JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME III, 1913 BOARD OF EDITORS George K. Burgess Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield BUBEAU OP STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY, / BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES office of publication THE WAVERLY press H 9fdl (r A"1^ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. III. JANUARY 4, 1913 No. 1 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— A consistent theory of the origin of the Earth's magnetic field. '^ L. A. Bauer, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Various investigations by well-known physicists have estab- lished the fact that electricity is an essential and possibly the only constituent of matter. Negative electrons can be obtained from practically any form of matter, by heating, by the action of ultra- violet light, by chemical means, and perhaps also by the apphca- tion of suitable mechanical forces; they are thus proved to be a universal constituent of matter. Matter electrically neutral is supposed to contain equal amounts of positive and negative elec- tricity. We may regard the Earth as a great reservoir of elec- tricity, the two opposite total charges being apparently very nearly balanced. If it turns out that owing to some cause the one kind of elemental charge is, on the average, farther from the center of the Earth than the opposite kind, then because of this difference in distance and of the rotation of the charges with the Earth there will result a magnetic field perhaps of sufficient strength, to be detected by magnetic observations on the surface of the Earth. Sutherland (1900-'03)2 probably first advanced the idea that the Earth's magnetic field may be caused by the rotation with the Earth of two opposite and equal electric charges distributed thru the Earth and supposed to be contained within two concentric spheres whose radii differ by an amount which he found to be of the order of the radius of an ordinary molecule. Previously, however, Schuster (1891 and 1892) and Lord Kelvin (1892) had 1 Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, December 7, 1912; for fuller publication see Terrestrial Magnetism, Vol. 18, 1913. 2 Sutherland, William, Terrestrial Magnetism, first in vol. 5, 1900, p. 73, and later, in improved form, in vol. 8, 1903, p. 49; see also same journal, vol. 9, p. 167, and 13, p 155. 1 2 BAUER : OEIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD raised the question as to whether the magnetism of the Earth and celestial bodies, in general, may not be connected in some manner with the fact of their rotation.* J. J. Thomson had also pointed out in 1894* that if atoms possess a specific attraction for the two electricities— attracting one kind slightly more than the other — then a large rotating body ought to produce a magnetic field. Sutherland's hypothesis avoids the difficulties pointed out by Rowland^ in 1879 as also some of those advanced in connection with other theories. Unfortunately, however, it thus far admits of no conclusive proof, chiefly for the reason that it leads to an expression for the magnetic potential precisely the same, as far as effects on or above the Earth's surface are concerned, whether the magnetic field be due to an elemental magnet at the center of the Earth, or to a uniformly magnetized sphere, or to an appro- priate system of electric currents imbedded in the Earth, or to a rotating electrically charged sphere such as Sutherland supposed, or to a combination of these causes. Mathematically the mag- netic fields ascribed to these various, distinct causes can not be differentiated from one another. If the supposed electrical distribution really exists within the Earth, then it may be that, because of gravitational force, or of some other central force, the elemental charges tend to arrange themselves so that the "center of gravity" of one kind of elec- trical charge is, on the average, slightly nearer the Earth's center than that of the other kind, or, still better, so that the mean volume density of the positive body charge is slightly different from that of the negative. This being assumed, it seems rational to inquire whether, during the Earth's rotation there may occur some alteration in the mean densities of the opposite charges or in the radial separation, or in both, to be attributed perhaps to some action of the Earth's centrifugal force. Though the ques- ' The reader desiring to familiarize himself with the difficulties attaching to the chief hypotheses advanced is advised to read the following suggestive papers: Schuster, A., A critical examination of the possible causes of terrestrial magnet- ism, Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 24: pt. Ill, p. 127; and Swann, W. F. G., The Earth's magnetic field, Phil. Mag., 24: 80. 1912. * Thomson, J. J., On the electricity of drops, Phil. Mag., [5], 37: 358. 1904. " Rowland, Physical papers, p. 182, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1902. BAUER : ORIGIN OF THE EARTh'S MAGNETIC FIELD 3 tion has been raised whether electrons can_ be acted upon by a mechanical forCe, such as centrifugal force, it has not j^et been experimentally settled in the laboratory, probably because of lack of required sensibility of the instrumental appliances used, and because of the limitations set upon the size and speed of rotation of the body which can be experimented upon.^ Possibly in the case of the Earth we have a body of sufficient size and angular velocity to obtain appreciable effects. The rotation of the supposed electric charges with the Earth, if distributed symmetrically about the Earth's center as Sutherland premised, will result, as already pointed out, simply in producing the so-called ''uniform magnetic field" whose equivalent intensity of magnetization per unit of volume is constant thruout the Earth's interior; this, however, we know not to be the case. The hope of revealing the cause of the Earth's magnetic field appar- ently centers in the discovery of the cause which makes the actual field depart from the uniform or simple type. Hence, the key- note of our line of investigation is the study of the variations — in this particular instance the geographical variations of the character- istic constants defining the Earth's magnetic field. The most important fact of terrestrial magnetism at this junc- ture is one which I found in 1901,^ viz., that ''the value of the magnetic moment is a maximum for the equatorial belt, and de- creases steadily in both hemispheres with departure from the belt." This law may be formulated mathematically thus: Let X be the component of the Earth's total magnetic intensity directed along a meridian, positive northward, and Z be the ver- tical component directed positive downwards; if Dbe the magnetic 8 Cf. Nichols, E. F., Die Moglichkeit einer durch zentrifugale Beschleunigung erzeugten elektromotorischen Kraft. Phys. Zs. 7 Jhrg. No. 18, pp. 640-642. Lebedew, P., Ueber die magnetische Fernwirkung rotierender Korper, Ann, d. Phys. 1912, No. 14, 840-848. (This was this brilliant investigator's last work, he having died before the appearance of his paper. He examined whether the Earth's total magnetic field could be referred to effects attributable to centrifugal action and supposed that the negative electron would be the one shoved outwards by centrifugal action. He tested the question experimentally but reached no definite results for the reasons already stated above.) ^ Terr. Mag., 6: 22. 1901 and later investigations in same journal, 17: 85. 1912 and pp. 115-118. BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH S MAGNETIC FIELD declination, /, the dip, and H, the horizontal intensity, then X = H cos D, and Z ^H tan I. Obtain X and Z with* the aid of mag- netic charts at equidistant points along parallels of latitude, say every 10° apart in longitude; thus there will be 36 values of X and of Z for each parallel covered by the charts, 60 N to 60 S, from which the average values Xa and Z^ for each parallel may be obtained. By operating with the average values we eliminate the portion of the Earth's magnetic field asymmetrical about the axis of rotation and if we, furthermore, combine the values for corresponding parallels N and S, the asymmetrical portion about the equator is also eliminated. The values of Xa and Z^ finally obtained apply then only to the portion of the Earth's magnetic field symmetrical about both the axis of rotation and the equator ; they will be found given below as derived with the aid of all the magnetic charts at present available (Sabine's for 1840-45; Creak's 1880, and Neumayer's 1885). Values of the Rectangular Magnetic Components .Ya and Za and of the Charac- teristic Functions, in C.G.S. Units, for Approximately the Year 1869. OBSERVED VALUES OBSERVED — COMPUTED VALUES Xa Za /x(«) /z(^' AXa AZa 4fx(^) 4/z(«' 60°N&S... 0.1437 0.5374 0.2874 0.3103 -0.0030 +0.0013 -0.0005 -0.0003 50° N & S... 0.1891 0.4855 0.2942 0.3170 — 6 8, + 7 + 3 40° N & S... 0.2317 0.4176 0.3025 0.3248 + 7 - 14 - 2 0 30° N& S... 0.2718 0.3340 0.3140 0.3340 + 12 1 - 3 + 1 20°N&S... 0.3064 0.2340 0.3261 0.3420 + 13 + 9 + 4 4 10° N & S... 0.3291 0.1210 0.3343 0.3486 ! - 2 + 12 + 1 + 1 Equator. . . . 0.3363 0.0000 0.3364 *0.3510 t- 18 to - t9 + 13 * Obtained graphically with the aid of values 5° N and S. t Weight |. In whatever manner the magnetic field here considered may have originated, we may write : Xa =/x {u) ■ sin u Z^ = 2/^ (m) • cos u (1) where u is the colatitude of the parallel considered and /x {u) , /z {u) are functions of u, termed the ''characteristic functions," as they contain the secrets of the origin of the field. Thus for a simple uniform magnetic field (i.e., one for which the magnetic BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD 5 force within the sphere is constant in amount and in direction, parallel to axis of rotation in the present instance), /x (u) = fz{u) = i Tfx = constant throughout the Earth, ix being the equi- valent intensity of magnetization per unit of volume. The observed values of the characteristic functions as derived with the aid of (1) are given in Ihe third and fourth columns of the table. It is seen that not only are the two functions not equal to each other for the same parallel, but, what is more important, in both instances the values increase systematically towards the equator. The equivalent value of /x is found to be, in C. G. S. units, about 0.070 for parallel 60° and 0.082 for the equator, showing an increase of about 17 per cent — certainly an appreciable quantity. The law of increase in the values of the characteristic functions furnishes a definite criterion for testing the validity or sufficiency of theories of the Earth's magnetism; when applied, it is found that none of the theories thus far advanced account for the equa- torial increase in intensity of magnetization, some in fact giving instead a decrease. The hypothesis that the increased magneti- zation may be due to increased strength of that which produces the primary field — be it increased actual magnetization or increased strength of electric current or of rotating charges — at once occurs to one's mind, and a first examination shows that it is an effect similar to that probably to be expected if attribut- able to the Earth's centrifugal force. ^ It is not possible here to give all the mathematical steps involved, • suffice it to say that the analysis at present has been made for possible potential systems both below and above the Earth's surface, which by their combination may be considered to pro- duce the magnetic field observed on the Earth's surface. Instead of supposing a spherical distribution of the two opposite body charges, as did Sutherland, we have taken a spheroidal distribu- tion owing to the supposed action of the Earth's centrifugal force. The expansion has been carried thus far to include the fifth degree zonal harmonic. The differences between the observed values of the rectangular components and of the characteristic functions and the computed values, resulting from the analysis, will be found in the above table. 8 Terr. Mag. 17: 138. 1912. 6 BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD It is found that in order to accord with the most obvious fact ^that the north-seeking end of the magnetic needle dips in the Northern Hemisphere — the negative elemental charges within the Earth must, on the average, he the farther away from the Earth's center, i.e., be distributed thru a slightly larger sphere than the one supposed to contain the positive charges. For the portion of the Earth's magnetic jfield supposed to arise from the rotation with the Earth of the electric charges in the atmosphere, the chief fact of observation is that the north-seeking end of the magnetic needle points above the horizon in the Northern Hem- isphere. To comply with this fact, it is found that, on the average, the negative elemental charges in the atmosphere must also be the farther away from the Earth's center than are the positive ones. That the same kind of electric distribution suffices to produce both the Earth's internal and external magnetic systems is con- sidered one of the chief gains. Theories, heretofore, have either stopped with a consideration of the internal system alone or have involved contrary or independent hypotheses for both sys- tems. Thus, if the systems are referred to electric currents for the internal system, then the currents would have to pass around the Earth from east to west, hence contrary to the Earth's rota- tion, whereas, for the external system, they would have to go from west to east, hence in the same direction as that of rotation. Taking the average atomic weight of the Earth's substance, in round numbers as 50, it is found that, if the radii of the two spheres supposed initially to contain the opposite and equal body charges of the Earth differ by only 0.4 X 10~^ cm., i.e., by about four-tenths of the radius of an ordinary molecule, a magnetic field of the required strength results in the manner supposed.^ The corresponding quantity for the effects ascribed in this paper to the supposed action of the Earth's centrifugal force is on the order of 0.01 X 10~^ cm. The present adalysis resolves the so- called Gaussian constants, generally regarded as the elements or ultimate constants of the Earth's magnetic field, into physically interpretable constituents. ^ The energy necessary to remove a negative electron from an atom indicates that the positive and negative charges are about 10~^ cm. apart in the atom and that the molecules may be regarded as having a definite volume of radius of about 10-8 cm. H. A. Wilson: Structure of Atoms, Science, N. S. 35: 511, 1912. burgess: a micropyrometer 7 Were there time, some further interesting deductions might be given, as also some results of a preliminary study of the asym- metrical portions of the Earth's magnetic field, not considered in this paper. In conclusion, let it be emphasized that no claim is made that the only possible mechanical description of the phenomena has been given. It is quite possible to replace the fundamental concept by some other; however, there still remains to be found some adequate explanation for the disturbance effects studied in this paper and provisionally referred to the Earth's centrifugal action. The main purpose of the investiga- tion is to discover a working hypothesis for guidance in the mag- netic operations at present in progress, and to obtain clues as to any possible additional data which may be required beyond those usually obtained in magnetic surveys. PHYSICS. — A micropyrometer. George K. Burgess, Bureau of Standards. Some time ago, a method was described^ suitable for the rapid estimation of the melting points of minute specimens — as fine as 0.001 mgm. or less. A microscope and an optical pyrometer were sighted through a window of mica, or of plate glass in case of melts in vacuo, simultaneously on an enclosed metallic strip such as platinum, heated electrically and upon which was placed the specimen to be melted. Evidently this apparatus may be simplified by combining microscope and pyrometer into a single instrument, thus permit- ting a single observer to watch the melting and measure its tem- perature. This is effected by mounting within the Huyghens eye-piece of an ordinary microscope a small incandescent lamp, which is in series with a rheostat and ammeter. The tip of the filament of the lamp is set to the same brightness as the platinum strip viewed from above at the instant of melting of the metallic or other specimen on which the microscope is focussed. The eye of the observer therefore sees the specimen, the platinum strip and the lamp filament all in focus at once and the current thru the 1 Burgess, G. K., Melting points of the iron group elements by a new radiation method. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 3: 345. 1907. 8 burgess: a micropyrometer lamp is taken as a measure of the temperature of the strip as in the Morse or Holborn-Kurlbaum pyrometer. In practice, the observer with one hand raises the temperature of the platinum strip by increasing the electric current thru it by means of a fine- step rheostat and with the other hand adjusts the rheostat in the pyrometer circuit so as to continuously match in brightness the lamp filament and platinum strip. The eye-piece is furnished with a piece of monochromatic glass such as Jena red filter no. F 4512. For temperatures above which the lamp should not be burned, say 1400°C., an absorption glass is placed between the microscope objective and furnace window. The inside of the metallic container or furnace should be blackened to prevent undesirable reflections of light from the walls. The calibration of the pyrometer as sighted upon the platinum strip in the furnace may be made in two ways. The first, which was the only method available when the earlier form of this apparatus was brought out, due to the dearth of well known fixed points in the temperature range studied, consists in cali- brating the pyrometer in the customary manner and then apply- ing the corrections at the temperatures of melting, for the emis- sivity of platinum, furnace atmosphere and window, and for the surface tension of the melting specimens when necessary. The second method, which appears to be the more accurate and also more convenient, consists in observing the lamp currents at the known melting points of two or more pure substances such as gold, nickel, cobalt and palladium, and from the equation expressing the relation between temperature and current in lamp, the temperature of melting of any specimen may be computed. For not too great teniperature intervals, the equation log c = a -\- b log t may be used which permits calibration with two fixed points only. This second method of calibration has the further advantage that, for materials of approximately the same general properties, the error of method is eliminated. Thus in the case of metals which alloy with platinum, the effects of alloying conductivity and of surface tension enter into the calibration as well as into the determination of the unknown melting point, so that any out- burgess: a micro pyrometer y standing error will be but a residual one. In the case of substances of dissimilar properties such as salts and metals, this apparatus must be used with caution, for, in general, a calibration made in terms of the metal melting points, for example, will not serve for the exact determination of the melting points of salts. The precision of the method is dependent mainly upon the character of the melting of the substances observed. With metals such as gold and nickel, which melt very sharply, a precision of 1° or 2° C. is obtainable. Fig. 1. A Micropyrometer The apparatus as constructed at the Bureau of Standards, largely from suggestions due to Messrs. Crowe and Foote of this Bureau, is shown in figure 1 ; in which L is the pyrometer lamp, R the monochromatic glass, A the absorption glass, P the platinum strip carrying the specimen, C the furnace window, B an air blast for cooling the furnace. The microscope has a Bausch and Lomb 48 mm. single achromatic lens and 6.4 X eye-piece and gives / 10 COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION sufficiently good definition and magnification, and a large enough field of view for melting point observations. The working dis- tance of the objective may be increased, if desired, by the device employed by Robin^ of inserting a biconcave lens at D slightly back of the focus of the objective. This necessitates lengthening considerably the draw tube and reduces the area sighted upon. The micropyrometer may, of course, be used for the estimation of temperatures of incandescent surfaces simultaneously with their examination, and thus becomes a useful instrument in metal- lographic and microchemical and physical investigations at high temperatures. The apparatus is being used at the Bureau of Standards for the determination of melting points and emissivities of the re- fractory elements and alloys, and the author will be glad' to receive pure samples (a few hundredths milligram), particularly of the rarer elements for such determinations. PHYSICS. — The constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly heated enclosure or so-called black body. W. W. Coblentz, To appear in The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. In previous communications (Physical Review, 1910 and 1911) accounts were given of the progress made in the investigation of the constants involved in the formulas, ' proposed by Wien and by Planck, for expressing the partition of energy in the spectrum of a so-called black body. In view of the fact that the great mass of theoretical specula- tions seemed entirely out of proportion to the slender experi- mental data upon which they were based, it seemed desirable to obtain an extensive series of observations under all sorts of conditions, leaving the exact computation of the results until the very last, and then computing all the data on a uniform basis. From the beginning of the work, four years ago, attention was called to the fact that the Wien equation does not fit the observed spectral energy curves, and in later communications, the computations were made on the basis of the Planck equa- * F. Robin, Microscope k longue portee, etc. Bull, de la Soci^te d'Encourage- ment 118 : 204. 