance of designations; disagree- ment as to which species are the proper type species; and complete disregard for the type species concept. Errors from such causes were found in the Salpingidae, though most generic names have been used correctly. It is hoped that this list of type species will help to avoid future errors in the assignment of generic names in the Salpingidae. The form used in this list is very similar to that employed by Blackwelder (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 200. 1952) in the Staphyl- inidae. Three major sections follow this introduction: a list of genera with their type species; a list of corrections to the present catalogue of the family; and an appendix of discussions too involved to be in the list. In the first section, generic names are alphabetically arranged, and _ subgeneric names are treated as being of equal rank. The first line of each entry is composed of the following: first, the generic name; second, the proposer; third, the year the name was published; fourth, the citation of the publi- cation, followed by the day of the month when determinable; and fifth, in brackets, special facts concerning the original proposal, such as new name, emendation, fossil, and subgenus. The following explains the categories 1 This article is the revision of part of an un- . published master of science thesis written at Cornell University. I wish to express my sincere gratitude especially to Dr. V. S. L. Pate for his suggestions and aid, and to thank Dr. Ross H. Arnett, Jr., for making various literature available to me, Dr. John G. Franclemont for much helpful advice, and W. Wayne Boyle for checking the difficult manuscript. grouped under the first line. Typr: The type species, its author, and year of publication are given. The proposer’s citation of the specific name is preserved, and parts omitted by him are placed in brackets. FIxaTion: The method of type fixation is given. If an author is not listed, the type has been determined solely on the basis of the original publication; and if the type was fixed by subsequent designation, the author and citation of his publication are given. Sus- SEQUENT DESIGNATIONS: The year, author, publication, and species designated are given. Species not originally included are indicated. (See the discussion on subsequent designations below.) EmMEmNDATIONS: The emendation, author, and year are given. Because emendations have full status in nomenclature, they are listed as separate generic names. The only emendation that is considered warranted is that of Pytho for Tytho. Lapsus cALAMORUM: The _ lapsus calami, author, year, and publication are given. Opinion 29, of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, implies that lapsus calamorum and _ typo- graphical errors have no status in nomen- clature; therefore, names in these two cate- gories are not listed separately. VARIANT SPELLINGS: The name, author, year, and publication are given. These names are typographical errors or errors of transcrip- tion. Homonyms: The name, author, and year are given. The names are arranged in chronological order. SynonyMs: The name, author, and year, followed by its present relation to the genus in question, are given. The names are arranged in chronological order. An explanation of the terms describing relationships might be helpful. Isogenotypic: generic names which have as their types the same species, example Suggibbus and Hybo- gaster (objective synonymy). Conspecific genotypes: generic names which have as their types species which are considered zoolog- ically identical, example Chilopeltis and 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Platylissodema (subjective synonymy). Con- generic genotypes: generic names which have as their types species which are zoologically distinct but placed in the same genus or subgenus, example Omineus and Phalysius (subjective synonymy). Subgenus: generic names which have as their types species which are zoologically distinct but placed in different subgenera in the same genus, example Salpidema and Dromiosalpingus (subjective synonymy). Nores: Short ex- planations are given. When determining the validity of subse- quent designations, one must decide whether an author intends to designate or fix a type or to merely cite previous fixation. I have decided that unless an author states that he is merely citing earlier fixations, he is subsequently designating a type. All authors cited in my category “Subsequent designa- tions’ are, therefore, considered to be designating types. Any citations of prior fixation in this article are not to be construed as present designations, and conversely, subsequent designation or fixation is implied where ‘‘Here designated” appears. Because the following works contain many subsequent designations, only the author, date, and page are cited in the list. BLANCHARD, E. Jn Cuvier, Le régne animal... accompagnée de planches gravées, representant les types in tous les genres. . . . The Disciples’ edition, 20 vols. Paris, 1836-1849. [Dates of the parts dealing with the Salpingidae ascertained from Sherborn (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist: (©) 10: 555-556. 1922). ] CuHEvrouatT, L. A. A. In D’Orbigny, Dictionaire universal d’histoire naturelle, 13 vols. Paris, 1841-1849. [Dates of the parts dealing with the Salpingidae ascertained from Sherborn and Palmer (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 3: 350-352. 1899.) ] Crotcu, G. R. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1870: 41-52 (March), 213-241 (August) 1870. Horr, F. W. The coleopterist’s manual, part 3. London, 1840. LATREILLE, P. A. Considérations générales sur Vordre naturel des animaux. Paris, 1810. [See Opinions 11 and 136 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. | Westwoop, J. O. An introduction to the modern classification of insects. 2, Appendix. London, 1838-1840. [Dates of the parts dealing with the Salpingidae ascertained from Griffin (Proc. Ent. Soc. London 6: 83-84. 1932.). See Opinion 71 of the International Com- mission on Zoological Nomenclature. | voL. 44, No. 3 The authority for subsequent designations in Cuvier’s Le régne animal is to be found in the title, part of which is given above. Some doubt arose concerning the designations of Chevrolat in D’Orbigny’s great dictionary, for under Rhinosimus he states, ‘On doit considerer comme types les R. aeneus OL., planirostris, roboris F. et ruficollis Pz.,” probably meaning zoological types. The term ‘‘typical species” in Hope’s work was accepted as a type species designation be- cause of the scope of the work. The occa- sional selection of exotic forms rather than local examples as typical species gives some indication of our present type species concept, and the acceptance of Westwood’s term ‘‘typical species’ by the International Commission may be used as a precedent. Both Lucas and Westwood give their method of designation in introductory remarks, the latter by a footnote, and the works of Crotch and Latreille are self-explanatory. It is often difficult to infer the meaning of the word type as used by older authors. Perhaps they meant zoological type, that is, an example, rather than a nomenclatorial type. Because Motschulsky, like Chevrolat above, probably meant zoological type when designating two types for Tenebrio, doubt is cast on his designations for Boros. A ruling on such works by the International Com- mission would be desirable; however, valid designations in these works are accepted herein because of the precedent set by Opinions 11 and 136 in accepting Latreille’s designations. The criteria for genera to be included in the Salpingidae are the catalogue of Blair (in Junk and Schenkling, Coleop. Cat. 17, part 99, Pythidae 1928), and the revision of Seidlitz (Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 113- 128, 313-244; 1916 (1917): 387-498; 1917: 65-116). The synonymy is essentiaily that of Blair. A reprint of the revision of Seidlitz (Naturg. Ins. Deutschlands 5 (2): 969-1181. 1919) includes names which Blackwelder would term synonymic homonyms, that 1s, names published as new in two or more publications; such repetitions are not re- corded in this list. The following new generic names are proposed in this list: Marca 1954 Orphanotrophium for Neosalpingus Seidlitz, 1917, not of Blackburn, 1891. Suggibbus for Hybogaster Seidlitz, 1917. Triconatus for Cyclops Mulsant, 1859, and Cyclopi- dius Seidlitz, 1891. GENERIC NAMES OF SALPINGIDAE - Aegialatis [Error for Aegialites Dejean, 1833]. Aegialites Dejean, 1833, Cat. Coleop., ed. 2: 117 (July). Nomen nudum, with Aegialites debilis Dejean, 1833, also a nomen nudum, included. Variant spellings: Aegialatis Gistel, Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs: XT. Synonyms: Orygmus Gistel, 1848. Proposed as a new name for Aegialites Dejean, 1833. See: Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853, in list and appendix. Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 26 (2): 178. Type: Aegialites debilis Mannerheim, 1853. Fixation: Monobasic. 1848, Subsequent designations: 1920, Lucas: 76, Aegialites californicus Motsch., originally included as a synonym. Homonyms: Aegialites Kaup, 1829. Lapsus calami for Aegialitis Boie, 1822. Synonyms: Eurystethes Seidlitz, 1916. Iso- genotypic. See: Aegzalites Mannerheim, 1853, in appendix. Agapytho Broun, 1919. Placed in the Crypto- phagidae by Blair (1928, zn Junk and Schenk- ling, Coleop. Cat. 17, pt. 99, Pythidae). Austrosalpingus Blair, 1925, Ent. Monthly Mag. 61 (ser. 3, 11): 211 footnote, (September). Type: Neosalpingus corticalis Blackburn, 1891. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: Neosalpingus Blackburn, 1891. Iso- genotypic. See: Orphanotrophium in appendix. Batobius Fairmaire and Germain, 1863, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (4) 3: 268. Type: Batobius ruficollis Fairmaire and Germain, 1863. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: Laccoderus Champion, 1916. Con- generic genotypes. Z Borocus [Error for Boros]. Boros Herbst, 1797, in Jablonsky, Natursystem aller .. . Insecten, Kafer 7: 318. Type: Boros elongatus Herbst, 1797. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1840, Hope: 127, Hyp. Boros Fabricius; 1844, Blanchard, 12: pl. 49, fig. 7, Boros corticalis Gyllenh.; 1872, Mot- schulsky, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 465 (2): 38, Helops Schneidert Panz. (see my intro- duction); 1920, Lucas: 144, Boros Schneideri (Panz.) 1795; 1941, Gebien, Mitt. Miinchner Ent. Ges. 31: 812 (667), Helops Schneideri Panz., 1795. These species were not originally included, but all are synonyms of the type. Emendations: Borus Illiger, 1801. Borus Agassiz, 1846. SPILMAN: GENERIC NAMES OF THE SALPINGIDAE 87 Variant spellings: Borocus Motschulsky, 1872, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 46 (2): 41. Synonyms: Borus Illiger, 1801. Isogenotypic. Borus Agassiz, 1846. Isogenotypic. Lecontia Champion, 1889 (=Crymodes LeConte, 1850). Subgenus. Notes: Boros was included in the Salpingidae by Spilman (1952, Coleop. Bull. 6: 12). Opinion 125 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature states that the name Boros is to be used in preference to the emendation Borus. Borus Illiger, 1801, Mag. fiir Insekt. 1: 129. [Emendation of Boros Herbst, 1797.] Type: Boros elongatus Herbst, 1797. Fixation: Illiger, by proposing Borus as an emendation of Boros whose type was elongatus. Homonyms: Borus Agassiz, 1846. Borus Albers, 1850. Synonyms: (See Boros.) Borus Agassiz, 1846, Nomen. Zool. Index Univ.: 49. |[Emendation of Boros Herbst, 1797.] Type: Boros elongatus Herbst, 1797. Fixation: Agassiz, by proposing Borus as an emendation of Boros whose type was elongatus. Homonyms: Borus Illiger, 1801. Borus Albers, 1850. Synonyms: (See Boros.) Caridarus [Error for Cariderus]. Cariderus Mulsant, 1859, in Mulsant and Rey, Hist. Nat. Coléop. France 10, Rostrif.: 46. [Subgenus of Rhinosimus.] Type: Rhinosimus aeneus Olivier [1807]. Fixation: Monobasic. Variant spellings: Caridarus Seidlitz, 1916, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 325. Synonyms: Rhinosimus Latreille, 1802. Sub- genus. Chanopterus Boheman, 1858, Kongliga Svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, Zool. 2, fase. 1, Ins.: 98. Type: Chanopterus paradoxus Boheman, 1858. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1920, Lucas: Chanopterus paradoxus Boh. 1858. Chilopeltis Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916 (1917) : 423, 424 (Feb. 1, 1917). Type: Chilopeltis insculpta Seidlitz, 1917. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: Platylissodema Blair, specific genotypes. Chorimerinum [Error for Chorimerium|. Chorimerium Behrens, 1887, Stettiner Zeitung 48: 20 (February). Type: Chorimerium antarcticum Behrens, 1887. Fization: Monobasic. Variant spellings: Chorimerinum Seidlitz, 1916, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 348. Synonyms: Perimylops Miller, 1884. Conspecific genotypes. Notes: The type species of Chorimerium and Perimylops were found to be_ subjective synonyms by Enderlein (1912, Kungl: Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 48 (3): 134). 177, 1919. Con- Ent. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Cleodaeus Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 100 (August). _ Type: Cleodaeus rugiceps Champion, 1889. Fixation: Monobasic. Colposinus Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916 (1917): 390, 487 (Feb. 1, 1917). Type: Rhinosimus viridipennis Latreille, 1804. Fization: Seidlitz, by using the name Colposinus in the synonomy of Vincenzellus (‘‘Colposinus Seidlitz i. lit.”’) whose type was viridipennis. Synonyms: Vincenzellus Reitter, 1911. . Iso- genotypic. Colposis Mulsant, 1859, 7m Mulsant and Rey, Hist. Nat. Coléop. France 10, Rostrif.: 41. [Subgenus of Salpingus.] Type: Salpingus (Colposis) virescens Mulsant, 1859. Fixation: Monobasic. Comonotus [Error for Cononotus]. Conomorphinus Champion, 1916, Ent. Monthly Mag. 52 (ser. 3, 2): 149 (July). Type: Conomorphinus bolivianus Champion, 1916. Fization: Original designation and monobasic. Conomorphus Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.- Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 98 (August). Type: Conomorphus pilosus Champion, 1889. Fixation: Original designation. Homonyms: Conomorphus Braun, 1900. Cononotus LeConte, 1851. Ann. Lyc. New York 5: 137 (September). Type: Cononotus sericans LeConte, 1851. Fixation: Here designated. Variant spellings: Comonotus Fowler, 1912. Fauna of British India, Coleop., Gen. Intr.: 166. Crymodes LeConte, Superior: 232. Type: Crymodes discicollis LeConte, 1850. Fixation: Monobasic. Lapsus calamorum: Cryphaeus LeConte, 1850, in Agassiz, Lake Superior: pl. 8, figs. 11, 11 a-b. Homonyms: Crymodes Guénée, 1841. Synonyms: Lecontia Champion, 1889. Isogeno- typic. (See Boros.) Cycloderus Solier, 1851. Included in the Oedemeri- dae by Arnett (1950, Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 40: 217-225). Cyclopidius Seidlitz, 1890, Fauna Baltica, ed. 2, Arten: 555. [New name for Cyclops Mulsant, 1859.] Type: Bruchus umbellatorum Fabricius, 1787. Fixation: Seidlitz, by proposing Cyclopidius as a new name for Cyclops whose type was wm- bellatorum. Homonyms: Cyclopidius Cope, 1878. Synonyms: Cyclops Mulsant, 1859. Isogenotypic. Triconatus new name. Isogenotypic. (See Mycterus). Cyclops Mulsant, 1859, 2zn Mulsant and Rey, Hist. Nat. Coléop. France 10, Rostrif.: 18. [Subgenus of Mycterus.| Type: Bruchus umbcllatorum 1787. Fixation: Monobasic. 1850, im Agassiz, Lake [sec] Fabricius, VOL. 44, NO. 3 Homonyms: Cyclops Miller, 1776. Cyclops Montfort, 1810. Synonyms: Cyclopidius Seidlitz, 1890. Isogeno- typic. Triconatus new name. Isogenotypic. (See Mycterus.) Dromiosalpingus Pic, 1919, Mélanges exot.-ent., fase. 30: 2 (June 10). Type: Slalpingus| distincticollis Pic [1904]. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Salpidema Alluaud, 1895. Congeneric genotypes. Elosoma Motschulsky, 1845, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 18 (1): 33. Type: Elosoma persica Motschulsky, 1845. Fization: Virtually monobasic. See: Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853, in appendix. Enoptes Gistel, 1848, Naturgeschichte des Thier- reichs: X. [New name for Pytho Latreille, 1796.] Type: Cucujus coeruleus Fabricius, 1792. Fixation: Gistel, by proposing Enoptes as a new name for Pytho whose type was coeruleus. Synonyms: (See Pytho.) Eurypinus Champion, 1916, Ent. Monthly Mag. 52 (ser. 3, 2): 145 (JJuly).- Type: Eurypinus nyasae Champion, 1916. Fization: Original designation and monobasic. Eurypus Kirby, 1818, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 12: 389, 390. Type: Eurypus rubens Kirby, 1818. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1840, Hope: 138, Eurypus Rubens Kirby; 1848, Blanchard, 12: pl. 33, fig. 5, Hurypus rubens Kirby; 1870, Crotch: 232, Hurypus rubens Kirby, 1818. Homonyms: Eurypus Pascoe, 1860. Eurypus Semper, 1870. Eurystethes Seidlitz, 1916, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 127 (July 1). [New name for Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853.] Type: Aegialites debilis Mannerheim, 1853. Fixation: Seidlitz, by proposing Eurystethes as a new name for Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853, whose type was debilis. Variant spellings: Eurystethus Leng, 1920, Cat. Coleop. Amer. N. Mexico: 160. Eurystethus Neave, 1939, Nomen. Zool. 2: 367. Eurystethus Spilman, 1952, Coleop. Bull. 6: 12. Synonyms: Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853. Iso- genotypic. See: Aegzalites Mannerheim, 1853, in appendix. Eurystethus [Error for Eurystethes]. Falsolanthanus Pic, 1919, Mélanges exot.-ent., fasc. 80: 3 (June 10). Type: Lanthanus albonotatus Pic [1914]. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Platysalpingus Blair, 1919. Subgenus. Grammatodera Champion, 1916, Ent. Monthly Mag. 52 (ser. 3, 2): 152 (July). Type: Grammatodera bifasciata Champion, 1916. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Marcu 1954 Hybogaster Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1917: 93, 98 (July 1). Type: Hybogaster Muelleri Seidlitz, 1917. Fixation: Here designated. Homonyms: Hybogaster Szépligeti, 1906. Synonyms: Suggibbus new name. Isogenotypic. Istrisia Lewis, 1895, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 15: 254 (February). Type: Istrisia rufobrunnea Lewis, 1895. Fixation: Monobasic. Laccoderus Champion, 1916, Ent. Monthly Mag. 52 (ser. 3, 2): 106 (May). Type: Laccoderus chilensis Champion, 1916. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Synonyms: Batobius Fairmaire and Germain, 1863. Congeneric genotypes. Notes: Laccoderus and its type species were described in the May issue of the Ent. Monthly Mag., but ZL. scaber and melanurus, the other included new species, were described in the June issue. Lacconotus LeConte, 1862, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 3 (3): 255 (March). Type: Lacconotus punctatus LeConte, 1862. Fixation: Monobasic. Lagrioida Fairmaire and Germain, 1860, Coleop. Chilensia 1: 3. [Not seen. ] Type: Lagrioida rufula Fairmaire and Germain, 1860. Fixation: Here designated. Lanthanus Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 108 (December). Type: Lanthanus variegatus Champion, 1889. Fixation: Here designated. Lecontia Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 104 (August). [New name for Crymodes LeConte, 1850.] Type: Crymodes discicollis LeConte, 1850. Fixation: Champion, by proposing Lecontia as a new name for Crymodes whose type was discicollis. Synonyms: Crymodes LeConte, 1850. Isogeno- typic. (See Boros.) Lissodema Curtis, 1833, Ent. Mag. 1: 187. Type: Lissodema Heyana Curtis, 1833. Fization: Monobasic. S Subsequent designations: 1838, Westwood: 13, Lissodema Heyana Curt. Homonyms: Lissodema Blanchard, 1845. Synonyms: Stenolissodema Desbrochers, Subgenus. Spinolissodema Pic, 1919. Subgenus. Loboglossa Solier, 1851. Included in the Oede- meridae by Arnett (1950, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 217-225). Mimolanthanus Pic, 1942, Echange 58: 2 (Feb. 3). Type: Mimolanthanus nitidus Pic, 1942. Fixation: Monobasic. Mycterellus Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1917: 103, 105, 116 (July 1). [Sub- genus of Mycterus.| Type: Mycterus quadricollis Horn, 1874. Fization: Here designated. Synonyms: (See Mycterus.) 1900. SPILMAN: GENERIC NAMES OF THE SALPINGIDAE 89 Mycterinus Seidlitz, 1917. Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1917: 103, 105, 115 (July 1). [Subgenus of Mycterus.| Type: Mycterus scaber Hald{[eman, 1843]. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: (See Mycterus.) Mycteromimus Champion, 1917, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 19: 166 (February). Type: Mycteromimus insularis Champion, 1917. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Mycterus Schellenberg, 1798, in Schellenberg (Clairville), Helvet. Ent. 1: 124. Type: Mycterus griseus Schellenberg, 1798. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1838, Westwood: 31, Mycterus griseus Clv.; 1844, Blanchard, 12: pl. 53, fig. 11, Mycterus curculioides Fabr. Synonyms: Mycterinus Seidlitz, 1917. Subgenus. Mycterellus Seidlitz, 1917. Subgenus. Triconatus new name (=Cyclops Mulsant, 1859 =Cyclopidius Seid- litz, 1891). Subgenus. Notes: Schellenberg gave Rhinomacer curculioi- des Fabricius, 1781, the new name griseus; therefore, either griseus or curculioides can be considered available for subsequent designa- tion. Mystes Champion, 1895, Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1895: 235 (June 1). Type: Mystes planatus Champion, 1895. Fixation: Monobasic. Neosalpingus Blackburn, 1891, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia 14: 334 (December). Type: Neosalpingus corticalis Blackburn, 1891. Fixation: Blair (1919, Ent. Monthly Mag. 55 (ser. 3, 5): 114), by subsequent designation. Variant spellings: Neosolpingus Seidlitz, 1916, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 337. Synonyms: Austrosalpingus Blair, genotypic. See: Orphanotrophium in appendix. Neosolpingus [Error for Neosalpingus]. Notosalpingus Blackburn, 1891, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia 14: 333 (December). Type: Notosalpingus ornatus Blackburn, 1891. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Omineus Lewis, 1895, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 16: 119 (July). Type: Omineus humeralis Lewis, 1895. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Phalysius Champion, generic genotypes. Oncosalpingus Blair, 1919, Ent. Monthly Mag. 55 (ser. 3, 5): 113, 122 (May). Type: Oncosalpingus podagricus Blair, 1919. Fixation: Monobasic. Notes: The genus Oncosalpingus appeared in a key in the May issue of the Ent. Monthly Mag., but the generic description and the type species appeared in the June issue. Orphanotrophium, new name for Neosalpingus Seidlitz, 1917, not Blackburn, 1891. Type: Neosalpingus dentaticollis Blackburn, 1891. 1925. Iso- 1916. Con- 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fixation: Here designated. Notes: Orphanotrophium: L., orphan asylum. Neosalpingus Seidlitz, 1917, was a new combi- nation, not a new name. In addition to the type species, Lissodema fallax Seidlitz, 1916, Iissodema frigidus Blackburn, 1891, and Neosalpingus brevis Lea, 1918, are included in Orphanotrophium. See: Orphanotrophium in appendix. Orygmus Gistel, 1848, Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs: XI. [New name for Aegialites Dejean, 1833.] Nomen nudum, by being proposed as a new name for the nomen nudum Aegialites Dejean, 1833. Perimylops Miiller, 1884, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 28: 419 (November). Type: Perimylops antracticus [sic] Miller, 1884. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1885, Kirby, Zool. Rec. 21, 1884 (1885), Ins.: 85, Perimylops antracticus [sic], Miller, 1884; 1920, Lucas: 494, Perimylops antarcticus Mill. 1884. Synonyms: Chorimeritum Behrens, 1887. Con- specific genotypes. Phalysius Champion, 1916, Ent. Monthly Mag. 52 (ser. 3, 2): 150 (July). Type: Phalysius caeruleus Champion, 1916. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Synonyms: Omineus Lewis, 1895. Congeneric genotypes. Physciomorphus [Error for Phystomorphus]. Physcius Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 101 (August). Type: Physcius conicus Champion, 1889. Fixation: Monobasic. Physiomorpha [Error for Phystomorphus]. Physiomorphus Pic, 1917, Mélanges exot.-ent., fase. 22: 16 (Feb. 20). Type: Physiomorphus atricolor Pic, 1917. Fixation: Monobasic. Variant spellings: Physctomorphus Pic, 1917, Bull. Soc. Ent. France ess te Physciomorphus Sharp, 1919, Zool. Rec. 54, 1917 (1919), Ins.: 105. Physiomorpha Schulze and others, 1934, Nomen. animal. gen. subgen. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 4: 2677. Physiomorpha Neave, Nomen. Zool. 3: 751. Phytho [Error for Pytho}. Phyto [Error for Pytho]. Platamops Reitter, 1878, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 27, 1877 (1878): 177. Type: Platamops decoratus Reitter, 1878. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: Spithobates Champion, 1889. Con- generic genotypes. Platylissodema Blair, 1919, Ent. Monthly Mag. 55 (ser. 3, 5): 1138, 117 (May). Type: Lanthanus Rouyert Pic, 1914. Fixation: Original designation. 1940, VOL. 44, NO. 3 Synonyms: Chilopeltis Seidlitz, 1917. Conspecifie genotypes. Notes: Platylissodema bryanti was given as sp. n. by Blair in the event he misidentified Lantha- nus Rouyert Pic. Platysalpingus Blair, 1919, Ent. Monthly Mag. 55 (ser. 38, 5): 118, 118 (May). Type: Rhinosimus wallace Pascloe, 1860]. Fization: Original designation. Synonyms: Falsolanthanus Pic, 1919. Subgenus. Polypria Chevrolat, 1874. Included in the Meland- ryidae by Spilman (1952, Coleop. Bull. 6: 12). Poéphilax [Error for Poéphylaz]. Poédphylax Champion, 1916, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 17: 311 (April). Type: Poéphylax falklandica Champion, 1916. Fization: Original designation and monobasic. Variant spellings: Poéphilax Blair, 1928, in Junk and Schenkling, Coleop. Cat. 17, pt. 99, Pythidae: 15. Priogmathus [Error for Priognathus}. Priognathus LeConte, 1850, zn Agassiz, Lake Superior: 233. Type: Ditylus monilicornis Randall [1838]. Fixation: Monobasie. : Variant spellings: Priogmathus Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916 (1917): 390. Promecheilus Solier, 1851, 7n Gay, Hist. Fis. Pol. Chile, Zool. 5: 251. Type: Promecheilus variegatus Solier, 1851. Fixation: Monobasic. Emendations: Promecochilus Harold, 1870. Variant spellings: Promechilus Fairmaire and Germain, 1863, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (4) 3: 266. Promechilus Marshall, 1873, Nomen. Zool.: 236. Gemminger and Promechilus Seidlitz, 1916 and 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr, 19162 Sl7ei26e 327; 1916 (1917): 396. Promecochilus Marshall, 1873, Nomen. Zool.: 236. Synonyms: Promecochilus Gemminger and Harold, 1870. Isogenotypic. Promechilus [Error for Promecheilus]. Promecochilus Gemminger and Harold, 1870, Cat. Coleop. 7: 2165. [Emendation of Pro- mecheilus Solier, 1851.] Type: Promecheilus variegatus Solier, 1851. Fixation: Gemminger and Harold, by proposing Promecochilus as an emendation of Pro- mecheilus whose type was variegatus. Synonyms: Promecheilus Solier, 1851. Isogeno- typic. Pseudorabocerus Pic, 1903, Echange 19: 140 (July). [Subgenus of Salpingus.]} Type: Salpingus Lederi Reitt{er, 1888]. Fixation: Monobasic. Pytho Fabricius, 1801, Systema Eleutheratorum 2: 95. [Emendation of Tytho Latreille, 1796.] Type: Cucujus coeruleus Fabricius [1792]. Fixation: Latreille (1810: 429), by subsequent designation. Marcu 1954 SPILMAN: GENERIC Subsequent designations: 1840, Hope: 133, Pytho Caeruleus Fabricius; 1844, Blanchard, 12: pl. 52, fig. 3, Pytho depressus Lin., originally in- cluded as a synonym of type; 1847, Chevrolat, 10: 663, Pytho depressus (Tenebrio) Lin., originally included as a synonym of type. Variant spellings: Phytho Kiefer and Moos- brugger, 1942, Mitt. Miinchner Ent. Ges. 32: 494, Phyto Seidlitz, 1916, Deut- sche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 344. Synonyms: Pytholus Rafinesque, 1815. Isogeno- typic. Enoptes Gistel, 1848. Isogenotypic. Notes: Fabricius included three species in Pytho. These were the first included species. Pythoceropsis Wickham, 1913, Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa 6 (4): 20 (Apr. 26). [Fossil. | Type: Pythoceropsis singularis Wickham, 1913. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Pytholus Rafinesque, 1815, Analyse de la Na- ture .... (Palermo): 114. [New name for Pytho Latreille, 1796.] Type: Cucujus coeruleus Fabricius, 1792. Fixation: Rafinesque, by proposing Pytholus as a new name for Pytho whose type was coeru- leus. Synonyms: Pytho Latreille, 1796. Isogenotypic. Enoptes Gistel, 1848. Isogenotypic. Pythonidium Heer, 1870, Kongliga Svenska Vet.- Micidesthandl:. n.s. 8 (7), 1869 (1870): 75. [Fossil.] Type: Pythonidium metallicum Heer, 1870. Fixation: Monobasic. Rabocerus Mulsant, 1859, zn Mulsant and Rey, Hist. Nat. Coléop. France 10, Rostrif.: 22, 43. Type: Salpingus foveolatus Ljungh, 1823. Fixation: Monobasic. Variant spellings: Rhabocerus Gemminger and Harold, 1870, Cat. Coleop. 7: 2059. Rhabocerus [Error for Rabocerus]. Rhinosimue [Error for Rhinosimus]. Rhinosimus Latreille, 1802. Hist. Nat. Crust. Ins. 3: 192. a Type: Anthribus planirostris F[abricius, 1787]. Fixation: Monobasic. Subsequent designations: 1810, Latreille: 430, Anthribus roboris Fab., not originally in- cluded; 1844, Blanchard, 12: pl. 58, fig. 12, Rhinosimus roboris, not originally included; 1848, Chevrolat, 11: 109 (see my introduc- tion); 1870, Crotch: 217, Anthr. planirostris Fabr. (A. roboris Latr., 1810). Variant spellings: Rhinosimue Seidlitz, 1916, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916: 318. Homonyms: Rhinosimus Duméril, 1853. Synonyms: Cariderus Mulsant, 1859. Subgenus. Rhopalobrachium Boheman, 1858. Included in the Oedemeridae by Arnett (1950, Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 40: 217-225). Salpidema Alluaud, 1895. Bull. Soc. Ent. France NAMES OF THE SALPINGIDAE 91 1895: cccLvu, cccivit. [Subgenus of Sal- pingus. | Type: Salpingus (Salpidema) soror Alluaud, 1895. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Dromiosalpingus generic genotypes. Salpingellus Reitter, 1911, Fauna Germanica 3: 415. [Subgenus of Sphaeriestes.| Type: Sphaeriestes ater Payk{ull, 1798]. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: (See Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829). Salpingus Illiger, 1801, Mag. fiir Insekt. 1: 150. Type: Anthribus Roboris |Fabricius, 1787]. Fixation: Latreille (1802, Hist. Nat. Crust. Ins. 3: 192), by elimination. Latreille made Anthribus planirostris F., the other included species of Salpingus, the monobasic type of Rhinosimus. Subsequent designations: 1838, Westwood: 30, Cur. ruficollis Linn., not originally included; 1870, Crotch: 215. Anthr. roboris. Sosthenes Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 106 (December). Type: Sosthenes dyschirioides Champion, 1889. Fixation: Monobasic. Sphaerieste [Error for Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829]. Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829, MS in Stephens, Nomen. British Insects: 16 (June 1: N.D. Riley in litt. J. G. Franclemont). Type: Sphaeriestes ater Gyllf{enhal, 1810]. Fixation: Curtis (1837, Brit. Ent. 14: no. 662), by subsequent designation. Subsequent designations: 1838, Westwood: 31, Salp. ater Gyll. Emendations: Sphaeriesthes Schenkling, 1922. Pic, 1919. Con- Variant spellings: Sphaerieste Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916 (1917): 464. Sphaeriesthes Sharp, 1912, Zool. Rec. 48, 1911 (1912), Ins. : 222. Homonyms: Sphaeriestes LeConte, 1850. Synonyms: Sphaeriestes LeConte, 1850. Con- generic genotypes. Salpingellus Reitter, 1911. Isogeno- typic. Trichocolposinus Seidlitz, 1917. Sub- genus. Sphaeriesthes Schenkling, 1922. Iso- genotypic. Sphaeriestes LeConte, 1850, im Agassiz, Lake Superior: 232. Type: Sphaeriestes virescens LeConte, 1850. Fixation: Monobasic. Homonyms: Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829. Synonyms: (See Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829). Notes: LeConte stated in his introduction that a name listed without an author was to be considered new. The listing of Sphaeriestes without an author seems to be an accidental omission, for the older Sphaeriestes was well known, and virescens undoubtedly belongs to: 1t. Sphaeriesthes Schenkling, 1922, Nomen. Coleop.: 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 104. 1829.] Type: Sphaeriestes ater Gyllenhal, 1810. Fixation: Schenkling, by proposing Sphaeries- thes as an emendation of Sphaeriestes whose type was ater. Synonyms: (See Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829). Sphaeriesthes [Error for Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829]. Spinolissodema Pic, 1919, Mélanges exot.-ent., fase. 30:3 (June 10). [Subgenus of Lissodema.| Type: Lissodema (Spinolissodema) wunifasciata Pic, 1919. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: (See Lissodema). Spithobates Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 104 (August). Type: Spithobates setosus Champion, 1889. Fixation: Here designated. Synonyms: Platamops Reitter, 1878. Congeneric genotypes. Notes: The generic description of Spithobates appeared in the part issued in August, but the species to be included appeared in the part issued in December. Stenolissodema Desbrochers, 1900 Frelon 8 (10- Hl) Gre lO"(Sept-- 3): Type: Lissodema lituratum Costa [1847]. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: (See Lissodema). Notes: In an error on page 15, Desbrochers says Stenolissodema was erected for L. litura, but his true intentions are clearly shown on pages 16 and 19. Stictodrya Champion, 1917, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 19: 165 (February). Type: Stictodrya longipennis Champion, 1917. Fixation: Original designation and monobasic. Suggibbus, new name for Hybogaster Seidlitz, 1917. Type: Hybogaster Muellert Seidlitz, 1917. Fixation: Here, by proposing Suggibbus for Hybogaster whose type is Mueller. Synonyms: Hybogaster Seidlitz, 1917. Isogeno- typic. Notes: Suggibbus: L., suwb—under, gibbus— hump. In addition to the type species, Lobo- glossa australica Champion, 1916, and Ay- bogaster scotodoides Seidlitz, 1917, are included in Suggibbus. Tasmosalpingus Lea, 1919, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales 48, 1918 (1919): 748 (Mar. 26). Type: Tasmosalpingus quadrispilotus Lea, 1919. Fixation: Original designation. Tellias Champion, 1895, Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1895: 236 (June 1). Type: Tellias fumatus Champion, 1895. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Trichosalpingus Congeneric genotypes. Thisias Champion, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Zool., Ins., Coleop. 4 (2): 102, (August). Type: Thisias marmoratus Champion, 1889. Fixation: Monobasic. Trichocolposinus Seidlitz, 1917, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1916 (1917): 489, 493 (Feb. 1, 1917). [Subgenus of Vincenzellus.| [Emendation of Sphaeriestes Kirby, Blackburn, 1891. vou. 44, No. 3 Type: Vincenzellus hirtus Brfoun, 1886]. Fixation: Blair (1925, Ent. Monthly Mag. 61 (ser. 3, 11): 215), by subsequent designation. Synonyms: (See Sphaeriestes Kirby, 1829). Notes: When designating the type species, Blair transferred the subgenus T'richocolposi- nus from Vincenzellus to Sphaertestes Kirby, 1829. However, Blair (1928, in Junk and Schenkling, Coleop. Cat. 17, pt. 99, Pythidae) places the name Trichocolposinus under Vincenzellus and the type species, hirtus Broun, under Sphaeriestes. I consider T'ri- chocolposinus a subgenus of Sphaeriestes. Trichosalpingus Blackburn, 1891, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia 14: 332 (December). Type: Trichosalpingus brunneus Blackburn, 1891. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Tellias Champion, 1895. Congeneric genotypes. Trichosphaeriestes Blair, 1919, Ent. Monthly Mag. 55 (ser. 3, 5): 113, 121 (May). Type: Trichosphaeriestes fryi Blair, 1919. Fixation: Monobasic. Notes: The genus Trichosphaeriestes appeared in a key in the May issue of Ent. Monthly Mag., but the generic description and the type species appeared in the June issue. Triconatus, new name for Cyclops Mulsant, 1859, and Cyclopidius Seidlitz, 1891. Type: Bruchus umbellatorum Fabricius, 1787. Fixation: Here, by proposing Triconatus for Cyclops and Cyclopidius, the type of each being wmbellatorum. Synonyms: Cyclops Mulsant, 1859. Isogenotypic. Cyclopidius Seidlitz, 1891. Isogeno- typic. (See Mycterus). Notes: Triconatus: L., tri—three, conatus— attempt. In addition to the type species, Mycterus tibialis Kiister, 1850, and Mycterus articulatus Reitter, 1811, are included in Triconatus. Trimitomerus Horn, 1888, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 15: 44 (April). Type: Trimitomerus Riversit Horn, 1888. Fixation: Monobasic. Tytho Latreille, 1796, Prec. Car. Gen. Ins.: 23. [No species. | Type: Cucujus coeruleus Fabricius, 1792. Fixation: Latreille (1810: 429), by subsequent designation for the emendation Pytho Fabri- cius, 1801. Emendations: Pytho Fabricius, 1801. Synonyms: (See Pytho). Notes: The vernacular Pythe appeared beside Tytho, indicating the latter to be a typo- graphical error. Vincenzellus Reitter, 1911, Fauna Germanica 3: 418. [Subgenus of Rhinosimus.] Type: Rhinosimus viridipennis Latrfeille, 1804]. Fixation: Monobasic. Synonyms: Colposinus Seidlitz, 1917. Isogeno- typic. See: T'richocolposinus. Marcu 1954 CORRECTIONS TO THE CATALOGUE OF THE SALPINGIDAE The following list will enable one to correct the present catalogue of the Salpingidae of Blair (1928, zn Junk and Schenkling, Coleop. Cat. 17: pt. 99, Pythidae). The number of subfamilies is different from that of Blair, but the sequence of genera is the same. SPILMAN: GENERIC NAMES OF THE SALPINGIDAE 93 The generic name to be used is listed first. A subgenus is indicated by ‘“subgen.” A junior synonym of a genus or subgenus is listed directly under its senior synonym. An ‘‘x’’ before a generic name indicates that an addition to, or correction of, the catalogue is to be made. A generic name different from that in the catalogue has the catalogue name in parentheses beside it. AEGIALITINAE Notosalpingus Eurypus x Elosoma Trichosphaeriestes Physcius x Aegialites Mannerheim Istrisia Physitomorphus Eurystethes Sosthenes Cleodaeus Aegialites Dejean [nom. x Pobphylax (Podphilax) Conomorphus nud.] x Sphaervestes Kirby Conomorphinus Orygmus [nom. nud.] Sphaeriestes LeConte Omineus Salpingellus Phalysius Sphaeriesthes x Suggibbus (Hybogaster ao subgen. T'richocolposinus sr ocriaoes : : x Pytho Rabocerus Grammatodera Tytho Pseudorabocerus Lacconotus Pytholus Colposis Eurypinus Enoptes Oncosalpingus x Mycterus Priognathus x Neosalpingus (Austrosalpin- subgen. Mycterinus x Boros (Lecontia) gus) subgen. Mycterellus Borus Illiger Austrosalpingus subgen. T'riconatus Borus Agassiz x Vincenzellus Cyclops subgen. Lecontia Colposinus Cyclopidius Crymodes x Rhinosimus (Cariderus) M ycteromimus Trimitomerus subgen. Cariderus Lanthanus x Salpingus (Rhinosimus) Chilopeltis x Mimolanthanus cae ci Meare Platylissodema [Included by Seidlitz, not by Platysalpingus CONONOTINAE Blair] subgen. Falsolanthanus Cononotus Chanopterus Tasmosalpingus Mystes Platamops Perimylops Spithobates MSCTERINAE Chomerium x Orphanotrophium (Neosal- Lagrioida Promechetilus pingus) Batobius Promecochilus Lissodema Laccoderus subgen. Stenolissodema Trichosalpingus FOSSILS subgen. Spinolissodema Tellias Salpidema “Thisias Pythonidium Dromiosalpingus Stictodrya Pythoceropsis APPENDIX Genus Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853 The nomenclatorial status of this genus has been in confusion ever since Dejean, in 1833, gave us the nomina nuda Aegialites and debilis. The availability of the generic name is the point of confusion, for Kaup, in 1829, had written Aegia- lites for the avian generic name Aegialitis Boie, 1822. As a result, two new names were eventually proposed for the beetle generic name. The first, Orygmus, was proposed by Gistel in 1848 for Aegialites Dejean, and the second, Eurystethes, was proposed by Seidlitz in 1916 for Aegialites of Mannerheim, who in 1853 gave the first description of the beetle genus and species. Both Gistel and Seidlitz evidently believed that an error of spelling preoccupied a name, but Opinion 29, of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, implies that an error has no status in nomenclature. Aegzalites Mannerheim, 1853, is, therefore, held to be the correct name for debilis Mannerheim, 1853. Orygmus could not be used because it is, like Aegzalites Dejean, a nomen nudum. Eurystethes, corrected to Aegialites herein, was included in the Salpingidae by Spilman (1952, 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Coleop. Bull. 6: 12), and its close relative Elosoma is included in this list. Genus Orphanotrophium, n. name The genus Neosalpingus, as described by Blackburn in 1891, contained N. corticalis and dentaticolis spp. n., neither of which was desig- nated as type species. In 1917, Seidlitz removed corticalis to Vincenzellus Reitter, 1911, which made dentaticollis the only species remaining in Neosalpingus. In 1919, Blair, not having re- ceived Seidlitz’s revision because of World War I, designated N. corticalis type of Neosalpingus. Then Blair, in his 1925 comments on Seidlitz’s revision, interprets Seidlitz’s action as fixing dentaticollis as the type of Neosalpingus by elimination, and at the same time, because he believed corticalis could not be considered a member of Vincenzellus, proposed the new name Austrosalpingus for corticalts. Opinion 6 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature states that type by elimination can occur in this case only when a subsequent author selects one of the species concerned to be the type species of a new mono- basic genus. This did not happen in Seidlitz’s revision, because corticalis could not become the type of the previously described Vincenzellus. As a result of Blair’s 1919 and 1925 works, corticalis is the type species of both Neosalpingus Blackburn, 1891, and Austrosalpingus Blair, 1925. With this objective position established, VOL. 44, No. 3 we may now turn to the subjective opinions of the zoological position of corticalis. If we follow Seidlitz in placing corticalis with the members of Vincenzellus, both Vincenzellus and Austrosal- pingus will fall as junior synonyms of the older Neosalpingus of Blackburn. If, however, we fol- low Blair in keeping corticalis in a separate genus, we must use the name Neosalpingus with its junior synonym Austrosalpingus. Blair’s classifi- cation is maintained in the preceding lists. Therefore, the entity Neosalpingus Seidlitz, 1917, with its species Neosalpingus dentaticollis Blackburn, 1891, is, ike an orphan, left without an available name. An asylum is provided in the new name Orphanotrophium, proposed in the foregoing list for N. dentaticollis and its relatives. Seidlitz’s elimination has been rejected only because the eliminated species was not made the monobasic type of a different genus, as required by Opinion 6. This rejection does not seem to be logical, and I can think of no advantage to be attained by the use of the requirement, but one must, nevertheless, abide by the Rules in this case if he does in others. A logical method would not require that the eliminated species be made the type of another genus. It is indeed unfor- tunate that the new Rules will include the limited ruling of Opinion 6. (Since the above was written, I have been in- formed that type by elimination will not be in- cluded in the new Rules.) PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington held its annual business meeting on January 22, 1954, and elected the following officers: President, MarsHau T. Newman; Vice President, WILLIAM H. GitBert; Secretary, Caru F. MILuer; Treasurer, Lucite E. Hoyme; Councilors to the Board of Managers, Harvey C. Moore (to 1955), Joun C. Ewnrs (to 1955), Joan H. Cox (to 1956), PHitre Drucker (to 1956), JoHn L. CotTEeR (to 1957), FRANK G. ANDERSON (to 1957); Representative to the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences, WiLL1AM H. GILBERT. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last meeting follows: The membership on January 1, 1954, totaled 109, an increase of 3 over the total reported in January 1953, which was 106. New members elected during the year totaled 13 and were: BreTrysJEAN W. AveriTT, ALLEN OVERTON BaTTLeE, Howarp F. Cuine, Joun L. Correr, LAWRENCE KRaADER, CHARLOTTE LEVIN, HELENE LuUFBURROW, WitiiaAm G. LurspuRROWw, JR., GeoRGE Mert- CALF, WILLIAM NIBBLING, Francis M. RoBeErts, FRANKLYN A. SHERWOOD, and Irvine A. WAL- LACH. No deaths were reported during the year; 6 members resigned, and 4 were dropped from the rolls. The report of the Treasurer for the year ending December 31, 1953, follows: Marcu 1954 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 95 ME PROT WATCH. ok vay eee y cia sivcvavaesse $656.66 Washington Sani- Receipts: tary Housing 4sh. 200.00 200.00 a INE 9.00 Investment Co. of a 133.50 America. . 115 sh. 1,431.05 118 sh. 1,466.09 35.04 Less checks returned..... bis 1.50 Massachusetts In- === vestment Trust. 103 sh. 1,935.53 103 sh. 1,935.53 ~- 132.00 Cash in bank...... 656.65 714.43 57.78 REI oni Sao se ss cere a 6.00 Petty cash......... — 1.50 1.50 147.00 $4,775.55 $4,886.55 $111.00 Dividends: Investment Co. of . : UE 92.00 Activities: aoe Acthwities: ‘ing arly par rear ae twities: During the early part of the year oo: 95.79 programs were arranged by Drs. Joun A. Jones Washington Sanitary Housing...... 20.00 and Harvey C. Moore. This duty was later Perpetual Building Association..... 16.68 aa. i: assumed by Drs. Berry Mrccrrs, MAarsHAL 224.47 Newman, and Cuirrorp Evans (chairman), who Sale of Old Series American Anthropologists... 2.06 worked up a panel of integrated papers repre- Overpayment of dues forwarded by AAA for ; : : ‘ : a 1-00 senting a series of theoretical and interpretative phases on New World prehistory. The following %74-53 is a list of speakers and their topics: 8S 1,031.18 s Serer ditures: January 20, Dr. FRANK Lorimer: The demog- Reinvestment: Perpetual Building raphy of preliterate societies. Sh eee 16.68 February 11, Greorce L. Tracer: Communi- Reinvestment: Investment Co. of cation as the core of culture. AOSTA 35.04 March i. Dr. Gorpon MacGReGor: Iraq and ‘ the Point Four program. Loge April 18, Joun H. Youne: Archaeological a Le 82.05 : P : relations between Cyprus and the Near East. Togram chairman’s expenses................. 4.65 O b 9 CE ayy eo plead 42.02 cto er 0, LOREN : ISLEY - € aveo- Tt 98.95 Indians: Their survival and diffusion. 2 November 19, Dr. Cuiirrorp Evans: New ; 140.97 archeological interpretations in northern South AAA dues for secretary, treasurer, life member 22.50 America. Railway Express Co. charges................. 4.80 December 11, Dr. Gorpon R. Witter: The Bank charges Meee Meet tate ea ar atlas Us, s- aioe: s, el Yo %iye,.0, 91 6.1 ao) interrelated rise of Middle and South American RECEELAGY S/CXPENSCS...-...02-:cs..e0ce ce ecees Bean! 5 ieee A , civilizations. BRUEASUTEIS GXPCMSCS. -... 1s... ls leeds ees neee 3.00 315.25 Plans for publishing the integrated series of papers as part of the 75th anniversary of the CERES oe RS 715.93 Statement of Assets: Dec. 31, 1952 Dec. 31, 1953 Increase Perpetual Building 16.68 552.32 569.00 founding of the Anthropological Society of Wash- ington were discussed at the annual business meeting on January 22, 1954. Cart F. Mixer, Secretary. Obituary PauL GoucH AGNEW was born in Hillsdale County, Mich., on July 3, 1881, and died in his sleep at his home in New York City, January 8, 1954. He graduated from Hillsdale College in 1901 and then studied for a year at the Uni- versity of Michigan, taking a master’s degree. After teaching in high schools for three years he joined the staff of the National Bureau of Stand- ards in January 1906. The Bureau was then in its formative years, and Agnew’s vigor, sound judgment, and clear thinking contributed greatly to the shaping of its organization and its traditions. As a member of its Electrical Instruments Section he published -a dozen technical papers announcing new devel- opments in the science of electrical measurement. One of these, ““A Study of the Current Trans- former with Particular Reference to Iron Loss,” 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF is still a classic in its field. It also served as the thesis for his Ph.D. received from Johns Hopkins University in 1911. In this year also he married Ethna M. Heebner, whose constant and loving care during the 42 succeeding years enabled his sadly overworked body to carry on at the pace set by his eager mind. During the activities of the N.B.S. on military problems during World War I, Agnew became technical assistant to Dr. E. B. Rosa, chief physicist of the Bureau, and came in contact with the industrial problems of supply as handled by the War Industries Board. He became greatly impressed with the importance of more sys- tematic and effective industrial standardization and with the need for an organization which would provide a truly democratic method for attaining this result. When the scope of the American Engineering Standards Committee was broadened in 1920, with this object in view, his interest and abilities were recognized and he was selected for its executive officer. In 1929 it was reorganized as the American Standards Associ- ation with Agnew still as secretary and prime mover. Under his leadership this institution for pro- moting industrial standardization in a democratic society grew tremendously in scope and effective- ness. Its staff enlarged from 3 persons to 70 and its memberships from 5 engineering societies to a federation of some 100 national trade associations, technical societies and consumer organizations. His skill in debate and in reconciling conflicting points of view by pointing out the significance of the basic underlying facts of the problem was a major factor in this growth. He was also active in international standardi- zation. As one of the hosts to the secretaries of other national standardization bodies who met in New York in 1926, he officiated at the birth of the International Standard Association (ISA) and served on its Executive Council. Following World War II he again took a hand and helped draft the constitution of its successor, the new International Organization for Standardization (ISO). He guided the negotiations which merged SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 3 the US National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission with the Electrical Standards Committee of the ASA. By his work with the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs he developed closer relations with the stand- ardizing bodies in Latin America. His eloquent testimony before the hearings of the Temporary National Economic Committee on trade barriers in 1940 was an important milestone in showing how standardization was a major factor in elimi- nating restraint of trade. In December 1947 he retired as active ad- ministrative head of ASA but remained in a consulting capacity until June 1952. He was a member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Trade Association Executives, the Philosophical Society of Washington, and the Washington Academy of Sciences. His lifelong service to standardization was appropriately climaxed by the award to him in 1951 of the Standards Medal of the American Standards Association. He was the first recipient of this gold medal, which is awarded annually for leadership in the development and application of voluntary standards. The citation which accom- panied it epitomizes his career, “His long serv- ice and leadership in the cause of standards began with the modern standards movement in America. Called from the National Bureau of Standards to serve as Secretary and first Execu- tive Officer of the American Engineering Stand- ards Committee, later renamed the American Standards Association, he guided its growth, built its staff and its membership, and steered its work for nearly thirty years. Possessed of world- wide view, he played a leading part in the inter- national standards movement which resulted successfully in the formation of today’s Inter- national Organization for Standardization. Author, scholar, scientist, outstanding authority on stand- ards in the United States, through a long and distinguished career, his name is written large, imperishably, and with honor in the world of standards.”’ F. B. SIusBEE. sek ee Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences RDM S10 le 'sinia'y/ ee o,e/0 0 Francis M. Dreranporr, National Bureau of Standards MeMRRICTAE HPCE. ew cae MarGARET Pirrman, National Institutes of Health es de Se skioiek A vee dn holt vw Jason R. Swauuen, U.S. National Museum Dreasurer.......... Howarp 8. Rappers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) RI reticle cn Oe ice ee vA an a Ss s Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications _ Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Eaeronophical Society of Washington.....................cccecueee S. E. Forsusa Anthropological Society of Washington..................... Wiiuram H. GILBEertT Pimoprical society of Washington..................-..cceeeee, WiuiraM A. DayTon memmcanmaciety Of Washington... . 2.2... 006secen cnc cccccecuun Joun K. Taytor Becmolopical Society of Washington....:............0...cccecuece. F. W. Poos memenal Geographic Society................... 000. c00ce. ALEXANDER WETMORE Seweaeten Society of Washington. ..................caececes ARTHUR A. BAKER Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE MeereenIntOrical Society... .. 2.6... ccc ccc etc c ence GILBERT GROSVENOR Mammal society of Washington. | ...............ccc0.cceeees Lee M. Hutcuins Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGeE F. Gravatr Wvasmimeton Society of Wngineers....................cc cece eceee ance C. A. BreTrts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLD H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. Diu Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN SLocuM Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... FLoyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine Wa.tTerR C, HeEss Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... Joun G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Epwarp G. Hampp Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F. N. FRENKIEL Elected Members of the Board of Managers: ES LAS 1 Se R. G. Batss, W. W. Diexu SUMMING oc ea ad ede vad c wd ee ees ee ee ge M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER 7 S187 0 Rr A. T. McPHerson, A. B. GuRNEY UINIINUATIMACTS.. o.oo ec ees All the above officers plus the Senior Editor meememeaners and Associate Editors...............0 0600s c ence eee [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. DEFANDOoRF (chairman), MARGARET PITTMAN, J. R. Swauuen, H. 8. Rappiere, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership....Ht1nz Specut (chairman), Myron S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Rocer W. Curtis, JoHN Faser, J. J. FAaney, FRaANcois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMAkeER, CLARENCE H. HorrmMann, Louis R. Maxwe.u, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEo A. SHINN, FRANcis A. SMITH, ALFRED WEISSLER Committee on Meetings............... DoruaNnp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN V. ASTIN, GeorcE A. HottLe, Martin A. Mason, WiLL1AmM W. RuBEY Committee on Monographs (W1LLIAM N. FENTON, chairman): Mreremaary P9550... cw ee ces WiuuiaM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE arm rammary PO5G |. ce eee: G. ARTHUR CooPpER, JAMES I. HOFFMAN Seoran@ary 1957 «0... oe ee ae HaRAup A. REHDER, WILLIAM A. DayTON Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (RoBERT C. DuNcAN, general chairman): For Biological Sciences......ByRON J. OLSON (chairman), Sara EH. Branuam, LEE M. Hurtcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHwartTz, T. Date STEWART For Engineering Sciences ...EuitioTt B. Roperts (chairman), Cuirrorp A. BETTs, : JoseEPH M. CaLDWELL, MicHarL GOLDBERG, EARLE H. KENNARD, ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. TRENT For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracexk (chairman), WiLtt1am H. Avery, RicHarp S. Burineton, NatHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. HENBEsT, Epe@ar R. SmitH, BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY For Teaching of Science...M. A. Mason (chairman), A.H. Ciarx, Kerra C. JoHNSON Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Hersert N. Eaton (chairman), Mario Moxuari, Francis O. Ricz, J. LEoN SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H. TAYLOR Committee on Policy and Planning: (FrRANcts B. SILSBEE, chairman): BCAA ODI. oe case Pee on via hele eon We coe aides L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILSBEE ND) L ETD epee oe a er ae E. C. CritTENDEN, A. WETMORE SR OMPNTERIE ATMO Dit 50k ots ue gt gw we ote ate areola Joun E. Grar, Raymond J. SEEGER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuHErson, chairman) : ARTA A Tye OS Geis, cislal bse mseys Ge sik oem ste wy A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap ror RRNA Woe OO eo) focus 5c. owl vik Gis lee gee Austin H. Cuark, J. H. McMILLEN aM LOK Machen vc ow wie bine yw elas oes L. Epw1n Yocum, WiLuL1AM J. YOUDEN mpepresentaiiue on Council, of A.A .A 8... oo ee ede eee cee eae Watson Davis Manumiltce Of AUGIOTS. sic 6.2 Maw be ee Vo wt aie JoserH P. E. Morrison (chairman), GALEN B. ScHuBavER, EcBeERT H. WALKER Committee of Tellers...GzorGE H. Coons (chairman), Samus Levy, WALpo R. WEDEL CONTENTS ; Page BIocHEMISTRY.—The reciprocal effects between calcium and phosphate ions upon the growth, composition, and structure of castor bean, , Ricinus commums L. FRANK D..VENNING......... kr 65 Myco.togy.—A nematode-capturing fungus with clamp-connections and curved conidia. CHARLES: DRECHSLER.¢ 223) \000 8. Soe . ee 82 EntomoLogy.—Generic names of the Salpingidae and their type anu (Coleoptera). T. J. SPEMAN. 5 2 ee 85 PRocEEpINGSs: Anthropological Society..... ORM ene a cg ee Osrruary: Paul Gough Agnew... 5.2). a ae oy This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. VoL. 44 JOURNAL APRIL 1954 OF THE No. 4 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES JoHN C. EwERS U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM J. 1. HorrmMan CHEMISTRY Dean B. Cowie PHYSICS ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGY BOARD OF EDITORS FENNER A. CHACE U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE R. K. Coox NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BERNICE SCHUBERT BOTANY Puitie DRUCKER ANTHROPOLOGY Davip H. DUNKLE GEOLOGY WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royraut & GuILFoRD AVES. 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Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 44 April 1954 No. 4 PHYSICS.—Mesons and nuclear forces! Hans A. Berur, Cornell University. (Communicated by Richard K. Cook.) 1. HISTORY I want to start out with some brief re- marks about the history of the subject of mesons and nuclear forces. It is an example, as good as any I know in recent scientific progress, of both the wisdom and the folly of scientists. The theory of nuclear forces began in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron. This made possible a consistent picture of the structure of the nucleus, namely, to consider the nucleus as composed of neutrons and protons which are held together by very strong forces, different from and stronger than any other forces which we had known in nature before. Only three years after the discovery of the neutron and the start of nuclear theory, Yukawa suggested that the nuclear forces were trans- mitted between the nuclear particles, the neutron and the proton, by other particles, as yet undiscovered, which have now come to be known by the name of mesons. Yukawa predicted that there should be such particles. that they should have a mass of 100 to 200 times the electron mass, that they should be charged, and that they should have integral spin, probably either zero or one. Three years later, Yukawa’s prediction came true. Particles were discovered in cosmic radiation by two groups of. people, Anderson and Neddermeyer, working at the California Institute of Technology, and Street and Stevenson, working at Harvard University. These particles had a mass of about 200 electron masses, they had a posi- tive or a negative charge just as Yukawa 1The Twenty-second Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington, deliv- ered before the Society on April 24, 1953. This Lecture has also appeared in Physics Today 7 (2). 1954. had wanted, and they seemed to fulfill pretty well his program. In the succeeding nine years experimental physicists kept dis- covering more and more properties of these particles and theoretical physicists kept calculating what such particles would do for nuclear forces. Only the twain never met; the predictions of the theorists were com- pletely different from the way the particles actually behaved. ; The theorists predicted that these parti- cles, the mesons, should interact very strongly with nucleons once they were formed and should, therefore, be easily ab- sorbed, be easily scattered, and should easily cause nuclear reactions. They did nothing of the kind. In fact, they did nothing of any kind. They just moved along, were slowed down as any charged particle is, finally came to a stop and disintegrated in some way then unknown. All the same, theoretical physicists persisted in their belief in the connection between Anderson’s cosmic-ray particle, and Yukawa’s prediction. But the differences between the experimental results and the theoretical prediction were so great that it was proposed to make the best of another disagreement among physicists, one about the name of the particle, and to call the experimental particle, the mesotron, and the theoretical particle, the meson. Attempts to identify the two particles con- tinued until finally, in 1947, a group of Italian physicists, Conversi, Piccioni, and Pancini, found that the cosmic-ray meson had even less interaction with the nucleus ‘than had been suspected before. Even when they gave the meson a chance of sitting around the nucleus for a long, long time, namely a microsecond, even then it wouldn’t MAY a 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES make use of its opportunity and would not get captured by the nucleus. This finally proved that the two particles could not be identified. But then it took only a few months before the solution to the puzzle was found in Bristol, England, by Occhialini, Powell, and Lattes, who discovered that there existed still another particle which they called the z-meson, the primary meson, which decayed after a short time into the meson which had been previously discovered and which they called the u-meson, the ‘meson’? meson. The z-meson, at last, fulfilled Yukawa’s dream. It had a strong interaction with the nucleus. Once created, it was easily scat- tered; it was easily absorbed by the nucleus; and since 1947 we have come to believe that the m-meson really is the particle which transmits nuclear forces. Many properties of the m-meson were discovered by the Bristol group, working with cosmic ray mesons and photographic plates, but the greatest prog- ress about finding out the properties of this particle was only made after this particle was produced artificially in accelerators, first at Berkeley, then also at other laboratories. This again was an example of international cooperation: a powerful synchro-cyclotron, was available in Berkeley, but the Berkeley physicists did not discover artificially pro- duced z-mesons until the special technique of reading photographic plates was brought to them from England by a Brazilian, Lattes. Since that time we have learned quite a lot about a-mesons, and this is what I want to talk about. However, before the main sub- ject, it will be good to review some of the properties which had been predicted for the m-meson by nuclear physics on the basis of pure theory. 2. PREDICTIONS FROM NUCLEAR PHYSICS In the first place, from nuclear physics it was predicted that the meson transmitting nuclear forces should exist in three forms, positively charged, negatively charged, and neutral. The positive and negative variety are easily visible. The neutral variety was only a theoretical prediction until 1949, based upon a very fundamental property of nuclear forces, namely, the so-called charge- independence. In 1935, it was discovered VOL. 44, No. 4 in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington that the forces between two protons are just about the same as the forces between proton and neutron provided the pair of particles is in the same state of motion with respect to each other. This fact has, in the meantime, been established by many other pieces of experimental evidence, and by the theoreti- cal work of Breit and others, and is known as the theorem of charge independence. Now if there were only charged mesons then there could only be processes of the type that Yukawa had predicted, namely, the following: A proton can emit a positive meson, thereby turning into a neutron, and then positive meson can then be absorbed by some neutron which may be in the neigh- borhood and which thereby is changed into a proton. A second proton in the neighbor- hood could not absorb the positive meson because thereby it would acquire two charges and that would give a particle which presumably does not exist. So in this way we can have an interaction between a proton and a neutron, but not between two protons. When proton and neutron interact, they exchange their charge, a kind of inter- action which had been postulated in nuciear physics even before Yukawa and was known as exchange force. In fact the exchange character of the forces was one of the clues which Yukawa had when he invented his theory. However, you can see that by the exchange of charged mesons you cannot, in first order, get any interaction between two protons or between two neutrons; you need a neutral particle in order to transmit such interaction. That a neutral meson should exist was first postulated by Kemmer in England who set up a theory known as the ‘symmetric meson’ theory. In this theory, neutral and charged mesons of either charge are all presumed to be coupled to the nucleon, and the strength of the coupling is supposed to be the same for all. (The proton and the neutron are both called by the generic name ‘“‘nucleon.’’) Kemmer’s theory leads indeed to charge-independence of nuclear forces. After physicists were able to produce mesons artificially they found in fact the neutral meson in addition to the charged Aprint 1954 mesons. The neutral meson unfortunately cannot be seen directly because it has an extremely short life. It decays within some- thing like 10-! seconds into two gamma rays. The short lifetime can be understood theoretically but I will not go into this problem. A second point which nuclear theory pre- dicted about mesons was that the mesons should not be scalar; a scalar particle is one which has no spin, in contrast to electrons and nucleons which have a spin of one- half—..e., they have an angular momentum “around their own axis’, somewhat like a spinning top. The term “scalar” implies more than the absence of spin; it also implies that the wave function of the particle re- mains unchanged when the entire space is reflected on a mirror plane. There is also the possibility that the wave function of a spin- zero particle changes sign upon such reflec- tion; in this case, the particle is called “nseudoscalar.’’ Now scalar mesons could be excluded because the nuclear forces resulting from them are central forces depending on the separation of the two nucleons and on nothing else, whereas experimentally the forces are found to depend also on the direc- tion of the spins of the two nucleons. The third prediction of nuclear theory was that the mesons should be pseudoscalar. This was deduced, in fact, from the detailed dependence of nuclear forces on the direction of the nucleon spins, in particular from the sien of the quadrupole moment of the deuteron. A fourth prediction comes from an en- tirely different field of physics—not from nuclear physics but from an investigation of the fundamental properties of fields which has been pursued with some success especially since 1947. The problem is the mathematical treatment of the interaction of two fields like the electric field, the field of mesons, of nucleons, of electrons, etc. Before 1947, the treatment of such inter- actions gave certain infinite results, but since 1947 we do know how to deal with these infinities. This is done by the so-called “theory of renormalization”? in which the quantities which used to turn out infinite are re-interpreted as a change of the mass and the charge of the particle. After such BETHE: MESONS AND NUCLEAR FORCES Q9 re-interpretation, one can then show that all physically observable quantities are, in fact, finite. This modern theory of fields is further able to tell the sheep from the goats: certain theories can be made finite by renormaliza- tion, whereas others are intractable. You can write the fundamental equations of these other theories on paper, but when you try to calculate the probability of—let’s say— the scattering of a meson by a nucleon, you will invariably find an infinite result. So this development of the theory of fields has given us a principle of selecting between possible and impossible expressions for fields and their interactions. In particular, a field consisting of charged particles, like mesons, which can be emitted and absorbed by other charged particles (nucleons), can only have spin zero. So in this respect the theory of fields confirms what nuclear physics had already postulated, namely, that mesons should have spin zero. And it said one more thing, about the coupling of the mesons with the nucleons, which I will discuss later. 3. PROPERTIES OF FREE MESONS Now let us examine the experiments on mesons. There are many types of experi- ments that you can do with particles. The type of experiment which I shall discuss first is a simple one, which can be interpreted without elaborate calculations—just the qualitative result is sufficient to give an answer. First of all, the mass of the meson has been very accurately determined; it is 273 electron masses for the charged meson and 264 for the neutral meson. The difference may perhaps be due to an electric self- energy, i1.e., due to the interaction of the electric charge of the charged meson with the electric field. Secondly, we know that the mesons have only a finite lifetime; the charged az-mesons live about 10~® seconds. This is relatively long and makes it possible to observe them because, if you have a charged meson of this lifetime moving with a velocity close to that of light, then it will ‘on the average go 10 feet before it decays, which is a sufficient distance to make obser- vations. On the other hand, the neutral meson which lives for 10-! seconds will travel only about 10-° em, which is not 100 enough to observe its properties before de- cay. The third property, which is a much more important one for our consideration, is the spin of the particle. This has been determined experimentally for both the charged and the neutral meson, by methods which are both ingenious and quite different. The determination for the charged meson is based upon the statistical principle of detailed balancing. One knows from statisti- cal mechanics and from quantum mechan- ics, that when you have a process which can go in one direction and then a process which can go the opposite way, the probabil- ities of these two processes must bear a close relation to each other. Namely, if all the types of particles involved were present at a very high temperature, such that there are equally many particles in each quantum state, then processes in both directions must occur equally often to preserve equilibrium. Now, what does this principle of detailed balancing have to do with the spin of the meson? If you have a particle of spin zero and if this particle is in an external field then there is only one way for this particle to behave: it can’t orient anything with regard to the external field, it has only one quantum state. On the other hand, a particle of spin one can have three different orienta- tions of its spin with regard to the external field. Now, let us consider a process in which a spin-one meson is produced and a process in which it is absorbed. If it is produced, it can be produced with three different direc- tions of the spin. If it is absorbed, we know that it starts out with one definite direction of spin; therefore the ratio of the probabili- ties of being produced and being absorbed will contain a factor three if the particle has spin one, a factor which is known as the “‘statistical weight’’. If the particle has spin zero, on the other hand, the factor three is replaced by one, so that the ratio of production probability to absorption probability is three times smaller. This principle was suggested by Marshak for the investigation of the meson spin and was used successfully by two groups of experi- mental physicists, one at the University of Rochester and one at Columbia University. Both came out with the result that the meson, indeed, has spin zero as had been JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 4 predicted by both nuclear physics and the general theory of fields. A little more difficult was the next step, namely, to find out whether the meson is scalar or pseudoscalar; and now I must explain in more detail what this means. | You probably know that atomic systems are — characterized by a certain quantity which is | known as the parity. The parity tells you | how the wave function of the system be- haves when you change the sign of all the coordinates, that is, when you change x into —z,y into —y,2 into —zZ, le.) when yom make what is known as an inversion. In the case of zero angular momentum, you can do something simpler instead, namely, take a plane through the center of the atom and make a reflection of the whole space on this plane as if the plane were a mirror. Now let us ask what the wave function does when you make an inversion. We know that there are atomic states whose wave function does not change; we call these “‘even.”’ There are other states whose wave function changes sign upon inversion, those we call ‘‘odd”’ states. This is the property that we call the parity. For instance, in optical spectra, any allowed spectral line leads from an even state of the atom to an odd state, or vce versa. Similarly, one defines the parity of nuclei. For instance, the deuteron consists of a neutron and a proton with a wave function which is even. At the same time the deuteron has an angular momentum of one, which comes from the spin of the nu- cleons being parallel, so we have an even state of spin one. Now suppose the deuteron is made to absorb a positive meson, then it will change into two protons. These two protons obey the Pauli principle, which says that the wave function of the whole system must be antisymmetrical, and which, there- fore, says that there must be a certain relation between the spin of the system and the parity. It says, among other things, that it isn’t possible to have any state of spin one and even parity but only of spin one and odd parity. This conclusion from the general principle of quantum mechanics is somewhat complicated to derive so I won’t bother to do it. Now, the way that the parity of the meson was determined was exactly by an experi- Aprit 1954 ment in which mesons were absorbed by a deuteron. To start with, negative mesons were allowed to be captured in a Bohr orbit around the deuteron. When this happens, the meson will finally go into the innermost Bohr orbit which has zero orbital momentum and afterwards, if you wait long enough, it will be captured by the deuteron. Since it has negative charge, the meson will convert the deuteron into two neutrons which will then leave in opposite directions. Then one ean ask whether this capture process is per- mitted by conservation laws. Now, as I said, the charged meson has no angular momen- tum to contribute; so you start out with an angular momentum of one and with a state of even parity of the deuteron. Then in the end you get two neutrons, and as I have just said about two protons, so also two neutrons cannot exist in a state of angular momentum one and even parity. Therefore, this process ought to be forbidden by the rule of parity conservation and angular momentum con- servation—unless the meson itself contrib- utes something to the parity. But actually experimentally, the capture of negative mesons by deuterons occurs with great eagerness, and it does give two neutrons. So we have to conclude that the meson contributes something to the parity, that it changes the parity of the system. This is precisely what is meant by a pseudoscalar particle; it is one which changes the parity of the nucleon system when it gets absorbed or emitted by the system. 