1912. COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION 11 tion, introducing all the known correction factors which can effect the observed spectral energy curves. These factors are (1) corrections for the selective reflection of the silver mirrors, the fluorite prism, and the fluorite window which covers the vacuum bolometer; and (2) the corrections for the variation in reflecting power with angle of incidence upon the silver mirrors and upon the fluorite prism. In the isothermal spectral energy curves the position, X^a^,, of the maximum emission, E^^xj is computed by taking the wave- lengths, Xi and Xo corresponding to equal emissivities Ei = Ei, on the assumption that the observed energy curve fits the Planck equation: £'x = C,X-«(e-'^^-l)-^ (1) from which follows (2) ^ ^ a(logX2-logX:)XiX2 _ XiX2[log(l-e-'-^A^^)-log(l-e---A-^)] a^ (X2 — Xi) log e a^ (X2 — Xi) log e The second term in this equation can usually be abbreviated since terms involving Xi are usually negligible. For values of Xo which are less than about 4/x the term log (1 -e~''^^''^) may be expanded into a series and (by dropping all terms but the first) may be used in the form — e"'''/^'^ log e. In this equation a = 5, a^ = 4.9651 and Co = a^'KjT. For computing the second term correction factors to X,„, the value of C2 = 14,500 was used. However a variation of 100 units in C2 (e.g., C2 = 14,600) would change the mean value of Xy^ax by only 0.0005 fx, v/hich is negligible. For computing the constant Co from an iso hromatic energy curve, at any wave-length, X, Planck's equation is used in the following form : (log^2-log^i)xrir2 _ (e-'-^A^' - e-'A^O X^i ^2 .3. "^^ log e {T, - TO T, - Ti where Ex and E^ refer to the emissivities corresponding to the temperatures Ti and Ti respectively. In this equation the terms log (1— e~"Ari^ g^g^^ were expanded into a series and only the 12 COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION / first term (1 —e~''''^^') log e, etc.) is used. As in equation (2) an approximate value of Co = 14,500 is used in applying the second term correction. For wave-lengths up to 1 /z this correction term is small being only 2.1 and 4.3 for temperatures intervals {T^ - Ti) of 363° and 623°, respectively, when using Tr = 1450°C. How- ever these corrections increase very rapidly with wave-length beyond 1 /x so that at 2 ix, with the same temperature intervals just mentioned, the second term corrections to the values of Cz amount to 168 and 227 respectively. As already stated, it was deemed of greater importance to obtain experimental data than to spend the time discussing the bearing of the data at hand upon existing theories. From the data now at hand, this procedure seems amply justified. More than 180 isothermal energy curves have been obtained, and by actual count 75 to 80 per cent of the rehable sets of these curves are found to fit the Planck equation, within the experimental errors of observations. The numerical values of the constajtits are smaller than the older determinations of Paschen, and of Lummer and Pringsheim (and, for that matter the earlier values of the present data, obtained by a different system of computa- tion, and not including all the correction factors for reflection). However, as will be shown in the complete paper, the data of previous observers are in agreement with present values, when computed on the same basis. ^ The data now available were obtained with different fluorite prisms, water cooled shutters, air and vacuum bolometers, and thermocouples. The radiators were platinum-wound porcelain 1 For example, Paschen's data, if computed by the present methods would give a value of XmT = 2912 and C2 = 14,460. The data of Lummer and Pringsheim are wrong owing to an error in their calibration cujve which amounts to 0.02/x for the region of the spectrum up to 2.5^. This would decrease many of their values of Xmoj by almost 1 per cent, and reduces their mean value to \„iT = 2930. Their energy curves did not fit the Wien equation and since in the present research, radiators of their design were used under conditions which were similar to theirs, it is possible to recalculate their data by the present methods of computation. This gives a mean value of XmT = 2911 and Cs = 14,450. If we exclude their last value of \m.T= 2814, which is evidently not comparable with the rest, their mean value of XmT = 2924 and d = 14,500. Considered as a whole, a fair esti- mate of the older data is C2 = 14,460 to 14,500. COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTKAL RADIATION 13 tubes of the design used by Lummer and Pringsheim. Energy curves were obtained from these tubes before and after they were blackened with chromium and cobalt oxides. It was found that the percentage of the energy curves fitting the Planck equa- tion was greatly increased when the radiators were blackened. There are still a few outstanding discrepancies which need further investigation. For example, the average value of Co for a given set of observations may be 0.2 to 0.5 per cent higher than a simi- lar series made, under slightly different conditions, but using the same prism, which was flawless. Usually these fluctuations coin- cide with variations in humiditj'', but this is not sufficient to fully explain the matter. Again, when using a fluorite prism con- taining numerous flaws, which caused a conspicuous scattering of light, the energy curves appear to be distorted so that only 25 to 30 per cent of them fit the Planck equation, and the value of C2 is extraordinarily high, being of the order of C2 = 14,700. The data obtained in 1910 and in 1911, using a flawless prism, give an average value of Ca = 14,540. Using the same prism, in 1912, the value of the constant is slightly lower, being of the order of C2 = 14,490. Altho this difference of 0.3 to 0.4 per cent in the values of Ca is systematic it is within the experimental errors of observation. It therefore appears that the weighted value of this constant will be found to be close to Co = 14,500; and \mT = 2920. This value of C2 = 14,500 appears to be about 1 per cent higher than the prehminary results published by Warburg and his associates at the Reichsanstalt. The constant, C2, is of great importance in optical pyrometry, and heretofore owing to the absence of concordant data experi- menters have used values ranging from C2 = 14,200 to C2 = 14,600. The value of the melting point of platinum, on the basis of the optical temperature scale, using C2 = 14,500, was observed by Waidner and Burgess to be 1753°. The latest work on the gas temperature scale by Day and Sosman, extrapolating the thermo- electric scale from palladium, m. p. = 1549?2, gives a value of 1750° to 1755°, with a mean value of 1752°, for the melting point of platinum. A melting point of 1755° is equivalent to a value of Co = 14,475 which is close to the predominating values of this 14 WRIGHT: AN IMPROVED VERTICAL-ILLUMINATOR constant as observed in the 9 sets of observations, aggregating 90 spectral energy curves which were obtained in 1912. While it is very gratifying to find that the new value of co = 14,500 places the melting point of platinum within 1° or 2° of the ob- served values (which are uncertain by a similar amount), this coincidence is to be considered somewhat accidental. Planck's theory of the mechanism involved in the production of "black" radiation admits of the computation of the value of the elementary electrical charge, e, by means of the constant of spectral radiation, h, (XmT = 2920) and the constant, a, of total radiation. The recent determinations of the constant of total radiation, by Gerlach and by Puccianti give a value of a- = 5.9 X 10~^2 watts per cm.^ per deg.^ Combining this with the value of h = 0.2920 cm. deg. gives a value of e = 5.1 X 10"" E. S. U. This is considerably higher than the experimental value by Milli- kan, which is 4.777 X lO-^^E. S. U. While the time is still pre- mature to attempt to harmonize the experimental value and the theoretical value as deduced from the radiation laws, it is of importance to notice that there are wide variations in the various determinations of the constant, a, of total radiation. In future communications it is hoped to contribute values of a, which are determined with some of the apparatus used in determining c?. Heretofore, the experimental work on the spectral energy curves was done in the winter time when the humidity was low. The season of low humidity being close at hand, it is purposed to observe several more series of energy curves, using other fluor- ite prisms, before publishing a more complete report. As matters now stand it seems highly desirable to put the complete optical path of the spectroradiometric apparatus and of the radiator in a vacuum in order to obtain the complete spectral energy curves free from the atmospheric absorption bands of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. METALLOGRAPHY. — An improved vertical-illuminator. Fred Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. Of the two types of vertical-illuminators which are in current use on the metallographic microscope, the reflecting prism type furnishes the best illumination with low power objectives. With WRIGHT: AN IMPROVED VERTICAL-ILLUMINATOR 15 high power objectives it is less satisfactory because the reflecting prism cuts off half of the rays from the objective and thus seri- ously impairs the resolving power and general efficiency of the optical system.^ The second type of illumination with the Beck illuminator does not suffer from this defect as the light which is reflected from the thin glass plate passes, on its return after reflection from the metal surface, thru the glass plate itself on its way to the eye of the observer. The glass plate thus serves both to reflect and to transmit the light; the resulting intensity of illumination is, however, noticeably less than that obtained by the first method. For satisfactory work the glass plate should be plane and thin and the source of light so arranged that none of the rays reflected from the objec- tive lens surfaces reach the eye of the observer, otherwise they cast a haze or fog over the entire field, thus re- ducing the contrasts and flooding the image with false light. The device illustrated in figure 1 was constructed in the Geophysical Laboratory five or six years ago, to correct this defect and has been found so satisfactory and useful in practice that it is perhaps worthy of brief description. It enables the observer to produce an aper- ture of any desired size in any part of the field ; he has thus con- trol over the entire field and can eliminate any incident rays which would otherwise disturb the kind of illumination desired. He can moreover obtain rays of any desired obliquity of inci- dence and thus increase or decrease the apparent relief of the surface under observation. The adjustable aperture is obtained by fitting to the ordinary vertical illuminator (Bausch and Lomb type) four cylindrical Fig. 1. Improved vertical illuminator 1 Carl Benedicks, Metallurgie 6: 1-4. 1904. 16 safford: a new genus of annonaceae segments A, B, C, D (two outer segments, A, B, and two inner segments, C, D) all of which fit into grooves cut into the support- ing collars F, G of figure 1 and can be rotated by grasping the small knobs and sliding each segment in its track, thus increasing or decreasing the size of the diamond shaped aperture at 0 (fig. 1). The ring marked E can also be rotated and a triangular aperture obtained if desired. These segments can be made by a good mechanic without difficulty and are so simple both in construc- tion and manipulation that further description is unnecessary. A movable iris diafram may also be used for the same purpose, but it is less effective because it does not allow the observer to change the shape as well as the position of the aperture and thus to obtain intense illumination without, at the same time, intro- ducing false light. BOTANY.— Pseudannona, a new genus of Annonaceae from the Mascarene Islands; together with notes on Artabotrys uncinatus and its synonymy. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry. Among the Annonaceae of the island of Mauritius described by Lamarck in 1786 were three species referred by him to the genus Annona: A. grandiflora, A. amplexicaulis, and A. uncinata.^ These were afterwards figured by Dunal in his monograph of the Annonaceae, the generic name assigned to them by Lamarck being retained for the first two species but the last being placed in the genus Unona, under the name U. uncinata. Dunal's plates show at a glance that the first two plants above named, which have separate carpels, each containing several seeds, can- not possibly belong to the genus Annona, the fruit of which is a syncarpium composed of a number of 1-seeded carpels fused together in a consolidated mass; and Unona uncinata (Lamarck) Dunal has been made the type of a new genus, Artabotrys, one of the distinguishing characteristics of which is the peculiar hook- like peduncles of the flower, which at length serve as a support for the fruit. That Lamarck's Anona grandiflora and A. amplexicaulis do not belong to the genus to which they were assigned was recog- 1 Laml^. Encycl. Bot. 2: 126, 127. 1786. safford: a new genus of annonaceae 17 nized by Baillon, who placed them in the genus Xylopia, in a section by themselves, which he called Pseudanona (see Adan- sonia 4: 142. 1864); but in studying the genus Xylopia the present writer has become convinced that these two Mauritian plants cannot possibly be regarded as congeneric with the West Indian Xylopia muricata, the type of the genus as established by Linnaeus,^ and it is therefore proposed to segregate them by raising Baillon's section to generic rank under the name of Pseu- dannona. The genus may be described as follows. Pseudannona (Baillon) gen. nov. Calyx gamosepalous, subtriangular or 3-lobed. Corolla com- posed of 6 petals in 2 series, all of which are valvate, the outer 3 longer and broader than the inner and subspatulate in form, the inner more or less triquetrous especially near the apex. Recep- tacle (torus) domeshaped, with a crater-like depression at the center from which issue the styles of the sunken ovaries. Ovaries distinct, each terminating in a slender style which is recurved near the extremity where it is provided with numerous stigmatic papillae. Ovules several, biseriate, not superimposed as in the genus Xylopia. Stamens numerous borne on the outer slope of the torus and forming a crowded mass surrounding the central cluster of carpels; filaments stout, bearing on their back a pair of linear parallel pollen sacs opening extrorsely by a longitudinal slit and surmounted by the broadened connective. Fruit a clus- ter of distinct several-seeded carpels borne on the hardened recep- tacle, or torus, not a syncarpium composed of many 1-seeded carpels fused together as in the genus Annona. Climbing or erect shrubs with solitary 1-fiowered peduncles indigenous to the islands of Mauritius and Madagascar. Thus far but two species can with certainty be referred to this genus, a third species, from the forests of Mauritius is like P. grandi flora, a climbing shrub and has been described ^s Anona pyriformis Bojer. Tho the latter cannot possibly belong to the genus Annona it is doubtful whether it should be assigned to the present genus, owing to its broad inner petals which resemble 2 Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 2: 1250, 10 ed. 1759. 18 safford: a new genus of annonaceae the outer in form. Its generic affinities cannot be established owing to the absence of fruit. The following are the species thus far known belonging to the genus Pseudannona. 1. Pseudannona amplexicaulis (Lamk.) comb. nov. Type of the genus. Anona amplexicaulis Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 127. 1786; Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 76, pi. 7. 1817; DC. Syst. 1: 475. 1818; Prodr. 1: 86. 1824; Bojer, Hort. Maurit. 5. 1837; Baker, Fl. Maurit & Seych. 3. 1877. Xylopia amplexicaulis BailL, Adansonia 4: 142. 1864; Hist. PL 1:226. 1867. 2. Pseudannona grandiflora (Lamk.) comb. nov. Anona grandiflora Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 126. 1786; Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 75, pi. 6 & pi. 6a. 1817; DC. Syst. 1: 475. 1818; Prodr. 1: 86. 1824; Bojer, Hort. Maurit. 5. 1837; Baker, Gl. Maurit. & Seych. 3. 1877. Xylopia Lamarckii Bail!., Adansonia 4: 142. 1864; Hist. PI. 1:227. 1867. notes on artabotrys uncinatus This plant, which is one of the sources of the perfume called ylangylang, is of East Indian origin, but is now cultivated in many tropical countries for the sake of its fragrant flowers. Unlike the true ylangylang {Canangium odoratum (Lamb.) King) it is a climbing shrub instead of a tree; the connective of its stamens is broadly expanded instead of being produced into a long taper- ing point; and its one-carpelled fruits contain 2 seeds each ar- ranged side-by-side instead of several superimposed in a series. The following is a translation of Lamarck's original description, under the botanical name Anona uncinata, or "corossol with hooks." This cdVossol is remarkable for the singular hooks which the- floral peduncles bear, and which almost resemble the stipulary spines of Hugonia [a genus of Linaceae occurring in the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, some of the species of which have hooked axillary pedun- cles]. Its branches are woody, terete, glabrous, and somewhat zigzag safford: a new genus of annonaceae 19 in form, bearing alternate, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate leaves, glabrous on both sides, glossy, and short-petioled, with blades 5 to 7 inches long by almost 2 inches broad. The pedicels are one- flowered, 6 lines long, and each borne on a special incUned hook almost curved into a spiral, somewhat flattened, and usually opposite a leaf. The flower is rather large and has a calyx with 3 ovate-acute divisions much shorter than the corolJa; 6 ovate-lanceolate petals, brownish red on the upper part, with broad claws at the base, tomentose, concave within, and constricted between the claw and the blade. The 3 outer petals are slightly larger than the others. The fruits [ripe carpels] are ovoid-globose, of the size of a walnut enclosed in its hull, with the sur- face smooth and slightl}^ punctate, and containing oblong seeds, few in number, arranged longitudinally as in Anona grandiflora [Pseudannona grandiflora (Lamk.) Safford]. The following is the synonymy of this species. Artabotrys uncinata (Lamk.) comb. nov. Ano7ia uncinatus Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 127. 1786. Unona uncinata Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 105, pi. 12, & pi. 12a. 1817; DC. syst. 1: 490. 1818; Prodr. 1: 90. 1824. Uvaria uncata Lom-eiro, Fl. Cochinch. 1: 349. 1790; Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2:666. 1832. Artabotrys odoratissimus R. Br. in Bot. Reg., pi. 423. 1819; Hooker f. & Thonjs., Fl. Ind. 128.128. 1855; Benth., Fl. Hongkong, 10. 1861; Hooker' f., Fl., Brit. Ind. 1: 54. 1872; Kurz, For. Fl. Bm^m. 1: 31. 31. 1877; Baker, Fl. Maurit. & Seychelles 4. 1877; King, Anon. Brit. Ind. 44. pi. 55. 1893. Uvaria odoratissima Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 666. 1832. From the above synonymy it appears that Lamarck's specific name (uncinata) was recognized by Dunal and De Candolle. Its original publication preceded that of Loureiro (uncata) by four years. In establishing the genus Artabotrys the first specific name of the type was disregarded by Mr. Brown, tho quoted by him in his synonymy, and the manuscript name of Roxburgh was adopted instead. According to the accepted rules of priority the first specific name must be used, and the plant must be designated as Artabotrys uncinatus. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Researches of the Department of Ter- restrial Mognetis77i: Land 7nagnetic observations, 1905-1910. L. A. Bauer, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publication No. 175. Pp. vi + 185, with 10 plates. 1912. This publication contains the results of all magnetic observations made on land by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism from the beginning of its observational work in February, 1905, to the end of 1910. Descriptions of the types of instruments used are given. The discussion of the general methods of the magnetic and astronomical field work include, besides the general detail of selection and occupation of stations, specimens of field records, computations, and determina- tions of constants and corrections. Ho'^ever carefully constructed, various instruments give results differing by small more or less constant amounts and hence arises the necessity of adopting some standard of reference. The Department has made for this purpose extensive inter- comparisons of instruments at Washington, in the field, and at many magnetic observatories thruout the world; with the data thus obtained it has been possible to reduce the magnetic results for the region covered in the publication to magnetic standards within an error in general in the order of the error of observation. The intercomparisons of the pro- visional magnetic standards adopted with the standards of twelve observatories in the northern hemisphere and four in the southern hemi- sphere are given, as also the indirect results of observations by other organizations at seven additional magnetic observatories in the northern hemisphere; these show that the provisional standards adopted are very close to international standards, at least so far as all practical require- ments of a general magnetic survey of the earth are concerned. The 20 ABSTEACTS: PHYSICS 21 corrections to these standards for the various instruments used are given in detail. The results are summarized under the main geographical divisions as follows: Africa, 386 stations; Asia, 308 stations; Australia, 10 stations; Europe, 36 stations; North America, 328 stations; South America, 111 stations; Islands, Atlantic Ocean, 68 stations. Islands, Pacific Ocean, 51 stations. The total number of stations is 1298; with reoccupations the total is 1391. The Table of Results contains for each station the geographical latitude, longitude, date of observation, the observed values of magnetic declination, inclination, and horizontal intensity, the local mean times to the nearest one-tenth hour for each element, the instruments used, and the observer. Accounts of some of the expeditions are given with illustrations primarily to show in a general way, the character of the field work and some of its difficulties. The last section of the volume is devoted to descriptions of stations arranged under the same geographical divisions adopted in the Table of Results. J. A. Fleming. PHYSICS. — The present status of the temperature scale. George K. Burgess. Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry. 22:53. 1912. Attention is called to the desirability of expressing temperatures on the thermodynamic scale and a table of corrections to the various gas scales is given. It is shown that the platinum resistance thermometer may be used to reproduce the temperature scale with the greatest exact- ness rom —200° to +1100°C. The limitations of thermoelectric and radiation pyrometry are discussed as well as the status (with tables) of several of the boiling and melting points of substances suitable for standard temperatures. International agreement on a temperature scale is urged. The status of the scale may be illustrated by the accom- panying tables of standard temperatures. V V 22 abstracts: physics STANDARD TEMPERATURES. THERMODYNAMIC SCALE SUBSTANCE Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide. . Mercury Water Na2S04+ IOH2O Water Naphthalene Tin Benzophenone. . . Cadmium Lead Zinc Sulphur Antimony Ag3— CU2 NaCl Silver Gold Copper Palladium Platinum Alumina Tungsten Carbon arc Sun PHENOMENON Boiling Boiling Sublimation in gaso- lene Freezing Freezing Transformation to anhydrous salt Boiling Boiling Freezing Boiling Freezing Freezing Freezing Boiling Freezing Eutectic freezing Freezing Freezing Freezing Freezing Freezing Melting Melting Melting Pos. crater Surface TEMPERATURE UNCERTAINTY -252.7 —182.9 —78.34 —37.7 0 32.383 100 271.90 231.85 305.90 320.92 327.4 419.4 444.6 630 779 800 960.5 1063 .1083 1549 1755 2000 3000 3600 6000 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 0.002 0 0.02 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 1 2 1 2 2 10 15 30 100 150 500 REPRODUCI- BILITT 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.3 1 1 0.5 1 1 3 5 20 25 50 100 For the temperatures dependent on atmospheric pressure we have: Oxygen B. P. T = T760 + 0.013 (p - 760) Carbon dioxide S. P. T = T760 + 0.017 (p - 760) Water B. P. T = T760 + 0.037 (p - 760) Napthalene B. P. T = T760 + 0.058 (p - 760) Benzophenone B. P. T = Treo + 0.063 (p - 760) Sulphur B. P. T = T760 + 0.0912 (p - 760) 0.000042 (p - 760)2 As to the chemical purity of the various substances, Myhus has shown! that the following metals may easily be had to 0.01 per cent or better; Au, Ag, Pt, Hg, Cu, Sn, Pb, Cd, Zn. Of the boiling substances, benzophenone and oxygen are the only ones to the purity of which special attention need be given. G. K. B. 1 F. Mylius, Zs. Anorg. Ch. 74: 407. 1912. abstracts: bio-chemistry 23 BIO-CHEMISTRY. — Wild volatile-oil pla72ts ayul their economic impor- tance. I. Black sage, II. Wild sage, III. Swamp hay. Frank Rabak. Bulletin 235, Bureau of Plant Industry, pp. 37, with 6 %s. 1912. In the general part of this bulletin are described the distribution of wild aromatic plants in the United States. The present production of volatile oils obtained from wild plants native to the United States is discussed in detail. A classification of volatile oils based on their odors and constituents is suggested. Attention is called to the commercial importance of volatile oils. The plant sources and the commercial use of the important substances, camphor, borneol and cineol are thoroly discussed. The special part of this bulletin consists of the investigation of the volatile oils of black sage, wild sage, and swamp bay. The oil of the black sage (Ramona stachyoides (Benth) Briquet.) was found upon examination to consist essentially of camphor (more than 40 per cent) and cineol (22.5 per cent) wdth smaller quantities of an alcohol, probably borneol, both free and as an ester, thujone, traces of pinene and terpinene, and traces of combined acetic and formic acids. The con- stituents of possible commercial importance in the oil are camphor and borneol. Analysis of the oil of wild sage {Artemisia frigida Willd.) showed the presence (1) of borneol, 43 per cent, of which about 6.8 per cent exists as bornyl heptoate, leaving 35.8 per cent of free borneol; (2) of cineol (eucalyptol) 18 to 20 per cent; (3) of fenchone 8 to 10 per cent; (4) of free acids, chiefly oenanthylic or heptoic acid, 0.58 per cent, with traces of formic and caprylic acids; (5) of combined acids in the form of esters, chiefly oenanthylic acid, with smaller quantities of valerianic, undecylic and formic acids. The chief constituents of commercial importance are borneol and cineol. The oil of swamp bay (Persea puhescens, (Pursh.) Sarg.) was found to consist chiefly of 21 per cent of camphor, 19.8 per cent of cineol, and borneol, the latter occurring to small extent as esters and as free alcohol. Small quantities of butyric acid and esters of butyric, valerianic and heptoic acids were also present. ^ The plants which yield the above oils are found in widely separated regions of the United States, in California, South Dakota, and Florida, respectively. The large quantities of camphor in the oils of black sage and swamp bay are new sources of this important substance. Likewise the large percentage of borneol in the oil of wild sage opens new possibilities. F. R. 24 abstracts: botany BOTANY. — The cotton of the Hopi Indians: A new species of Gossypium. Feederick L. Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60 : no. 6, with 5 plates. October 23, 1912. The early Spanish explorers discovered in 1540 the region now occupied by the pueblo Indians and recorded the cultivation of the cotton plant by the Indians. That the cliff-dwellers, the ancestors of these pueblo Indians of our Southwest, cultivated, spun and wove cotton, has been shown by the work of several eminent ethnologists. Fragments of cotton fabrics are common in the villages of the cliff-dwellers which were in ruins when first seen by the white man. After tracing the history of cotton cultivation by the Indians of this region and its use by them for ceremonial and household purposes, a technical description of the cotton now grown by the Hopi Indians is given and published as a new species under the name Gossypium hopi. This cotton is conspicuously different from the American upland cottons in color of foliage, flowers, habit of branching, etc., and it is believed that it has never been cultivated by the white man or had any influence in the development of the types of cotton so largely culti- vated in the East and South. The Department of Agriculture has experimented with the Hopi cotton for several years and the experiments show this cotton to be remarkable for its earliness and its ability to grow under very dry conditions. Owing to the ease with which machine-made cotton yarn can be pro- cured by the Indians from the traders, but very little Hopi cotton is now grown by them, and the smallness of its bolls and poor yield of fiber have not made its cultivation attractive to the white man. F. L. L. BOTANY.^ — Ruhelzul cotton: A new species of Gossypium from Guatemala. Frederick L. Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60: no. 4, with 2 plates. October 21, 1912. Gossypium irenaeum is described. This is a shrubby species culti- vated by the Kekchi Indians at Rubelzul, a part of the finca "Trece Aguas," a few miles from the town of Senahu in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. It is planted about the door-yards and yields longer and finer fiber than the species commonly planted by the Kekchi Indians in regular patches, oftentimes at some distance from their dwellings. The most prominent character of this new species is seen in the remarkable development of the calyx, which reaches proportions not known in any other species of Gossypium. F. L. L. abstracts: botany, plant physiology 25 BOTANY. — Kokia: A new genus of Hawaiian trees. Frederick L. Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60 : no. 5, with 5 plates. October 22, 1912. The new genus includes three species, Kokia drynarioides, K. lanceo- lata, and K. rockii, the last two species being described as new. The genus is based upon a study of herbarium material representing Gos- sypiiim drijnarioides Seemann, from the Island of Molokai, Hillebrand's variety of Seemann's species, from the Island of Oahu, and specimens of a hitherto undescribed species collected in 1909 by Mr. J. F. Rock, of Honolulu, on the slopes of the Volcano Hualalai, Island of Hawaii. Kokia dry^iarioides and K. lanceolata are beHeved to have entirely dis- appeared from the Hawaiian Islands, and the third species, K. rockii, has been reduced to a single group of four trees. These are about 25 feet high, averaging 10 to 12 inches in diameter. F. L. L. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — A 'preliminary study of the forced curing of lejnons as practiced in California. Arthur F. Sievers and Rod- ney H. True, Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 232. Feb., 1912. The process of forced curing of lemons in vogue in California con- sists in subjecting the green fruit to heat and humidity in tight rooms until the desired color is produced. The time required to accomplish the result ranges from 5 to 14 days. Experiments are described showing that heat and humidity are of secondary importance in the process and that the pungent, gaseous combustion products from the oil-burning stoves used produce the desired effect. It is suggested that these gases could be used on a com- mercial scale by generating them in separate structures from which they could be distributed to the different rooms containing the fruit. Such conduction of the gases by means of pipes was found by experi- ment not to impair their effectiveness. The loss of stems from the fruit has been a common result of the forced curing process. It has generally been held that the high humidity which obtains in the curing rooms was the cause of this trouble. The experi- ments here reported prove that the' same factor which effects the color- ing, also causes the loss of the stems. A study of the different materials used in the construction of curing rooms relative to their effect on the coloring brought out the fact that material of a porous nature hastens the process. This would indicate 26 abstracts: plant physiology, phytopathology that better results would be obtained in rooms constructed of earth, bricks, or concrete than in rooms of wooden or metal construction. , R. H. T. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — ■Absorption and excretion of salts by roots, as influenced by concentratiori and composition of culture solutions. I. Concentration relations of dilute solutions of calcium and mag- nesium nitrate to pea roots. R. H. True and Hi H. Bartlett. Bulletin 231, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Issued January 30, 1912, Secondary roots of the pea will not develop in m/5000 Mg (N03)2. A calcium to magnesium ratio of 1/10 is the lowest ratio at which cal- cium entirely inhibits the harmful effect of magnesium in solutions of this concentration. In solutions of such concentration that magnesium alone would not prevent the formation of secondary roots (e. g., m/20,- 000) the calcium to magnesium ratio which brings about perfect root development is nearer 1/100. In solutions of whatever concentration the calcium to magnesium ratio most favorable to absorption of salts is 1/1. For calcium nitrate solution used as a culture medium, or for mag- nesium nitrate solution, or for mixtures of the two in any ratio, there is a definite concentration above which roots absorb more electrolytes than they excrete and below which they excrete more thany they absorb. This equilibrium concentration is 12 m/500,000 for Mg (N03)2 and 7 m/50,000 for Ca (N03)2. For solutions of the two in the lowest ratio which permits perfect root development (Ca: Mg: : 1 : 10) the equilib- rium concentration is 8 w/500,000, almost as low as for Ca(N03)2 alone. For solutions mixed in the most favorable ratio for absorption (i. e., 5/5) the equihbrium concentration is 5 w/500,000, lower than for Ca- (N03)2 alone. H. H. B. PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— r/?c history and cause of the coconut bud-rot. John R. Johnston. Bulletin No. 228, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 175, pis. 14 and figs. 10. February, 1912. Bud-rot is a disease of coconuts which has been known for more than thirty years in Cuba, causing widespread loss. A similar trouble has existed for years in Jamaica, British Honduras, Trinidad, and British Guiana. It is reported also in British India, German East Africa, Por- tuguese East Africa, the Philippines, and Ceylon. ABSTRACTS : PHYTOPATHOLOGY 27 The disease was investigated in 1901, at the request of the planters of Baracoa, Cuba, by Mr. August Busch, entomologist of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. In 1904, Dr. Erwin F. Smith, plant pathologist of the same Department made further investigations in the districts around Baracoa, and declared the disease to be a bacterial soft rot of the terminal bud. Since that time it has been studied by a number of botan- ists and mycologists. Investigations were begun by the author of this bulletin in 1907 (in Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Guiana), and continued until 1911. Signs of bud-rot in its incipiency are (1) the falling of the immature nuts; (2) a staining of the opening flower spikes, partly or wholly, to a rich chocolate brown; and (3) the dying and bending over of the middle undeveloped leaves. The cause of bud-rot has been attributed to soil or climatic conditions, insects, mechanical injuries, etc. Dr. Ramos, of Havana, believed it to be due to a fungus, Uredo coccivoro. Dr. Davalos, also of Havana, attributed it to what he claimed to be Bacillus amylohader, which he isolated in 1886. Dr. Plaxton, of Jamaica, exhibited in 1891, shdes of a micrococcus which he thought was probably the cause. Believing the disease to be a bacterial one investigations were con- tinued along the lines planned by Dr. Smith. Material from many dis- eased trees was obtained, and bacterial organisms were isolated from these tissues, which consisted in general of two types: One which pro- duced, usually, round, wet-shining, white and semiopaque colonies with raised surfaces, and one (type most abundant) which produced colonies of very thin growth, spreading rapidly over the plate, often with long radiating branches, this type being also white, wet-shining, and semi- transparent. In the course of the work such a close similarity of the coconut organ- ism with Bacillus coli was observed that comparison of the two organ- isms was made which "shows them to be practically identical. Many special test reactions for the identification of Bacillus coli were used not only in characterizing the coconut organism, but also in ascertaining any differences that there might be between it and Bacillus coli from animal sources, e.g., behavior in fermentation tubes, growth on Dolt's synthetic medium, reaction to neutral red in various media, D. Rivas' tests, growth on Endo's fuchsin agar, Stoddard's plate medium. Hiss's tube medium (both of the latter used to distinguish B. coli from B. typhosus), etc. Special inoculations for the comparison of the coconut organism with Bacillus coli (from animals) were made into coconut seedlings, a solution 28 abstracts: phytopathology of ammonium oxalate being injected into a seedling at the same time as a check. Eighteen days after the injection the material was collected, plates were poured, and in five days pink colonies typical of both the coconut organism and of B. coli were formed on their respective plates. Along with the other inoculations just described a second injection of B. coli (derived from animals) was made into a coconut seedling, and also another solution of ammonium oxalate. After 47 days there was a good typical soft rot in the seedling inoculated with B. coli, but there was no characteristic effect from the ammonium oxalate. From this material B. coli was isolated, both by the author and by Miss McCulloch. Six experiments in all were conducted in which many inoculations were made with pure cultures of Bacillus coli from animals, a good soft rot being produced in the heart tissues of the coconut crown in most cases — a rot similar to that produced by the inoculations with the coconut organisms which were made at the same time. A full table is given, summarizing the characters of the coconut organisms and of B. coli, in which but slight variations are noted. In summing up the comparative study of these organisms, Mr. Johnston says: In the course of such an extended study on a disease as this has been there naturally occur certain results some of which tend to weaken the case and others to strengthen it. The many successful inoculations and the similarity of the cultures injected and isolated, together with the similarity of many other cultures isolated from diseased coconut mate- rial by the writer and earlier by Dr. Smith all tend to strengthen the case. On the other hand, successful inoculations by the writer with cultures of variable appearance rather tend to weaken the argument. These results may be explained by the supposition that other organisms than Bacillus coli also produce the bud-rot, or that what passes for Bacillus coli includes a group of closely related but not identical organisms. After the above experiments were conducted it was decided to search directly in the diseased tissues for B. coli. Material was obtained from Baracoa, Cuba, transfers being made, under clean conditions, to tubes of Dolt's synthetic medium. Platings were made in Washington, and B. coli was present as indicated by the tests. Subsequently more mate- rial was obtained with a similar result, Bacillus coli being isolated 1 6 days after the material was collected. Comparison of the bud-rot caused by Bacillus coli with several diseases of the coconut palm ascribed in literature to other causes indicates that several of these diseases are identical with bud-rot. It is not known at present that this bud-rot occurs on other palms than the coconut, but it probably does. ABSTEACTS: PHYTOPATHOLOGY 29 « The bacteria thrive only in the meristematic tissues which are Httle or not at all lignified. Stomatal infections are common on the young tissues. Birds and insects are believed to be carriers of this disease. It is recommended that badly diseased trees be cut down and burned. All fallen leaves, nuts, etc., should be removed. Erwin F. Smith. PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A knot of citrus trees caused by Sphaeropsis tumefadens. Florence Hedges and L. S. Tenny. Bulletin 247, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 74, pis. 10 and figs. 8. 