4. COUPLING OF MESONS AND NUCLEONS Therefore, up to this point, the experi- ments had confirmed exactly what the theory of nuclear forces had predicted. Now the next point is a considerably more difficult one and is perhaps the most important question in meson theory. This is the ques- tion of how the mesons are coupled to the nucleon. The coupling of mesons—the cou- pling of any two fields—is expressed by a term in the Hamiltonian of the system, and I am afraid I have to get a little bit technical at this point. The expression for the inter- action will contain the two interacting fields. Now the meson is described by a wave function which I shall call ¢; the nucleon wave function shall be called y; and the so- BETHE: MESONS AND NUCLEAR FORCES 101 called adjoint wave function of the nucleon shall be y. The coupling with a pseudoscalar meson will further contain the Dirac oper- ator known as y;—which is a very recondite thing. The two expressions for the coupling which have been most used are then: (1) Gyo direct or pseudoscalar coupling a Od (2) ghrysvuW ae pseudovector coupling sah ; The first of these is known as “direct”? coupling; it contains the meson wave func- tion itself. The second type of coupling which was almost exclusively used in the literature until 1947 contains the derivative of the wave function of the meson with regard to the coordinates; it also contains some of the more ordinary Dirac operators, Y, Where » runs from 1 to 4. These two couplings are also known as the pseudo- scalar and the pseudovector coupling. Now the pseudovector coupling has one practical advantage, namely, that it permits theoretical physicists to operate with quan- tities with which they are more familiar. It has, however, a grave disadvantage, namely, that it gives a field theory with which you can calculate only the first order approximation to any process; the second order gives infinite results for any quantity you calculate. This is connected with the fact that the theory cannot be renormalized. The pseudoscalar interaction has the dis- advantage that it uses the abstruse operator, y;, Which has the strange property that it likes to change a particle of positive energy into a particle of negative energy or, in terms of the hole theory, that the most likely process is the formation of a pair of nucleons. This makes theoretical calcula- tions somewhat more troublesome, but on the other hand, the pseudoscalar theory has the great advantage that it can be renor- malized in the sense of field theory and gives finite results for every process in any approximation. So one of the questions is which of these theories is’ right, and, of ‘course, the theorists hope that the pseudo- scalar coupling is right. The factors G and g in (1) and (2) are simply constants which determine the strength of the coupling. I have written the 102 factor as capital ““G’’ in (1) and as little “‘g”’ in (2) because the former is larger than the latter. A very important problem is clearly the determination of the coupling constant G or g; this plays the same role as the electric charge does in the interaction between charged particles and the electromagnetic field. This latter interaction is governed by the so-called fine-structure constant, - C which is 1/137 and, therefore, very small. On the other hand, the corresponding dimensionless quantity of meson theory, — , is about 15. This in contrast to = els a) large number, and this fact is the main cause of trouble in meson theory. All the methods which quantum mechanics has developed in the past were designed for small coupling between field and particle. This assumption of small coupling is very good for the electromagnetic field, and in this case we can predict effects of the order of one part in 10°, and fit experiment, simply 2 Alcs e by making an expansion in powers of et C But it wouldn’t be very successful to make 19 an expansion in powers of which is 15: é every successive order of approximation would give you a larger result than the previous one. Now in exploring experimentally the cou- pling of mesons and nucleons, one turns to the simplest phenomenon which involves this interaction. This is the scattering of mesons by nucleons because it involves only one nucleon and one meson. A slightly more complicated phenomenon is the production of mesons by the interaction of electro- magnetic radiation with nucleons, the photo- production of mesons. In this case you have to consider, in addition to the meson and the nucleon, the interaction with the electro- magnetic field. This interaction is known and simple. The next, more complicated, problem is that from which the theory started, namely the interaction between nucleons which is transmitted by the meson field. This is obviously more complicated because you now have to consider two nu- cleons and at least one meson. Finally, the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 most complicated of all phenomena that we hope to deal with is the production of mesons in the collision between two nucleons, in which case we not only have the mesons which produce the force between the two nucleons but, in addition, the meson which is produced in the process. 5. SCATTERING OF MESONS BY NUCLEONS The scattering of mesons by nucleons has been investigated experimentally at various places, most extensively at the University of Chicago, with other important contributions by the teams at Columbia University and the University of Rochester. The results of these investigations seemed at first to be a major defeat for field theory because they seemed to agree with the pseudovector coupling. In making this comparison, the theoretical probability of scattering was calculated by the methods of perturbation theory, i.e., by using only the first term in a V2 power series in ae In this approximation, pseudoscalar coupling gives a cross section for scattermg of mesons by nucleons which is almost independent of energy, while pseudovector coupling yields a cross section which rises very rapidly with increasing energy. The experiments gave a very rapid increase of cross section with energy and thus favored the pseudovector coupling. However, the pseudovector coupling theory in perturbation (weak coupling) approxima- tion predicted also some other things. It predicted, for instance, that a negative meson interacting with a proton should in general be simply scattered. In principle, interaction between these two particles could also lead to the reaction 7~ + p = n + 7°; (p = proton, n = neutron), but it was pre- dicted by both pseudoscalar and pseudo- vector theories in the weak coupling approxi- mation, that this reaction should not occur with sizeable probability. But experimen- tally, 1t does occur; in fact, the Chicago experiments show that it 1s about twice as powerful as the simple scattering of the negative mesons. Furthermore both theories in the weak coupling approximation predict that the positive-meson scattering should be about the same as the negative-meson scattering by protons. This again is wrong: AprRIL 1954 BETHBE: even if you add the charge-exchange scat- tering to the ordinary scattering of negative mesons, you still get only about a third of the probability of positive-meson scattering. The only possible conclusion from this is that the method of approximation is quite wrong, that one just can’t get the right result by calculating merely the lowest GA pete power of G that occurs. If nee 15, this. isn’t very surprising. The situation is best illus- trated by a song by Arthur Roberts, an experimental physicist of the University of Rochester, who says, We have weak coupling and we have strong coupling, And we have wrong, as we knew all along, coupling. A more reasonable procedure was proposed by Brueckner of Indiana University and his collaborators, Case and Watson. Taking the strong interaction seriously, they said that nucleon and meson can easily form a sort of compound; 1.e., that there exists a virtual quantum state of the system of meson and nucleon. Postulating such a state, they could make use of a lot of calculations which had been made in the period from 1940-45 in an effort to explain the discrepancies be- tween the observed properties of the u-meson and the theory, and which are known as the strong coupling theory. This theory had predicted that there should be stationary “compound” states of nucleon and meson, and that the first of these should be a state of the following characteristics: the meson has an orbital momentum one, the whole system has a spin of three-halves so that the state can be described as a P3/2 state, and the system is further characterized by a quantity which is called the isotopic spin which also has the magnitude three-halves, T = 3. I will not explain what that means. Now, Brueckner proposed that the phe- nomena of meson scattering are governed by this excited state. The energy of the state is then experimentally determined to be about 300 million volts higher then the ground state of the nucleon. The scattering cross section, both for positive and negative mesons by protons, should then have a resonance maximum near the stationary MESONS AND NUCLEAR FORCES 103 state and should thus go essentially like this: Scallering CTOess seclion energy The maximum, of course, can be expected to be quite broad because there is a very strong probability that the stationary state will decay into a free meson and a nucleon, and large decay probability is equivalent to a large width of the state. The main success of Brueckner’s theory was that he could predict the ratio of the cross sections for positive-meson scattering and negative-meson scattering. The ratio of the total cross sections should be three to one, which is very close to the observed ratio. Brueckner and his co-workers could further predict that the charge-exchange scattering of negative mesons should be about twice as large as the ordinary scattering of negative mesons and that again agrees with experi- ment. They could further predict that the angular distribution of the scattered mesons should be about 1 + 3 cos*é—and this again gives a reasonable approximation to the observed distribution, although it is far from a complete description. Scattering experiments are generally ana- lyzed in terms of phase shifts of certain partial waves which describe the wave function of the particle. When this is done for meson scattering, it is found that the most important interaction is in the state P3/2, I’ = 3%. In addition to this there is also a strong interaction in the states of orbital momentum zero, that is in the S states, in spectroscopic notation, and that in this case there is strong interaction both for isotopic spin three-halves and for one-half. For three- halves there is strong repulsion; for one-half there is a somewhat weaker attraction. 6. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS Thus the Brueckner theory is quite suc- cessful, but, of course, it is purely phenome- nological—the existence of an excited state is postulated but nothing is said about its 104 origin. It is desirable to go back to funda- mentals in order to explain this state. The road to this was opened by a young French physicist working at the Institute for Ad- vanced Studies, Maurice Lévy, who devel- oped a meson theory of nuclear forces about a year ago. So we are going back to the very beginning of the history of the subject, the theory of nuclear forces which gave the first lead on the pseudoscalar interaction. By consistent use of the pseudoscalar interac- tion Lévy was able to account for the phe- nomena observed in nuclear forces. The most important discovery which he made was that, as a direct consequence of pseudo- scalar meson theory, the forces between two nucleons are strongly repulsive at small dis- tances. This was the clue that had been missing in previous theories in which the two nucleons had always been considered as perfectly fixed in space. Theory then showed that two such nucleons would always have a strong attraction, indeed so strong that the two nucleons would fall into each other, and not form a stationary state of finite binding energy. Lévy’s discovery saved the situation because he showed that there was at small distances a very strong repulsion which pre- vented the two nucleons from falling into each other. After Lévy’s calculations physicists began to wonder whether the pseudoscalar theory could throw any light on the meson-nucleon scattering experiments. As I said _ before, the attempt to account for these experiments by weak coupling theory had been a com- plete failure. The first success with direct application of pseudoscalar theory was achieved by Drell and Henley of Stanford University. They were able to show that between nucleon and meson the same kind of potential exists as between two nucleons according to Lévy, namely one which has a tremendously strong repulsion at small dis- tances. At somewhat larger distances there is an attraction, mainly in the P3/. state. The strong repulsion is independent of angle and, therefore, acts primarily in states of zero angular momentum, that is in S states. Now if you have a strong repulsive potential and calculate the resulting cross section in the first Born approximation, you get a tremendously large result. Since in our case JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 4 the repulsive potential acts in S states, the scattering is isotropic. It is easy to see that it should also be nearly independent of energy. All these results correspond exactly to the first-order theory which I previously described. The merit of Drell and Henley is that they showed exactly why the first- | order result was wrong. Namely, if you have |, a potential which is strongly repulsive at small distances, and then maybe gets © slightly attractive at larger distances, then — polential energy distance the only effect of the repulsion on the wave function is to make it essentially zero at the point where the repulsion stops. The most this can do is to give a phase shift proportional to the radius of the repulsive region, and this phase shift will be com- pletely independent of the magnitude of the repulsive potential. So Drell and Henley showed not only that the weak coupling theory was wrong all along, but also why it was wrong and what should be done instead. The next major progress was made by Chew, of the University of Illinois who did the same for the attraction that Drell and Henley had done for the repulsion; namely, he showed how one could calculate, at least in principle, the effects of the attractive force in a sensible way without using pertur- bation theory. He was able to show that for the P3/2, T’ = 34 state one should indeed ex- pect a resonance if one only makes suitable assumptions about the magnitude of the coupling constant. Chew used pseudovector coupling for convenience in calculation, but his theory can easily be translated into pseudoscalar coupling. Building on all this work we, at Cornell University, started last fall to attack the problem from the beginning using the pseu- doscalar interaction between nucleon and meson. We were able to explain qualitatively most of the features observed in the scatter- ing experiments. In the first place, we get a Aprit 1954 strong repulsive interaction in the S state which gives an only moderately large S wave scattering, and this is Just what the Chicago and Columbia experiments show. Then the theory gives an attraction in the P3/., T = 36 state, and the phase shift in this state can be adjusted to fit the experiments by proper choice of the coupling constant. There is just one unknown in the theory, namely, the coupling constant; if you fix the coupling constant to be about 15 you can explain quite well the observed phase shift including its dependence on energy. Finally, you find from the theory that the phase shifts for all the other P states are very small, and this again corresponds to obser- vation. There is only one point which is not yet explained: experimentally, there is an attraction in the S state of isotopic spin 14. But here we know that the theory is still deficient, because although we know that one should renormalize the theory, we are only now learning how to do the renormali- zation in practice. 7. CONCLUSION I think that one can say at present that although the pseudoscalar meson theory is not yet able to explain quantitatively the meson-nucleon scattering, there is no cause for disbelieving it, because there is no quali- tative discrepancy between the predictions of the theory and the experiments. It is likely to be just a matter of learning how to treat strong interactions before we can get quantitative results on meson scattering. The question of nuclear forces, as I said, is much more complicated. Lévy’s first at- tempt was extremely valuable~ because it showed that in principle the theory gave the right behavior of nuclear forces. In detail, numerous theoretical physicists have criti- cized Lévy’s paper, and this is not surprising. However, the theory can explain why nuclei hold together, why you have strong forces, and why nucleons do not completely fall into each other. It predicts the interesting phenomenon of many-body forces; that is, it predicts that you have interactions not only between two nucleons, but also be- BETHE: MESONS AND NUCLEAR FORCES 105 tween three or more nucleons which hand a meson to each other around the circle. Weisskopf and his collaborators have pointed out that these many-body forces may be quite important for the explanation of the phenomenon of saturation of nuclear forces, that is, for the phenomenon that heavy nuclei also do not collapse. We can deduce from the pseudoscalar theory that nuclear forces depend on spin and deduce that there is a quadrupole moment of the deuteron. A word must be said about other mesons. The mesons which I have talked about are the a-mesons which have a mass of about 300 electron masses. There are a lot of other mesons of much higher masses. At one time when people calculated only the first-order interaction, some physicists suggested that maybe these heavier mesons would prevent the collapse of nuclei. I think this was false. I think, in fact, that one can see now that these heavier mesons have little to do with the structure of nuclei. This is again con- nected with Lévy’s potential which I men- tioned before, which gives a strong repulsion between nucleons at distances of about 0.5 X 107% cm. Now the heavier mesons could only cause forces of shorter range than this; therefore, no matter what these forces are, they will get swamped by the strong repulsion which exists anyway because of the interaction of the nucleon with the z- meson. Therefore, I think one does not need to know much about heavier mesons in order to construct a satisfactory theory of nuclear forces. Of course, when two nucleons collide at very high speed, they can pene- trate the region of mutual repulsion, and then heavy mesons can be produced (as we know experimentally) and probably influ- ence the mechanism of the collision in an important way. But nuclear forces at mod- erate energies, for instance inside ordinary nuclei, appear to be transmitted mainly by m-mesons which are coupled to nucleons by pseudoscalar interaction. I believe it is only a matter of mathematical skill, but of very great mathematical skill, to extract from the theory the information which we know is buried in it. 106 PALEONTOLOGY. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 4 —New genera and subgenera of Lower Cretaceous ammonites. RayMonpD CaseEy,! Geological Survey of Great Britain. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) The genera and subgenera diagnosed and briefly discussed in this paper are of Aptian and Albian age and are based partly on new discoveries in south-east England and partly on a revision of some previously described American and European material. The work has arisen as a consequence of research on the Ammonoidea of the English Lower Greensand formation, of which a systematic account is in preparation. Ad- vance publication is given to the present contribution in order that its substance may be available for inclusion in the forth- coming TJ'reatise on invertebrate paleontology. I am indebted to Dr. L. F. Spath, of the British Museum (Natural History), and R. V. Melville, of the Geological Survey of Great Britain for access to the collections in their charge, and to C. W. Wright, who has communicated to me for study specimens and casts received from the U. 8. National Museum and the Geological Survey of Canada. Family Hoplitidae Hyatt Subfamily Cleoniceratinae Whitehouse Genus Cleoniceras Parona and Bonarelli, 1896 Neosaynella, n. subg. Cleoniceras in which the umbilical bullae have disappeared and in which the falciform or sig- moidal costae normal to the genus have de- generated into obscure Oppelia-like crescents on the outer half of the sides. Venter tabulate in the early stages of development. Suture-line as in Cleoniceras 8.8. Type species—Cleoniceras (Neosaynella) in- ornatum, Nn. sp. Remarks.—Neosaynella is a specialized devel- opment of the stock which gave rise to Cleoniceras s.s., and presumably is an expression of the same vital adjustments which led to the production of oxycones in other families. The subgenus is unique in the Hoplitidae in that it lacks both tubercles and true costae at all stages of growth, 1 Published by permission of the Director, Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain. features which it might be considered desirable to emphasize taxonomically by full generic separation from Cleoniceras. The two groups are, however, connected by passage forms. Stratigraphical and morphological sequence in- dicate that Neosaynella is a secondarily smooth endform and that the laevigate condition is not an original feature inherited from its desmoceratid ancestors. Occurrence.—Southeast England; Transeaspia. Lower Albian (Dowvilléiceras mammillatum zone). Cleoniceras (Neosaynella) inornatum, n. sp. Fairly narrowly umbilicated platycone with strongly compressed, bluntly lancetiform whorl- section, widest at the umbilical border. Neanic whorls with a narrow, flat peripheral band which diminishes in width in the course of subsequent. growth until the venter is acute. Umbilical wall subvertical, with angular rim. Radial line faleci- form. Outer crescents, with accompanying shallow depressions, about 18 per whorl, barely dis- cernible before 30 mm diameter. Suture-line with asymmetric principal lobe and numerous auxiliary saddles, apparently similar to that of C’. cleon (d’Orbigny). Dimensions of holotype —As follows: Diameter (in mm).. rales ot (wholly septate) Whorl-height (as per cone of diamietenne ah) Whorl-thickness (as per cent of aioe 23 Umbilicus (as per cent of diameter)....... 16 Remarks —C. (N.) inornatum has a. close analogue in C. (N.) platidorsatum (Sinzow) from the Mangyshlak Peninsula of Transcaspia. The Russian form (in which the originals of Sinzow, 1909, pl. ii, figs. 1-2, are here included) differs in its anguliradiate radial line and its wider, shallower first lateral lobe. Sinzow’s species is dated by its association with Sonneratia dutempleana (d’Orbigny) and Inoceramus sala- mont d’Orbigny, both being species of the D. mammillatum zone. The subgenus is also repre- sented by other undescribed species in the English Lower Albian. Occurrence.—Lower Greensand (top of Rete stone beds; D. mammillatum zone), Folkestone, south-east England. Holotype (Geological Sur- AprRIL 1954 vey of Great Britain? no. 70409) and paratype (G.S.G.B. no. 74131), collected by the author. Anadesmoceras, n. gen. Moderately involute, discoidal Cleoniceratinae with distinct umbilical rim and flattened whorl- sides. Venter narrowly arched or sharpened in the adolescent, widening toward the aperture, which is preceded by wide sigmoidal constrictions. Indications of umbilical nodes and sigmoidal ribs on the inner whorls only. Test with striae of growth united into more or less distinct bundles, most prominent on the inner lateral area. Suture- line as in Cleoniceras. Type species —Anadesmoceras strangulatum, n. gen., n. sp. Remarks—This genus, like Farnhamia, de- seribed below, is a curiously localised develop- ment of the English Lower Albian. It is repre- sented by a number of new species and has been referred to on a previous occasion (Casey, 1951: 98) as a link between the hoplitid Cleoniceras and the family Desmoceratidae. The constricted body-chamber and virtual smoothness give a desmoceratid aspect, but its affinities lie with the associated Cleoniceras baylei (Jacob) and C. subbayler Spath. The latter has a similar striate test and in the course of growth shows the same changes in whorl shape, but is more distinctly ribbed and lacks the terminal constrictions. Uhligella, another link with the Desmoceratidae, has ribbing and constrictions of a different type and is not ventrally sharpened. Occurrence—Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds), Farnham area of Surrey, south-east England. Lower Albian (Leymeriella tardefurcata zone). Anadesmoceras strangulatum, n. gen., n. sp. Whorl-section very compressed, the sides very gently convex and convergent, subparallel at the aperture. Venter narrowly arched in the adoles- cent, becoming subacute on the posterior part of the body-chamber and then broadening rapidly towards the peristome. Umbilicus with flat, steeply sloped wall and distinct but blunt rim. Neanic whorls with about 10 very faint radially elongated nodes, directed obliquely forwards from the umbilical rim, each corresponding to three or four sigmoidal subcostae, barely visible except on the upper lateral area. Body-chamber, half a whorl in length, smooth except for growth 2 Hereinafter abbreviated to G.S.G.B. CASEY: LOWER CRETACEOUS AMMONITES 107 striae and two or three sigmoidal, ventrally widening constrictions. Dimensions.—As follows: Holotype* Paratype 1 Paratype 2 (body- (septate) chamber) Diameter (in mimi). 3.4.0. 7] 75 46 Whorl-height (as per cent of diameter)....... Cee... ae 52 49 52 Whorl-thickness (as per cent of diameter ):. Screeners 25 26 27 Umbilicus (as per cent of Giameten) oda. cc. stra 17 17 17 * Maximum diameter c. 80 mm.; septate to c. 45 mm. Occurrence—Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds; top of L. tardefurcata zone), Wrecclesham, near Farnham, Surrey, southeast England. Holotype (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1283), Paratype 1 (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1281), Paratype 2 (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1290), collected by the author. Farnhamia, n. gen. More or less evolute, compressed. Whorl- section subrectangular, the flattened sides con- verging to a broadly convex venter. Umbilicus with high, smooth, subvertical wall but no defi- nite rim. Early whorls strongly costate, at first resembling a bluntly ribbed Sonneratia or Tetra- hoplites, with the ribs arising in twos and threes from umbilical bullae and continuing across the venter with a forward sinuation. Costation, if persistent, tending to break up into long, untuberculated primaries and short inter- calated secondaries, recalling that of Para- hoplites. Outer whorls smooth or with only a few radial folds on the lower part of the flank. Suture line with subquadrate, more or less sym- metrical, trifid first lateral lobe; saddles bifid, aborescent, progressively slender-stemmed and declining regularly toward the umbilicus. Type species—Farnhamia farnhamensis, n. gen., n. sp. Remarks.—Farnhamia is the earliest known representative of the cleoniceratine branch which contains Sonneratia, Tetrahoplites, Pseudoson- neratia, and Protohoplites and which lies in the direct line of ancestry of the Hoplitinae. Its discovery is thus of interest for the light it throws on the origin and interrelations of the ‘primitive members of the Hoplitidae, and al- though as yet known only from a restricted area in southeast England, is likely to play an im- portant part in European Albian chronology. Its appearance at the base of the Leymeriella 108 tardefurcata zone, along with Anadesmoceras, coincides with the incoming in North Germany of Proleymeriella, the first of the Leymeriellinae, another important branch of the Lower Albian Hoplitidae. This brings out the merit of Breistrof- fer’s zonal classification, in which this burst of evolutionary activity is dated as the commence- ment of Albian time (Breistroffer, 1947). Farnhamia was derived, probably, from Uhligella, and like that genus shows considerable variation in the duration of the costate stage. The innermost whorls are almost indistinguish- able from Sonneratia, but the whorl-shape soon changes to that of Tetrahoplites. In that genus, however, the umbilical bullae are retained to a larger diameter, and the ribbing is sharper, persistent, and never modifies to a parahoplitid style. Adult specimens of Farnhamia attain an average diameter of about 300 mm, and de- tached portions of outer whorls may be strik- ingly similar to certain Upper Aptian Para- hoplites. But generic discrimination may be. readily made if the sutures are preserved, the breaking up of the umbilical lobe into numerous auxiliary elements being the chief diagnostic feature of the Farnhamia suture line as compared with that of Parahoplites. Records of ‘‘Parahoplites” and ‘“‘Desmocerate ammonites” from the ‘‘jacobi subzone” of the Farnham district (Wright and Wright, 1942) refer to Farnhamia. The accompanying ‘“‘Acan- thohoplites’’ and ‘‘? Beudanticeras” are here identified as Hypacanthoplites (including H. trivialis Breistroffer, group) and Anadesmoceras. Several folio plates would be required to illustrate the various species of Farnhamia now in the collections. Occurrence——Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds; 80-90 feet below the Gault), Farnham area JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 of Surrey, south-east England. Lower Albian (base of L. tardefurcata zone). Farnhamia farnhamensis, n. gen., n. sp. Figs. 1, 4-9. At diameter of 15 mm whorl-section but little compressed, sides convex, venter broadly rounded; arcuate ribs arise mostly in pairs, some- times in threes, from obtuse umbilical bullae and traverse the venter as an obtuse-angled chevron with rounded apex directed forward. Whorls later increase in relative height and flatten at the sides; ribs slightly sigmoidal, with- out definite bullae, blunt on the test, sharper on the internal mold. Maximum vigour of costation attained at 45-55 mm. diameter, after which ribs fade from the middle of the sides, the umbilical portion remaining as thick, radially elongated folds or bulges, the ventral portion as heavy folds, separated by interspaces equal to their width. Umbilical and ventral ribs in proportion of about 12 to 24 at 70 mm. diameter. Ribbing lost at about 120 mm. diameter. Outer whorls smooth and more convex in section. Dimensions.—As follows: Holotype* Holotype Paratype 1+ (near beginning (penulti- (septate) of body- mate chamber) whorl) Diameter (in mm.)......... 228 155 60 Whorl-height (as per cent of diameter) .22).. eee ? 43 42 Whorl-thickness (as per cent of diameter)..=........... ? 34 2? Umbilicus (as per cent of Giameten) eee otis or 28 b 22 * Maximum diameter 250 mm.; septate to c. 200 mm. + Crushed laterally. Remarks—In Farnhamia farnhamensis the ribbing is lost before the onset of the “Para- hoplites’’ stage. The costate nucleus thus re- Fies. 1, 4-9.—Farnhamia farnhamensis, n. gen., n. sp.: 1, Side view of paratype 1 (G.S.G.B. no. 85850) 1; 4, side view (a) and ventral view (b) of paratype 2 (G.S.G.B. no. 85848) 1; 5, side view of holotype (G.S.G.B. no. 74128) showing smooth outer whorl, X0.25; 6, diagrammatic whorl-section x .5; 7, side view of paratype 4 (C.W. and E.V. Wright Coll.) Gnternal mold) X1; 8, ventral view of inner whorl! of holotype (G.S.G.B. no. 74128) 0.5; 9, external suture line of paratype 3 (G.S.G.B. no. 85849) 1. Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds; base of L. tardefurcata zone), Coxbridge pit, Alton Road, west of Farnham, Surrey, southeast England. Fig. 2.—Anadesmoceras strangulatum, n. gen., n. sp., side view (a) and ventral view (b) of holotype (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1283), X1. Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds; top of L. tardefurcata zone), Wreccle- sham, near Farnham, Surrey, southeast England. Fic. 3.—Cleoniceras (Neosaynella) inornatum, n. sp., side view (a) and diagrammatic whorl-section (b) of holotype (G.S.G.B. no. 70409), 1. Lower Greensand (Folkestone beds; D. mammillatum zone), Folkestone, Kent, southeast England. Fic. 10.—Farnhamia sp., internal suture line (incomplete) of near adult specimen (G.S.G.B. no. 74134) X1. Locality and horizon as for Figs. 1, 4-9. Originals of all figures (except fig. 7) collected by the author. Aprit 1954 CASEY: LOWER CRETACEOUS AMMONITES L109 Figs. 1-10.—(See opposite page for legend). 110 sembles Tetrahoplites, and if found isolated could be distinguished from that genus only by the passage of the umbilical bullae into radially elongated bulges and the fading of the ribs from the middle of the sides. Compare, for instance, the lateral aspect of Tetrahoplites sexangulatus (Sinzow) (1907, pl. i, fig. 4) with the paratype fragment of F. farnhamensis illustrated in Fig. 7. Occurrence—Coxbridge pit, Alton Road, west of Farnham, Surrey, southeast England. Horizon as for genus. Holotype (G.8.G.B. no. 74128), paratype 1 (G.S.G.B. no. 85850), paratype 2 (G.8.G.B. no. 85848), paratype 3 (G.S.G.B. no. 85849), collected by the author; paratype 4 collected by C. W. Wright and E. V. Wright. Puzosigella, n. gen. Fairly evolute, subdiscoidal, strongly costate. Whorl-sides flattened, subparallel. Venter broadly rounded. Umbilicus with subvertical wall and distinct rim, surmounted, in the early whorls, by obtuse bullae, from which the sigmoidal ribs take origin in bundles. Ribs later tending to dif- ferentiate into (long) primaries and (short) secondaries, the latter either free-ending or branching from the primaries at or below the middle of the sides. All ribs broadening slightly and fading on the venter, which they traverse in a forwardly directed arc. Inner lateral area tend- ing to smoothness at large diameters. Periodic narrow constrictions, not persistent to the adult. Suture line puzosoid. Type species——Pachydiscus sacramenticus An- derson (1902: 105, pl. 6, figs. 183, 184; pl. 10, fig. 195), Horsetown group, Shasta County, Calif. Remarks.—Puzosigella includes the following species from the Hulen Beds of the Horsetown group of California which were assigned to Sonneratia by Anderson (1938: 193-197): P. sacramenticus, S. mullert, S. taffi, Anderson spp., and S. rogerst Hall and Ambrose. It is distin- guished from Sonneratia chiefly by its flattened, less convergent sides, distinct umbilical rim, narrower and closer ribbing, relatively smooth venter, and the constricted early whorls. In whorl-shape, suture-line, and constrictions Pyuzo- sigella recalls the desmoceratid Puzosia. Sonneratia, it may be added, has not yet been found in North America. Approximate con- temporaniety of Puzosigella and Sonneratia is suggested by the records of Dowvillécceras of the mammillatum group above and below the horizon of Puzosigella (Anderson, 1938: 67-69), JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 4 though the earlier oecurrence of Dowvilléiceras has not been illustrated and requires con- firmation. The Texan and Colombian forms identified with Sonneratia and Pseudosonneratia by Scott (1937, 1940) and considered to indicate a Middle Albian age, are Upper Aptian Para- hoplitidae and, so far as they are generically recognisable, belong to Kasanskyella and Colom- biceras. Occurrence.—LeConte and Perrin zones of the Hulen beds (Horsetown group) of California. Probably upper Lower Albian. Leconteites (Breistroffer, 1952), n. gen. This genus, proposed by Breistroffer? (1952: 266) without diagnosis and therefore hitherto invalid, comprises the Californian ‘“‘Cleoniceras”’ of Anderson (1938). It occurs with early forms of Puzosigella and differs from that genus in its greater involution and compression, finer ribbing, more delicate and less persistent umbilical tuber- cles, tendency to smoothness in the adult, and in the presence of periodic desmoceratidlike peripheral ridges. Constrictions, if ever present, disappear before the neanic stage. There is no ventral acuteness as in Cleoniceras and the ribbing is Sharper and more elegant than in that genus. Type species.—Desmoceras leconter Anderson (1902: 95, pl. 3, figs. 94, 95; pl. 10, fig. 190), Horsetown group, Shasta County, Calif. Occurrence.—LeConte zone of the Hulen beds (Horsetown group) of California. Probably Lower Albian. Tetrahoplitoides, n. n. (= Coloboceras Crickmay, 1927, non Trouessart 1889) Cleoniceratinae resembling a compressed Tetrahoplites, but with more angular, less strongly ribbed venter, and with a potentiality for losing costation at the middle of the sides and the siphonal area. Suture-line simplified, with deep, subsymmetrical, trifid first lateral lobe. Type species.—Sonneratia stantona Anderson, (1902: 105, pl. 3, figs. 91-98; pl. 10, fig. 108), Horsetown group, Shasta County, Calif. Remarks. —Of the numerous Horsetown forms referred to Sonneratia by Anderson, only S. stantona and its ally S. crosst show a close ap- ’ During the past few years this author has pro- posed numerous genera and subgenera of ammon- ites under conditions which do not meet the requirements of the International Rules of Zoo- logical Nomenclature, often with citation of type species only. Apri 1954 proach to the Cleoniceratinae of the Eastern Hemisphere. Comparison is suggested with the Transeaspian group of Tetrahoplites orientalis Casey (e.g. Sinzow, 1907, pl. iii, figs. 9, 10, 18) and it is interesting to note that loss of ribbing as in T. crossi (Anderson) can be matched in species of Farnhamia, a forerunner of Tetra- hoplites. There is also resemblance to the boreal genus Gastroplites, but in that genus the um- bilical terminations of the ribs are not distinctly bullate as in Tetrahoplitoides. Moreover, the ontogenetic changes in the venter of Gastro- plites—from smooth to an ornament of thick bar-like ribs—is the opposite of that of T. stantont. In that species the ribs are continuous across the venter already at 15 mm. diameter and progressively weaken on the siphonal area as growth proceeds, so that finally they are in high relief only on the ventrolateral angles.* The wide, asymmetric principal lobe and_ pseudoceratitic tendency of the Gastroplites suture line is also distinctive. Occurrence—Upper part of Horsetown Group, Shasta County, Calif. Probably upper Lower Albian. Subfamily Gastroplitinae Wright Besides Gastroplites and Neogastroplites Mc- Learn, this subfamily is here taken to include Arcthoplites Spath and Subarcthoplites, n. gen. It is regarded as an independent boreal offshoot of the Hoplitidae whose connection with the fundamental Desmoceratidae is suggested by Cymahoplites. It diverged from the normal evolu- tionary path of the Hoplitidae by strengthening rather than weakening the ornament along the siphonal line, and by acquiring tubercles only at a late phylogenetic stage. ~ Subarcthoplites, n. gen. Like Arcthoplites, but with more convex venter, the ribs bifurcating from a lower point on the flanks and without the pronounced tendency to cupid’s-bow curvature. Umbilical wall sub- vertical, fairly high, with rounded rim. Suture line as in Arcthoplites. Type species—Lemuroceras belli McLearn (1945: 10, pl. ii, figs 17-18), Loon River forma- tion, Loon River, Buffalo Head Hill, Alberta, Canada. Remarks.—Subarcthoplites is a welcome ad- dition to our scanty knowledge of the boreal + These ventrolateral portions of the ribs were described as bullae by Crickmay (1927: 511). CASEY: LOWER CRETACEOUS AMMONITES LL] Albian ammonite fauna. It is important because it is linked, on the one hand, with Arcthoplites and, on the other, with Cymahoplites, a desmo- ceratid derivative known as yet only by its type species, Ammonites kerenskianus Bogoslowsky, from the Albian of Central Russia. McLearn’s original determination of S. belli as Arcthoplites ? (see Spath, 1942: 688) was justified, and it is unfortunate that he and his compatriots sub- sequently followed Spath (1942: 688) in assigning this species and certain of its associates to Lemuroceras. This latter genus has been described otherwise only from India and Madagascar and its record from the Arctic Province, though unknown from the intervening areas, rightly puzzled Collignon (1949: 117). It is a more planulate form than Subarcthoplites, with an oblique, generally rimless umbilical wall. Definite bifurcation of the ribs is much less frequent than in the Canadian genus; moreover, the manner in which the ribs issue almost tangentially from the umbilicus and then abruptly change direction on the flank gives a distinctive appearance to Lemuroceras. In S. belli there is frequent bifurca- tion of the ribs from near the middle of the sides, and on the last half whorl of the holotype the primary stems are directed radially from the umbilicus, producing, with bifurcation, the Y- shaped pattern of Arcthoplites. It is this dif- ference in the umbilical portion of the ribs which chiefly distinguishes Cymahoplites from Lemuro- ceras. These two genera are closely allied, however, and some approach to the Cymahoplites con- dition of ribbing is seen in Lemuroceras besairiet Collignon. MclLearn’s “Lemuroceras ef. indicum Spath” and certain other fragments figured as Gastro- plites by Warren (1947, pl. 29, figs. 8, 9, 11) are here provisionally referred to Subarcthoplites. ‘“Temuroceras’” macconnell1 (Whiteaves) and “LT”, irene McLearn are at present impossible to place, but comparison of casts of these species with a large series of Lemuroceras from India and Madagascar (kindly made available by Dr. L. F. Spath) does not support their reference to that genus. It has been pointed out previously (Casey 1952) that the European and Eurasian forms that have been identified with Arcthoplites belong to different genera (Tetrahoplites and Protohoplites). In Greenland and Central Russia Arcthoplites is part of a Lower or basal Middle Albian faunal assemblage (Nikitin, 1888: 171-6; Spath 1946: 9), as also is Cymahoplites (Bogoslowsky, 1902: 112 129). It may be surmised, therefore, that Sub- arcthoplites is of about the same date. This is supported by its occurence below the Gastro- plites horizon (McLearn, 1945), the position of the Gastroplites fauna in the European zonal scheme having been fixed by the fortunate discovery of that genus in the topmost Middle Albian of Folkestone, south-east England (Casey, 1936: 448; Spath 1937). Occurrence.—Western interior of Canada. Probably Lower or basal Middle Albian. Subfamily Hoplitinae s:.s. Genus Hoplites Neumayr, 1875 The author supports the application of Wright (1951) to the International Commission on Zoo- logical Nomenclature for use of its plenary powers to preserve the name Hoplites, Neumayr, 1875, for the genus of ammonites typified by Ammonites dentatus J. Sowerby. It is a poly- phyletic genus, derived in part from Pseudo- sonneratia and in part from Otohoplites. Isohoplites, n. subgen. Like Pseudosonneratia, but with a ventral depression which attenuates or effaces the ribs along the siphonal line. Type species.—Parahoplites steanmanni Jacob (1907: 312) (= Ammonites interruptus Pictet and Campriche, pars (1860, pl. xxviii, figs. 7-8 only), Albian, Sainte Croix, Switzerland. Remarks.—Isohoplites lies on the border-line of the Cleoniceratinae and the Hoplitinae, being morphologically intermediate between Pseudo- sonneratia and Hoplites of the dentatus group. In the latter genus not only does the ventral de- pression or channel clearly separate the ribs, but the free ends of the ribs alternate on opposite sides of the venter and tend to become tubercu- lated. On a summation of morphological char- acters I. stenmanni is thus closer to Pseudo- sonneratia, but since the appearance of a ventral depression is taken as diagnostic of the Hoplitinae the subgenus is assigned to Hoplites. Attention was called to the presence in the English Gault of this transitional group of hoplitids when some species were recorded as “Cf. Pseudosonneratia laffraye: Breistroffer’’ (Casey, 1950: 293). It is now known to be repre- sented by a number of undescribed species of wide distribution in the basal Middle Albian of southeast England, where it is restricted to a narrow band immediately below the Hoplites JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, No. 4 benettianus subzone of the Hoplites dentatus zone and above the horizon of Pseudosonneratia (Douvilléiceras mammillatum zone). It is thus a subgenus of stratigraphical utility. Occurrence.—Southeast England, France, Switzerland. Middle Albian (base of H. dentatus — zone). Family Desmoceratidae Zittel Brewericeras, n. gen. Discoidal, moderately involute Desmocera- tidae resembling Beudanticeras, but with very flat, subparallel whorl-sides, consistently sharp umbilical rim, and no constrictions or peripheral ridges. Costate developments with falciform ribs on the upper lateral area that are sharper and more regular than those of Beudanticeras and which weaken on the ventral area. Type species—Ammonites brewert Gabb (1869: 130, pl. 20, fig. 5; pl. 19, fig. 5b), Horsetown group, Shasta County, Calif. Remarks——Ammonites brewert Gabb and its allies have been generally included in Beudan- ticeras or Desmoceras. The general aspect is that of a Beudanticeras, but in the costate forms of that genus (e.g. B. dupinianum d’Orbigny sp., B. subparandiert Spath) the ribs are as pro- nounced on the venter as on the sides, and the constrictions and accompanying ridges give an irregularity to the ornament which is quite distinct from that of Brewericeras. But whereas the costate species of Beudanticeras and Brewer- iceras are easily separable, the two genera pro- duce smooth homoeomorphs (e.g. Brewericeras haydent Gabb sp., Br. hulenense Anderson sp., and Beudanticeras laevigatum J. de C. Sowerby sp.). The whorl-section of the European Beu- danticeras, however, is never so slab-sided as that of Brewericeras, and a sharp umbilical rim, while occasionally developed (as in Beudanticeras sanctae-crucis Bonarelli and Nagera), is not typical. Occurrence.—North America. or Middle Albian. Lower and/ Ziircherella, n. gen. Costate desmoceratids differing from Uhligella in their finer, puzosid ribbing, which tends to effacement around the umbilicus. Type species——Desmoceras ziircherr Jacob (in Jacob and Tobler, 1906; 9-10, pl. u, figs. 1-3), Upper Aptian, Luitere Zug, Switzerland. Remarks.—This typically Upper Aptian genus Aprit 1954 (examples D. ztirchert Jacob, D. stremmei Zwier- aycki, Uhligella subziircheri Renngarten) is taken to embrace the Upper Barremian-Aptian group of Desmoceras seguenzae (Coquand) Sayn. Its separation from Jacob’s comprehensive Ujhligella was advocated in 1949 (Casey 1949: 338). A somewhat similar type of lateral ribbing’ is pro- duced in the more inflated Valdedorsella. Occurrence.—North-west Europe, Russia, North and East Africa, South America. Upper Barremian-Upper Aptian. Family Cheloniceratidae Spath Genus Cheloniceras Hyatt, 1903 Notwithstanding the somewhat unusual cir- cumstances of its introduction (Stanton, in Hyatt, 1903: 101, footnote), the genus Cheloni- ceras, with authorship credited to Hyatt and with Ammonites royerianus d’Orbigny as type species, has been universally accepted by am- monite specialists. Nomenclatorial stability of the genus is threatened, however, by inability to assess satisfactorily the taxonomic characters of its type species. D’Orbigny’s holograph of Ammonites royeri- anus illustrates an immature ammonite from the Aptian of Bailly-aux-Forges, Wassy (Haute- Marne), France, which is stated (d’Orbigny, 1841: 365-366) to be 12 mm. in diameter and to be represented in natural size. As noted by Stoyanow (1949: 104), however, the illustration is of 20 mm diameter. In any case, the specimen is too small for positive determination below family level. Kilian (1913: 340) referred it to the same group as A. ricordeanus d’Orbigny (now assigned to the genus Megatyloceras Humphrey), while Rodighiero (1922: 63, 67, 69) even sup- posed it to belong to Astiericeras. On the other hand, Nikchitch (1915: 3, 4, 18, 50) asserted that A. royerianus is merely the young of A. cornu- elianus d’Orbigny, the type of which was ob- tained from the same area and from the same stratigraphical horizon. Efforts to trace the original specimen (or specimens) on which A. royerianus was based have been unsuccessful, and in view of the similarities in the nuclei of species of Cheloniceras, LEpicheloniceras n. subgen., Megatyloceras and Roloboceras n. gen., its identi- fication with Ammonites cornuelinanus cannot be considered beyond doubt. 3 It is clear that so long as Ammonites royertanus d’Orbigny remains the type species of Cheloni- ceras, the nomenclature of that genus and of the CASEY: LOWER CRETACEOUS AMMONITES ’ 113 family Cheloniceratidae in general rests on an insecure basis. In order to remove this insecurity and to validate existing nomenclatorial practice, the author, in conjunction with C. W. Wright, has applied to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to use its plenary powers to set aside all previous type designations for the genus Cheloniceras and to designate Ammonites cornuelianus d’Orbigny to be type species of that genus. The interpretation of Cheloniceras s.s. here adopted complies with the acceptance of A. cornuelianus d’Orbigny as the type species. This is a laterally bi-tuberculate form whose flat venter is angulated at the margins but does not bear tubercles. Epicheloniceras, n. subg. Cheloniceras in which the primary ribs (and occasionally the secondary ribs) are attenuated or depressed along the middle of the venter and are elevated into tubercles at the ventro-lateral angles. At large diameters whorls rounded and with close, untuberculated ribs, as in Cheloniceras s.s. of similar growth stage. Type species —Dowvillérceras — tschernyschewr Sinzow (1906: 182-186, pl. i, figs. 11, a, b, e, (lectotype), 12; pl. ii, figs. 2-7), Upper Aptian, Kysil-Kaspak (Kislowodsk), Russia. Remarks. — This subgenus, corresponding broadly to the “group of Dowvilléiceras martini’ of authors, had an almost world-wide distribu- tion in Upper Aptian times. Ch. orientale (Jacob), Ch. tschernyschewt (Sinzow), Ch. subnodoso- costatum (Sinzow), Ch. caucasicum (Anthula), and Ch. stolicekanum (Gabb) are some of the more familiar species. Unfortunately d’Or- bigny’s Ammonites martina (d’Orbigny, 1841, pl. 48, figs. 7-10), though widely quoted, is un- suitable as type species since it has a confused taxonomic history and cannot be correctly in- terpreted from the idealised and inadequate protographs. Epicheloniceras was derived directly from Cheloniceras s.s. of the Lower Aptian by dif- ferentiation of the ventral ribbing. Records of species of EHpicheloniceras in the Lower Aptian (e.g. Kilian, 1915: 62-63; Roch, 1927: 21-22) ~ are based on misidentifications. The type species of Epicheloniceras has been fully studied by Nikchitch (1915: 25-37, Russian text). Occurrence.—N orthwest Europe, __ Russia, 114 Africa, South America, Mexico, California. Upper Aptian. Roloboceras, n. gen. Cheloniceratidae with depressed, semicircular whorl-section and thick, blunt ribs which pass over the venter without modification and which tend to unite at the umbilical border in obtuse nodes or bulges. Irregularly ribbed and con- stricted juvenile stage often prolonged. Umbilical wall high, subvertical and smooth. Suture line simplified, with massive external saddle, low lateral saddles and very narrow lateral lobes. Type species—Ammonites hambrovi Forbes (1845: 354, pl. xii, fig. 4), Lower Greensand (Lower Aptian), Atherfield, Isle of Wight. Remarks.—In whorl-shape and tuberculation (recalling certain Turonian Vascoceratidae) A. hambrovi and its allies stand apart from other Cheloniceratidae and the group clearly requires generic separation. The genus Megatyloceras was founded by Humphrey (1949: 149) to include forms previously referred to the “group of Dowvilléiceras hambrovi (Forbes)”, but with Dowvilléiceras coronatum Rouchadzé as type. As interpreted by its type species, Megatyloceras must be restricted to those species which show exaggerated lateral tubercles placed at the middle of the side, giving a coronate whorl- section. Of the species listed by Humphrey, Megatyloceras thus embraces only D. coronatum Rouchadzé, Megatyloceras georgiense, n. n.,° and, probably, the miniature Ammonites ricordeanus d’Orbigny. Roloboceras includes A. hambrovr. Forbes, Cheloniceras hambrovi var. horrida Spath, Ch. perlt Spath, and a number of undescribed species in the English Lower Greensand. Occurrence.—N orthwest Europe. Lower Aptian (Deshayesites deshayesi zone). Family Parahoplitidae Spath Subfamily Acanthohoplitinae Stoyanow Gargasiceras, n. gen. More or less evolute Acanthohoplitinae. Whorl-sides and venter flattened; umbilical and ventral margins rounded. Ribs straight or slightly flexed, attenuated on the sides, tending to broaden and become flat-topped on the 5 = Douvillecceras coronatum Rouchadzé, 1938 (:178-179, pl. i, fig.7; pl. 11, fig. 1). Differs from D. coronatum Rouchadzé, 1933 (:195-197, pl. 111, fig. 4) in the persistence of the lateral tubercle. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 venter. Primary ribs on the inner whorls period- ically emphasized or forming thin lateral flanges which are limited ventrad by the line of involu- tion. Secondary ribs intercalated or branching from the top of a primary flange, the point of bifurcation marked by a minute tubercle. Ribbing later becoming more uniform, without tubercles, flanges or bifurcation. Neanic whorls with a narrow depression along the siphonal line. Suture line as in Colombiceras. Type species-—Ammonites gargasensis d’Or- bigny (1841: 199-200, pl. 59, figs. 5-7), Upper Aptian (Gargasian), Gargas (Vaucluse), France. Remarks.—Species of Gargasiceras, appearing already in the Lower Gargasian (‘‘martini zone’’), have been assigned usually to the genus Acantho- hoplites Sinzow, but the aschiltaensis group of Anthula, to which Sinzow’s genus must be restricted, is of later horizon and comprises less evolute forms with rounder whorls, no ventral depression and a different style of ribbing. The affinities of Gargasiceras lie wholly with the contemporaneous Colombiceras. In that genus, however, the propensity for flat-topped rbbing extends to the whorl-sides, and the ventral groove and lateral flanges of the young Garga- siceras are not present. As in the Acantho- hoplitinae generally, the tuberculate stage is transient and may be terminated very early in ontogeny (e.g. Gargasiceras interiectum Riedel - sp.). In addition to the type species, the following forms of Gargasiceras have been noted: G. aptiense (Roch), G. recticostatum (Kilian) Roch sp., G. attenuatum (Kilian) Roch sp. (Roch, 1926, sub Acanthoplites), G. acutecostum (Riedel), G. interiectum (Riedel) and G. pulcher (Riedel) (Riedel, 1937, swh Acanthoplites). Occurrence.—Southeast France, South America, Mexico. | REFERENCES ANDERSON, F. M. Cretaceous deposits of the Pacific coast. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. (3) 2: 1-126. 1902. . Lower Cretaceous deposits in California and Oregon. Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Amer., no. 16. 1938. Bogostowsky, N. A. Materalien zur kenntnis der Untercretacischen ammonitenfauna von Cen- tral-und-Nord Russland. Mém. Com. Géol. Russ. (n.s.), no. 2. 1902. BREISTROFFER, M. Sur les zones d’ammonites dans l’ Albien de France et d’ Angleterre. Trav. Lab. Géol. Grenoble 26: 1-88. 1947. . Sur quelques ammonites de l’Albien in- Aprit 1954 férieur de Madagascar. C.R. Soe. Géol. France, no. 15, séance Dec. 3, 1951: 266-268. 1952. CasEy, R. Recent additions to the Albian am- monoid faunas of Folkestone. Geol. Mag. 73: 444-448. 1936. The ammonite genus Uhligella in the English Albian. Geol. Mag. 86: 333-345. 1949. . The junction of the Gault and Lower Green- sand in East Sussex and at Folkestone, Kent. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 61: 268-298. 1950. The zonal position of the Gault-Lower Greensand junction beds at Wrecclesham, Surrey. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 62: 95-99. 1951. . The ammonite genera Arcthoplites Spath and Tetrahoplites gen. nov. Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, no. 1490: 134-135. 1952. CoLLiGNon, M. Recherches sur les fawnes albiennes de Madagascar. 1. L’ Albien d’ Ambarimaninga. Ann. Géol. Serv. Mines Madagascar, fasc. 16. 1949. Crickmay, C. H. On Beudanticeras breweri and Coloboceras stantoni. Amer. Jour. Sci. (5) 13 : 503-516. 1927. Forses, E. Catalogue of Lower Greensand fossils in the museum of the Geological Society with notices of species new to Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 1: 237-250: 345- 355. 1845. Gass, W. M. Cretaceous fossils—description of new species (California). Geol. Surv. Califor- nia, Paleont. 2: 127-254. 1869. Humpurey, W. E. Geology of the Sierra de los Muertos area, Mexico (with descriptions of Aptian cephalopods from the La Pena forma- tion). Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 60: 89-176. _ 1949. -Jacos, C. Etudes paléontologiques et stratigraphi- ques sur la partie moyenne des terrains crétacés dans les Alpes francaises. Trav. Lab. Géol. Grenoble. 8, fase. 2: 280-590. 1907. and Tosuer, A. Etude stratigraphique et paléontologique du Gault de la Vallée de la Engelberger. Mém. Soc. Paléont. Suisse 33: 3-26. 1906. Kau1an, W. Unterkreide (Palaeocretacicum). In Frech: Lethaea Geognostica (2) 3, Lief. 3: 289-398. 1913. 7 « . Contribution a l’étude des faunes paléo- crétacées du Sud-Est de la France. 1. La fawne de l’ Aptien Inférieur des environs de Montéli- mar. Mém. Serv. l’Expl. Carte Géol. Dét. France: 3-221. 1915. McLearn, F. H. Revision of the Lower Cretaceous of the Western Interior of Canada. Geol. Surv. Canada Paper 44-17, ed. 2. 1945. Nixcuitcu, J. Representants du genre Douvilléi- ceras de l’Aptien du versant septentrional du Caucase. Mém. Com. Géol. Russ. (n.s.), livr. 121. 1915. Nrxitin, 8S. Les vestiges de la période crétacé dans la Russie centrale. Mém. Com. Géol. Russ. 5, no. 2. 1888. Orpicny, A. v’. Paléontologie francaise. Terrain crétacé. 1. Céphalopodes. Paris, 1841. CASEY: LOWER CRETACEOUS AMMONITES 115 Picret, F. J., and Campicur, G. Description des fossiles du terrain crétacé des environs de Sainte Croix. Mat. Paléont. Suisse, Pt. 1. 1858-1860. RIEDEL, L. Amonitas del cretacico inferior de la Cordillera Oriental. Estudios geol. y paleont. sobre la Cordillera Oriental de Colombia (2). Dept. Minas y Petrél., Minist. Indust. y Trabajo, Repib. Colombia, 1937. Rocu, E. Quelques ammonites du Revest, ‘pres de Toulon. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 26: 287- 294. 1926. . Etude stratigraphique et paléontologique de lV’ Aptien inférieur de la Bédoule (pres Cassis) (Bouches-du-Rhone). Mém. Soc. Géol. France (n.s.) 4, no. 8. 1927. Ropieuiero, A. Sistema cretaceo Veneto Occi- dentale. Palaeont. Italica 25: 39-125. 1922. Rovucuapzkt, J. Les ammonites aptiennes de la Géorgie occidentale. Bull. Inst. Géol. Géorgie 1, fase. 3. 1933. . Céphalopodes nowveaux ou peu connus de l’Aptien de la Géorgie. Bull. Inst. Géol. Géorgie 3, fasc. 2: 129-189. 1938. Scott, GAYLE. Ammonites of the genera Sonnera- tia and Douvilleiceras from the Cretaceous of Colombia. Journ. Pal. 2: 34-37. 1937. . Cephalopods from the Cretaceous Trinity group of the South-central United States. Univ. Texas Publ. 3945. 1940. Sinzow, J. Die Beschreibung einiger Douvilléi- ceras-arten aus dem oberen Neokom Russlands. Verh. russ.-kais. Min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 44, Lief. 1: 157-197. 1906. . Untersuchungen einiger Ammonitiden aus dem Gault Mangyschlaks und des Kaukasus. Verh. russ.-kais. Min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 45: 455-519. 1907. . Beitrdge zur kenntnis des sudrussischen Aptien und Albien. Verh. russ.-kais. Min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 47: 1-48. 1909. SpatH, L. F. The Canadian ammonite genus Gas- troplites in the English Gault. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 19: 257-260. 1937. . A monograph of the Ammonoidea of the Gault, pt. 15. Palaeont. Soc. London, 1942. . Preliminary notes on the Cretaceous am- monite faunas of East Greenland. Medd. om Grgnland. 132 (4) 1946. Stanton, T. W. In Hyatt: Pseudoceratites of the Cretaceous. Mon. U.S. Geol. Surv. 1903. Stoyanow, A. Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in Southeastern Arizona. Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. 38. 1949. WarRREN, P. S. Cretaceous fossil horizons in the Mackenzie River Valley. Journ. Pal. 21: 118- 123. 1947. Wiican, GW * Proposed use of the plenary powers to validate the generic name ‘‘Hoplites’’, etc. Bull. Zool. Nom. 6: 110-114. 1951. and Wriaut, E. V. Some new sections and fossils from the Folkestone beds of the Farnham district. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 53: 86-87. 1942. 116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 BOTANY .—Setaria: Fascicle organization in four species.. ERNEST R. SOHNs, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Jason R. Swallen.) Setaria, a genus of grasses of 100 or more species, is widely distributed in the tropics, subtropics, and temperate regions of the world. Several species are cultivated for ornament; one species (S. ztalzca) has been cultivated for food for many centuries and some annual species, especially in the temperate regions of the world, are serious weeds (Bews, 1929; Hitchcock, 1936; Pilger, 1940). Nine species are native in the United States and 13 species have been introduced, 4 of which are cultivated as forage or orna- mental grasses (Hitchcock, 1951). The inflorescence of the species varies from densely spikelike and many-flowered to open and few-flowered. The inflorescence, which is a terminal panicle, is composed of numerous fascicles. Each fascicle contains one or more spikelets and from one to numerous sterile branches (bristles). The sterile branches are persistent on the axis of the fascicle. The fascicle varies in com- plexity from that of S. ztalica, in which there are numerous spikelets and _ sterile branches to that of S. palmifolia in which there is a spikelet and, occasionally, a single bristle. The fascicles of several species of Setarza have been studied for bristle formation, for the presence or absence of an axis terminus and for the determination of sterile and fertile axes. This study, involving four species of Setaria, is concerned with the organization and interpretation of the fascicle as the basic unit of the inflorescence. Historical—Goebel (1884), who investigated bristle formation in S. glauca and S. italica, found that the tip of the inflorescence axis was sterile and prolonged as a bristle. Branching of the fascicle was interpreted as dorsiventral and two-ranked. Only the axes of the second order produced spikelets; the others remained sterile 1 Based on part of a thesis, ‘“The Floral Mor- phology of Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Setaria, and Ixophorus,’? submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of Indiana University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy. The writer is grateful to Dr. Paul Weatherwax for suggesting the problem and for helpful suggestions throughout the investiga- tion. (bristles). Goebel diagrammed the branching of the fascicle in S. viridis (see his figure 18), The relationship of first-order branches is not clear, and there is no indication of fertile axes in the diagram. Goebel used entire young fascicles and based his observations on macroscopic examina- tion. He failed to find support for Hofmeister’s contention that spikelet formation was initiated on some bristles only later to cease development and fall off. Goebel found the spikelets of S. italica and S. glauca to contain two florets; the lower staminate or aborted and the upper hermaphrodite. The upper floret, according to Goebel, originated near the axis terminus. The designation of the axis terminus in his drawings (see his figures 11 and 12) is, as Schumann (1890) pointed out, undoubtedly a misinterpretation. Goebel stated that the florets (Bliithe) appear to develop in a terminal position. He observed that the bristles are persistent; that their num- bers are variable and that their presence helps prevent the birds from picking the seeds out of the spikelets. Goebel also examined Pennisetum verticillatum R. Br. (= Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv.) and concluded that the fascicle of this species was a perfected fascicle of Setaria. S. ttalica and S. glauca were studied by Schuster (1910). He reviewed the work of Goebel and Schumann and asserted that he found an axis terminus in the upper floret (...in der oberen Bliithe einen deutlichen Achsenhocker hatten . . .) of both species. Pennisetum verticillatum R. Br. (= Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv.) was found to have no axis terminus and he agreed with Goebel that “‘only the ends of axes of second order were fertile, while the bristle-involucre was formed from the remaining sterile lateral branches.” Arber (1931) showed that the fascicles of S. glauca usually have one spikelet, the lower floret of which is aborted and the upper is perfect. She regards the median spikelet as termi- nating the axis of the fascicle. It is concluded that ‘each ultimate-shoot—not each individual bristle—is equivalent to a spikelet.’’ The bris- tles may be interpreted either as leaf or stem structures; however, it is concluded that the bristles are to be regarded as stems because they ‘‘play the part of axes in relation to lateral members; and also because the axis of an abortive lad Icl E ils pea Tazie a 2 a 4 ‘ ig ¥b------ / LIS) es et Pee AQ ‘ es eee wa 7 4g S oe Ayes O ey i _-- Way LEV ee [ae i K(( t ' lp ef NS a as 2 Bat @ vit ee Tb Figs. 1-7.—1, Typical fascicle of Setaria italica (Farwell 5607a, Oxford, Mich.); 2-7, diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of S. ztalica. (fa—fascicle axis; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; / le— lemma of the lower floret; 2 le—lemma of the upper floret; J, 7, IJI, etc.—first-order branch; a, }, ¢, ete —second-order branch; a 1, b 1, c 1, ete.—third-order branch; a 1’, 6 1’, c 1’, ete.—fourth-order branch; a’ and a”—two branches of equal rank. All figures approximately 25.) ia eg 118 spikelet may be bristle like....’”? She does not agree with Goebel’s interpretation of the branch- ing of the fascicle. These views were reaffirmed in her studies in 1934. Materials and Methods.—Dr. Paul Weatherwax provided seeds of S. ztalica and S. palmifolia. S. glauca and S. viridis were collected in Indiana by the writer. Specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Indiana University. Fascicles were collected and processed by standard methods in microtechnique. Discussion.—A fascicle of S. ttalica is shown in Fig. 1. It has a central axis (fascicle axis) and numerous lateral branches. Each lateral branch of the central axis is designated as a branch of the first-order, from which arise lateral members (second-, third-, and fourth-order branches, etc.). Serial sections through a fascicle, from the base upwards, provide a means whereby the branching system of a typical fascicle as well as the rela- tionship of spikelets and bristles may be shown. A selected series of such transsections, taken from a detailed series of drawings prepared by the writer (1949), is shown in Figs. 2-7. Fig. 2, a diagrammatic transsection through the base of the fascicle, shows the fascicle axis (fa) and a first-order branch (/). Fig. 3, at a higher level, shows the branches produced by first-order branch I, the base of the next higher first-order branch II and the fascicle axis. The following figures (Figs. 4-7) were drawn from serial sections at successively higher levels to show the branch- ing of the fascicle and the relationship of spikelets and bristles. The relationship of the fascicle axis and its lateral members is shown diagram- matically in Fig. 8. A branch of any order may be spikelet-bearing, or a lateral branch and its members may be completely sterile. The upper floret is readily deciduous at maturity leaving the lower floret and glumes remaining in the fascicle. The abcission of the floret from the spikelet of a Panicoid grass is a relatively rare occurrence. One of the distinguish- ing features of the Panicoid grasses is abscission of the spikelet below the glumes. The abscission of the fertile floret in S. ztalcca unquestionably played an important part in the selection of this species for cultivation and subsequent domestica- tion. The upper floret has lodicules. A fascicle may contain as many as fifteen spikelets. Apparently only those in the upper part of the fascicle are fertile since the number of caryopses ranged from two to five (S. ztalica). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 Most bristles have three vascular bundles and in the terminal portion of the bristles the vascular bundles may have sheaths. Among the epidermal cells of the bristles an occasional stoma may be found. AE >) ig (K } of[Y “--7 of aS {OREN =~. Villa" Villa SSX -? b Wi b Ww a t b — — e y ‘ 7 XN ran 1 BS) Wb 2 P bl ie aS id " roe be ie oe Wa a bt ae ‘ a! Fite sae 2 'ad ‘ t d \ ed b bl é | en oa ‘ FS Cc ae a2’) I ake b> ~-a2z al’ al id | Gi Sse Cc es az! j b bt aes z al’ | al Gil é a2! ae al aL 8 Fic. 8.—Diagrammatic -representation of branching in a typical fascicle from the inflores- cence of Setaria italica as constructed from serial transsections. Dotted circles at ends of branches represent spikelets. APRIL 1954 SOHNS: FASCICLE ORGANIZATION IN SETARIA 119 Rees Yat all { i ; Zs ; A a ¢ Ores fiatlat a2 8 lik liar '9 I lafla Lt [la tai IE 20 tho SPs ale = Lae) Bins I A cote 23 SORS Zo Fies. 9-25.—9-19, Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of Setaria viridis (an—anther; fa—fasci- cle; fi—filament; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; gyn—gynoecium; / le—lemma of the lower floret; 2 le—lemma of the upper floret; lJod—lodicule; pa—palea; ra—rachis of the inflorescence; J, IT, III, ete — first-order branch; a, b, c, ete.—second-order branch; a 1, b 1, ¢ 1, ete —third-order branch; a 1’, b 1’, ce 1’, ete.—fourth-order branch); 20, diagrammatic representation of fascicle branching based on serial transsections, dotted circles at ends of branches representing spikelets; 21-25, diagrammatic transsec- tions of a fascicle of Setaria glauca. (Symbols as above plus spk—spikelet; vas ple—vascular plexus. All figures approximately 25.) 120 Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of S. viridis (L.) Beauv. are shown in Figs. 9-20. Fig. 9 is a diagrammatic transsection of the rachis (ra) of the inflorescence and the base of the fascicle (fa) showing a branch of the first- order (J). The transsections following are made from serial sections at successively higher levels in the same fascicle. The fascicles are smaller and fewer flowered than those of S. atalica. Fascicle branching is also like that of S. ttalica, i.e., any order of branch may be spikelet-bearing. The upper florets in this species also have lodicules. A diagrammatic representation of the fascicle and its branches, based on this series of trans- sections, is shown in Fig. 21. The observations made for the bristles of S. atalica likewise apply to this species. Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of S. glauca (l.) Beauv. are shown in Figs. 22-27. This fascicle has only one spikelet, but fascicles with two or three spikelets were not uncommon. Branching of the first-order axes is similar to. that in S. ztalica and S. viridis. Both the upper and lower florets have lodicules. The relationship of the branches within the fascicle is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 28. The fascicle axis, in this example, is terminated by a spikelet. Fig. 29 is a diagrammatic representation of another fascicle from the same inflorescence in which the fascicle axis is sterile. Most first-order branches, which are triangular in outline, have three vascular bundles. Sheaths may be present around the vascular bundles, especially in the terminal portion of the bristles. Most second- and third-order branches, which are round or only slightly angled, have two vascular bundles. Although the epidermis has a thick layer of cutin, an occasional stoma may be found. S. palmifolia (Willd.) Stapf has a simple fascicle, as illustrated in Figs. 30-38. A single bristle (the fascicle axis) extends beyond some of the spikelets. Bristles may not be associated with many of the shortly pedicellate spikelets. The tip of a lateral branch, bearing several JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 spikelets or fascicles, is prolonged beyond the terminal spikelet. Branching of the fascicle axis is suppressed, but the beginning of a branch (br, Fig. 38) can be detected in some axes. There is a divergence of the vascular strand, but the branch terminates as a slight ridge or bulge. The upper florets have lodicules. The complexity of the fascicle varies from that shown in S. ttalica to the simple fascicle of S. palmifola. On the basis of this study, each fascicle in the inflorescences of S. italica, S. viridis and S. glauca is to be compared to a miniature panicle. The branching of the indi- vidual fascicle appears to be alternate, but the proximity of the fascicle axis to the rachis (as a result of compression) has obscured the arrange- ment (probably spiral) of the first-order branches. In S. italica, the branches of the first-order appear alternately arranged on the fascicle axis, 1.e., if one imagines the axis of the fascicle as a circle divided into four quadrants (Fig. 40), then first-order branches II, IV, VI, and VIII arise in quadrant three and first-order branches I, III, V, VII and IX occur in quadrant four. (First-order branch IX is not shown in the figures included in this paper). In complex fascicles, like those of S. italica and S. viridis there is progressive sterilization from the top to the base, ie., the lowermost first-order branches have more sterile lateral members than the upper first-order branches. However, branches of any order may be spikelet-bearing. Inflores- cences having complex fascicles may be regarded as primitive. The axis terminus, as well as the first- and second-order branches, in S. glauca may be fertile. The fascicle of this species is less complicated and may be derived from the type present in S. ittalica and S. viridis by a decrease in the length of the fascicle axis and a suppres- sion of the lateral branches. S. palmafolia, with its single bristle, suggests relationship to the section Pauwrochaettum of the genus Panicum. Every branch of the fascicle in the species of Setaria included in this study may be regarded as potentially spikelet-bearing. Fias. 26-39.—26-27, Diagrammatic transsection of a fascicle of Setarza glawca (an—anther; fi—fila- ment; gyn—gynoecium; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; 1 le—lemma of the lower floret; 2 le— lemma of the upper floret; /od—lodicule; pa—palea; vas ple—vascular plexus; J, /]—first-order branch; a, b, ete.—second-order branch. Fig. 26 approximately X25; Fig. 27 approximately 18) ; 28-29, diagram- matic representations of fascicle branching based on serial transsections, dotted circles at ends of branches representing spikelets; 30-39, diagrammatic transsections of fascicle of S. palmifolia (abbrevia- tions as for Figs. 26 and 27 plus br—rudimentary first-order branch; ra—rachis; spk—spikelet; sts— stigma). (All figures approximately X25.) Apri 1954 SOHNS: FASCICLE ORGANIZATION IN SETARIA La axel vds 8 oe a SS | 26 a ae ek i) OW) b | nas Tl I d ! b I 4 I _ : 2 c. a Cc e e (E a 28 an (....-spk | © ws OZ Pt ao 30 20 ampegee | Ss Me {le “= =< ee Fics. 26-39.—(See opposite page for legend). 122 In the Gramineae, among many ‘“‘primitive”’ and ‘‘advanced”’ features, it is generally con- sidered that evolutionary “advance” is from many-flowered spikelets in clusters to single, one-flowered spikelets and from spikelets which have a prolongation of the spikelet axis to spikelets which have one or two florets, one of these terminating the spikelet axis. These criteria appear to apply to these species of Setaria, 1.e., complicated, complex fascicles consisting of many spikelets and bristles are interpreted as more primitive than fascicles in which the lateral branches are suppressed and the single spikelet, with two florets, terminates the axis. Summary.—This study, based on four species of Setaria (S. italica, S. viridis, S. glauca and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, No. 4 S. palmafolia), is concerned with the organization of the fascicle. The fascicles of S. dtalica and S. viridis are complex, with several first-order branches; they differ from each other only in number of spikelets and bristles. S. glauca has a less complicated fascicle, usually with two first- order branches, one or two spikelets, either produced on the fascicle axis or on lateral branches, and S. palmifolia has a single bristle (the fascicle axis) extending beyond some, but not all, of the spikelets. Branching of complex fascicles appears to be alternate. Each bristle is considered potentially spikelet-bearing. The upper florets in all species have lodicules and S. glauca has lodicules in both florets. rachis side of ‘ fascicle axts!) Sh Pek SSS ti tip of fascicle axis -. is ie ~ - aie Fig. 40.—Diagrammatic representation of the fascicle axis of S. zéalica. First-order branches I- IX (from the base upward) are indicated by asterisks. | LITERATURE CITED ARBER, AGNES. Studies in the Ann. Bot. 45: 401-420. 1931. . The Gramineae: 186-192. London, 1934. Bews, J. W. The world’s grasses: 240. New York, 1929. GorEBEL, K. Beitrdge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte einiger Inflorescenzen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 14: 1-42. 1884. Hitcucock, A. S. The genera of grasses of the United States, with special reference to the economic species. (Revised by Agnes Chase.) U. S. Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull. 772: 249-253. 1936. Gramineae, X. . Manual of the grasses of the United States. (Second edition, revised by Agnes Chase.) U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 20023718—726; 1951. PiucerR, R. Gramineae ITI. Unterfamilie Pani- coideae. Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien 14e: 70-73. 1940. ScHUMANN, K. Neue Untersuchungen viber den Bliithenanschluss. 97-133. Leipzig, 1890. Scuuster, J. Ueber die Morphologie der Grasblite. Flora 100: 213-266. 1910. Souns, E. R. Floral morphology of Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Setaria and Ixophorus. Thesis (Ph.D.), Indiana University, 1949. APRIL 1954 DEIGNAN: NEW RACES OF BULBULS 123 ORNITHOLOGY .—Five new races of bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) from southern Asia. H. G. Drienan, U.S. National Museum. I As early as 1943 Delacour (Zoologica 28: 21) reduced ‘Otocompsa flaviventris (Tickell)” to conspecificity with Pycnonotus gularis of the Malabar Coast of western India. The present author in 1945 (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 186: 329), unwilling to follow him so far, nevertheless treated flaventris as conspecific with dispar of Java. Now renewed study of the species, with previously unavailable material, con- vinces me that even Delacour did not go far enough and that to bring all forms of the group into a single species requires that P. melanicterus of Ceylon be also included. This unfortunately means that melanicterus becomes the nominate race, Gmelin’s name having many years’ priority over dispar Horsfield, 1820. No characters are possessed by gularis and melanicterus to justify their being kept as one or two species distinct from dispar- flaviventris. Small dimensions and lack of a crest in these far-southern forms agree with the tendency in dispar-flaviventris to become smaller and show a reduction of crest- development from north to south (ef. caecilii and dispar with flaviventris and vantyner). The yellow gular area of melanic- terus is analogous with the similarly colored gular area in the long-crested montis, a montane race of Borneo, and appears also in the juvenile of johnsoni (and perhaps others). The strawlike red throat feathers of gularis are matched in individuals of johnson, auratus, and vantynei and in all adults of dispar. P. melanicterus has the rectrices broadly white-tipped, while gularzs has them narrowly tipped with cream; newly molted specimens of any population of dispar-flaviventris have these feathers narrowly tipped with white or yellowish white. (It may be noted that, in the closely related species jocosus, the race fuscicaudatus has narrow whitish tips to the rectrices, while all others have broad white tips, yet no one can doubt that these are conspecific.) The color of the iris in melanicterus is red, sometimes brown (immaturity?); in gularis and all forms of dispar-flaviventris the iris is yellow, sometimes brown (immaturity). (Here it may be pointed out that among races of Pycnonotus simplex the iris color may be white, cream, orange, or red, and among those of P. plumosus either yellow or red.) Examination of new material recently collected in Thailand has shown that two more populations of this bulbul, left un- named in an earlier revision (Deignan, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 38: 245-248, 1948) may now be set up as subspecies. The first of these will be called— Pycnonotus melanicterus elbeli, n. subsp. Type: U.S. Nat. Mus. no. 249038, adult male, collected on the island Ko Kut [lat. 11°40’ N., long. 102°35’ E.], Trat Province, Thailand, on December 25, 1914, by Cecil Boden Kloss. Diagnosis: From both johnsoni of the ad- jacent mainland and caecili of the Malay Penin- sula, separable by the decidedly deeper color of the upper parts, which is an almost brownish olive green, without golden suffusion (darker than in any other form of the species known to me). From caecili it is further differentiated by the greater development of the crest (equal to that found in more northern races) and rather longer wing (81-85 mm in 11 males of elbelz, against 78-82 mm in 10 males of caeciliz). Range: Ko Kut and Ko Chang, and possibly other Islands off the coast of southeastern Thailand. Remarks: Named in honor of Robert E. Elbel, who has sent me valuable collections of birds from Thailand. The second may be called— Pycnonotus melanicterus negatus, n. subsp. Type: U.S. Nat. Mus. no. 450800, adult male, collected at Ban Hin Laem [{lat. 14°40’ N., long. 98°40’ E.], Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, on November 1, 1952, by H. G. Deignan; original number 45. Diagnosis: With the color of the upper parts slightly darker and decidedly less suffused with 124 golden than in wanthops (northwestern Thai- land), but lighter and more gold-suffused than in caecilii (Malay Peninsula), it is almost ex- actly intermediate between the hues shown by these two and about the same as in auratus (northeastern Thailand). Development of crest and length of wing are as in caecilit (7 adults of negatus have the latter measurement 78-83 mm, while 17 of caeciliz have it 77-82 mm); accordingly, easily differentiated from xanthops not only by color of the upper parts, but also by short crest and wing (20 adults of xanthops have the wing length 83-87 mm). Range: Valley of the river Mae Klong, south- western Thailand. Remarks: Junge and Kooiman (Zool. Verh. [Leiden] 15: 27-28. 