1912. This bulletin describes in detail a new fungous disease of citrus trees. Branches of lime and orange trees affected by the disease were first received from Jamaica, but recently a knot on a lime twig was received from Florida, w^hich very much resembles the Jamaican disease, and is probably the same. From the Jamaican material a fungus, Sphaeropsis tumefadens Hedges, has been isolated which reproduces the knots when sound lime and orange trees are inoculated with pure cultures. Many successful inoculations have been made with reisolations from these artificially produced knots. The first indication of infection is a slight swelling of the branch. As this increases in size the bark, which at this stage covers the young knot, becomes lighter in color and is noticeably cracked and has a cork-like appearance. Growth under greenhouse conditions in Washington is slow, several to many months being necessary for the production of knots 1 to 3 inches in diameter. As the disease develops, secondary knots form on the main branches and trunk, often extending to the ground, and the death of the entire tree is the ultimate result. The mycelium of the fungus may occur in any or all of the tissues of the stem, being particularly abundant in the cortex and wood. Large, rapidly-growing knots as a rule contain less mycelium than the smaller slow-growing ones. In young, rapidly-growing tissues of buds growing out of knots the mycelium is confined to the intercellular spaces. The fungus is easily isolated from the knots, fresh young knots being preferable for this purpose. It has also been isolated from the stem between the knots. The pycnidia as they have been observed upon the host are subglo- bose, papillate, very dark brown or black, ostiolate, closely crowded together or solitary, with a cellular peridium, and measure 152 to 224 30 abstracts: phytopathology by 120 to 192 ix. The spores, both on the nost and in cultures, are large, colorless or yellowish, oblong or ovoid, rounded at both ends, or subacute, .measuring 16 to 32 by 6 to 12 /x, being either long and slender (32 by 8 n), or broad and short (16 by 8 /x), with intergradings. Some time after the appearance of the pycnidia small, cylindrical, colorless, 1-celled, spore- like bodies, the so-called spermatia, are found both in cultures and on the host. Their germination has not been observed. Chlamydospores have never been observed on the host, but in old cultures on steamed vegetables or fruit, large, thick-walled, intercalary, brown, spore-like bodies are sometimes present in abundance. Pruning is recommended as a remedy for the disease, and care should be taken to remove the affected limbs well below the lowest knot as the mycelium has been found in the stem 1^ ft. beyond any external indica- tion of its presence. Badly diseased trees should be rooted out and burned to prevent dissemination of the fungous spores. Erwin F. Smith. REFERENCES MET AhhOGRAFRY. —Metallography and metallurgy at the Bureau of Standards. George K. Burgess. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering 10: 467. 1912. RADIOTELEGRAPHY.— r/ie work of the U. S. Naval Radiotelegraphic Labo- ratory. L. W. Austin. Journal American Society Naval Engineers 24: 122. 1912. PHYSICS.— Melting points of the chemical elements. Bureau of Standards Cir- cular 35. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington, was held December 3, 1912, at 4.30 p.m. in the new building of the National Museum, Mr. Stetson, the President, in the chair. Mr, Wm. H. Babcock read a paper on The Islands of Antillia illus- trated by lantern-slide maps, taking the title of his paper from Peter JMartyr's Decades of the Nev) World where that author in view of "the cosmographers," states that he believes these islands were what his contemporary, Columbus, had discovered. Peter Martyr's own sketch map of 1511 was exhibited, showing Florida as one of them under the name of Beineni. There were also displayed the maps of Beccaria, Bianco, Pareto and Benincasa, from 1435 to 1487, who may be among "the cosmographers" referred to. They show a group of four large islands roughly corresponding in size, arrangement and other respects with Cuba, Jamaica, Florida or Beimeni, and Andros or the Bahamas. On Beccaria's map they bear the names Antillia, Reylla, Salvagio and Insula in Mar (Opposite Island or Island out Before, King Island, Savage Island and Island in the Sea). These are nearly as far west of the Azores as the latter are west of Europe and in such a location must be either the creatures of mere fancy or appurtenances of America. But it is not likely that mere guess-work could produce the remarkable correspondences of these great map islands with the reality, such an island group being altogether unique in the Atlantic. Behaim's globe of 1492 contains an inscription to the effect that a Spanish vessel visited Antillia in 1414. This is more vaguely endorsed by another on the map of Ruysch (1508), which credits the Spaniards with finding Antillia long ago. That something of the kind happened in the first quarter of the fifteenth century may be inferred from the fact that Beccaria (1535) names the group collectively "The Newly Reported Islands," most likely borrowing this title legend from his earlier map of 1426, altho the fourteenth, century maps had contained no suggestion of Antillia and her consorts. The other fifteenth century maps named corroborate Beccaria, being very consistent in outline and arrangment so far as they go, altho two of them give but three islands and Bianco shows only Antillia and a part of Salvagio, which he calls La JMan de Satanaxio, but this last seems to be a case of mutilation. However, the Laon globe of 1493 shows only these two main (rectangular) islands. 31 32 proceedings: anthropological society A current map showed how naturally any craft entering and con- tinuing in the great-sea-current which sweeps from the Azores and the other eastern islands westward to the Antilles would be carried to Cuba and her neighbors. The Catalan map of 1375 and the Pizigani map of 1387 with its pic- ture of St. Brandan blessing his Fortunate Islands of Porto Santo and Madeira and the figures of a dragon and a dentapod, each carrying off a seaman from his ship as a warning against westward exploration, were also exhibited. They show the circular island of Brazil west of Ireland and the more southerly crescent-form Man or Brazir, both being important and persistent legendary islands: and the Catalan map in particular shows all the Azores approximately in their real grouping: but neither of them presents anything like the Islands of Antillia. Dr. Philip Newton read a paper on the Negritos of the Philippifies, estimating their total number (full bloods) at 5000, tho by counting mixed blood tribes and individuals the estimate is sometimes carried up to 25,000. They are distributed thru numerous islands, tho not reported from Mindoro. The greater number are on Luzon. There is no difference in them, except as their blood is mingled with that of neighboring races. They are not fishermen, but hunt and gather natural products, using in some districts poisoned arrows, the symptoms of poisoning being like those of strychnine. Their houses are made of upright poles connected by horizontal poles having cross pieces and leaf thatching. Those who die are buried under or near these homes. They rarely bathe and their clothes (which are breech-clouts or aprons) , are apparently never washed. Usually these are of cloth obtained in trade, but in some islands, for example Palawan, bark is used. Negritos do not regularly practice agriculture, but will sometimes plant rice — and perhaps move away before it ripens. A skin disease is the most prevalent among them, but malaria also is common. Three incipient cases of tuberculosis were noted and some other diseases have been derived from their neighbors. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill, JANUARY 19, 1913 No. 2 PHYSICS. — A mechanical differential telethermograph and some of its applications. Lyman J. Briggs, Bureau of Plant Industry. This instrument consists essentially of two independent Bour- don spring systems, each hollow spring communicating with a copper bulb by means of a copper capillary. Each system is completely filled under pressure with a Hquid having a high thermal expansion coefficient. These two systems are mounted as shown in the illustration in such a manner that the free ends of the springs move in the same plane and in opposite directions when the two systems undergo the same change in temperature. The free ends of the two Bourdon springs are connected in the plane of movement by a double link, the two members of which are approximately parallel and normal respectively to the paths traversed by the ends of the springs. The normal Unk is con- nected at its approximate center to a second link which communi- cates with the pen mechanism. When the two systems undergo a simultaneous change in temperature, the free ends of the springs, in expanding or con- tracting, rotate about the center of the connecting Hnk without producing any translation of this point. No change occurs, therefore, in the position of the recording pen on the drum. When, however, a differential change in the temperature of the two systems occurs, a greater movement is produced in the free end of one Bourdon spring than in the other, and a corresponding movement of the pen-arm takes place. The instrument is thus designed to record differences in the temperature of the two systems, independent of the absolute temperature. While the Bourdon springs necessarily expand in response to an increase in their own temperature independently of that of 33 34 BRIGGS: A DIFFERENTIAL TELETHERMOGRAPH the bulbs, such changes do not affect the reading of the instru- ment, providing the springs do not differ substantially in tem- perature at any time during this change. To secure this equality in temperature of the two springs as nearly as possible, the instrument is provided with a metal cover blackened inside, and the interior is given an open construction. The two copper capillaries can also be kept at the same temperature for the greater part of their length. The differential temperature Fig. 1. A mechanical differential telethermograph. Capillary tubes much longer than those shown in the illustration may be used. recorded is, therefore, substantially that represented by the difference in temperature of the two bulbs. APPLICATIONS Two applications of this instrument have been made during the past year in connection with investigations in bio-physics. Recording the depression in temperature of the ivet-bulb thermome- ter. One use of the instrument consists in recording changes in the depression in temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer. For this purpose the apparatus is placed in a ventilated instru- ment shelter. One bulb is covered with muslin and kept con- merwin: media of high kefractton 35 tinually moistened by allowing water to drop upon it very slowly from a reservoir, while the other bulb assumes the temperature of the shelter. In this way a continuous graph is obtained of the depression in temperature produced by the wet covering, independently of changes in the air temperature. By using this record in connection with a simultaneous record obtained with an air thermograph, the humidity at any time can be calculated from standard psychrometric tables. Recording changes in intensity of solar and sky radiation. If one bulb of the instrument is blackened and exposed in a glass jacket to radiation from the sun and sky, while the other bulb is kept at air temperature, the differential temperature of the two bulbs due to the radiation received is recorded. The instru- ment in this form gives a continuous record of changes in the intensity of the radiant energy received, altho the interpretation of this record in absolute units is of course dependent upon cali- bration with an absolute instrument. The types of sunshine recorders ordinarily employed give no indication of. the magni- tude of the changes in the radiant energy, but indicate simply whether the radiation exceeds a certain intensity. The development of the instrument with a view to providing a continuous quantitative record of the intensity of the radiation received at the earth's surface is now in progress. PHYSICS. — Media of high refraction for refractive index determi- nations with the microscope; also a set of permanent standard media of lower refraction. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory. Communicated by Arthur L. Day. A number of experimental studies have been carried on for the purpose of extending the conditions under which determinations of refractive index by means of the microscope can be made. Such determinations require immersion media of standard refractive index. Various immersion liquids have been in use for the deter- mination of refractive indices over the interval 1.33 to 1.80; mixtures of amorphous sulfur and selenium have been found useful over the range (for sodium light) 2.1 to 2.4. The immer- sion media to be described have been devised to fill the gap 1.80 36 merwin: media of high refraction to 2.10, and to extend the series beyond 2.4Na, or in special cases, particularly when a refractometer is not at hand for standard- izing the liquids, take the place of media hitherto used. For the latter purpose solids have been found which may be mixed in given proportions by weight to produce permanent standard media. These are either vitreous (more or less rigid) or liquid (fluid). Altho differences in refractive index as small as 0.001 can be detected under the microscope by either the method of oblique, or of central illumination, it is seldom that in determinative mineralogical work results closer than 0.01 are of practical use owing to the complex character of most minerals. For this reason many details concerning the preparation and use of these TABLE 1 CHI3 Snh Asl3 Sbl3 S n„a at 20° 12 1.764 25 783 25 12 806 30 6 820 27 7 826 40 27 16 842 31 14 8 10 853 35 31 16 8 10 868 media are not included here but may be found in the complete record of the work when published. Liquids, n = 1.74 io 1.87. In 100 parts of methylene iodide at 20° the number of parts of the various substances indicated in the table (1) can be dissolved, forming saturated solutions having the permanent standard refractive indices specified. When ready for use, the liquids can be mixed by means of a dropper to give intermediate refractions. Commercial iodoform (CHI3) powder is not suitable, but crystals from a solution of the powder in ether may be used, or the crystallized product may be bought. A fragment of tin in the liquids containing Snl4 will prevent discoloration. Liquids, n = 1.74 io 2.28. Near its boiling point methylene merwin: media of high refraction 37 iodide slowly dissolves precipitated arsenic trisulphide, forming an orange-colored liquid. After some days crystals separate, but while fresh — or after the heating of an old preparation which is not discolored — the solution can be used for accurately matching the refractive index of a substance, and then standardized by means of a goniometer^ or a spectrometer and prism. Resin-like substances, n =1.68 to 2.10. Piperine, one of the least expensive of the alkaloids, can be obtained in very pure, straw-colored crystals. When melted it dissolves the tri-iodides of arsenie and antimony very freely. The solutions are fluid at slightly above 100°, and when cold are resin-like. The red color of the iodides is present in the solution. The color, however, is of such a character that determinations of refractive index made in the solutions in white light are almost as accurate as those made in sodium light. If less than 7 per cent of the iodides is present this solution should be examined thru a film of a 7 per cent solution. A solution containing 3 parts of antimony iodide to 1 part of arsenic iodide with varying proportions of piperine is easier to manipulate than one containing either iodide alone. The diagram, figure 1, gives the necessary data concerning com- position and refractive index for sodium light. In preparing, the constituents, in powder of about 1 mm. grain, should be weighed out, and then fused over — not in — a low flame. Three-inch test tubes are suitable. Stirring with a glass rod is essential. A little of this material is placed on a glass slip with some of the powder to be examined, it is then warmed and pressed thin under a cover-glass. For use with the more highly refracting mate- rials the powder must be very fine to permit a very thin film to be made. An artificial light is advantageous for observing the deeply colored films. The iodides should be examined under the microscope for mechanical impurities. Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and arsenic trisulflde, n =2.1 to 2.6. These mixtures are much lighter colored than corresponding ones of sulfur and selenium, but they are less easily standardized and manipulated. They should be used only in cases requiring greater transparency than the sulfur-selenium mixtures. They 1 See Am. Jl. Sci. 34: 46. 1912. 38 merwin: media of high refraction must be standardized by means of a prism which is ground or moulded. About equal parts of dried precipitated AsaSs and 2.1 2.0 1.9 X 111 o z u > P o < ir u. ui a. 1.8 1.7 1,6 1.5 20 20 PERCENTAGES 40 60 80 JOO lODI DES / / • / / ^ 1( 30^.^^ 80 60 40 20 O --^ ^^ 80 lOO 40 60 ROSIN Fig. 1. Composition and refractive index flowers of sulfur are intimately mixed by grinding moist with alcohol. The mixture when dry is strongly heated in a test tube which is not more than one-third full. A part of the sulfur will merwin: media of high refraction 39 boil away. The mixture remaining can be powdered and heated with either sulfur or AsoSs to produce a mixture having the desired refractive index. Permanent standard resinous media, n = 1.51^6 to 1.682. Any proportions of piperine and rosin form a homogeneous fusion which cools to a transparent, resinous mass. Figure 1 shows the refractive indices of various mixtures. On account of the strong dispersion of piperine the refractive indices of minerals appar- ently matched with those of mixtures rich in this constituent are 0.005 to 0.01 too low. To correct the error a screen made of a thin film of 7 per cent antimony iodide and 93 per cent piperine should be used over the eye-piece. Any amber-colored rosin in lumps is suitable. TABLE 2 CAMPHOR THYMOL MIXTURE OF 2 PARTS THY- MOL, 1 PART CAMPHOR SALOL MIXTURE OF 6 PARTS SALOL, 4 PARTS CAM- PHOR ALPHA- NAPTHYL- AMINE n 35 65 1.487 67 33 100 60 0 40 23 0 100 50 77 100 0 50 1.505 1.505 1.536 1.536 1.610 1.610 1.683 Permanent standard resi7ious media, n = 1.510 to 1.546. This series is prepared from rosin and camphor. Each per cent of camphor present lowers the refractive index 0.0007. Not more than 40 per cent of camphor may be present without causing crystallization. The rosin is weighed out and melted slowly, when it is partly cooled but not yet hard, the camphor (well crushed) is stirred in. Heat is then apphed gently and stirring is continued till the camphor is dissolved. Camphor does not volatilize appreciably from the cold mixtures if they are kept in stoppered containers. Permanent standard fluids, n = 1 .487 to 1 .683. Several organic solids have been found which form eutectic mixtures melting much below ordinary temperatures. By plotting on cross-section 40 ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER paper and connecting by straight lines each pair of points in table 2 the composition and refractive index of a complete series of fluids will be represented. Errors in n will not exceed ± 0.003 if fairly pure crystalline substances are used. Some of the fluids having n between 1.61 and 1.683 may crystallize after standing, but slight warming will restore their fluidity. Other materials under investigation give permanent fluids over much of this range. Where three constituents are specified in the table two of them in fixed proportions are used to form one variable constituent. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— r/ie silver voltameter. III. E. B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal and A. S. McDaniel. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. The second series of quantitative experiments began in Decem- ber, 1909, after several months spent in the qualitative work de- scribed in Part II. As a result of the preceding work the authors -had discarded the filter paper voltameter as an instrument of precision and turned their attention to the problems related to the porous cup form and the purification and testing of the electrolyte. The apparatus and methods employed were similar to those previously described. During this period of the work the small porous cup voltame- ter was found to be the most convenient and reliable form to use as a standard. With the purest salt available the deposits were adherent and white, always non-striated, and crystalline as seen under the microscope. As a test of the reproducibility of this small porous cup form, fifty-four deposits made in pairs (except two sets of three each) in which the electrolyte and other condi- tions were as nearly identical as possible in the two cups of each pair were tabulated. The average deviation of each value from the mean of each group (of 2 or 3 cups) was found to be 1 part in 100,000. That is, when the variations in the electrolyte and the measurement of current and time are eliminated so that it is simply a question of how nearly two similar voltameters agree with one another and the variations are produced by loss of silver in washing the deposit, fluctuation in moisture or impurity in the deposit and the errors in weighing the cups the average ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIELI THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 41 deviation of individual values from the mean of 2 or 3 cups is only 0.001 per cent. Comparison of the large porous cup voltameter with the smaller size sho\yed consistently a heavier deposit in the former by about 5 parts in 100,000 and the siphon form which required a very large volume of electrolyte gave a still greater excess. It was at length discovered that this excess of deposit in the larger sizes was roughly proportional to the volume of the electrolj^te and the authors have called this the ^'volume effect." It seemed prob- able that this was due to traces of impurity w^hich had not been eliininated from the electrolyte and led to an extended investi- gation of the purifying and testing of silver nitrate. As a result of this work, electrolyte was prepared which satisfied all the criteria for purity and brought the large sizes of voltameters into agreement with the small porous cup voltameter, thus justifying its previous use as a standard form. The effect of slight con- tamination of the electrolyte in this small size must have been almost negligible as the results obtained with it have been amply justified by the subsequent work. As the experiments progressed the ''volume effect" was found to be a very useful indication of the purity of the electrolyte, revealing the presence of impurities too small in amount to visibly affect the crystalline structure of the silver deposit. It is not claimed that this phenomenon of heavier deposits in large voltameters is a new discovery, for it was observed in the work of Lord Rayleigh nearly thirty years ago and has been ascribed to various causes, but the authors do believe that its significance has not been appreciated before, nor the correct explanation for it given. Using the mean of 44 of the most reliable determinations made in the small porous cup form of voltameter during the period December, 1909, to April, 1910, the authors have obtained as the value for the Weston Normal Cell at 20°C. on the present basis: 1.018275 volts. This is very close to the value recorded in the first series of measurements and is probably more reliable. Several determinations were made in which two voltameters were maintained at 50°C. by external heating coils during the 42 EOSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER passage of the current, for comparison with two similar voltame- ters at room temperature (about 20°C.). The results indicate that there is no temperature coefficient as Kohlrausch and Weber also have shown in a different way. It is believed that the reasons other observers have found increased deposits in voltame- ters at higher temperatures is because the chemical activity of impurities in their electrolyte would naturally increase with the rise in temperature. Two gold dishes similar in design to the smaller platinum dishes previously used were purchased for comparison. By tabu- lating the differences in deposit between the gold and platinum cathodes in each case where no other differences in the voltameter existed it was found as a result of twenty-nine comparisons that the deposits in the gold dishes were lighter by 1.4 parts in 100,000 which may be regarded as indicating the substantial agreement of the two materials. Some further work was done with the Poggendorff form but the results were not encouraging and hence attention was directed chiefly to the forms that had proved more reliable and the purifi- cation and testing of the electrolyte in anticipation of the cooper- ative work with the English, French and German National Lab- oratories which began in Washington April 1, 1910. The most difficult problems connected with the preparation of silver nitrate for use in the voltameter are concerned with the exclusion or removal of reducing impurities and colloidal silver on the one hand and of uncombined acid and base on the other. The tests that have been developed for determining the acidity of the solution are for the purpose of determining the uncombined acid or base rather than the absolute hydrogen ion concentration. The usual methods of testing the neutrality of salts do not apply to silver nitrate. Thus, toward litmus a silver nitrate solu- tion will react alkaline even after the addition of 1 part in 100,000 of nitric acid and a similar solution will react acid toward methyl orange after the addition of alkali provided the silver is not completely precipitated. Other indicators also were tried. If the silver be precipitated from the silver nitrate solution by neu- tral KCl solution and the AgCl precipitate filtered off on asbestos EOSA, VINAL AND McDANIELI THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 43 the filtrate will show a neutral reaction toward the various indi- cators if the original AgNOs contained no uncombined acid or base. By using iod-eosine as an indicator so little as 1 part in 1,000,000 of nitric acid (or alkah) added to the original AgNOs can be detected in the filtrate by titration with y/oo- HNO3 or NaOH. The results have been expressed in terms of parts per million of the nitric acid. For the detection of the more resistant forms of reducing impurities (principally cellulose hydrates from filter paper) and colloidal silver a titration test with y^o 0 KMn04 solution has proved very valuable. The slightly acidified crystals of silver nitrate are fused as will be described for purifying the salt and dissolved in water to form a 66 per cent solution. Ten cubic centimeters of this solution is acidified by adding 1 cc. of con- centrated nitric acid (free from nitrous acid) and the -fwoi) potas- sium permanganate solution added in 0.5 cc. portions until the pink color persists for five minutes or more. The number of cubic centimeters thus required the authors have called the ' ' per- manganate number" of the silver nitrate. In test cases this has been found to be proportional to the amounts of oxycelluloses previously added to the silver nitrate and very minute traces can thus readily be detected. It is not claimed that the organic material is necessaril}^ oxidized completely but nevertheless the method is much more sensitive than any method of direct com- bustion would prove under the circumstances as well as being more expeditious. By titrating these concentrated solutions of silver nitrate less than 0.001 per cent of colloidal silver may be detected, a result that is of particular value in showing when over fusion of the salt has occurred in its preparation. The water used was twice distilled in block tin and kept in bottles of especially prepared resistant glass. Samples of it were frequently tested for its conductivity and alkalinity. These were, on the average, about 1.3 X 10~'' reciprocal ohms and 0.6 parts in 1,000,000 respectively. The water in the stills was boiled by steam under pressure thereby avoiding the possibility of con- tamination by COo which may greatly increase the deposit in the voltameter. 44 ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER For purifying the silver nitrate for use in the voltameter it is convenient to start with the best c. p. salt obtainable from the manufacturing chemists. If this salt is repeatedly recrystallized from neutral solution the resulting product shows a tendency to become basic which under certain conditions gives rise to the volume effect in the voltameter. To avoid this condition it is necessary that the last mother liquor should be acid to the extent of from 0.1 to 1 per cent of the water present depending on the efficiency of the draining. In the present work a centrifuge has been employed and the crystallization carried out in porcelain, quartz and platinum vessels without any significant differences in the final product. It is best that the preliminary recrystalli- zations should be made from strongly acid solutions as this increases the yield of crystals owing to .the less solubility of the AgNOs and decreases the number of crystallizations required to satisfy the permanganate test. Salt yielding the same result in the voltameter has also been prepared by recrystallization from strongly acid solution and subsequent fusion. The fusion appears to break up the more resistant impurities contained and in some cases these come to the surface and may be readily removed by washing the surface of the fused cake as suggested by Mr. F. E. Smith. The fusion also furnishes a ready means of controlling the amount of acid in the final product, but especial precautions must be taken. Whether the silver nitrate is decomposed by heat when fused seems to depend less on the temperature than upon the amount of acid retained by the melted salt. As soon as the last trace of acid is expelled the salt begins to decompose into silver oxide and colloidal metallic silver as shown by the tests with iod-eosine and potassium permanganate respectively. By removing the salt from the furnace as soon as the last trace of solid material has melted it is found that a small amount of acid (1 or 2 parts in 100,000 of the solid salt) is retained and that this is sufficient to prevent decomposition, and in a 10 per cent solution is negli- gible in the voltameter. Salt prepared in this way which is satisfactory for the voltame- ter is invariably a beautiful pearl white and never darkened as ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL I THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 45 noted by some earlier observers. The reasons why the salt recrys- tallized and fused according to the well known researches of Richards and Forbes (although well suited for their purposes of atomic weight determinations) is not suitable for use in the voltameter can only be given adequately in the complete paper to be published in Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. It must suffice here to say that the authors have carefully followed their procedure and found the product unsuited for the voltameter, first because of the slight decomposition resulting from the pro- longed fusion, and second because of the basicity formed from the repeated recrystallizations from neutral solutions. In the fourth and last paper of this series the results subse- quent to the work of the International Technical Committee will be given. These include experiments to determine the value of the Weston Normal Cell made with the highest precision and a discussion of the action of acid and base in the voltameter. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 712th meeting was held on October 12, 1912. In opening the meeting President Rosa remarked upon the present limitations of the field of the Society's activities, but stated that it had had a long and honorable career. Mr. L. A. Fischer of the Bureau of Standards addressed the Society on Some types of false weights and measures found in the United States, in which it was pointed out that Congress has never adopted any of the standards now in customary use, altho it is the common impression that the yard, pound, gallon, and bushel are fixed by legislation instead of being fixed by custom, which is true. Due to the fact that we have no national legislation, the states have been compelled to enact legisla- tion entirely independent of one another, and often laws of neighboring states have conflicted. As little or no attempt, however, was made to enforce them until recently, their diversity was of no importance. A few years after the establishment of the Bureau of Standards or in 1904, invitations were sent to the governors of the states to send delegates to a conference to be held in Washington the following year for the purpose of securing uniform laws and regulations for' weights and measures. Only eight states and the District of Columbia sent delegates, but so much interest was manifested by the delegates who attended, as well as by the authorities in those states which, for one reason or another, were unable to send representatives, that it was decided to hold subsequent conferences each year. Altogether seven conferences have been held, and much work of a constructive nature has been accomplished. A model law was drafted, and this law has been adopted with modifications to suit particular states, by thirteen states. In order to bring home to the authorities in the states that failed to become interested in the movement for better conditions, and also for the purpose of assisting the weights and measures officials in the states that were active, the Bureau made an investigation of the conditions of the weights and measures in general use thruout the country, as well as to investigate the manner of their use. Every state in the Union was visited, and inspections were made in 184 cities or towns ranging in size from New York City, with a population of 4,500,- 000, to Carson City, Nevada, with a population of 2200. A number of stores using weights and measures were visited in each town or city and the condition of the scales, weights and measures was noted. 46 PEOCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 47 Something over 30,000 scales, weights and measures were tested, and about 45 per cent of the scales were found to be 3 per cent or more in error, mostly favoring the dealer. A little less than 4000 prints of butter were also weighed, and an average shortage of 0.05 ounce per pound or 3.25 per cent was found, taking the estimates of the Bureau of Standards as to the consumption of butter per capita, and assuming that 30 per cent of the butter is sold in the form of prints, and is retailed at 33 cents per pound, it is found that there is a loss to the consumers of the country of $8,228,000 from this one item, and that this shortage is not accidental is shown by the fact that prints of the same brand of butter sold in two cities, one of which had an ordinance requiring the net weight to be marked on the outside of the print, while the other had no such requirement, were full one-pound in the first case while consistently short in the second. The results of the investigations were communicated to the state officials and to individuals interested in weights and measures reform in the states, and contributed very largely to the passage of the excel- lent laws recently adopted by the states. The activity of the states has brought out the fact that some national legislation is necessary, in order to unify the standards and methods, and bills to effect this are now before Congress. The 713th meeting of the Society was held on October 26, 1912, Vice-President Fischer presiding. Two papers were read. The 1912 excursion of the American Geographical Society: Mr. W. J. Humphreys, of the U. S. Weather Bureau. This excursion, trans-continental in scope, was eminently successful, and was, in celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of the founding of the American Geographical Society and of the completion of its new home. Prof. W. M. Davis had charge of the arrangements of the trip, and of the personnel which consisted principally of distinguished per- sons from thirteen different European countries, more than half of whom were men the most eminent in their branches of work. The special train on which the party traveled and its equipment were mentioned, and the route of travel and points of interest visited were briefly outlined and illustrated by a number of interesting lantern shdes. The results of the trip were briefly summarized, among which may be mentioned the very favorable impression that the visitors re- ceived of America. At the conclusion of Dr. Humphrey's paper the Secretary was for- mally directed to communicate to the American Geographical Society this Society's deep appreciation and thanks for the inception and suc- cessful execution of this memorable excursion, which must be productive of great and lasting good, not only thru its benefit to geography but also and especially by reason of the kindly personal relations thus estab- lished between learned and influential Europeans and Americans. Some results of the new 7nethod of gravity reduction: William Bowie, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. This Journal 2: 499. 1912. 