1951) have referred four specimens from the vicinity of Ban Hin Laem to caectlii, with the comment that the differences between even caecilii and xanthops are slight. Since their examples of zanthops and true caecili were lent them by me and now again lhe before me, I can only repeat that they seem to me to differ conspicuously in size, development of crest, and color of upper parts. Junge and Kooiman had but four specimens from the Mae Klong basin, collected between April 27 and May 27, and therefore dulled and darkened by wear; in my previous study (1948) I observed that ‘‘the effects of wear on the plumage are so marked that only fresh-plumaged specimens are suitable for taxonomic study.” The series before me, taken between October 30 and November 12 agree in length of wing and crest with caecili, but in color are much nearer xanthops; in the circumstances, they require a particular name. II Oberholser (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 159: 78. 1932) separated the white-eyed form of Pycnonotus simplex of the northern Natuna Islands from the red-eyed birds of the southern Natunas under the name az- anthizus (which I consider, as did Chasen, synonymous with halizonus, 1917, based on birds from the Anamba Islands). To the red- eyed population he gave a name in manu- script but ended by combining them with perplexus Chasen and Boden Kloss (Journ. f. Orn., Ergainzungsb. 2, 1929: 116: British North Borneo), of which the entire diag- nosis reads: “‘Like simplex of the Malay JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 4 Peninsula but the irides crimson instead of white.” Following Oberholser, Chasen (A Handlist of Malaysian Birds, 1935: 201) gave as the extended range of his perplexus “Borneo; South Natuna Islands; Billiton.” Many museum skins are without indica- tion of eye color, but so far as this important information is available it shows that not all Bornean simplex have red irides. Red-eyed birds are known from Balambangan Island (type locality of perplexus), Rayoh (near Brunei Bay), Abai (on the Kinabatangan River), and Sarawak; on the other hand, birds collected by me in 1937 on the Kala- bakang River (near Sibatik Island) had the irides cream. Moreover, two skins before me from Billiton Island and one from Bangka (whose birds are placed by Chasen with the white-eyed nominate race) had, like a series from the southern Natunas, the irides red. The red-eyed Natuna birds are in fact not perplexus at all, and I intend to call them— Pycnonotus simplex oblitus, n. subsp. Type: U. 8. Nat. Mus. no. 174759, adult male, collected at Pulau Serasan, southern Natuna Islands, on June 3, 1900, by William L. Abbott. Diagnosis: Differs from P. s. halizonus of the northern Natunas and the Anambas by having the irides red instead of white. From P. s. perplexus of British North Borneo separable, exactly as is halizonus, by longer and heavier bill, and probably also by other measure- ments (which can not be given owing to the worn state of plumage shown by my series). Range: Southern Natuna Islands; western Borneo; Billiton and Bangka Islands. Remarks: Color distinctions relied upon by Oberholser in establishing his races seem to me due wholly to wear, and Chasen has concurred in this opinion. Only two skins from western Borneo (Sarawak) have been éxamined; in dimensions of bill they seem to stand nearer oblitus than topotypical perplexus. The few speci- mens seen from Bangka and Billiton cannot be separated from oblitus. ThE In a review of the races of Microscelis charlottae (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 61: 6. 1948), I suggested that an unnamed form of the species would be found to exist in Aprit 1954 southwestern Thailand. Specimens now before me show that this surmise was correct, and I name the new race— Microscelis charlottae lekhakuni, n. subsp. Type: U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 450792, adult female, collected at Ban Hin Laem [lat. 14°40’ N., long. 98°40’ E.], Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, on November 16, 1952, by H. G. Deignan; original number 180. Diagnosis: Readily separable from M. ch. _propinquus (northwestern Thailand) and M. ch. simulator (southeastern Thailand) by having the upper parts brownish olive instead of olive- green, and by having the under parts grayer and less strongly washed with a paler yellow than in either of these two. From M. ch. cinnamomeoventris (southern Tenasserim) distinguishable by the decidedly paler brownish olive of the upper parts and the more vivid yellow suffusion over the under parts and also by its shorter and lighter bill. From M. ch. innectens (Cochin-China) separa- ble by the decidedly lghter brownish olive of the upper parts (which, in imnectens, are as dark as In cinnamomeoventris). Wing length: 80, 82 mm (2 females), 80, 83 mm (2 unsexed), thus agreeing with simulator of the same latitudes in southeastern Thailand. Range: Lowland evergreen forests of south- western Thailand, north at least to lat. 16°10’ N., south to lat. 11°40’ N. (where intergrading with cinnamomeoventris); probably also the adjacent districts of Tenasserim. Remarks: All of five specimens had the irides gray. This form is named for my good friend and generous host in Bangkok, Bun Song Lekhakun, M.D. (also known as Boon Song Lekagul). Ey The bulbul Criniger ochraceus has been reported from the forests of southwestern Thailand only by Meyer de Schauensee DEIGNAN: NEW RACES OF BULBULS 125 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 98: 58. 1946), who listed three specimens from KKhao Luang as of the nominate race (along with genuine ochraceus of peninsular Thai- land south of the Isthmus of Kra and birds of southeastern Thailand frecte cambo- dianus}). A series recently collected in southwestern Thailand show that the area is in fact inhabited by a well-marked form that connects ochraceus with henrici of north- western Thailand; it may be called— Criniger ochraceus crinitus, n. subsp. Type: U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 450785, unsexed adult, collected at Ban Hin Laem flat. 14°40’ N., long. 98°40’ E.], Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, on November 17, 1952, by H. G. Deignan; original number 194. Diagnosis: From Cr. 0. ochraceus separable by having the under parts a dark isabelline buff, deeper on the under tail coverts; from henrici, by complete absence of yellow suffusion over the under parts and by having the upper parts dark olivaceous-brown, not brownish olive; from cambodianus, by much richer coloration of the under parts and by having the upper parts a more rufescent, less ashy, olivaceous brown. Range: Lowland evergreen forests of south- western Thailand, north at least to lat. 14°40’ N.., south at least to lat. 11°40’ N. (on the western side of the Tenasserim Range replaced by Cr. o. ochraceus). Remarks: This new form is long-crested and thus cannot be linked with Criniger tephrogenys, a species still unknown in Thailand north of the Isthmus of Kra. The colors of the under parts in the group are excessively difficult to convey in words. The under parts of Cr. o. crinitus are much like those of Criniger tephrogenys gutturalis (Borneo), but devoid of yellow suffusion. The under parts of true ochraceus are very like those of Pycnonotus blanfordi conradi of Thailand and Indochine. 126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 4 ORNITHOLOGY .—Notes on the generic affiliations of the great grebe of South America. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Smithsonian Institution, and KENNETH C. Parkes, Carnegie Museum. The great grebe found from southern Brazil and northern Chile (occasionally from the coast of Pert) to Tierra del Fuego was named Colymbus major by Boddaert in 1783. In 1862 Coues set up the genus Aechmophorus to include Podiceps occi- dentalis Lawrence, designated as the type of the new genus, and Podiceps clark Lawrence, the latter now known to be the female of occidentalis. The first authors to place Boddaert’s species major in Aechmo- phorus appear to have been Sclater and Salvin (Nomenclator Avium Neotropica- lium, 1873: 150), and it has been listed as Aechmophorus major in all the standard reference works on South American birds we have consulted, with the single exception of Brabourne and Chubb (Birds of South America, 1912: 27), who include major in Podiceps, with no reference to the genus Aechmophorus. We propose to show (1) that the original generic diagnosis of Aechmophorus by Coues was inadequate and (2) that the species major belongs in the genus Colymbus, with occidentalis remaining as the only living member of Aechmophorus. The principal characters invoked by Coues in his diagnosis involve the length and shape of the bill, shape of the outer pri- maries, and proportions of tarsus, middle toe, and outer toe. The form of the bill we regard as of little importance since the variation within the genus Colymbus as_ presently understood is already so great that the inclusion of the long-billed mayor is not un- warranted on this count. Bill-size in grebes in general is an allometric character; the larger the grebe, the longer, proportionally, is the bill. This is even noticeable within a species, e.g., compare C. g. griseigena with C. g. holbéllit. Aechmophorus occidentalis has the outer- most primaries somewhat more sharply incised and more attentuated than any species of Colymbus (including major). This, however, is again a matter of degree, since there is much variation in this character among the species concerned. Coues claimed that in Aechmophorus the outer lateral toe is “much longer than the middle,”’ while in Colymbus the outer lateral toe is said to be “‘but little, if any, longer than the middle toe.’’ This character does not hold true. The ratio of the outer to the middle toe measured and computed for four adult males each of Aechmophorus occi- dentalis, Colymbus cristatus (type species of the genus), and ‘‘Aechmophorus’” major gives the following results: oceidenialis: 1.05, 1.07, 1308. eGo: cristatus: 1.065.106; 1 OR eieOoe major: 1.04, 1.05, 1.05, 1.05. It can easily be seen that Aechmophorus and Colymbus cannot be ‘separated on this count and that the ratios for major average a little lower, away from the condition claimed for Aechmophorus by Coues. Another character of proportion used by Coues involves the tarsus and the middle toe with claw. In Aechmophorus the tarsus is said to be as long as the middle toe and claw, while in Colymbus it is shorter. Using the same four specimens of each species as above, and computing the ratio between tarsus and middle toe with claw, the table below demonstrates that a separation can be made on this basis, but that major definitely falls with Colymbus rather than Aechmo- phorus: | occidentalis: 1.00, 1.04, 1.05, 107. cristatus: OL, 296489715 aie major: (92.0% 95> Ole Oe Ogilvie-Grant (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 26, 1898: 502) includes still another character in his key to the genera of grebes. In his ‘‘Podicipes” the secondaries are said to be equal to or not much shorter than the primaries, while in Aechmophorus the secondaries are short, with the longest about equal to the ninth or tenth primary. This character holds good for occidentalis versus cristatus, and in this matter of wing shape major is closer to occidentalis. How- ever, when the other species of Colymbus are examined, the character breaks down, Aprit 1954 as some specimens of Colymbus caspicus and C. occipitalis would fall into Aechmo- phorus if classification were to be attempted on the basis of this comparison of primaries and secondaries. In his diagnosis of the genus Aechmo- phorus, Ogilvie-Grant (op. cit.: 549) states that the nuptial and winter plumages are alike. This is not true of the great grebe, which has a pronounced seasonal color change, but may be accepted for occidentalis, though in that species the winter plumage is actually slightly duller than the breeding dress. A character, however, which separates Aechmophorus trom Colymbus is the follow- ing: In Aechmophorus the culmen is some- what flattened between the nostrils, which open almost directly upward; in Colymbus the culmen is ridged, often markedly, be- tween the nostrils, which open in a more lateral direction. We have verified this in all the species of the latter genus except taczanowsku, which from the plate that accompanies the original description, is like its relatives. In bill form, mayor is like the species of Colymbus. Perhaps one of the most important pieces of evidence that major is a Colymbus rather than an Aechmophorus is the color of the downy young. Like all of the other species of Colymbus, the downy major has a streaked pattern, best developed on the head, but present also on neck and back. The juvenal plumage also has some streaks on the face. Aechmophorus occidentalis, on the other hand, shows no streaks in any plumage, the downy young being a uniform gray, completely unlike any other grebe. When the senior author first met the great grebe in life in Argentina he was so impressed by its difference in appearance from the western grebe that he secured skeletal material that is available for the present studies. In the osteology an im- pressive character marking Aechmophorus occidentalis is in the form of the braincase, which is elongated so that the cavity for the brain is enlarged longitudinally, and the actual brain capacity appears considerably increased. In fact, the forward extension of the cavity for the brain reduces appreciably the size of the interorbital opening between the two eyes. WETMORE AND PARKES: GREAT GREBE = 127 In Colymbus cristatus, type of Colymbus, on the contrary, the brain case is relatively shorter, and the interorbital opening larger in the area immediately adjacent to the anterior part of the brain. The posterior part of the cranium appears broader and more abruptly truncated, particularly when viewed from above. The eared grebe and horned grebe both agree with cristatus, indicating that this conformation is one that is characteristic of the genus. The five skulls of major available are like those of Colymbus cristatus, differing in the same manner as does cristatus from Aechmophorus — occi- dentalis. In life the great grebe bears a striking resemblance to the red-necked grebe (Colym- bus grisegena) in general form, color pattern, and actions, differing from the longer and more slender necked western grebe as does our familiar American form, Colymbus grisegena holbélliz. To one familiar with the western grebe the differences in form and color are clear cut and striking. We have no hesitance in transferring major to the genus Colymbus, where in the arrangement of species followed by Peters (Check-list Birds of the World 1, 1931: 38-40) it should be placed at the end, following grisegena. It is our opinion, in conformity with this, that Aechmophorus occidentalis is the sole surviving species of its genus, a genus which, presumably, di- verged early from the line that has produced Colymbus, since Aechmophorus seems in several ways more primitive than Colymbus, viz., in the plain plumage pattern of the downy young to which we have referred, also in the unspecialized color pattern of the adults, which resembles in general the im- mature and winter plumages of Colymbus. Fossil remains of Aechmophorus from the Pleistocene of Fossil Lake, Oregon, have been described by L. H. Miller (Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol., 6, 1911: 83) as A. lucast. These differ from the living birds mainly in large size of the leg bones, with body and wing dimensions the same as modern occidentalis. Hildegarde Howard (Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 551, 1946: 150) regards them as directly an- cestral to the birds that today inhabit our western marshes. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY There follows a list of persons elected to membership in the Academy, by vote of its Board of Managers, since June 1, 1951, who have since qualified as members in accordance with the bylaws (see also this Journal 42: 309- 312, 1952). RESIDENT Elected June 18, 1951 Herpert F. ScuizFeR, physicist, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con- tributions to fundamental knowledge of textile fibers and fabric structures. Elected January 14, 1952 Lauriston S. Tayuor, chief, Atomic and Radiation Physics Division, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his outstanding contributions to X-ray physics. Elected October 13, 1952 HerMAN Branson, professor, Department of Physics, Howard University, in recognition of his theoretical work in physics and application of radioactive isotopes. 7 Grorce M. Briaes, chief, Nutrition Unit, Laboratory of Biochemistry and Nutrition, NIAMD, National Institutes of Health, in recognition of his contributions to the science of nutrition and in particular his work on newer vitamins of the B complex. Marra S. Carr, commodity geologist (iron ore), Mineral Deposits Branch, U. 8. Geological Survey, in recognition of her work on iron ore reserves in the United States and throughout the world and on the geologic history of the rocks of | the District of Columbia. SreLua LecHE DErIGNAN, director, Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of her research in physical anthro- pology, particularly dermatoglyphics and more recently for her development and directorship of the Medical Sciences [now Bio-Sciences] Informa- tion Exchange. IMMANUEL ESTERMANN, director, Material Sciences Division, Office of Naval Research, in recognition of his contributions to the science of physies, and in particular his researches on molecular beam techniques and solid state physics. Luoyp N. FERGUSON, associate professor of chemistry, Howard University, in recognition of his research work in spectroscopy and his contri- butions of chemical reviews articles. JoHn 8. Hatt, director, Equatorial Division, Naval Observatory, in recognition of his re- searches in astrophysics, particularly in the fields of spectrophotometry and polarization. Roman KENK, science specialist, Library of Congress, in recognition of his extensive work on the taxonomy and physiology of fresh-water triclads. Ouar MIcKELSEN, assistant chief, Laboratory of Biochemistry and Nutrition, NIAMD, Na- tional Institutes of Health, in recognition of his work in the field of nutrition both in the field of experimental research as well as human nu- trition. Howarp B. Owens, science teacher and in- structor in education, Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md., in recognition of his contribu- tions to entomology and in particular his out- standing work as a teacher of science through which he has imparted sound knowledge and inspiration to the rising generation of scientists. RanpaL M. Ropertrson, science director, Research Group, Office of Naval Research, in recognition of his contributions to the science of physics, and in particular his work on the devel- opment of maritime electronic devices, including radar. Moppirt D. Taytor, associate professor of chemistry, Howard University, in recognition of his research in vapor phase dissociation measure- ments relating to acid-base and hydrogen-bond- ing studies. Elected November 17, 1952 Howarp H. CampaiGng, chief, Mathematical Research Division, Armed Forces Security Agency, in recognition of his services in the field of mathematics, especially in “restricted”’ fields. CHARLES L. Curist, chief, X-ray Investiga- tions Unit, Geochemistry and Petrology Branch, U. 8S. Geological Survey, in recognition of his services to the science and practice of X-ray crystallography. CARROLL E. Cox, professor of plant pathology, University of Maryland, in recognition of his teaching and research activities in the field of AprIL 1954 NEW plant pathology, particularly for his work on the mechanisms of fungicidal action. Watson Davis, director, Science Service, in recognition of his contributions to the interpre- tation and popularization of science and _ to scientific documentation. Harry L. FisHer, special assistant, Re- search and Development Branch, Synthetic Rubber Division, RFC, in recognition of his contributions to the organic chemistry of rubber, especially the mechanism of vulcanization, the development of adhesives from rubber deriva- tives, and his invention of the word ‘‘elastomer,”’ which has now come into general use. Huexw G. Gavucn, professor of plant physi- ology, University of Maryland, in recognition of his teaching and research activities in the field of plant physiology, particularly the mineral nutrition and biochemistry of plants. HERBERT C. Hanson, research professor, Bi- ology Department, Catholic University of America, in recognition of his contributions to ecology, range management, and the conservation movement. Ernest F. Prart, associate professor of chemistry, University of Maryland, in recogni- tion of his fundamental research in organic chemistry. , WILkIns REEVE, professor of chemistry, Uni- versity of Maryland, in recognition of his studies in organic reaction mechanisms. Henry Lee Smiru, Jr., assistant director, Foreign Service Institute, and director and pro- fessor of Linguistics, School of Language and Linguistics, Foreign Service Institute, Depart- ment of State, in recognition of his contributions to linguistics, especially for his co-authorship of the Outline of English Structure with Dr. George L. Trager, an outstanding analysis of English phonology. Rosert A. SpurR, associate professor of chem- istry, University of Maryland, in recognition of his studies in infrared spectroscopy. Grorce L. Tracer, director of linguistics research and professor of linguistics, Foreign Service Institute, Department of State, in recog nition of his work in linguistic theory and analy- sis, bringing out the fundamental nature of scientific linguistics as a part of anthropology. Cuarues K. Truesoop, professor of psychol- ogy, American University, in recognition of his contributions to the psychology of personality MEMBERS 129 and for his work in promoting intergroup rela- tions through the annual institutes in human relations which he conducts. Pacr E. TrurspE.., acting head, Research and Analysis Division, Photographic Interpreta- tion Center, U. 8. Naval Receiving Station, in recognition of his contribution to geology and his research in photogeology and photobotany as directed toward the requirements of the military. Elected December 15, 1952 Cart E. BexRENS, operations analyst, Oper ations Evaluation Group, Office of Chief Naval Operations, in recognition of his contributions to the field of military operations research. Francois N. FRENKIEL, senior staff physicist, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in recognition of his contributions to fluid dynamics, particularly his researches in turbulence, turbulent diffusion, atmospheric turbulence, and boundary layer phenomena. Perer R. HorstaEetTrer, associate professor of psychology, Catholic University of America, in recognition of his contributions to social psychology, systematic psychology and quanti- tative methods in psychology. JoHN L. Kask, assistant director, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in recognition of his inter- national leadership in fisheries research. FRANK W. Lamp, scientific analyst, Operations Evaluation Group, Office of Chief of Naval Operations, in recognition of his contributions to the field of military operations research. J. A. NEUENDORFFER, deputy director, Oper- ations Evaluation Group, Office of Chief of Naval Operations, in recognition of his contributions to the field of military operations. Bennet A. Porter, entomologist and leader, Division of Fruit Insect Investigation, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his ability and accomplishments as an investigator in the field of fruit insect investi- gations. Raymonp A. Str. GrorGE, entomologist, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his research on insects injurious to forest and shade trees and to forest products. Raymund L. Zwemer, adviser on research, Library of Congress, in recognition of his studies on the endocrine factors involved in general body resistance to disease, radiation and other noxious stimuli. 130 Elected January 12, 1953 CLARENCE H. HorrmMann, entomologist and assistant to the director of research, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog- nition of his contributions to the biology and control of forest insects and the effects of DDT on fauna. Tuomas H. JoHnson, director, Division of Research, Atomic Energy Commission, in recog- nition of his contributions to physics, in particu- lar his researches in the field of wave mechanical properties of molecular beams and on the nature of the primary cosmic radiation. Elected February 16, 1953 FRANK GONET, principal commodity expert, Chemicals, U. 8S. Tariff Commission, in recog- nition of his contributions in the field of chem- istry and chemical economics with particular reference to the Tariff Commission’s annual publication on Synthetic Organic Chemicals, U.S. Production and Sales and Imports of Coal- Tar Products. Arcute I. Manan, physicist, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, in recognition of his contributions to the geometrical optics of lens systems and to the physical optics of optical systems. BERNICE G. SCHUBERT, taxonomist, Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of her monographic studies in Desmodium and Begonia, editorial work in preparing the 8th edition of Gray’s Manual of Botany, and floristic study of the Belgian Congo. Elected March 16, 1953 LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of his contributions to physiological and experimental psychology, to education, and to science admin- istration. Elected April 13, 1953 Wituiam H. Avery, chemist, member of Principal Staff and Supervisor of Propulsion, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in recognition of his work in the field of physical chemistry, and in particular his researches in infrared spectroscopy and chem- ical kinetics, as well as the science and technology of combustion phenomena. : Huau Carter, chief of Marriage and Divorce JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 4 Analysis Branch, National Office of Vital Statis- tics, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, in recognition of his contribution to demography, especially his studies in migration and family structure as these relate to health. VIRGINIA GRIFFING, associate professor of chemistry, Catholic University of America, in recognition of her use of ultrasonics in basic chemical researches. C. K. Jen, physicist, member of Principal Staff and Supervisor of Electricity and Magnet- ism in Research Center, Johns Hopkins Univer- sity Applied Physics Laboratory, in recognition of his work in the fields of electronics and spec- troscopy, and in particular his researches on the ionosphere and in microwave physics. Frank T. McCuure, physicist, member of Principal Staff and Chairman, Research Center, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Labo- ratory, in recognition of his work in the field of physical chemistry, in particular his researches in statistical thermodynamics and the technology of rockets and guided missiles. Homer E. NEweELL, Jr., head, Rocket-Sonde Research Branch Radio Division I, Naval Re- search Laboratory, in recognition of his leader- ship in investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere. Henry W. O1son, associate professor, Wilson Teachers College, in recognition of his contribu- tions to biology and in particular his researches on the physiology and taxonomy of earthworms. SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN, physicist, member of Principal Staff and assistant supervisor of Chemi- cal Physics in Research Center, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in recog- nition of his work in the field of molecular physics, in particular his researches in infrared spectros- copy. BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY, physicist, U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, in recognition of his contributions to acoustics, and in particular his researches into the measurement and analysis of sound waves and vibrations. CHARLES S. SPOONER, JR., chief, Relief Map Division, Army Map Service, in recognition of his research into the problems of 3-dimensional mapping, and in particular his studies on molded aerial photographs. Henry P. Warp, professor of chemistry, Catholic University of America, in recognition of his noteworthy contributions in the field of synthetic organic chemistry. Aprit 1954 Elected October 12, 1953 Howarp W. Bonp, senior scientist, U. S. Public Health Service, Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, National Institutes of Health, in recog- nition of his contributions to biochemistry, and in particular his researches on the synthesis of compounds of possible value for the treatment of diseases. Cart C. Daver, medical adviser, National Office of Vital Statistics, in recognition of his outstanding contributions to epidemiology, in- cluding geographic variation in the incidence of and other aspects of the epidemiology of polio- myelitis, diphtheria, malaria, and other com- municable diseases, as well as noncommunicable diseases such as appendicitis and heart disease. Ricnwarp L. Douecex, head of Cryogenics Branch, Electricity Division, Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his research in low temperature physics. FELIX FRIEDBERG, instructor, department of Biochemistry, Howard University Medical School, in recognition of his contributions to biochemistry, particularly his researches on protein metabolism. Matcoim C. HENpERSoN, expert, Planning Staff, Atomic Test Operations, Federal Civil Defense Administration, in recognition of his contributions to nuclear physics, and his part in the development of specialized sonar equip- ment for submarines during the war. Keita C. JoHnson, head, Department of Science Division 1, D. C. Public Schools, in recognition of his contributions to science edu- cation, particularly the organization and conduct of the Annual Science Fair for Greater Wash- ington. JoHN A. O’BrIEN, JR., associate professor of biology, Catholic University of America, in recognition of his contributions to cytology, particularly his investigations of cytoplasmic inclusions in specialized plant cells. Ronatp §. Riviin, consultant and _ head, Theoretical Mechanics Section, Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his contributions to theories of finite elastic deformations, the out- standing contribution to this field in the last decade. . Martin C. Steere, head, Cryomagnetics Section, Cryogenics Branch, Electricity Division, Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his contributions to cryogenics, and in particular his researches upon superconductivity. NEW MEMBERS 131 Raymonp E. Wiison, acting chief, Heat and Power Division, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his leadership in the field of thermometry and his personal contributions to that field. Elected November 17, 1953 R. Tucker Apporr, associate curator, Di- vision of Mollusks, U. 8. National Museum, in recognition of his contributions to malacology, especially his researches on medically important snails, Norman R. 8. Ho.trss, research associate, Harris Research Laboratories, in recognition of his contributions to the measurement and inter- pretation of the dielectric constants of ionic solutions, in particular, proteins and amino acids. Lyte T. ALEXANDER, principal soil scientist, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, in recognition of outstanding research in varied fields of soil chemistry and physics, particularly that per- taining to soil chemistry research and the use of radioactive material in: relation to plant growth. FRANKLIN EZ. ALLISON, principal soil scientist, Soils Division, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, in recognition of outstanding research in the field of soil organic matter and the biochemistry of soil. GEORGE ANASTOS, associate professor of zool- ogy, University of Maryland, in recognition of his services in the science of acarology. Ervin H. BraMuHa.tu, chief physicist, Office Chief of Ordnance, Department of the Army, in recognition of his contributions to geophysics, and in particular his work on aurora and mag- netic fluctuations. Harrop J. CAut, research associate, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his out- standing researches on dental materials and his engineering work in the construction of a pilot plant for the extraction of alumina from clay. KENNETH G. CLARK, senior chemist, Division of Fertilizer and Agricultural Lime, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, in recognition of his con- tributions to fertilizer technology, his keenly analytical approach to chemical research, and his command of statistics. LAWRENCE M. Amgs, senior mycologist, En- gineer Board, Fort Belvoir, Va.. in recognition of his productive studies of cellulelytic fungi. Lyman A. D#AN, principal soil scientist, Division of Soil and Plant Relationships, U. S. 132 Department of Agriculture, in recognition of his investigations with radioisotopes, particularly phosphorus, in soil and plant sciences. P. ARNE HANSEN, professor of veterinary bacteriology, University of Maryland, in recog- nition of his research in bacteriology and investi- gations in the Lactobacteriaceae. Marvsorte Hooxmr, geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, in recognition of her contributions to the bibliography of geological sciences and mineral geography. KENNETH D. Jacos, head chemist in charge, Division of Fertilizer and Agricultural Lime, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, in recognition of his outstanding research on the phosphate industry and participation in the varied problems of fertilizer research. Louis R. Mize, manager, Textile Processing Division, Harris Research Laboratories, in recognition of his research on the relationship of molecular structure of wool to its properties, and his researches on wool processing. Marearer Ruta Topp, geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, in recognition of her contri- butions to paleontology, particularly her studies of fossil foraminifera. Courmn W. WHITTAKER, in charge Liming Ma- terials Investigations, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, in recognition of his researches on the chemistry of fertilizers and fertilizer ma- terials, especially on chemical reactions in ferti- lizer mixtures and between isolated components of such mixtures. Other important contributions are those on preparation of potassium nitrate and on thermodynamics of nitrogen-hydrogen mixtures. Davin A. Youne, JR., entomologist, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his contributions toward an improved knowledge of leafhopper classification. Elected December 14, 1953 Martin Toscan BENNETT, consulting chemi- cal engineer, in recognition of his pioneering work in the field of gas engineering, a subdivision of chemical engineering, in which he has applied the sciences of chemistry and physics to the engineering aspects of (and rates for) domestic and industrial utilization of natural gas; and his technologie contributions to international re- source studies (unpublished). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 4 DANIEL FRISHMAN, research associate, Harris Research Laboratories, in recognition of his work on the chemistry and physics of textile fibers. Epson J. HAMBLETON, staff assistant, Foreign Technical Programs, U. 8. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of original | contributions in taxonomy (especially in the | tingids and coccids), and in the life histories — and control of destructive insects (especially — those of cotton, in Peru); distinguished service | in connection with locust-control programs of | the U.S. Technical Collaboration Administration in countries of the Near East and the Far East. CHarLes M. Morr.ey, director, Planning Division, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (R. & D.), in recognition of contributions in the field of limnology, biometrics and oper- ations analysis. DEWEY STEWART, senior agronomist, Division of Sugar Plant Investigation, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, in recognition of research in plant pathology, especially in relation to breeding of sugar beet varieties for resistance. Haritey N. Govup, professional associate, Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of his professional attainment in biology and physical anthropology. NONRESIDENT Elected October 13, 1952 Mitprep SrraTron Wrxson, Anchorage, Alaska, in recognition of her contributions to the systematic knowledge of fresh-water and marine copepods. Elected December 15, 1952 RicHarD L. Horrman, laboratory shift super- visor, Radford Arsenal, Radford, Va., in recog- nition of his excellent systematic studies of the Diplopoda. ) Elected December 14, 1958 Bruce W. Hausteap, head of Department of Ichthyology and Herpetology, School of Tropi- cal and’ Preventive Medicine, College of Medical Evangelists, Loma Linda, Calif., in recognition of his contribution to the field of medical ichthy- ology, especially icthytoxism in fishes. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences OS AE eee Francis M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards POMPECECRIE-CLOCL.. wk eee ve ee ese MarGareT Pirrman, National Institutes of Health NN eh cag e kek «Se aye Kt wn he Jason R. Swauuen, U.S. National Museum Breg@ourer.......... Howarp 8. Rappieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) MN ay 2S ined ane iy ee hd ws JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haratp A. Renuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Eaanopmical Society of Washington.................ccccececesees S. E. Forsusn Anthropological Society of Washington..................... Witiram H. GILBertT Peepiea| pociety of Washington.....................cce0eee. WiuuraM A, Dayton peauen) pociety of Washington........... 2.2.0.0... ccs cece ec evcn Joun K. TayLor pammalapical Society of Washington.................0.cs0eeceesc es F. W. Poos Memmoner @seorraphie Society. ..........2c.. cece le ces ceese ALEXANDER WETMORE eumemtcal society of Washington............0.0......0. 000s ARTHUR A. BAKER Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE Memmi Pistorical Society... ......... 0... 006. ca rccee caves GILBERT GROSVENOR feeamical pociety of Washington...../.......0.....c00s.e0eee Lee M. Hutcuins Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGE F. Gravatt Sean Pociety of Wngineers....... 2.2... 0. eee dee es C. A. Betts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLpD H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. D1uu Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN SLocuMm Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... FLoyp W. Houau Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DoRsEY District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine Wa.rTeR C. HEss Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... JoHN G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Epwarp G. Hampp Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F, N. FRENKIEL Elected Members of the Board of Managers: (8 EEE LS 0S R. G. Bates, W. W. DiExL Lo) | SS 2) LSE SS Sg M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER (LO, REALS Ly Re A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. GuRNEY MMO WOGTAGETS. «0... oe ee ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Smrmaieeariors and Associate Editors..............6 000.0 ee eee ene [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. DeraNnporF (chairman), MARGARET PITTMAN, J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership....Ht1nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Rocrer W. Curtis, JoHN Fasmr, J. J. Fanty, Francois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMAkER, CLARENCE H. Horrmann, Louis R. MaxweEuui, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEO A. SHINN, FrRANcis A. SmitH, ALFRED WEISSLER Commitee on Meetings............... Dor.uanp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN V. ASTIN, GeorcE A. Hottie, Martin A. Mason, Wituiam W. RuBEY Committee on Monographs (W1Lu1aAM N. FENTON, chairman): Lo 2G rrr WiuuiaM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE Wry, F956 oc ce ees G. ARTHUR CoopPER, JAMES I. HOFFMAN meray LOO. oe ek oe kes Harautp A. REHDER, WILLIAM A. DayTON Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (ROBERT C. DuNncaAN, general chairman): For Biological Sciences......ByRoN J. OLSON (chairman), Sara EK. BRANHAM, LEE M. Hutcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHwaRtz, T. DALE STEWART For Engineering Sciences ...Lui0oTr B. Roperts (chairman), Cuirrorp A. BETTs, JosepH M. CaLpwELL, MicHaEL GoLpBERG, EARLE H. KENNARD, ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. TRENT For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracex (chairman), Winut1am H. Avery, Ricuarp S. Burineton, NaTHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. HENBEsT, Epear R. Smita, BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY For Teaching of Science...M. A. Mason (chairman), A. H. Cuarx, Kerra C. JoHNSON Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. HERBERT N. Eaton (chairman), Mario Moxuari, Francis O. Ricz, J. LEon SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H. Taylor Committee on Policy and Planning: (FRANCIS B. SILSBEE, chairman): “Sr a BEDE er SE a eae eer nee L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILSBEE PMN IER UE TIN AN AIS Ee inde ond Gn bee aioe pg es See E. C. CritTENDEN, A. WETMORE hd. dl SAE a Lo 7 ae Joun E. Grar, RayMonpD J. SEEGER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPHErson, chairman) : Mo miemmary W990. 2 00.2.2. ek ee 4 rH ERS ATER ore A. T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap SL STATE M5) CN en ru eee Austin H. Cuark, J. H. McMILLEN Mia AMY MOO oS saan a 802% bee ee L. Epwin Yocum, WILLIAM J. YOUDEN aeprescniraae om Council 0}. A.A.A WS. 605. feo ee genie a Meee owned Watson Davis Mommies Of AWdttors? 9. ok ga eee eee eee tees JosepH P. E. Morrison (chairman), GALEN B. ScousBavuER, EcBERT H. WALKER Committee of Tellers...GEoRGE H. Coons (chairman), Samuent Levy, Waupo R. WEDEL CONTENTS Page Puysics.—Mesons and nuclear forces. HANS A. BENTHE.....cecccccses Qt PAaLEONTOLOGY.—New genera and subgenera of Lower Cretaceous am- monites.. LVAVMOND: CASHEW: oui) yt ce tee eee sence Botany.—Setaria: Fascicle organization in four species. ERnest R. OES seu ign An Fae RCON Har NTS eo, oi tS ie OrNITHOLOGy.—Five new races of bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) from southern Asia.: EEG, JDBIGINAIN hin) SO Re ee ak ot oun ORNITHOLOGY.—Notes on the generic affiliations of the great grebe of South America. ALEXANDER WETMORE and KENNETH C. Parkes. 126 New Mremprers or toe ACADEMY. ..... ...<.ecccs eel eess sl. oe This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Vou. 44 May 1954 No. 5 rr : > < ‘ JOURNAL h /BRARY Ps OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS JoHN C. EwErRs FENNER A. CHACE R. K. Coox U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY DEAN B. Cowl1E PuHILiep DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY 7 BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Rorat & GuILFrorp AVES. 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RaAppLeye, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 44 May 1954 No. 5 ANTHROPOLOGY .—Stone “medicine wheels” in southern Alberta and the adjacent portion of Montana: Were they designed as grave markers? Tuomas F. Krxon, Museum of the Plains Indian, Browning, Mont. (Communicated by Claude K. Schaeffer. ) During the course of archeological field work in and about the Blackfeet Reservation of Montana I obtained information from a local Indian suggesting a possible explanation of the origin and function of the stone “medicine wheel.”’ Modern Plains archeolo- gists seem inclined to regard the medicine wheel as an aberrant form of tipi ring, with- out suggesting any plausible explanation of its original purpose.! In view of this fact, it seems advisable to record such data as I have been able to collect from various sour- ces on this peculiar archeological phenom- enon. A medicine wheel may be defined for our purpose as a cairn or circle of stone (occa- sionally concentric circles) from the center of which radiate a series of rows of other stones. Lithic arrangements of this sort are of infrequent occurrence in the Plains area of Montana and Alberta immediately east of the Rocky Mountains. Only two such medicine wheels have been reported to my knowledge within the State of Montana. That such phenomena occur in adjacent states is known, however, by reports from Wyoming and Saskatchewan. Traditions of certain practices associated with death or burial among the Blackfoot Indians may serve to account for the exist- ence of medicine wheels in those areas formerly occupied by the three tribes. My first clue to these mortuary rites was ob- tained in 1953 from Adam White Man, an aged South Piegan Indian resident near 1 Mulloy (1952, p. 137) appears to regard the medicine wheel as a form of tipi ring. Hoffman (1953, p. 2) maintains that tipi rings should be distinguished in form and use, from medicine wheels. Neither he nor Mulloy definitely commit themselves as to the function of either. Browning, Mont. After describing the cus- tom of his forbears in using circles of stones to hold down the bases of their conical skin lodges, Adam was invited to comment upon the sketch of a medicine wheel. His reaction was as follows: I heard that when they buried a real chief, one that the people loved, they would pile rocks around the edge of his lodge and then place rows of rocks out from his burial tipi. The rock lines show that everybody went there to get something to eat. He is inviting someone everyday. People went there to live off him. Not every chief is treated like that—just the one loved by everyone. I have never seen this type of stone work but I heard of a chief in Canada who was buried like that. Similar information was later supplied by Hugh Dempsey, of Edmonton, Alberta (personal letter, 1/8/54) in a statement elicited from an elderly Blood Indian, Harry Mills, of Cardston, Alberta: There was a circle of stones used by the Bloods to mark the place where great chiefs or medicine men died. They were bigger than the tipi rings and had five lines [it had been some years since he had seen one, but was fairly certain there were five] leading towards the centre like a wheel. In the middle a fireplace was built. Red Crow [prominent Blood chief of last century] had one of these on the banks of the Belly River where he died, but these have all been covered up or washed away by floods. There is another one for Running Wolf to mark the place where he died at the Belly Buttes. It’s not far from the Sun Dance ground, so I could show it to you if you were at the next Sun Dance. As noted above Dempsey’s informant believed that the medicine wheel was placed to mark the site where a great chief died rather than the actual place of his 133 134 burial. Possibly they were used on varying occasions for either purpose. His remarks continue: As far as I know, they never buried anybody at these circles of stone; it was just to mark the place where they died. The Bloods also used to mark important sites with cairns of stones. There is a pile of about 30 or 40 stones at the place where Sergeant Wilde was killed by Charcoal [in 1896]. Somebody from the Reserve saw it just last summer. There is also a row of cairns at Whoop-Up at the site of our big fight with the Crees. John C. Ewers (personal letter, 2/18/54) secured a similar account of the formal marking of chiefs’ graves among the Blood tribe from an old Indian, Weasel Tail, since deceased. Weasel Tail was born and spent his early years on the Blood Reserve in Canada but lived the balance of his life on the Blackfoot Reservation in Montana. His interpretation of the four radiating stone lanes differed from Adam White Man’s in that they were said to represent great war deeds of the deceased. The relevance of this symbolism is unclear and less plausible than White Man’s rationalization. White men who resided or travelled in the territory of the Blood and North Black- foot tribes recorded information of the same general tenor. Thus John McLean (1896, p. 579) during visits to Fort McLeod in 1880 came across ‘‘medicine wheels’’ in that region. He comments upon the Indians’ use of stone markers to commemorate important events: Several great battles were fought, and these cairns were placed there to commemorate these events, and probably to mark the spot where some of their greatest warriors died. When a great chief or warrior died a lodge was placed over him, and when this was thrown down by the wind, the body of the deceased was laid upon the ground, and a cairn of stones erected over it. There is a cairn called by the Indians the ‘‘Gambler’s Cairn,’’ near the store of I. G. Baker, in the town of Macleod. Several years ago a Piegan camp of Indians located on this spot was attacked by small-pox, and the disease proved so fatal that fifty dead lodges were left standing. Among those who died was Aikttce; i.e., the Gambler, head chief of the Piegan tribe. His people placed a lodge over him, and when that had been blown down by the western winds, he was reverently laid upon the ground, and the cairn of stones erected. The original cairn was three or four feet in diameter, with rows of stones between forty and fifty feet each in length, leading to the cairn. Only one row of stones remains, and the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, No. 5 cairn is worn nearly level with the street. This simple monument is of little interest to the passing stranger; but the Indian riding past will turn to his comrade and say, ‘‘Aiktitce.”’ McLean (p. 580) came across other stone figures in this region but was unable to learn their history from his Indian com- panions: Upon the summit of a limestone hill on Moose Mountain, Assiniboia, there is a group of cairns. The central cairn is composed of loose stones, and measures about thirty feet in diameter and four feet high. This is surrounded by a heart-shaped figure of stones, having its apex toward the east, and from this radiate six rows of stones, each terminating in a small cairn. Four of these radiating lines nearly correspond with the points of the compass, and each of the lines of different lengths terminate in a smaller cairn. The Indians know nothing of the origin of these lines and cairns, but state that they were made by the spirit of the winds. George M. Dawson (1885, p. 28C), while engaged in field work for the Canadian Geological Survey in 1882-83-84, encoun- tered a medicine wheel in the High River area of Alberta.? He remarks that: A point of note to the Indians in this region [the High River area] is that called Sun-dial Hill by Mr. Nelson. There is here a cairn with con- centric circles of stones and radiating lines. I have not seen it, and therefore cannot describe it in detail. It is named ‘‘Onoka-katzi”’ and regarded with much reverence. Although stone tipi rings are still found abundantly on and about the Blackfeet Reservation, the medicine wheel is en- countered but rarely in this and adjacent areas. A well-established occurrence is that of the Sun River wheel on the stream of that name near Lowry, Mont. Since the general area has been South Piegan territory from the beginning of the last century, this particular lithic marker may well be Black- foot in origin. The writer to date has not had an opportunity of examining the Lowry wheel. Accordingly we may refer to a description of it written by the late H.P. Lewis, an amateur collector of Conrad, Mont. Since Lewis was a serious student and conscientious observer, his comments deserve consideration. 2 I am indebted to Hugh Dempsey, of Edmon- ton, Alberta, for this. reference. May 1954 According to Mr. Lewis, this medicine wheel is located on a perfectly flat bench about 30 feet above the north side of Sun River. The bench is gravelly with sparse grass and one mile long by one half a mile wide. The medicine wheel (Fig. 1) is situated in the open a considerable distance from trees or brush. It is directly on the edge of the river bank and portions of the rock alignments have been eroded away by stream action® (Lewis, MS.). Lewis de- scribes the ‘‘medicine wheel” as follows: The artifact [medicine wheel] consists of a central ring 21 feet across, within which, at the center is a second circle 4 feet in diameter. Radiat- ing outward from the larger outer circle are eleven 37 was unable to check the copy of the H. P. Lewis Ms., which is deposited with the River Basin Surveys, Lincoln, Nebr., with the original. KEHOE: STONE ‘‘MEDICINE WHEELS’”’ 8 9.07097 6? 9 999 0 Pe? 0280%0 00799 O° G00" ¥ 135 rows of rocks, arranged like the spokes of a wheel. These spokes are only approximately evenly spaced, are roughly of the same length. .. . The lengths vary considerably, as short as twenty-one feet to forty feet. This brings the outer tips of the spokes averaging distances apart, but reaching a maximum on some places of 40 feet... . The diameter of the wheel is approximately 100 feet, with a circumference of well over 300 feet. . . . The central four-foot circle gives no sign of being used for fire. It will be noticed that [four spokes] lie closely along the four principle points of the compass. . Absence of tepee rings (except as hereafter noted) is glaringly noticeable. Very evidently the place was not a camp site. The exceptions to be noted lie about a hundred yards east of the wheel, consist of a group of only four average-sized tepee rings. These rings differ from ordinary camp site tepee rings only in having short rows of rocks, set as though bordering an entry walk, and extending to the east. Two of the rings had this feature, the other two did not... . ee 4 % ° 6 © eo eceseOrn =) e 36 O'S 10) 15-520) 2S FEET Fia. 1.—The Sun River Medicine Wheel, Lowry, Mont. (Sketch adapted, with omission of details, from H. P. Lewis manuszript.) 136 We should not overlook the fact that the Medi- cine Wheel is in the very heart of the buffalo drive country. The Williams [buffalo] Kill is directly across the River, the Eder slightly to the east. A second medicine wheel is said to have been located a short distance west of the town of Armstead, south of Dillon, Montana. The description details of this stone figure are somewhat obscure but it differs from those mentioned above in its apparent association with petroglyphs. Our source (Montana State Guide, pp. 32, 292) states that “behind the first large red butte are lines of stone running from it across the valley like spokes radiating from a hub. At the foot of the butte are crude paintings in the center (of a) larce ‘mime yor rocks: ).., .7 Although the location of this medicine wheel appears well beyond the confines of former Piegan territory, Blackfoot raiders are known to have penetrated the Three Forks region in the 1830’s. Farther afield an interpretation of the origin and function of a medicine wheel in Wyoming was secured some decades ago by Grinnell (1922, 299-310) from other ethnic sources. This large assemblage of stones, a prominent landmark in the Big Horn Mountains, differs from those discussed above in certain particulars. The hub of the circle is a wall of large stones from which radiate twenty-eight lines of small stones terminating at rather than projecting be- yond the circumference. Just without the circumference are located four, low circular enclosures of stone which were roughly oriented, according to Grinnell, in the four cardinal directions. Other small rings of stone within and without the main circle completed the assemblage. For further information on the medicine wheel Grinnell turned to Indians of several tribes resident in and about this area. He was told by elderly Cheyenne, well acquainted with the medicine wheel, that it represented the ground plan of an old time Medicine Lodge of their people. Their explanation of various parts of the wheel in terms of a former ceremonial structure appeared convincing to Grinnell. The facts that both the Black- foot and the linguistically related Cheyenne interpreted medicine wheels in terms of structures, the one mortuary, the other ceremonial, basic to their former cultures, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, NO. 5 suggest that the concepts underlying them were not unrelated. We may refer briefly to another point in connection with the medicine wheel in Blackfoot territory. Adam White Man explained that the four spokelike extensions from the stone circle was their representa- tions of paths trod by followers of the deceased coming to partake of his bountiful hospitality. That such a concept was meaningful in the value-system of the Blackfoot is attested by the calls to share food and tobacco frequently issued by chiefs in the camp circles of former days. In contrast, Weasel Tail identified the stone radii as representative of the dead chief’s war deeds. What may really be involved, however, beneath these native rationaliza- tions is an expression of the idea of orienting and marking a place of death or burial according to the cardinal directions. Empha- sis upon directional symbolism is not un- known in other aspects of Blackfoot religious life, being expressed in medicine pipe rituals, the Sun Dance, etc. Even greater ceremonial attachment to this widespread concept is manifested by Dakota, Pawnee and other tribes to the east. This concludes the data which we have been able to assemble in respect to the peculiar stone configurations of the Mon- tana-Alberta area. No doubt there are further references in the literature as well as unrecorded medicine wheels in the field that have escaped our notice. The present paper is preliminary, however, and represents merely an attempt to introduce some meaning into an otherwise obscure and puzzling topic. In summary, then, testimony advanced by Blackfoot informants suggest the employ- ment at infrequent intervals of native mortuary practices which might have given rise to the strange configurations known as medicine wheels. Whether the few lithic markers found scattered in Montana and Alberta’ can actually be derived from such practices has yet to be determined. If such would prove to be the case, it would indicate that the medicine wheels in Montana are scarcely older than the beginning of the nineteenth century. Further, such an explanation, it should be pointed out, can- not be applied to these phenomena through- May 1954 out their area of distribution, whatever that may prove to be, but only to those situated in what was formerly Blackfoot territory. Those located beyond this region must obviously be studied independently and in terms of the native cultures of their own areas. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dawson, GEorGE M. Report on the region in the vicinity of Bow and Belly River, North West Territory. Report of Progress, 1882-83-84. Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. Ottawa, 1885. VOKES: GENUS PLATOPIS 137 GRINNELL, GEORGE Birp. The medicine wheel. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 24 (3) : 299-310. 1922. HorrmMan, J. Jacos. Comments on the use and distribution of tipi rings in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Anthrop. and Sociol. Pap. Montana State Univ. 14. 1953. Lewis, H. P. MS. on Bison kills in Montana. (Copy in Missouri River Basin Archeological Survey Offices, Lincoln, Nebr.). McLean, JoHN. Canadian savage folk. Toronto, 1896. Montana: A State guide book. (Federal Writers’ Project of WPA for State of Montana. New York, 1939). Muuuoy, Wituram T. The Northern Plains. In ‘Archeology of Eastern United States,”’ edited by James B. Griffin. Chicago, 1952. PALEONTOLOGY .—On the pelecypod genus Platopis Whitfield: I[T. H. E. Voxss, Johns Hopkins University. In 1946 I gave an extended consideration of Whitfield’s genus Platopis (1891, p. 399), noting that Whitfield had designated two of Conrad’s Syrian species as types, neither of which he had at hand and both of which he had misinterpreted. Concluding that the selection of two species as types was, in effect, no selection at all, I designated P. plicata, one of the species described by Whitfield, since it seemed most probable that it was upon this species that he had based his generic description. Then, in 1952, I reported that work in preparation for the Treatise on «invertebrate paleontology had revealed the fact that Woodward, in the Zoological Record for 1891 [1892] had selected ‘‘P. [Opis] undata Conr.” as type. This being one of the two species originally cited by Whitfield, was clearly a valid designation. But “Opis” undata Conrad is a prior name for the form that is variously called Roudazria auressensis (Coquand) and R. drui Munier-Chalmas; the latter being the type species of Roudazria Munier-Chalmas, 1881. The Woodward designation therefore made Platopis a sub- jective synonym of Roudairia. The species typified by ‘‘Platopis’’ plicata do not, however, represent the genus Roudairia. In my earlier papers I pointed out that while the hinge was quite similar to that of Eocallista Douville, they seemed to differ consistently in shape. In 1952, I therefore concluded: “I am not acquainted with any species at present referred to Eocallista that show the markedly tri- angular shape and strong unbonal carina- tion of the species that I previously referred to Platopis. However, Cox (1944, p. 105) states that forms resembling some species of Pronoella in external characteristics ‘may, however, belong to such genera as Jsocyprina and Kocallista.’ It seems best, therefore, at present to refer the Lebanon species listed above to the genus Locallista, sensu lato, pending possible future studies of species of that genus not at present available to me.” The purpose of the present note is to call attention to the fact that in his recent monograph on “The Larger Invertebrate Fossils of the Woodbine Formation (Ceno- manian) of Texas” Dr. L. W. Stephenson described a new genus Pharodina type P. ferrana Stephenson (1953, p. 109, pl. 27, figs. 1-7) that is clearly synonymous with Platopis as I first interpreted it and is there- fore available as a substitute name for the group of species that I typified by “‘Platopis”’ plicata. The only observable difference seems to lie in the fact that the posteroventral umbonal slope is subangulate in P. ferrana, rather than carinate as it is in P. plicata. The presence of posterior lateral dentition and the absence of a pallial sinus refer to this genus to the Arcticidae (Cyprinidae) rather than to the Veneridae, where it was assigned by Stephenson. 138 REFERENCES Cox, L. R. On the Jurassic lamellibranch genera Hartwellia and Pronoella. Geol. Mag. 81 (3), 100-112, 4 text figs. 1944. STEPHENSON, Luoyp Wiuuiam. Larger invertebrate fossils of the Woodbine formation (Cenoma- nian) of Texas. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 242: iv + 226 pp., 59 pls., 8 text figs. 1952 [1953]. Voxgs, H. E. Contributions to the paleontology of the Lebanon Mountains, Republic of Lebanon. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 5 Part 3: The pelecypod fauna of the ‘‘Olive Locality”? (Aptian) at Abeth. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 87 (3): 139-216, 10 pls:, 7 _ text fig. 1946. . Notes on the pelecypod genus Platopis Whitfield. Amer. Mus. Nov. 1560: 3 pp. 1952. WHITFIELD, RoBERT PARR. Observations on some Cretaceous fossils from the Beyrut district of Syria, in the collections of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, with descriptions of some new species. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3: 381-441, pls. 4a-11. 1891. ZOOLOGY ——Fresh-water Ostracoda from Texas and Mexico. Wiuu1s L. TRESSLER, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office. The fresh-water Ostracoda of Texas have received very little attention and as a result are practically unknown. Many years ago William Baird (1862) described Chlamy- dotheca texasiensis from some material sent him from Texas, and to the best of my knowledge this remains the sole valid ostra- cod record for the State. The present paper reports on 13 ostracod species new to Texas, 6 of which appear to be new species. A num- ber of species of fresh-water Ostracoda have been reported from Mexico commencing with de Saussure who described Chlamydotheca azteca from Mexico in 1858 (Saussure, 1858), down to one of the most recent workers, Dr. Rioja, who has added several new species to the peculiar genus Entocythere, all of whose members are parasitic or commensal on the gills of fresh-water crayfish (Rioja, 1940a, 1940b, 1942, 1944). The species pre- viously known from Mexico proper include Physocypria dentifera (Sharpe), P. denticulata (Daday), Cyprinotus pellucidus Sharpe, Hucy- pris fuscatus (Jurine), H. virens (Jurine), Chlamydotheca azteca (Saussure), C’. arcuata (Sars), C. mexicana Sharpe, Cypricerus affinis (Fischer), Potamocypris smaragdina (Vavra), Entocythere heterodonta Rioja, E. sinuosa Rioja, EL. claytonhoffi Rioja, LE. dobbinae Rioja, and EH. mexicana Rioja. The present paper adds four species to the record and of these, three species appear to be new to science. Three locations in east Texas produced four species; five lakes in west Texas, from which ecological factors are known, pro- duced eight species; six small pools also in west Texas had six species of Ostracoda; one location in south Texas had one species; and two lakes which were visited in Mexico, yielded four species. A tabulation of the species collected in each locality is shown in Table 1. There are now over 200 known species of fresh-water Ostracoda in North America (Tressler, in press), and many of these are undoubtedly present in Texas and adjoining regions of Mexico. Future workers in these regions, have accordingly, an almost virgin territory in which to work as far as the fresh- water Ostracoda are concerned. The material for the present report was collected by Dr. Edward 8. Deevey, of Yale University, while an instructor at the Rice Institute, during trips in the western part of Texas and parts of Mexico in 1940 and 1941. Some materia] is also included which was sent by Miss Marcile Patterson, of the Texas Game, Fish, and Oyster Commission, and which contained additional specimens of three species collected by Dr. Deevey. The slides of the dissected specimens from which the camera lucida drawings were made, have been deposited in the U. S&S. National Museum as type specimens. Ecological data for some of the regions have been very kindly furnished by Dr. Deevey. A summary of these data, together with the species of Ostracoda found in each locality are presented in Table 1. Because of the incompleteness of the biological and ecological data, no broad conclusions can be drawn as to the ecological distribution of the species collected. It is to be noted, however, that the cosmopolitan species Cypridopsis vidua is to be found under a wide variety of conditions running from strictly fresh-water to the highly saline waters of salt flats. The brackish-water species, Cyprinotus sa- May 1954 linus, as its name indicates, is always found in saline waters. Suborder Popocopa Family Cypridae: Subfamily Candocyprinae Genus Cypria Zenker, 1854 Valves compressed, very thin when viewed from above. Margins of valves smooth. Color of valves usually yellow to brown and spotted. Natatory setae of second antenna well developed and extending considerably beyond tips of terminal claws. Terminal segment of third thoracic leg short and with two forwardly directed setae and one reflexed seta. Furca moderately developed, dorsal seta sometimes rudimentary or absent. Cypria lacustris Sars, 1891 Fig. 1 Cypria lacustris G. O. Sars, Forh. Selsk. Chris- tiania 1890 (1): 64. 1891. Cypria lacustris G. 8. Brady and A. M. Norman, Trans. Roy. Dublin Soe. (2) 5: 719. 1896. Cypria lacustris G. O. Sars, Crust. Norway, Ix: Ostracoda: 98. 1928. Specific characters—Female: Shell suboval in shape, greatest height slightly greater than two- thirds the length. Dorsal margin evenly curved, ventral margin slightly sinuated, both ex- tremities evenly rounded. From above, narrow, with greatest width about one third the length. Valves very clear, with smooth and _ polished surfaces, pigment spots entirely lacking, broad hyaline borders anteriorly and posteriorly. Caudal furea slender and slightly curved; distal claw amounting to about one-half the length of the ramus. Length 0.60 mm, height 0.42 mm. Color, transparent white with a yellowish tinge. Male: Smaller than the female, posterior portion of shell broader. Right prehensile palp abruptly expanded at the end; left palp narrowed at outer end. Occurrence——One female was identified from collections made in Fern Bog, Big Thicket, Polk County, Tex., on May 12, 1940. Distribution —Originally reported from Sweden, this species has been found in the Northwest Territories and in Michigan. Genus Candona Baird, 1842 Shells of a whitish color with smooth valves which are sometimes covered with scattered puncta. Eye poorly developed or absent. Ter- minal segment of maxillary palp broader than TRESSLER: FRESH-WATER OSTRACODA 139 long. Third thoracic leg four or five-segmented depending upon whether penultimate segment is divided or not; terminal segment short with three unequal setae. Fureca well developed. Ejaculatory duct with five whorls of spines. Candona intermedia Furtos, 1933 Figs. 2;3 Candona intermedia N. C. Surv. 5 (6): 474. 1933. Furtos, Ohio Biol. Specific characters——Female: Seen from the side, elongated, height about one-half the length, highest in posterior third. Posterior extremity with a sharp posteroventral angle. Ventral margin slightly sinuated in the middle, convex anteriorly, slightly sinuated anterior to the posteroventral angle. Seen from above, eliptical, width less than one-half length, left valve projects beyond right at both extremities. Surface of valves sparsely hairy. Medial-distal seta of penultimate segment of mandibular palp plumose. Penultimate segment of third thoracic leg divided. Furca slender, sixteen times longer than narrowest width; claws coarsely denticu- lated. Length 1.7 mm, height 0.92 mm, width 0.73 mm. Male: Somewhat longer than female; posterior extremity lacks the angle. Right prehensile palp elongated, left palp shorter, stouter. Furca straight, seventeen times longer than narrowest width. Remarks.—This species may be distinguished from Candona caudata Kaufmann by its greater size and the plumose mandibular seta, which is smooth in C. caudata. Occurrence—Two immature specimens were taken from Balmorhea Lake, Reeves County, Tex., at a depth of 4.5 meters on June 21, 1940, and one female was sent from an unknown location in Texas by Miss Marcile Patterson. Distribution —In Ohio, where this species was originally described, it was found in cold, clear waters during May and June. Candona patzcuaro, n. sp. Figs. 4-8 Specific characters —Male: Seen from the side, elongated, height slightly greater than one-half the length; both ends rounded, the posterior more evenly and broadly. A distinct indentation at the anterodorsal margin and a sharp angle at the anteroventral margin are present. Dorsal margin rounded; ventral margin deeply indented 140 posterior to the anteroventral angle. Valves smooth and sparsely hairy. Color whitish. Second thoracic leg with a rather short terminal claw. Third thoracic leg with two nearly equal terminal setae and one longer, reflexed seta; penultimate segment indented but not distinctly divided. TaBLE 1—EcouoGicaL Data ON FRESH-WATER OsTROCODA FROM TEXAS AND MsExico Locality and Species Cl mg/1 East Texas FPrrnv Bogs BiG ERICK ETe SSer ease ne to ene ree Herpetocypris pattersont Cypria lacustris POOL NARS AGUATO GAC. haa icles aa Gnnneel aimee te errs Limnocythere sancti-patrici San JActintTO RiveR Borrom...... PO oe Foes Cypridopsis potamis JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 5 Furcal ramus twenty times length of narrowest width; terminal claw about one-half the length of ramus; subterminal claw seven-tenths length of terminal claw; both claws finely toothed in their distal halves; terminal seta absent in the specimens observed; dorsal seta six-sevenths SiO2 mg/1 Total P. mg/m3 West Texas IBY ATE MO RRA A ROE ates URE Ee eG, | aaa cerca Ace | Candona intermedia Ilyocypris biplicata Cypridopsis vidua IER ASNITIO Ngo GIATKa Rae gS CALE ee a cS ey otal a ec at Chlamydotheca texasiensis Cypridopsis phantomensis Cypridopsis musquizensis Cypridopsis toyensis PORT: STOCKTON WAKE cohen Ne Se eotnsre sete Pea oe Cypridopsis vidua FELENID LiAGYs (SPRING ioe cote ts See ree eae BORE ae d Cyprinotus dentatus SRO RYAASEU ATLIANKS EE Mite ic See Roh ee Pa He Te Oe ares aera iee ae Cypridopsis toyensis Cypridopsis musquizensis UR NAO AINGVOINE ere eee eae nus Sere EOC SNe ice Herpetocypris pattersont TanpP TPAC Rip WR se, aeunry lensed rs alte dee ae ede rocco ba tat Herpetocypris pattersont MUs@miz CRB Bi. 950 ie seers Cee te ee es ogee aon cance tarek Herpetocypris pattersont Cypridopsis musquizensis BRLU CAN VON. titres eee oon eae Berek ee acta Cypridopsis vidua Candonocypris deeveyt SW wists] diay Wied D) Gchs | eae eee ee mn een ee OIG Aces GOMMa oe Cypridopsis vidua Potamocypris smaragdina TV AINE: SAC T 213 ASTIN maser tte eiae Aciee-crae bopecte CVS Licte ore Potamocypris smaragdina Cypridopsis vidua Cyprinotus salinus BALMORHEA IRRIGATION DITCH................-+------ Cypridopsis vidua South Texas GAKE NOs 6, Sun BIBER Gu C OUND Yanmar ss) cient: Candonocypris deeveyt Mexico BA GOsDESBATZCUAR ONS wiisnews Borner nein tankers se oe ewer Candona patzcuaro Candona michoa PRESA DEN EUIPOLITONM = ane cheno cues cee eon Cypridopsis vidua Candona hipolitensis 560 693. 378 5.8 485 24.5 (Small pools, no ecological data) (Very saline water) 21.00 21.3 17.05 16.3 15.7 47.6 14 10 (No ecological data) 85 45 65 148.0 90.0 Total N HCO; mg/1 mg/1 0.484 158.6 4.484 282.2 0.632 153.7 0.931 156.1 0.702 54.5 1.249 90.1 53.5 (organic) 0.586. 458 0.705 86.8 SO. mg/1 555 625 1540 0.2 24.0 May 1954 TRESSLER: FRESH-WATER OSTRACODA 141 Fies. 1-22.—1, Cypria lacustris Sars: Lateral view of left valve, female.. 2-3, Candona intermedia Furtos: 2, Lateral view of right valve, male; 3, lateral view of right valve, female. 4-8, Candona patz- cuaro,n.sp.,:4, lateral view of left valve, male; 5, third thoracic leg, male; 6, second thoracic leg, male; 7, ejaculatory duct, male; 8, furca, male. 9-12, Candona michoa, n. sp., 9, lateral view of left valve, female; 10, second thoracic leg, female; 11, first antenna, female; 12, fureca, female. 13-15, Candona hipolitensis, n. sp., 13, lateral view of right valve, female; 14, terminal portion of third thoracic leg, female; 15, furca; female. 16, Ilyocypris biplicata Koch, lateral view of left valve, female. 17, Cypri- notus salinus (Brady), lateral view of left valve, female. 18-19, Cyprinotus dentatus Sharpe, 18, lateral view of right valve, male; 19, lateral view of right valve, female. 20, Cypridopsis vidua (O. F. Miiller), lateral view of left valve, female. 21, Potamocypris smaragdina (Vavra), lateral view of left valve, female. 22, Chlamydotheca texasiensis (Baird), lateral view of left valve, female. 142 length of subterminal claw. Ejaculatory duct with seven whorls of spines. Length 1.30 mm, height 0.68 mm. Female: Unknown. Occurrence—Two males were collected from Lago de Patzcuaro in the state of Michoacan, Mexico, by Dr. Deevey on July 10, 1941. The specimens were secured with a dredge at 4 meters depth. Male holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 96047. Candona michoa, n. sp. Figs. 9-12 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, elongated; height equal to half the length, highest m posterior third. Both extremities rounded, the anterior more evenly so than the posterior. Anterodorsal and posterodorsal mar- gins with indentations, the anterior indentation more sharply defined but of less extent. Dorsal margin flattened and gently sloping upward posteriorly toward the highest point; ventral margin slightly sinuated and concave. Valves smooth and sparsely hairy. Color white. An- tennae typical of the genus. Second thoracic leg with slender terminal claw of medium length. Third thoracic leg with the longer of the two terminal setae equal in length to that of the reflexed seta; shorter terminal seta two-thirds length of longer; penultimate segment indis- tinctly subdivided. Furcal ramus 16 times as long as narrowest width; both claws smooth or finely haired; terminal claw one-half length of furcal ramus; subterminal claw three-fourths length of terminal claw; terminal seta one-eighth length of terminal claw; dorsal seta two-thirds length of subterminal claw. Length 1.16 mm, height 0.58 mm. Male: Unknown. Occurrence-—Two females were collected by Dr. Deevey from Lago de Patzcuaro in the state of Michoacan on July 10, 1941. The specimens were collected with a dredge at 4 meters depth. Female holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 96048. Candona hipolitensis, n. sp. Figs. 13-15 Specific characters—FKemale: Seen from the side, elongate, height definitely greater than one-half length. Both ends rounded, the anterior more evenly than the posterior. Posterior ex- tremity with a rounded angle three-fourths the distance to the dorsal margin. Dorsal margin JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 5 broadly rounded; greatest height in the middle; ventral margin slightly concave. Surface of valves smooth and sparsely hairy. Color whitish. Second thoracic leg with terminal claw well developed and equal in length to the length of the last three segments. Third thoracic leg with three long, unequal setae; penultimate segment indistinctly subdivided. Furcal ramus sixteen times as long as narrowest width; both claws well toothed in distal three-fourths; terminal claw less than one-half the length of the ramus; subterminal claw six-sevenths the length of terminal claw; dorsal seta four-sevenths length of subterminal claw. Length 1.16 mm, height 0.62 mm. Male: Unknown. Occurrence:-—One female was collected by Dr. Deevey in Presa de Hipolito in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, on June 19, 1940. The specimen was secured at a depth of one and one-half meters by means of the Ekman dredge. Female holotype, U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 96049. Subfamily Ilyocyprinae Genus Ilyocypris Brady and Norman, 1889 Shells oblong with one or more transverse median depressions; surface pitted and often with tubercles or protuberances. Terminal seg- ment of third thoracic leg with three, long, simple setae, one of which may be reflexed. Furea with two long, equal claws; dorsal seta attached near middle of ramus and well de- veloped. Ilyocypris biplicata (Koch, 1838) Fig. 16 Cypris biplicata C. L. Koch, Deutschlands Crust. 