48 PEOCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY The 714th meeting was held on November 9, 1912. The following papers were read: Media of high refraction for use with the microscope: H. E. Merwin, of the Geophysical Laboratory. The chief purpose of the results de- scribed was to make possible the identification of minerals. The micro- scope can be used for determination of refractive index of all solutions that are not opaque. A refractive index chart was exhibited covering a range of 1.5 to 3.0, and the physical properties of the mixture used to get this range were described. This range of media can be made standard by weighing out the materials. The absorption and heat effects were spoken of, and the variations of some of the media were described. The last meeting of the International Geodetic Conference at Hamburg: 0. H. TiTTMANN, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A brief account was given of the origin and growth of what is now the International Geodetic Association, and of its present organization and its work, this being followed by a brief outline of what the Hamburg meeting dealt with. The mode of government of the State of Hamburg was men- tioned. About 50 delegates attended the conference from the 20 dif- ferent countries represented. Much interest was taken in the reports on the variation of latitude work, and the next most important question was triangulation, of which the United States has generally reported the most work done. Isostasy was not much discussed. The social functions and points of interest visited were spoken of. Under Informal communications Mr. Tittmann spoke of an automo- bile without springs, invented by Josef Hofmann, the pianist, and Mr. Bowie called attention to the completion of the marking of the boundary between Alaska and Canada north of the Yukon River, under the direc- tion of Mr. Tittmann as commissioner on the part of the United States. Before closing the meeting the chair announced the. death of Dr. Robert Fletcher a past president of the Society. The 715th meeting, held on November 23, 1912, was devoted to a general discussion of The application of the microscope to physical prob- lems, the opening paper being given by Mr. F. E. Wright. In introducing the subject the speaker grouped the uses of the micro- scope under three principal heads, (1) Qualitative, as a magnifying glass, a seeing instrument; (2) as a measuring device, and (3) as an optical instrument, such as for measuring the optical properties of min- erals. Types of microscopes were exhibited and their construction and manipulation described, illustrating the above mentioned uses of micro- scopes. A number of accessories were also spoken of which are designed to facilitate and extend the use of the microscope, especially as a meas- uring and optical instrument. In the discussion which followed: Mr. Briggs spoke of his experience with the ultra-violet microscope, pointing out its advantages and disadvantages, and the methods em- ployed to overcome the disadvantages, such as finding the object to be seen after it is on the stage, in which resort was had to the use of a proceedings: philosophical society 49 fluorescent screen, against which it was difficult to focus the microscope. The focusing is assisted by the use of monochromatic blue light. Messrs. Rosa and Vinal mentioned the use of the microscope in connection with the determination of the ampere with the silver voltam- eter, particularly with reference to the method of growth of silver crystals and the effect on their appearance when impurities are present. Mr. Burgess described a micropyrometer which is convenient for measuring melting points of microscopic samples. Historical aspects and the present status of the microscope were discussed by Messrs. Wead, Fenner, Merwin, Nutting, Humphreys and TiLLYER. The last emphasizing the use of the blue line of the mercurj^ lamp as illuminator and suggesting an improved form of projection eye-piece. The 716th meeting was held on December 7, 1912. Two papers were read. A consistent theory of the origin of the earth's magnetic field: L. A. Bauer, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. See this Journal 3: 1. 1913. The earth inductor as an inclinometer: N. E. Dorsey, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The speaker gave an outline of the theory of the earth inductor with a continuously rotating coil and commutator. When thermal electromotive forces exist in the circuit the setting of the coil for a zero glavanometer deflection depends upon the speed; if however, the axis of rotation lies in the magnetic meridian this effect of variations in the speed is usually very small. A method for adjust- ing the brushes so that commutation shall take place when the plane of the coil is parallel to the inclination axis was described. When the brushes are thus set, and the inclination of the coil is so adjusted that the deflection of the galvanometer is independent, in both magnitude and direction, of the direction of rotation of the coil, provided the speed is the same in both cases, then the direction of the axis of the coil is exactly the direction that would be taken by a perfect dip needle placed with its pivots parallel to the inclination axis of the inductor. This is true for all azimuths, and is independent of the presence of thermal electromotive forces, provided that they are independent of the direc- tion of rotation of the coil. For use at sea it is the mean value of the galvanometer deflection that must be independent of the direction of rotation. The 42d annual (717 regular) meeting was held on December 21, 1912, Vice-President Burgess in the chair. The meeting was devoted to hearing the annual reports of the officers and to the election of officers for 1913, the following being chosen: President, C. G. Abbot; Vice- presidents, L. A. Fischer, W. S. Eichelberger, G. K. Burgess, William Bowie; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman; Secretaries, W. J. Hum- phreys and J. A. Fleming. General Committee: N. E. Dorsey, L. J. Briggs, E. Buckingham, B. R. Green, E. G. Fischer, R. A. Harris, F. A. Wolff, D. L. Hazard, R. L. Paris. R. L. Paris, Secretary. 50 proceedings: geological society THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 260th meeting, the first meeting for the fall, was held in the Cosmos Club, November 13, President Stanton in the chair. As an informal communication F. C. Schrader gave a brief account of an occurrence of bauxite in vertical fissure vein deposits thru limestone in the Bovard district of southern Nevada. REGULAR PROGRAM The work of the Conservation Congress: David White. Mr. White. was introduced as the new Chief Geologist of the Geological Survey, this being the first public announcement of his appointment to succeed Mr. Lindgren. He was received with hearty applause. , Reconnaissance in the Southern Wasatch Mountains: G. F. Loughlin. The speaker presented certain structural and stratigraphic data col- lected during a reconnaissance survey of the ore deposits in the Wasatch Mountains from the Cottonwood district southward to the northern ' part of the Mt. Nebo ridge. The only Pre-Cambrian exposure south of the Cottonwood canyons is a band of Pre-Cambrian granite and schists extending for a mile along the base of the Santaquin ridge. This band is overlain unconformably by Cambrian quartzite about 800 feet thick. The Cambrian quartzite was found to include the occurrences mapped by the Fortieth Parallel Survey as the Ogden (Devonian) quartzite. The "Ogden" quartzite in the Cottonwood district proved to be a portion of the Cambrian, overthrust upon Madison (lower Mississippian) and older limestone, ■ shale members in the overthrust quartzite carrying Cambrian fossils. Blackwelder's elimination of the Ogden quartzite in the northern Wasatch country is thus confirmed. The "Ogden" quartzite in the Cottonwood, as well as in the American Fork and Provo districts is overlain by the regular succession of Cam- brian to Mississippian limestones — the same succession as is found above the Cambrian quartzite on the Santaquin ridge; but the thickness of the pre-Mississippian limestones is much less than in the Bear River ridge to the north or in the Tintic range to the southwest. The stratigraphic section in the Cottonwood district is continuous from the Pre-Cambrian thru the Triassic; but southward the Weber (Pennsylvanian) have been bevelled off by an unconformity, since Eocene (Wasatch?) conglomerate, east of the Santaquin ridge, rests unconformably upon the upper Mississippian. West of Santaquin a veneer of the Eocene conglomerate rests upon pre-Mississippian lime- stone, and in the Sevier River Canj^on, the same conglomerate rests upon Cambrian quartzite, thus showing that the whole Paleozoic section was bevelled by the unconformity. At all these localities the Eocene conglomerate is covered by patches of volcanic rocks, chiefly by a coarse andesitic breccia. The principal structures noted are (1) westward overthrusts, including that alreadv mentioned in the Cottonwood district and others at Santa- proceedings: geological society 51 quin and 7 miles still further south, Cambrian quartzite in every case overriding Mississippian limestone; (3) local doming and eastward reverse faulting around the intrusive Cottonwood granite stock; (3) fissuring and mineralization following the Cottonwood intrusion; (4) late normal (block) faulting which developed the Basin range. The latter is especially well exposed in the low western flanking ridges between Mt. Nebo and Santaquin, where the faults which lie along depressions can be proved by the discordant relations of the bed rock. The block faulting took place after the post-Eocene volcanic eruptions. New data on the ^^Knox dolomite" in Tennessee and the "Ozarkian" in Missouri: E. O. Ulrich. Robert Anderson, Secretary. At the 261st meeting, held at the Cosmos Club on November 27, 1912, under informal communications, the follomng paper was pre- sented : An occurrence of yetroleum near Cody, Wyoming: D, F. Hewett. A petroleum spring was observed under unique conditions in the Akaroka Mountains, in northwestern Wyoming, during the summer of 1912. It is located on the west bank of Sweetwater Creek, 2| miles north of its junction with the North Fork of Shoshone River, and is therefore about 26 miles due west of the town of Cody. The geology of the region is described by Hague in Folio No. 52, and the spring is situated in the basic andesite flows of Miocene age on the line (Lat. 40° 30') between the Ishawooa and Crandall sheets. The spring is unique in that it lies within 100 yards of several small sulfur deposits, situated on the east side of Sweetwater Creek. The sulfur deposits are identical in nature to those 12 miles north on Sun- light Creek, which were examined in 1911, and a report upon which appears in U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 530, part 0, 1911. The deposits embrace two classes of material: (1) sulfur which lies along the walls of open fractures in the lavas, ancl from which gases con- taining CO2, CH4 and HoS are issuing, and (2) sulfur filling the inter- stices of gravels and s\irface debris along stream channels. The second class of material probably covers fracture zones. The oil spring is opposite an area 100 feet square into which prospect pits have been sunk showing sulfur cementing angular rock debris to a depth of 9 feet. Other smaller deposits of sulfur lie 700 feet farther up the creek. Oil was first recognized issuing from the sands adjoining the creek. In the hole which was dug along the bank, water and oil slowly accumulated and several quarts of clear light oil were thus collected during the summer of 1911. During the writer's visit a pit was dug near the location of the old one which had been destroyed by freshets. The sand at this point is dark brown and has an asphaltic odor, but otherwise is such as would form bars along rapid mountain streams. In the short time at the writer's disposal only enough oil was collected to give assurance of its identification, but not enough for analysis. Tho the superficial rocks of this region are igneous flows and breccias, these rocks overlie a great thickness of sedimentary rocks ranging in 52 PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS age from Cambrian to Eocene, the Mesozoic section alone being approxi- mately 14,000 feet thick 25 miles east. The sandstones of the Lower Cretaceous are oil-bearing near Cody, and the oils are hght, relatively clear, and have a paraffin base. Evidence in nearby regions shows that the sedimentary rocks are much folded and that the lavas are cut by many intricate fractures, some of which, at least, are of recent origin. Sandstones outcrop on Shoshone River, 2| miles south of the oil spring and about 400 feet lower, so that the lavas at the sulphur deposit are probably not over 500 feet thick. The oil is probably to be traced to the sedimentary rocks, but its close relation to the sulfur deposits is unusual. REGULAR PROGRAM The Joplin lead and zinc deposits: C. E. Siebenthal. • Secondary enrichment in silver: E. S. Bastin. Microscopic studies of specimens of silver ore collected by E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill from the mines near Lawson, Clear Creek County, Colorado, and near Cari- bou, in Boulder County, show that the ores owe their value largely to downward sulfide enrichment. The rich secondary sulfides are devel- oped not only in cracks in the original ore, but as metasomatic replace- ments of galena and quartz. Sketches were exhibited illustrating such replacement. In the belief that such phenomena were of rather wide- spread occurrence, a specimen collected by W. H. Weed from the Big Seven mine, Neihart district, Montana, was polished and examined under the microscope. Replacements similar to those in the Colorado ores were well shown by the Montana specimen. Certain mineralogical differences between the ores which exhibited enrichment in silver and other ores in the district which did not exhibit such replacement were pointed out. R. W. Richards, Secretary. PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES January 30 at 8.15 p.m.. Cosmos Club Assembly Hall. Illustrated lecture by Dr. Arthur L. Day, Some observations on the volcano Kilauea in action. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 86th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington will be held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, February 4, 1913. SCIENTIFIC PROGRAM Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature. T. H. Kearney, Indicator value of natural vegetation in the Tooele Valley. H. B. Shaw, The control of seed production in beets. The program will be followed by a social hour, with refreshments. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill, FEBRUARY 4, 1913 No. 3 PHYSICS. — Suggestions for frost protection. Kakl F. Keller- man, Bureau of Plant Industry. The high thermal capacity of water has made possible the development of more or less elaborate enclosed systems for warm- ing air spaces, such as living rooms, but very little attention has been paid to the utilization of water in efforts to protect orchards from frost. It would seem, however, that the rapid and efficient distribution of heat occasionally necessary in orchards, where modern systems of frost prevention are employed, could be con- trolled more satisfactorily and with less expense thru a develop- ment of water-heating systems. The rapid evaporation when fine sprays of water are driven into the open air in summer weather has a cooling effect, due to the absorption from the air of a quantity of heat equal to the latent heat of vaporization of the water evaporated, which is so far in excess of the quantity of heat delivered to the system by the water introduced, that a short experiment under these con- ditions is misleading. The rapid decrease, with decreasing tem- perature, of the tension of aqueous vapor would make easily possible the artificial saturation of air at or below 0°. As soon as this artificial dew-point has been established the high calorific value of water vapor, or finely divided particles of water, would become operative. Three methods of thus utilizing water appear possible: (1) the atomizing, or spraying by the use of power sprays, of fine mists 53 54 kellerman: suggestions for frost protection of water which might be warmed at a central station; (2) the suspension of pans holding small quantities of water above each of the fire pots now in use; and (3) the pumping, thru a permanent system of pipes, of steam generated at a central station and mixed wdth large quantities of air to prevent condensation in the pipes. While there would be a considerable water economy in the use of steam by either the second or third methods, the feasi- bility of water heating will be sufficiently well illustrated by describing with approximate figures the theoretical possibilities of only the first method. If we neglect for the moment the effect of evaporation and the presence of water vapor in the air, the heat liberated by 1 liter of water in cooling from 90° to 0° C. is, in round numbers, cap- able of raising the temperature of 296,100 liters of air from — 1° to 0°C. To raise the temperature of a column of air 3.29 meters high and covering 1 hectare from —1° to 0° should there- fore take approximately 111 liters of water at 90°. Assuming that the humidity of such a column of air was 80 per cent, and that at a temperature of —1° it would be saturated by 155 liters of water, the evaporation of the 31 liters of water required for saturation would absorb heat equivalent to that given off in cooling 184 liters from 90° to 0. The very small quantity of hot water, about 1 liter, required to raise the temperature of this aqueous vapor from —1° to 0° is almost negligible. For the rise of each degree, however, approximately 1.1 liters must go to saturate the column of air under discussion, and in evaporating this quantity of water heat is absorbed equivalent to that given off in lowering 7.4 liters of water from 90° to 0°. The total quantity of water at 90° which must be thoroly distributed to cause the initial rise from —1° to 0° of the air column 3.29 meters high, covering 1 hectare, is therefore 111 + 1 + 208.9 + 7.4 = 328.3 liters; the subsequent rise from 0° to 1° would require 111 +1 +1.1 +7.4 = 120.5 liters of water at 90°; the increase from 1° to 2° would require 111 + 1 + 2.5 + 7.4 = 121.9 liters of water at 90°; and the increase from 2° to 3° would require 111 + 1 + 3.9 + 7.4 = 123.3 liters at 90°. For a body of air 26 feet deep, covering 1 acre, 86.7 gallons of STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 55 water at 194°F. would be necessary to raise the temperature from 30.2°F. to 32°F., if the humidity was 80 per cent; 31.8 gal- lons more would be required to raise the temperature to 33.8°F. ; 32.2 gallons additional for 35.6°F.; and 32.6 gallons additional for 37.4°F. Probably much larger quantities would be necessary in actual practice, due to loss of heat by convection currents, by imperfect distribution of the water and by the radiation con- tinually taking place into the air outside of the heated zone. In still air this proposed vapor system has the advantage of the protective quality of the fog thus artificially produced, due both to lessening the radiation from the earth and to the heat given off if the water particles actually began to freeze. GEOLOGY. — Some variations in Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy .^ Timothy W. Stanton. That the stratigraphic development of the Cretaceous has been different in distinct basins of sedimentation is well under- stood. No one would think of applying the same set of form- ation names to the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Rocky Moun- tain region and to those of the Atlantic coastal plain or to those of the Pacific border. The physical conditions of sedimentation were very different and they have resulted in different lithologic successions and in more or less distinct faunal facies. The fact that there is great local variation, often within short distances, in a single area like that of the Rocky Mountains. and adjoining Great Plains has been slower of recognition. It is true that the extension of more detailed work, especially when accompanied by area! mapping, has brought such local variations into prom- inence in many places but their importance has apparently often been overlooked by geologists, whose natural tendency is to apply the old established stratigraphic standards when they enter neighboring new fields, even when they realize that the standards must be warped and th^ new facts distorted in order to make the adjustment. It may be of interest to cite a few cases of local variation, taking ^ Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Sur- vey. Presidential address delivered before the Geological Society of Washing- ton, December 11, 1912. 56 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY the examples entirely from the region of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains, from central New Mexico northward to the Canadian boundary and confining them to that part of the Upper Cretaceous column which is within the limits of marine sedimen- tation for the region and does not involve any possible uncon- formities. The classic upper Missouri section of Meek and Hayden- recognized only five formations, viz. : feet Fox Hills sandstone 500 Fort Pierre shale 700 Niobrara limestone 200 Fort Benton shale 800 Dakota sandstone ■ • 400 (See Section No. 1, p. 58) The thicknesses given were of (bourse mere estimates based on rapid reconnaissance over great distances, the type localities being scattered from eastern Nebraska to central Montana. The section actually passed far to the west of the area in which the Niobrara limestone is developed and crossed a region where a large part of the Pierre shale is represented by littoral, estuarine, and terrestrial deposits. With his standard Cretaceous section recognizing only two sandstones, one at the top and the other at the bottom, it is no wonder that Hayden wavered in his assign- ment of the sandstones beneath the Judith River formation, sometimes referring them doubtfully to the Dakota and later correlating them with the Fox Hills. The geologists of the Fortieth Parallel Survey found that the Niobrara did not retain its lithologic character so as to be recog- nizable over a large part of the area surveyed by them and they therefore attempted to map as one great shale group all the rocks lying between the Dakota and the Fox Hills. They also apprec- iated the fact that the Cretaceous sediments in the neighbor- hood of the Wasatch Mountains, at Coalville, Utah, for example, include an unusual development of sandstones thruout the section, which they attributed to near shore conditions, but if they did not succeed in making a consistent map and section of the Upper Cretaceous it was largely because they adopted the 2 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1861, p. 419. STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 57 idea that there are no important or persistent sandstones between the Dakota and the Fox Hills, while the fact is that in the area of their map this interval includes two thick coal-bearing form- ations in which sandstones are the dominant feature. Evidently at least one new standard section, with modified nomenclature, was needed and this was furnished in southwestern Colorado. Holmes and others on the Hayden Survey nearly forty years ago had shown that the stratigraphic development differed considerably from that of the sections in the upper Mis- souri region and in Colorado east of the mountains. In the course of the areal work under the direction of Cross, the grouping and nomenclature of Holmes' section were modified and pub- lished in the La Plata and Telluride folios^ from which the fol- lowing descriptions are condensed (Section No. 2, p. 58) : Lewis shale. More or less sandy gray or drab shale with thin lenses or concretions of impure limestone. Thickness in Durango quadrangle, 2000 feet. Mesaverde formation. Alternating sandstones and shales with occa- sional marls or thin limestones and a number of coal beds. Lower 250 feet form a transition from Mancos shale followed by heavy sandstone 125 feet thick. At top a massive sandstone 25 feet thick. Total thick- ness, 1000 feet. Mancos shale. Soft, dark-gray or almost black carbonaceous clay shale containing thin lenses or concretions of impure limestone. Thick- ness, 1200 feet. Dakota sandstone. Gray or rusty brown quartzose sandstone with variable conglomerate. 100 to 300 feet. The names Lewis, Mesaverde and Mancos have since been applied with varying success and acceptability thruout western Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, eastern Utah, and south- ern Wyoming. As described in the different areas each of these formations varies greatly in thickness and considerably in lith- ologic character. For the purpose of showing the nature of this variation let us take the Mancos shale which over a large area is limited above and below by the easily recognized Mesaverde formation and the Dakota sandstone, respectively. In the type section just west of the La Plata quadrangle the Mancos con- sists of 1200 feet of dark gray shale containing some lenses or concretions of impure limestone, but in the Telluride quadrangle ^ Geologic atlas of the United States, Folio 60 and 57. 58 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY UPPER CRETACEOUS SECTIONS ScccJe //'nc/? = 6oo ihef Sec. ^ Southwest Colorado / I I Sec. I / Upper Missouri [Meek and Hayden) I I I ■.■.■.. ■••./ / / Rbx Hills / I TT Pierre Niobrara Ben+on Dakota Lewis Seo-3 Casa Salaz.ar New Mexico MesHverde Man cos Dakafe caoOO Mancos Sec.4 Lacuna New Mexico Dakotaf?) Mancos D3ko+a(?> STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 59 UPPER CRETACEOUS SECTIONS ScaJe / /'nch =80oy^eef' Sec. 6 Blackfeet Indian Reservation ScaJe /inch = 9oo -feet Sec. S Judith, Mont. /-rr ^^Cla^^ett (marine) ^ ^ / Bearp^w Judith River (non -marine) St. Mary River (non-marine) Sandstone with recurrent Cla^^ett fauna (marine) Bear Paw i'-ji^ Sandstone, clays ' and shales Eagle Colorado (upper part J (non-marine) "(SS.,;^ \: Sandstone with Claggett fauna (marine) Ea^U Colorado (upper part) 60 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY a short distance to the north it is said to be 2000 feet thick and is described as ' ' gray sandy shale with calcareous bands and sand- stones." Eastward, however, for nearly 100 miles thru the La Plata and Durango quadrangles and on to Monero, New Mexico, the work of Schrader* and Gardner^ has shown that the Mancos shale maintains about the same thickness and character as at the type locality. From Monero southward along the eastern border of the great San Juan area, past El Vado to Gallina and beyond, a distance of about 50 miles, it continues to be essentially a shale with no conspicuous sandstone intercalations. On this point the observations of Lee and Stanton on a recent recon- naissance from Albuquerque to Monero confirm the descriptions of Gardner who mentions a sandstone 30 feet thick, 275 feet below the top of the Mancos, 10 miles north of Gallina and states that farther south the upper part of the formation consists of 300 feet of argillaceous sandstone and sandy shale grading up into the Mesaverde formation. The important point to be remem- bered is that so far the lower three-fourths of the Mancos con- tains no sandstones except a band usually about 50 feet thick, of yellowish thin-bedded, shaly, somewhat calcareous sandstone and sandy shale, characterized by Ostrea lugubris, Scaphites warreni, and Prionocyclus wyomingensis, representing one of the most useful, widespread and persistent faunal zones in the Upper Cretaceous of the Rocky Mountain region. At Mancos this horizon is about 400 feet above the Dakota but the distance from the Dakota varies considerably, doubtless on account of varia- tion in the rate of sedimentation. South of GalHna along the west base of Naciemento Moun- tains structural complications and an overlap of the Tertiary prevent continuous observation of the Mancos for about 20 miles but the overlying Mesaverde is readily recognized when it reappears and is continuously exposed to the neighborhood of Cabezon where it swings west with a low northerly dip. From that point southward the underlying rocks, including the Man- cos, are splendidly exposed along the Rio Puerco for 35 miles to ^U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 285, pp. 241-258. 5 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 335-351. Jour, of Geology, 18: 702-741. STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 61 San Ygnacio where they have been described in general terms by Herrick*' and Johnson and in greater detail by W. T. Lee.^ The Mancos is here expanded to a thickness of fully 2000 feet and it includes several cliff-making sandstones so that its general aspect is greatly altered (Section No. 3, p. 58.) The upper 800 feet or more consist of more or less sandy shale, generally weathering yellowish, with many bands and lenses of soft sandstone. Beneath this is a massive, yellowish, cliff-making sandstone approximately 100 feet thick separated by 350 feet of dark shale from the brownish, shaly, calcareous sandstone which forms the zone of Ostrea lugubris and Scaphites warreni already mentioned. Beneath this zone is another dark shale, about 500 feet thick, followed by Herrick and Johnson's ''Tres Hermanos" sandstone which consists of two distinct massive beds 66 feet and 37 feet thick, respectively, separated by about 50 feet of dark shale. Another dark shale, 55 to 60 feet thick, intervenes between the basal bed of the "Tres Hermanos" sand- stone and another somewhat variable sandstone which seems to represent the Dakota, although it is here only from 25 to 40 feet thick. The section of the Mancos just described is all well exposed in the west side of Prieta Mesa on the Rio Puerco near the village of Casa Salazar and the sandstones, especially the ''Tres Hermanos," make conspicuous cliffs on frequent exposures for 25 miles along the Rio Puerco. There are minor variations in the thick- ness of individual members but the general character is consistent thruout this distance. According to the faunal evidence the 1200 feet of rocks immediately above the Dakota (?) should all be correlated with the Colorado group, and this part of the sec- tion instead of being all shale, as in the typical Mancos, includes at least 200 feet of sandstone in three massive beds. A still further increase in the sandstones of the part of the section cor- responding to the "Tres Hermanos" sandstone and associated " Geology of the Albuquerque sheet (New Mexico). Denison Univ. Sci. Lab. Bull. vol. xi, art. ix, pp. 175-239. ^ Stratigraphy of the coal fields of northern central New Mexico. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 23: 571-685. 62 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY shales may be seen at Laguna, New Mexico, about 30 miles southwest of the exposures just described. Here within the 350 feet immediately above the Dakota (?),^ which is 85 feet thick, there are three massive cliff-making sandstones instead of two, and the overlying 75 feet beneath the lava cap is a sandy shale with soft sandstone bands. Marine fossils are abundant and characteristic so that there is ample evidence for detailed correla- tion. (Section No. 4, p. 58.) These New Mexican exposures may perhaps all be legitimately called Mancos though it may be questionable practice in the localities most remote from well recognized Mesaverde. In south- ern Utah where the name is not appropriate the equivalent of the lower, or Colorado portion of the Mancos may still be very definitely determined by means of two or more paleontologic zones which are common to southern Utah and the part of New Mexico which has just been discussed. Sections recently studied by Richardson^ in Kanab Valley and further west in the Colob plateau show a thickening of this part of the section and a greater development of sand stone as compared with the New Mexican section, together with the intercalation of coal beds and brackish and fresh-water sediments in the basal portion. They also show according to unpublished data great local increase in the relative proportion of sandstone and in the total thickness of the sedi- ments in passing a short distance west from Kanab Valley. Some of these southern Utah sections show close resemblance to the Coalville section in northern Utah and it in turn has many points in common with the immensely thick section described by Veatch^o ^nd Schultz^i in Uinta County, Wyoming, the south- west corner of the state. In the Uinta county section beneath the ''Laramie" formation in descending order come the Hilliard shale, consisting of gray to black sandy shale and shaly sandstones * Darton has published a section of the Cretaceous rocks exposed 2 miles north- east of Laguna (U. S. Geol. Survey Bull 485, p. 60) in which numbers 8 and 9 cor- respond to the Dakota(?) of my section. The underlying rocks, over 300 feet in thickness are suggestive of Morrison. 9 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull, 341, pp. 379-400. 10 U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper No. 56. 11 Ibid., Bull 316, pp. 212-241. STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 63 5300 to 6800 feet thick; the coal-bearing Frontier formation with yellow and gray sandstone, yellow, gray and black carbonaceous shales and numerous coal beds, 2200 to 2600 feet thick; the Aspen shale, 1500 to 2000 feet thick; and the fresh- and brackish-water Bear River formation which attains a thickness of 5000 feet. For the present purpose the chief interest in this great section lies in the fact that it is so unlike the sections in areas a short distance to the east, as at Rock Springs, 70 miles east, described by Schultz,^- and in the Rawlins district, 80 miles farther east, described by Veatch,!^ Ball,^^ and E. E. Smith. ^^ In these more eastern sections the Bear River is absent as might be expected. Its place in the section is occupied by a thin representative of the Dakota sandstone. The Frontier is faintly recognizable in a comparatively thin sandstone-bearing formation without coal. It is overlain by a great mass of dark clay shale, sandy shale and shaly sandstone 4000 to 5000 feet thick followed by a thick and very important coal-bearing formation and a marine shale for which the names Mesaverde and Lewis, respectively, have been brought in from Colorado. Assuming that Mesaverde is here correctly identified the logical treatment would be to apply the name Mancos to all the rocks between the Mesaverde and the Dakota but on account of the great thickness of those beds and their partial differentiation into members that have come in from other areas on the east and west this has not yet been done. The Mesaverde and Lewis together apparently represent, in part at least, the Hilliard shale of the Uinta County section. Both these sections show very great thickening so that the total sediments from the base of the Mancos or Colorado up, amount to more than 10,000 feet. The chief difference lies in the fact that the Uinta County section develops a great coal-bearing formation of sandstone and shale in the lower part witliin the equivalent of the Colorado group, while the Rock Springs and more eastern sections have no coal in that part of the column but 12 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 256-282. 13' Ibid., Bull. 316, pp. 244-260. " Ibid., Bull. 341, pp. 243-255. 15 Ibid., Bull. 341, pp. 220-242. 64 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY develop a similar great coal-bearing formation in the upper or Montana portion. These widely different neighboring sections seem to me to represent the varied and shifting sediments laid down in and on the borders of a single body of water. Slight warping of the surface, or local changes in the rate of sedimenta- tion from whatever cause, would serve to shift the area of sea and coastal swamp from time to time. One more standard section, with the changes and variations in its formations as they are followed away from their typical area, remains to be examined. In connection with their strat- igraphic study of the Judith River formation Stanton and Hatcher'*' established the following succession in northern central Montana: Bear-paw shale. Dark clay shale with marine fauna, 750 feet? Judith River Jormation. Variable shales and soft sandstones with dinosaurs and other reptiles and fresh- and brackish-water invertebrates, 500 feet. Claggett formation. Dark clay shale with several beds of sandstone especially in the upper portion. Marine fossils throughout — those of the sandstones containing many Fox Hills species, =^ 400 feet. Eagle sandstone. White, gray and yellowish sandstone with shale and coal in upper part. Marine shells, land plants and dinosaurs. 200 to 300 feet. Colorado shale. Dark marine shale, 800 feet or more. (See Section No. 5, p. 59.) Compared with the southwestern Colorado section the top of the Colorado shale in this section is believed to be somewhat lower in the general column than the top of the Mancos but with this exception the Eagle, Claggett, and Judith River, taken to- gether, are comparable in a general way with the Mesaverde, and the Bearpaw is approximately in the position of the Lewis. The formations above the Colorado shale described in the neighborhood of Judith, Montana, were found to be easily rec- ognizable along the Missouri River in the type area above and below the mouth of Judith River ; on Milk River from the neigh- borhood of Havre to the Canadian boundary and beyond; and southward in the valley of the Musselshell. These formations have since been mapped by the geologists of the Fuel Section 16 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 257, pp. 11-14. STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 65 of the Survey over large areas in Montana and the hniits of their areal distribution are now fairly well known. The most persistent is the Eagle sandstone which has been recognized as far south as the Bighorn Basin and northwest to the western limit of the Great Plains in northern Montana, The overlying Claggett, Judith River and Bearpaw formations in many local- ities lose their distinguishing features within shorter distances. None of them has been recognized as such east of the typical area. In that direction the fresh- and brackish-water beds of the Judith River doubtless soon grade laterally into marine shale so that there is no basis for distinguishing Claggett and Bearpaw from Pierre. Toward the south and west, on the other hand, the marine sediments of the Claggett and Bearpaw tend to be replaced and represented by estuarine and continental deposits. A striking example of rapid variation of this kind has been described by Stone and Calvert^ ^ in the area surrounding the Crazy Mountains where within a short distance the Claggett, Judith River and Bearpaw finger out, and at last completely lose their identity in andesitic tuffaceous deposits which have been included in the Livingston formation. Conditions somewhat similar, except for the absence of vol- canic material, are found in the Bighorn Basin where the Eagle sandstone is recognized but the attempts to apply Claggett, Judith River and Bearpaw to the overlying formations have not been much more successful than the earlier attempts to apply the Meek and Hayden nomenclature in the same area. The marine Bearpaw shale just enters the northern end of the basin as a thin bed which soon wedges out completely. The reports of Woodruffs ^ and Washburne'^^ and the unpublished, more detailed work of Hewett show that over a large part of the Bighorn Basin especially on the west side there are no marine sediments above the Eagle sandstone, which is itself there only in small part marine, and that the thick interval between the Eagle and the well-identified Fort Union is occupied by fresh- ly Economic Geology, 5: 551-557, 652-669, 741-764, 1910. ^r 18 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 200-219. " Ibid., Bull. 341, 165-199. 