21 (16). 1838. Ilyocypris biplicata T. Scott and R. Duthie, Rep. Fish. Board. Scotland. 15: 330. 1897. Ilyocypris biplicata G. O. Sars, Crust. Norway, IX: Ostracoda: .106. 1928. Specific characters—Female: Shell oval quad- rangular in shape rather compressed seen from the side. Somewhat higher in front than behind and highest near the eye; height slightly greater than one-half the length. Dorsal margin almost straight; ventral margin deeply sinuated in middle. Two vertical folds are very conspicuous features in the front part of the valves. No lateral protuberances. Anterior and_ posterior valve edges denticulated, those of the anterior region being more crowded. Color, opaque, whitish gray. Surface of valves granular with May 1954 TRESSLER: FRESH-WATER OSTRACODA 143 Fies. 23-48 —23-29, Candonocypris deevey, n. sp.: 23, Lateral view of right valve, female; 24, lateral view of right valve, male; 25, 26, prehensile palps, male; 27, third thoracic leg, female; 28, second thoracic leg, female; 29, fureca, male. 30-34, Herpetocypris pattersoni, n. sp.: 30, Lateral view of left valve, fe- male; 31, lateral view of left valve, male; 32, third thoracic leg, female; 33, furca, female; 34, second thoracic leg, female. 35-38, Cypridopsis phantomensis, n. sp.: 35, Lateral view of right valve, male; 36, third thoracic leg, male; 37, ejaculatory duct, male; 38, second thoracic leg, male. 39-41, Cypridopsis musquizensis, n. sp.: 39, Lateral view of left valve, male; 40, second antenna, male; 41, second thoracic leg,male. 42-44, Cypridopsis toyensis, n. sp.:42, Lateral view of right valve, female; 43, second thoracic leg, female; 44, third thoracic leg, female. 45-47, Cypridopsis potamis, n. sp.: 45, lateral view of right valve, female; 46, second thoracic leg, female; 47, third thoracic leg, female. 48, Limnocythere sancti- patrict Brady and Robertson, lateral view of entire animal in left valve, male. 144 many small, rounded pits. Extremities with dense, fine hairs. Natatory setae of second antenna extend considerably beyond tips of terminal claws. Caudal furca slightly curved and gradually attenuated; terminal claws rather slender; the distal claw being about one- half the length of the ramus. Length 1.10 mm. Male: Smaller than female but otherwise of similar shape. Ejaculatory tubes with eighteen whorls of spines. Remarks —Although combined by some au- thors with Ilyocypris gibba (Ramdohr), the present form may be distinguished easily by the more prominent lateral folds and the absence of lateral protuberances. Occurrence: Empty shells of this species were collected from Balmorhea Lake, Reeves County, Tex. in water 4.5 meters deep on June 21, 1940. Distribution —This species is rather widely known throughout Europe and from Algeria. It is reported for the first time in North America, Subfamily Cyprinae Genus Cyprinotus Brady, 1885 | More or less elongated shells; margin of right valve commonly tuberculated. Natatory setae of second antenna well developed. Third maxil- lary process with two spines which may be either smooth or toothed. Furea moderately developed. Cyprinotus salinus (Brady 1862) Fig. 17 Cypris strigata G. S. Brady, Intell. Observ. 1: 452. 1862. Cypris salina G. 8S. Brady, Trans. Linn. Soc. London. 26: 368. 1868. Cyprinotus salina G. O. Sars, Forh. Selsk. Chris- tiania. 1890 (1): 56. 1891. Cyprinotus salinus G. W. Miller, Das Tierreich, 31: 165. 1912. Cyprinotus salinus G. O. Sars, Crust. Norway, IX: Ostracoda: 122. 1928. Specific characters—KFemale: Shell broadly oval when seen from the side. Greatest height in middle and equal to two-thirds the length. Dorsal margin broadly arched; ventral margin somewhat sinuated; posterior extremity con- spicuously produced into a rounded expansion. Seen from above, width slightly less than one- half the length. Valves very unequal, left valve overlaps the right. Denticles of right valve small and crowded. Natatory setae of second antenna extend to tips of terminal claws. Caudal rami JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 5 small, straight, and gradually attenuated toward their ends. Color of shell a pale yellow with a number of conspicuous dark-brown, bandlike patches. Surface of valves smooth with - fine hairs. Length 1.25 mm. Male: Unknown. | Occurrence.—Five females were found in a collection made from a tank in a salt basin in Hudspeth County, Tex., on June 10, 1940. Distribution —This species has been reported from Sweden, the British Isles, Pomerania, France, and Norway; it is noted for the first time from North America. Cyprinotus dentatus (Sharpe, 1910) Figs. 18, 19 Cyprinotus dentata R. W. Sharpe, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 38: 336. 1910. Cyprinotus dentata R. W. Sharpe, Ostracoda in Ward and Whipple: 816. 1918. Cyprinotus dentatus C. C. Hoff, Journ. Tennessee Acad. Sci. 18 (1): 102. 19438. Specific characters—Female; Seen from the side, shell margins nearly parallel; posterior extremity more pointed than anterior. Right valve somewhat smaller than left and lined along its ventral margin, except in the middle, with some 60 fine denticles, closely spaced. Spines of maxillary process strongly developed and toothed. Furca about 16 times longer than narrowest width of ramus; slightly curved; claws nearly smooth. Surface of valves smooth with no markings. Color yellowish, transparent. Length 1.3-1.4 mm, height 0.5-0.65 mm, width 0.5—0.58 mm. | Male: Smaller than female. Maxillary palps stout and decidedly hooked. Ejaculatory duct with 26 whorls of spines. Occurrence-—Twelve specimens, both males and females, were found in collections made in Finlay Springs, Hudspeth County, Tex., on June 23, 1940. Also, two females were taken from Phantom Lake in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 23, 1940. Distribution —Nebraska, Tennessee (Reelfoot Lake). Genus Candonocypris Sars, 1895 Elongated shells of large size with valve margins either smooth or serrated. Natatory setae of second antenna not very well developed. two maxillary spines well toothed. Furca well developed; dorsal margin generally denticulated. “May 1954 Candonocypris deeveyi, n. sp. Figs. 23-29 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, elongated oval in shape; height equal to half the length; highest in posterior third. Poste- rior end more broadly rounded than anterior with a concavity near the upper two-thirds of the posterior margin. Anterior end with a dis- tinct furrow on the anterodorsal margin. Dor- sal margin rounded; ventral margin sinuated and concave in the middle. Valves smooth with a few scattered, long hairs; edges of valves smooth. Eye prominent. Color of preserved specimen brown, Second thoracic leg with a slender ter- minal claw equal in length to the combined length of the last three segments. Third thoracic leg with a slender terminal claw and one short, reflexed seta; penultimate segment undivided. Furea well developed; subterminal claw slightly longer than half the length of terminal claw; both claws toothed on distal three-fourths; dorsal seta slightly longer than half the length of subterminal claw; terminal seta equal in length to dorsal seta or one-fourth length of terminal claw; dorsal margin of ramus heavily toothed. Length 3.26 mm, height 1.63 mm. Male: Seen from the side, elongate and not so high as the female; greatest height in posterior quarter and equal to about three-sevenths of the length. Posterodorsal concavity indistinct; an- terior dorsal furrow prominent. Ventral margin slightly concave. Length 3.26 mm, height 1.47 mm. Occurrence: Four females were collected from Lake No. 3 in Kleiberg County, Tex., by Dr. Deevey on June 30, 1941. Several male specimens were sent in by Miss Patterson from an unknown location in Texas, possibly from Dalhart in Dallam County, north Texas, where they were collected in the spring of 1940. Female holotype, U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 96050; male paratype, U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 96051. Genus Herpetocypris Brady and Norman, 1889 Elongated shells with scattered puncta be- tween which are smaller puncta. Maxillary spines well developed; terminal segment of maxillary palp widened distally. Furca strongly developed terminal claw appreciably shorter than one-half the length of the ramus. Herpetocypris pattersoni, n. sp. Figs. 30-34 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the TRESSLER: FRESH-WATER OSTRACODA 145 side, elongated, greatest height in posterior third of shell and appreciably less than one-half the length of the shell. Dorsal margin flattened and gently sloping toward anterior end. Ventral margin slightly sinuated. Anterior extremity broadly and evenly rounded; posterior extremity narrowly rounded and somewhat produced in the ventral half; dorsal half sloping steeply pos- teriorly. Pore canals prominent in anterior margin. Shell sparsely hairy with a few long, stout hairs at posterior extremity. Left valve larger than right. Natatory setae of second antenna do not reach to tips of terminal claws. Second thoracic leg with heavy, well developed terminal claw which is toothed along its distal two-thirds. Third thoracic leg with one short claw and a long, backwardly directed seta. Furca with ramus 16 times longer than narrowest width; five groups of hairs along dorsal margin; posterior claw barely one-half length of anterior claw; terminal bristle slightly longer than one- half posterior claw. Length 2.20 mm, height 0.90 mm. Male: Similar in shape and in structure of appendages to female but slightly smaller. Length 2.12 mm, height 0.73 mm. Occurrence. Four females were collected by Dr. Deevey from the upper pool in Fern Canyon, Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 19, 1940. Two females were also taken in Limpia Creek 5 miles below Fort Davis, Tex., on the same date, and 10 females were found in Musquiz Creek in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 20, 1940. Several specimens, all males, were sent to Miss Patterson by a collector from an unknown loca- tion in Texas. Female holotype, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 96052; male paratype, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 96053. Genus Chlamydotheca Saussure 1858 Large forms with flangelike projections at the extremities of valves. Natatory setae of second antenna fairly well developed. Third maxillary process with one toothed and two smooth spines. Second segment of third thoracic leg with two prominent setae on inner distal border. Furca well developed; dorsal margin denticulated. Chlamydotheca texasiensis (Baird, 1862) Fig. 22 Cypris texasiensis W. Baird, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 10: 4. 1862. Chlamydotheca texastensis N. C. Furtos, Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 457: 99. 1936. 146 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, dorsal margin boldly arched; a prominent flange present at anterior end. Ventral margin nearly straight except for a blunt incisure marking off the anterior flange. Seen from above, very tumid, with greatest width amounting to about eight-fifteenths the length. Right valve projects slightly beyond left at anterior end. Posterior end narrowly rounded, anterior end rather sharply pointed. Surface of valves smooth with scattered puncta bearing delicate hairs. Two very prominent hairs on posterior ex- tremity. Color light, with six radially arranged bands originating from a circular band around the muscle scars. Natatory setae of second antenna do not reach to tips of terminal claws. Furea very slightly curved and nineteen times as long as narrowest width of ramus; dorsal margin faintly pectinate. Length 3.30 mm, height 2.10 mm. Male: Unknown. Remarks.—Although somewhat similar to C. speciosa and C. arcuata, the present species may be distinguished from these forms by the much more elongated shape of C. speciosa and by the fact that C. arcuata is distinctly pointed at both extremities when viewed from above. Occurrence—Two females were collected from Phantom Lake in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 23, 1940, by Dr. Deevey. Distribution: Texas, Ohio, Yucatan, Louisiana. and Genus Cypridopsis Brady, 1867 Small, tumid forms, very high when viewed from the side; left valve usually larger than the right. Natatory setae of second antenna extend considerably beyond tips of terminal claws. Maxillary palps are not broadened distally. Furea rudimentary with a short base and flagellum. Cypridopsis vidua (O. F. Miller, 1776) Cypris vidua O. F. Miller, Zool. Dan. Prodr.: 199. 1776. Cypridopsis vidua G. 8. Brady, Intell. Observ. 12: 117. 1867. Pionocypris vidua G. O. Sars, Crust. Norway, IX: Ostracoda: 135. 1928. Cypridopsis vidua obesa N. C. Furtos, Ohio Biol. Surv. 5 (6): 430. 1933. Cypridopsis vidua C. C. Hoff, Monogr. 19 (1-2): 151. 1942. Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, short, plump forms with height equal to Illinois Biol. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 5 two-thirds the length and with broadly rounded extremities. Boldly arched dorsal margin; a distinct angle is formed slightly behind the middle. Seen from above, very broad and rounded; width about two-thirds the length. Surface of valves pitted and hairy. Color light green with three more or less prominent dark green or brown bands extending laterally from a single dorsal band. In some variations these bands are very indistinct or entirely lacking. Natatory setae of second antenna extend slightly beyond tips of terminal claws. Flagellum of furca two and one-half times longer than the length of the base; dorsal seta present. Length 0.60- 0.75 mm. Male: Unknown. Remarks.—This is the most common and most widely distributed freshwater ostracod and has been reported from nearly all regions of North America from which collections of Ostracoda have been made. It is the common form which develops in aquaria. The wide variation in color patterns or their absence has caused the forma- tion of new species which are undoubtedly simply color varieties of Cypridopsis vidua. Occurrence.—This species was found in seven localities in Texas and one in Mexico as follows: 7 females from Fort Stockton Lake, Pecos County Tex., June 2, 1941; 12 females from Bell Canyon, Tex. (no date); 1 female from Salt Flat ditch, Hudspeth County, Tex., June 12, 1940; 12 females from tank, Salt Basin, Hudspeth County, Tex., June 10, 1940; 4 females from Balmorhea Lake, Reeves County, Tex., June 20, 1940; 9 females from Balmorhea irrigation ditch, Reeves County, Tex., June 20, 1940; and 9 females from Presa de Hipolito, Mexico. Distribution.—Widely distributed in North America, Europe, Siberia, China, South America, Azores. | Cypridopsis phantomensis, n. sp. Figs. 35-38 Specific characters.—Male: Seen from the side, dorsal margin boldly arched; height two-thirds the length and highest in the middle. Ventral margin sinuated in the middle. Both extremities rounded, anterior extremity more _ broadly rounded than posterior. Valves covered with long hairs. Testes and spermatic tubes plainly visible through valves. Natatory setae of second antenna reach slightly beyond tips of terminal claws. Second thoracic leg with penultimate May 1954 segment distinctly divided; ultimate segment about as broad as long; terminal claw toothed along its distal third. Third thoracic leg with a short curved claw and reflexed seta. Ejaculatory duct with 15 whorls of spines. Length 0.68 mm, height 0.44 mm. Female: Unknown. Occurrence.—Eight males were collected from Phantom Lake in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 23, 1940, by Dr. Deevey. Male holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 96054. Cypridopsis musquizensis, n. sp. Figs. 39-41 Specific characters——Female: Seen from the side, dorsal margin rounded; height about two- thirds the length; highest in the middle; a slight indentation or concavity in the anterior third; posterior third of dorsal margin rounds evenly into the broadly rounded posterior extremity. Ventral margin slightly simnuated in the middle. Anterior extremity considerably less broadly rounded than posterior. Surface of valves sparsely hairy; hairs short and coarse. Natatory setae of second antenna reach beyond tips of terminal claws. Second thoracic leg with penultimate segment distinctly divided; terminal claw long, slender, and smooth. Length 0.70 mm, height 0.44 mm. Male: Similar in shape to female. Appendages similar. Male is somewhat smaller than female. Kjaculatory duct with 16 whorls of spines. Length 0.62 mm, height 0.41 mm. Occurrence—Seven females were taken from Phantom Lake in the Davis Mountains on June 23, 1940, by Dr. Deevey. Eight specimens, both male and female, were collected by Dr. Deevey from Toya Lake, Pecos County, Tex., on June 23, 1940, and from Musquiz Creek in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 19, 1940. Female holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 96055; male paratype, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 96056. Cypridopsis toyensis, n. sp. Figs. 42-44 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, elongated, height about three-fifths the length; highest slightly anterior to the middle. Dorsal margin rounded in anterior extremity and sloping from the middle posteriorly. Ventral margin almost straight. Anterior extremity more broadly rounded than posterior. Eye prominent. Surface of valves sparsely hairy. Color reddish TRESSLER: FRESH-WATER OSTRACODA ‘beyond. 147 brown. Natatory setae of second antenna do not quite reach tips of terminal claws. Second thoracic leg with penultimate segment distinctly divided; ultimate segment broader than long; terminal claw heavily built and smooth; heavy bristles along inner border of last three segments with enlarged terminal portions, similar to the sense club of the second antenna. Length 0.61 mm, height 0.384 mm. Male: Unknown. Occurrence: Three females were taken at Phantom Lake, in the Davis Mountains, Tex., on June 23, 1940, by Dr. Deevey. One female was also collected from Toya Lake, Pecos County, Tex., on June 23, 1940, by Dr. Deevey. Female holotype, U. 8S. Nat. Mus. No. 96057. Cypridopsis potamis, n. sp. Figs. 45-47 Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, of a shape similar to that of C. vwidua. Dorsal margin boldly arched, highest in the middle, height about two-thirds length. Ventral margin sinuated in the middle. Posterior ex- tremity somewhat more broadly rounded than the anterior. Eye prominent. Valves with short, curved hairs. Natatory setae of second antenna reach considerably beyond t’ps of terminal claws Second thoracic leg with penultimate segment distinctly divided; ultimate segment broader the» long; terminal claw heavily developed and comparatively short. Third thoracic leg with large, curved, terminal claw and well-developed reflexed seta; bristles on margin of penultimate segment strongly developed. Length 0.60 mm, height 0.40 mm. Male: Unknown. Occurrence: One female was found in a col- lection made by Dr. Deevey in the San Jacinto River bottom near Harris City, Tex., on May 22, 1940. Female holotype, U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 96058. Genus Potamocypris Brady, 1870 Shells very hairy, laterally compressed; right valve usually higher than left. Natatory setae generally extend to tips of terminal claws or Maxillary palp broadened distally. Furca rudimentary, with short base and flagellum. Potamocypris smaragdina (Vavra, 1891) Fig. 21 Cypridopsis smaragdina W. Vavra, Arch. Lan- desdf. Bohmen. 8 (3): 80. 1891. 148 Potamocypris smaragdina EK. v. Daday, Ostr. Hungar.: 193. 1900. Potamocypris smaragdina R. W. Sharpe, Ostra- coda in Ward and Whipple: 808. 1918. Potamocypris smaragdina C. C. Hoff, Illinois Biol. Monogr. 19 (1-2): 154. 1942. Specific characters——Female: Seen from the side, of triangular appearance, with well rounded dorsal margin; highest point anterior to the middle. Anterior end broadly rounded; posterior end more narrowly produced. Ventral margin slightly sinuated. Right valve larger than left and extending above it dorsally. Hyaline flange on left valve extends beyond right valve an- teriorly and posteriorly. Seen from above, posterior end is more bluntly pointed than the anterior; greatest width less than half the length. Surface of valves pitted and very hairy, the hairs being stout and spine-like. Color light green or light yellowish-green. Natatory setae of second antenna extend beyond tips of terminal claws by one-third their own length. Furcal ramus with narrow base tapering into the flagellum; flagellum three times longer than the base; dorsal seta present. Length 0.62-0.68 mm, height 0.36—-0.39 mm, width 0.32 mm. Male: Shell of male more elongate, less high in proportion; ventral margin conspicuously sinuated. Size of males smaller but otherwise similar to females. Testes form prominent whorl in anterior part of the shell. Remarks.—This species is very variable in size, shape, and color. It is commonly found in permanent waters such as lakes and streams and does not usually appear until May when tem- porary waters have normally dried up. Occurrence-—Two females were collected from a Salt Flat ditch in Hudspeth County, Tex., on June 12, 1940, and three females from a tank, Salt Basin, Hudspeth County, Tex., on June 10, 1940. Distribution —In North America this species has been reported from Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee, Washington, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is known in Europe in Bohemia and Switzer- land. Family Cytheridae: Subfamily Limnocytherinae Genus Limnocythere Brady, 1867 Shells delicately built, thin and composed of horny material; surface of valves smooth or reticulated, either with or without furrows, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 5 spines or tubercles. Exopodite of second antenna often biarticulate. Thoracic legs slender and similar. Furea with single terminal claw. A few species are found in brackish waters as well as in fresh. Limnocythere sancti-patrici Brady and Robertson 1869 Fig. 48 Limnicythere sancti-patrict G. S. Brady and D.— Robertson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 3: 369. 1869. LIimnocythere sanctt-patrict G. W. Miller, Das Tierreich, 31: 332. 1912. Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, oblong in shape with only a slightly greater height in front than posteriorly; height about half the length. Dorsal margin slightly concave; ventral margin deeply sinuated. Seen from above, broadly ovate in outline with a slight constriction in the middle. Anterior to the constriction is an obtuse prominence; greatest width slightly less than the height. Valves, thin and pellucid with smooth edges but faintly reticulated in other regions. Scattered hairs at both ends. Color light yellowish brown. Anterior antennae with three setae at the tip, the inner- most being bifurcate. Posterior antennae with slender terminal claws. Caudal ramus directed downward; terminal bristle hardly longer than the lateral bristle. Length 0.79 mm. Male: Somewhat larger than the female with a more elongated shell and more deeply sinuated ventral margin. Posterior end somewhat en- larged. Length 0.82 mm. Remarks—This rather large member of the- genus Limnocythere is easily recognized by its size alone. As has been pointed out clearly by Hoff (1942), the correct spelling of the genus is with an “o” rather than with an “1”, and this decision has been followed in the present report. Occurrence.—One female and one male were found in collections made from a pool near Saratoga, Polk County, Tex., on May 11, 1940. Distribution—In North America this species has been reported only from lakes in Michigan, heretofore. It has been found in Norway, Sweden, the British Isles, Bohemia, Hungary, and Switzerland. LITERATURE CITED Batrp, WILLIAM. Description of some new species of entomostracous Crustacea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 10: 1-6. 1862. May 1954 Rrosa, Enrreue. Prospecto bioldégico del Lago de Patzcuaro. Anal. Inst. Biol. México. 11: 469- 475. 1940a. . Morfologia de un ostracode epizoario ob- servado sobre Cambarus (Cambarellus) mon- tezumae Sauss. de México, Entocythere heterodonta n. sp. y description de algunos de sus estados larvarios. Anal. Inst. Biol. México 11: 593-609. 1940b. . Descripctén de una especie y wna subspecie nuevas del genero Entocythere Marshall, WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 149 procedentes de la Cueva Chica (San Luis Po- tosit, México). Ciencia 3: 201-204. 1942. . Nuevos datos de los Entocythere (Crus. Ostracodos) de México. Anal. Inst. Biol. México 15: 1-22. 1944. SaussuRE, H. pe. Memoires sur div. Crustac. nouv. des Antilles et du Mexique. Mem. Soc. Geneve. 14: II, 486-490. 1858. TrRESSLER, Wiuutis L. The Ostracoda. In Ward and Whipple’s ‘‘Freshwater Biology” (second edition). In press. ENTOMOLOGY —The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribes Cataulacini and Cephalo- tint. GEORGE C. WHEELER and JEANETTE WHEELER, University of North Dakota. (Communicated by C. F. W. Muesebeck.) The tribe Cataulacini consists of a single genus (Cataulacus), which comprises about 45 species and occurs in the Ethiopian, Malagasy, Indomalayan, and Papuan Re- gions, with the greatest number of species in the Ethiopian. “‘All the species of this genus are tree-ants, usually forming medium- sized nests in hollow twigs and stems, or more rarely under the bark. They are timid and slow-moving insects, often feigning death or dropping rapidly to the ground when disturbed.” (Arnold fide Wheeler, 1922, p. 198.) The Neotropical tribe Cephalotini com- prises about 90 species in four genera: Procryptocerus, Zacryptocerus, Cephalotes, and Paracryptocerus. The last-named is the largest with 60 species, three of which range into the southern Nearctic in Arizona, Texas, and Florida. The ants of these two tribes are particu- larly interesting because of convergence. Although they inhabit different hemis- pheres, they occupy similar niches, 1.e., they are ecological equivalents. Both are arboreal and live in cavities in plants. “Similarity in habits has gradually resulted in a re- markable resemblance in the shape of the head and the flattened body, ... though they are not closely related to each other” (Wheeler, 1922, p. 496). The larvae are likewise convergent in body shape and in pilosity. The body is elongate, straight (or nearly so), and subcylindrical or subellipsoidal; hairs are mostly minute or short. Both of these characters are possibly adaptations to life in plant cavities, par- ticularly tubular cavities of small bore. A long larva parked parallel and close to the wall would be less of a traffic hazard than a shorter larva parked crosswise or obliquely. These same characters are to be found also in the larvae of other ants which inhabit plant cavities, notably Azteca, Camponotus, Crematogaster, Leptothorax, and the Pseudo- myrmecinae. Camponotus larvae have a neck, but it is short, stout, and strongly curled ventrally so that the cylindricality of the profile as a whole is scarcely affected. Leptothorax is somewhat stouter than the others; perhaps it is only in the early stages of adaptation. The only noteworthy larval difference between these two tribes is to be found in the dorsal uncinate hairs: those of the Cataulacini have a single stout hook at the tip; in the Cephalotini they are anchor- tipped, 1.e., with two stout hooks. One-hooked dorsal hairs occur in Azteca and the Pseudomyrmecinae as well as in the Cataulacini. Anchor-tipped dorsal hairs occur in Crematogaster and Leptothorax as well as in the Cephalotini, but they are also to be found in many myrmicine genera which do not inhabit plant cavities. Tribe CaTAULACINI Emery Elongate and subellipsoidal; nearly straight; prothorax forming a very short stout neck, which is inclined ventrally to about 45°. Spiracles ‘minute, decreasing slightly in diameter toward the posterior end. Body hairs mostly very short; single-hooked (i.e., not anchor-tipped) hairs on the dorsum. Head moderately large; clypeus bulging. Antennae minute. Head hairs minute to very short. Anterior surface of labrum with 150 16 minute hairs not arranged in a transverse row or band; posterior surface with about six sensilla, but apparently without spinules. Mandibles roughly trapezium-shaped in anterior view; surfaces smooth; apex forming a slender acute tooth which is curved medially; subapical portion of medial border highly variable, more or less projecting and bearing 2-5 denticles. Maxillae apparently without spinules; cardo swollen ventrolaterally, its surface roughened with bosses and minute hairs; stipes distinct, smaller, paraboloidal and smoother; palp and galea minute. Labium and hypopharynx ap- parently without spinules; palps minute; opening of sericteries a short transverse slit. Genus Cataulacus F. Smith Plump and nearly straight; elongate- subellipsoidal; prothorax forming a very short stout neck which is inclined ventrally to about 45°. Body hairs numerous and mostly very short, with the tip bifid or denticulate; single- hooked (i.e., not anchor-tipped) hairs on the dorsum. Head moderately large. Cranium transversely subrectangular in anterior view. Clypeus bulging. Antennae minute. Head hairs numerous; minute to very short; with the tip simple or bifid or denticulate. Labrum very thick at the base; the ventral border feebly scalloped; anterior surface with 16 minute hairs. Mandibles roughly trapezium-shaped in anterior view; the apex forming a short slender acute tooth which is curved medially, subapical portion of inner border highly variable, more or less projecting and bearing 2-5 denticles. Maxillae with the cardo swollen ventrolaterally, its surface roughened with bosses and minute hairs; stipes distinct, smaller, paraboloidal and smoother; palp minute, represented by a cluster of five sensilla; galea minute, represented by two contiguous sensilla. Labial palps minute; each represented by a cluster of five sensilla. Cataulacus taprobanae F. Smith Figs. 1-8 Mature Larva: Length about 3.7 mm. Plump and _ elongate-subellipsoidal; diameter greatest at the third abdominal somite; prothorax forming a very short stout neck which is inclined ventrally to about 45°; a pair of ventrolateral bosses on the prothorax. Anus posteroventral. Leg and wing vestiges present. Segmentation indistinct. Spiracles minute, decreasing slightly in diameter toward the posterior end. Integument JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 5 apparently without spinules. Body hairs nu- merous and uniformly distributed except at the posterior end. Of three types: (1) on all surfaces of all somites, minute to very short (0.009— 0.036 mm), with bifid tip (the branches may be denticulate); (2) on the dorsal surface of all somites except the tenth abdominal, a few longer (0.045-0.063 mm), with the tip denticulate; (3) moderately long (about 0.27 mm), with tortuous shaft and a single apical hook, four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-VI. Head moderately large; cranium trans- versely subrectangular in anterior view (breadth 1.6 times length); clypeus bulging. Antennae minute, each with three sensilla, each of which bears a spinule (one of the spinules very long). Head hairs numerous, minute to very short (0.009-0.036 mm), with the tip simple or bifid or denticulate. Labrum very thick at the base; breadth 1.8 times length; ventral border feebly scalloped; anterior surface with about 16 minute hairs about 0.025 mm long; on and near the ventral border are about ten sensilia; posterior surface with about six sensilla but without spinules.” Mandibles moderately _ sclerotized; roughly trapezium-shaped in anterior view, the apex forming a slender acute tooth which is curved medially; subapical portion of inner border highly variable, more or less projecting and bearing 2-5 denticles. Maxillae with the cardo swollen ventrolaterally, its surface rough- ened with bosses and minute hairs; stipes distinct, smaller, paraboloidal, and smoother; palp minute, represented by a cluster of five sensilla (three bearing a spinule each); galea minute, represented by two contiguous sensilla. Labial palps minute, each represented by a cluster of five sensilla (three bearing a spinule each); an isolated sensillum medial to each palp; opening of sericteries a short transverse slit. Youne Larva: Length about 1.3 mm. Diam- eter nearly uniform; greatest at abdominal somites III and IV. Integument of dorsal surface of posterior somites with a few minute spinules which are isolated or in pairs. Body hairs of three types: (1) simple, minute (0.007-0.018 mm), without alveolus and articular membrane, most numerous on the anteroventral surface, de- creasing posteriorly and dorsally; (2) with the tip simple or bifid-simple or bifid-denticulate, minute to short (0.003-0.07 mm), with alveolus and articular membrane, a few on each somite; (3) one-hooked hairs with tortuous shaft, long May 1954 (about 0.21 mm), four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-V. Otherwise generally similar to the mature larva. Material studied: 20 larvae from the Philippine Islands. Cataulacus egenus Santschi Apparently similar to taprobanae except in the following details: Body hairs longer. Antennae with two sensilla each. Breadth of labrum 2.5 times the length. (Material studied: six damaged integuments from the Congo.) Wheeler and Bailey, 1920: he larval stomach is voluminous and closely packed with coarse chitinous fragments of small insects... inter- spersed with numerous fungus spores”’ (p. 255). Plate 1, figure 6, portion of stomach contents showing spores. ‘“The mandibles of the larvae... are short, broad and stout and therefore well- adapted to crushing, so that the coarse fragments may have been bitten off by the larvae from larger pieces or whole insects proffered by their worker nurses. The pieces may, however, have been cut up to a considerable extent by the workers”’ (p. 255). Cataulacus horridus F. Smith Similar to taprobanae except in the following details: Body hairs of three types: (1) on the ventral and lateral surfaces, minute to very short (0.009-0.027 mm), 2- to 4-branched; (2) on the dorsal surface, 0.036-0.126 mm, the longest hairs with short-bifid tip grading into multifid shorter hairs; (3) moderately long (about 0.3 mm), with tortuous shaft and a single apical hook, four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-V. Antennae with two (rarely three) sensilla each. Mandibles with the apical tooth longer and more curved. (Material studied: five larvae from Borneo.) Tribe CEPHALOTINI M. R. Smith (= Cryptocerini Forel) Elongate and _ subcylindrical; straight (or nearly so); no neck; head applied to the body near the anterior end. Spiracles minute, de- creasing slightly in diameter toward the posterior end. Body hairs mostly short or minute; anchor- tipped hairs present. Head small; bulging anteriorly as a whole or in part. Head hairs minute or short. Labrum short and broad; with a row (or narrow band) of 6-16 conspicuous hairs across the anterior surface; posterior surface with 6-12 sensilla but apparently without WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 15] spinules. Mandibles subtriangular in anterior view; anterior surface usually produced medially into a small blade; surfaces smooth (except a few spinules in Cephalotes). Maxillae without spinules (except a few in Paracryptocerus pusillus). Lab- ium and hypopharynx apparently without spin- ules. Opening of sericteries a short transverse slit. Genus Procryptocerus Emery Body hairs numerous; mostly minute; anchor- tipped hairs present. Cranium transversely subelliptical in anterior view. Head hairs few and short. Labrum trilobed. Mandibles with the apex forming a short round-pointed tooth which is slightly curved medially; anterior surface produced medially to form a rather wide blade bearing two stout teeth on its inner border. Maxillae with the apex conoidal and directed medially; palp represented by a slightly raised cluster of five sensilla; galea a short slender peg. Labium smal!; palps represented each by a cluster of five sensilla. Procryptocerus pictipes Emery Figs. 9-13 Leg vestiges present. Spiracles minute, de- creasing slightly in diameter toward the posterior end. Integument with a few short rows of minute spinules on the ventral surface of the prothorax. Body hairs moderately numerous and uniformly distributed. Of three types: (1) simple, minute (0.009-0.036 mm), the most abundant type; (2) with short-bifid tip, short (0.054-0.08 mm), very few, near the anchor- tipped hairs; (3) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, short (about 0.11 mm), four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-IV. Cranium transversely subelliptical (in anterior view); breadth 1.4 times length. An- tennae each with three minute sensilla, each of which bears a spinule. Head hairs few, short (0.018-0.036 mm) and simple. Labrum trilobed, breadth nearly twice the length; anterior surface with about eight hairs in a narrow transverse band; on the ventral border are about six sensilla; posterior surface with eight isolated sensilla but no spinules. Mandibles short and stout, sub- triangular in anterior view; apex forming a short round-pointed tooth which is slightly curved medially; anterior surface produced medially to form a rather wide blade bearing two stout teeth on its inner border. Maxillae with the apex conoidal and directed medially; palp a slightly 152 raised cluster of five sensilla each of which bears a spinule; galea represented by two sensilla on the end of a short slender peg. Labium small, each palp represented by a cluster of five sensilla; an isolated sensillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. (Material studied: four damaged integuments from British Guiana.) Procryptocerus schmalzi Emery Figs. 14-17 Generally similar to pictipes but differing as follows: Body hairs of two types: (1) minute (0.009-0.036 mm), bifid or multifid tip, generally distributed, stouter on the ventral surface; (2) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, moderately long (about 0.15 mm), four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-V. Antennae each with two sensilla. Head hairs numerous, with denticulate tip. Labrum feebly bilobed; anterior surface of each half with five or six bifid-tipped hairs and an isolated sensillum; ventral border with a cluster of three or four sensilla on each half. (Material studied: a single damaged integument from Costa Rica.) Genus Zacryptocerus Wheeler Body hairs numerous; anchor-tipped hairs present. Cranium subpentagonal in anterior view; scarcely broader than long. Antennae small. Head hairs moderately numerous. Labrum short and very broad; ventral border nearly straight. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 5 Mandibles curved medially; apex acute; no medial teeth. Maxillae with a lateral boss on the cardo; stipes paraboloidal; palp minute, repre- sented by a cluster of five sensilla; galea minute, a short slender peg. Labial palps minute, each represented by a cluster of five sensilla. Zacryptocerus clypeatus (Fabricius) Figs. 29, 30 Leg and gonopod vestiges present. Body hairs numerous; anchor-tipped hairs present. Cranium subpentagonal in anterior view, slightly broader than long. Head hairs moderately numerous. Antennae small, each with three sensilla, each of which bears a spinule. Labrum short and broad (breath 2.5 times length), ventral border nearly straight; anterior surface with about 15 minute hairs in a narrow transverse band; 11 sensilla on or near the ventral border; posterior surface with a cluster of about a dozen sensilla. Mandibles moderately sclerotized; subtriangular in anterior view, curved medially; apex acute; anterior surface produced medially into a small blade. Cardo of each maxilla with a small but distinct lateral boss; the stipes paraboloidal; palp minute, represented by an elevated cluster of five sensilla; galea minute, a short peg bearing two apical sensilla. Labium with each palp minute and represented by a cluster of five sensilla; an isolated sensillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. (Material studied: a single damaged integument from Brazil.) Fics. 1-8.—Cataulacus taprobanae F. Smith: 1, Head in anterior view, 57; 2, right antenna in anterior view, 429; 3, left mandible in anterior view, X167; 4, young larva in side view, X20; 5, body hair with denticulate tip, X 235; 6, single-hooked dorsal body hair, showing two variations of the hook, 235; 7, body hair with bifid tip, 235; 8, mature larva in side view, X20. Fics. 9-13.—Procryptocerus pictipes Emery: 9-11, Three types of body hairs, X185; 12, head in an- terior view, X76; 13, left mandible in anterior view, shaded to show thickness, 185. Fiaes. 14-17.—Procryptocerus schmalzi Emery: 14, Body hair with bifid tip, X185; 15, stout body hair with multifid tip, X185; 16, anchor-tipped body hair, 185; 17, left mandible in anterior view shaded to show thickness, X185. Fies. 18-28.—Cephalotes atratus (Linnaeus): 18, Mature worker larva in ventral view, <5; 19, mature worker larva in side view, 5; 20, very young larva in side view, 5; 21, anchor-tipped body hair, showing tip in surface view and in edge view, X95; 22, [missing from engraving]; 23, two stout body hairs, X95; 24, slender body hair, X95; 25, head in anterior view, X31; 26, left mandible in anterior view, X95; 27, left mandible in medial view, X95; 28, left mandible in lateral view, X95. Fies. 29, 30.—Zacryptocerus clypeatus (Fabricius) : 29, Head in anterior view, X40; 30, left mandible in anterior view, shaded to show thickness, X95. Fias. 31-88.—Paracryptocerus minutus (Fabricius): 31, Head in anterior view, X52; 32, head in side view, 52; 33 and 34, two types of body hairs, 185; 35, left mandible in anterior view, 185; 36, first (2?) instar larva in side view, X10; 37, mature larva in ventral view, X10; 38, mature larva in side view, x10. Fics. 39-40.—Paracryptocerus (Harnedia) wheeleri (Forel): 39, Right maxillary palp in lateral view, 370; 40, left mandible in anterior view, shaded to show thickness, X185 Fic. 41.—Paracryptocerus pusillus (Klug): 41, Head in side view, 44. Fies. 42-44.—Paracryptocerus (Harnedia) umbraculatus (Fabricius) : 42-44, Three types of body hairs, X185. Fics. 45-46.—Paracryptocerus multispinus Hees) 45, Head in anterior view, 44; 46, left maxilla in anterior view, X185. May 1954 WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 153 Fic. 1-46.—(See opposite page for legend). Genus Cephalotes Latreille Moderately stout and nearly straight; sub- cylindrical; no neck; head ventral, near the anterior end. Body hairs moderately numerous, minute to short; anchor-tipped hairs present. Head small. Cranium vaguely subhexagonal in anterior view; scarcely broader than long. Antennae small. Head hairs moderately nu- merous and very short. Labrum very short and broad, with the ventral border feebly impressed at the middle. Mandibles curved medially; apex round-pointed and rather stout; imner border erose; anterior surface with a few minute spinules. Maxillae with a lateral boss on the cardo; stipes paraboloidal; palp a peg; galea a minute slender peg. Labial palps minute, each a slightly raised cluster of five sensilla. Cephalotes atratus (Linnaeus) Figs. 18-28 Mature WorkeER Larva: Length (straight) about 11 mm; head to anus through spiracles about 13 mm. Body moderately stout and nearly straight; subcylindrical; diameter greatest at abdominal somite IV, decreasing slightly to the anterior end and more rapidly to the posterior end which is narrowly rounded; anterior end formed from the dorsa of prothorax and meso- thorax. Head ventral, near the anterior end. Anus posteroventral. Leg, wing, and gonopod vestiges present. Spiracles minute, decreasing slightly in diameter toward the posterior end. Integument of the ventral surface of the thorax with minute spinules in rather numerous short transverse rows. Integumentary structures of unknown nature and function on the lateral surfaces of abdominal somites IV-I. Body hairs moderately numerous. Of four types: (1) simple, minute (0.006-0.018 mm), on the ventral and lateral surfaces; grading into (2) stout and short (0.018-0.198 mm), with frayed tip, a few near the spiracles and on the dorsal surface of the prothorax and of the seventh abdominal somite; (3) slender and short (0.027-0.28 mm), with the tip simple or frayed, a few on the dorsal surfaces of thorax and first six abdominal somites; (4) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, relatively short (about 0.45 mm), 4-8 in a row across the dorsum of the mesothorax, eight (sometimes nine) in a row across the dorsa of the metathorax and each abdominal somite I-VI. Head small; cranium vaguely subhexagonal in anterior view, slightly broader than long. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 5 Antennae small, each with three minute sensilla, each of which bears a spinule. Head hairs mod- erately numerous, very short (0.018-0.046 mm), stout, with frayed tip. Labrum short and very broad (breadth twice the length), ventral border feebly impressed at the middle; anterior surface with a transverse row of 11-14 short simple or bifid-tipped hairs and (ventral to the hairs) 10 or 11 minute sensilla; posterior surface with about 10 isolated sensilla. Mandibles moderately sclerotized; subtriangular in anterior view, curved medially; inner border erose; anterior surface with a few minute spinules, Cardo of each maxilla with a small but distinct lateral boss; the stipes paraboloidal palp a peg bearing five apical sensilla; galea minute, a short peg bearing two apical sensilla. Each labial palp minute, represented by a slightly raised cluster of five sensilla; an isolated sensillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. QuEEN Larva: Length (straight) about 13 mm; head to anus through spiracles about 14 mm. Body a.trifle stouter. Otherwise as in the worker larva. Youne Larva: Length about 3 mm. Head on the anterior end and of approximately the same diameter as the thorax. Otherwise as in the mature worker larva. Very Youne Larva: Length about 1.5 mm. Head on the anterior end and of approximately the same diameter as the thorax. Body hairs shorter. Integument spinulose on the dorsal surface of the posterior somites and on the ventral surface of the thorax, the spinules minute and in short transverse rows. Head hairs slender, mostly simple (a few with short-bifid tip), 0.009-0.09 mm. Mandibles with the base inflated; apex slender, conoidal and curved medially. Maxillary and labial palps represented by a loose cluster of five sensilla each, galea by two sensilla. . Material studied: numerous larvae from British Guiana, courtesy of Dr. N. A. Weber. Eidmann, 1936: “Die Larve besitzt eme sehr grosse Kopfkapsel, die durch dunkelbraune Verstarkungsleisten an den Randern und der Basis der Mandibel besonders auffallt. Auch die Mundteile sind teilweise gebriiunt. Die Mandibel sind kraftig und spitz und konnen hinter der stark entwickelten Oberlippe verborgen werden. Ferner besitzt die Larve 8 Oncochaeten-Reihen auf der Dorsalseite des Metathorax und des 1.—7. May 1954 . _ Abdominalsegmentes. Die Oncochaeten — sind stark gekriimmt, kraftig und laufen in anker- - formig gegabelte Spitzen aus. Durch ihre dun- _kelbraune Farbung heben sie sich von dem _ Aneinanderhaften Ballen” (pp. 82-83). Plate I, figure VIII: head 4 weissen Larvenkérper sehr gut ab. Auch am toten Material bewirken sie noch ein festes der Larven zu_ grésseren in anterior view; a row of anchor-tipped hairs; a single anchor-tipped hair greatly enlarged. Wheeler, G. C., 1938, p. 141: wing rudiments occur in both worker and male larvae. Genus Paracryptocerus Emery (= Cryptocerus of authors) Plump, straight, and elongate-subellipsoidal; no neck; head applied to the anteroventral surface. Body hairs very few to numerous; minute to short; anchor-tipped hairs present. Head small; bulging anteriorly, as a whole or in part. Head hairs few to numerous; minute to short. Labrum very short and broad, ventral border slightly convex. Mandibles curved medially; apex acute; a short narrow blade projecting medially from the anterior surface; inner border without teeth (but with denticles in some species). Galea minute or small. Subgenus Paracryptocerus Emery [= Cryptocerus (Paracryptocerus)| Paracryptocerus minutus (Fabricius) Figs. 31-388 Mature Worker Larva: Length about 4.8 mm. Plump, straight and elongate-subellipsoidal; diameter greatest at abdominal somites III and IV, decreasing gradually toward either end; no neck; head applied to the anteroventral surface. Anus posteroventral. Leg vestiges conspicuous, wing vestiges present. Segmentation indistinct. Spiracles minute, diameter decreasing slightly toward the posterior end. Integument of entire body with rather long transverse rows of minute spinules. Integumentary structures of unknown nature and function on the lateral. surfaces of abdominal somites I-VI. Body nearly naked. Body hairs of two types: (1) simple, minute to short (0.009-0.054 mm), longest and most numerous on the prothorax and around the anus; (2) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, short (about 0.18 mm), four in a row across the dorsum of the metathorax and of each abdominal somite I-V. Head small; frons bulging; cranium transversely subelliptical in anterior view WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 155 (breadth 1.4 times length). Antennae each with three sensilla, each of which bears a spinule. Head hairs few, short (0.009-0.036 mm) and simple. Labrum short and broad (breath 2.8 times length); ventral border slightly convex; anterior surface with about 11 conspicuous hairs in a narrow transverse band and (ventral to the hairs) 10 sensilla; posterior surface with eight isolated sensilla. Mandibles small; moderately sclerotized; subtriangular in anterior view, curved medially; apex acute; a short narrow blade projecting medially from the anterior surface. Maxillae small, paraboloidal; palp represented by a cluster of two large and two or three small sensilla; galea minute, represented by two contiguous sensilla. Labium small; palps minute, each represented by a cluster of five sensilla; opening of sericteries a short transverse slit. Youne Larva: Length about 1.9 mm. Body nearly straight; slightly swollen at the third abdominal somite. Head on the anterior end and of nearly the same diameter as the prothorax. Integumentary spinules more conspicuous. Other- wise similar to the mature larva. First (?) Insrar Larva: Length about 0.8 mm. Subeylindrical; head on the anterior end and of nearly the same diameter as the thorax. Spiracles minute. Body hairs shorter. Integumentary spinules restricted to the ventral surface of the thorax. Head nearly naked. Material studied: numerous larvae from British Guiana, Guatemala, and the Panama Canal Zone. Wheeler and Bailey, 1920, p. 255: ‘The larval stomach is voluminous and closely packed with coarse chitinous fragments of small insects... . The mandibles of the larvae... are short, broad and stout and therefore well-adapted to crushing, so that the coarse fragments may have been bitten off by the larvae from larger pieces or whole insects proffered by their worker nurses. The pieces may, however, have been cut up to a considerable extent by the workers.” Paracryptocerus multispinus (Kmery) Figs. 45, 46 . Integument of body apparently without spinules. Spiracles small, diameter decreasing posteriorly. Body hairs numerous. Of three types: (1) minute (0.006—0.009 mm), with the tip simple or divided, without alveolus or articular membrane, generally distributed, the 156 most abundant type; (2) short (0.018-0.15 mm), with the tip bifid, less abundant than Type 1, generally distributed; (3) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, moderately long (about 0.32 mm), five or six in a row across the dorsum of the metathorax and of each abdominal somite I-VI. Cranium subtrapezoidal (in anterior view), with all corners rounded; breadth 1.3 times length; integument spinulose, the spinules minute and in numerous short transverse rows; frons and clypeus bulging. Antennae conspicuous and rather large, each with three sensilla, each of which bears a spinule. Head hairs numerous, minute to short (0.009-0.054 mm), stout with frayed tip. Labrum subrectangular, slightly narrowed dorsally, ventral corners rounded, short and broad (breadth 2.5 times length); anterior surface with about 16 hairs in a trans- verse band and (ventral to the hairs) 10 sensilla; posterior surface with eight isolated sensilla. Mandibles moderately sclerotized, subtriangular in anterior view and curved medially, a narrow short blade projects medially from the anterior surface. Cardo of each maxilla with a distinct lateral boss; the stipes lobose; palp small and conical, bearing five sensilla; galea minute, a short slender peg bearing two sensilla. Labial palps each represented by a slightly elevated cluster of five sensilla; opening of sericteries a short transverse slit. (Material studied: 13 damaged integuments from Guatemala.) Wheeler and Bailey, 1920, p. 255: The quota- tion above under minutus was also applied to multispinus. Paracryptocerus pusillus (Klug) Fig. 41 Similar to minutus, except in the following characters: Body hairs somewhat longer. Anchor- tipped hairs two on the metathorax and four to six each on abdominal somites I-V. Head thick throughout. Antennae minute. Anterior surface of labrum with 6-9 hairs; posterior surface with 6-10 sensilla. Inner border of mandibular blade highly variable (smooth, erose or with two denticles). Maxillae with a few isolated spinules lateral to each palp. Labium with an isolated sensillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries. (Material studied: four larvae from the Panama Canal Zone.) Eidmann, 1936, p. 84: “Die Altlarven und Puppen stammen vermutlich aus einer vor- winterlichen Eiablage, die nachwinterliche Ei- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, No. 5 ablage des Frithjahres hatte wahrscheinlich entsprechend der geringen Zahl der Eier und Junglarven erst vor kurzem eingesetzt. Damit stimmt uberein, dass sich spiter (4. X.) in einem anderen Nest keine Altlarven, sondern nur noch Puppen sowie zahlreiche kleine und mittelgrosse Larven vorfanden. Die Larven fielen im Gegensatz zu den Cephalotes-Larven — durch ihren kleinen Kopf und die geringe Ausstat- tung mit Oncochaeten auf. Von den letzteren fanden sich auf den 7 damit versehenen Seg- menten nur je 4. und zwar in symmetrischer An- ordnung je 2 beiderseits der dorsalen Mittellinie.”’ Subgenus Cyathomyrmex Creighton [= Cryptocerus (Cyathocephalus = Cyathomyrmez)| Paracryptocerus (Cyathomyrmex) varians (F. Smith) Similar to minutus except in the following characters: Head more ventral. Body hairs somewhat more numerous, but still sparse and mostly inconspicuous. Of three types: (1) simple, minute (0.009-0.027 mm), generally distributed; (2) with the tip divided, short (0.054-0.072 mm), few, on the dorsa of the metathorax and abdominal somite VI; (3) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, moderately long (about 0.18 mm), four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-V. Clypeus bulging; cranium subtrapezoidal in anterior view, but with all corners broadly rounded; narrowed ventrally; maximum breadth 1.6 times length. Labrum with about 12 sensilla on the posterior surface. Labium with an isolated sensillum medial to each palp. (Material studied: numerous larvae from Cuba and the Bahamas.) Wheeler and Bailey, 1920, p. 255: The quota- tion above under minutus was also applied to varians. Subgenus. Harnedia M. R. Smith [= Cryptocerus (Cryptocerus) of authors] Paracryptocerus (Harnedia) maculatus (F. Smith) Similar to minutus except in the following details: Body hairs moderately numerous. Of three types: (1) very short (about 0.018 mm), with the tip simple or bifid, without alveolus and articular membrane, generally distributed, the most numerous type; (2) minute to short (0.009-0.072 mm), with the tip simple or bifid, with alveolus and articular membrane, most numerous on the venter of the prothorax, May 1954 scattered elsewhere; (3) short (about 0.22 mm), anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, four in a row across the dorsum of each abdominal somite I-V. Head hairs moderately numerous, the tip simple or bifid, longer (0.018—0.054 mm). An- tennae small. Anterior surface of labrum with about eight hairs; posterior surface with about a dozen sensilla. Labium with an isolated sen- sillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries. (Material studied: three larvae from the Panama Canal Zone.) Paracryptocerus (Harnedia) umbraculatus (Fabricius) Figs. 42-44 Apparently similar to minutus except in the following details: Body hairs moderately nu- merous. Of three types: (1) simple, slender, minute to short (0.009-0.108 mm), mostly without alveolus and _ articular membrane, generally distributed, the most abundant type; (2) stout, short-pointed, short (about 0.09 mm), six each on the dorsa of mesothorax and abdomi- nal somite VII; (3) anchor-tipped with tortuous shaft, short (about 0.23 mm), 6-8 in a row across the dorsum of the metathorax and of each abdominal somite I-VI. Head hairs moderately numerous, with tip simple or bifid, longer (0.018—0.063 mm). Anterior surface of labrum with about 14 hairs. Maxillary and labial palps each a knob bearing five sensilla, one of which is elevated; an isolated sensillum medial to each PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Lf labial palp. (Material studied: six damaged integuments from British Guiana.) Paracryptocerus (Harnedia) wheeleri (Forel) Figs. 39, 40 Apparently similar to minutus except in the following details: Body and head hairs some- what shorter. Posterior surface of labrum with 12 sensilla. Mandibles with the apex turned medially, inner border of the blade with six denticles. Maxillary and labial palps each a subcone bearing five sensilla; an isolated sen- sillum between each palp and the opening of the sericteries. (Material studied: three damaged specimens from Mexico.) Wheeler and Bailey, 1920, p. 255: The quota- tion above under minutus was also applied to wheelert. LITERATURE CITED E1pMANN, H. Okologisch-faunistische Studien an stidbrasilianischen Ameisen. Arb. Phys. Angew. Ent. Berlin-Dahlem 3: 26-48, 81- Hal pl. 5! text igs: 1936. WHEELER, G. C. Are ant larvae apodous? Psyche 45: 139-145, 2 pls. 1988. WHEELER, W. M., et al. The ants collected by the American Museum Congo Expedition. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45: 1-1139, 45 pls., 103 text figs., 47 maps. 1922. WHEELER, W. M., and Batuey, I. W. The feeding habits of pseudomyrmine and other ants. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. (art. 4): 235-279, 5 pls., 6 text figs. 1920. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 56th ANNUAL MEETING The 56th Annual Meeting and dinner of the Academy was held at Hotel 2400 on the evening of January 15, 1954. After dinner President SrTzLerR called the meeting to order. The minutes of the 55th Annual Meeting, as published in the Journal 43: 261-271, August 1953, were approved. The following reports of officers and committee chairmen were read and approved: REPORT OF THE As of January 19, 1954, the membership of the Academy was 933, a net gain of 20 members during the year. The current membership includes 824 active members, 98 retired members, and 10 honorary members. Twelve members resigned, SECRETARY 13 were dropped for nonpayment of dues, and 10 were transferred to the retired list. The deaths of 17 members were reported to the Secretary since the last Annual Meeting: Epwarp B. VEDDER in January 1951 HERBERT E. Grecory, January 23, 1952 Le be: Harter, October’’6; 1952 Tuomas A. JAGGAR, January 17, 1953 CHARLES Moon, January 31, 1953 Doveuas H. CampBewy, February 23, 1953 JoHN R. Mouwuer, February 28, 1953 CHARLES W. Bacon, March 19, 1953 GEORGE R. Wart, April 9, -1953 GrorcE R. Putnam, July 2, 1953 FREDERICK E. Wricut, August 25, 1953 ERMINE CowLes Cask, September 7, 1953 Witi1am H. Hoover, September 11, 1953 WaLteR F. Stutz, December 3, 1953 T. W. Sranton, December 4, 1953 N. H. Hecx, December 21, 1953 Paut G. AeNnEw, January 9, 1954. 158 Three societies became affliated with the Academy during the year: The Washington Chapter of the American Society for Metals, the Washington Section of the International Association for Dental Research; and the Wash- ington Section of the Institute of the Aero- nautical Sciences. There are now 28 societies affliated with the Academy, and the afflation of another is pending. Seven regular meetings of the Academy were held during the year and the Board of Managers met eight times to transact routine business of the Academy. At the April 13 meeting of the Board of Man- agers, a statement prepared by a special committee of the Committee on Policy and Planning con- cerning the action of the Secretary of Commerce in regard to the Bureau of Standards was unan- imously approved, with the recommendation that the statement be sent to appropriate persons. This was done in the form of a telegram, sent to President Eisenhower the same evening, and released to the press the following day. Copies were also sent to the President of the National Academy of Sciences, the Chairman of the Interdepartmental Committee on Scientific Re- search and Development, to members of the committee appointed by the National Academy to look into the objectives of the National Bureau of Standards, to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and to the Vice- Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Affiliated Societies. (See Journal 44: 61, 1954.) Grants-in-Aid for Research totaling $350, from funds received from the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, were made to Alfred Weissler, for his studies on the applica- tion of ultrasonic waves to chemical problems, and to Herbert C. Hanson, for his studies on the relationship of grassland communities to en- vironmental conditions. The thirty-fourth edition of the Red Book or Directory of the Academy was published in December. The plates have been saved so that the next edition, possibly in two years, could be published at a minimum cost. The Index to the Proceedings and the first 40 volumes of the Journal were also published in December. During the Academy year seven meetings of the Academy were held in addition to the Annual Meeting as follows: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, NO. 5 On February 19, 1953, Watrer RAMBERG, retiring President, delivered a lecture on Looking ahead in mechanics. On March 19, 1953, the 1952 Awards for Scientific Achievement were presented to WituiAM R. CAMPBELL, National Bureau of Standards, for work in the Engineering Sciences; Haroitp Lyons, National Bureau of Standards, for work in the Physical Sciences; Ernest A. Lacunir, U. 8S. National Museum, for work in the Biological Sciences; and a special award for the teaching of science to KnirH C. JOHNSON, Public Schools of the District of Columbia. On April 16, 1953, Gorpon Macerrcor, De- partment of State, gave an illustrated lecture on Culture and technical change in Iraq. On May 21, 1953, Lynn Pootn, director of public relations, Johns Hopkins University, spoke on Science in television. On October 15, 1953, the Academy met at the new Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health. After a conducted tour of the Clinical Center, Dr. W. H. Smspretu, director, National Institutes of Health, talked on the Research program of the National Institutes of Health. On November 19,1953, the Academy held a joint meeting with the Anthropological Society of Washington. Dr. Currrorp Evans, associate curator, Division of Archeology, U. 8. National Museum, gave an illustrated lecture on New archeological interpretations in northern South America. On December 17, 1953, Marvin J. KELLEY, president, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., and Donatp H. Quartuss, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Development, spoke on Science in government. JASON R. SWALLEN. REPORT OF THE TREASURER The Treasurer submits the following report concerning the finances of the Washington Academy of Sciences for the year ended Decem- ber 31, 1953: RECEIPTS Totes ShOSGR. eerie ee $ 12.00 OBO aires laces adie 29 .00 OSI ite ees ae oR a 52.00 MOS Deeiulca on mG a meree 205 . 50 TOG ret heey fe ee 4,212.50 LO SANA Bi ae 140.00 $4,651.00 May 1954 Journal, Subscriptions, 1950... . . 14.25 1 a ee ZV do a2... = o1.75 HOGS fs 760.45 1954. 852.80 Ca O70 1701 to Reprints, Wal... : 23.91 $G52.. &. 526 .64 HOSS Oe. 758 .02 1,308.57 Sales, 1953 Miscellaneous; Jour- nals, Proceedings, Directories, etc....... 137 .38 Journals, complete set. . 352.80 490.18 Mermorrap INO. |... ... 02.00.0000. 40.87 Interest & Dividends, epeeeeee se 68 .00 eereres. ti. + | 1,726.55 1,794.55 Annual Dinner oe kan 315.50 Junior Academy... a 173.00 Science Fair (1953) ieee bee ek... 175.00 Through the Junior ACC 100.00 275.00 Science Fair (1954) pieces SS ee 630.00 Replacement of bad checks.......... 13.44 SEND Ss 3) (0 eS 350 .00 Lo... = Me $11,749.86 Cash-book balance as of Jan. 1, 1953. . 6,765.71 Total to be accounted for....... $18,515.57 DISBURSEMENTS 1952 1953 Total Secretary’s Oimice. ...... oe 98.300 % 555/49 $: 653.84 Treasurer’s : Oimiee=.. 5%. 168.7] 168.71 Subscription Manager and Custodian of Publications 1.42 5.01 6.43 Meetings Com- mittee...... 61.26 364.14 425 .40 Journal Printing and mailing. .. 945 .07 5,364.59 6,309.66 Illustrations 53 .64 834.69 888 .33 Reprints... . 187.27 592.31 779.58 Office Editorial Asst 40.00 440 .00 480.00 Mise-. . 2. 4.29 28 .09 32.38 Monograph Nome ie eG 3 0.38 1.28 1.66 Sales 2.08 4.59 6.67 PROCEEDINGS: Cash-book bal- ance as of December Total ac- counted 1.60 THE ACADEMY Collection charges.... 0.55 Annual Dinner (OBA oc! | 315.00 Annual Dinner (1954) Adv. payment.... 55.00 Junior Acad- emy. 142.49 Bad head 13.44 Purchase of back num- bers of the JOUTMAL:. .. 10.00 Membership & Awards Cer- tificates..... 99.14 Grants-in-aid.. 550.00 Telegram to President of THe WSe5...: 1.41 Science Fair... 49.80 968.16 Science Fair (O54 ek Sc 70.94 Directory 34th Edition... -: Viole Refunds—sub- scriptions... 10.69 A.A.A.S. Acad- emy Confer- ENG 9.00 Forty-year in- exe iar. ae 1.60 Totals...- $1,443.56 $11,321.45 $12,765.01 5,750.56 $18 , 515.57 RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE Cash-book balance as of December shelG5s. iy hs eae eS. Balance as per Am. Sec. & Trust Statement of Dec. 187/25 ay eee rates ata $4,503 .22 Receipts deposited Dec. 30, MOG SIROES MAY Sa 2192.22 Receipts not deposited... .. 230 . 50 $6 , 925.94 Checks outstanding Dec. Sopa ake See. No. 1018 5.41 1263 5.00 1684 1.85 1706 89.56 1707 250 .00 1708 100.00 1709 5,13 1710 8.43 1,175.38 $5,750.56 $5,750.56 160 INVESTMENTS Potomac Electric Power Co. Certificate No. TAO 1977, 40 shares 3.6% pret. @, A200) yom tn ee sana $1 , 680.00 City of New York 3% (Transit Unification) Due June 1, 1980 Certificate No. D 20186 $500 .00 CAMOBS errs 100.00 CFOS 0R Saar ire 100.00 COLO aie Pees : 100.00 800.00 Northwestern Federal Sav- ings & Loan Association Certificate No. 1380. $4 , 500.00 Aa eee 500 .00 5,000.00 United States Government Series G Bonds: Now 332990G.; 4. 1,000.00 M 332991G....... 1,000.00 M 332992G...... . 1,000.00 Miv3329938G 2. 1, 000700 M 1808741G...... 1,000.00 M 2226088G...... 1,000.00 M 2982748G...... 1,000.00 M 4126041G...... 1,000.00 M 5141346G...... 1,000.00 Me oIANsaiGares 1,000.00 10,000.00 Massachusetts Investors Trust Sap shares@ G19LO3.. 2a ee 16,307.55 Investment Company of America A00 sharesi@pplle5G.G5- 22s 4,624.00 State Street Investment Corporation 100: shares:@ S62:00).. ee oe 6, 200.00 American Security & Trust Co. SAMA SeNCCOUMM tenes acon ene 161.52 SOUS eS Rt TM BMG aee $44 773.07 Cash book balance as of December Sol eel ONS Soo vam ed a lee 5,750.56 Petal ka ee pe eS Sa ee ee $50 , 523 .63 Potalta.vearaeco wee. We eee 53 , 299 .93 TW CREASE reco eeu ney eae tears hea $ 2,776.30 At the close of business on December 31, 1953, there were 59 members who were delinquent—a decrease of 10 from the number reported a year ago. Howarp:S. RAPPLEYE. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE The accounts of the Treasurer of the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences for the year 1953 were examined by the auditing committee on January 12, 1954. The Treasurer’s report was found to be in complete agreement with the records. Bank deposits agreed with receipts, disbursements were authorized and supported by canceled checks and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 5 vouchers, and the securities of the Academy were as reported with coupons attached that are not yet due. The committee commends the Treasurer for the care and efficiency evidenced in his re- cording of the finances of the Academy and for another year of faithful service. Louise M. Russe.u, Chairman. RicHArD 8. Dinu JOHN B. REESIDE, JR. REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS Volume 43 of the JouRNAL for the year 1953 contains 436 numbered pages, an increase of 40 pages over volume 42. The 79 scientific papers published include 49 in the various phases of zoology; 13 in geology and its branches; 10 in botany; 2 in archeology, and one each in (gen- eral) biology, biochemistry, general science, physics, and engineering. As in the few years immediately preceeding volume 48, articles sub- mitted to the JouRNAL on biological subjects far outnumbered those in the physical sciences. Efforts to correct this imbalance have been slow in showing results. Also published were five obituaries, Proceedings of the Academy for 1952 and 1953, and of the affiliated Anthropological Society. With only a small backlog of manu- scripts on hand, the JouRNAL maintains its posi- tion as an important outlet for relatively fast publication of new and original scientific in- formation. Financial figures for volume 43 show disburse- ments as follows: Printing, engraving, mailing, etc................. $6,993.80 Reprints (author’s separates)..............-..--- 834.31 Editorial Office (including postage).............. 509 . 56 Totalidisbursementss. 9259600. sae eee $8, 337.67 Charges to-authorse. sc). 3 od oe 1,321.80 Net cost of volume 43 to the Academy......... $7,015.87 The Board of Editors gratefully acknowledges the help of the Board of Managers, of Mr. Pau. H. OrHsmr, managing editor, and of Mr. Francis C. Harwoop of the Waverly Press, Inc. J. P. E. Morrison, Senior Editor. JOHN C. EWwERs. RicHarp K. Cook. REPORT OF CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS Subscriptions Nonmember subscriptions in the continental United States..... is i eae May 1954 Nonmember subscriptions in U. 8. posses- Erammrnna foreign lands... 2... o.6e sess 95 247 This represents an increase of 23 over last year, the largest increase and greatest total in the 14 years of the existence of this office. Inventory of stock as of December 31, 1953 Reserve sets of the Journal Complete sets, vols. 1-43.............. 1 set SES 6 sets Se 9 sets eS 7 sets Total sets more or less complete...... 23 sets Back numbers of the Journal Numbers held in complete sets 699 Numbers held in reserve for complete sets 9, = Numbers held for individual sale.. * * The Custodian of Publications found it im- possible to make the planned complete count of these numbers. It is hoped that this can finally be done this year. Proceedings Complete sets (volume 1-13)........... 46 sets (The individual volumes outside of the complete sets, and the copies of the separate articles that appeared in the Proceedings have never been counted.) Monograph No. 1 Llib ne (6s 1,010 Copies sold or distributed in previous Vaiss... Ade i 203 Papessoldm 1953°.............. 9 Total sold or distributed.... pA 2D Number of copies on hand. . 798 Index to Journal and Proceedings, 1899- 1950 eiemesoue 22 oi eel 1,013 Sales During the year 1953 one complete set of the JOURNAL was sold. In addition, 156 numbers of the JoURNAL were sold, either individually or as volumes. A complete set of the Proceedings. and three individual volumes were sold during 1953. Only nine copies of Monograph No. 1 were sold, in comparison with 30 copies in 1952. Some thought should be given to means of reducing our large stock of this volume. In five years less than a quarter of the stock has been distributed, and under the present circumstances we can expect only relatively few sales each year in the future. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 161 The copies of the Index to the Proceedings and to the first forty volumes of the Journal were received during the last weeks of 1953, and hence no sales were made during the year. Once again members and institutions were very cooperative, and generously turned over many unwanted back numbers of the Journal to the Custodian. For these donations the Academy is very grateful. The income from sales of individual numbers and volumes of the Journal, Proceedings, and Directory was $137.38, and from the sales of the Monograph No. 1 $48.87. Payment was received for a complete set of the Journal, amounting to $352.80. The total income from sales was $539.05. Expenditures SUP Peer ayaa Ss ora) ny $0.78 Expenses in connection with Journal, ete.. 8.81 Expenses in connection with Monograph. . 1.29 Expenses in connection with Index........ 1.60 ANS e OO Re aa RR ORI Sak $12.48 Storage Some progress was made in the rearrangement of the storage facilities that we have in the Smithsonian Institution. It was not possible to realize the hoped-for completion of this job, and the consequent count of the stock of the Journal and Proceedings. It is hoped that this can be done during this present year. Haratp A. REHDER. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP During the year 1953, 65 nominations were received by the Committee and all except one, which is still pending, were recommended to the Board of Managers for acceptance. All were subsequently invited to become members. Only a few have declined or failed to complete their membership qualifications. The high qualifica- tions of these nominees has made it unnecessary for the Committee to reject any of them, and for this we are grateful to the conscientious sponsors. At the beginning of 1953 there were 174 vacancies in the resident membership and 14 in the nonresident membership. There are now 164 vacancies in the total of 800 resident members and 11 in the 200 maximum for nonresident mem- bership. New members have been nominated and sponsored by 101 people. Ninety-three of these sponsors are regular members and eight are 162 members of this committee. Forty-nine names have appeared on more than one nomination form. The names of two sponsors, Dr. Myron S. Anderson in the U. 8. D. A. and a member of this committee, and Dr. R. C. Herman of Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, have appeared on seven nominations. To all these sponsors we are deeply indebted for their contribution to the growth of the Academy. I wish here to thank specially also the 16 members of my committee for their special efforts in sub- mitting nominations and encouraging others to do so, and for their faithful attendance at monthly committee meetings to review and act on these nominations. I wish also to thank about 20 other people who have accepted special responsibility for searching among personnel in their offices for qualified people to nominate. It is unfortunate that there are still several offices or organiza- tions in Washington which have potential mem- bers, but no real members to nominate them. Special efforts have been made during the year to bring to the attention of the Academy members in the U.S. Department of Agriculture the large number of qualified people in that organization who have been overlooked and never invited to join the Academy. The list of nominees now pending contains a preponderance of overlooked people, suggesting that these efforts are bearing fruit. There are still many highly qualified people in many offices whom no member has ever thought to nominate. Although no statistics have been compiled, it is the committee’s impression that more than the usual number of well-qualified younger men have been nominated during the year. The disciplines represented by the new members is as follows: Biological sciences 22, physical sciences 39, and social sciences 3. In the biological sciences are biology 4, zoology 5, entomology 4, medicine 3, botany 3, bacteriology 1, and agriculture 2. In the physical sciences are physics 17, chemistry 16, soils 3, geology 2, and chartography 1. In the social sciences psychology 1, sociology 1, and pedagogy 1. It appears that only anthropology is Jacking this year, due to the eligible anthro- pologists having all been nominated in previous years. Since sponsors often do not know whether or when their nominees have been accepted by the Board and invited to become members, the practice of notifying them by mail of this fact was initiated this year. They are again notified JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, NO. 5 when the Treasurer reports to the chairman of the membership committee that their nominee has accepted and qualified as a new member. It is hoped that this additional detailed work will stimulate the sponsors to submit additional nominations. It is sincerely hoped that all Academy mem- bers during the coming year will exercise their privilege and responsibility of searching for quali- fied persons and submitting nominations to this Committee, so that the number of vacancies will be greatly reduced and more qualified people will enjoy the privileges of membership along with their sponsors. Eapert H. Waker, Chairman. Instead of the report of the Committee on the Encouragement of Science Talent, Miss Mary Jeanne Kreek, President of the Junior Academy of Sciences, spoke briefly on the activities of the Junior Academy. Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre- sented to the following: In the Biological Sciences: To. Bernarp L. HoreEckeEr, National Institutes of Health. Intro- duced by William H. Sebrell, Jr. In the Engineering Sciences: To Roperr L. Henry. Introduced by Allen V. Astin. In the Physical Sciences: To Jonn R. Peis. Introduced by F. G. Brickwedde. After acceptance by the members of the report read by the Chairman of the Committee of Tellers, the President declared the following individuals elected to the given offices: MarGaret Pirrman, President-Elect Jason R. Swauuen, Secretary Howarp 8. Rappieye, Treasurer A. T. McPHERson and A. B. Gurney, Elected Members Board of Managers to January 1957. The following members of the Academy, nominated by. the Affiliated Societies were elected Vice-Presidents of the Academy: Philosophical Society of Washington—S. E. ForBUSsH Anthropological Society Wiuuram H. Ginpert Biological Society of Washington—W. A. DAYTON Chemical Society of Washington—Joun K. TAYLOR Entomological Society of Washington—F. W. Poos National Geographic WETMORE Geological Society of Washington—Arruur A. BAKER of Washington— Society—ALEXANDER May 1954 Medical Society of the District of Columbia— FREDERICK O. Cor Columbia Historical Society—GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanical Society of Washington—Lrre M. HuTcHINS Washington Section, Society of American Foresters—GrorGE F. GRAVATT Washington Society of Engineers—C. A. Brerts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers—ARNOLD H. Scorr Helminthological Society of Washington—L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bac- teriologists—GLENN SLocum Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers—FLoyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio En- gineers—HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY District of Columbia Section, Society for Ex- perimental Biology and Medicine—WaLTER C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals—JoHn G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research—Epwarp G. Hampp Washington Section, Institute of the Aero- nautical Sciences—F. N. FRENKIEL The President introduced the speaker, ALAN T. WaTeRMAN, Director of the National Science Foundation, who gave an address on Future plans of the National Science Foundation. President SrETzLER expressed his appreciation to the members of the Academy, especially the Board of Managers, for their cooperation throughout the year. He then introduced the incoming President, Dr. DrEFraNporr, who ad- journed the meeting after a few appropriate remarks. JASON R. Swauen, Secretary. 467th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 467th meeting of the Board of Managers, held in the Library of the Cosmos Club, De- cember 14, 1953, was called to order by the President at 8 p.m. with the following in at- tendance: F. M. Srrzter, F. M. DEeFANpDoRF, J. R. SWALLEN, H.S. Rapprieye, J. P. E. Morrt- son, A. G. McNisu, Wm. H. Gizsert, F. O. Cor, H. A. Borrawicx, C. A. Brerrs, A. H. peorT, L. A. SpinpiteR, F. W. Houas, .H. G. Dorsny, M. A. Mason, Sara E. BRANHAM, W. W. Dieut, and, by invitation, Hernz Sprecut, Watson Davis, A. V. Astin, and W.N. Fenton. President SpETzLER announced the appoint- ment of a special committee to plan a celebration for Dr. Lyman J. Brices, consisting of Dr. EuGEnrE C. CRITTENDEN, Chairman, Dr. ALLEN PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 163 VY. Astin, Dr. VANNEVAR BusH, Dr. Hueu L. DrypEn, and Dr. Grupmrr H. Grosvenor. Watson Davis, Chairman of the Committee on Meetings, stated that the Annual Meeting and Dinner would be held at the Hotel 2400, and the price of the dinner would be the same as last year. Chairman Frnron of the Committee on Monographs summarized the history of the Index to the Journal and stated that delivery by the Lord Baltimore Press would be within two days. Mention was made of the extra time and effort spent by Mr. Paut H. Ornser on the galley proofs. It was moved and earried that Mr. Oehser be requested to submit a statement for his services. It was also moved and carried that the report of the committee be accepted with thanks for the excellent work in the prepara- tion of the Index. A. V. Astin, General Chairman of the Com- mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1953, presented the following nominations: Dr, BrRNARD L. HoRECKER in the Biological Sciences in recognition of his distinguished contributions to the field of enzymology; Roperr L. Henry in the Engineering Sciences in recognition of his distinguished contributions in the field of elec- tronic process technology; and Dr. JoHn R. PrLLAM in the Physical Sciences in recognition of his distinguished contributions in the field of low temperature physics. The recommendations of the Committee were approved by the Board. In the absence of Dr. Rusry, the Secretary read the report of the Committee on Policy and Planning concerning cooperation of the Academy with the Greater Washington Educa- tional Television Association, stating that the consensus of the committee members was that the Academy should know much more about the organization before it decides to associate itself formally with the venture. In commenting on the subject, Dr. M. A. Mason stated that the As- sociation was a strictly noncommercial organiza- tion and the Academy was only requested to join the advisory council, primarily to consider the kind of programs to be broadcast. No financial commitments were involved. In view of its importance, the matter was recommitted to the Committee on Policy and Planning with the suggestion that Dr. Mason work with the com- mittee. In the absence of Dr. McPuHrrson, KerrruH JOHNSON reported on a meeting of the Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent held on 164 December 2, with Percy J. Rayrorp, WALLACE R. Bropz, L. K. Downine, W. H. McCarrua and Lro SCHUBERT as invited guests, and F. M. SETZLER as an ex-officio member. The purpose of the meeting was to consider proposed legislation for the District of Columbia which would give special recognition and an ad- ditional salary grade for teachers who took addi- tional training to the extent of 30 hours beyond the Masters degree. The problem was first to insure that a substantial amount of the additional training was in the general subject area and second to interest local universities in providing courses in science that would be of interest and value to the teachers. Dr. Brode presented a plan for summer train- ing whereby teachers would work at local scien- tific institutions on problems of such interest and scope that they would be recognized by universi- ties for credit. This plan met with general favor. After discussion the following actions were taken: It was moved by Schubert and seconded by Setzler that the committee commend the plan for additional training for teachers with special recognition for 30 hours beyond the master’s degree. Motion carried unanimously. It was moved by Schubert and seconded by Downing that in the event the bill is passed we recommend to the Board of Education that 24 of the 30 hours of additional training be in the general subject area. Motion carried unan- imously. It was further agreed that a subcommittee composed of Johnson, Schubert, and McPherson draft wording for circulation to learned societies. The Secretary reported the death of WALTER F. Srutz on December 3, 1953. Dr. Rehder stated that advertising for the Index for the Journal had been submitted for publication in Science, the Scientific Monthly, and a library journal. Publicity for the recipients of the Awards for Scientific Achievement was discussed. The ques- tion was raised whether separate news releases should be made for each, or whether the three should be announced simultaneously. It was moved and carried that the releases be simultane- ous for the three winners. A proposal for having a Public Relations Officer was referred to the Committee on Eobes: and Planning. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 5 468TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 468th meeting of the Board of Managers, held in the Library of the Cosmos Club, January 11, 1954, was called to order by the President at 8 p.m. with the following in attendance: F. M. SerzueR, F. M. Deranporr, J. R. SwALLen, | H. 8. Rappieye, J..A. STeEvENsSoN, ARNOLD H. Scorr, L. A. SPINDLER, SaRA E. BRANHAN, and, by invitation, E. H. Waker and A. T, McPHERSON. Dr. McPherson, Chairman of the Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent, presented the following report: The second annual Christmas Lectures for young people sponsored by the Washington Philo- sophical Society were very well attended and highly successful. The lectures were given by Prof. Richard M. Sutton of Haverford College on the following subjects in physics: The world we see (December 29): and The world we don’t see (December 30). Members of the Junior Academy held a reception for the speaker before the second lecture. Commissioners of the District of Columbia de-— cided not to present at the forthcoming session of Congress legislation which had been drafted to provide an additional grade and increased pay for teachers who completed 30 credit hours of training beyond the Master’s degree. A little over half the funds needed for the Eighth Annual Science Fair for Greater Washing- ton have been contributed to date. The deaths of the following members were reported: L. L. Harrer on October 6, 1952; T. W. Sranton on December 4, 1953; N. H. Heck on December 21, 1953; and 2aumeGe AGNEW on January 9, 1954. On recommendation of Mr. Rappleye, Epwarp A. CuHapin, CoRNELIUS J. CONNOLLY, and VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON were placed on the retired list, effective December 31, 1953. At the December meeting, the Board requested that Mr. Pau H. Ornser present a statement for extra bibliographic and editorial work done in preparation of the Index to the Journal. The Treasurer presented the statement submitted by Mr. O§FHSER in the amount of $250. Payment was approved by the Board. The Board approved a suggestion that a copy of the new Red Book be sent to secretaries of all Affihated Societies. President SETZLER piemied the Board and his committees for their cooperation during the past year. After adjourning at 9:30 p.m., the Board partook of refreshments provided by ne retiring President. jason R. SwWALLeEN, Secretary. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 8 Francis M. Dreranporr, National Bureau of Standards 8 a MarGareEt Pitrman, National Institutes of Health iis yea sles oF idles s ors Ss JASON R. Swauuen, U.S. National Museum eeGUTeT.......... Howarp 8S. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) TO ven ekdiew wakes Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Renper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Pauresophical Society of Washington... .............. cee ansee cence S. E. Forsusa Anthropological Society of Washington..................... Wiuu1am H. GILBERT mealepical Society of Washington.................0..0.. 0. eee. WiuuiAM A. DayTon meuemnenl society of Washington... 2.2.2... 00.0.5. .0 ec le eee sees JoHn K. TayLor mearomolorical Society of Washington................ ccc cece cee eee PW. ous See Geopraphic SoOckety:..... 0c. ..6. cece ee eae ees ALEXANDER WETMORE Semeaeoa socichy Of Washington... 0.0... 06.60... ec eee eee ArTHUR A. BAKER Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE mememnee Historical Society... ... 2.5... 0000 ee cece ans eeee GILBERT GROSVENOR Renemien! Society of Washington..................0.02 cc neaee Lee M. HutcuHins Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGE F. GRAVATT Deeeteenon SOCIeLyY OF FIMPINCCTS. . we kc cee edie ye ee che C. A. Betts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLD H. Scott Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. D1Lu Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN Sitocum Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Hove Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine Water C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... JoHN G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Epwarp G. Hampp Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F. N. FRENKIEL Elected Members of the Board of Managers: (AES CS R. G. Bates, W. W. DieHL SL INC SS ey M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER ECS ee A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. GuRNEY MEMEITET OT UPGMIOQETS .. 6. ee eee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor meaner Martors and Associate Editors. ............00 00. c ce ewe [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. DeranporrF (chairman), MARGARET PITTMAN, J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership. ...HE1Nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Roger W. Curtis, JoHN Faper, J. J. Faney, Francois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMAKER, CLARENCE H. HorrmMann, Louis R. Maxweuu, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEO A. SHINN, Francis A. SmitH, ALFRED WEISSLER Committee on Meetings............... Doruanp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN V. ASTIN, Grorce A. Hottie, Martin A. Mason, WiLuiamM W. RuBEY Committee on Monographs (WiLu1AM N. FENTON, chairman): miermeary 1955.5... oe... ee ee ee eee Wiuu1aAM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE Meeeraatiry F950. 6) ke a ek eee eee G. ArTHUR CoopER, JAMES I. HOFFMAN PPE 1951. of. ccc ne eee eas Haraup A. REHDER, WiLL1AM A. DAayTON Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (RoBERT C. Duncan, general chairman): For Biological Sciences......ByRON J. OLSON (chairman), Sara E. BRANHAM, LEE M. Hutcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHWwARTZ, T. DALE STEWART For Engineering Sciences...ELuioTT B. Roperts (chairman), Cuirrorp A. BETTs, JosEPH M. CaLpDWELL, MicHAEL GOLDBERG, EARLE H. KENNARD, ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. TRENT For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracrxk (chairman), Witut1am H. Avery, RicHarp 8. Burineton, NatHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. HENBEST, _ Epe@ar R. Smita, BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY For Teaching of Science...M. A. Mason (chairman), A.H. Cuarx, Krertu C. JOHNSON Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. HERBERT N. Eaton (chairman), Mario Mouuari, Francis O. Ricz, J. LEoN SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H. TAYLoR Committee on Policy and Planning: (FRANcis B. SILSBEE, chairman): Bec UAMIATN, MOG cc. 28 aii tS wake a Gea ee kn ow Os L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILSBEE Sire OEY el tors A dove encore o aca suas aaa SRS E. C. CrirTteEnpEN, A. WETMORE ye tre LOS he cae ice dik eae See a Shee le -.. JOHN E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPHERsoN, chairman): Samrat Ty COD pops ik tags te ais nie gslae eed Ps dave tese A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Seer anTAt W900. Pi bwie sos os ce vs coal eee ees AusTIN H. Cuarxk, J. H. McMILuEen LESTE Tet sig CUS oe ee a a L. Epwin Yocum, WiLu1aM J. YOUDEN mepreseniaive on Council Of AtA.A.S... 2.6. ee este ee cee es cbt dee ess Watson Davis OMUITEICE OF A UOILOTS (oe ig ced cet oe est taeenes JosEepH P. EK. Morrison (chairman), GaLEN B. ScuuBavuER, EGpert H. WALKER Commitiee of Tellers...GzoRGE H. Coons (chairman), Samuret Levy, Waupo R. WEDEL CONTENTS Page ANTHROPOLOGY.—Stone “medicine wheels” in southern Alberta and the adjacent portion of Montana: Were they designed as grave markers? ‘THOMAS. FE. Kenom co... a a a 133 PALEONTOLOGY.—On the pelecypod genus Platopis Whitfield: III. H. E. VOKBS 6 2 ee on ae say a be ee bw ee 137 ZooLocy.—F resh-water Ostracoda from Texas and Mexico. Wuuuis L. "TRESSEBRY 3 oes 28 ye ac 138 Entomotocy.—The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribes Cataulacini and Cephalotini. Grorce C. WHEELER and JEANETTE WHEELER .... 149 PROCEEDINGS? [THE ACADEMY 32% .2000) oe eb ee 157 This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. JUNE 1954 JOURNAL OF THE No. 6 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES JoHN C. EwrERs U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM J. I. HorrMan CHEMISTRY DEAN B. Cow18r PHYSICS ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGY BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE FENNER A. CHACE U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BERNICE SCHUBERT BOTANY Puitiep DRUCKER ANTHROPOLOGY Davip H. DUNKLE GEOLOGY WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Rorat & GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. 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Changes of Address Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 44 June 1954 No. 6 PHYSICS.—Some newly solved and some unsolved problems in optics. A. I. Maan, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Md. This evening I should like to discuss some new optical problems that arose during the war years. Some of these were solved, but others still remain unsolved. Previously, I have discussed certain parts of these prob- lems with various technical groups. I am particularly glad to have the opportunity to present to you a more complete story. In this lecture I will discuss particularly the experimental problems and the significance of the results and will minimize the mathe- matics involved. Fre. 1—Photograph of three internal reflection roof prism. The story starts with the rather unusual prism shown in Fig. 1. This is one of a general class of prisms commonly referred to as roof prisms, because of the roof- or gablelike structure on the side of the prism seen at the left. To function properly this roof angle, on the more usual type roof prisms, must be 90° within 2 or 3 seconds. The geometry of this prism and the manner in which it is used can be seen more clearly in Fig. 2. Light from the lower right in the figure enters the first prism face normally and then falls on the roof at the top of the figure. 1 Retiring Presidential Address, Philosophical eece of Washington, delivered on January 15, Dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. A. E. Mahan. 16 The indicated hght ray may either strike the lower roof surface and then the upper or the upper and then the lower, depending upon whether it is incident in the lower or upper half of the prism aperture. After leaving the roof surface, the indicated ray again undergoes another reflection at an angle of 60° and then emerges from the prism in a horizontal direction at the left. The function of this prism is that of invert- ing the image of a distant object in a direc- tion normal to the plane of the figure and deviating the hght through an angle of 120°. This prism formed an important part of one of our ordnance instruments. When we attempted to make this particu- lar prism a new optical problem appeared. The sequence of events leading up to the discovery of this problem was as follows: Suppose first that we place a cross, illumi- nated by monochromatic light, in a plane normal to the incident ray in Fig. 2 at a large distance from the prism, so that one arm of this cross les in the plane of the figure and the other hes perpendicular to the plane of the figure. If now we look from the left through this prism at the illuminated cross with a high-power telescope (about 16 power) the arm of the cross in the plane of this figure appeared doubled, while the other arm of the cross, perpendicular to this Fic. 2.—Ray diagram for three internal reflection roof prism. ~ 0 166 plane, appeared single and sharp. Anyone who has worked with other types of roof prisms knows that such a doubling of the image can quite readily be produced by making errors in the roof angle, so that it deviates from the usual 90°. Attempts were made to increase the accuracy in this roof angle. Prisms were made in pairs in the following manner: Two roof surfaces from separate prisms were first ground and pol- ished to a tenth of a wavelength or better and then optically placed in contact. Two such prisms, when contacted in this way, are very firmly bound together and can be treated as a single piece of glass. The second roof surfaces of each of these two prisms were then ground and polished as a single surface, and periodic tests were made on the roof angle on one of these prisms to determine when it was as near 90° as could be measured. Such a technique of making these roof angles assured us that these angles were at least supplementary. When, however, the two prisms were separated and the cross viewed through the prisms as before, the same doubling appeared in both of these prisms. The late Max Zwil- linger of our staff suggested that we coat the roof surfaces with silver. We were very much surprised at the result, for the dou- bling of the image disappeared in both prisms, and two apparently rather poor prisms were transformed into two very good roof prisms. I must be careful to state at this point that the same type of observation was also made in Germany at about the same time we were making our observations here. Prof. G. Joos at the Zeiss Works in Germany had found that the more usual 90° devia- tion Amici Roof Prism, which will be dis- cussed later, also exhibited the same _ be- havior but to a much smaller degree and that again silvering helped in minimizing this image doubling. Professor Joos in his report, however, concerned himself more with the polarization properties of such prisms and made no attempt to calculate the forms of the image.” 2T am indebted to Dr. I. C. Gardner, of the National Bureau of Standards, for calling atten- tion to this publication in the Zeiss Nachrichten 4: 9, 1943. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 Fie. 3.—Photograph of apparatus used for testing three internal reflection roof prism. Our first studies of the phenomenon were confined more to actual experimental obser- vations. We tried, for example, to photo- graph the phenomenon both in and out of the focal plane of a long focal length lens. For this purpose we assembled apparatus of the form shown in Fig. 3. A cross made of lines 0.01 mm wide, ruled on a silvered glass plate, was mounted behind the hole in the box at the left and illuminated by 5461 A®° light from an AH4 high-pressure mercury are. This light was then collimated by a 500-mm E.F. telescopic objective and permitted to be incident on the prism in the manner suggested in Fig. 2. After emerg- ing from the prism, the light was brought to a focus by a 2839 mm E.F-. lens. Pictures were then taken both in the focal plane of the lens and at various distances to both sides. The results of these photographs are shown in Fig. 4. In the column at the left can be seen the images of the cross obtained when recorded through the unsilvered prism, and on the right are the correspond- ing images of the cross photographed through the prism with silvered roof sur- faces. The position indicated by D = 0 corresponds to the focal plane. If you look carefully at the horizontal lines in both of these images, you will see that the hori- A. I. MAHAN, President of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1953 168 zontal line in the image recorded through the unsilvered prism appears doubled, while the corresponding horizontal line through the silvered prism appears single and sharp. Both of the vertical lines appear of the same sharpness and of about the same breadth as the horizontal line for the sil- vered prism. The particular problem in which we were interested, then, was why this doubling of the image in the horizontal direction, seen through the _ unsilvered prism, should disappear when the _ roof surfaces were coated with silver. As the film was moved away from the focal plane in both directions figures of the forms indi- cated above and below the position marked D = O were found. The horizontal line of the image for the unsilvered prism separates more distinctly into two separate images with increasing distances from the focal plane. The corresponding horizontal line SILVERED Fic. 4.—Photograph of images for three in- ternal reflection roof prism when roof surfaces are both coated with silver and uncoated. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 6 Fig. 5.—Photograph of Fresnel Diffraction Pattern for uncoated three internal reflection roof prism. Fie. 6—Photograph of Fresnel Diffraction Pattern for silver coated three internal reflection roof prism. for the silvered prism shows the same tend- ency to separate into two separate images, but this separation is not so distinct as that for the unsilvered prism. The vertical lines in both types of prisms show the same type of image behavior. If you will look carefully at both sets of images you may be able to see narrow sets of parallel lines resembling diffraction pat- terns. To show more what these look lke at large distances from the focal plane, we have included two additional figures. In the first of these (see Fig. 5) we have shown a section of the horizontal line for the un- silvered prism. You will see now that the upper and lower halves of the aperture produce their own Fresnel Diffraction Pat- terns. In Fig. 6 is the corresponding photo- graph of the Fresnel Diffraction Pattern for the prism with silvered roof surfaces. JUNE 1954 MAHAN: Both halves of the prism again produce their own Fresnel Diffraction Patterns, but in the center they seem now to interact so that simultaneously the prism also tends to produce a diffraction pattern character- istic of the whole aperture, rather than just half. The previous photographs suggested very strongly that this phenomenon was some sort of a diffraction problem. We therefore returned to the focal plane and tried to enlarge the diffraction pattern in this vicin- ity. To do this we made use of a 5-mm square aperture, which can be seen already in place in Fig. 3 behind the prism. This aperture was placed normal to the emerging ray in Fig. 2 in such a manner that the plane containing the roof edge bisected one pair of parallel sides of the aperture. The resulting diffraction pattern when enlarged is that shown in Fig. 7. This picture, al- though somewhat over exposed, still shows the characteristics of the diffraction pattern. In addition to the doubling of the horizontal line at the center of the pattern, the bands in the outer structure are twice as wide and twice as far apart when compared with the spacing of the bands in the vertical direc- tion. The first part of the problem which had to be understood was then why the diffraction pattern for the unsilvered prism takes this particular shape. Fi Fic. 7—Photograph of diffraction pattern in focal plane for three internal reflection roof prism with uncoated surfaces. To explain these unusual imaging prop- erties a rather detailed theoretical and ex- perimental program was undertaken. This work was carried out in two separate phases. The first phase of the problem consisted largely of an experimental and theoretical study of the particular properties of the PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 169 prism already described. Using classical electromagnetic theory, attempts were made to calculate the forms of the diffraction pat- terns both in polarized and unpolarized light when the roof surfaces of the prism were uncoated. Without quantitative meas- urements about all that we could say was that the calculated and _ experimentally observed patterns seemed to be of the same general forms. Nothing was done about calculating the forms of the diffraction patterns when the roof surfaces were coated with silver. These papers, however, opened up a problem of a considerably more general nature. We were frequently asked the ques- tion, ‘Do all roof prisms exhibit this same type of behavior?’ About all that we could say was that there was evidence for thinking that they might, but we could not give any data or theoretical calculations to justify our remarks. During the second phase of the problem, I was very fortunate to have Edward Price’ as an associate. Mr. Price spent large amounts of time and energy in making many experimental observations and photographs of these phenomena and relating the experimental data to the theo- retically calculated data. The success of this phase of the work is due in a large measure to his interest and industry. In this second phase of the problem, the theo- retical considerations were reopened with the view of extending them to all types of roof prisms, when their roof surfaces were either uncoated or coated. These theoretical considerations led us to some very general equations for these roof prisms. As an ex- ample of these equations, careful quantita- tive measurements were made on _ the diffraction pattern for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism, when its roof surfaces were both uncoated and coated with silver. In this paper it will be my purpose to de- scribe to you in a general way the nature of these considerations and the results which we obtained. POLARIZATION PROPERTIES OF ROOF PRISMS WITH UNCOATED REFLECTING ROOF SURFACES It might be rather surprising that we found it necessary to bring polarized light 3 Now resident naval inspector of ordnance at Arma Corporation, Brooklyn, N. Y. 170 0 = oo = i 5 = = aa aot eee so cme ea oo —_= aoe fern ce | ae ORES! Ee tees Pe ee rome coe (8) oO 100° a sme 280° =a Ao ) vee 300° =a 0 (8) ee Jee 320° ——_—a Oo } Q ars aks pee 340° Fic. 8.—Photograph of diffraction pattern in focal plane for three internal reflection roof prism with uncoated surfaces when illuminated by plane polarized light of varying azimuth angles. into the discussion, for in use, roof prisms are normally illuminated with unpolarized light. Experimentally, however, we found the rather interesting fact that when plane polarized hght was allowed to enter the prism shown in Figs. 1 and 2, light of differ- ent ellipticities emerged from the upper and lower halves of the aperture. We found also that the form of the diffraction pattern could be altered very markedly by simply changing the entering azimuth angle of the plane polarized hght. If in Fig. 3 we place the polarizing element between the prism and the collimating lens and simply rotate this polarizing element, we find the diffrac- tion patterns to undergo the changes shown in Fig. 8. For an azimuth angle 0°, a satel- lite appears on the upper side of the hori- zontal central diffraction band. As the azi- muth angle is increased, this satellite gradually merges into the parent line, and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, NO. 6 then reappears below the parent line. Addi- tional increases in the azimuth angle cause this satellite to again merge into the parent line and to reappear on the upper side. This phenomenon is such that for every 180° rotation of the polarizing element, the diffraction pattern repeats itself. No notice- able changes take place in the vertical diffraction pattern. This behavior was to- tally unexpected but nevertheless had to be understood if we were to explain fully the peculiar behavior of this prism. In trying to understand the reasons for these peculiar imaging properties we learned that the most important consideration was what happens at the two reflecting roof surfaces. We therefore set out first to deter- mine the geometry of all the rays and the perpendicular and parallel components of the electric vector at each of the reflecting roof surfaces. To make these considerations valid for all types of roof prisms, we visual- ized a general roof prism of the form shown in Fig. 9 in which the angular deviation at the roof edge D could have any arbitrary value. We also constructed a general roof prism model of the form shown in Fig. 10. In this model, the strings represented the light rays and the matches the perpendicular and parallel components of the electric Fia. 9—Ray diagram for generalized roof prism. TaBLe I. Direction cosines of incident rays, reflected rays, “s’’ and “‘p’’ vibrations and equations of planes of incidence for rays entering upper half of prism aperture and emerging from lower. Equation of first plane of incidence (cos}D)«+(cos}D) y+ (sin3D)z=0 Incident ray Surface normal Reflected ray Si P, before reflection P, after reflection Equation of second plane of incidence (cos}D)«— (cos}D)y—(sin4D)z= Incident ray Surface normal Reflected ray So P» before reflection P» after reflection Vertical $3 vibration Horizontal P3 vibration +siniD 0 1 1 75 7 0 —siniD cos$D cos3D (cos?}D+1)3 (cos?3.D+ 1): cos*4.D = 1 (cos?2D+1)3 (cos?4.D+1)! 1 cos?4.D (cos? D+ 1) ~ (cos’sD+ 1)} 0 +sin3D 1 1 un 2 +sin3D 0 bihcoszD cos3D (cos?4D+1)3 (cos?3D-+1)3 i 1 cos?3D (cos?3.D-+1)3 (cos?3.D+1)? cos?3D ie 1 (cos?3.D-+1)! (cos?3.D-+-1)* 0 —1 —cos3D 0 —cos}D 0 +ccos} sin}D (cos?4.D-+1)! sinsD cos$D (cos?3D+1)! __sin3D coszD (cos?}D-+1)! —cos3;D 0 +cos$D sin3D (cos?3.D-+1)# , sin3D cos3D (cos? D+ 1) _singD cos3D (cos?}D-+1)3 0 +sin}D TaBLE II. Directioa cosines of incident rays, reflected rays, “s’’ and “p’’ vibrations and equations of planes of incidence for rays entering lower half of prism aperture and emerging from upper. Equation of first plane of incidence (cos}D)x—(cos}D) y+ (sinzD)z=0 Incident ray Surface normal Reflected ray Si” P,’ before reflection P,’ after reflection Equation of second plane of incidence (coszD)x+ (cos3D) y—(sin3D)z=0 Incident ray Surface normal Reflected ray So! P.’ before reflection P,/ after reflection Vertical S3’ vibration Horizontal P,’ vibration 17 +sinzD 0) 1 1 i; 8 0 +sin3D ___coszD ie cos3D (cos?3.D-+ 1) (cos?3D+1)! cos?3D “ 1 (cos?4.D-+ 1)3 (cos?4.D-+ 1) i 1 cos?4.D (cos?4.D-+ 1)? (cos?3D+ 1) 0 —sin3D 1 1 i "W +sin3D 0 cos;D fi cos3D (cos? D+ 1)4 (cos*3D-+-1)3 ey Me eee (cos?3D-+1)1 (cos*4D-+ 1) cos*3D sk 1 (cos?3D+1)? (cos?4D+ 1)! 0 —1 —cos3D 0 —cossD 0 +cos3D si (cos?3.D+ 1)? sin}D cos}D (cos?4.D-+-1)4 _sinzD cos3D (cos? D+1)! + —cos;D 0 +cos3D be sin3D (cos?3D-+ 1) _singD coszD (cos?3D+1)* __singD coszD (cos?3D-+ 1)? 0 +sin3D -+| tf vector at each of the reflecting surfaces. A single match appearing first on the string at the right represents the electric vector of the incident plane polarized light. A sign, convention, of course, had to be adopted, and so the unlighted ends of the matches were in each case pointed in the assumed positive directions. The matches and strings could also be removed and mounted in such a way that the incident light ray entered the lower half of the prism aperture and emerged from the upper. These studies led to the formation of two tables of direction cosines indicated as Tables I and II. In the first of these, the direction cosines given for all the rays, surface normals, and _ per- pendicular and parallel components of the electric vector are those for the case in which the hght is incident in the upper half of the aperture and emerges from the lower. Table II gives the corresponding values for these direction cosines when the incident lght enters the lower half of the prism aperture and emerges from the upper. It should be emphasized at this point that these tables apply only to rays in Fig. 9 which are normal to the entering surface of the generalized prism and hence are incident on the two roof surfaces at the same angle of incidence. With such tables it is now possible, by utilizing the usual cosine law, to determine the various azimuth angles and the angle of incidence on each of the roof surfaces. All of these quantities have been expressed in terms of the angle D so that the magnitudes of these various angles will be known for any prism of arbi- trary angular deviation D at the roof edge. These roof surfaces make another inter- esting contribution to this problem. At each of the roof surfaces for all roof prisms, the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle. According to classical elec- tromagnetic theory, all the light incident on such a glass-air surface beyond the criti- cal angle is reflected. After reflection, how- ever, there is a change in phase and this change in phase is different for the parallel and perpendicular components of the elec- tric vector. (1). To determine the ellipticity of the light emerging from the lower half of such a prism, one must consider what happens in succession at the two reflecting JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 6 prism model. Fie. 10.—Generalized roof surfaces. The incident electric vector must first be resolved into parallel and_ per- pendicular components at the upper roof surface in Fig. 10 so that the phase changes at this surface can be added to each of these two components. Both of these components, after reflection at the upper roof surface, are then incident upon the lower roof sur- face at the same angle of incidence. How- ever, 1f you look at the model you will see that the parallel and perpendicular com- ponents of the electric vector at the lower surface are oriented in different directions from those at the upper surface. To add the phase changes characteristic of the lower surface, the two components of the electric vector from the upper surface must then be resolved about the parallel and_per- pendicular directions for the lower roof surface. This same procedure also is neces- sary for ight entering the lower half of the prism aperture. For a value of D = 90°, the relative orientations of the perpendicular and parallel components, after reflection at the second roof surface along the two paths through the prism can be seen at the left in Fig. 11. Later we are going to be interested in how the emergent light waves in the upper and lower halves of the aper- ture interact. It therefore becomes necessary to resolve each of these pairs of components in the two halves of the aperture about perpendicular directions’ which are parallel These directions are chosen because most of the conventional three internal reflection roof prisms have their third reflecting surface per- pendicular to the base of the model and these directions would then correspond to the incident parallel and perpendicular components for such a surface. JUNE 1954 Fig. 11.—Directions of vibration of perpen- _ dicular and parallel components of electric vector at the 2-second reflecting roof surfaces for a 90° deviation roof prism, and the final directions about which they were resolved in the emerging aperture. to each other in the two halves of the aperture as indicated at the right in this figure. To arrive at expressions for the A,; and the A,3; waves emerging from the lower half of the prism aperture, it is necessary to do mathematically what we have just stated in words. If we assume a plane polarized light wave having the electric vector Ao sin (wt + d;) to be incident on the prism, it must first be resolved into perpendicular and parallel components at the upper roof surface in Fig. 10. The phase changes which occur after reflection can then be added for each of these waves. These two waves are then incident on the lower roof surface and must be resolved about the perpendicu- lar and parallel directions for this surface so that the phase changes after reflection ean be added. Finally the two components after reflection at the lower roof surface must be resolved about the two perpendicu- lar directions indicated at the right in Fig. 11. After these operations have been carried out step by step, the following equations were found for the final two perpendicular components of the electric vector emerging from the lower half of the prism aperture: MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS ves A;,; = Ao{cos? a(cos? 6 cos? y + sin? B sin? y + sin’ a(sin? 8 cos? y + cos? B sin? y) — 14 sin 2a sin 28 cos 2y cos(ds,— dp,) — sin 2y[cos? a@ cos’ 8 + sin? a sin? B — 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos(d,, — dyp,)|'? -[cos? a sin? B + sin? acos?8 + 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos(ds, — dp,)]/?-cos[(R;, — Rp,) + (dey — dp,)|}" ‘sin (wt +d;+ dy + roi (1) Ays = Ao{cos? a(cos? B sin? y + sin? 6 cos? y) + sin? a(sin? 6 sin? y + cos? B cos? y) + 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos 2y cos(ds, — dyp,) + sin 2y|[cos? a cos? 8 + sin? a sin? B — 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos(d;, — dy,)|! -[cos? a sin? 8 + sin? a cos? B + 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos(d;, — dp,)|'” -cos| (Rs, Ta Rp.) le (ds. Th dy,)|}1? -sm@t 2 dp id, SR In these equations, the Ao is the amplitude of the electric vector, the w is 27 times the frequency of the incident light, and the d; and d, the phase of the incident light and the increase in phase due to passage through the prism. The a, 8, and y are the azimuth angles for each of the three resolutions of the electric vector about the two perpen-. dicular -directions;; said the,.ds,>' dy 2 dp, d,, the phase changes after reflection for the perpendicular and parallel components at the first and second roof surfaces. R,, , Tees cole, wandsh,.-arecswen by cos a cos B sind,, — SMa sin B sind,, tan’ h,,°= : COS a COS B cos d;, — SMa Sin B COs dp, Lae cos a sin B sin d;, + sin a cos B sin dp, an. - : : ** cos a sin B cos ds; + sin a cos 6 cos dp, (2) tan Bes ae C sin ies, = des) Saas D sin CRE — dy) 6: COs Cis: a= ds») ae D COS (Rp. ai dp») 174 Esin (Re + ds) + F sin (Rp, + dps) FE cos (Re. + ds.) + F cos (Rp, + dpy) In these relations C, D, HE, and F are given by tan — C = cosy {cos?a@ cos? GB + sin? a sin? B — lgsin*a sin2 B cos(ds, — dp,)}4 D = siny {cos?@ sin?8 + sin?a@ cos? B + 14 sin 2a sin 26 cos(d,, — dp,)}14 (3) E = siny {cos*a@ cos?6 + sin?a sin? B — 14 sin 2a sin 28 cos(ds, — dp,)}¥%4 F = cosy {cos?a@ sin?8 + sin?a cos? 6 + 34 sin 2a sin 26 cos(d;, — dp,)}14 If this same plane polarized monochro- matic light wave is permitted to enter the lower half of the prism aperture and to emerge from the upper, a similar set of equations can be written with the a, 8, and y replaced by 6, e«, and y, the corre- sponding azimuth angles for each of the vector resolutions along this path. These equations correspond to the waves indicated in Fig. 11 by @,, and a@,,. The equations for @,, and @,, as well as the auxiliary equations corresponding to Eqs. 2 and 3 are of exactly the same form so need not be written here. It perhaps should be emphasized that the preceding equations are applicable only to prisms with uncoated reflecting surfaces for which all the internal reflections occur beyond the critical angle. They will not therefore be useful for silver coated prisms which we will discuss later. It should also be mentioned that if one is considering a three internal reflection roof prism of the form shown in Figs. | and 2 (or, for example, a penta-roof prism) the only modification necessary is that of adding a phase factor d,, to the A, wave and a phase factor dp, to the A,, wave. To obtain numerical expressions for the four waves emerging from the upper and lower halves of the prism aperture, the only thing missing in Eqs. 1 is a method for determining the phase changes upon reflec- tion. These are determined from Fresnel’s JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 6 Equations .which are of the following forms (J): ds (nz sin? 7 — 1) 2 Ng COS 2 tan dp n,(n; sin?4 — 1)? ) tan =. 2 COS 2 The d, is the phase change in the perpen- — dicular component, and the d, the phase change in the parallel component. The 7 is the angle of incidence on the surface in question, and the n, the refractive index of the glass from which the prism is made. All the quantities in Eqs. 1 can now be determined so that A,,, A»,, @s,, ana A», can be calculated. For any given initial azimuth angle a (or 6) the ellipticity of the hight emerging from the upper and lower halves of the aperture can now be calecu- lated. FORMS - OF DIFFRACTION PATTERNS FOR PRISMS WITH UNCOATED ROOF SURFACES To determine the form of the diffraction pattern which such a prism will produce, we are now confronted with a rather un- usual problem. Referring now to Fig. 11, we can see that we have four plane waves at the right travelling in a direction upward from the plane of the figure, all of which have different amplitudes and phases (see Eqs. 1). We must now place over these four plane waves a lens and bring all these waves to a common focus, and then caleu- late the form of the diffraction pattern for different azimuth angles. Before we could calculate the form of the diffraction pattern characteristic of four such waves, it became necessary to investi- gate the simpler problem of calculating the diffraction pattern for only two such waves. This is, of course, a problem in Fraunhofer Diffraction and the classical procedures are well established for calculating the forms of these diffraction patterns when the ampli- tude and phase of a single wave is constant over a single aperture, or over multiple apertures of the same form, often used to represent a diffraction grating. Here, how- ever, we have two adjacent apertures in which the amplitudes and phases of the two waves are different and they also may be polarized with their electric vectors in JUNE 1954 planes either parallel or perpendicular to each other. These problems are apparently new. The problem of predicting the form of the diffraction pattern for plane polarized waves with parallel electric vectors in the upper and lower halves of the aperture having different amplitudes and phases is very similar to a problem solved by Airy (2) in 1841. If a white light source is observed with the usual type prism spectrometer, one of course sees a continuous spectrum. If, however, the telescope aperture is limited to a small square aperture, and a piece of mica of uniform thickness is placed over half this aperture, the spectrum is crossed by a series of dark lines referred to as Tal- bot’s Bands (3). In explaining the presence of these bands Airy was also faced with calculating the form of the diffraction pat- tern when the amplitudes and phases of the two unpolarized waves (in the two halves of the aperture) were different. The treat- ment of the problem which we have pre- sented for single plane polarized waves in the two halves of the aperture is a simplified version of Airy’s more complicated problem, for in his solution he calculated the diffrac- tion pattern forms outside the focal plane in the transition region between Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction. I shall not burden you with the details of the mathematics. To calculate the forms of the diffraction patterns it is necessary first to write down the equations for the two parallel plane polarized waves in the two regions of the aperture with their different amplitudes and phases. These two waves must then be integrated over their respective regions of the aperture in accord- ance with the usual methods of Fraunhofer Diffraction. After the integrations were carried out and various simplifications made, the following equation was found for the diffraction pattern form. (4ab)?2 Ke sin? U_ sin? (V /2) AE eae Ob (V /2)? Ray -[Ao + 2A,, ds, cos (V — 4)] J = In this equation, Ao is the initial amplitude of the electric vector of the plane polarized light, A,,; and d,, the amplitudes of. the MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS Lo electric vectors of the two parallel com- ponents in the two halves of the aperture, 6 the difference in phase between the two waves, and K an arbitrary constant. The U’ and V are the usual diffraction angles defined by ri 2raé . 2rbn i Ee’ ies Og (6) where the a and 0 are the half width and half length of the diffracting aperture in Fig. 11, € and 7 are the coordinates in the focal plane at the point for which the in- tensity J is being determined, \ is the wave length, and F the effective focal length of the focusing lens. In checking these con- siderations experimentally, we considered only the case for which @,, = A, . For this special case Eq. 5 reduces to = = sin? U sin? sin? V/2 be ere J = (4ab) noes ? WD? 79) re (V — 68) “) Facet If we consider waves in the upper and lower halves of the aperture with their electric vectors polarized perpendicularly to each other such as A;, and @,3 in Fig. 11, the diffraction pattern form is calculated as before by integrating over the two regions of the aperture. However, when the elec- tric vectors are perpendicular to each other, the diffraction patterns characteristic of each half of the aperture would not be expected to interact. On this basis then, the resultant diffraction pattern characteristic of the complete aperture would be expected to be a superposition of the diffraction pat- terns characteristic of each of the two halves. Considerations of this sort led to the follow- ing equation for the diffraction pattern for this particular case. (4ab)? Ke sin? Ge sin? V/2 Vs A Fe 2 De (Aj, + One (8) Again for experimental verification, we assumed that A;; = ap, so that _ (4ab)? eres sin? U sin? V/2 (V/2)? (9) The previous equations predict some 176 JOURNAL rather interesting results. We will consider first the implications of Eq. 7 for the case in which the electric vectors in the two halves of the prism aperture are parallel to each other. Eq. 7 states that the diffrac- tion pattern in a direction parallel to the horizontal in Fig. 11 (that is, in the é direc- tion) is of the usual Fraunhofer form sin’U/U” shown in Fig. 12. In the vertical direction (that is, in the y direction in Fig. 11) the diffraction pattern is a function of 6 and is, in general, unsymmetric. To show the forms of these diffraction patterns, a few calculated patterns have been in- cluded for values of 6 from 0° to 270° (see Figs. 13-18). Starting with 6 = 0°, we have the usual Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern. For increasing values of 6, a sat- ellite appears on the left side of the central diffraction maximum. For further increases in 6, this satellite grows and gradually moves to the right while the parent diffrac- tion maximum moves to the right and de- creases in size. At the same time it will be noted that alternate bands in the outer structure gradually disappear. At 6 = 180°, both the satellite and parent diffraction maxima are of the same intensity, and the outer bands are now twice as wide and KOSS too? §=— 2008 «Ss 3008S 400° = 500®_—s 600° = 700° U (DEGREES) a pas -700° -600° -500° -400° —300° —200° -,00° fou VALUE oF 12.—Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern in U direction. Fic. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 -700° -600° -500° —400° —300° —200° -.00° 0° 00° +~200° +=300° +400? ~500°: 600° 700° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fig. 13.—Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern in V direction with 6 = 0°. twice as far apart. For values of 6 beyond 180°, the former satellite gradually moves into the position of the central diffraction maximum and every other band gradually reappears in the outer band structure. The process is such that for every 360° change in 6, the patterns repeat themselves. If 6 is made to decrease instead of increase, the changes can be made to take place in a re- verse order. | If the two waves in the two halves of the aperture are polarized with their electric vectors perpendicular to each other as sug- gested by Eq. 9 the diffraction pattern in the U direction (that is parallel to the hori- zontal in Fig. 11) is again of the classical Fraunhofer form given by Fig. 12. In the V direction (that is, the vertical direction in Fig. 11), the diffraction pattern is of the Sins 16/2 ANT): indicated in Fig. 19. It is of the same form as Fig. 12, but now the central diffraction band is twice as wide and the adjacent maxima are twice as wide and twice as far apart. To check these theoretical considerations, an experiment (4) was performed which form . This diffraction pattern is JUNE 1954 MAHAN: —> 6 ) rs} o ) ts) ) =700° -600° -500° -400° -300° -200° -100" 0° 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600° 700' VALUE OF V(DEGREES) Fig. 14.—Diffraction pattern in V direction for 6 = 60°. - we have recommended to several universi- ties having graduate laboratories in physical ° -700° -600° -500° -400° -300° -200° -100° 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600° 700° VALUE OF V(DEGREES) Fic. 15.—Diffraction pattern in V direction for 6 =" 90°. PROBLEMS IN OPTICS loa 700° -600° -500° -400° -300° -2007 -100° © 100° 200° 300 400° 500° 600° 700° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fic. 16.—Diffraction pattern in V direction foro Ha0e: optics. This statement is not made because of the author’s particular interest, but rather because of what can be learned from this experiment about fundamental diffrac- tion processes. The experiment is of particu- lar interest because of what can be seen. Even after the changes predicted by Figs. 13-18 have been observed for some time, it is rather difficult to determine the overall behavior because so many changes are taking place simultaneously in all parts of the field. The apparatus used for this experiment is that indicated in Fig. 20. The elements are the same as those used earlier in Fig. 3, but the roof prism is now replaced by a Michelson Interferometer. To fulfill the -700° -600 -500® -400° -300° -200° -100° ° 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600 700° VALUE OF ¥ (DEGREES) Fig. 17.—Diffraction pattern in V direction foro = 180 178 =700° -600° -500° -400° -300° -200° -100° 0° 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600° 700° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fig. 18.—Diffraction pattern in V direction LOK 2h ° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600° 700° 700° -600° -500° -400" -300° -200° -100? 0° 100° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fie. 19.—Diffraction pattern in V direction when the waves in the two halves of the aperture are polarized perpendicularly to each other. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou, 44, no. 6 theoretical conditions suggested by Fig. 11, the interferometer was first adjusted until the central white fringe was in the center of the field of view. One of the mirrors was then rotated until the central Haidinger fringe filled the complete field of view. This adjustment meant that, in the presence of monochromatic light, the amplitude and phase of the ight emerging from the inter- ferometer and falling on the square diffract- ing aperture were constant across this aperture. A razor blade was then inserted in the upper half of the rear arm of the interferometer, and another razor blade was also inserted in the lower half of the right arm of the interferometer. This meant that light from the lower half of the rear arm entered the lower half of the diffracting aperture, and that light from the upper half of the right arm entered the upper half of the diffracting aperture. Interference between the light from the two arms of the interferometer was then no longer possible. However, if now the rear mirror is trans- lated (with no rotation about the horizontal or vertical) the phase of the light in the lower half of the diffracting aperture can be altered at will with respect to that in the upper half, and hence it is possible to intro- duce arbitrary phase differences between the two waves in the upper and lower halves of the diffracting aperture. If now a polarizer is inserted between the collimator and the interferometer and is oriented properly, the conditions set forth by Fig. 11 and Eq. 7 can be established. To establish similar conditions for Eq. 9, a good half wave plate Fic. 20.—Photograph of apparatus used for obtaining diffraction patterns with Michelson Interferometer. JUNE 1954 S=27(N+1) S=27(N+35) S=277N | Fie. 21.—Forms of central diffraction bands with Michelson Interferometer. can be inserted over either the upper or lower half of the emerging aperture. To show the forms of these diffraction patterns, when the electric vectors in the two halves of the aperture were polarized in parallel directions, photographs were taken in the focal plane of the focusing lens for various differences in phase between the waves in the upper and lower halves of the diffracting aperture. Attempts were made to adjust the exposures so as to show the changes both in the central band structure and in the outer band structure. Fig. 21 shows the forms of the central bands. If we start at the bottom of the figure with a phase difference of some multiple of 27 between the waves in the upper and lower halves of the aperture, and then gradually move the rear interferometer mirror, the central horizontal band splits ~into two bands and then goes back together again as predicted by the theory. No changes take place in the vertical central diffraction band. In Fig. 22 every other band in the outer band system disappears and then reappears as the rear interferometer is translated. This again is in agreement with the previous equations. These pictures, although showing the general behavior of these bands, are no sub- stitute for direct observation. With the eye, many more bands can be seen. The behavior of the complete band system can best be described by relating it to a single row of soldiers. The intensity of the light MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 179 emitted by these soldiers, or their bright- ness, is symmetrical with respect to the soldier in the middle of the row and falls off rapidly to both sides. When the inter- ferometer mirror is translated, all the soldiers start marching in the same direction but as they march alternate soldiers gradually disappear. They disappear, however, in a very curious way, for all the remaining soldiers appear to be very much brighter. The soldier in the middle of the row at the same time gradually divides into two soldiers of the same brightness. With in- creasing movement of the mirror in the same direction, the marching continues, but now soldiers begin to reappear in alternate positions and grow in brightness while the previous soldiers decrease in_ brightness. The two central bright soldiers are gradually replaced by a single soldier whose bright- ness is about twice that of the previous two. These changes keep repeating as long as the interferometer mirror is moved in the same direction. If its direction is reversed, the soldiers reverse their direction of march and all the previous changes take place in a reverse order. Similar experimental justification was sought for Eq. 9 for which the two electric vectors in the upper and lower halves of the aperture were polarized in directions perpendicular to each other. To obtain this a good half wave plate was inserted over half of the square diffracting aperture. When this was done and a_ photograph S=27 (N+!) S=27 (N+¢) Fic. 22.—Forms of outer diffraction bands with Michelson Interferometer. 180 taken of the diffraction pattern, the result was that shown in Fig. 23. This diffraction pattern was fixed in form and showed no changes with the movement of the inter- ferometer mirror. The horizontal central diffraction maximum is twice that of the vertical, and the adjacent secondary diffrac- tion maxima in the horizontal direction are twice as wide and twice as far apart as the corresponding secondary maxima in the vertical direction. These experimental facts are in accordance with Eq. 9 and Figs. ID2ramnd 19) Fig. 23.—Diffraction pattern form when waves in two halves of aperture are polarized perpen- dicular to each other. Having learned something about the methods for calculating the forms of the diffraction patterns when the electric vectors in the two halves of the aperture are polar- ized parallel and perpendicular to each other, we were now able to return to the original roof prism problem and solve the problem of determining the form of the diffraction pattern when there are two waves in each of the two halves of the aperture which are polarized perpendicularly to each other as suggested by Fig. 11 and have arbitrary amplitudes and phases. From the previous considerations it was quite clear that only the parallel components in the two halves of the aperture could interact. The resultant diffraction pattern for the complete prism will then consist of a super-position of the two diffraction patterns characteristic of each of the two pairs of parallel electric vectors in the two halves of the aperture in Fig. 11. If we refer then to Eqs. 1 and 5, the equation for the complete diffraction pat- tern may then be written as follows: Ke sin? U sin? V/2 Fr U2 2 2 -{Ap + As, as, cos[V — (Rs, — Rs,)] ++ A,, Gp, cos [V — (Rp, — R>,)). J = (4ab)?: (10) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 In this equation, all the quantities have already been defined in connection with Eqs. 1 and 5. For roof prisms with three internal reflections this equation is of ex- actly the same form, because in Eq. 5 it is the difference in phase between the corre- sponding waves which is of importance rather than their absolute phases. With this equation and the corresponding equations for the quantities A,,, As,;, Ap; , Rs,, sz, Rp, , and ®,, defined earlier, it is possible to provide numerical values for J by inserting numerical values for all these quantities. Simplification of the problem beyond this point at first appeared too complex, for when attempts were made to substitute theoretical values for. these quantities (see Eqs. 1, 2, 3) in the above equation the expansions became tedious to handle. In our first paper (5) on this subject relating to the three internal reflection roof prism described by Figs. 1 and 2, numerical values for each of these quantities were inserted directly in Eq. 12. The calculated diffraction pattern forms were in qualita- tive agreement with the experimental forms suggested by Figs. 7 and 8, but no quanti- tative measurements were made. During the second phase of the problem, the theoretical considerations were reopened. We tried again to insert theoretical values for each of the quantities in this last equa- tion to obtain an equation for the intensity distribution J which could be expressed directly in terms of experimentally observed quantities. This time we were successful. Again time will not permit my giving the details here. They can be found in the pub- lished papers on the subject (6). When this was done, however, the following equa- tion for J was found. x + j= (4ab)2A 2K? sin2U sin? V/2 “ cosV (11) F? U2 2(V/2)2 1 8n,* sint2D cos?4D [2 2(1 + cos?2D) — sin?4D 4n,3 sin'tD cosiD[n,2(1 + cos?2D) — 2} [n,2(1 + cos?2D) — sin?2D]2(1 + cos?4D) [sin 2a sin?4D — 2 cos 2a cos 4D] sin V}. From Table I, the angle 6 which the S, vibration makes with the plane of Fig. 9 is given by JUNE 1954 1 (cos? (D/2) + 1)! cos @ = (12) It is now quite easy to fix the azimuth angle a of the entering plane polarized light with respect to this S; vibration. To calculate the form of the diffraction pattern when plane polarized light is incident on such a generalized two or three internal reflection roof prism with uncoated reflecting roof surfaces, it is necessary now to know only n,, D and a. In normal usage the prism is usually illuminated by unpolarized light. The corresponding equation for J, when the prism is illuminated by unpolarized hight, can be found from this last equation. If the incident light is completely unpolar- ized, then all values of a are equally prob- able. Assuming this to be the case, this last equation for J can be integrated and averaged for all values of a between 0° and 180°. This means that an integral of the form a J da T JQ must be evaluated. When this integration is carried out terms involving sin 2a and cos 2a will be found to vanish. In unpolarized light the form of the diffraction pattern will then be expected to be given by ee ei an (V/2) oe Re __ 8n,sin‘(D/2) cos?(D/2) -COS v\ Eqs. 11 and 13 describe all the properties of the diffraction patterns for two and three internal reflection roof prisms, when all reflecting surfaces are uncoated. - It may be of interest now to see what these equations tell us about the diffraction properties of such prisms. From both of these equations, the first remark which we can make is that the diffraction patterns in a direction parallel to the horizontal in Fig. 11 or in the plane containing the roof edge will, for both polarized and unpolarized light, always be of the classical Fraunhofer MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 18] for sin” U orm —~F75 In the vertical direction in Fig. 11 or in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge, the pattern for polarized light is a function of n, , D, and @ and for unpolarized light it becomes a function of n, and D. Since Eq. 11 is unsymmetrical in V and EKq. 13 sym- metrical in V, it follows that the diffraction pattern in the V direction for polarized hight will, in general, be unsymmetrical and in unpolarized light, symmetrical. In discussing the particular forms of these diffraction patterns, in the V direction, it is more convenient to discuss first the patterns produced by unpolarized light. If the prism is to have its maximum resolving power characteristic of an aperture of width 2b in Fig. 11, then it is clear that the V depend- ent part of Eq. 13 should reduce to the sin’ V V2 is possible is for the coefficient of the cos V term to reduce to unity. For a fixed value of n,, the only values of D for which the coefhicient of the cos V term will reduce to wmttyeare )°—A0 and) — 160") hererrine then to our generalized roof prism in Fig. 9, it is clear that the only two roof prisms with uncoated roof surfaces, which will produce normal diffraction patterns characteristic of an aperture of width 2b, are then one which returns the light in the direction from which it comes and one which allows the incident light to go undeviated. In between these two limiting values of D these roof prisms can be shown to have a maximum of doubling at a value of D given by for all values of D, n, , and a. . The only way this Fraunhofer form D fe = PGi al (14) ae iam n +1 The term doubling of the diffraction pattern may be a bit misleading, particu- larly for values of D near 0° and 180°. To show just how this doubling of the diffrac- tion pattern appears as D is changed, several diffraction patterns were calculated from Eq. 13 using only the V dependent terms. The forms of these diffraction pat- terns, with ordinates multiplied by two, can be seen in Fig. 24. The values of D being used are indicated to the right of each of the 182 n, = 1.5184 -360° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fie. 24.—Form of diffraction patterns in un- polarized light in the V direction for roof prisms with uncoated roof surfaces having different angular deviations D at roof edge. patterns, and the refractive index n, used was 1.5184 corresponding to the value for the green mercury line for the particular glass used. For a value of D = 0°, the diffrac- tion pattern is of the usual Fraunhofer form shown earlier in Fig. 13. Up to values of D = 60° in this figure, the changes are not too pronounced for all the secondary bands can still be seen in the outer band structure. At D = 90° every other band in the outer band structure has disappeared, and the central band is now materially broader. For D = 120° and 135° the central diffraction band splits into two separate bands with a distinct minimum at the center. Every other band in the outer band struc- ture is also absent. The D = 120° pattern is the diffraction pattern which this theory predicts for the three internal reflection roof prism in Figs. 1 and 2. If this pattern JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 is considered in conjunction with the Fraun- hofer pattern in Fig. 12 it can be seen that Eq. 13 at least predicts the general features of the diffraction pattern for this prism appearing in Fig. 7. For larger values of D, the diffraction pattern form in Fig. 24 rapidly goes over again into the Fraunhofer Pattern. At D = 160° the doubling in the central band has already disappeared, and the outer bands are starting to divide into n, =1.5184 N,= .530 M,=8.62 -720° _-540 -360" -180° om _ 180° 360° 540 720° VALUE OF V (OEGREES) Fig. 25.—Form of diffraction patterns in un- polarized light in the V direction for roof prisms with roof surfaces coated with silver and having different angular deviations D at the roof edge. JUNE 1954 MAHAN: the band system characteristic of the Fraun- hofer Diffraction Pattern. The term doubling of the diffraction pattern in this paper refers then either to a broadening or splitting of the central band of the form in Fig. 24. The form of the diffraction pattern in polarized light for prisms of arbitrary D given by Eq. 11 is a little more complicated to discuss. As stated before, in the U direc- tion the pattern is of the classical Fraun- hofer form. In the V direction the pattern will, in general, be unsymmetric and will repeat itself for every 180° change in a. These changes in the diffraction pattern are such that the oscillations in form take place about the pattern in unpolarized light. For D = 0° and D = 180° the term containing the a disappears so that prisms with these values of D always produce a Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern in the V direction for both polarized and unpolarized light. In the more general case about all that one can say is that the larger the deviation of the diffraction pattern from the classical Fraunhofer Pattern in unpolarized light, the larger the asymmetry in the patterns in polarized light. FORMS OF DIFFRACTION PATTERNS WITH COATED REFLECTING ROOF SURFACES All of the previous discussion has been concerned with roof prisms in which the two or three internal reflections take place beyond the critical angle. It now becomes quite interesting to ask what will happen to the diffraction pattern form if the bound- ary conditions are changed at the roof surfaces. To develop exact equations for this more general case of a prism with arbi- trary boundary conditions at the reflecting roof surfaces, it is necessary to start again at the beginning of the previous theory. A plane polarized light wave is again assumed to be incident at the first roof surface in the model (see Fig. 10). The electric vector of this incident wave must again be resolved into parallel and perpendicular components at this surface. After reflection, however, classical electromagnetic theory predicts that both the amplitudes and phases are changed while in the preceding theory only the phases were changed. These reflected components are incident on the second roof PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 183 surface and must be resolved about the parallel and perpendicular directions for the second roof surface and so on until one arrives at a more complex but similar set of equations to Eqs. 1, 2, and 3. These equa- tions then have to be substituted in Eq. 10. As a result of these rather long mathematical considerations we were successful in finding an equation similar to Eq. 11 for the case in which the prism was illuminated by polarized light. This equation is applicable to all two internal roof prisms, but only to three internal reflection roof prisms in which the third reflection occurs beyond the critical angle and the third reflecting sur- face is uncoated. This equation is much longer than Eq. 11 so we will not write it down here. The case of more practical interest again is that in which the prism is illuminated by unpolarized light. Such an equation was obtained from the previously mentioned equation by integrating and averaging over a as was done in obtaining Eq. 13 for the uncoated prism. This equa- tion had the following form: Ao K2 sin? U sin? (V/2) F? U2 2(V /2)? if 4sint4D cos?4D| sint4D 4 ee SSS \ (cos?42D + 1)4 | 8cos?4D 3 3 Ze 2 — 2 cos ®(p; pp + psp'p) — PsPp 4 cos? 4D : x (2 cos? 6 — aan cos r ; In this equation p, and p, are the fractions of the perpendicular and parallel components of the electric vector reflected at each roof surface, and © is the difference in phase between the two components after reflection at each roof surface. This equation is quite general so that it applies to cases in which the reflecting roof surfaces are coated with either dielectric or metallic materials. The problem of most direct interest, for which the previous equation was useful, J = (4ab)? (0. + pp) (15) was that of calculating the form of the diffraction pattern when the roof surfaces were coated with silver. All the quantities in the previous equation are known except p;, Pp, and ®. The determination of these quantities becomes a boundary value prob- lem in electromagnetic theory. If the silver 184 film is assumed to be opaque, and both the glass and silver are looked upon as isotropic homogeneous media, then W. Konig (7) has given equations for these quantities assuming that the boundary layer between the glass and silver is infinitely sharp com- pared with the wave length. These equations are 2n, B sini tan 2 d= — Q - . s ? tan n2 sin? 7 tan? 7 — (A2 + B?) , A?+ B® — 2n, A cost + nz cos?t °° A? + B24 2n, A cost + nz cost’ (16) A?+ B?— 2n,A sini tan2 Meike + nj sin? 7 tan? 7 Pp = P42 + Be 4+2n,Asinitani —’ + n; sin? 7 tan? 2 In these equations the quantities A and B are defined by A® = 34 {([Mm™(1 — Xm?) — Ng? sin? oP + Ann? X m2)! Se Wea = Xan) iene at (17) Be 44 (tn) — te, Sins == AN Nee —Mm?(1 — Xm?) + n,? sin? 7}. Nm In. these equations is the refractive index of the metallic coating on the roof surface and xm is its absorption index. Assuming that these films obey these boundary condi- tions, it 1s now possible for known values of Nm, Ng, and xm to calculate the forms of these diffraction patterns. Again in the U direction, we see from Eq. 15 that the diffraction pattern is of the classical Fraun- sin’ U U2 direction, about all that we can say from the general form of the equation is that the pattern will be symmetric, for it depends in rather a complicated way on D, nm, n,, and xm. To show the actual forms of these patterns in the V direction we have included some calculated diffraction patterns in Fig. 25. The values of nm, n, , and ym used were the following: hic = 1 FLSA N= oe hofer form . In the perpendicular V Mm, = 8-62 For a value of D = 0°, we see that the diffraction pattern is of the Fraunhofer JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, NO. 6 sin’ V form 7p maximum recedes slightly and the minima between alternate bands in the outer band structure rise. For values of D beyond 60°, the patterns do not change much in form for values of D on up to 180°. The angular doubling for roof prisms with coated roof surfaces 1s theoretically quite small for all values of D. If this figure is compared with Fig. 24 for the unsilvered prism, the advantages and disadvantages of silvering from theoreti- cal considerations can be seen. For values of D up to about 60°, the diffraction pattern is sharper when the roof surfaces are un- coated. From 60° on up to about 160°, the diffraction patterns are sharper with silvered roof surfaces. For values of D beyond 160°, the diffraction pattern again becomes sharper with the uncoated surfaces. . As D is increased, the central CALCULATED FORMS OF DIFFRACTION PATTERNS FOR 90° DEVIATION AMICI ROOF PRISM Having derived this rather detailed theory for calculating the forms of these diffraction patterns, we were very much interested in knowing how this theory behaved in par- ticular cases. In our first paper (5) on this subject, we saw that the theory at least gave a qualitative description of the diffrac- tion patterns both in polarized and un- polarized light for the three internal reflec- tion roof prism in Figs. 1 and 2, when the roof surfaces were uncoated. We now under- took the more delicate experimental problem of trying to obtain a quantitative agreement between theory and experiment when the roof surfaces were uncoated and coated with silver. Since the roof prism in Figs. 1 and 2 was rather an odd-shaped one and not generally available we felt 1t might be more appropriate to carry out these measure- ments with the more conventional 90° devia- tion Amici Roof Prism. This prism, shown in Figs. 26 and 27, is simply a special case of the generalized roof prism in Fig. 9 for which D = 90°. Equations for the diffraction pattern forms in both polarized and unpolarized light, when the roof surfaces are uncoated, can be obtained from Eqs. 11 and 13 by JUNE 1954 MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 185 Fic. 26.—Photograph of 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism. simply inserting n, = 1.5184 and D = 90°. Since the diffraction pattern in the U direc- tion has already been established as being of the Fraunhofer form for both polarized and unpolarized light we shall limit our remarks here to a discussion of the pattern in the V direction. When the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism is illuminated with plane polarized light of various azimuth angles a, the patterns resulting from Eq. 11 are those shown in Fig. 28. The changes in the form of the pattern with varying @ consist of an oscillation in form back and forth about the zero position of V with a period of 180° in a. Similar changes were also found for the earlier three internal reflection prism in Fig. 8 but they were much larger. The corresponding diffraction pattern for un- polarized light obtained from Eq. 13 is shown in Fig. 29. For both polarized light and unpolarized light the expected forms of the diffraction patterns in the perpen- dicular directions can be obtained by com- paring the forms of these last two figures with Fig. 12. The form of the calculated diffraction pattern for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism having roof surfaces coated with silver and illuminated by unpolarized light is arrived at in the same way as those al- ready described in Fig. 25. The same values Of Ng, Nm, and ym were again used. The angle of incidence on the roof surface for this particular prism is 60° and the values Of ps, pp, and ® from Eqs. 18 and 19 were pp = 0.8904, & = 226°30/34" ps = 0.9675, D=90° n,= 1.5184 a Fic. 27—Ray diagram for 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism. 186 D=90° ne 1.5184 Ce 45° ae 4 ALG EOE x= 20° PE BEC Pp 2 LEB Tero <-0° EIS | ES 1 -720° -540° -360° -180° 0° 180° 360° 540° 720° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fic. 28.—Forms of diffraction patterns in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge for a 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces when illuminated with polarized light of different entering azimuth angles. All the quantities in Eq. 15 are then known so that the resultant diffraction pattern can be calculated. In the U direction the pattern is again of the Fraunhofer form in Fig. 12. In the V direction it is of the form shown in Fig. 30. A comparison of these last two figures shows that the theory predicts an increase in sharpness of the diffraction pat- tern in the V direction when the prism is illuminated by unpolarized light and the root surfaces are silvered. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 5 VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fic. 29.—Form of diffraction pattern in a direc- tion perpendicular to the roof edge for a 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces illuminated by unpolarized light. 720 -540 -360 -180° 0° 180° 360° 540 720 VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fie. 30.—Form of diffraction pattern in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge for a 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism having silver coated rou surfaces and illuminated by unpolarized ight. JUNE 1954 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFRACTION PATTERN FORM FOR THE 90° DEVIATION AMICI ROOF PRISM To observe the previously calculated diffraction pattern forms an optical system having the components shown schemati- cally in Fig. 31 was set up in the laboratory. An AH4 high pressure mercury are source, rotatable polaroid, and suitable filters for isolating the green mercury line were placed in front of a 10-micron slit as indicated at the left in the figure. The hght from this sht was collimated by a 492 mm E.F. telescopic objective and then entered the 90° devia- tion Amici Roof Prism at the right. After passage through this prism the emerging light passed through a five mm _ square aperture centrally placed behind the prism, and was then brought to a focus by a 3,350 mm E.F. lens so as to magnify the diffrac- tion pattern. A photograph of the actual apparatus used is shown in Fig. 32. For making quan- ROTATABLE POLAROID SOURCE FILTER COLLIMATOR . ! < [ | PRISM SLIT pa Soe SQUARE APERTURE OBJECTIVE LENS ohne FOCAL PLANE Fiac. 31.—Schematic diagram of optical system used for observing diffraction patterns for 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism. Fig. 32.—Photograph MAHAN? PROBLEMS IN OPTICS of complete 187 titative measurements on these diffraction patterns, the filter and polaroid suggested in Fig. 31 was replaced by a Gaertner mono- chromator and a polarizing Glan Thompson nicol prism. These can be seen mounted at the left in the figure. Early in these experi- ments we found that vibration was quite troublesome so all the various units were mounted on two optical benches which in turn were mounted on a double I beam structure. This combination proved to be rigid enough so that photographs of the diffraction pattern could be taken. The photographs themselves were recorded with a conventional 35 mm camera with the lens removed. This experimental arrangement gave Fraunhofer Diffraction Patterns of the order of 0.4 mm between adjacent bands so that the diffraction patterns in the V direction for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism were about twice as wide (see Fig. 29). There were several experimental problems which had to be solved before we were successful in obtaining agreement between the calculated and experimentally observed diffraction patterns. I shall mention only a few of these. One of the most troublesome of these was that of finding a proper mount for the prism. The prism not only had to be mounted at the proper height and orienta- tion, but it also had to be free from strain to obtain the proper diffraction pattern. The mount finally adopted is shown in Fig. 33. The prism itself was lightly but firmly clamped to a machinist’s V-block by a specially made Lucite C-clamp. The optical system. 188 machinist’s V-block was mounted on a base plate, which assured us that the height of the prism was always correct, and that its entering face was perpendicular to this base plate. Rotation of this combined unit about a vertical axis made it possible, by autocolliimation methods, to line up the entering surface of the prism so that it was normal to the entering light rays. This prism mount gave us a strain free diffraction pattern providing all the prism surfaces were also carefully cleaned. Centering the diffracting aperture with respect to the prism also proved troublesome. It was found quite early that the diffraction pat- Fra. 33.—Photograph of prism and diffracting aperture mount. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 Fre. 34.—A typical microphotometer trace of a diffraction pattern and density calibration. tern form could be changed by simply moving this aperture along the vertical bar seen in Fig. 33. The approximate height of this aperture could always be determined by placing it behind the prism and observing the Fresnel Diffraction Pattern of this aper- ture with an eyepiece (see Fig. 5) in a plane behind the focusing lens and making vertical adjustments until the dark band was at the center of this pattern. Final adjustments of this height were made with the mi- crometer until the diffraction pattern in the focal plane of the focusing lens was sym- metric in unpolarized light. The determina- tion of the focal plane of the focusing lens also was a little troublesome. This was finally done by replacing the roof prism with a mirror and making careful adjust- ments until the Fraunhofer Pattern was obtained. These patterns were actually microphotometered to be sure that the proper position was obtained. We also en- countered the usual difficulties found when attempts are made to make quantitative measurements with photographic materials. I shall not elaborate on these here, for they can be found in both the published paper (6) on this subject as well as in other places. It will be sufficient here to say that on each film with a diffraction pattern photograph, we placed a density calibration. A micro- photometer trace of one of these diffraction patterns and the density calibration can be seen in Fig. 34. Both of these tracings were made with a Leeds and Northrup recording microdensitometer. The proce- dure for relating the experimental and theo- retical diffraction patterns is indicated in JUNE 1954 “720 5 LOG E (RELATIVE ) 0,* PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM DENSITY ° Fie. 35—Method of converting experimental diffraction pattern to calculated Log # pattern. Fig. 35. The microphotometered diffraction pattern is indicated schematically at the upper left. To transform this micropho- tometered pattern to the corresponding theoretically calculated pattern plotted on a log E basis, the ordinates of all the points on this curve must be transformed to the abscissae on the theoretical curve at the lower right, in the manner indicated by the dotted line, using the D-Log EF curve for the film. “ ° =x 3 ° ° 4 5 Teun -540° -360° -180° fe) 180° 360° 540° 720° VALUE OF v (DEGREES) Fic 36.—Experimental and theoretical forms of Fraunhofer Pattern plotted on Log E basis. MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 189 Before we could carry out these experi- ments, we first had to obtain a 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism of high quality. Errors in roof angle could not be tolerated, for these would also produce a doubling of the image. Ng = 15184 O es 25 ° ° b b te} D oO Dp te} ° Oo, O ° O ° <. ° ° (e} ag: O © é- e [e} Ss O Y ° ° 70° 90° 720° 540° 30° 180° co) 180° 360° 540° 720° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fic. 37.—Experimental and theoretical forms of diffraction patterns in a direction perpendicu- lar to the roof edge plotted on Log E basis for 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces when illuminated with plane polar- ized light of entering azimuth angles a. 190 D=90° Ng#!.5184 LOG (Jx10°) -720° -540° - 360° -180° o° 180° VALUE OF V (DEGREES) 360° 540° 720° Fig. 38.—Experimental and theoretical forms of diffraction patterns in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge plotted on a Log E basis for 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces when illuminated with unpolarized light. Several such prisms were obtained from the Optical Shop of the Naval Gun Factory. In choosing the final two prisms used in this work primary emphasis was placed on the accuracy of the roof angle. The two prisms finally chosen showed no visible doubling of the image when viewed with a one hundred power autocollimator. The surfaces of both prisms were flat to better than a tenth of a wave length. CORRELATION BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL FORMS OF THE DIFFRACTION PATTERNS In order to be able to relate the previous theoretical diffraction patterns to the ex- perimental ones, the calculated diffraction patterns for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism given in Figs. 28, 29, and 30 were first plotted on the log E basis as suggested in Fig. 35. Before making comparisons be- tween theoretical and experimental patterns, however, we had to be sure that our quanti- tative techniques were yielding the proper results. As a check on these techniques the Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern in Fig. 12 was first subjected to these tests. The result of this plot and the experimentally observed JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 points indicated by circies, obtained from the microphotometer trace of the experi- mentally observed pattern, are shown in Fig. 36. The agreement between the calcu- lated curve and the experimental points is fairly good. If we found a corresponding agreement between the calculated curve and the experimentally observed points for the Amici Roof Prism, we concluded that the theory for the formation of these diffrac- tion patterns was adequate for this prism. Figs. 37 and 38 show the type of agreement obtained in the V direction when the prism was illuminated by polarized and unpolar- ized light, and its roof surfaces were un- coated. These figures indicate that the theory describes these diffraction patterns within the error obtainable from the experi- ment. Fig. 39 shows the type of agreement obtained in the V direction when the prism was illuminated with unpolarized light and its roof surfaces coated with silver. Clearly the agreement is not as good in this case, for the observed pattern is sharper than the corresponding calculated one. Although we cannot definitely say why this disagreement exists, we do have some general ideas on 0=90° Ng?1.5184 N,,= 0.530 58.62 e O° ° fo) ° ° (ore) oo | o= lo ° p LOG (uxl0") VALUE OF V (DEGREES) Fic. 39.—Patterns in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge plotted on a Log E basis for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with silver coated rot surfaces when illuminated with unpolarized ight. JUNE 1954 Fig. 40.—Photograph of diffraction patterns in a direction perpendicular to roof edge for 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces when illuminated with polarized light of different entering azimuth angles a. MAHAN: PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 191 the subject. The films used on these prisms were all of the chemically deposited type Which were covered with a plastic type preservative and black paint to prevent deterioration. The optical constants used for these films were those for chemically deposited films as measured from the glass silver surface. By the author’s own admis- sion these values are not very exact. We therefore feel that we did not have sufficient knowledge of just what is happening at the glass-silver boundary for these particular films to calculate the form of the diffraction pattern with sufficient exactness. It is pos- sible, for example, that the boundary conditions assumed in arriving at the pre- vious equations for p,, pp, and ® are not applicable here. The optical constants themselves may be considerably in error for these particular films and they may also be partially transparent. These things will not be known until actual experimental measurements are made on each of these quantities. There is also a possibility that an error exists in the theory, for the only check we have on its correctness is that of setting p, = pp = 1 and forcing it over into the equations for the unsilvered prism. We have also tried the optical constants nor- mally given for evaporated films of silver, but the discrepancy is a little larger in this case. At present then, all we can say is that the theory for the diffraction pattern form for roof prisms with silvered surfaces gives results for these particular films which are in the direction of the observed experi- mental patterns, but the discrepancy be- tween the calculated and observed patterns is outside of our experimental error. In the next two figures we have tried to sum up for you photographically the results of these observations on the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism. In Fig. 40 there is a series of photographs of diffraction patterns mounted side by side so as to show the changes in shape of these patterns in the V direction, when the prism is illuminated with polarized light of different azimuth angles, and the roof surfaces are uncoated. Two patterns can be seen simultaneously. In taking these photographs half the length of the 10 micron slit was covered with a filter which decreased the light from one- 192 half of the slit so that the changes in the forms of the central band, as well as the outer band system, could be seen at the same time. The changes which take place in this photograph are in agreement with the changes predicted in Figs. 28 and 37. At the left in Fig. 41 are shown the diffrac- tion patterns in the two perpendicular directions when the roof surfaces are un- coated and the prism is illuminated by unpolarized light. Clearly the horizontal pattern is much broader than the corre- sponding vertical one, and the outer bands in the horizontal pattern are twice as wide and twice as far apart as the corresponding bands in the vertical pattern. If now the roof surfaces are silvered, the vertical diffrac- tion pattern in this figure remains the same, but the horizontal pattern changes into the pattern seen in the third picture from the left. At the extreme right in this picture the Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern is given. It will be noted that this pattern is essen- tially of the same shape as the second and third photographs. These patterns are so nearly of the same shape that it requires a microdensitometer to show up the differ- ences. CONCLUSIONS As a result of this paper we are led to the quite important conclusion that all per- Slit parallel Slit perpendicular to roof edge _ to roof edge Lp Uncoated roof surfaces Unpolarized light JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 6 fectly made two and three internally reflect- ing roof prisms with uncoated reflecting roof surfaces, except prisms with D = 0° and D = 180°, exhibit a doubling of the dif- fraction pattern in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge, while in a plane containing the roof edge the diffraction pattern is of the classical Fraunhofer Form. If the inci- dent light is plane polarized this doubling is unsymmetric and its form is influenced by the entering azimuth angle of the plane polarized light. The forms of these diffrac- tion patterns for both two and three inter- nally reflecting roof prisms with uncoated roof surfaces can now be calculated from a knowledge of the angular deviation at the roof edge, the prism refractive index, and the incident azimuth angle of the plane polarized light, if the prism is illuminated by plane polarized light. When the prisms are il- luminated with unpolarized light silvering the roof surfaces decreases this doubling in a direction perpendicular to the roof edge except for prisms near D = 0° and D = 180°. The forms of the diffraction patterns for prisms with silvered roof surfaces can also be calculated for unpolarized light if the refractive index and absorption index of the silver are known. The agreement between the calculated and observed diffraction patterns for the 90° deviation Amici Roof Prism with uncoated roof surfaces is about Fraunhofer pattern Slit parallel to roof edge Silvered roof surfaces Unpolarized light Fig. 41.—Photographs of diffraction patterns in unpolarized light when roof surfaces are un- coated and coated with silver. JUNE 1954 MAHAN: as good as could be hoped for, but when the roof surfaces are coated with silver the agreement is not satisfactory. However, even with these questionable values for the optical constants of the silver and perhaps the questionable boundary conditions at the glass-silver surface the theory still predicts the general forms of the changes found. Fic. 42.—Photograph of diffraction pattern for three corner prism. I should also say a few words about the remaining unsolved probiems relating to this subject. The final equations in this paper were limited to the diffraction patterns only in the focal plane of the focusing lens, and no attempt has been made to calculate the forms of the observed patterns out of this plane. These equations also apply only to rays which are incident on the roof surfaces at the same angle of incidence. We therefore do not know anything about the forms of the diffraction patterns when the rays travel through the prism in oblique directions such that the rays fall on the two roof surfaces at different angles of incidence. Patterns off the axis of the focusing lens but with their central horizontal band con- fined to the plane of Fig. 31 can still be cal- culated from the theory presented here by making corrections for refraction at the entering and emergent surfaces and con- sidering the angle D to have a different value. All the previous patterns have been calculated assuming that the limiting aperture was always a square. In actual usage this may not always be the case so that the forms of these patterns may be modified somewhat. It would be particularly interesting to repeat these calculations when the lens is the limiting aperture so that cir- PROBLEMS IN OPTICS 193 cular and semicircular apertures become necessary. This theory has only been applied to roof prisms of two different geometries. Obviously, these studies ought to be ex- tended to other uncoated prisms of different D’s before we can conclude that the theory is correct for all values of D. The previously mentioned problem of what happens at the roof surfaces when they are silvered needs further study to determine whether or not the theory is correct for the prisms with coated roof surfaces. The theory itself needs to be extended to include three internal reflection roof prisms having all three sur- faces coated with silver. Mr. D. C. Harper (9) of the Eastman Kodak Company has recently made some experimental observa- tions which show that single roof surfaces, when coated with aluminum, tend also to minimize the doubling of the type discussed here. This problem has not been considered. Throughout the paper it has always been assumed that the prism under consideration always has a perfect 90° roof angle. This raises the subject of what happens to the image when there is also a small amount of doubling present due to a small error in the roof angle. There are therefore many phases of this problem which still remain un- solved. Before leaving this subject of unsolved problems in this field, I would like to show you the form of the diffraction pattern characteristic of the three-corner prism used to send light back in the direction from which it comes. This prism is familiar to all of you and has many uses. This problem is very closely related to the previous problem, but is In general even more complicated. If we consider a circular limiting aperture, some preliminary considerations show that one must consider six equal apertures forming 60° sections of the circle, each of which contains two waves polarized with their electric vectors perpendicular to each other having different amplitudes and _ phases. This diffraction pattern (see Fig. 42) was photographed by Donald Lowe of this Laboratory using a monochromatic point source. The explanation of this particular diffraction pattern still remains to be worked out. 194 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author acknowledges the assistance of several people who made contributions in one way or another to the preparation of this paper. First of all he is indebted to the late Max Zwillinger of the Optical Shop at the Naval Gun Factory for originally sug- gesting this problem. Several of the pre- liminary investigations on this problem were carried out in conjunction with Mr. Zwillin- ger. The Optical Shop of the Naval Gun Factory was responsible for the making of the unusually fine prisms used in this work. The care exercised in their making can only be appreciated when attempts are made to duplicate them. Various groups with the Naval Ordnance Laboratory also made sub- stantial contributions. The Analysis and Publications Divisions were responsible for routine calculations, curve plotting, and the art work associated with this paper. The Photographic Division made all the photo- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 6 graphic reproductions. Various other mem- bers in the Division helped from time to time on various phases of the work. The author also is indebted to H. Osterberg of the American Optical Co. and F. Zernicke of the University of Gronigen in Holland who checked various parts of the theory by independent methods. REFERENCES (1) Born, M. Optik: 48. Berlin, 1933. (2) Arry, G. B., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 130 (pt. 2): 225. 1840; 131 (pt. 1). 1841. (3) Tatsot, F. H. London Edinburgh Phil. Mg. 10: 364. 1837. (4) Manan, A. I.: Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 37: 852. 1947. (5) Manan, A. I., Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 35: 623. 1945. ; (6) Manan, A. I. anp Price, E. E. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 40: 664. 1950. (7) Konic, W. Handbuch der Physik, 20: 202-207, 240-243. Berlin, 1928. (8) Tats, J. T., Phys. Rev.:34: 327, 1912. (9) Harper, D. C. Paper 20, Thirty-Eighth Annual. Meeting, Optical Society of America, Rochester, N. Y., Oct. 15-17, 1953. ENTOMOLOGY .—New Saldidae (Hemiptera) from the Old World. Caru J. DRAKE, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. The present paper contains the descrip- tions of five new shore bugs or Saldidae from Africa and India. I am indebted to Dr. W. E. China, of the British Museum (Natural History), London, for the privilege of studying many saldids from various regions of the world. The types of the new species are deposited in the British Museum. In the descriptions, the ocular micrometer scale and magnification are such that 80 units of length or width equal one millimeter. I am also indebted to Mr. Arthur Smith, artist of the above Museum, for the fine drawing of the type of Saldula championi, n. sp. Chiloxanthus sangchana, n. sp. Large, black, slightly shining, without color markings; pubescence moderately dense, very short, reclining, not very conspicuous. Head black, considerably flattened in front, with only a small pale spot near the inner excavation of each eye; ocelli pale, not elevated, with the space between them about equal to the diameter of an ocellus; width across eyes, 1.25 mm. Antennae black, shortly pilose, with only a small subapical spot on second segment brownish testaceous, measurements—I, 21; II, 130; III, 81; IV, 80. Legs black, the middle and hind femora with a long, narrow, testaceous or brownish stripe on the front face of each; pubescence and spine-like hairs black; tarsi with some testaceous on dorsal surface of segments I] and III. Pronotum broad, slowly narrowed anteriorly, with lateral margins rectate, with some bristly hairs on anterior third of outer margin, deeply roundly excavated behind, three times as wide at base as median length (180:60), with front margin much narrower than basal width (100:180); callus large, little elevated, with a shallow discal impression; about three times as long as hind lobe, marked off behind by a shallow transverse furrow; collar very narrow. Scutellum slightly convex, scarcely wider at base than median length (128:120), nearly smooth, indistinctly rugulose, with a deep transverse impression at the middle. Hemelytra wide, with surface faintly rugulose; membrane lightly clouded with fuscous, with veins darker, com- posed of four cells, the fourth cell shorter than bordering cell, not reaching the peripheral vein. Length, 6.25 mm; width, 1.50 mm. JUNE 1954 Type (female), Sangcha, north of Kamaon, India, elevation 14,500 feet, H. G. Champion. This species does not fit into the ‘Synopsis Specierum Subgenera Chiloxanthus Reuter’ as keyed by Kiritshenko, Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci. 16: 545-546, 1916. It appears to be closest to C. lama Kiritshenko and C. kozlovi Kiritshenko, both from Tibet. Calacanthia tibetana, n. sp. Head black, with calloses next to eyes and frontal callosities flavous; ocelli small, yellowish, slightly elevated, separated by less than half of the diameter of an ocellus; eyes large, grayish brown, with a few very short hairs. Antennae rather stout, blackish fuscous with the inner sides of I and II flattened and testaceous, densely pilose with some scattered longer hairs; segments I and II stouter than others, with the pubescent hairs bordering pale flattened side whitish, with only a few stiff brown bristles on flavous surface, measurements—I, 30; II, 56; III, 36; IV, 40. Rostrum long, extending between hind coxae, brownish testaceous. Body beneath blackish with acetabula whitish testaceous and the posterior margins of ventrites whitish. Legs flavotestaceous; femora with posterior side and conspicuous spots (arranged in rows) dark fuscous; tibiae armed with long, dark brownish fuscous, stiff, bristly spines, which are placed on small dark fuscous spots, tips of tibiae also infuscate; tarsi with the short basal segment and also apical half of third dark fuscous. Pronotum black, slightly shining, finely rugulose, moderately narrowed anteriorly, with exterior margins nearly straight and narrowly margined (above and beneath) with flavous, more than twice as wide at base as median length (110:40); pubescence moderately dense, decumbent, grayish; callus large, not very high, not extending laterally on explanate margins, with a large, deep, discal impression; hind lobe short, scarcely half as long as callus, deeply broadly excavated behind. Sculellum large, very little convex, finely rugulose behind, transversely impressed at the middle, black slightly shining, with pubescence somewhat golden apically. Hemelytra rather dull, dark fuscous with a bluish tinge, clothed with short, somewhat fallen, golden pubescence; clavus without pale marks; corium quite variable in amount of flavous, with a few small flavous spots or with most of outer corium and outer part of inner corium DRAKE: NEW SALDIDAE 195 partly flavous; membrane dusky flavous, with four cells, each cell with fuscous spots. Length, 4.25-5.00 mm; width, 2.00-2.25 mm. Type (macropterous male) and _ allotype (macropterous female), Supi River, Tibet, under stones, altitude, 15,000 feet, H. G. Champion. Paratypes: 7 specimens, same data as type. Separated from C. trybomi (J. Sahlberg) by the flavous legs with fuscous markings, less elevated callus, shorter second antennal segment and lack of sparsely scattered long hairs on dorsal surface of hemelytra. Saldula championi, n. sp. (Fig. 1) Elongate, black, slightly shining, with promi- nent testaceous markings as described in struc- tures; dorsal surface clothed with fine, erect, pale hairs, the hairs more numerous on hemelytra. Head black, with a pale testaceous spot near the rounded excavation of each eye, with the usual long hairs; frontal callosities mostly flavous. Antennae blackish with the first segment and one side of second whitish or testaceous, the Es eee WAR AA} 7 9 Qe NY hay) SL ENA Vv GINSBURG: FOUR NEW FISHES Vif. A Le CM i 7 YK, e: Ze 4 4 KY YA JINVY\ ane K YOO AY ys he A 263 LLYMAE tts YH VN SEY PE ; his 4 res cet Lat otha ys RYERSS) = Yin “9 WiNeete A ah Oy RANA SONI Fic. 5.—Anthiasicus leptus Ginsburg, from the holotype (U.S.N.M. 134189), off Dauphin Island, Ala., 68 fathoms (29° 14’ 30” N., 88° 09’ 30” W.); about 160 mm, 108 mm in standard length. M. imperialis Cocco. The latter name is tenta- tively placed in the synonymy of Lirus ovalis by Regan (1902: 198). Consequently, according to these authors Mupus would seem to be prop- erly applied to the three species here considered. However, neither Regan nor anybody else to my knowledge has determined definitely the taxonomic status of Mupus imperialis Cocco by a study of original specimens. Therefore, I here prefer to use for this species the generic name Palinurichthys Bleeker, which has been proposed as a substitute for the preoccupied name Palinurus De Kay, because that name has been most often associated with the American species of the genus. iM ys ay) AK EY y 4) KY yr 53 x85 2 y a 9 ae sf oe 96, ok) Fowler (1936: 1281) substitutes Cocco’s name impervalis for ovalis “by right of slight priority,” also employing the generic name Mupus. How- ever, he does not present evidence to prove the synonymy used or to settle the question of priority. In our present connection attention should be called also to the following accounts: Palinurichthys griseolineatus Norman (1937: 117), described from the Atlantic coast of South America apparently differs from our species in its more numerous dorsal and anal rays, judged by its description. The species identified by Norman in the same paper as P. caeruleus (Guichenot) apparently differs from ours in IRD Fic. 6.—Anthiasicus leptus Ginsburg (U.S.N.M. 157788) from off Cape San Blas, Fla., 112 fathoms (29° 49’ N., 85° 45’ W.); 308 mm, 240 mm in standard length. 264 that the posterior curve in the lateral line is nearly absent and possibly also in having more numerous dorsal and anal rays. (Norman is uncertain of its counts.) Toledia macrophthalma Miranda Ribeiro (1915: Stromateidae, p. 5, photo.) described and il- lustrated by a photograph from a single larger specimen, 680 mm, from the coast of Brazil possibly also represents a related and congeneric species. It apparently nearly agrees in the dorsal and anal counts with bythites, but it is evidently a slenderer fish. Judged by the photograph the snout has its anterior profile oblique instead of vertical. Family SERRANIDAE Anthiasicus leptus Ginsburg Anthiasicus leptus Ginsburg, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 42 (8): 91, photo. 1952 (off Ala- bama). This species was described from a single. specimen 108 mm in standard length, about 160 mm in total length, taken by the Albatross in 1885. A considerably larger specimen which appears to be the same species was obtained by the Oregon (U.S.N.M. 157788). The counts of this specimen which is 308 mm long, 240 mm in standard length, are as follows: D X 14. A III 8. P 18. Se about 86. GR 10 + 27. These characters then agree closely with those of the holotype, and it apparently belongs to the same species. If so, this species undergoes a remark- able change with growth, as shown by the figures of the two specimens here published (Figs. 5, 6). The third dorsal spine and the second pelvic ray become greatly elongate and filamentous. Such growth changes are now and then dupli- cated in other serranids, although not often. On the other hand, in some instances such differ- ences constitute specific or even generic charac- ters. But the most remarkable growth change takes place in the shape of the caudal fin, from being deeply lunate to the unusual shape indi- cated on the drawing (Fig. 6). Four specimens in the Chicago Natural History Museum, in intermediate sizes between the foregoing two specimens, lend some con- firmation to the interpretation here given of growth changes in this species; but they do not complete the series to show a gradual transition. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 8 In view of these probable growth changes, the validity of the genus Anthiasicus, having leptus for its type species, becomes doubtful, as its distinction from related genera was based to a large extent on differences that now appear to be governed by remarkable growth changes. Perhaps Anthiasicus should be merged with Hemanthias which is based on peruanus, a species from the Pacific coast of South America. How- ever, only one specimen of the latter species, in indifferent condition, is available for compari- son, and Anthiasicus is here tentatively recog- nized pending an adequate study of pertinent, comparative material. LITERATURE CITED BLEEKER, PIETER. Atlas ichthyologique des Indes ortentales néérlandaises. Murénes, symbranches, leptocéphales 4: 1-132, pls. 145-193. 1864. Day, Francis. The fishes of India 2: 1~-xx + 321-778, pls. 69-195. London, 1878. Fow.er, Henry W. The marine fishes of West Africa. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (2): 607-1493. 1936. GinsBuRG, Isaac. The eels of the northern Gulf coast of the United States and some related species. Texas Journ. Sci. 3 (3) : 431-485. 1951. JORDAN, Davip 8S. The genera of fishes 3: 285-410 + 1-xv. 1919. Kaup, J. J. Catalogue of apodal fish in the collec- tion of the British Museum: vi1t + 1-163, 29 pls. London, 1856. MrranpA Riserro, Auipio de. Fauna Brasiliense— Peixes. Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, 17: [679]. 1915. (No consecutive page numbers, no plate numbers. ) . Fauna Brasiliense—Peizes. Summario do Tomo V. Ibid. 21: 227. 1918. (index to pre- ceding, giving page numbers omitted in that volume). : Norman, JoHN R. Coast fishes. Part II. The Patagonian region. Discovery Rep. 16: 1-150, pls. -v. 1937. REGAN, C. Tate. A revision of the fishes of the family Stromaterdae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 10: 115-131, 194-207. 1902. RIcHARDSON, JOHN. In The zoology of the voyage of H. M. S. Sulphur, under the command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, during the years 1836-42; edited by R. B. Hinds. Ichthyology: 51-150, 30 pls. London, 1844. Smitu, JAMES L. B. The sea fishes of southern Africa: 550 pp., many illustrations and colored plates. 1949a.. The stromateid fishes of South Africa. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (12) 2: 839-851. 1949b. VAILLANT, L. Expeditions scientifiques du Tra- vailler et du Talisman. Poissons: 1-406, pls. 1-28. Paris, 1888. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences SEP CPP ee Francis M. Dreranporr, National Bureau of Standards CE 7 re MARGARET PitrmMaNn, National Institutes of Health i de fee Sats, se ok acnge oss 8 Jason R. Swauuen, U.S. National Museum WwOSUrer........%. Howarp 8. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) MEN a coh ws SS ey huis ss ws Sh JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraxp A. Reuper, U. 8. 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REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: MIMIC 5h oo ig Sd go Satin a ee Ge Bes R. G. Bates, W. W. Dieu EMPEMEM MEE SI e 8 ies TM Beenie ee os adie a PES M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER SES LE ae A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. GuRNEY Peemne) WIAmagers.....'...-. 0-2... 2 ease All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Pee manars and Associate Editors..........2-- 000-6 -20 cece ee nes [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. DeranporF (chairman), MARGARET PITTMAN, J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership....HE1Nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Rocer W. Curtis, JoHN Faser, J. J. Fanty, FRancois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMaker, Cuarence H. Horrmann, Louis R. Maxwe.tu, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEO A. SHINN, FRANcis A. SMITH, ALFRED WEISSLER Committee on Meetings............... Doruanpd J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN V. ASTIN, GeorcE A. Hottrie, Martin A. Mason, Wittiam W. 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WrEpDEL CONTENTS Page PALEONTOLOGY.—Some primitive fossil pelecypods and their possible sionificance, HH. Ki. VOKES.).) 2.2.0). i404. oa) ve ee 233 MycoLtocy.—A phanomyces euteiches from pea roots and “Aphanomyces euteiches P. F. 2.” CHarues DRECHSLER.............72¢ 52 236 ZooLocy.—Observations on the feeding of prostigmatid larvae (Acarina: Trombidiformes) on arthropods. G. W. WHARTON ..... Pe 244 ENTOMOLOGY.—F ive new species of chrysomelid beetles. Doris H. BLAKE 246 HeRPETOLOGY.—On a collection of amphibians from Mount Kina Balu, North Borneo. Ropert F. INGper............... Vets 250 Matacotoey.—The weight relations between shell and soft tissues during the growth of some fresh-water snails. M. O. Nouan and THEODOR VON BRAND... 25 o.oo ee a ee oh el 251 IcHTHYOLOGY.—Four new fishes and one little-known species from the - east coast of the United States including the Gulf of Mexico. 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Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44 September 1954. No. 9 PHYSICS.—Advantages and disadvantages of various interpretations of the quantum theory.. HENRY Marcenau, Yale University. (Communicated by Richard K. Cook.) STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Joseph Henry’s genius was attracted pri- marily to the great experimental problems of his age. Although he was a professor of natural philosophy, a discipline which a century ago combined the various branches of physical science, he is not known to have indulged in the kind of formal considera- tions to which the title of this evening’s dis- course alludes. Yet I am confident that my subject is not wholly inappropriate to the occasion of a lecture in honor of Joseph Henry. For his eminent biographer Charles Greeley Abbot describes him as ‘‘a man of varied culture, of large breadth and liberality of views, of generous impulses and of great gentleness and courtesy of manner.’’ Hence, while the speculations on which I am about to embark can hardly aspire to honor his memory, we may take comfort in supposing that he would gracefully listen to them and accept them as a small token of respect. Questions as to fundamental meanings have accompanied the development of the quantum theory from the beginning. They appeared in the controversy over the wave- particle dualism, in the problem of observa- bility posed by Heisenberg’s matrix me- chanics, in the early pilot wave conjectures of De Broglie, in the complementary prin- ciple of Bohr. They have been revived by the recent publications of Bohm, De Broglie, Vigier, and Weizel. It is the attempts of these latter authors I should like to ap- praise in simple philosophic terms. Contrary to widespread belief, the problem in question is not difficult to conceive or to 1The Twenty-third Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington, de- livered before the Society on March 26, 1954. explain. I shall endeavor to present it in its basic features, shunning the artifacts of mathematics, which often serve to becloud the scene. The details, it is true, can hardly be treated without analysis. But the details are not in doubt; the controversy concerns their interpretation. It is therefore proper to select for study the simplest possible in- stances of quantum mechanical reasoning and examine their bearing upon the issues of the present debate. The first example I propose is the motion of a firefly in a dark summer night. To the eye, the motion of this insect is not con- tinuous; what it presents is a succession of bright spots or streaks at different places in our field of view. The judgment that this phenomenon represents the uninterrupted passage of an object from one point of space to another is based, strictly speaking, on an interpolation between the bursts of luminos- ity that are actually perceived. Yet common sense, and indeed scientific description, re- gard themselves fully justified in performing that ideal supplementation of immediate perception which the interpretation of these sporadic darts as continuous motion de- mands. The chief reasons for this attitude are the following: First, the hypothesis of continuous motion is testable through other experience. It is possible to watch the firefly in the daytime, when its progression from point to point be- comes visible. This settles the issue in large part, although it may not convince the in- -veterate skeptic who feels that, when un- illuminated, the firefly behaves like the angles to whom St. Thomas attributed the ability of emerging at separate points with- out having to traverse the intervening dis- 265 266 tance. To answer the skeptic, we must demonstrate the simplicity and convenience of the continuity hypothesis. Thus we add to the fact of partial testability a second item of evidence of a more rational sort, namely, the simplicity of the geometric curve on which the luminous dots are situ- ated. If the interpolated path were very irregular, showed unlikely curvatures and strange convolutions, doubts as to con- tinuity might remain; the smoothness of the plotted trajectory goes a long way toward removing them. The validity of every scientific theory, even the simplest, rests ultimately on two kinds of evidence: (1) empirical verifiability of some of its consequences, and (2) rational coherence, economy of thought, or simplicity conveyed by the ideas composing the theory. Atomic entities, like electrons, present phenomena which, on the purely empirical side, are not unlike the sporadic emergences of a lightning bug at night. To be sure, the electron in an atom cannot be seen. Never- theless if the results of experiments and ob- servations using the refined techniques of modern physics can be trusted, an electron in what is called a Bohr orbit reveals its position as a random set of points located throughout a region of space in the neighbor- hood of the classical orbit. More precisely, if a series of position measurements were made while the electron is in the unvarying state known as the ground state of the hydro- gen atom, the results would form a probabil- ity aggregate of known spatial distribution, the individual positions thus established will dot this region in a curious manner, offering no immediate suggestion as to con- tinuity of motion. Thus the question naturally arises: Can we regularize these emergences by the same principles we employed in concluding that the path of the lightning bug was con- tinuous? Or do we confront here a situation calling for entirely different treatment? Unfortunately, the road leading to em- pirical verification of the continuity hy- pothesis is blocked, not merely by incidental obstacles arising from imperfections of measurement or observation, but also by infelicities of a fundamental kind. The elec- tron is intrinsically too small to be seen; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 9 the act of vision, even if it were possible, requires a time too long for a clear ascertain- ment of instantaneous positions; last but not least important is the fact that elementary particles are promiscuous entities with a perversity which prevents us from ever being sure that we see the same individual in different observations. If these difficulties seem inessential, if hope still remains that they may be overcome in the future, then we need to remember that their denial con- tradicts the basic tenets of the quantum theory, the only theory capable of explain- ing what can in fact be observed about electrons. The conclusion is inescapable: there is no daytime in which the electron’s path could be watched. Let us therefore examine the continuity interpretation from the point of view of simplicity or economy of thought. Here we encounter another failure. A curve drawn through the measured points becomes com- plicated and aimless, wandering in erratic fashion, with no preference for connecting neighbors, a curve intertwining and crossing itself in obvious labour to accommodate the positions of the particle. Certainly nothing is gained in ease of conception, in plausi- bility, or in power of prediction by this familiar artifact. -Thus it is seen that the physical micro- cosm, the atomic realm, confronts the physicist with a novel kind of problem in interpretation, with a challenge to simplify or rationalize perhaps in ways to which he is not accustomed. And nature is not gen- erous in providing hints for the solution of this methodological puzzle; the difficulties of direct verification we have already noted are so great that theories cannot be readily exposed to test. The sphinx is noncommittal. The physicist has an embarrassing amount of freedom in making his interpretations. And how happily would he welcome the logical experts on ‘“‘theory construction,” the men who have put scientific procedure in pigeon holes, to whom the facts suggest in- ductively an hypothesis with computable probability. Here is a place where the prin- ciples of theory construction could be tried in vitro, with benefit for science itself. But nothing seems to be happening to relieve the suspicion that there are no recipes for SEPTEMBER 1954 MARGENAU: INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY constructing successful theories, that the creative act in factual discovery as well as in theoretical interpretation refuses to be codified. Let us return, then, to the physics of the situation and examine the proposals in terms of which the antics of the electronic lightning bug have thus far been rationalized. THE MECHANISTIC THESIS There are three distinguishable views with possible gradations between them. The first of them, which I have somewhat bluntly called mechanistic, is a continuation of time- honored procedures in classical physics or, in the eyes of its opponents, an obsolete hangover from an unenlightened past. It persists in portraying phenomena continu- ously in time and space despite the diffi- culties we have noted; it goes on using visual models where vision palpably fails. It re- affirms the convictions of a number of famous nineteenth-century scientists (Max- well, Kirchhoff) who saw the aim of all science in the discovery of models which allow an understanding of phenomena by their interaction in time and space. De Broglie, one of the foremost advocates of this school, identifies pictorability in time and space with ‘‘clart6é Cartésien.”’ The word mechanistic is literally ap- plicable only to the simplest variety of space- time interpretations; others are more refined and complex, introduce nonmechanical agencies like fields, both three- and many- dimensional, but continue to avow the real existence of specific world lines, of detailed trajectories in a continuous space-time mani- fold. These latter formulations, which in- clude the theories of De Broglie and Bohm, might be called quasimechanistic, in a deep philosophic sense however they are related to the others and I shall not hesitate to deal with them as special versions of the mecha- nistic thesis. Our attention must thus be directed, under this heading, to two related attempts at explanation, one simple and the other more refined. The simple one sees the cause for the firefly behavior of electrons in the havoc wrought by the measuring process. It holds that the electron has a perfectly determinate position at all times, but this position is disturbed by the photon which, on being 267 reflected, carries to the eye or to the measur- ing device the information where the electron was. The photon imparts to the electron a recoil which in consequence makes the position of the latter object uncertain. It will be recalled that all early explanations of the uncertainty principle invoked me- chanical processes of this kind: transfer of momentum, or energy, scattering, lack of temporal precision of the measuring act with consequent uncertainty in the position of the observed object. Furthermore, if the particle aspect did not yield a convincing demonstration of uncertainty, there was always the wave nature of electrons to be drawn upon for further evidence. The inherent plausibility of this reasoning is strengthened by the circumstance that it shows why atomic particles are erratic and the objects of our daily lives are not. A single photon represents a negligible dis- turbance when it impinges on bodies of ordi- nary size, but is a very energetic and dis- arranging missile when fired upon the miniscule electron. And the quantum theory shows that its energy cannot be made arbi- trarily small, its amount being fixed at hv. Why, then, does this simple explanation fail to command universal acceptance? Its shortcomings are fairly impressive: In the first place there are unquantized missiles such as other particles, for which the last pre- ceding argument does not hold. Secondly, it is hard to see why the measuring disturb- ance should destroy the state before the measurement, why it should not convey in- formation as to what the electron’s position was prior to the act of collision. An operation can effect a successful diagnosis of a disease even if its kills the patient! Finally, to ex- tend the criticism, it is possible to show that the uncertainty principle, which we may look upon as a quantitative expression of the erratic behaviour in question, 1s a conse- quence of the basic laws of quantum me- chanics and makes no direct reference to the destructive effects of measurements. None of these objections, however, is en- tirely conclusive; they are merely irritating and can be removed by clever reasoning, chiefly by a skillful use of the so-called wave-particle dualism. But the major blow to the simple mechanistic view comes from 268 the realization that, even if it is adopted, it provides no opportunity for calculating or predicting the mysterious disturbances that confuse the otherwise clean trajectories. It asserts their presence and resigns. It forms an idle embellishment of the facts and yields perhaps esthetic, not scientific or philosophic, satisfaction. The refined version of the mechanistic thesis promulgated by De Broglie, Bohm, and Vigier is largely immune to such ele- mentary criticisms. It is far more explicit and does an analytically competent job of interpreting the fundamental equations of quantum mechanics. It seizes upon a well- known connection between the Hamilton- Jacobi equation of classical physics and the Schroedinger equation, splits the latter into a pair of real equations, one of which can be used to define a path for the electron. This path is disturbed, not by interfering measurements, but by a nonclassical field — arising from the presence of the electron itself. When a measurement is actually per- formed, this somewhat mysterious field, in conjunction with the measuring instrument, brings about the emergence of the particle at the place of registration. Admittedly such reasoning is complicated and, because of its appeal to an unorthodox and special kind of field, perhaps in need of treatment by Occam’s razor. But the formal structure of the theory is without flaws, and it is developing, chiefly through the work of Bohm, into an amazingly con- sistent formalism. De Broglie, it is true, takes exception to the lastest forms of it, but on grounds of extrascientific convictions and of the lack of plausibility of the quantum field. Briefly, his objections are these: (a) According to Bohm’s interpretation an electron in an S-state does not move, thus contradicting a notion familiar in physics since the days of the Bohr theory. (b) The state function (W) can not repre- sent physical reality because it is complex, and it extends in configuration space of many dimensions, not in ordinary space. (This argument can be met by supposing that the forces conveyed by the nonclassical field are complicated many-body forces.) (c) Finally, De Broglie points out, the physical act called measurement is turned JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 into a mystery, for it involves a sudden, in- finitely rapid collapse of the y-field, which before the measurement filled all space, upon the immediate locus of the electron. This is not the place to examine the sound- ness of the foregoing strictures; some of them have plagued quantum mechanics from its beginning and apply to other interpretations as well. The last point, which adverts to the sudden disappearance of the y-field upon measurement, is often made and presents in my opinion an insurmountable difficulty to every mechanistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. But more of this later. Let it be noted for the present that the controversy involves no questions of em- pirical fact and that the view here outlined is perfectly tenable in the face of what is now established scientific knowledge. Before turning to another doctrine I should like to say why I did not follow the custom of calling the interpretation here under review a causal one. That adjective is correct but not discriminating, for there is another type of description, outlined hereinafter, which in a certain sense is causal too. What characterizes Bohm’s ideas is a narrowly mechanistic form of causality, not causality in its widest scope. THE FORMALISTIC THESIS Many a modern scientist will question the wisdom of indulging in considerations as speculative as the preceding, may even doubt that they have meaning. He will ask: do we not have a formal theory satisfactory for making valid predictions about things that matter? Why bother about interpreta- tions beyond necessity? This positivistic attitude takes what is good and useful in modern theory, systematizes it as well as possible, and does not feel the pangs of conscience that afflict the tenderhearted metaphysician. The view sympathetic to it may be sketched as follows: It takes the vagaries of the electron as facts. If pressed, it regards them as symp- toms of disturbances by measuring devices but. grants that every attempt to predict them or to understand: them in detail is useless and in need of discouragement. Particles have positions in space and time under all circumstances, but atomic nature is SEPTEMBER 1954 so constituted that we can often not know them. Because of this, a single measurement of position—or in general of any observable attribute—can not function as the _ basis of a precise and valid prediction. To make some sort of prediction possible the physicist introduces his y-functions, which are essentially measures of informa- tion. Being incomplete as carriers of informa- tion, these functions permit only statistical predictions concerning aggregates of future events. Individual events, though always embedded in continuous temporal and spatial sequences, thus lose their effective- ness as causal agents in the physical world. To restore causality in a statistical sense, another description is required, a descrip- tion in terms of y-functions, which are often waves. The universe of happenings is thus divided into two separable strands of de- velopment, one consisting of events in space- time with real but unknowable connections between them and devoid of causal nexus, the other a ghostlike space-time manifold of causally evolving states whose relation to observable events is but statistical. The square of y in this interpretation, as in all others, represents a probability; but here a probability of a rather special kind. As is well known, probabilities are sometimes regarded as subjective measures of knowl- edge or belief, sometimes as objective fre- quencies (or limits of frequencies). Subjective probabilities change discontinuously with evidence, the others do not. Thus, for ex- ample, before a die is thrown, the subjective probability of the appearance of a five is 1%. After a throw it is either 0 or 1. The objective probability is 4 at all times, for the fre- quency always refers to a large aggregate of throws and is unaltered by a single event. The formalistic view, insofar as it has be- come explicit on this issue, adopts the sub- jective meaning of probability. It assumes, for instance, that the y-function suddenly collapses from the field-like distribution throughout space to asmall, pointlike residue at the instant of a measurement. Bohr’s authority stands impressively be- hind this doctrine. He speaks of it as the principle of complementarity and regards it as the final form of physical analysis. The two modes of describing our experience, ir- MARGENAU: INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY 269 reconcilable in man’s mind, are the best we can achieve; the dualism they imply is here to stay. It stands as a memento to the funda- mental truth that, in exploring nature, we become disturbing (or, if you will, creative) agents and thereby alter what would other- wise have been the case. This view, appealing because of its candor and its seeming modesty, is espoused in its essence by the majority of physicists. To acknowledge the dualism has many soothing advantages, as every other form of dualism does. It relieves its advocates of the need to ‘bridge a chasm in understanding by declar- ing that chasm to be unbridgeable and perennial; it legislates a difficulty into a norm. It is little wonder, therefore, that philosophers at times feel ill at ease when studying this solution of a dilemma, a solu- tion which pays its respects to both horns. But the reward for this accomplishment is quite considerable: it gives the physicist a powerful philosophic tool. Clearly, if the most fundamental of all sciences has to accept complementarity, is 1t not natural that bifurcation should also pervade the lesser realms? Are not the mind-body problem, the conflict between values and fact, between freedom and necessity, mere manifestations of complementarity? I fear that my own lack of sympathy with these extrapolations of the formalistic thesis has been ill concealed. Bohr’s own cautious formulation does not suffer from such in- discretions. Yet it does commit physics to a dualism which is neither simple nor il- luminating. A THIRD INTERPRETATION It is possible to avoid the dualism by an interpretation which is philosophically more radical and more profound, a view that asks for a surrender of certain familiar habits of thought and a few cherished conceptions. To many, this price seems too high. I shall try to make this thesis as reasonable as pos- sible, for it is the one which in view of all present evidence I find most congenial. Why not simply deny that the electron has a position at all times? The real firefly partakes of ‘‘simple location,” to use White- head’s phrase, for the reasons we have men- tioned: its path can be directly inspected 270 and the use of continuous interpolation be- tween uninspected points leads to a simple and reasonable theoretical account. Neither is true for the electronic lightning bug! Of course one feels, initially, that somehow the electron must have a position, that posi- tion is an essential property of real material things. But this is clearly an example of ac- cepting what Whitehead calls the fallacy of simple location. As we learn more and more about the world, we are asked to sacrifice in increasing measure the facile and picturesque presumptions of what we call so ineptly ‘‘common sense’’. It was com- mon sense that argued that all physical entities, to be real, must occupy space; must have color even if they are smaller than a wavelength of visible light; must have defi- nite shapes even if invisible; it was common sense that said the universe must be Euclid- ean, simultaneity must be absolute, and there must be an ether. The present situa- tion, it seems, demands the courage and the modesty to disavow common sense; courage in the sense of D’Alembert’s admonition, “Allez en avant, la foi vous viendra’’; and humility to grant that knowledge in one domain does not render us wise enough to foretell another. In the spirit of these injunctions we ought perhaps to admit that position—and with it many other observables—are undergoing the fate that befell the idea of color: it is not generally applicable to things that are too small or too elusive to be seen. Nor is it proper to ask whether such objects are particles or waves; the very denial of the unrestricted meaningfulness of the concepts position, size, etc., prevents it from being answered. Note, however, that this ac- knowledgement does not destroy our right to affirm the electron’s presence as an ob- jective component of reality. For it merely substitutes certain abstract qualities for those we deemed obvious and immediate; it substitutes mathematical models for mechanical ones. Logically, there is no reason why the character of an entity should be described by a visual image rather than a Hamiltonian. The view in question is the culmination of a philosophic development of long stand- ing. Galileo introduced the distinction be- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 tween primary and secondary qualities, Locke and Descartes employed it signifi- cantly in their own philosophies. Primary qualities are those which are resident within their object; they are inalienable from it and make up its essence. Secondary qualities arise in the act of perception, are subjective in the simple sense of that word and are therefore less certain. To many of us, size, mass, atomic structure are primary qualities of a material body, whereas heaviness, color, temperature are secondary. But the very recital of such specific examples already tends to be embarrassing, and I for one would not care to defend the assertion that mass is primary and temperature secondary. Yet in early Greek philosophy, Anaxagoras thought it perfectly plausible to assign to his ‘“‘elements’’ (homeomerics) the intrinsic property of taste. Even this superficial account suggests what has in fact taken place throughout the history of natural philosophy. Primary qualities, first posited and affirmed with innocence and _ scientific blissfulness, en- gaged in a continual retreat before the on- slaught of science. One after another of them was converted into a secondary quality, until today we are wondering whether per- haps the distinction is illusory, whether perhaps all qualities are secondary. To sharpen this issue, I propose a shift of attention. The distinction between pri- mary and secondary qualities is indeed of lesser interest today and may be regarded as settled, as Jeans believes. But though it be dead, its ghost is still very much alive and amongst us. The contrast, or at any rate the difference, is now between what I have called elsewhere possessed and latent observables. Possessed are those, like mass and charge of an electron, whose values are ‘antrinsic,’? do not vary except in a con- tinuous manner, as for example the mass does with changing velocity. The others are quantized, have eigenvalues, are subject to the uncertainty principle, manifest them- selves as clearly present only upon measure- ment. I believe they are ‘“‘not always there,” that they take on values when an act of measurement, a perception, forces them out of indiscriminacy or latency. If this notion seems grotesque, let it be remembered that SEPTEMBER 1954 other sciences, indeed common sense, em- ploy it widely. Happiness, equanimity are observable qualities of man, but they are latent qualities which need not be present at all times; they, too, can spring into being or be destroyed by an act of inquiry, a psy- chological measurement. The third inter- pretation regards the position of the elec- tronic lightning bug as a latent observable. It is less committal than the others. For clearly, if the electron did have a determinate position at all times and we could not pos- sibly know it, this view would still stand aright. Likewise, it is compatible with, though again less committal than, the appeal to measurement as bringing about this latency. Perhaps it is an instrumental dis- turbance that does it, perhaps—and I should favor this conjecture—there is an irreducible haziness in the very essence of perceived phenomena of which Planck’s constant h is the quantitative expression. It may be that this latency affects even the identity of an electron, that the electron is not the same entity with equal intrinsic observables at different times. The suggestiveness of the hypothesis is evident, and with it the danger of mysticism. When the view is shorn of its extraneous implications, it avers that the electron zs where it is measured, that it may be nowhere when it is not measured, that a measurement, properly contrived, may cause it to appear somewhere. The advocate of this view is not entitled to speculate about real trajectories, to follow his mechanistic propensity of picturing the motion of an atomic particle accurately in space and time (except as an approximation). We thereby cut off one horn of the complementarity dilemma and take as the only valid descrip- tion of reality the y-function formulation. Before seeing what that entails, let me insert another word about the difference between possessed and latent observables, a specula- tive word. | I believe that this contrast, like that be- tween primary and secondary qualities, will ultimately be resolved in favor of the latent observables, that is, the representation of physical observables in terms of operators rather than c-numbers is probably funda- mental, and we shall perhaps find suitable operators for charges and masses as we have MARGENAU: INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY 271 for positions, momenta, energies, spins, and all the rest. The fact that under certain conditions quantization, uncertainty and latency seem to be absent, as in the large- scale world, is guaranteed by Bohr’s cor- respondence principle, which is not a special postulate but can be derived from the axioms of quantum mechanics. Now, in what sense can the shadowy y- functions of the Schrodinger equation be real? Let us translate the question into the familiar terms of the lightning bug phe- nomenon. The y-function, when squared, represents the probability that a speck of luminosity will appear in a specified volume under scrutiny, or still less technically, the number of times I see a speck divided by the number of times I have looked. There is nothing vague or tentative about such probabilities; they are numbers obtainable by observations just like those which de- scribe all other physical fields. The only difference is that a probability number re- quires numerous observations in order to be established, whereas an electric field strength can in principle be determined by a single observation. In practice, however, the physicist is able to perform his set of observations in a single act because he has available a large number of similar atomic systems. For example, a single illumination of hydrogen atoms by an X-ray beam pro- duces a pattern on a photographic plate from which the probabilities of position for an electron can be inferred. Hence even the one methodological distinction between a probability field and other fields is largely academic. Yet physicists, mindful of earlier theories which used probabilities only a faute de mieux, have come to associate with them a flavor of ignorance, a mental quality; they often regard them as subjective appraisals of a situation not completely understood, or as intrusions of metaphysics into the ob- jective scheme of things. There are many signs on the horizons of modern science which belie this view, interesting new develop- ments in mathematics, statistical me- chanics, and information theory that he beyond the scope of this account. Hence one may well regard the denial of real status and fundamental importance to probabili- 272 ties, which is so characteristic of classical physics, as an outmoded attitude. This leads me to suggest that we grant consciously to probability the function which in fact it already assumes: to serve as the fundamental determinant of experiences in a real world. After all there is nothing illogical in the seemingly grotesque conception of probabili- ties flying about in space! Their relation to observational experience is certainly no more remote than the connection between a light wave and its visual manifestation, or indeed between the observed emission of a beta ray and a neutrino field. Nor does it put any strain upon common sense in the world at large, for the correspondence principle con- verts all probabilities referring to ordinary objects into 6-functions (i.e. pointlike con- centrations at the place where the object is conceived to be), and there is no difference between probabilities flying through space in the form of 6-functions and classical ob- jects! This third interpretation is simple as a philosophic doctrine, monistic by virtue of its rejection of detailed particle trajectories, objective because it takes its probabilities as measurable fields and not as indexes of knowledge or belief; unfortunately, how- ever, it demands a maximum departure from familiar lines of thought. I have chosen not to name this view because it is difficult to label in a simple way. V. F. Lenzen (Causality in natural science, 1954) calls it the objective view because it ascribes ob- jective reality to probabilities. This termi- nology seems to me very appropriate. On what grounds are we to judge these three interpretations? Is the final verdict as to their validity a matter of personal taste? The state of affairs here is quite different from what it ordinarily is in science; no crucial experiment being available for discrimination. In such cases recourse can and must be taken to the principles of scientific methodology, for in the last analy- sis these provide the criteria which every good scientific theory must satisfy. I shall therefore give a brief review of these prin- ciples. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE Science serves to make reasonable or understandable as large as possible a portion JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 of our experience. Certain parts of experience’ like fleeting sensations, unrelated percep- tions and observations, are in themselves devoid of rational order. Science strives to make them coherent, not so much in their direct setting, but by carefully associating with them specific ideal structures some- times called concepts or constructs, and by endeavoring to reproduce among these meaningfully related structures the per- ceptory sequence of immediate facts. Permit me, to avoid circumlocutions, to state the essence of scientific method in somewhat arbitrary but pictorial terms (cf. The nature of physical reality, 1950). The figure represents what one might call a section of our (cognitive) experience. Its limit is the P-plane (P for ‘‘perception”’ or ‘protocol’ [public record]), the locus of immediate perceptions, observations, data or anything else we deem incontrovertible. It is in a sense a boundary of our experience, because we do not go beyond it to anything more ultimate in science as such. To the left of the P-plane extends a vast domain per- vaded, as it were, by rational texture. It is the field of concepts or constructs (C-field), populated by originally ideal entities which habit, plausibility considerations, or out- right postulation has associated with the data on the P-plane. The linkages between the P-elements and the C-elements will be called rules of correspondence. Under certain conditions, to be outlined presently, the constructs take on scientific validity, assume an approved status as real entities in the world or, as I shall briefly say, become verifacts. In popular, ontological language, these verifacts ‘‘exist.’’ It is clearly of prime importance to know the criteria under which the transformation from the tentative character of a construct to the approved state of a verifact takes place. These criteria may be found, not in speculative conjectures about first principles or rules of thought, but through a study of the actual procedures in historical science. Such a study, it seems to me, yields two classes of verifying conditions. In the first place, the constructs employed in scientific explanation must satisfy certain vague formal requirements which often go under the names of coherence, neatness, or economy of hypotheses. Secondly, they must SEPTEMBER 1954 “aoree”’ with the facts of the P-plane. Let us call these two requirements the metaphysical and the empirical criteria. Each is, of course, in need of a more meticulous analysis than this brief survey can undertake; their general features, however, can be sketched. The meaning of the second, the empirical set of requirements, is illustrated by the line E, which starts on the P-plane, moves via rules of correspondence to the C-field and finally returns to P. It represents a typi- eal circwt of empirical verification. Some observations (like Newton’s falling apple) suggest constructs (mass, acceleration, force of gravitation) which, when combined in accordance with theoretical rules applying to these constructs, allow a return to the P-plane at some other place (motion of the moon). Thus, on the basis of some initial facts, a. prediction of other facts has been made. Circuits of this kind are extremely numerous, and each can be traversed in both directions. When a given set of constructs, C- Field P- Plane Fic. 1.—Constructs (designated by circles) are connected by formal relations (light lines) to one another; some are linked by rules of cor- respondence, which usually are operational defini- tions, to the plane of perception (P-plane). Metaphysical requirements regulate the C-field; verified sets of connected constructs, i.e. accepted theories, can be traversed by circuits of empirical confirmation, one of which is drawn as E. MARGENAU: INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY 273 a theory, has been crossed by a sufficient number of circuits like E, it is said to be empirically valid. The metaphysical requirements are of another sort, for they do not relate to specific matters on the P-plane. Rather, they con- stitute ideal devices by means of which the a priori fitness of the constructs is ap- praised. No attempt will here be made to present them in their fullness. Let us rather discuss the three which are of greatest rele- vance to the interpretations of the quantum theory. In the first instance, the constructs of a theory must be so chosen and connected as to permit continuous and uniquely determi- nable sequences of states. This is often called the postulate of causality; it is also regarded by many as differentiating between the mechanistic thesis which is said to obey it, and the other two interpretations which do not. The principle of causality in what seems to me to be its simplest and clearest form requires only this: that physical systems be described in terms of states which are self- unfolding in a determinate manner; that the state of a system at time ¢ be sufficient for a prediction of the state (i.e., the values of the same crucial variables) at any other time t’. The principle does not spell out what these states must be, leaving mechanics free to operate with positions and momenta of particles, electrodynamics to use field vari- ables, hydrodynamics to use pressures and velocities at points. Nor does it discriminate against the use of y-functions in quantum mechanics. And these y-functions are ele- ments of a causal description whether y refers to an ensemble of trajectories as in Bohm’s interpretation; or whether it is the probability amplitude of a statistical en- semble. Only if the special mechanistic ver- sion of causality, the version which requires that prediction be based on single observa- tions or individual events, is given unique and preeminent importance, does the third interpetation become noncausal. However, this narrow insistence does violence to a wider methodology of science and is dif- ficult to justify. Next among the three metaphysical re- quirements I have chosen to offer for con- sideration is extensibility. A theory must be 274 extensible to a large domain of facts. Science prefers that one among rival theories which is applicable to the greatest number of phe- nomena. From this point of view Newton’s theory of dynamics was preferable to Aris- totle’s, Maxwell’s equations are preferable to theories of Faraday and Ampére, Ein- stein’s general theory of gravitation is prefer- able to Newton’s, the quantum theory to classical dynamics. The principle of ex- tensibility (or extensiveness) itself is vague in logical contour; one cannot say in any given instance whether a theory is suf- ficiently extensive or not. Its power arises, as with all metaphysical principles, from the fact that the scientist is apparently always able to form an intuitive judgment with regard to sufficiency. Even more ef- fectively can he use the principle in dis- criminating between competing theories. Finally, there is the requirement of sim- plicity. Again, I do not feel the need for defining the exact meaning of simplicity, nor do other scientists who use this idea in their appraisal of theories. In practice, and certainly for our present purposes, its inten- tion is clear, I am sure. Galileo’s description of free fall was simpler than, say, Tartaglia’s; Newton’s theory of motion simpler than Aristotle’s; Copernicus’ astronomy simpler than Ptolemy’s; the electromagnetic theory of ight simpler than the late ether theories; the S-matrix approach in nuclear theory is simpler than the use of different nuclear potentials on different occasions, and so on. These requirements are felt in all disciplines given to careful thought: even philosophers prefer monism to pluralism because of its better accord with the requirements of ex- tensibility and simplicity. Having now come to the end of our sketch of the methodology of science, we are perhaps in better position to judge the advantages and disadvantages of the inter- pretations of quantum mechanics described hereinbefore. It should be acknowledged, however, that the situation under study differs from those normally met in science, and presents unusual difficulties, because of the paucity of decisive data on the P- plane. For curiously, the known facts are explained by all three interpretations, and unknown facts crucial to one thesis and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 not to the others are extremely difficult to obtain. It is evident, therefore, that we are forced to place an abnormal reliance on the metaphysical principles. By and large, the circuits of empirical verification start at the same points on the P-plane and end at the same points in the three different interpretations. And where the mechanistic thesis does suggest possible discriminating observations, experience is noncommittal. As a case in point I refer to a paper by Weizel (Zeitschr. fiir Phys. 134: 264, 1953). This author takes the mechanistic thesis seriously and considers what, in mechanical terms, Bohm’s quantum mechanical field might be. He asks: what kind of physical entity, thus far undiscovered, could pos- sibly interact with the invisible firefly in a manner producing its erratic appearances? It must be able to act on the firefly without suffering a reaction itself, and this is a difficult assignment. But Weizel does find a suitable mechanism which he ealls a ‘““zeron’’; he visualizes it as a sort of jellyfish moving with the speed of light, yet able to absorb an electron of given momentum and to spew it forth again with the same momentum at another place. Needless to say, these zerons have not been found. ASSESSMENT OF MERITS AND DEMERITS We now bring the principles of method to bear upon the three interpretations, hoping to reach some verdict. Let us make sure that all the evidence has been heard. I have reason to think that many of you doubt this point and are disposed to say that I have packed the court against the interests of the mechanistic view. For I have said nothing about pzctorability of constructs as a requirement for a good theory; I have placed an abstract notion like entropy, field strength or probability, on a par with MRube-Goldberg devices. Nothing has been said in favor of visual models. Is this fair? To be sure, most of us find pictorable models like billiard balls or waves highly desirable and convenient; indeed we often use them in our reasoning when we know we should not. They are suggestive, con- ducive to clarity of thought. The reason is SEPTEMBER 1954 MARGENAU: INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY doubtless psychological: our sensory experi- ence is strongly colored by our visual sense; people learn most easily by seeing. But it is also true that science has carried us very far beyond the range of vision, and to assume that pictures are useful where vision fails is wholly without logical cogency. On the other hand, physics uses nonpictorial ele- ments with great success, as in electro- dynamics. This sometimes fails to be recog- nized because physicists gain familiarity with E and H through use and then mistake what seems familiar for what is pictorable. My own uneasiness about including pictorability in the list of metaphysical requirements arises from the intolerable way in which it contradicts or curtails both extensiveness and simplicity. If physics were to insist on it, its methods would not embrace the present procedures of Gestalt- ism and behaviorism in psychology, of social theories and economics. For such constructs as Gestalt, drive, habit, supply and demand have very little in the way of mechanistic pictorialness. This is my pri- mary reason for omitting the (pseudo-) postulate in question. A while ago I spoke of rendering a verdict; yet this is hardly what the occasion de- mands. We have seen that the scientific evidence is not complete and that only half the resources of scientific methodology, namely the metaphysical ones, can be drawn upon. Let us therefore temper our judgment with modesty and concede that part of it depends on taste. We are somewhat in the position of a literary critic evaluating three poems and cannot expect finality or general acceptance of our conclusions. Or, with greater optimism, we may consider ourselves in the position of a teacher who grades three themes, themes which he does not fully understand. 7 Here are the marks I would assign. On the score of causality, the mechanistic thesis gets a perfect mark; but the third interpretation ranks equally, for we have agreed not to discriminate unfairly between mechanical and statistical causation. The formalistic view renounces causality in its space-time description but retains it in the complementary y-field. Hence it would 275 seem to merit half-credit on this score, i.e., five out of ten. Extensibility seems equally great for the second and third interpretations. Bohr’s complementarity finds application in many realms of thought; it has been acclaimed even by theologians as casting light on their problems (e.g., freedom of the will).- The last view, which regards probabilities as irreducible and admits latent qualities, is very close to the thinking of psychologists, social scientists and modern statisticians. It too is compatible with the possibility of freedom though it provides no solution for it. The mechanistic thesis, on the other hand, is of use primarily in the physical sciences. Furthermore, it makes a paradox of human freedom. Hence a fair rating on the score of extensibility would seem to be: Mechanistic view 2, formalistic view 8, third view 8, the perfect mark being 10. Finally we come to simplicity. Here it appears that the formalistic thesis scores very low, since it resigns itself to a dualistic explanation of nature. I would rate it 20 percent. The mechanistic thesis does not do much better because it encumbers the conceptual scene with ideas not needed in the third interpretation, which is the simplest of the three. To these two views I would assign, respectively, the marks 50 percent and 80 percent. The summary is given in table 1. TABLE 1.—ScorRE BASED ON METHODOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS OF THEORIES Principle Interpretation Caus- | Exten-| Sim- Total ality | sibility | plicity | Score Mechanistic... ...\.. | 10 2 5 17 Mormalistie. 345.72 03s nas ss 8 pu 15 Phen eee tee Sela ARM SP ol ee The outcome of this test will be radically changed in favor of the mechanistic thesis if one or more of several possible contin-. gencies occur. If Vigier, De Broglie, or Bohm succeed in their present endeavor to derive the equations for the quantum field from the principles of general relativity, I should change the mark of 2 on extensibility for that theory to 9. A similar or even greater improvement would result from 276 success of the mechanistic interpretation to explain the puzzling features of nuclear physics or other now mysterious effects by reference to its novel field. Indeed, this would force the other theories to take on modifications and necessitate a rescoring in connection with simplicity as well. Finally, and this seems most important, experiments might be performed which bring into evidence new physical entities JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 44, No. 9 giving verified status to those features of the mechanistic view that most count against it. The likelihood of such evidence for Weizel’s zerons is low, but there are surely alternative models. When such dis- coverles are made the whole status of our problem is changed because advantage can then be taken of new circuits of empirical verification, and a complete reappraisal will be necessary. MATHEMATICS.—Critical appraisal of the validity of standard techniques of conformal mapping.! JENNY E. RosentHa, Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories, Inc. (Communicated by Richard K. Cook.) To illustrate the application of conformal mapping to the solution of potential prob- lems in two dimensions, a large number of textbooks (/, 2, 3, 4) consider the case of the condenser consisting of two parallel semi- infinite conducting lines raised to different potentials or the mathematically equivalent hydrodynamical problem of the irrotational flow of fluid out of a long channel into a large reservoir. The final answer given by all the authors cited originated with Helm- holtz (5, 6) in 1868. It will be pointed out here that standard transformation tech- niques may give infinitely many solutions of which the Helmholtz expression is but one. A discussion is given of various such solu- tions, and an examination is made of the conditions which determine the acceptabil- ity of a given potential function as a solu- tion of the physical problem. To evaluate the standard (Helmholtz) so- lution and the techniques which led to its determination, the problem is formulated in terms of the following convenient units: Consider two semi-infinite lines y = 1 and y = —1 in the (a, y) plane, which extend from « = — © tox = 0, withthe upper line at a potential +1, and the lower one at a potential —1. The problem is to find the solution of Laplace’s equation 2 2 see a eat (1) Or Oy" for these boundary conditions. oe 1A report on the preliminary phases of this work was presented at a meeting of the American Mathematical Society, New York City, February 1951. The method used to solve such problems by analytical transformations may be sum- marized as follows: Let V and U be the electrostatic potential and flux respectively, and let W = U + 1V. Consider now a problem with a known solu- tion consisting of a set of boundaries in the (£, ») plane, over which V is constant. Let the known solution be of the form ieee 100): (2) where ¢ = — + in. If an analytic transfor- mation Pree SPC) (3) ean be found which transforms the bounda- ries of the known problem to the boundaries of the given problem, then Gere OMI) (4) is the required solution. In the present instance the obvious choice for the known boundary value problem in the ¢ plane is the case of two infinite lines n = +1 kept at the potentials +1 respec- tively. In the region between these bounda- ries the solution has the form ce WV, (5) i. e., the equipotentials constitute a set of infinite straight lines parallel to the given boundaries with the lines of force perpen- dicular to them. It will now be shown that 2=o¢+ (e+ 1)/n (6) SEPTEMBER 1954 transforms the two infinite lines 7 = +1 into two semi-infinite lines y = +1 extend- ing from x = — ~ tox = 0. Writing the real and imaginary parts separately we obtain a= + (e™ cos rm + 1)/z, Bera: (7) y=n+-—e °° sinmn. Tv Hence for 7 = +1 mee — (6° — 1)/zx, yo 1. (8) me Figs. (8) when — = —», 4 = —». The value of x increases with £, up to the point where eo ee (0): (9) i. e. up to € = 0. The corresponding maxi- mum value of x is x = OQ. As € increases still further, x decreases and for & = + x = —. Thus the function (6) essentially folds the lines 7 = +1 over along the y-axis. This folding over is accompanied by a dis- tortion of the metric of the right-hand half of the lines 7 = +1 as may be seen from the fact that in Eq. (8) x is not an even function of €. For the sake of brevity we shall hence- forth refer to the distortion of the metric as ““puckering’’. The function (6) has the added property of transforming the é-axis into the z-axis. (No folding over occurs for this line since for n=0,x =£-+ (e* + 1)/z, whichisa mono- tonically increasing function of &). Since the function (6) accomplishes the desired transformation of the boundaries, and since f(W) has the form (5), it has been concluded in the past that the required solu- tion is 2=W-+ (e" + 1)/n. (10) In carrying out our appraisal of this solu- tion we shall first show that the transforma- tion (6) is not unique and that infinitely many functions can be found which trans- form two parallel infinite lines into two parallel semi-infinite lines. | Consider a function of the type B= fF - > O,e (11) 1=C ROSENTHAL: CONFORMAL MAPPING TECHNIQUES 277 where the sum may contain either a finite or an infinite number of terms. In the latter case the series is assumed to be absolutely and uniformly convergent for all finite val- ues of ¢. The real and imaginary parts of Eq. (11). are: a=£+ >) C,e"™" cos nay n=0 nme (12) y=nt+ DD Cre ° sin nrn n=0 It is evident that for 7 = +1, Pane + DN) Cue n=0 (13) y= +1 Thus in order to fold the lines 7 = +1 along the y-axis, the transformation must satisfy the following conditions: At yn = +1 x=-—o for €=+0 (14) dx — f — @) Cmax = : dE 0 for= oe 0, (14a) dx = SAN) icin BS ea) (14b) dé At 7 = O, the value of x given by Gg ao a De Oke (15) n=0 must be a monotonically increasing function of € ranging from — « to + for the same range of variation in é. The requirements at £ = — © are satis- fied automatically. At € = +2 two differ- ent cases have to be considered depending on whether the sum in Eq. (11) contains a finite or an infinite number of terms. If the number of terms is finite, then the coefficient of the highest order infinity must be negative in Eq. (13) and positive in Eq. (15). Both conditions are satisfied if the highest value of n is odd, n = 2N + 1, and if Con4i > O. If, on the other hand, the number of terms is infinite, then the following conditions must be satisfied: >>, 20 C,e"" must be mon- otonically increasing function of & Also as & tendsto + ©, thefunction >) n20(—)"C,e"™ must tend to — © more rapidly than —€. 278 The derivative at 7 = +1 has the form a ee none ter) dé n=1 It will vanish at € = O provided 1+), (-)"nC, = 0 (17) n=1 The corresponding maximum value of x will be 0 if d Cee (18) To satisfy (14b) the right-hand side of Eq. (16) must represent a function with a single zero for the whole range of variation of €. If the summation extends only ton = 2N + 1, this requirement is reduced to a set of in- equalities imposed on the various C, . The explicit formulation of these inequalities giving necessary and sufficient conditions can be carried out only for N < 2, but suffi- cient conditions can be found for all values of N. It is obvious that there are infinitely many ways of choosing the coefficients C,, so as to satisfy the various conditions stated above. Examples chosen at random are given below. It will be noticed that some of them contain arbitrary parameters. The value N = 0 corresponds to Abe Helm- holtz solution. If N = 1, then all conditions for a suitable transformation are satisfied by the function See tens ae (Ch 2 CY = rene” + (2C3 + Co — 1/r)e™ + Ce" provided the coefficients Co and C3 fall within one of the following three categories: (19) mo < 2.5 8 — 2nCy — (60 — 2400)? < xO; (20) <8 — 2nCy + (60 — 24001)’; or mC, = 116, mC; = 44; (21) or JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 If the summation extends to an infinite number of terms, then a suitable example is provided by the function ett Do) Ret 1h / ah n=0 nN. (23) ition Teas AVG ne fp en The general solution to the potential prob- lem corresponding to the transformation (11) is (24) U a De (=)" C7 eoae ae (25) y Se | As pointed out by Jeans (/), for each value of x there are two values of U, one negative, one positive; U < 0 corresponds to the in- side of the condenser and U > 0 to the out- side. These remarks are helpful in drawing some general conclusions as to the electric charge on the condenser. According to Gauss’ theorem, the charge contained within any surface is found by integrating over the whole surface the component of the electric intensity directed along the outward normal to the surface. The expression for the electric intensity 1s -|" dW | —] bes J1+ Qin, ue (26) At the condenser lines, i. e., when V = + 1, it takes the form dW dz 1 ope peewee. | 7 (27) Since Eq. (27) does not represent an even function of U, the electric intensity at the condenser lines for any given value of x has different values on the inside and on the outside of the condenser. Thus the charge has different values along the inside and the outside of the condenser lines. However, while the electric intensity has the same two SEPTEMBER 1954 values on the upper as on the lower con- denser line, it is directed along the outward normal to the upper line and along the in- ward normal to the lower line. Therefore the charges along the two condenser lines are equal and opposite, and the total charge on the condenser is zero for all the functions considered. A comparison of Eq. (27) with Eq. (16) shows that =. (28) Using Eqs. (14a) and (14b) (which in view of Eq. (5) hold for dx/dU as well as for dx/dé) we may conclude that at x = —o the charge density is finite on the inside of the condenser and zero on the outside and that at x = 0, 1. e. at the edge of the condenser lines the charge density is infinite. This re- sult again holds for all functions considered. The Helmholtz function (10) is next ana- lyzed with regard to its behavior at infinity, and the results are compared with what would be expected on the basis of physical considerations. To avoid any difficulties with potential, 1. e. charge, distributions of infinite length, we start with the case where the two conducting lines at different poten- tials have finite length. Let the two lines y = 1 and y = —1 (kept at the potentials +1 and —1 respectively) extend from x = —Ltox =0, L beinga large number. For this distribution when x and y are in- finite the potential is zero by definition. Consider now the potential distribution along a linex = —L’(0 < L’ < L) extend- ing from y = —~ toy = o. Aty = 0 the potential on this line is 0. As y increases from 0 to 1, the potential along the line also in- creases from 0 to 1. As y then increases from 1 to ~, the potential decreases from 1 to 0. (Similarly, the potential along the negative portion of this line goes from 0 to —1 to 0 as y varies from 0 to —1 to —~.) As Lis increased, the potential distribution along x = — L’ maintains these general features. In particular every potential value between 1 and O is encountered in the range 1 < y < o. There is no possibility of any dis- continuity arising which will change these general characteristics when we go to the ROSENTHAL: CONFORMAL MAPPING TECHNIQUES 279 limit and let L tend to infinity since the total charge on the condenser is zero. In the problem of two semi-infinite con- ducting lines at the potentials +1 and —1 respectively we therefore expect the follow- ing behavior of the equipotentials: Every equipotential line should start at «x = — o in the region between the conduct- ing lines, then, at some point in the right half-plane, turn around the line of the same sign and go back tox = — o. The only ex- ception is the zero equipotential, which—as may be seen from symmetry considerations —extends in a straight line from 7 = — to x = +o. This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 1 for the equipotential lines V = +% calculated from Eq. (10). However, the equipotential lines defined by Eq. (10) show these characteristics only for |V| > 4%. For|V| < %, 2, as defined by Eq. (10), is a monotonically increasing function of U (see Eqs. (7)). Thus for |V| < \&% the equipotential lines do not go back to x = —o« but proceed out to x = +o. The immediate consequence of Fie. 1.—General behavior of equipotential curves. 280 this division of equipotential lines into two classes with different characteristics is as follows: As y goes from 1 to ~, the potential along the line « = —L’(0 < L’ < o~) no longer varies from 1 to 0 but only from 1 to 4 + e with « > OQ. Similarly, as y goes from —1 to —o along the same line, the potential varies from —1 to —% — e. Thus the poten- tial at an infinite distance from the conduct- ing lines is not a unique constant but as- sumes different values in different portions of the infinite domain even though the total charge 1s zero. The reason for the discrepancy in the behavior of the equipotential lines calcu- lated from Eq. (10) and that to be expected from physical considerations may lie in the nature of the mapping. As mentioned in the beginning, the z-plane is obtained by map- ping—by means of function (6)—the infinite strip of the ¢-plane bounded by y = +1. The basic solution of the potential problem in the ¢-plane is valid only in the region be- tween the conducting lines and does not hold for | 7 | > 1. No consideration is given to values of the potential in the ¢-plane which he outside the conducting lines though this problem has definite physical meaning. Since all functions of type (11) accomplish the same result as the Helmholtz function, 1. e€., map an infinite strip of the ¢-plane on to the whole of the z-plane, it is to be ex- pected that the solution of the potential problem based on any of these transforma- tions would show a similar anomalous be- havior. This is indeed the case. For example JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 for any solution of type (24) extending to n = 2N + 1, the equipotential lines are divided into two different classes by the limiting value 1 VSS onmseays (29) (The Helmholtz solution corresponds to the special case N = 0). However, the limiting value is not a continuous function of N, for as N,1. e. the number of terms in the series, becomes infinite, the limiting value does not decrease to 0 as might be expected from Eq. (29). For example, the limiting value for poe 1+e7™ W) z2=W-— — 1}/rk (30) obtained from transformation (23) is | V | = 16, as in the case of Eq. (10). It would seem therefore that a transfor- mation which maps only the strip between the conducting lines in the ¢-plane on to the whole of the z-plane, while at the same time folding over the conducting lines, is not likely to lead to a physically meaningful solution. REFERENCES (1) Jeans, J. H. The mathematical theory of elec- tricity and magnetism, ed. 5: 274-275. 1941. (2) Lams, H. Hydrodynamics, ed. 6: 74-75. 1932. (3) Pipes, L. Applied mathematics for engineers and physicists: 508-512. 1946. (4) CHURCHILL, R. Complex variables and applica- tions: 169-170. 1948. (6) Hetmuoitz, H. Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1868: 215-228. (6) HetmMuoutz, H. Phil. Mag. 36: 337. 1868. PALEONTOLOGY .—Two new crinoid species from the Henryhouse of Oklahoma. HarrReELL L. Srrimpxe, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) In 1952 the author described three species of Lecanocrinus from the Henryhouse formation (Silurian) and at the time noted (p. 318) that they were the most distinctive forms of the genus found in that formation. A small species, somewhat comparable to L. pisiformis (Roemer), was not considered at that time pending closer comparison with the Beech River (Brownsport) species. Several specimens of L. piszformis from the vicinity of Decatur, Tenn., were found in the collections made by the author and his wife, Mrs. Melba Strimple, during the years 1951 and 1952. The Beech River form is very close to the Henryhouse species but lacks the strong papillae and has a different arm development. The name L. papilloseous, n. sp., is proposed for the small form found in the Henryhouse formation. SEPTEMBER 1954 A unique species of Pzsocrinus from the Henryhouse formation is described below as P. spatulatus, n. sp. It is from the same horizon that produces L. papilloseous. SAGENOCRINOIDEA Springer SAGENOCRINITIDAE Bassler Lecanocrinus Hall Lecanocrinus papilloseous, n. sp. Fies. 1-4, 9, 10 The crown is spherical in outline, with the dorsal cup occupying almost two-thirds of the height of the crown. Greatest width is at about midsection of the basal circlet and is almost equal to the height of the crown. Dorsal cup is wider than high and is composed of three small IBB, five relatively small BB, five very large RR, a small quadrangular shaped RA, and a narrow, elongated anal X. The IBB circlet is almost entirely covered by the large, round stem sear and is barely visible in side view of the dorsal cup. The smaller IB is right posterior in position. There are 10 broad, short, asymmetrical arms. - Second primibrachials are axillary in all rays. The widest arms and largest secundibrachials are in the left anterior ray. The other rays are of smaller, and approximately equal width at their base but are unequal in their distal portions. The rays of the right posterior is better developed than the right anterior ray, and has the greatest number of secundibrachials of any ray. The upper portions of the left posterior and interior rays are very restricted in size. The entire crown is ornamented with minute papillae that form no pattern, and on occasion appear to coalesce. y Measurements 1n mm.—As follows: Holotype ELC MMO CMOTSAIICUIDS. . c< ca bocce cece es seeeeedceecle 8.0 TSG Elavh Gi? GNO NTS Sie es 10.0 Miopcrmbermbyw ic bi Of CTOWIM:.. 2... .:c+sebeacaescace 8.7 Remarks.—This species is more comparable to Lecanocrinus pisiformis (Roemer) than to other described species. L. pisiformis is a smaller form yet has more secundibrachials (8-4 SBrBr to a ray), which are symmetrical as they diminish in size. In L. papilloseous there are 1 to 3 SBrBr to a ray and they are very irregular in size and shape. L. invaginatus Strimple, which is also from the STRIMPLE: TWO NEW CRINOID SPECIES 281 Henryhouse formation, is a slightly larger form that is somewhat similar in so far as general cup outline is concerned. The only surface sculpture on L. invaginatus is a fine frosted appearance. The arms are much larger, occupy a considerably greater portion of the crown, and have more than one bifurcation, which is quite different from the arm structure of L. papilloseous. Other associated species of Lecanocrinus from the Henryhouse Formation are quite distinct from L. papilloseous and are not found in the “Pisocrinus” horizon that produces this species. Occurrence.—Holotype collected by the author in SW/4 NW/4 NW/4 section 33, T.3N., R.6E., figured paratype in NW/4 SW/4 section 4, T.2N., R.6E., Pontotoc County, south of Ada, Okla.; upper Henryhouse formation, Silurian. Types.—To be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. DisPpaRATA Moore and Laudon PISOCRINIDAE Angelin Pisocrinus de Koninck Pisocrinus spatulatus, n. sp. Fies. 5-8 This species is represented in the collections of the author by three dorsal cups all found within a yard of one another, on one field excursion, in a fresh excavation. Subsequent searching has failed to produce any additional specimens referable to the species though other species of Pisocrinus are rather common in the exposure. In general plate structure, the form does not differ appreciably from several species of the genus; there are five asymmetrical BB, the smal- lest being in the right posterior radius; one large plate in the right posterior, which I prefer to term the radianal rather than inferradianal as proposed by Moore and Laudon (1943, p. 27); and five asymmetrical RR. I am unable to see the need for calling the right posterior radial a superradianal as proposed by Moore and Laudon (1943, p. 27) when the plate is in fact supporting an arm, the same as any other radial plate. A large spatulate shaped extension to the fore of the outer ligament furrow, gives the cup a dis- ‘tinctive appearance when viewed from any direction that is not comparable to any other described species. Small clusters of minute nodes are found on some of the plates in profusion. The arms, tegmen, and column are not known. 282 The columnar scar is small, circular in outline and reposes at the base of a small basal invagina- tion. Measurements in mm.—As follows: Holotype Maximum width of dorsal cup (including the hori- ZOntaAWexteDSlonsiOlehihy shane een: 6.9 Height of dorsal cup (to transverse ridge of articu- latino FACETS) 8 ote pes cee oie ee eee eee 2.6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 9 Occurrence.—NW /4 SW/4 section 4, T.2N., R.6E., Pontotoc County, south of Ada, Okla.; upper Henryhouse formation, Silurian. Types.—To be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. REFERENCES All references are to be found in Bassler and Moodey, 1943. Bibliographic and faunal index ‘YY J pry, - Pn Pt 979 Py) DIV py *: fh Sime Fics. 1-4.—Lecanocrinus papilloseous, n. sp. Camera-lucida drawings of the holotype from the summit, base, posterior and anterior. In the summit view, radial plates are shown in solid black, axillary primi- brachials shown by diagonal markings and the posterior interradius (anal X) shown by stippling. SEPTEMBER 1954 STRIMPLE: TWO NEW CRINOID SPECIES 283 of Paleozoic echinoderms, Geol. Soc. Amer., crinoids, Geol. Soe. Amer. Special Paper no. Special Paper no. 45, with the following ex- 46. 1943. ceptions: STRIMPLE, HarrReELL L. New species of Lecano- Moore, Raymonp C., and Laupon, LowE.t R., erinus. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 4(10): Evolution and classification of Paleozoic 318-323. 1952. 5 my. Fies. 5-8—Pisocrinus spatulatus, n. sp. Camera-lucida drawings of holotype from anterior, posterior, summit, and base. i Figs. 9, 10.—Lecanocrinus papilloseous, n. sp. Camera-lucida drawings of a paratype from the poste- rior and summit. 284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 44, No. 9 BOTANY.—Centrolobium (Leguminosae): Validation of a specific name and a brief review of the genus. VELVA E. Rupp, U. 8. National Museum. (Com- municated by Jason R. Swallen.) In October 1918, Dr. J. N. Rose and his son, George Rose, collected specimens of an Ecuadorian timber tree, a member of the legume family, known locally and in the lumber trade as amarillo, amarillo de Guayaquil, and amarillo lagarto. The re- sulting herbarium sheets were inscribed “Centrolobium ochroxylum, n. sp.,”’ and the name was subsequently used by various writers, including Record (Timbers of Tropical America, 291-293. 1924; Timbers of the New World, 242-243. 1943), Rim- bach (Tropical Woods 31: 4. 1932), and Acosta Solis (Tropical Woods 89: 12, 23, 33. 1947). A valid taxonomic description of that species has apparently never been published, a situation which was recently brought to my attention by W. A. Dayton, of the U.S. Forest Service. It is the purpose of this paper to validate the specific name Centrolobium ochroxylum, proposed by Dr. Rose, and to present a brief review of the genus. The generic name Centrolobium was proposed by, Martius and published by Bentham (Ann. Mus. Vind. 2: 95. 1838). It is based on Nissolia robusta Vell. (FI. Plumes 293. (825. ailicones(s tab. "Son 1830), and, therefore, Centrolobiwm robustum (Vell.) Mart. ex Benth. is the type of the genus. Six additional species of Centrolobium have been proposed, two of which have also been treated as varieties. The genus Centrolobium is composed of trees about 10-30 meters tall, the trunks being as much as 1 meter in diameter, commonly buttressed at the base and the bark grayish and smooth, or fissured. When cut, the stems and roots exude a reddish sap. Most young parts are densely brownish- pubescent and dotted with reddish-orange resinous punctae. The stipules are caducous, deltoid to broadly orbiculate, acute, about 1-2 cm long. The leaves are large, imparipinnate, 7-21-foliolate, the leaflets oblong-ovate, acu- minate to obtuse, entire, punctate below, pubescent to glabrous, membranaceous to subcoriaceous, pinnately veined, the costa essentially central. The bracts are stipule-like but smaller. The flowers are papilionaceous, borne in large terminal panicles, the corollas 1—2 em long, yellowish, sometimes suffused with red or violet, glabrous, the standard spatulate or obovate, with callosities near the base of the blade, the calyx densely pubes- cent, turbinate-campanulate with 4 subequal lobes, the lobe opposite the standard emarg!- nate or 2-parted. The fruitsare large, 1-3(—4)- seeded, samaroid legumes, the style usually persisting as a stout spine (stylar spine), the body of the fruit spherical or elliptical, 1.5-5 em in diameter, echinate with spines up to about 4 cm long, the wings obliquely spatulate or cultriform, about 5-18 cm long measured along the median longitudinal axis, 2-9 cm wide. The wood of the various species of Centrolobium is richly colored, usually yellowish or orange, with streaks of red, purple, or black, and takes a high satiny finish. It is of value for furniture, flooring, cooperage, shipbuilding, railway ties, mine timbers, and general construction. Accord- ing to Record (op. cit.) it is known to the trade by a number of names, in the United States principally as canary wood, porcupine wood, and zebra wood. The known geographic range of the genus is restricted to South America, with a slight extension into Panama (Fig. 1). Although Centrolobium is a genus of economic importance, its occurrence ap- parently is not too common within its range, and the representation by herbarium specimens is remarkably poor. It is hoped that more collections, as complete as possible, will be forthcoming. In addition to the material at the U. 8. National. Herbarium (US), specimens of Centrolobium were examined at the Chicago Museum of Natural History (F) and the New York Botanical Garden (NY). To the curators of those institutions the writer wishes to express her thanks for their courtesy. The initials of the herbaria, as cited, follow those given by Lanjouw and Stafleu (Index Herbariorum, 1952). SEPTEMBER 1954 RUDD: REVIEW OF Fig. 1. The known geographic range of Centro- lobium (M—C. minus; O—C. ochroxylum; P— C. paraense var. paraense; PO—C. paraense var. orinocense; R—C. robustum; T—C. Y—C. yavizanum). tomentosum; The following key to species, based on admittedly inadequate material, is in- tended to facilitate comparison of the previously described taxa as well as to place the species which is described as new in this paper. KEY TO SPECIES OF CENTROLOBIUM Stylar spine (persistent style) with the wing ad- herent almost to the apex, or the spine weak and not more than 1 cm long; leaves (9—)13-21- foliolate, the leaflets commonly ovate-oblong, not more than 6 cm wide. Stipe of fruit about 2.5 em long; leaflets sub- membranaceous (Panama; Colombia) . 4. C. yavizanum Stipe of fruit less than 2 cm long; leaflets char- taceous or subcoriaceous. Fruit essentially sessile; pedicels 3-5 mm long, 2-3 mm thick (southeastern Brazil) 3. C. tomentosum Fruit stipitate, the stipe (6—)8-15 mm long; pedicels 5-10 long, 1-2 mm thick. Body of fruit 4-8 cm long, 3-5 em broad, the spines fairly rigid, mostly 2-4 cm long, GENUS CENTROLOBIUM 85 the stylar spine 2.5-5 em long; wing 12.5-16 cm long, 6-9 em wide (south- eastern Brazil)......... 1. C. robustum Body of fruit 2.5-3 cm long, 1.5-2.5 em wide, the spines fine, rather weak, commonly less than 2 cm long, the stylar spine 1-2 em long, often inconspicuous; wing 6-13 cm long, 2-6 cm wide (eastern Bolivia; southeastern Brazil)...... 2. C. minus Stylar spine free from the wing except for basal portion 1 cm long or less; leaves 7-15-foliolate, the leaflets ovate-elliptic, frequently as much as 10-14 cm wide. Apex of stylar spine recurved (Ecuador) 5. C. ochroxylum Apex of stylar spine ascending or perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the wing. Leaflets subcordate, pubescent, sometimes glabrescent (British Guiana; eastern Venezuela; northern Brazil) 6a. C. paraense var. paraense Leaflets rounded at base to subcordate, sub- glabrous or glabrate (Panama; Trinidad, cultivated ?; Venezuela; Colombia) 6b. C. paraense var. orinocense 1. Centrolobium robustum (Vell.) Mart. ex Benth. Ann. Mus. Vind. 2: 95. 1838. Nissolia robusta Vell. Fl. Flum. 298. 1825. Icon. 7: tab. 85. 1835. Centrolobium robustum var. macrochaete Mart. ex Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 151: 263. 1862. Tree about 30 meters tall; leaves (9—)13-21- foliolate, the petiole and rachis subglabrous, slender, commonly less than 5 mm thick at base of petiole, the leaflets chartaceous to subcori- aceous, moderately pubescent to subglabrous, ovate-oblong, 4-10 cm long, 1.5-6 em wide, acuminate, the base obliquely rounded to sub- cordate; pedicels about 5-6 mm long and 1-1.5 mm thick; legume with stipe 1 cm long, the body of the fruit 4-8 cm long, 3-5 cm broad, the spines fairly rigid, mostly 2-4 em long, the stylar spine 2.5-5 cm long, ascending, adherent to the wing along 2 cm of its length or more, any protruding portion weak and easily broken, the wing 12.5- 16 em long, 6-9 cm wide. Distribution: Known only from Brazil, in eastern Bahia south to northern Sao Paulo. BraziL: (Local name, putwmuju) Bahia: [Grungogi] ‘‘Grongogy basin’’, Curran 296 (US). Between ‘“‘Jiquey e Iracema,”’ Frées 20171 (NY). Rio de Janeiro or Distrito Federal: Vellozo (Icon. 7: tab. 85, presumably based on type); Riedel & Luschnath 448 (US). Macahe, Riedel & Luschnath 464 (NY, US). Sao Paulo: Ubatuba, Guillemin 592 (F). 286 Included in this species are the collections with the largest fruits and the smallest leaflets. 2. Centrolobium minus Presl, Bot. Bemerk. 61. 1844. Centrolobium robustum (Vell.) Mart. ex Benth. var microchaete Mart. ex Benth. in Mart. FI. Bras. 15!: 263. 1862. Tree, about 30 meters tall, the trunk about 8 dm in diameter; leaves 13-17-foliolate, the petiole and rachis moderately pubescent to subglabrous, slender, commonly less than 5 mm thick at the base of the petiole, the leaflets subcoriaceous, moderately pubescent to subglabrous, ovate to oblong, 6-10 em long, 3-5 em wide, acumi- nate to obtuse, the base rounded, sometimes obliquely ; pedicels 8-10 mm long, 1—2 mm thick; legume with stipe (6-)8-15 mm long, the body of the fruit 2.5-3 em long, 1.5-2.5 em wide, the spines fine, rather weak, 1-2 cm long, the stylar spine 1-2 em long, adherent to the wing along its entire length or nearly so, often rather in- conspicuous, the wing 6-13 cm long, 2-6 cm wide. Distribution: Southeastern Brazil and eastern Bolivia. BOLIVIA: La Paz: La Asunta, Krukoff 10625 (NY). Braziu: (Local names, araribd, lez nova.) Espirito Santo: Collantina, Whitford & Silveira 72 (US). Minas Gerais: Capoeira, HE. de Oliveira, May 6, 1941 (US). Fazenda da Cachoeira, Munic. Tombos, Mello Barreto 1509 (F), 1691 (F). Rio de Janeiro or Distrito Federal: Luschnath (tab. 74, Presl. Symb. Bot. 1858, presumably based on type). Although Martius and Bentham treated this taxon as only varietally distinct from C. robustum, I believe that it is more closely related to. C. tomentosum. For the time being I prefer to con- sider it as specifically distinct and thus to use Presl’s designation of C. minus. 3. Centrolobium tomentosum Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 2: 66. 1840. Tree, 20 meters tall or more; leaves 13-17- foliolate, the petiole and rachis pubescent, 5 mm thick or more at base of petiole, the leaflets ovate to elliptic, 8-15 cm long, 4.5-5.5 em wide, obtuse to acuminate, the base rounded to subcordate, usually oblique, the upper surface pubescent or sometimes glabrate, the lower surface pubescent; pedicels about 3-5 mm long and 2-3 mm thick; legume essentially sessile, the body of the fruit JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 3.5-4 em long, 2.5-38.5 em thick, the spines fine and weak, mostly 1-2 em long, the stylar spine 3.5-4 em long, ascending, adherent to the wing almost to the apex, the wing 12-15 em long, 6-7 cm. wide. Distribution: Known only from southeastern Brazil. Braziu: (Local names, ararzbd, araribé rosa.) Minas Gerais: Claussen (photo of type ex K, NY negative, new series no. 2677); Claussen 879 (F, NY, isotypes ?). Rio de Janeiro or Distrito Federal: Sellow (NY, US). Botanical Garden, Whitford 10 CE NCU): Sao Paulo: Sao Paulo, in park, Kuhlmann 31626 (NY). Among the specimens of this species are the most densely tomentose of the genus. The char- acter is not constant, however, and some collec- tions are glabrate. 4, Centrolobium yavizanum Pittier, Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 5: 439. 1915. Tree, 25-30 meters tall; leaves 13-17(—19?)- foliolate, the leaflets (on basis of immature specimens) 6-12 em long, 3-5.5 em wide, ovate to elliptical, pubescent, possibly glabrescent, acuminate, rounded to subcordate at base; mature flowers not seen; legume with stipe about 2.5 em long, the body of fruit 3-3.5 em long, 2—2.5 cm wide, the spines fine and weak, 1-2 cm. long, the stylar spine 1 cm long or less, adherent to wing along about half its length or more, the apical portion free, ascending or perpendicular to long axis of wing, the wing 10-12 cm long, 4.5-5.5 em wide. Distribution: In forest, southern Panama and northern Colombia. PANAMA: Darien: Between Pinogama and Yaviza, Pittier 6572 (NY, US, type). Coutomsta: (Local name, guayacdn jobo.) Bolivar: Lands of Lobo, Curran, in Apr.- May 1916 (US). ? Puerto Berrio, Haught 1688 (NY). The fruits of the first two collections cited differ slightly in wing shape, but in other particulars, including stipe length, which I believe to be a critical diagnostic character, they are essentially the same. The Haught specimen, with one leaf and an immature inflorescence, is placed here tentatively on the basis of the shape and number of leaflets. SEPTEMBER 1954 5. Centrolobium ochroxylum Rose ex Rudd, sp. nov. Fig. 2 Arbor, decidua, 10-30 m alta; ramuli novelli fulvo-tomentosi, demum glabrescentes, cortice griseo, tronco 5 dm diametro; folia 7—13-foliolata, imparipinnata; foliola ovata, 6-20 cm _ longa, 5-14 em lata, apice acuminata vel acuta, basi rotundata vel subcordata, margine integra, foliola terminali saepe maxima, jugis inferioribus brevioribus, tomentosa, glabrata, subtus resinoso- punctata, punctis subrufis vel aureis; flores non vidi; legumen sphaericum, 3-4 cm diametro, dense spinosum, spinis 2-3 cm longis, stipite 1 em longo, styli vestigio 1.5-2 cm longo, indurato, apice recurvato, ala obliquo-spathulata, 14-17 em longa, 7-10 em lata, tomentosa, glabrescente, glanduloso-punctata. Tree, 10-30 meters tall, deciduous; stems brownish-tomentose when young, glabrescent; mature trunks as much as 5 dm in diameter, the bark gray; stipules caducous, ovate, acute, about 6 mm long, 8 mm wide, tomentose, resin- ous-punctate; leaves 7—13-foliolate, imparipin- nate, the lateral leaflets subopposite, the axis striate, tomentose, glabrescent, 25-45 cm long, las locm Fic. 2. Centrolobium ochroxylum (leaf and fruit, Rose & Rose 23370). RUDD: REVIEW OF GENUS CENTROLOBIUM 287 the petiole 10-15 cm long; leaflets 6-20 cm long, 5-14 em wide, the terminal leaflet often the largest, the basal pair the smallest, ovate, entire, acuminate or acute, the base rounded to sub- cordate, the upper surface tomentose, glabrate, the lower surface tomentose, glabrate, resinous- punctate with orange-colored dots, the venation pinnate with about 12-16 major secondary veins on each side of the central costa; flowers not seen; legume spherical, 3-4 cm in diameter, spiny, the spines mostly 2-3 cm long, the stipe about 1 em long, the stylar spine about 1.5-2 cm long, recurved, the wing obliquely spatulate 14-17 cm long, 7-10 cm wide, tomentose, glabrescent, resinous-punctate. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1022875, collected at Portovelo (near Zaruma), Province de Oro, Ecuador, October 6-15, 1918, by J. N. Rose and George Rose (no. 23370) Duplicate at NY. Additional specimens examined: Ecuapor: (Local names, amarillo, amarillo de Guayaquil, amarillo lagarto.) Guayas: Milagro, Johansen 12 (US). El Oro: Portovelo, Hitchcock 21265 (US). Junction of Rio Ambocas and Rio Luis, 10 km south of Portovelo, Camp E-585 (NY). Piedras, Little 6615 (US). Los Rios: Pichilingue, Little 6486 (F, US). Quevado, Little 6557 (US). It is believed by some botanists that Centrolo- bium in Ecuador should be referred to C. pa- tinense Pittier, originally described from Panama (in this paper, reduced to synonymy under C. paraense var. orinocense), and it has been so cited (Holdridge et al., U. S. For. Serv. Publ. 25, 49, 72. 1947). Others have chosen to give it a non- committal designation as Centrolobiwm sp. In the present state of knowledge of the genus and the range of variation of its taxa, it seems desir- able to maintain a separate species for the Ecuadorian representatives of Centrolobium, al- though they undoubtedly are very closely related to C. paraense. Acosta-Solis (Tropical Woods 89: 23. 1947), in a list of commercially valuable woods in the Province of Esmeraldas, Ecuador, includes “Amarillo Lagarto Obscuro (Centrolobium och- roxylum)” and “Amarillo Lagarto Claro (Cen- trolobium ochroxylum, var.) I have not as yet seen any material from Esmeraldas, nor do I know what might be referable to two such varieties. 288 6. Centrolobium paraense Tul. Arch. Mus. Par. 4: 87. 1844. Tree, about 30 meters tall, the mature trunk as much as 1 meter in diameter; leaves 7—15- foliolate, the leaflets 7-24 em long, 5-14 cm wide, ovate to elliptic, obtuse to acuminate, the base rounded to cordate, the upper surface tomentose, often glabrescent, the lower surface sparingly pubescent to subglabrous; flowers about 12-17 mm long, in terminal panicles; bracts densely brown-tomentose, obovate-rhombic, 8-10 mm long, 6-10 mm wide, acuminate, the bracteoles linear, acute, 6-10 mm long, 1-2 mm wide; calyx brown-tomentose, 10-17 mm long; petals yellow, glabrous, the standard broadly spatulate, about 12-17 mm long, 10 mm wide, retuse, the wings and keel 10-14 mm long; stamens about 10 mm long; fruit with stipe 10-15 mm long, the body of the legume 3.5-5 cm long, 2-3.5 em wide, the spines 1.5-3 cm long, fine, moderately rigid, the stylar spine about 1.5-2.5 em long, adherent to the wing only along the basal 7-12 mm, the apex free, ascending or perpendicular to the long axis of the wing, the wing 13-18 cm long, 6-9 em wide. 6a. Centrolobium paraense Centrolobium paraense par. 4: 87. 1844. var. Tul. paraense. Arch. Mus. Leaves 7-15-foliolate, the leaflets subcordate, tomentose, sometimes glabrescent, often revolute, the terminal leaflet often conspicuously broader and the basal laterals noticeably smaller than average. Distribution: Trinidad (cultivated?), eastern Venezuela, British Guiana, and northern Brazil. TRINIDAD: (Local name, porcupine tree.) Port of Spain, Botanic Garden, Fairchild 2844 (US); Mell., Aug. 10, 1923 (NY, US). BritisH GuIANA: (Local names, shipuradar, kartang.) ‘‘Pirara, &c,’’ Schomburgk 314 (F; isotype; photo of isotype ex G, Field Mus. negative no. 28033). Kanuka Mts., A. C. Smith 3207 (KF; NY, US): Rupununi Re Forest Service Brit. Guiana WB 138 (NY). VENEZUELA: (Local names, cartdn, balaustre.) Anzoategui or Sucre: Between Guanta and Los Altos, Tamayo 2106 (US). Along Rio Querecual, sw of Bergantin, Steyermark 61487 (F). Braziu: (Local names, pdo-rainha, pau rainha.) Rio Branco: Serra Grande, Ducke 516 (F, NY, US). Between Béa Vista and Caracarahy, Frées 23055 (US). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 orinocense 15': 266 (as 6b. Centrolobium paraense _ var. Benth, an Martio Fi. Bras: orenocense). 1862. Centrolobium patinense Pittier, Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 5: 470. 1915. Centrolobium orinocense (Benth.) Pittier, Bol. Teen. M.A.C. Serv. Bot. Caracas 5: 123. 1944. Leaves 9-15-foliolate, the leaflets rounded to subcordate, often glabrate, usually fairly uniform in size and shape. Distribution: In forest, southern Panama, northern Colombia, southeastward to Orinoco region of Venezuela. Panama: (Local name, amarillo de Guayaquil.) Darien: Punta Patifio, Pittver 6611 (US, type of C. patinense). VENEZUELA: (Local names, cartdn, balaustre.) Guarico: Between Uberito and San Juan de los Morros, Pittier 12240 (F, NY, US). Aragua: Between Villa de Cura and San Juan de los Morros, Pittver 11358 (NY, US). Zulia: San Martin, on Rio del Palmar, Pittier 10514 (NY, US). Maricaibo, Cleary, Oct. 1, 1923 (NY). Bolivar: ‘prope Angustura’’ [Ciudad Bolivar], Purdie, May 1851 (photo of type ex K, NY negative, new series no. 2678). La Prision, Medio Caura, Ll. Williams 11646 (F, US). Serrania de Guayapo, Bajo Caura, LI. Williams 11832 (F, US). CotomBiA: (Local names, colorado, palo colorado, balaustre.) Atléintico: Los Pendales, Dugand 1126 (F, US). Tocagua, Bro. Elias 1580 (F, NY, US). Bentham distinguished var. ‘“Orenocense”’ from the typical variety by ‘“‘foliolis glabrioribus basi vix cordatis.”’ However, from the limited amount of material available, these distinctions do not seem to be sharp, and in at least two collections, Piattier 6611 and 10514, there is a tendency toward both types of leaflets. As more collections are made, the desirability of reducing the two varieties to synonymy may become more obvious. Maintaining the taxon orinocense in specific rank certainly does not seem to be jus- tified. The type collection of C. patinense, consisting of fruits and immature leaves, appears to be essentially the same as material of C. paraense var. orinocense. Most of the leaflets of C’. patinense are rounded at the base, but a few are subcordate. The fruits (possibly submature), although slightly smaller than average, are within the size range for C. paraense. SEPTEMBER 1954 JOHNSON: NOTES ON PLEOCHAETIS 289 ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Pleochaetis Jordan, 1933, from Colombia, with the description of a new species (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae). Pauyuus T. JOHNSON.! (Communicated by Robert Traub.) There has been considerable confusion in the minds of specialists in Siphonaptera as to the status of Pleochaelis equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933) and Pleochaetis apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921), due in part to our lack of knowledge of the true range of these forms. Recent collections of Si- _phonaptera from Colombia made by Dr. Philip Hershkovitz, Chicago Natural His- tory Museum, have clarified the status of these two species by providing the male of apollinaris and the true female of equatoris equatoris, and have yielded a new species of the same genus as well. These are described, and a key to these forms and the remaining South American species, Pleochaetis dolens quitanus (Jordan, 1931) is included. I am indebted to F. G. A. M. Smit of the British Museum (Tring) who graciously lent paratype specimens of Pleochaetis apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921) and P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933), and who studied the holotypes of these species for me. Pleochaetis apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921) Pies. 5, 9, 14, 18, 19, 22, 27, 29 P. apollinaris was described from two females ex Mustela affinis, savannah of Bogota, Colombia. At hand. are the paratype female of this species, lent by Mr. Smit, and one male and three females ex Mustela frenata, Rio Balcones, Guasco, Dept. of Cundinamarca, Colombia, sumnier 1952, P. Hershkovitz collector. A diagnosis of the male of P. apollinaris and a brief description of the species follows. Diagnosis.—(male) Close to P. equatoris equa- toris (Jordan, 1933). Separable from P. equatoris equatoris and P. dolens quitanus (Jordan, 1931) by having two ventrolateral bristles on the eighth tergum (Fig. 22), not with one bristle in this position (Fig. 24). Further separable from e. equatoris in that the lowest large bristle on the posterior margin of movable finger is inserted well 1 Department of Entomology, Army Medical Service Graduate School, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Washington, D. C. above the level of the notch on the anterior margin of finger (Fig. 14, F.), not on a level with the notch (Fig. 15, F.); distal arm of ninth sternum with rounded proximal lobe bearing two relatively large bristles (Fig. 18), not with this lobe flattened and bearing three or four relatively large bristles (Fig. 17). Description—Hrap: Preantennal area with two rows of bristles, the first of seven medium- sized bristles, the second (ocular row) of three large bristles. THoRAX: Pronotum narrow, its dorsal margin not so long as dorsal comb spine. Pronotal comb of 19 or 20 spines. * Lees: Protibia with six dorsal notches con- taining paired bristles (including apical group) (Fig. 9); meso- and metatibia with five dorsal notches proximal to the one unpaired dorsal bristle (Fig. 11). ABDOMEN: Basal abdominal sternum of female with striations on posterior half very close to- gether and strongly curved. Mate: Eighth tergum (Fig. 22) with two ventrolateral bristles and four dorsolateral bris- tles; its caudal edge somewhat serrate. Eighth sternum (Fig. 27) with three rather heavy bristles on ventral margin subapically and several smaller bristles scattered along this margin. Distal arm of ninth sternum (Fig. 18) with proximal lobe smoothly rounded caudally and bearing a few small pale bristles plus two larger bristles. Shape of process and movable finger of clasper as in Fig. 14; the most ventral of the large bristles on F. inserted well above level of notch on anterior margin. Aedeagus (Fig. 19) with median dorsal lobe (M.D.L.) smoothly and broadly rounded dorsally, not heavily sclerotized; crochet (CR.) with narrowly rounded apex and concave postero- ventral margin. FrMALE: Seventh sternum (Fig. 5, A, B, and C) with narrow sinus; lobe above sinus sharply rounded, small. Eighth tergum with about eight small bristles dorsal to the spiracle. Shape and size of spermatheca body variable; striations on body not extending on to base of tail (Fig. 29, A, B, and C); tail curved over body and its apex reaching level of insertion of sperma- thecal duct into body. 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 9 Fig. 1.—Pleochaetis smiti, n. sp.: Head and prothorax, holotype. Fia. 2.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Seventh sternum, female. Fie. 3.—P. smiti, n. sp.: Seventh sternum, allotype. Fig. 4.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): pronotum, male. Fig. 5, A, B, and C.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Seventh sternum variations, female. Fie. 6.—P. smitt, n. sp.: Modi- fied segments, holotype. SEPTEMBER 1954 Lengths.—Male 2.1 mm, females 2.2 mm (para- type) — 2.5 mm. Male and one female deposited in the collec- tions of the Chicago Natural History Museum; two females deposited in the collection of Robert Traub. Pleochaetis equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933) Fries. 2, 4, 11, 15, 17, 20, 24, 28, 30 Dr. Jordan described P. equatoris equatoris from two specimens; the holotype male ex Sig- modon sp., Quebrada of Pichan, west side of Pichincha, Ecuador, and a paratype female ex Oryzomys sp., Paramo de Guamani, road to Baiza, region oriental, Ecuador. While studying the specimens collected by Dr. Hershkovitz and the female paratype of equatoris equatoris, it be- came apparent that the female ascribed to P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933) is not that species, but a representative of the new species described later in this paper. One male and one female Pleochaetis, ex Rhipidomys sp., San Cristo- bal, Bogota, Dept. of Cundinamarca, Colombia, July 9, 1952, P. Hershkovitz collector, have proved to be P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933). A diagnosis of the female and short description of the species follows. Diagnosis —(female) Separable from P. dolens quitanus (Jordan, 1931) in that the seventh sternum possesses a sinus (Fig. 2), not lacking sinus and with truncate ventrolateral lobe. Separable from P. apollinaris (Jordan and Roths- child, 1921) in that the spermatheca has stria- tions extending on to base of tail, and apex of tail ends short of level of insertion of spermathecal duct into body (Fig. 30), not lacking striations on base of tail or with a longer tail (Fig. 29); eighth tergum with only four small bristles above spiracle, not eight. Description —Head, thorax, legs, and abdomen essentially as in P. apollinaris. Mate: Movable finger of clasper with lowest bristle on caudal margin on a level with the notch on anterior margin (Fig. 15, F.). The Colombian specimen differs somewhat from holotype e. equatoris in shape of the movable finger, which is more rounded dorsally than in holotype, and the apical portion of the process (P.) which is broader than in the holotype. Eighth tergum (Fig. 24) with one ventrolateral bristle and two dorsolateral bristles. Eighth sternum (Fig. 28) similar to apollinaris. Distal arm of ninth sternum (Fig. 17) with proximal lobe squared, caudal JOHNSON: NOTES ON PLEOCHAETIS 291] margin virtually straight, with three or four rather large bristles and several smaller ones. Median dorsal lobe of aedeagus (Fig. 20, M.D.L.) humped dorsally and heavily sclerotized; crochet (CR.) with somewhat squared apex and concave ventral margin. FrMALE: Seventh sternum (Fig. 2) with narrow sinus and acutely rounded lobe above sinus (much as in apollinaris). Eighth tergum with four bristles above spiracle. Spermatheca (Fig. 30) with striations on base of tail, tail short, apically not reaching level of insertion of sper- mathecal duct into body. Lengths —Male 2.2 mm, female 2.7 mm. Male and female deposited in the collections of the Chicago Natural History Museum. Pleochaetis smiti, n. sp. Figs. 1,3; 6-8, 10; 12, 13, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 31 Type data.—Holotype male ex Thomasomys laniger, Paramo, Dept. of Antioquia, Colombia, Oct. 13, 1950, P. Hershkovitz collector. Allotype female ibid. but Oct. 12, 1950. Paratype female ex Oryzomys sp., Paramo de Guamini, road to Baiza, region oriental, Ecuador, July 27, 1931, Dr. F. Spillmann collector. Holotype and allotype deposited in the collections of the Chi- cago Natural History Museum; paratype re- turned to the British Museum (Tring). It gives me great pleasure to name this species for F. G. A. M. Smit, of the British Museum (Tring), in recognition of his important contribu- tions to the study of Siphonaptera, and his continual helpfulness to other workers in the field. Diagnosis—Male and female separable from all other known Pleochaetis in possessing a prono- tal comb of 23 to 26 spines (Fig. 1, PRN.), not with 21 spines or less (Fig. 4). Protibia with seven dorsomarginal notches containing paired bristles (Fig. 8), not five or six such notches (Fig. 9); meso- and metatibia with six dorsal pairs of bristles proximad to only single bristle on dorsal margin (Fig. 10), not with five pairs in this position (Fig. 11). Description —Hrap, Mae (Fig. 1): Prean- tennal area with two rows of bristles, the ocular row consisting of three long bristles plus an ‘anterior row of nine smaller bristles (six or seven in female). Three postantennal rows arranged (on a side) 3-5-7 in male, 3(2)—5(4)-6(7, 8) in female. Apical bristles on second antennal segment extending no more than half length of club. 292 TuHorax (Fig. 7): Pronotal comb of 26 spines (23-25 in female), the most dorsal spines no longer than dorsal margin of pronotum (Fig. 1, PRN.). Mesonotum (MSN.) with three rows of bristles plus scattered anterior bristles. Metanotum (MTN .) with two and one-half or three irregular rows of bristles. Lateral metanotal area (L.M.) with vertical row of three bristles. Metepimere (MTM.) with two rows of bristles plus one sub- marginal posterior bristle. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 9 Leas: Procoxa with 35 or more external bristles excluding marginals. Protibia (Fig. 8) with seven dorsomarginal notches containing paired bristles. Meso- and metatibia with six dorsal notches con- taining paired bristles proximad to only single dorsal bristle (Fig. 10); metatibia with 19 or 20 bristles on external surface (15 or 16 in female), not including ventro- and dorsomarginal bristles. ABDOMEN: Basal abdominal sternum of female with close-set striations on posterior half straight, Fic. 7.—Pleochaetis smiti, n. sp.: Meso- and metathorax, holotype. holotype. smiti, n. sp.: Metatibia, holotype. Fic. 9.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Protibia, male. IG. Fic. 11.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Metatibia, male. Fic. 8.—Ibid.: Protibia, Pier 10- Fia. 12.—P. smiti, n. sp.: Modified segments, allotype. SEPTEMBER 1954 JOHNSON: NOTES ON PLEOCHAETIS 293 Fic. 13.—Pleochaetis smiti, n. sp.: Process and movable finger of clasper, male. Fie. 14.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Process and movable finger of clasper, male. Fie. 15.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Process and movable finger of clasper, male. Fig. 16.—P. smiit, n. sp.: Apex of aedeagus, holotype. Fig. 17.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Distal arm of ninth sternum, male. Fic. 18.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Distal arm of ninth sternum, male. Fie. 19.—Ibid.: Apex of aedeagus, male. Fie. 20.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Apex of aedeagus, male. Fig. 21.—P. smiti, n. sp.: Distal arm of ninth sternum, holotype. rN é B. C. Ae) Fig. 22.—Pleochaetis apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Eighth tergum, male. Fig. 23.— P. smiti, n. sp.: Eighth tergum, holotype. Fig. 24.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Eighth tergum, male. Fig. 25.—P. smiti, n. sp.: Eighth sternum, holotype. Fra. 26.—IJbid.: Anal stylet, allotype. Pia. 27.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Eighth sternum, male. Fria. 28.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Eighth sternum, male. Fig. 29, A, B, and C.—P. apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921): Spermatheca variations, female. Fia. 30.—P. equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933): Spermatheca, female. Fig. 31.—P. smiti, n. sp.: Spermatheca, allotype. SEPTEMBER 1954 JOHNSON: NOTES not markedly curved. With two well-developed rows of bristles on more anterior terga plus a few -anterodorsal bristles. Apical spinelets on terga I-IV (both sides together) arranged 6—6-5-4 in male, 6(7)-6-4-2(4) in female. Matz (Fig. 6): Eighth tergum (87. and Fig. 6) with six dorsomarginal bristles, laterally, dorsal half with five bristles, ventral half with three bristles. Eighth sternum (8S. and Fig. 25) lacking a serrate apical appendage, broken and with most bristles missing (Fig. 25 shows estimated size and - length of missing bristles). Immovable process of elasper (P. and Fig. 13) apically rather broad; dorsal portion of posterior margin almost per- pendicular, followed by median shallow bay; acetabular bristles set on slight protuberance below this bay; the protuberance extending no farther caudad than upper “angle” above shallow bay. Movable finger (F. and Fig. 13) less than two times as high as broad, the lowest large bristle on posterior margin blunt apically, set somewhat below level of notch on anterior mar- gin; margin above lowest bristle is broadly rounded. Distal arm of ninth sternum (D.A.9 and Fig. 21) with proximal lobe broadly and evenly rounded caudally, most of bristles broken, but apparently with only relatively small bristles in this area (Fig. 21 shows estimated breadth and length of missing bristles). Aedeagal apodeme (AE.A.) with short neck (Fig. 6, N.) just an- teriad to endchamber; apical appendage (AP.A.) long. Apex of sclerotized inner tube (Fig. 16, A.I.T.) as long as crescent sclerite (C.S.); band of inner tube not visible. Median dorsal lobe (M.D.L.) evenly rounded dorsally, not heavily sclerotized. Crochets (CR.) with posteroventral margin slightly concave; dorsal margin straight, anterodorsal angle rounded, somewhat rugose. FremMae (Fig. 12): Posterior margin of seventh sternum (7S. and Fig. 3) bilobed, the lobes sub- equal, sinus between lobes rounded, broadly triangulate, much broader than in apollinaris and equatoris. Eighth tergum (ST.) with seven or eight small bristles above spiracle. Sperma- theca (SP. and Fig. 31) with juncture of head and tail not marked, tail gradually narrowing to subrounded apex which does not extend as far as apex of body; tail with striations visible along entire length. Anal stylet (A.S. and Fig. 26) about two times as long as broad. Lengths—Holotype 2.8 mm, mm, paratype 3.2 mm. allotype 2.9 ON PLEOCHAETIS 295 KEY TO THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF PLEOCHAETIS JORDAN, 1933 Te Protibia with seven dorsal notches contain- ing paired bristles (Fig. 7); meso- and metatibia with six dorsal notches contain- ing paired bristles proximal to only single dorsal bristle (Fig. 10)........ smiti, n. sp. Protibia with five or six dorsal notches con- taining paired bristles (Fig. 9); meso- and metatibia with five dorsal notches contain- ing paired bristles proximal to only single dorsal bristle (Fig. 11) 2.(1) Female seventh sternum lacking sinus in posterior margin, ventrolaterally trun- cate; movable finger of male with posterior margin evenly rounded dolens quitanus (Jordan, 1931) Female seventh sternum with narrow sinus (Fig. 5); movable finger of male with definite angle on posterior margin (Fig. 1) 0 es MR PRE METS Te ep ot eet ae 3 3.(2) Eighth tergum of female with four bristles above spiracle, base of spermatheca tail with striations (Fig. 30); male eighth tergum with one ventrolateral bristle (Fig. 24) ; lowest large bristle on posterior margin of movable finger inserted at level of notch on anterior margin (Fig. 15, F.) equatoris equatoris (Jordan, 1933) HKighth tergum of female with eight bristles above spiracle, base of spermatheca tail lacking striations (Fig. 29); male eighth tergum with two ventrolateral bristles (Fig. 22), lowest large bristle on posterior margin of F, inserted well above level of anterior notch (Fig. 14, F.) apollinaris (Jordan and Rothschild, 1921) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Aedeagal apodemal rod. Antesensilial bristle. Aedeagal apodeme. AP.A. Apical appendage of aedeagal apodeme. AS Anal stylet. A.S.I. Apex of sclerotized inner tube, aedeagus. B.C Bursa copulatrix. CR Crochet, aedeagus. Crescent sclerite, aedeagus. Dorsal anal lobe. Distal arm of ninth sternum. Dorsal intramural rod, aedeagus. Dorsal sclerite of apodemal aedeagus Movable finger of clasper. strut, oe Oe O TA > > WS Bio EU.L Mesosternal furca. FU.-II Metasternal furca. sailed ne Ventral intramural rod, aedeagus. Pyle Lateral lobe, aedeagus. L.M. Lateral metanotal area. L.S.I. Lateral sclerite of sclerotized inner tube, aedeagus. MB. Manubrium of clasper. 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, NO. 9 M.D.L. Median dorsal lobe, aedeagus. T.AP.9 Tergal apodeme of segment nine. MPM. Mesepimere. V.A.L. Ventral anal lobe. MPS. Mesepisternum. 1a First tergum. M.S. Median sclerite of apodemal strut, 7S. Seventh sternum. aedeagus. (it Seventh tergum. MSN. Mesonotum. 88. Eighth sternum. MTM. Metepimere. 8T. Eighth tergum. MTN. Metanotum. 98. Ninth sternum. MTS. Metepisternum. REFERENCES N. Neck, aedeagus. PR. Immovable process of clasper. JORDAN, K. Further records and descriptions of fleas P.A9 Proximal arm of ninth sternum. from Ecuador. Novit. Zool. 37: 135-148, figs. PL.A. Pleural arch. fe eile PR. Penis rods, aedeagus. . Four new fleas collected by Professor F. PRN. Pronotum. Spillmann in Ecuador. Novit. Zool. 38: 343- PS.S. Pseudosetae. 348, figs. 62-67. 1933. S.I.T. Sclerotized inner tube, aedeagus. JorRDAN, K., and Roruscuitp, N. C. Hight new Sie. Spermatheca. Ceratophyllt. Ectoparasites 1(3) : 163-177, figs. SQ. Squamulum. 148-164. 1921. ZOOLOGY .—New names for two genera of Octocorallia. FREDERICK M. Baygr, U. S. National Museum. During preparation of the chapter on upon this genus thus will henceforth be Octocorallia for the Treatise on Inverte- called Viguieriotidae. brate Paleontology, R. C. Moore, editor, it (2) Stenella J. E. Gray, 1870, page 48 has come to my attention that certain ltype, Primnoa umbricata J. Y. Johnson, generic names in the Coelenterata Octo-. 1862]; nec J. EK. Gray, 1866 [Cetacea]. As a corallia must fall as homonyms of accepted replacement for this preoccupied name I generic names in other animal groups. Two P?OPO*" Be ees Re nie = pe, Prom- of these are the following: noa imbricata J. Y. Johnson, 1862}. (1) Fascicularia Viguier, 1888, page 186 ee [type, Fascicularia radicans Viguier = Paral- G®4¥, Joun Epwarp. Catalogue of lithophytes or . : eae pits ; stony corals in the collection of the British cyonuum edwardsi de acaze-Du lers|; nec Museum: Pp. [4] 1-51, 14 figs. London, 1870. Dybowski, 1873 (Tetracorallia); non Lyell, prLacazn-DurHiers, Henri. Les progres du 1839 (Bryozoa); non Lamarck, 1816 (Hexa- laboratoire de Roscoff et du laboratoire Arago. Ba LES ' 5 1 : — : corallia). For this thrice preoccupied generic Be ae Sel. Paris 00 eee name I propose to substitute Viguieriotes, Vicurmr, Camry. Sur un nouveau type d’antho- oe zoaire, la Fascicularia radicans C. Vig. C. R. new name [type, Paraleyontum edwardsi de Acad. Sci. Paris 107(3): 186-187. (16 juillet) Lacaze-Duthiers, 1888]. The family based 1888. NOTICE The Federation of American Scientists is making a new survey of the effects on science of the visa policies in existence under the present United States immigration act. They are interested in information about: (1) Individuals who wished to visit the United States for professional reasons but who have been prevented from coming because of visa refusal or delay. (2) Individuals who received invitations to come to this country on professional business (e.g., to attend meetings, as a visiting lecturer, etc.) but who refrained from applying for a visitor’s visa because of present visa policies. (3) Visitors who experienced visa difficulties after reaching the United States. 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Coons (chairman), SamueL Levy, Watpo R. WEDEL CONTENTS Page Puysics.—Advantages and disadvantages of various interpretations of the quantum theory. Hrnry MARGENAU:...........). 2. 265 MatTHEMATICS.—Critical appraisal of the validity of standard tech- niques of conformal mapping. JENNY E. ROSENTHAL............ 276 PALEONTOLOGY.—Two new crinoid species from the Henryhouse of Okla- homa. HARRELL .L. STRIMPLE.. o... 00000002. Jc. er 280 Botany.—Centrolobium (Leguminosae): Validation of a specific name and a brief review of the genus. VELVA EH. Rupp................ 284 ENToMoLOGy.—Notes on Pleochaetis Jordan, 1933, from Colombia, with the description of a new species (ciphonapiee: Ceratophyllidae). PHYUUIS! ©. JOHNSON S20 ee cite Pele peace Peer 289 Zootoacy.—New names for two genera of Octocorallia. FREDERICK M. BAYER. i566 2 8 y ca ghee be be © ee hovel ee eer , 296 This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Vou. 44 | OcTOBER 1954 No. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS JoHN C. EwrEers R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BKREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. CowirE Puitip DRUCKER ANTHROPOLOGY PHYSICS Davin H. DUNKLE GEOLOGY ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuILForD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND E Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. _ Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act cf February 28, 1925. 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Changes of Address—Members are requested to Raa changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 44 October 1954 Noo 10 BIOLOGY .—Integration and individuation as elements of evolution. A. A. WiL- LIAMSON, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by Waldo L. Schmitt.) If we could first know where we are, and whither we are tending, we could better know what to do, and how to do it—ABRAHAM LINCOLN In a paper entitled Speculation on the cosmic function of life (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 43 (10). 1953), a schematic con- eept of biological evolution, therein called the pyramid of life concept, was outlined. Its essence is that biological evolution is factually progressive by objective criteria, empirically verifiable. Progress was shown as marked by the successive superimposition of one level (category) of life upon an earlier evolved one from which it so derives food or sustenance that a consequent diminution of comparative aggregate num- ber, level by level, necessarily results, but no contraction of aggregate territorial do- minion, which in every case is or becomes world wide in extent. Source of sustenance is thus made the primary criterion of evolu- tionary superiority. On this basis suste- nance consumers are higher in nature’s scheme of things than their sustenance suppliers, but the latter are given an irre- versible priority of importance by their sustenance-supplier status. The over-all process registers progress because it works consistently toward a discernible End or Objective: the pyramid’s adumbrated apex of numerical singularity in an eventual World Order of human national social or- ganizations regionally or culturally asso- ciated as political units sustaining it. (It is axiomatic that progress per se is distin- guished by movement toward some specific end or objective.) The Pyramid of Life Concept has broad human interest and high philosophical import because it reveals meaning in the evolution of life such as understandings of that process do not now have and the very possibility of which is often categorically denied. Despite any and all objections that may be raised against the concept, it may confidently be said that the pyramid itself is undeniably factual, while the concept’s primary assumptions are so incontrovertible as to admit of no arguments contra. In its natural history and its scientific aspects it is so grandly comprehensive as to include both the esthetic and the theoretic compo- nents of things and our knowledge of them which Prof. Filmer S. C. Northrop has shown to be fundamental to philosophy, religion, and civilization. From its postulates can be drawn axioms, theorems, and proposi- tions which are subject to detailed de- velopment. Moreover, by a speculative but not groundless extension, it can be given cosmic scope, which highlights the complete irrelevance of objections that living things are not closed systems. (They could not process—concentrate, refine, and relay— energy if they were.) In addition, the concept seems to offer what may be the best philosophical justifi- cation for the democratic political system found since Berkeley and Hume exploded the Lockean philosophy so strongly reflected in our Declaration of Independence and our Constitution with its tripartite depart- mentalization of government. This justifi- cation is harmonious with the ‘‘gametic interpretation of history”? proposed by Fred- erick Adams Woods when lecturer in biology in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology as an outcome of the application of his scientifically devised method of measur- ing historical causation, by him called historiometry, although it carries that inter- 297 298 pretation beyond the intentionally limited scope of his inquiry.! In the JouRNAL paper above referred to it was possible only to sketch the concept in barest outline. No discussion could be introduced of two great trends, principles, or forces which—well known though they are—can not be known in their true sig- nificance unless their relation to the pyra- mid-building process is seen. To indicate that relation is the purpose of this paper. These two principles or forces often ap- pear to be mutually antagonistic but they are actually interacting and complemen- tary. In this paper they will be called the Organic or Integrative Principle (Principle A) and the Individuative or Independence Principle (Principle B). Since they are already often referred to in the same or comparable terms, no difficulty should arise in understanding what they mean. By the operation of Principle A, evolved exemplars of Principle B are combined to form more complex biological units as well as higher levels of life. While analogous principles operate in the inanimate world (e.g., chemical valence and such phenomena as the carbon and nitrogen cycles) to form the physical foundation of the pyramid of life and supply its material necessities, this discussion may conveniently start with life in unicellular form. At the level of unicellular life, then, Principle A has already produced individuals which, in the great majority of cases, re- flect the operation of Principle B by assert- ing and constantly endeavoring to maintain a self-sufficiency which resists all occasions and opportunities for jomt, cooperative union with others of their kind if it requires subordination by restrictive specialization of function. Hence it is characteristic of the products of Principle A that upon attaining B status as individuals, competition 1s engaged in and any further unifying organ- ization is rejected. To maintain their independent individuality is their main busi- ness in life. Nevertheless, there were ex- ceptions to this rule. Through these excep- tions, multicellular life began. 1 Dr. Wood’s work seems strangely unfamiliar to professionals in the social sciences and the humanities. See footnote 10. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 Biological evolutionary progress appears always to involve particularity. It seems to have to wait upon the appearance of particular forms of life which lend them- selves or are amenable to the operation of Principle A, the organizing principle. In his 1942 volume, Evolution, the modern syn- thesis, Julian Huxley says on page 558 that progress ‘“‘may just as well prove to be par- tial as universal.’’ But on the basis of the Pyramid of Life Concept it has to be partial. For every higher stratum of the pyramid depends for its existence upon the prior and continued existence of its immediately ante- cedent, evolutionarily inferior, and suste- nance-supplying stratum. This necessitates a fixed evolutionary position for all such levels. Accordingly, not only unicellular life but also the vegetal, herbivorous, and car- nivorous levels of life have been perpetu- ated “unto this day.” In a chapter on “Darwinism Today” in his book Man in the modern world, Huxley further states: “The single organism, looked at through evolutionary spectacles, has no meaning except in relation to a particular environment, to a particular set of enemies and competitors, to a particular past his- tory, and to a particular set of potentialities for the future.’” In this one sentence the word, particular, occurs no less than four times, but—for present purposes—it has greatest significance when it relates to “a particular set of potentialities for the fu- ture.”’ In the sense of this paper that means when an organism in amenable to the opera- tion of Principle A. In a highly interesting article in the Atlan- tic Monthly for February 1946, under the caption ‘‘The Social Animal,” the distin- guished biologist Dr. Caryl P. Haskins, in collaboration with his wife, Edna F. Has- kins, traces the evolutionary steps leading to the production of societies at different levels. He says: ‘“‘On the basis of this single example [the alcoholic fermentation of sugar as per- formed by yeasts in the ripening of wines and spirits], which can be multiplied manyfold, we may tentatively accept the view that, in certain aspects, the single cell too is a soci- ety, to which certain of the concepts of ? Mentor Books, no. M31, p. 176. OcTOBER 1954 societies can be properly applied.’”’ Thus, even in the single cell, as already noted, Principle A has operated to produce exem- plifications of Principle B; namely, indi- viduals—with social connotations. In cer- tain specific cases, these have been used for the further operation of Principle A. In the same Atlantic Monthly article, Dr. Haskins shows how multicellular forms of animal life have most probably been evolved, “‘to culminate at last in the verte- brates. There specialization of the cellular components has become so finely developed, there the individuality of the colony has been so exaggerated at the expense of its once independent parts, that we no longer think of these colony-animals—these flam- ingos or these elephants or these men—as cellular communities at all.” For the in- dividuating principle (Principle B) has quite definitely claimed them for its own. In the same article Dr. Haskins further states: ‘“Every ‘society’ that we can name, at any level of life, shows in its evolution, and particularly in its inception, a_ well- marked trend to proceed from a simple to a more complex state.”’ And he adds: ‘‘Purely on the basis of Darwinian natural selection, on the theory of ‘the survival of the fittest,’ it is not easy to understand why this un- mistakable trend from the simple to the complex should be universal in the evolu- tion of earthly societies. Over and over again we have vivid evidence that the ad- vance from a solitary to a social existence cannot, in its early stages, have been wholly beneficial to the species in the sense that its survival value was increased-relative to its competitors.’”’ He reenforces this by saying: “‘Every evidence seems to indicate that the first transition from the solitary to the colonial mode of life was not an expe- dient move.’ (Italics supplied.) For no immediate competitive advantage could be seen to have accrued from that transition but, rather, the contrary. If, however, we can conceive of the whole evolutionary proc- ess as working through successive diminu- tion of number toward a discernible End (the pyramid’s eventual unitary apex), we can see in these evolutionary steps the complementary, interacting operation of Principles A and B, organizing, establishing, WILLIAMSON: INTEGRATION AND INDIVIDUATION 299 organizing again and again establishing in methodical repetition. Only in this way is the major (i.e., the realm by realm) progress of evolution achieved. But in this way it is achieved, and achieved systematically. In his outstanding work on this general subject,? Dr. Haskins develops his studies in detail, tracing ‘‘significant trends in the formation, the growth, and the duration of societies, notably those of men,” as the jacket announcement summarizes it. He distinguishes between the closely integrated, caste-system type of social organization exemplified by insect (single family) so- cleties and the loose, ‘associative’ (herd- ing) type common among vertebrates. Dr. Haskins holds societies to be organisms only by analogy, differentiating between biological man and cultural man: ‘‘The linchpin joining the biological social struc- ture and man’s cultural society in that intimate union called civilization is the human mind.’ Historically, they are as inseparable as psyche and soma, for man’s great evolutionary achievement was to create family-associative societies psycho- logically unified and organically articulated by group subservience to what were in es- sence (as they still are) concepts of nature plausible enough to win paramount human devotion. As Haskins puts it: ‘...it 1s frequently the associative structure and not the family which commands the highest loyalty of men.’ (This is not yet wholly true in the Far East.) It has been said that life and mind are correlates. The distinguished Indian physi- cist, Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, showed in a series of experiments that, as far as we can discover, plant response to excitations of various kinds parallels if it does not accord fully with animal tissue response, the no- table differences being such as could be attributed to structural differences. While differences in animal mentality are enor- mous, it is arguable that they are essen- tially a matter of degree. Neither absolute nor relative brain weight is a sure measure of intelligence in man or animal, but its use 3 Of societies and men. Introduction by Vanne- var Bush. W. W. Norton, New York, 1951. 4 Of societies and men, pp. 208 and 178, respec- tively. 300 to create cultures and civilizations makes man unique. Insect life is, indeed, governed almost wholly by what we call instinct, but there is abundant evidence that many warm- blooded animals display intelligence in their reactions to the exigencies of their mode of life. And predatory carnivores as a class constantly show a mentality superior to that of their herbivorous prey. The preda- tory habit makes that mandatory. When, in the pyramid-constructing proc- ess, the carnivorous animal level had been established, then the sustenance-supplying potentialities of the mineral kingdom, of vegetation, and of animal matter had been thoroughly exploited by a great variety of hfe forms. Consequently, there then re- mained no way to raise the pyramid to higher levels by the same source-of-suste- nance criterion except to exploit the suste- nance-supplying potentialities of mentality. This was done through the evolvement of societies. Now, mere size is in many ways a biolog- ical factor, as Huxley, Schrodinger,® Has- kins, and others have noted. And so, al- though insects were the first to evolve true societies showing in many ways a remark- able use of mentality, they simply could not fulfill nature’s evolutionary requirements for pyramid-constructing purposes, for they could not wrest evolutionary supremacy from the carnivores. Only man has met those requirements, and by his superlative power to exploit the only remaining source of sustenance—mentality. It is, indeed, as af evolution had been preparing for this eventuality from the very beginning as it built up the vegetal and the herbivorous and carnivorous animal levels of the pyra- mid’s physical organismal realm of life. Evolutionarily speaking, this is the raison d’etre of human social organisms, whose source of sustenance is mentality, in- creasingly developed through the comple- mentary operation of Principles A and B. Man—and man alone—has made mentality supreme. So powerful, so inherently fixed, is the ’>What is life? Cambridge University Press, 1944. Reprinted 1945, 1948, 1951, with a note to chapter 6. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 10 gregarious impulse in man that he seems never to have existed as a solitary animal. Always he is found to be a social animal. And social living, with its manifold contacts and associations, inevitably requires com- monly accepted norms of conduct and ways of thought. In their complex interrelations, these constitute what we call culture. No established human group has ever been known that did not have its culture, always institutionally embodied. Such institutions are analogs of the specialized parts of phys- ical organisms. They make cultures organic: as their organs, they rule the life of man. Yet mind-generated movements can change them if philosophically required. For, as Frederick Watkins has said: “In the long run...no movement can evoke the fullest energies of its supporters unless it offers them an adequate justification for the things they are doing.’’® And no such justifi- cation is adequate unless it reflects the scientific knowledge of the time, which it- self changes with time. Sociologically speaking, culture and civil- ization do not differ essentially, civilization merely being culture in a more or less ad- vanced (complex) stage of development. Nevertheless it can be said that here, too, size 1s a factor. Systematic agriculture has been and still is the invariable basis of civil- ization. Historically, it fixed cultures in permanent locations, provided an abundant and dependable food supply, promoted population increase, and encouraged if it did not require the building of cities, which have become the hallmark of civilization. Yet it is highly improbable that advances toward civilization could have been made as they have been made if man had been unable to communicate ideas through the media of language and symbols, and to develop what has become, perhaps, the greatest civilizer of all: the invention and use of tools. As Haskins has emphasized, what he calls “margins of vitality’’ play an in- dispensable part in the advance of culture as civilization. Representing as they do the accumulation and exploitation of conserv- 6 The political tradition of the West, p. 358. Harvard University Press, 1948. 7 Op. cit., p. 231 et seq. OcTroBER 1954 WILLIAMSON: able, need-supplying surpluses, both mate- rial and ideational in character, their num- ber and complexity very largely determine the height of civilization attainable by any specific culture. Since, however, the ele- ments of culture in its various stages are often transmissible, a civilization may be- come widely established geographically under favorable conditions. As defined by the Dictionary of Sociol- ogy,® ‘““The true nation is probably the most stable and coherent large-scale human group yet produced by social evolution,’ and a nation is “‘A nationality that has achieved the final stage of unification represented by its own political structure and _ territorial establishment.”’ Further: ‘‘A true national- ity is animated by consciousness of kind and has a fundamental similarity in its mores.” Parenthetically, a nationality is never a nation unless it dominates terri- tory, as all living things must do. The operation of Principles A and B is plainly observable in human history. All the earlier civilizations, of both the Old World and the New, exhibited national or- ganization of the closely: integrated, caste- system type, analogous to that of the social insects. In these early stages, social status and opportunity to exercise intelligence were determined almost entirely by birth.’ And, as Frederick Adams Woods has shown his- toriometrically, the political and economic prosperity of absolute European monar- chies, including Turkey, almost invariably depended directly on and quickly reflected the character and abilities of the reigning sovereign. These—good, bad, or indifferent —he found to be gametically determined. Of the two biological factors, inheritance and environment, the first was shown to-be far more powerful. Nevertheless, from time to time, superior intellects from without the pale occasionally appeared and seized the prize of power or founded a line of heredity which was able to do it.!° 8 Philosophical Library, Inc., New York, 1944. ® Under such a system Sir Isaac Newton, as the son of a small farmer, would himself have been compelled to be a small farmer without hope of ever being anything else. 10 Mental and moral heredity in royalty. Henry Holt, New York, 1906. The influence of monarchs. Macmillan, New York, 1913. INTEGRATION AND INDIVIDUATION 301 It was, of course, in ancient Greece that the idea of freedom and liberty first arose and found expression in the democratic political system. This led directly to a great outburst of intellectual activity and accomplishment such as had never before been seen and to which we are deeply in- debted even today. But modern democracy derives more from the assemblies of the Teutonic peoples, especially the Witenage- mot of the Anglo-Saxons, than from Greece and Rome. It is the peculiar glory of the democratic political system that it removes restrictions which so long had held to a minimum the operation in human history of that third biological factor, genetic recombination and - mutation. By that removal the doors of opportunity are opened to all without dis- crimination. It thus makes socially available all those superior mentalities of varying degree which can and do arise in any and all levels of society by whatever criterion and to which the world owes much. With- out it civilization in its more advanced stages (1.e., mechanized industry) cannot flourish. This third biological factor can be assured full and free play only by the demo- cratic system. To quote again from Freder- ick Watkins: “If the maximization of hu- man potentialities is the ultimate secular value, and if the realization of that value depends on the maintenance through legisla- tion of optimum social conditions, it follows that political action is an indispensable part of the moral responsibility of men.’’!! It is to be noted that “‘the ultimate secular value” specified is only negatively hedonis- tic—‘‘a calculus of pleasure and_ pain.” Positively, it aims at the utmost possible state of societal homeostasis. From the viewpoint of this paper, what the democratic political system does is to make nations successfully adopting it more truly and thoroughly psychozoic organisms because it permits them to draw mental and spiritual sustenance from all their ‘human sustainers instead of from a restricted segment of them only. Ideally, every citizen has full opportunity—and is, indeed, ex- pected—to make his contribution by the 1 Op. cit. supra, p. 251. 302 discovery (including the self-discovery) and the development of his mental endowments. It is the unpredictability of individual human potentialities which gives such value to the democratic high regard for the sanc- tity of the individual person, his rights and liberties. But these carry with them polit- ical and social duties and responsibilities which are, alas, less often stressed. It is now recognized in_ philosophical circles if not elsewhere that what the demo- cratic political system actually does is to hold in operational balance at the human national societal level those two great evolu- tionary trends, forces, or principles here called the Organic or Integrative Principle . (Principle A) and the Individuative or Independence Principle (Principle B).” That level constitutes the first true level of the psychozoic organismal realm of the grand, mammalian pyramid of life, that realm of life in which evolutionary progress at last makes mind, mentality, or intellect supreme. The freeing of the mind as only de- mocracy can free it, to range wherever it will, is the best guarantee humanity can have that mass intelligence will sooner or later come to reign over mass emotion and hold it in control throughout the world. It is there- fore the best guarantor of eventual world peace. In a broad, general way, then, it can truthfully be said that the two interacting, complementary principles herein discussed operate in the over-all biological evolution- ary process and are essential to it. Only when that is perceived do we realize that they have made and still make possible the successive superimposition of level on level in the pyramid of life to which man and his cultures and civilizations belong. For they can be seen to be operative in human his- tory precisely as they have operated in earlier times on subhuman forms of life. One of these principles (Principle A) has operated to bring animate nature (life) out of the insensate world of matter; to transmute unicellular forms into multi- 2 Northrop, F. 8. C.: The meeting of East and West. Macmillan, New York, 8th printing, p. 191, 1951. Also Haskins, op. cit. supra, p. 260f. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 10 cellular organisms; and to produce insect and human societies. Cooperation is its “keynote.” The other principle (Principle B) has operated to establish and perpetuate the various successive levels of the pyramid as they emerged and proved their power to exist. Its “keynote”? is competition involy- ing Darwinian natural selection. Without the complementary operation of these two principles the construction of our pyramid of life—or any other—would not have been possible. It is because they have operated that our pyramid is as it now stands, visible around us wherever we may be. Today, in current history, the creative operation of Principle A seems clearly evi- dent. Despite all anathemas against it, the spirit of nationalism is spreading in the Far East, where cultural tradition neither induces nor fosters it yet where even de- mocracy is being attempted. In the West, the competition of antagonistic doctrines is compelling the democratic nations to organize, as in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, here held to be symptomatic of what will slowly develop everywhere to form a pyramidal level of regional suprana- tional organizations if not organisms, all in antecedence to a still higher level to constitute in actuality what is now but the logically adumbrated apex of the pyramid as a unitary World Order. Thus does the Pyramid of Life Concept, schematically reflecting biological evolu- tionary principles, illuminate human _his- tory prophetically by its revelation of mean- ing therein—a meaning, moreover, which is “‘publicly valid” in the sense of holding good at all times for all men everywhere. Nor are future refinements in evolutionary theory likely ever to diminish that validity, for it 1s rendered independent of detail by the breadth of its outline, the grandeur of its scope. They are one with evolution itself. Grateful acknowledgment for permission to quote at some length from their designated publi- cations is made to the following: The Atlantic Monthly, W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., Harvard University Press, and Philosophical Library, Inc. OcToOBER 1954 FERLIN AND KARABINOS: E. COLI AND A. AEROGENES 303 BIOCHEMISTRY —Differential media for Escherichia coli and Aerobacter aerogenes. H. J. FERuIN and J. V. Karasrnos, Blockson Chemical Co., Joliet. Ill. Clapper and Poe (1947) described the utilization of various organic acids as the sole source of carbon for possible differen- tiation of members of the Colon-aerogenes group. They suggested that propionic acid could support the growth of 11 out of 18 strains of Escherichia coli to the exclusion of Aerobacter aerogenes. However, the three strains of A. aerogenes used in this research grew quite well on their media, and no dif- ferentiation was observed. More recently, Johnson and Cohn (1952) demonstrated that fumaric and malic acids stimulated the growth of EF. coll. Certain observations in this laboratory indicated that the citrate agar of Simmons (1926), an improvement over Koser’s (1924), citrate medium deserved further study. It seemed logical to investigate re- lated organic acids, particularly those of the Krebs-cycle, in a similar manner for possible differentiation of these organisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two solutions of inorganic salts were pre- pared and sterilized. One contained 1.5 percent NaNH,HPO, and 1 percent KH2PO,, the other contained 0.2 percent MgSO,-7H.O. Both solu- tions were diluted tenfold in order to obtain the desired concentration. For the citrate media, all concentrations herein expressed are in terms of the acid monohydrate. Thus, 0.2 percent of Simmons’s sodium citrate is equivalent to about 0.06 percent of citric-acid monohydrate as used in the present study. How- ever, the citrate agar of Simmons was prepared in accordance with his methods. All the other media were prepared by dissolving various con- centrations of the respective acid in the salt solu- tions so that these portions of the media repre- sented twice the desired final concentration. Sodium chloride, where used, was also incor- porated into the above portions of the media. The pH was then adjusted as desired. The agar was prepared separately, a 4 percent concentration being made. The two were sterilized separately, then combined in equal amounts just prior to use. Once the two were combined, plates were poured immediately. Increasing acidity and/or in- creasing concentrations of sodium chloride tended to hydrolyze the agar to a point where it would not solidify. After combination the pH of a small aliquot was verified with a Beckman pH meter at a temperature of 55°C. The other acids were prepared in a similar manner. The concentrations are all expressed in terms of the acid used; no correction was made for loss of any volatile acids. Organisms used were Escherichia coli ATCC #11229, three cultures of Aerobacter aerogenes, four cultures of H. colt of endogenous origin, EZ. untermedium, ATCC #6750, E. coli var. com- munior ATCC #4352, and Serratia marcescens. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Citric-acid media were studied in the following manner. The pH, sodium-chloride concentration, and acid concentration were varied in order to find the optimal conditions for growth of Aero- bacter aerogenes and inhibition of Escherichia colt. It was found that on Simmons’s citrate agar alternate streaks of A. aerogenes and E. coli resulted in rapid development of A. aerogenes colonies followed by symbiotic growth of EZ. coli TABLE 1.—EFFEcT oF SODIUM CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION ON GROWTH OF A. AEROGENES AND E. cout 0.3% Citric 0.3% Citric 0.3% Citric 0.3% Citric 0.3% Citric 0.3% Citric No NaCl 0.2% NaCl 0.4% NaCl 1% NaCl 1.5% NaCl 2.0% NaCl aimes(hrss)-. a2.5.-. 24 48 24 48 24 48 24 48 24 48 24 48 Tel: sos ede eeeee 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 6.8 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 6.8 Aerobacter aero- | GENES nse 4+] 4+) 4+) 4+) 44+) 44+) 44+) 44+) 44+) 3+) 44+) 34+) 44+) 3+) 44+) 34+) 34+) 3+! 44) 34+) 2+) 24+) 34+) 2+ Eschericia coli......| —| —| —| —| -) -| -| -| -| -|) -) -) -]) =F = =e) 4) UF OU) OH OB 24) CO) 24+ (—), no growth; (+), doubtful growth; (+), growth; (2+), moderate growth; (3+), good grewth; (4+), luxuriant growth. 304 after an initial delay. The closer the streaks of E. coli were placed to A. aerogenes, the shorter was the time lapse required for growth of the former. The action of sodium-chloride concentration was found to vary with the pH but was not materially affected by varying concentrations of citrate. For example, though 0.06 percent citric acid monohydrate gave much poorer growth of A. aerogenes than did 0.3 percent, the growth with any given concentration of sodium chloride at any given pH was proportional. There was con- siderable evidence that increasing concentrations of sodium chloride not only inhibited A. aerogenes (Table 1) but actually tended to aid the growth of FE. coli on the medium. Whether this is actually due partly to hydrolysis of the agar is uncertain. It therefore seemed desirable to eliminate so- dium chloride from the medium. Although the above table shows only 0.3 percent citric acid, the results were similar with other concentrations. At various concentrations of salt and citrate, the pH of the media was varied from 5.5 to 7.5 at intervals of 0.2 unit. At a pH of 5.8-6.2 (6.0 is apparently optimal) the best and most luxuriant growth of A. aerogenes was obtained with no ap- parent growth of EL. coli. This was true regardless of the concentration of citric acid employed in the series. Finally the citrate concentration was varied. It was found that growth of A. aerogenes was optimal with a concentration of about 0.3 percent citric acid monohydrate. When the concentration was increased much beyond this point, EF. colt began to develop. At a concentration of 0.5 per- cent citric acid the growth of E. coli was doubt- ful, but at 1 percent it was definitely present. Al- though decreasing concentrations of citrate failed to support growth of E. coli, growth of A. aero- genes was much poorer and often failed to occur. Combination of these optimal conditions, namely 0.3 percent citric acid, no sodium chlo- ride, and a pH of 6.0, were compared with Sim- mons’s citrate agar. Streaking for purposes of isolating A. aerogenes from E. colt showed no apparent differences between the modified me- dium and Simmons’s citrate agar. However, the new medium did give more luxuriant growth. By diluting mixed cultures of the two or- ganisms and using a plate count technique, colonies selected at random from this new agar were less prone to consist of mixtures of EF. colt and A. aerogenes than those selected from Sim- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 mons’s citrate agar. In Table 2 are shown results obtained with a mixture of approximately equal numbers of #. colt and A. aerogenes. These were 24-hour cultures combined just prior to use. A 10-° dilution was made of the mixed organisms and these were plated out using the two media. After 48 hours incubation at 37°C., the colonies were counted and isolated colonies were removed with a needle and subcultured in nutrient agar. These were then tested for indole and acetyl- methyl! carbinol production and for their methyl red reaction. Nutrient agar control counts were also carried out. A 10~-® dilution gave approxi- mately 400 colonies. Forty isolates from two plates of Simmons’s citrate agar were made, and 80 isolates from two plates of the modified medium. All isolates from Simmons’s citrate agar gave positive acetyl- methyl carbinol tests indicating that they con- tained at least some A. aerogenes. The fact that 20 percent were methyl red ‘positive and 30 per- cent were indole positive indicated that up to 30 percent of the isolates were mixtures. On the other hand, the results with the new agar demon- strated that although all the isolates contained A. aerogenes only five percent of these were ap- parently mixtures. Two: methods were used to determine indole production, the standard method using ether extraction followed by Ehrlich’s reagent, and an alternate procedure developed here, a report of which will be made at a later date. The possible advantages of this new citrate agar is demonstrated predominantly by the plate count tests. The only other method of demon- strating its advantages is by the luxuriance of growth mentioned earlier. Serratia marcescens and Escherichia interme- TABLE 2.—REACTIONS OF ORGANISMS ISOLATED BY PLatTeE Count METHOD : ) Citrate Agar Simmons’s eh Citrate Agar 0.3% Citric Acid Mono- (0.5% NaCl) hydrate (No pH 6.8 NaCl) pH 6.0 No. of Colonies/Plate 20 150 Indole 70% (—)* 95% (—)* 30% (+) 5% (+) Acetylmethyl carbinol 100% (+) 109% (+)> Methyl Red 20% (+)° 0% (+)° 80% (—) 109% (—) 4 (—) indicates indole negative, (+) indole positive; (+) indicates production of acetylmethyl carbinol; © (+) indicates pH 4.5 or less, (—)pH greater than 4.5. OcToBER 1954 dium also grew well on the modified medium. This citric acid medium can also be prepared by combining al] ingredients in the desired propor- tions, including the agar, followed by the cus- tomary autoclaving. Incorporation of bromthymol blue into this citrate agar was useful in demonstrating an alkaline reaction. However, luxuriance of growth obviates its use in this medium. Other acids of the Krebs cycle tested for pos- sible differentiation of these members of the colon- aerogenes group were acetic, pyruvic, malic, fumaric, succinic, and aconitic. With the excep- tion of fumaric acid, none showed any apparent ability to differentiate the organisms. Butyric and propionic acids were likewise found unac- ceptable. Maleic acid, although a steroisomer of fumaric, could not be induced to support more than a doubtful growth under any of the condi- tions tried. Fumaric gave indications of sup- porting growth of H. coli to the exclusion of A. aerogenes early in this work. While subsequent developments tend to indicate it is not com- pletely acceptable as a differential medium, it appears to be useful to some extent. After con- siderable experimentation with regard to sodium- chloride concentration, {umaric acid concentra- tion, and pH, the most desirable medium was found to consist of 0.5 percent fumaric acid, | per- cent sodium chloride, and a pH of 5.6 to 6.0 with 5.8 apparently optimal. Using this medium, it was found that by streaking with Z. coli and A. aerogenes and incubating at 37°C. H. coli con- sistently gave well-developed colonies in 18-24 hours, while A. aerogenes failed to give a recog- nizable growth until 28-44 hours. This lag of 10 to 20 hours by A. aerogenes was found to occur consistently regardless of the strains used. How- ever, because of slight variations it is recom- mended that controls of pure cultures be used with each fresh batch of medium. H. intermedium and S. marcescens gave growth very similar to A. aerogenes and could also be differentiated from E. colt. | Because of the pH and salt concentration, the agar must be autoclaved separately from the rest of the fumaric acid medium or it fails to solidify, Plates must be poured immediately after the agar and medium have been combined. The primary cause of variations mentioned pre- viously was apparently due to the length of time the mixture was maintained at elevated temper- FERLIN AND KARABINOS: E. COLI AND A. AEROGENES 305 atures. Best results were obtained when the two were cooled to about 45°-50° C., mixed, and plates poured immediately thereafter. By using a plate count technique, as with the citric acid media, isolated colonies were removed and subcultured in nutrient broth. However, under these circumstances the optimal incubation time was found to be from 42-48 hours appar- ently because of more nearly anaerobic condi- tions. Of 80 colonies isolated, 90 percent were found to be pure cultures of H. coli. After 72 hours of incubation with fumarate agar, the pure cultures of this organism dropped to 60 percent and after 96 hours to 20 percent. Again, as with citrate agar, mixtures of EF. coli and A. aerogenes were streaked and after 18-22 hours incubation isolated colonies were sub- cultured in nutrient broth; over 90 percent were found to be mixtures of the two organisms. It was of interest that H. coli var. communior would not grow on any of the above-mentioned media. SUMMARY Various conditions for the improvement of citrate agar for differentiating A erobacter aerogenes from Escherichia coli were studied. It was found that by eliminating sodium chloride from the medium, increasing the concentration to 0.38 percent in terms of citric-acid monohydrate, and adjusting the pH to 6.0 better growth of A. aerogenes was obtained. Using a plate count method to isolate the colonies indicated that this medium gave more luxuriant growth of A. aerogenes with greater exclusion of FH. coll. Streaking did not demonstrate this because of an apparently symbiotic growth. A fumarate agar containing 0.5 per cent fumaric acid, inorganic salts, 1 per cent sodium chloride, and 2.0 per cent agar was found to give growth of A. aerogenes con- sistently delayed 10 to 20 hours behind F. coli when the plates were streaked. Pour plates required 40-48 hours incubation for development of EH. coli, while 60-72 hours incubation were required for A. aerogenes. By means of the plate count technique it also was found that 40- to 48-hour cul- tures could be used for isolation of E. cola from A. aerogenes in mixtures containing approximately equal numbers of the two. 306 LITERATURE CITED CiaprerR, W. E., and Por, C: F. Study of the utilization of some organic acids by Escherichia and Aerobacter. Journ. Bact. 53: 363-364. 1947. Jounson, B. C., and Coun, E. M. Effect of certain acids of the tricarboxylic acid cycle on growth of Escherichia coli. Journ. Bact. 63: 735-742. 1952. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 Kosir, 8. A. Correlation of citrate utilization by members of the colon-aerogenes group with other differential characteristics and with habitat. Journ. Bact. 9: 59-77. 1924. Stmmons, J.S8. A culture medium for differentiating organisms of typhoid-colon-aerogenes groups and for isolation of certain fungi. Journ. Infect. Diseases 39: 209-214. 1926. PALEONTOLOGY .—Emendation of the foraminiferal genera Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862, and Involutina Terquem, 1862. ALFRED R. Lorsurcu, Jr., and HELEN Tappan, U.S. National Museum. While examining type species of forami- niferal genera, during preparation of the section on Foraminifera for the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, the writers found some genera to be quite incompletely known and incorrectly understood. Inasmuch as some of the early illustrations and descrip- tions were generalized or inaccurate and some of the type specimens had not since. been restudied, this was not surprising. Un- fortunately, upon reexamination of the types and the literature some supposedly well- known genera were found to be synonymous with others and quite unlike what was com- monly referred to the genus. Most paleontologists would have stated that the genus Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862, was a very well-known genus and that there were no problems as to its type spe- cles, generic characters, or systematic posi- tion. That the exact opposite is true we have now learned. A century ago taxono- mists were not held to as rigid rules of nomenclature as today, and those who deplore the present ‘‘arbitrary”’ and exact- ing rules would do well to consider the status of many genera and species described before the advent of the International Commis- sion. Today, Reuss’s genus would have had no validity, as he mentioned no species, nor did he cite an exact reference to earlier species. This fact led to a later erroneous designation of type species, as will be shown. A century ago, as well as much more re- cently, Foraminifera were not thought to be sufficiently high in the evolutionary scale to have many diagnostic characters, and forms were considered conspecific even when they had completely different wall composition. Species were placed in a single genus regardless of whether they were attached or free, calcareous, or agglutinated, septate or undivided, and irrespective of the position or even the number of apertures. Many later references to these early species thus may be similar to certain of these early illustrations but are too often completely unlike the original type specimens. In the case of type species for genera this can have far-reaching effects. The type species of the genus Ammodiscus is here shown to belong to Spirillina, and thus not only does the genus become a junior synonym, but as it belongs to an entirely different systematic position, it must leave the family Ammo- discidae and subfamily Ammodiscinae for which it was considered the type genus. Genus Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862, emended Original reference —Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl., Jahrg. 1861, 44 (Abt. 1): 365. 1862. Types species.—Orbis infimus Strickland, 1846. Fixed by subsequent monotypy: Bornemann (iS 74a 720). Emended diagnosis——Test free, discoidal, consisting of a globular proloculus followed by a planispirally coiled or very slightly trochoid tubular second chamber; wall calcareous, com- posed of a single crystal of calcite, occasionally irregularly fibrous in appearance in cross-section ; aperture at the open end of the tube. Discussion.—Reuss (1862, p. 365) described the genus Ammodiscus but named no species in the original reference. In his synonymy he included “‘Cornuspira Will. z. Thl.; Trochammina Park. et Jon. z. Thl.,’ but he mentioned no species within these two genera. Cushman (1910, p. 73) designated Operculina incerta d’Orbigny, 1839, Recent of Cuba, as the type species of the genus. Galloway (1938, p. 97) stated “... Reuss said, ‘Cornuspira Will. z. Th; Trocham- OcToBER 1954 mina Park. et Jon. z. Th.’ Parker and Jones had the variety T. squamata incerta (d’Orb), which Reuss’ description fits, and since it was one of original species and has been designated, it is the valid genotype.”’ Parker and Jones (1859, p. 347), in their original description of Trocham- mina, mentioned only Nautilus inflatus Montagu but stated that ‘‘in deeper water it is represented by attenuated varieties, ultimately becoming Spirilline.” They cited no “spirilline’’ species, however. This is perhaps the reference to which Reuss referred in his synonymy, for although he makes no definite citation of this reference under his discussion of Ammodiscus, he does cite the reference several times elsewhere in his article. Jones and Parker (1860, p. 304) (n.b. not Parker and Jones) cite the following species under Trochammina: Rotalia inflata Montagu (cited as type species), 7. wrregularis (=Webbina irregularis d’Orbigny), JT. wregularis alternans, T. wrregularis clavata (the type species of Am- molagena Eimer and Fickert, 1899), 7. sqwamata, T. squamata incerta (d’Orbigny) (cited by Cush- man, 1910, p. 73, as type of Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862), JT. squamata charoides (a Glomospira), T. squamata gordialis (type species of Glomospira Rzehak, 1888), and 7. squamata inflata. Thus Jones and Parker placed under T'rocham- mina at least five distinct genera, belonging to at least four different families. This reference is perhaps the one referred to by Galloway (1933, p. 97) inasmuch as it is the only reference of this early date citing 7’. sguamata incerta (d’Orbigny). It should be kept in mind, however, that this reference is by Jones and Parker and not Parker and Jones, and thus it is doubtful that Reuss referred to it. Cushman therefore was in error in eiting Operculina incerta d’Orbigny as type of Ammodiscus. As no original species were men- tioned by Reuss, Galloway was also in error in stating that since 7’. sywamata incerta (d’Orbigny). ‘«’. . was one of the original species and has been designated, it is the valid genotype.” In such a case, where Reuss described the genus Ammodis- cus without naming a species, the first species to be placed in Ammodiscus becomes ipsofacto the type species of the genus and no subsequent designation can alter this fact. | The earliest name used in conjunction with Ammodiscus was Ammodiscus lindahli Carpenter and Jeffries (1871, p. 160). The only mention of this species, however, was given under the dis- cussion of the dredgings under the report for LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: FORAMINIFERAL GENERA 307 July 29. Samples were obtained from 364 and 322 fathoms (Porcupine stations 26 and 27). They list various mollusks, etc., which were found and state: “But the most remarkable novelty here obtained was a large collection of thin sandy disks, from 0.3 to 0.4 inch in diameter, with a slight central prominence; for these proved on subsequent examination to contain an en- tirely new type of Actinozoon, extraordinarily flattened in form, and entirely destitute of ten- tacles. Dr. Carpenter, by whom this curious organism will be described, has assigned to it the name of Ammodiscus lindahli.’”” Apparently this mention was not intended to be a specific description as it was stated (p. 161), “The quan- tity and variety of Zoological materials is so great that we have distributed it as follows:... and the Pentacrinus, Ammodiscus and Foraminif- era by Dr. Carpenter...” It is interesting to note that Carpenter and Jeffries did not con- sider this to be a foraminifer but an ‘‘Actino- zoon.”’ Thus this is a homonymous usage of the name Ammodiscus for an actinozoan (an- thozoan) and was not considered a reference to a foraminifer nor to Ammodiscus Reuss. Ammo- discus lindahlt thus cannot be used as a type species for the foraminiferal genus Ammodiscus. The next species cited in connection with Ammodiscus is Ammodiscus infimus (Strickland) Bornemann (1874, p. 725) (= Orbis infimus Strickland, 1846). As this is the first valid reference citing a species of Ammodiscus it automatically becomes the type species of Ammodiscus. Strickland’s types are in London, the lectotype (designated by Barnard, 1952) (Cat. no. P 40870) and paratypes (Cat. no. P 40871) separated from the original type rock specimen (Cat. no. 32718) are in the British Museum (Natural History), and topotypes in the collections of the Geological Survey and Museum (no. 73204-5 and slides nos. 90171-78), also in London. These types were examined and redescribed by Barnard (1952, p. 905) and were shown to belong to Spirillina Ehrenberg, 1843, as they are hyaline, calcareous forms. As its type species is thus a Spirillina the genus Am- modiscus Reuss, 1862, is a junior synonym of _Spirillina Ehrenberg, 1843, and therefore must be suppressed. Actually, even if the species cited as type by Cushman (Operculina incerta d’Orbigny) were to be kept as type species by an appeal to the international Commission, the genus would still 308 have no standing. D’Orbigny’s types of Oper- culina incerta were examined by the writers in Paris and found not to be an agglutinated form but a calcareous imperforate form and a typical Cornuspira Schultze, 1854. Three syntypes of d’Orbigny’s species are preserved in the collec- tions of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. That here figured (Figs. la, 1b) is hereby designated the lectotype of Oper- culina incerta and the remaining two specimens become paratypes. All are from the Recent of Cuba. All three specimens of Operculina incerta in the d’Orbigny collection are imperforate cal- careous forms and thus not in the least similar to what has for many years been considered Ammodiscus. It is interesting to note that d’Or- bigny’s description of the species made no men- tion of it being arenaceous, as has been later assumed. He had commented only that its slight degree of transparence made it difficult to study the structure. Normally an arenaceous test would not be expected to show any transparence, which might also have suggested that d’Orbigny was not referring to an agglutinated form but to a porcel- lanous one. This suppression of the generic name Am- modiscus as a synonym of Spirillina would seem to leave nameless those planispiral agglutinated forms commonly placed in Ammodiscus. Never- theless, an examination of Terquem’s types shows that the genus Jnvolutina, as represented by its type species J. silicea Terquem, is an agglutinated form and does not have partial in- ternal septa, but is completely undivided in- ternally. The diagrammatic figures of Terquem interpreted as showing partial septa represent merely the slight undulations of the surface usually considered as growth wrinkles. Thus the species previously considered as Ammodiscus will fall in the genus Jnvolutina, which therefore does not belong to the Silicinidae: This problem is further discussed under the generic emendation of Involutina which follows. As the type species of Ammodiscus, Orbis infimus Strickland, has recently been well de- fined by Barnard, we have not redescribed the species here. However, the species Operculina incerta d’Orbigny, cited erroneously as type for Ammodiscus by Cushman, has never been ac- curately defined, and an emendation of this species follows, although it belongs with Cor- nuspira rather than with Ammodiscus. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 Cornuspira incerta (d’Orbigny), emended Figs. la, 1b Operculina incerta d’Orbigny, 1839, Foraminifeéres. In: Ramon de la Sagra, Hist. Phys. Nat. fle Cuba: 49. Emended diagnosis.—Test free, discoidal, con- sisting of a globular proloculus and long un- divided tubular planispiral second chamber forming about 12 coils, with succeeding whorls partially overlapping those preceding; wall cal- careous, imperforate; aperture at the open end of the tube. Greatest diameter of lectotype 1.36 mm, least diameter 1.18 mm, greatest thickness 0.25 mm. Types and occurrence.—Three syntypes of d’Orbigny are preserved in the collections of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. That here figured is here designated as lectotype, the remaining two specimens becoming para- types. All are from the Recent of Cuba. Remarks—As mentioned under the emenda- tion of Ammodiscus, this species has been cited (although erroneously) as the type species of Ammodiscus. The types of the species show it to belong to Cornuspira Schultze, 1854. Family TotyPaAMMINIDAE Cushman, 1929 Cushman first used the name Tolypammininae for a subfamily of the family Ammodiscidae Reuss, 1862. As Ammodiscus has been shown to be a junior synonym of Spirillina Ehrenberg, 18438, it is removed from the family previously called Ammodiscidae, and hence that family name must be removed with it. As subfamily and family names are considered of equal importance for purpose of priority, the next available name for this family is therefore the Tolypamminidae. Subfamily INVOLUTININAE Cushman, 1940 The subfamily Involutininae will inelude those genera previously placed in the Ammodiscinae— namely the free forms which have a globular proloculus and long undivided tubular second chamber, either in a planispiral or trochoid coil, and cannot be used as a subfamily of the Silicinidae. Genus Involutina Terquem, 1862 Original description.—Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz, ann. 42 (ser. 2, ann. 9), 1860-1861: 450. 1862. OcToOBER 1954 LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: FORAMINIFERAL GENERA 309 Types species—Involutina silicea Terquem, irregular surficial transverse constrictions pos- 1862. Monotypic. sibly denoting stages of growth, but without Diagnosis.—Test free, discoidal, with pro- internal septa; wall finely agglutinated, of sand loculus followed by an undivided planispiral — grains with considerable cement; aperture at the tubular chamber, which slightly overlaps pre- open end of the tube. ceeding whorls at the lateral margins, occasional Discussion.—As noted under the emendation Fie. 1.—Cornuspira incerta (d’Orbigny), lectotype, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Recent of Cuba: la, Side view, showing planispiral calcareous test; 1b, edge view, showing aperture at open end of the tube. X 53. Camera-lucida drawings by Helen Tappan Loeblich. Fic. 2.—Involutina silicea Terquem, lectotype, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Lias Moyen, St. Julien-les-Metz, France: 2a, Side view, showing nonseptate, planispiral agglutinated test; 2b, edge view. X 65. Camera-lucida drawings by Lawrence Isham, scientific illustrator, Smithsonian Institution. 310 of Ammodiscus the genus Involutina is not sub- divided internally, and in fact represents the form previously referred to Ammodiscus. This is not a completely unlooked-for discovery, as Macfadyen (1941, p. 17) stated that specimens sent to Brady by Terquem and in the Brady collection at the British Museum (Natural History), London, and which are labelled In- volutina (Cornuspira) silicea Terquem, Lias Moyen, Metz, were “...all of the form that I have identified as Ammodiscus asper (Terquem).”’ On this basis Macfadyen stated that Involutina was probably a synonym of Ammodiscus, sub- ject to confirmation by the type species. The types also are planispiral, agglutinated, un- divided forms and thus the generic name [n- volutina must be used for those species previously referred to Ammodiscus, as Ammodiscus itself is found to be synonymous with Spirillina. Involutina silicea Terquem, emended Figs. 2a, 2b Involutina silicea Terquem, Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz, ann. 42 (ser. 2, ann. 9), 1860-1861: 450. 1862. Emended diagnosis.—Test free, discoidal; proloculus followed by an undivided planispiral tubular chamber forming about seven or eight coils which are slightly overlapping at the lat- eral margins, crossed by occasional irregular surficial growth constrictions, but completely lacking any internal septa or subdivisions; wall finely agglutinated, composed of quartz grains embedded in a large amount of cement; aperture at the open end of the tube. Greatest diameter of lectotype 1.18 mm, least diameter 0.95 mm, greatest thickness 0.23 mm. Types and occurrence.—Lectotype (here desig- nated) and paratypes in the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. All are from the Lias Moyen, St. Julien-les-Metz, France. Remarks.—This species is the type species of Involutina Terquem. The transverse growth wrinkles were interpreted by Terquem as septa. Actually they are not reflected on the interior of the shell. As the type species of Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862, has been shown to be a hyaline JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vot. 44, No. 10 calcareous form, Reuss’s genus is a synonym of Spirillina. As Involutina is shown to be an agglutinated non-septate planispiral form, the agglutinated species formerly included in Am- modiscus by later authors should correctly be placed in Involutina. REFERENCES BaRNARD, T. Notes on Spirillina infima (Strick- land) Foraminifera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 12, 5: 905-909. 1952. BoRNEMANN, J. G. Ueber die Foraminiferengattung Involutina. Zeitschr.. deutsch. geol. Ges. 26: 702-740, pls. 18-19, 1874. CARPENTER, W. B., and JErrrigs, J. G. Report on deep-sea researches carried on during the months of July, August, and September 1870, in H. M. Surveying-Ship Porcupine. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 19: 146-221. 1871. CusHMAN, J. A. A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pasific Ocean. Pt. 1. Astrorhizidae to Intuolidae. U. S. Nat: Mus. Bull. 71: 1-134. 1910. ; . The Foraminifera of the Atlantic Ocean, Pt.6. Miliolidae, Ophthalmidiidae and Fischeri- nidae. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 104: 1-129, pls. 1-22. 1929. FRANKE, A. Die Foraminiferen des deutschen Lias. Abh. preuss. geol. Landesanst., N. F., 169: 1-138, pls. 1-12. 1936. GauLioway, J. J. A manual of Foraminifera: 1-483, pls. 1-42. 1933. Jones, T. R., and Parkmr, W. K. On the rhizopodal fauna of the Mediterranean, compared with that of the Italian and some other Tertiary deposits. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 16: 292-307. 1860. MacrapDyEN, W. A. Foraminifera from the Green Ammonite beds, Lower Lias, of Dorset. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, ser B (biol. sci. no. 576) 231: 1-73, pls. 1-4. 1941. PaRKER, W. K., and Jongss, T. R. On the nomen- clature of the Foraminifera II. On the species enumerated by Walker and Montagu. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, 4: 333-351. 1859. Reuss, A. E. Entwurf einer systematischen zusam- menstellung der Foraminiferen. Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl., Jahrg. 1861 44 (Abt. 1): 355-396. 1862. STRICKLAND, H. E. On two species of microscopic Shells found in the Inias. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 2: 30-31. 1846. TERQuEM, O. Recherches sur les foraminiferes de VEtage Moyen et de l’Etage Infériveur du lias, 2° Mémoire. Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz, ann. 42 (ser. 2, ann. 9), 1860-1861: 415-466, pls. 5-6. 1862. OcToBER 1954 SMITH AND DOWNS: XYRIDACEAE FROM BRAZIL 311 BOTANY .—Xyridaceae from Brazil. Lyman B. Surru, Department of Botany, U. 8. National Museum, and Rosrerr J. Downs, Plant Industry Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture. At the kind suggestion of Dr. F. Segadas Vianna, we have borrowed the material of Xyridaceae from the Museu Nacional in Rio de Janeiro (R) and studied it in com- parison with the collections in the U. 8. National Herbarium (US). Much of the material of the Museu Nacional has been determined by the most recent monographer of the family, the late Dr. G. O. A. Malme, so that our studies have been rewarding chiefly in the better understanding of old species. However, several new species have been brought to light as noted below. Xyris (Nematopus) cipoensis Smith & Downs, sp. nov. Fig. 1, a-f Caespitosa; radicibus gracilibus; foliis 15-29 em longis, anguste cartilagineo-marginatis; va- ginis anguste triangularibus, tertiam vel di- midiam partem folii occupantibus, ligula haud munitis, ad basin versus tuberculatis atro- castaneis et opacis; laminis ensiformi-linearibus, 3-4 mm latis, acutis vel acuminatis, utraque acie scabridulis, alibi sublaevibus, nervoso-striatis; scapo 40-60 cm alto, ad 2.5 mm diametro, leviter compresso, sublaeve; vagina basali 14-21 em longa, in apiculum brevem acutum ex- currente; spica globosa, 15-20 mm _longa, glabra; bracteis exterioribus squarrosis vel recurvatis, angustissime triangularibus, longe acuminatis, 15-20 mm longis, ecarinatis, area dorsali carentibus, anguste pallido-marginatis, alibi atro-castaneis, opacis, tuberculatis, bracteis fertilibus eis exterioribus omnino_ similibus; sepalis lateralibus liberis, lineari-lanceolatis, acuminatis, 14 mm longis, ala carinali angusta, laxe serrata; petalis aureis, laminis obovatis, 10 mm longis; antheris anguste oblongis, quam filamentis subtriplo longioribus; staminodiis bibrachiatis, penicillatis; placentis basalibus. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 2121733, collected in wet campo, Santa’ Luzia, Serra do Cipé, km 121 from Belo Horizonte, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, July 6, 1936, by W. A. Archer and Mello Barreto (no: 4914). The following agrees closely with the type in all observable details but shows no flowers in the axils of the bracts: Minas Gerais: Mun. Jabo- ticatubas: Serra do Cipé, 6 km north of Palacio, 19°10’S., 43°35’ W.. altitude 1,200 meters, April Xyris 29, 1952, L. B. Smith et al. in Museu Nacional- Smithsonian 6872 (R, US). Xyris (Nematopus) melanopoda Smith & Downs, sp. nov. Fig. 1, g-k Caespitosa, subcaulescens; rhizomate crasso, brevi, subverticali; radicibus tenuibus; foliis manifeste distichis, ensiformi-linearibus, ad 17 em longis, 3-4.5 mm latis, sursum angustatis, apice acutis, in sicco nervoso-striatis, utroque latere laevibus glaberrimisque, aciebus sub- tilissime ciliato-scabridulis, nervis submarginali- bus paulo incrassatis; vaginis ca. tertiam partem folii occupantibus, eciliatis, opacis, superne lamina haud latiorem, basi valde dilalatis et aterrimo-castaneis, ligula distincta, ad 4 mm longa, acuta; scapis terminalibus vel lateralibus, spiraliter tortis, bicostatis, 25-40 cm altis, vix ultra 1 mm latis, glabris, obscure nervatis, vagina scaporum quam foliis breviore, in api- culum foliaceum brevem excurrente, brunnea; spica multiflora, obovoidea vel conica, 9-12 mm longa; bracteis coriaceis, integerrimis, glabris, ferrugineis, opacis, inferioribus (sterilibus) satis numerosis, Ovatis, obtusis, 3 mm longis, plus minusve carinatis, area dorsali cinereo-viridi anguste lanceolata notatis, intermediis latioribus, sepala superantibus, ecarinatis, area dorsali ovata notatis; sepalis lateralibus liberis, navicularibus, acutis, 4.56 mm longis, glabris, ala carinali angusta, integerrima; limbo petalorum obovato, ex sicco 4 mm longo; antheris oblongis, ca. 2 mm longis; staminodiis penicillatis; placentis basali- bus. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1705665, collected at Serra do Cipdé, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, altitude 1,800 meters, August 5, 1936, by W. A. Archer (no. 3680). The nearest relative to our species appears to be X. bialata Malme, but in addition to the winged scape from which it derives its name this differs in its lustrous leaf-bases, straight scape, and obtuse ciliate-serrulate sepals. (Nematopus) mello-barretoi Smith «& Downs, sp. nov. Fia. 1, l-p Caespitosa, acaulis; radicibus tenuissimis; foliis ensiformi-linearibus, ad 15 cm iongis, 3.5 mm latis, apice acutis apiculatisque, utroque latere rubentibus et minutissime tuberculatis vel aliquis 312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 Fig. 1.—a, Xyris cipoensis, habit X 40; b, base of leaf X 1; c, section of scape X 5; d, inflorescence x 1; e, posterior sepal X 2; f, petal, stamen, and staminode X 5. g, Xyris melanopoda, habit X 14; h, base of leaf X 1; 7, section of scape X 5; j, inflorescence X 2; k, posterior sepal X 5. 1, Xyris mello- banteiol, habit X 15; m, base of leaf X 1; n, section of scape X 5; 0, inflorescence X 2; p, posterior sepals X 5. OcTOBER 1954 laevibus, glaberrimis, aciebus viridibus laevissi- misque, vaginis dimidiam partem folii occupanti- bus, eciliatis, opacis, basi dilatatis et stramineis, ligula minima; scapis terminalibus, rectis, ad 34 em altis, teretibus, ca. 1 mm diametro, pluri- costatis, glabris laevibusque, vagina scaporum folia subaequante, in apiculum foliaceum brevem excurrente; spica subpauciflora, late ellipsoidea vel globosa, 7-9 mm longa; bracteis fere integris sed ex sicco faciliter fractis, glabris, dilute ferrugineis, opacis, ecarinatis, late rotundatis, infimis late ellipticis, 4-5 mm longis, area dorsali anguste elliptica, intermediis obovatis, sepala superantibus, area dorsali brevi, late ovata; sepalis lateralibus postice in parte dimidia con- natis, spathulatis, obtusis, 7 mm longis, ala carinali angusta, inferne nuda, superne _pilis fulvis crebris villosa; petalis aureis; staminodiis penicillatis; placentis basalibus. Type in the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, no. 35284, collected in swamp, Guinda, Municipio of Diamantina, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, November 5, 1937, by Mello Barreto (no. 9486). Its tuberculate leaves and connate villous sepals relate Xyris mello-barretot to X. trachy- phylla Mart. and X. consanguinea Kunth, but its pale leaf-sheaths and pluricostate scapes easily distinguish it. Also the dorsal area in X. mello- barretot is even with the rest of the bract, not impressed, and on the upper bracts it is relatively short and broad. Abolboda pulchella Humb. & Bonpl. Aequin. 2: 110, pl. 114. 1813. Xyris vaginata Spreng. Syst. Veg. 1: 183. 1825. Abolboda brasiliensis Kunth, Enum. Plant. 4: 26. 1848. Abolboda vaginata (Spreng.) Alb. Nilss. K. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl. 24, no. 14: 63. 1892. Abolboda longifolia Malme, Bihang till. K. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl. 22, Afd. 3, no. 2: 20, pl. 2. 1896. Abolboda gracilis Huber, Bol. Mus. Goeldi 5: 323. 1909. In his synopsis of Abolboda in 1924 (Arkiv Bot. 19, no. 18: 5), Malme made all the above reduc- tions except A. vaginata. This he separated on the length of the leaves relative to the: basal scape- bract and on the position of the appendage on the style. In 1935 Suessenguth and Beyerle (Bot. Jahrb. 67: 132) published a detailed study of the morphology of Abolboda with a synopsis of the species. They also divided A. vaginata from A. pulchella, but reversed Malme’s testimony on the position and shape of the style-appendages and used other characters than the leaves. Neither they nor Malme noted the complete lack of any Plant. SMITH AND DOWNS: XYRIDACEAE FROM BRAZIL 313 style-appendage in the original illustration of A. pulchella. An examination of the material listed below has led us to the conclusion that it is impossible to classify the collections into two distinct species on the basis of any previous system nor can we find a new one. Characters previously used broke down within a single collection, and the much emphasized character of the style-appendage proved completely unreliable, varying’ widely with each flower examined. We are forced to the conclusion that previous authors were able to examine but a single flower per species. Braziu: Rio Branco: Vera Cruz, .Luetzelburg 20663 (R). Lagoa de Moga, Luetzelburg 20702 (R). Serra do Murupt, Lwuetzelburg 20772 (R). Para: Ilha do Marajéo, Rio Camar4, Retiro Pau- Grande, Rubens Lima 42, 91 (US). Minas Gerais: Mun. Diamantina: Bom Successo, Mello Barreto 9659 (R). Goids: Near Morro Redondo, Glaziou 22234 (US). Mato Grosso: H. Smith 171 in part (R). Aricd, near Cuiabé, Malme TI— 3262 (US). Between Cabral and Serra da Chapada, Malme I1—8262-a (R). Tapirapoan, Hoehne in Com. Rondon 1471 (R). Conceicéo de Aricd, Hoehne in Com. Rondon 3603 (R). Cataqui-Iamain, J. G. Kuhlmann in Com. Rondon 1627 (R). VENEZUELA: Anzoategui: El Tigrito, H. Pittier 15080 (US). Bolivar: Gran Sabana, between Kun and waterfall at Ruémert (tributary of. Rio Kukendn), south of Mount Roraima, Steyer- mark 59178 (US). Rio Karuai, between Santa Teresita de Kavanayén and base of Ptari-tepuf, Steyermark 60301 (US). Kavanayén, Guayana Venezolana, Lasser 1814 (US). Amazonas: Puerto Ayacucho, L. Williams 15944 (US). Abolboda poarchon Seubert in Mart. Fl. Bras. 3: pt. 22237-1855. Abolboda chapadensis Hoehne, Comm. Linh. Telegr. Estrat. Matto Grosso, Annexo 5, Bot. Dt. Sei sl S0) fies 2 LOLS: In Abolboda poarchon we have observed the same variation of the style-appendage as in A. pulchella. Consequently we feel that Suessenguth and Beyerle were unjustified in restoring A. chapadensis after its reduction by Malme. It is noteworthy that Hoehne (Ind. Bibl. e Num. Plant. Col. Com. Rondon 144. 1951) later con- curred with the reduction of his own species. Braziu: Paré: Campo Piranema, Rio Mojit, Goeldi (US). Minas Gerais: Mun. Diamantina: Boa Vista—Extraccao, Mello Barreto 9657 (R). Goids: Serra dos Pireneos, Ule 227 (R). Mun. Corumbé: Pirineus, Macedo 3700 (US). Mato Grosso: Between Buriti and Santa Ana de Cha- pada, Malme II— 2354 (US). Chapada, headwaters of Rio Taquara-ussu, Hoehne in Com. Rondon 3597 -~9 (R, type of Abolboda chapadensis Hoehne). 314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 10 ENTOMOLOGY .—New Cantharidae (Coleoptera) from the collection of the United States National Museum.! W. WirrmEer. (Communicated by Oscar L. Cart- wright. ) The following descriptions are based on material submitted to the author for identi- fication by the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. All holotypes are in the collection of that museum. Discodon humeropictum, n. sp. Black-brown, only one oblong extremely narrow, yellow spot on the humeral calli, touching the base and frequently also extending to the apices of the elytra. Mandibles red-brown. Head with the eyes nearly as wide as the pronotum, rather densely, finely punctate and pubescent. Antennae projecting a little beyond the base of the hind coxae, second segment hardly longer than wide, the third a trifle shorter than the fourth, seventh to tenth with a short distinct longitudinal groove. Pronotum somewhat wider than long, the sides weakly narrowed anteriorly, lateral notch indicated by a weak impression a little before the middle, median line in the basal half distinct, punctuation much finer and less distinct than on the head. Elytra with a rugose effect and with traces of two longitudinal costae. Length: 6.5-7.5 mm. Type—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62348. Allotype in author’s collection. Type locality—Huanuco, Peru. Specimens collected August 31, 1928, by A. J. Barton, no. 239.28. This new species belongs to the group of very few species with unicolorously black pronotum; it is somewhat reminiscent of the darkest forms of D. obscuricolle Wittmer, whose pronotum, however, is always somewhat pale, at least in the basal angles. The antennae differ: in hwmeropic- tum segments 7 to 10 are indented with a longi- tudinal groove; in obscuricolle segments 4 to 10 are thus marked. Discodon arnetti, n. sp. Mate. Deep black, pronotum yellow with a triangular black-brown spot whose apex is turned cephalad not quite reaching the anterior margin; elytra with a faint bluish shimmer. Head with the eyes much narrower than the pronotum, 115th contribution to the knowledge of the Neotropical Malacodermata. front rather flat, with a weak longitudinal callus between the eyes toward the clypeus, surface rather smooth, rather densely provided with | hair punctures toward the anterior margin of © the pronotum. Antennae long and _ slender, second segment half as long as the third, the third a trifle shorter than the fourth, the seventh to the eleventh with a distinct longitudinal groove on the upper side. Pronotum wider than long, sides barely round and slightly narrowed anteriorly; lateral margins barely impressed in the middle; anterior angles more strongly rounded than the basal angles; disk rather flat, slightly impressed in the middle, before the base; surface smooth, shining; pubescence sparse. Elytra rugose, with a slightly granular effect, with traces of a longitudinal costa. (Male genitalia, see Fig. 1.) Length: 11-12 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62349. Type locality—lLuema, Peru. Collected at 7,000 feet, Aug. 25, 1911, by Yale Peruvian Expedition. The species is to be readily recognized by the sides of the pronotum, which lack the usual short emargination. It is named in honor of the well-known specialist in Oedemeridae, Dr. Ross H. Arnett, Jr. Discodon chapini, n. sp. Mate. Yellow, head, except the cheeks, and elytra, black, scutellum slightly darkened. Head with the eyes hardly narrower than the pronotum, front slightly convex, surface nearly smooth, somewhat more strongly pubescent toward the anterior margin of the pronotum than between the eyes. Antennae broken off at the 2nd segment. Pronotum somewhat wider than long, sides dis- tinctly narrowed anteriorly; lateral margins with a short distinct emargination in the middle; anterior angles strongly rounded, almost merging with the anterior margin; basal angles nearly rectangular; disk slightly convex, median line absent; surface smooth. Elytra with a granular effect with traces of 2 longitudinal costae. (Male genitalia, see Fig. 2.) Length: 9 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62350. Type locality—‘‘Piches & Perene Vs., Peru. Collected between 2000 and 3000 feet, by Geo- graphical Society of Lima. S15 4 ») 4 CANTHARIDAI NEW R ™ 4 WITTME OcToBER 1954 ‘aye ““ds‘u ‘snjynuru sndhjjo py jo a}tus94s 4SVT— 6 “O1Y ‘apeur ‘ds ‘u ‘szsuajanzauaa snury))p py Jo ‘A[[BIyUGA‘UOWIOpGR Jo xody—’§ ‘DIY ‘ayeu “ds ‘u ‘2jjauup szjigy Jo winyouoid oy4 Jo J[BVY— ZL “OIY ‘oyeu ‘ds ‘u ‘ununiniad “g ‘9 aye “¢ Ig asuaoanya ‘q ‘Gg Sa;Rur ‘ds -u ‘asu wut $0 c ~ muinbpony gq ‘F feyeu ‘otg wusoy gq ‘g teyeur “ds ‘u ‘2zuidnys -g ‘Zz ‘ayeur “ds ‘u ‘1jaUsD UOpoosig’ *T : Jo BI[Vylues V[BIN—'9-T “SDIY un ue $0 “ms 316 This species is named in honor of Dr. Edward A. Chapin, retired, former chief, Division of Insects, United States National Museum. It is very closely related to D. horni Pic, but is to be readily recognized by the all yellow legs. The male genitalia are very different; see also Fig. 3 (of D. hornt). Discodon huadquinaense, n. sp. Mate. Yellow-orange, eyes, antennae from the middle of the second segment on, and elytra, black-brown. Head with the eyes narrower than the pronotum, a weak protuberance between the eyes, surface rather densely pubescent, with distinct hair-punctures. Antennae long, reaching beyond the coxae of the hind legs, second segment a little more than half as long as the third, the third a trifle shorter than the fourth, the eighth to the eleventh with a distinct longitudinal groove, which in the eleventh is shorter than in the preceding segments. Pronotum wider than long, anteriorly narrower than at the base, sides distinctly emarginate a little before the middle, from the emargination to the base the sides weakly lobelike, strongly rounded, the anterior part of the sides straighter, median line absent; surface not very strongly pubescent, hair punc- tures hardly perceptible. Elytra with a rugose effect, with traces of 2 longitudinal costae. (Male genitalia, see Fig. 4.) Length: 11 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62351. Type locality—Huadquina, Peru. Collected at 5,000 feet, July 30, 1911, Yale Peruvian Expedi- tion. This species has yellow legs, like the foregoing, is related to D. chaparense Wittmer which has a similarly shaped pronotum, with the difference that the legs of D. chaparense are unicolorously black, by which the new species may be readily separated. Discodo1 chacoense Pie ? A specimen from Lucma, Peru, 7,000 feet, August 25, 1951, collected by the Yale Peruvian Expedition, which lies before me, agrees with Pie’s brief description (l’Echange hors-texte 42: 27, 1926) down to the coloring of the elytra, which, in the present species, are slightly paler on the basal third at the suture. For better recog- nition of the species hereafter, which is perhaps different from D. chacoense and new, I am includ- ing a drawing of the male genitalia (Fig. 5). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 44, No. 10 Discodon peruvianum, n. sp. Maur. Head black, only the cheeks a little paler, antennae and ventral aspect dark brown, scutellum darkened, pronotum and legs yellow, dorsal aspect of the tibiae at the base and the tarsi brown, elytra yellow, base and apex broadly dark-brown, the two dark bands together wider than the yellow middle. Head with the eyes as wide as the pronotum, front shallowly impressed between the eyes, pubescence not very strong, with fine scattered hair punctures. Antennae rather long, segments weakly flattened, the third to the seventh somewhat wider toward the apex than at the base, the remaining segments nearly parallel, the ninth to the eleventh with a fine longitudinal groove. Pronotum somewhat wider than long, sides nearly parallel, weakly notched shortly before the middle, beside the notch the sides are weakly thickened forward and somewhat raised, median line absent, surface nearly smooth, somewhat pubescent. Elytra with a granular effect, with traces of two longi- tudinal costae. (Male genitalia, see Fig. 6.) Length: 9 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62352. Type locality —‘‘Piches & Perene Vs.,” Peru. Collected between 2,000 and 3,000 feet by the Geographical Society of Lima. Related to D. brevebasale Pic, this new species is larger and has the dark coloring at base and apex of the elytra more broadly extended than brevebasale. Polemius unisulcatus, n. sp. Mats. Yellow-brown, head and elytra dark- brown, outermost lateral margin faintly paler in the basal half. Head with the eyes as wide as the pronotum, front between the eyes nearly completely flat, hardly impressed, surface smooth. Antennae rather long, segments nearly parallel, scarcely wider at the distal end than at the base, second segment a little longer than wide, the third as long as the fourth, the fifth a trifle longer than the fourth, the eighth the longest, a little wider than the remaining segments, dorsally with a rather wide deep longitudinal groove which reaches neither the base nor the distal end, somewhat closer to the base than to the dis- tal end, the ninth to the eleventh longer than the seventh, the eleventh even still a little longer than the eighth, all three narrower than the foregoing. Pronotum wider than long, slightly OcTOBER 1954 narrowed forwards, lateral margin weakly thick- ened in the middle, slightly raised, anterior and basal angles rounded, disk rather flat, middle line on the basal half weakly indicated, surface smooth. Elytra elongate, with a rugose effect. The one front claw with a wide lobe, one middle and hind claw split, one part distinctly shorter than the other and only weakly thickened. FEMALE. The single specimen before me is colored somewhat darker than the male, antennae brown, the last three segments yellow, base of the middle and hind tibiae and their tarsi a little darkened. Eighth antennal segment simple, without a longitudinal impression, only a little thicker than the ninth. Length: 6.5 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62353. Allo- type in author’s collection. Type locality—lLa Merced, Chanchamayo, Peru. Collected at 1,000-1,200 m, December 1908 and February 1909, by Carl O. Schunke. The marking on the eighth antennal segment well characterizes the species; it belongs to the species of Polemius whose antennal segments are not widened toward the distal end. Silis arnetti, n. sp. Maus. Head black, yellow-orange before the bases of the antennae, these dark with the first three or four segments paler, pronotum and scutellum yellow-orange, the latter lightly dark- ened toward the apex. Elytra black, sides nar- rowly rather white-edged, legs yellow, the knee faintly darkened, abdomen yellow, the last 3 or 4 segments dark. Head with the eyes a little narrower than the pronotum, front between the eyes flattened, surface smooth and shining, with fine pubescence like powder. Antennae not very long, first segment only a little thickened toward the distal end, the second only a little longer than wide, the third somewhat longer than the fourth, the fourth and succeeding ones again becoming gradually shorter. Pronotum (Fig. 7) wider than long, rather deeply emarginate before the basal angles, the basal lamella somewhat arcuate, emarginated, and running out into a point that is curved anteriorly, lateral margins thickened before the emargination, rather strongly raised, disk slightly arcuate, surface - nearly all smooth, shining and, like the head, with powderlike pubescence. Elytra a_ little widened posteriorly, with confused rugose puncta- tion. FEMALE. Coloring as in the male, pronotum WITTMER: NEW CANTHARIDAE 317 simple, without emargination at the basal angles, lateral margins somewhat thickened and raised in the middle. Length: 3.5—4 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62354. Allo- type in the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington; 2 female para- types, Port of Spain, June 11-13, collected by August Busck, one in U.S.N.M., one in the author’s collection. Type locality —St. Augustine, Trinidad, British West Indies. Collected on Cordia, June 14, 1944, by A. M. Adamson, no. 4166, I.C.T.A. 11813. Related to S. barticana Pic, antennae slen- derer, pronotum differently shaped. Malthinus venezuelensis, n. sp. Mate. Black, only the bases of the antennae, the clypeus, mouth parts, trochanters, and femora are lightened to whitish gray. Head with the eyes considerably wider than the pronotum, still a little wider than the elytra at the humeral calli, front slightly arcuate, surface nearly smooth. Antennae as long as the whole body, segments from the second on widened toward the distal end, from the sixth on the widening again abruptly decreases and the following seg- ments are parallel, the second segment as long as the third, the fourth only a little longer than the third, the fifth and following segments about equal in length to each other, still a little longer than the fourth. Pronotum nearly twice as wide as long, sides parallel, median line distinct, disk slightly arcuate, surface nearly smooth, shining, with isolated hair punctures. Elytra greatly abbreviated, reaching the coxae of the hind legs, with a rugose effect. The last abdominal segment, ventrally; see Fig. 8. Length: about 3 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62355. Type locality.—Tacarigua, Venezuela. Type collected March 1, 1949, by M. Villegas, no. 183931. This species may be placed near M. diversi- cornis Champion, to which it is closely related. The new species is larger and the antennae are longer. Maltypus minutus, n. sp. Maur. Black-brown, head _ yellow-orange, tempora faintly darkened, the two basal segment of the antennae and the anterior margin of the pronotum in the middle, a little paler. Tibiae brown, femora somewhat lighter. Head with the eyes wider than the pronotum, front slightly 318 convex, smooth. Antennae not quite as long as the body, segments only a little thicker at the distal end than at the base, second segment as long as the third, the fourth longer than the third, the fifth still longer than the fourth. Pronotum nearly twice as wide as long, sides nearly parallel, median line indicated, surface nearly smooth. Elytra not reaching the coxae of the hind legs, with a rugose effect. The last sternite (Fig. 9) oblong-oval with a rather deeply and broadly emarginated distal end, in the normal condition, covered more than halfway by the next to the last sternite. The punctate field in the basal half is much less strongly chi- tinized than the rest and is semitransparent. Length: 2.5 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62356. Type locality—Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Speci- men collected on January 3, 1920, by E. G. Holt. Apparently this species must be placed in the vicinity of M. brasiliensis (Pic) (described as Malthodes but very probably belonging to Maltypus). M. brasiliensis has yellow pronotum and ventral aspect, which parts are dark-colored in the new species. Maronius centromaculatus, n. sp. Mate. Black-brown, bases of the antennae, the cheeks and frequently also the whole anterior part in front of the antennal bases, the apices of the elytra and the abdomen except the last segment, yellow. Pronotum yellow with a large, nearly rectangular, brown spot which is often somewhat narrowed toward the base and touches neither the basal nor the anterior margin. Front JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, No. 10 legs frequently somewhat paler. Head with the eyes as wide as the pronotum, front nearly flat, surface nearly smooth. Antennae not very long, the third segment not quite twice as long as the second, the fourth the longest, somewhat longer than the third, the fifth only a little shorter than the third. Pronotum somewhat wider than long, sides nearly parallel, weakly sinuate toward the middle, surface weakly transversely impressed, nearly smooth, pubescence fine. Elytra hardly reaching beyond the coxae of the hind legs, each apex rounded off, an oblique fold on either side beginning under the humerus, running posteriorly toward the middle of the apex, becoming extinct before the apex, surface with an irregularly finely rugose effect. Length: 4-4.5 mm. Type.—Holotype male, U.S.N.M. 62357. Allo- type in the collection of the United States Na- tional Museum, paratype in author’s collection. Type locality —San Salvador de Bahia, Brazil. The specimens were collected on May 28, 1915, by P. G. Russell. Related to M. limbatus Pic which is similarly colored but readily separated therefrom by the proportions of length of the antennal segments, the coloring and formation of the elytra. In lumbatus the fourth antennal segment is nearly twice as long as the third, the yellow coloring of the apices of the elytra shows up on the sides as a narrow border to beneath the humeral calli and the fold on the elytra is hardly indicated. In centromaculatus the fourth antennal segment is only a little longer than the third, the yellow coloring on the elytra is restricted to the apices, and the fold on the elytra is strongly developed. ZOOLOGY .—Two new subterranean shrimps (Decapoda: Caridea) from Florida and the West Indies, with a revised key to the American species. FENNER A. Cuace, Jr., U. 8. National Museum. Special thanks for the material and notes on which the following descriptions are based are due to the collectors: Dr. N. T. Mattox, of the University of Southern California; Capt. Merle L. Kuns, of the U.S. Air Force; and Robert B. Cumming, of the University of Florida. The discovery of two additional shrimps from American subterranean waters and several recent nomenclatural changes (Hol- thuis, 1947, 1949, and 1950) have made the last published synopsis of these species (Chace, 1943) inadequate. A revised key is therefore offered below. Typhlatya monae, n. sp. Fig. 1 Holotype—Female; Mona Island, Puerto Rico; from well 30 feet deep at ‘El Molino,” about 1 mile southeast of NYA camp at Sar- dinera; October 11, 1953; collected by Merle L. Kuns; U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 96325. Paratypes—Four females; same locality as OcTOBER 1954 holotype. Three females; old concrete water catchment basin on high plateau of Mona Island; January 1, 1951; collected by N. T. Mattox. Description —Carapace smooth and unarmed. Rostrum (Fig. la—b) short and triangular, falling far short of the tips of the eyes. Abdomen smoothly rounded; margins of all pleura rounded, not angulate. Telson (Fig. 1c) about two and one half times as long as wide and armed typically with two pairs of dorsal spines and four pairs of terminal ones; a median pair of short setae is set between the two sets of terminal spines. Eyes rounded triangular in dorsal view (Fig. 16), with a small pigment spot on anterolateral margin. Antennular peduncle (Fig. la—b) with a sharp stylocerite which falls slightly short of the end of the segment. Flagella subequal, slightly longer than carapace. Antennal scale (Fig. 1b) extending beyond antennular peduncle; outer spine minute. An- tennal flagellum nearly twice as long as antennu- lar flagella. The mouth parts are shown in Figs. 1d-1. Third maxilliped (Fig. 12) reaching beyond antennal peduncle by nearly entire length of terminal segment. The first, third, fourth, and fifth legs are shown in Figs. 1j—m. The second pair of legs was lacking in all specimens available. First four legs with well-developed exopods; that on fifth minute. Gill series consists of five pairs of pleuro- branchiae, one to each pair of legs, a pair of arthrobranchiae on third maxillipeds, and well- developed epipods on all but last pair of legs. Size-—The holotype has a carapace length of 3.8 mm from the posterior margin of the orbit to the hind margin of the carapace. The carapace lengths of the female paratypes vary from 3.8 to 4.5 mm. Biology——The presence of this shrimp in a partially covered concrete water catchment basin is difficult to account for. This basin apparently has no connection with any sub- terranean water system; in fact, no underground passages are known in the high central mesa of Mona Island, although there are extensive ones through the low coastal plateau. At the time this collection was made, two specimens of a species of the Olfersii group of the large fresh-water shrimp Macrobrachium were found in the same tank; CHACE: TWO NEW SUBTERRANEAN SHRIMPS 319 specific identification of these specimens was not possible because both lacked the large second chelae. A careful search of this locality in 1953 by Merle L. Kuns failed to reveal specimens of either of these shrimps. Remarks.—Typhlatya monae closely resembles T. garciai Chace from a cave at Banes, Oriente Province, Cuba. It differs from that species in the nearly complete suppression of the exopod on the fifth leg, the broader telson, and slight differences in the form of the mouth parts. In the reduction of the last thoracic exopod, 7’. monae agrees with T. pearset Creaser from caves in Yucatdn, but in all other respects it seems more closely allied to T. garcvar. Palaemonetes (Palaemonetes) cummingi, n. sp. Fig. 2 Holotype-—Female; Squirrel Chimney, Ala- chua County, Fla.; July 11, 1953; collected by Robert B. Cumming; U.S. Nat. Mus. no. 95795. Description.—Rostrum (Fig. 2a) reaching about to end of antennular penducle, armed dorsally with six nearly equidistant teeth, the posterior one set behind level of orbital margin, and ventrally with three teeth. Carapace with a broad hump behind middle of dorsal margin. Integument firm. Antennal spine small but sharp and distinct. Branchiostegal spine similar in size to antennal, placed just below distinct branchio- stegal groove, and reaching well beyond anterior margin of carapace. Abdomen normal. All pleura rounded, that of fifth somite narrowed posteriorly but not acute. Sixth somite as long as telson exclusive of terminal spines. Telson (Fig. 2c) armed with an asym- metrically disposed pair of dorsal spines placed well behind the middle. Tip of telson (Fig. 2d) terminating in a sharp point and apparently armed with three pairs of spines and a median pair of plumose setae; the outer pair of spines obviously represents the posterior dorsal pair which has moved distally so far as to seem to form part of the terminal series. Eyes (Fig. 2a-b) unpigmented, but the small, hemispherical cornea is distinguished from the much broader stalk. Antennular peduncle (Fig. 2b) with a small, ‘sharp stylocerite. Anterolateral spine of basal segment reaching barely beyond convex anterior margin of segment. Upper antennular flagellum four times as long as carapace, its two rami fused for about 16 joints; free portion of outer ramus 320 consisting of three or four joints and less than one third as long as fused portion. Lower antennular flagellum about three times as long as carapace. Antennal scale (fig. 2b) about two and one half times as long as broad. Outer margin neariy straight. Distal tooth falling far short of end of blade. Antennal flagellum more than five times as long as carapace. The mouth parts are shown in Figs. 2f-k. Third maxilliped (Fig. 2k) reaching to end of antennal peduncle. First leg (Fig. 2/) reaching beyond antennal scale by about the length of the fingers. Fingers nearly half again as long as palm; cutting edges entire and closing throughout their lengths. Palm distinctly longer than high and bearing a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 44, no. 10 row of stout curved setae on proximal half of outer lower margin. Carpus 1.8 times as long as chela and bearing a V-shaped brush of setae near distal end of lower margin. Merus 0.9 times as long as carpus, ischium half as long as merus. Second leg (Fig. 2m) longer than first, reaching beyond antennal scale by nearly entire length of chela. Fingers slightly shorter than palm; cutting edges entire and meeting throughout their lengths, except near base of fingers where a concavity in cutting edge of fixed finger leaves a narrow gap. Carpus a little more than one and one fourth times as long as chela. Merus about three fourths as long as carpus, ischium slightly longer than merus. Third leg (Fig. 2n) reaching beyond antennal scale by about one half of OGMATON GINON YY ANON ON : C Ss peu a \ Wwe \ ~ WV Wy SMA