66 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY water or continental deposits which, while very irregular and varied, are yet uniform throughout in the character of their variation. That the time equivalents of Claggett, Judith River and Bearpaw, as well as the overlying Lance, are all included in these non-marine deposits seems to me the most reasonable assumption, tho it is perhaps not yet capable of complete proof. Another area in which there is a different development of the rocks between the Eagle sandstone and the Bearpaw shale is the Blackfeet Indian Reservation in Montana just south of the Canadian boundary and east of the Rocky Mountain front some- what more than 100 miles northwest of Judith. (Section No. 6, p. 59.) During the past two seasons the areal mapping and detailed stratigraphy have been done by Mr. Eugene Stebinger thru whose courtesy I am permitted to make these general state- ments based on his detailed work and on data obtained during two visits which I have made to the field. The Eagle sandstone resting on Colorado shale with a low dip to the west is normally developed and forms a conspicuous escarpment extending from near Cutbank in a northerly or northeasterly direction to the Canadian line. The Bearpaw shale of typical character and with a marine fauna, here somewhat meagerly developed, is nearly 500 feet thick. Between these two formations there are almost 2000 feet of sediments in which no practicable formation bound- aries can be drawn and which Stebinger has therefore mapped as a unit altho it must include the time equivalents of both Clag- gett and Judith River. Lithologically it has a closer resemblance to Judith River and like that formation it is essentially non- marine. It contains Unio, Viviparus, and other fresh-water shells at various horizons from the top to within 200 feet of the base. There are also dinosaurs and land plants, and locally thin brack- ish-water beds are found with Ostrea, Corbula and Corbicula, especially at the top and in the lower portions. No evidence of marine fossils or sediments had been found in the formation until September of this year when at the town of Cutbank I found marine fossils locally abundant in a sandstone 50 feet thick which forms the top of the east wall of the gorge of Cutbank Creek about half a mile south of the town. The horizon is not STANTON, UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 67 more than 300 feet above the Eagle sandstone and hence should be in the equivalent of the Claggett formation. Or, to locate it more accurately, according to Mr. Stebinger it is immediately- above the horizon of a thin coal which he has traced down the creek from the ''Alhson mine" a few miles northwest. Now the marine fossils found at this place belong to the fauna which occurs in the sandstones of the Claggett formation at its type locality and include among the more abundant and con- spicuous forms Tancredia americana, Cardium speciosum, Mactra formosa, etc. This is the fauna which in the past Meek, White, Stanton, and others have called a typical Fox Hills fauna because these conspicuous and abundant forms — the dominant species as Prof. H. S. Williams calls them — ^do recur in the Fox Hills sand- stone at the top of the Cretaceous colunni. This recurrent fauna when it reaches the Fox Hills is, of course, not absolutely identical with the sandstone fauna of the Claggett, but there are enough conspicuous, identical species to make iden- tification of the horizon uncertain unless the collections are com- plete or the stratigraphic details fully known. Recurrent faunas are often troublesome and embarrassing to the stratigraphic paleontologist and still more so to the stratigrapher who is not a paleontologist. It is even difficult to prove that the fauna is recurrent at a higher horizon when the two localities are as far separated as central Montana and the middle of South Dakota, as they are in the case of the type localities of the Claggett and the Fox Hills, although the stratigraphic position of the Claggett was determined in 1903 independently of the evidence of that particular fauna and in contradiction of the interpretation that had been placed on it. There are also many localities now known where the stratigraphic position of the fauna in question, at one or the other of the two horizons, is well determined. For these reasons the argument set forth in a recent article by A. C. Peale^" that the upper sandstones of the Claggett are identical with the Fox Hills is altogether fallacious in so far as it is based on litho- logic and faunal resemblances. Nevertheless it was gratifying to find this Claggett-Fox Hills fauna in the normal position of 2» Jour, of Geology, 20: 530-549, 640-652, 738-757, 1912. 68 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY the Claggett formation and again recurring about 2000 feet higher in the same section where there is no reason to question the structure or stratigraphic position. At Cutbank the fossils are about 300 feet above the Eagle or more than 1500 feet below the Bearpaw. From this locality there are practically contin- uous exposures down Cutbank Creek to its mouth where the base of the Eagle is exposed. Thence westward up Two Medicine Creek there are continuous exposures and simple structure up to and thru the Bearpaw with its 500 feet of dark shale. Above the Bearpaw is a sandstone which makes conspicuous cliffs near the Holy Family Mission (Family P. O.) on Two Medicine Creek. Here and at other exposures farther west on the creek it yielded Tancredia americana, Cardium speciosum, Mactra, etc., identical with those fo^nd at the much lower horizon, together with a number of other forms not found there. This sandstone is approximately in the position of the Fox Hills and is doubtless the same sandstone which Dawson identified as Fox Hills in the adjacent area on the north, tho from the evidence at hand it would be rash to say that it is strictly identical with the Fox Hills of South Dakota. At most localities where it has been examined in the Blackfeet reservation it has proved unfossiliferous or yielded only Ostrea suhtrigonalis and other brackish-water forms which are found both in Dawson's St. Mary River formation above it and in the beds beneath the Bearpaw, but here, on Two Medicine Creek, there was an incursion of strictly marine water with an abundant fauna of Fox Hills type. After this brief digression in pursuit of a recurrent fauna let us return, for a few moments, to the main topic, which is contem- porary variation in sedimentation and its bearing on strati- graphy and geological history. The sedimentary records of the Blackfeet country, aided by the paleontologic evidence, show that during the long quiet deposition of the Colorado shale and while the Eagle sandstone was being laid down by the stronger currents of the shallowing sea the physical conditions there were about the same as in a large area on the east and southeast. Later, during Claggett time, while purely marine conditions still prevailed a short distance to the east, near Judith, for example. STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 69 the Blackfeet country was slightly elevated so that it was occupied by coastal swamps and lagoons only a few feet above tide into which slight depressive movements occasionally brought local and temporary brackish waters and still more rarely a brief incur- sion of the sea, as is proved in one case by the fossils found at Cutbank. The Bearpaw shale marks a more important marine incursion which probably covered the whole area and continued for some time though it is questionable whether it lasted as long here as it did in central Montana. At the close of Bearpaw sed- imentation there was clearly another considerable period of trans- ition when the area wavered near tide level and received first marine and then brackish-water sediments before land conditions were at last permanently established. We are now in position to understand the difficulties which Dawson^i encountered in describing and interpreting his section of the ''Belly River series" along Milk River north of the inter- national boundary. It was another case of applying the ter- minology of a single section thru a long stretch of country in which the stratigraphic development varied. In the eastern portion where Dawson got the best evidence that the ''Belly River" is intercalated between two marine formations the section is like that at the mouth of Judith River while in the western portion it is the same as in the Blackfeet Indian reservation. In 1903 Hatcher and Stanton visited the localities near Pakowki Lake and correctly identified as Claggett the ''lower dark shale" there exposed beneath the "Belly River," thus estabhshing the iden- tity of the "Belly River" of that section with the Judith River formation. The mapping of Stebinger has now shown that the "lower dark shale" on the escarpment of Rocky Spring Plateau about 40 miles west of Pakowki Lake is Colorado shale and Daw- son's "Belly River" from that point west includes the Eagle sandstone and all the overlying rocks to the base of the Bearpaw. Between these two localities the marine Claggett shale has merged into non-marine sandstones and shales. In conclusion the general statement is justified that the Upper Cretaceous sediments of the Rocky Mountain region show as 21 Geol. Survey of Canada, Kept, for 1882-83-84, pp. Ill C-126 C. 70 spencer: chalcocite deposition great contemporary local variation in a single basin as may be found in the deposits now forming along any modern coast. The local character of many of the beds, the rapidity with which they merge laterally into others of unlike lithologic character make it necessary to use many local formation names. They should also make the geologist cautious in his interpretations of the absence of any particular bed or formation. When, for example, a sandstone which forms the top of the marine Cretaceous sec- tion in one area is absent in another area its absence may be due to erosion, but its apparent absence may also be due to the fact that the sandstone is there represented by a shale or by non-marine deposits of a totally different character. GEOCHEMISTRY.— Chalcocite deposition. Arthur C. Spen- cer, Geological Survey. ^ The most common secondary sulfide in many copper mining districts is chalcocite, occurring under conditions which indicate that deposition has taken place from solutions containing copper sulfate. It is not' difficult to show that the direct or indirect source of this dissolved copper compound is chalcopyrite which may be termed primary, and it is a matter of observation that the same double sulfide of iron and copper is a very effective precipitant or localizer of chalcocite. Pyrite has been usually regarded as the most common nucleus for secondary chalcocite, but in certain districts chalcopyrite must be recognized as occu- pying this role instead of pyrite. The presence and proportion of chalcocite in ores now being mined on a large scale in several districts determines their commercial value. This is notably true of the so-called porphyry ores in which the metallic sulfides are thoroly disseminated thru great masses of rock. In 1903 H. V. Winchell^ published the results of experiments devised to indicate the probable conditions under which chalco- cite has been deposited in the veins of the Butte district from waters carrying cupric sulfate. The determining agent in the deposition was thought to be SO2, and later^ A. N. Winchell ^ Published by permission of the Director. ' Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 14: 269-276. 1903. 3 Economic Geology 2: 290-294. 1907. spencer: chalcocite deposition 71 showed that SO2 is actually one of the products when pyrite undergoes oxidation. In a recent discussion of this subject Tol- man/ who was associated with H. V. Winchell, has used the results of these two investigations as the basis for an understanding of the chemistry of secondary chalcocite. Previously, however, it had been argued by Lindgren,^ that the scheme suggested by Winchell is open to criticism because no indication is given as to how SO2 generated in the upper oxidizing zone could reach the situs of chalcocite deposition, since it would be destroyed in transit by contact with products of pyrite decomposition. On its face this reasoning against the Winchell hypothesis appears to be adequate, but the fuller analysis here presented tends to show that SO2 may still be an actual factor in the reac- tion. Since the writer does not have that unwavering faith which would find in every balanced chemical equation a truth of fundamental value, it is recognized that the equations of the series here given afford no demonstration. They do however, furnish a convenient shorthand to assist in analytical discussion, and some of them are allowable expressions of known actions. Chalcocite, deposited in molecular replacement of primary sul- fides, is a sid^ product of the culminating reaction in a series of oxidizing effects which occur in situations where water and air penetrate from the surface to cupriferous sulfide-bearing rock or vein stuff. The full series of reactions may be divided conven- iently and logically into three groups, assignable to a higher, an intermediate, and a lower position in the body of sulfide-contain- ing material. If considered with respect to the minerals which suffer decomposition these reactions present a succession of oxi- dations, while with respect to the active solution the changes are of course as consistently in the direction of reduction. Group I comprises the reactions of complete oxidation on the upper edge of an ore body where free oxygen is present. Group II comprises reactions ensuing at slightly greater depth and involv- ing oxidation of sulfides (both primary and secondary) by con- tact with ferric sulfate. Group III, occurring at still greater * Min. Sci. Press 106: 42. 1913. * Copper deposits of Clifton-Morenci. Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 43, p. 184. 1905. 72 spencer: chalcocite deposition depth, includes oxidation of sulfides (^primary only) by contact with cupric sulfate. Or, if the solution is considered rather than the minerals with which it comes into contact, the three groups of reactions involve successively depletion of free oxygen; reduc- tion of ferric to ferrous sulfate; and finally the decomposition of cupric sulfate derived from previous reactions. This last reaction is, as a whole, one of double decomposition in which soluble ferrous sulfate and insoluble cuprous sulfide are formed at the expense of cupric sulfate and pyrite or chalcopyrite. Several of the equations which may be written to represent tentatively the three sets of reactions outlined above are current in the hterature treating of sulfide oxidation and enrichment. Others have been supplied by the writer to complete what may be called natural or obvious sequences. It is believed that no one of the equations presented contemplates the concomitance of bodies that are chemically incompatible. Group I. Intermediate equations and final equation repre- senting reactions in the upper zone of complete oxidation : FeSo + 60 = FeS04 + SOo (1) FeS. + HoO + 70 = FeS04 + H2SO4 (2) 2FeS04 + H0SO4 + O = Fe2(S04)3 + HoO . (3) 2FeS2 + H2O + 150 = Fe2rS04)3 + H0SO4 (4)6 Group II. Intermediate equations and final equation indi- cating oxidation of pyrite by ferric sulfate. This salt is one of the soluble products indicated by equation(4) : FeS2 + Fe2 (804)3 = 3FeS04 + 2S (5) S + Fe2(S04)3 = 2FeS04 + 2SO2 (6) SO2 + 2H2O + Fe2(S04)3 = 2FeS04 + 2H2SO4 (7) FeS2 + 8H2O + 7Fe2(S04)3 = 15FeS04 + 8H2SO4 (8)^ To this group of equations may be added one representing the decomposition of chalcocite and the simultaneous reduction of ferric sulfate: « Derived from equations (2) and (3) by substitution. Where chalcopyrite is present a corresponding equation will indicate the formation of CUSO4 instead of H2SO4. 7 Derived from the foregoing equations. Note that (8) is strictly comparable with (4). spencer: chalcocite deposition 73 CU2S + 2Fe(S04)3 = 4FeS04 +S+ 2CUSO4 Group in. Intermediate equations and final equation indi- cating the last stage of pyrite oxidation where cupric sulfate is the reagent, and chalcocite a side product : 2FeS.2 + 2CUSO4 = CU2S + 2FeS04 + 3S (9) 3S + 2CUSO4 = Cu^S + 4SOo (10) 5SOo + 6H0O + 2CUSO4 = CU2S + 6H0SO4 (11) 5FeSo + I4CUSO4 + I2H0O = TCu.S + 5FeS04 + I2H2SO4 (12)^ Equations analogous to (12) but involving chalcopyrite and sphalerite in place of pyrite are the following: SCuFeS. + IICUSO4 + 8H2O =8Cu2S + 5FeS04 + 8H2SO4 (13) 5ZnS + 8CUSO4 + 4H2O = 4CU2S + 5ZnS04 + 4H2SO4 (14) Here, in the interest of completeness, may be introduced the Stokes equation representing the change pyrite to covellite, and the analogous equation involving chalcopyrite: 4FeS2 + 7CUSO4 + 4H2O = 7CuS + 4FeS04 + 4H2SO4 (15) « CuFeS2 + CUSO4 = 2CuS + FeS04 (16) It is to be noted that equation (5) which is given by Stokes^" is stated by him to conform with the observation that on expo- sure to the air, pyrite yields free sulfur which may be detected by extraction with ether. Also equation (6) conforms with the results of experimental oxidation of pyrite by H, N. WinchelP^ and is in accord with observation as recorded by Gottschalk and Buehler.i2 Of the expressions under Group III, equations (9) and (10) are seen to be analogous to equations (5) and (6), and if the latter are real it may be thought likely that the former are. In any event it is almost obvious that equations (9) to (11) were used * Derived from the foregoing equations. This expression, which is to be cred- ited to Stokes, was first printed in the work of Lindgren already cited (p. 183.) where the reader is led to infer that the equation was tested by quantitative de- termination of the H2SO4 formed. See also Stokes, Economic Geology, 2: 22, 1907. 9 Stokes, H. N., loc. cit. 10 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 186, pp. 15 and 19, 1901. 11 Loc. cit. 12 Economic Geology 7: 16, 1912. 74 spencer: chalcocite deposition by Stokes in deducing equation (12), and it is perhaps sufficiently accurate to regard this chemist as their sponsor. As equation (10) is to this extent plausible it may be suggested, not inappro- priately, as offering a link between the two lines of investigation due to Winchell and Tolman on the one hand and to Stokes on the other. Equation (10) shows at least the possibility that SO2 may be a product of chemical reaction during the final stage of oxidation as well as during earlier stages; or, in other words, it indicates that SO2 may be evolved in the situs of chalcocite depo- sition as well as in those situations where ferric sulfate undergoes reduction, as suggested by equation (6), or where free oxygen is being used as in equation (1). In this manner it may be possible to avoid the objection raised by Lindgren. Although the principal object of the present communication is attained in a tentative reconciliation of the suggestion due to Winchell with the points urged against it by Lindgren, occasion may be taken to present certain additional considerations per- taining to the Stokes equation and analogous expressions. If the equations given are accepted as affording a working hypothesis, it might be found that under experimental conditions the attack of cupric sulfate on pyrite, or preferably on chalcopy- rite, could be initiated in the presence of a moderate amount of SO2 and that when thus started the conversion might continue without further aid, proper environment being maintained by the presence of SO2 currently evolved. There are good reasons for the statement that chalcopyrite is less stable than pyrite in solutions containing salts of copper. For the deposition of chalcocite, the chemical mechanism involved must be essentially identical in either case. When the pyrite and chalcopyrite equations are compared with respect to volume relations, in the conversion to chalcocite by molecular replacement the former is found to demand expansion in the ratio 2:3, while the latter requires little if any volume in- crease. Accepting both equations, we might anticipate that pyr- ite would prove to be a less efficient agent than chalcopyrite in chalcocite deposition. In the porphyry ore at Ely, Ne^^ada, where grains of primary chalcopyrite and pyrite occur side by side the former are always more deeply coated with chalcocite schaller: immense bloedite crystals 75 than the latter and usually the ratio of film thicknesses is greater than 3:1. The suggested explanation is that replacement con- tinues only so long as space can be found for the necessary expan- sion, so that where pyrite is the core mineral for chalcocite deposition reaction would be inhibited much sooner than where chalcopyrite is the nucleus. Essentially the same volume relations appear in using the simplest possible expressions for complete reaction between cupric sulfate and pyrite or chalcopyrite when the product is covellite — equations (15) and (16). It seems safe to predict, therefore, that chalcopyrite will be shown to be a more favorable nucleus than pyrite for receiving secondary covellite. The volume relations required by equation (14) show no essen- tial change, if sphalerite is transformed into chalcocite — ^that is the ratio is nearly 1 : 1, a slight expansion being found by calcu- lation. On the other hand, when sphalerite is converted to covellite, if the reaction goes on molecularly according to the simplest equation which may be written, there is a diminution of volume in the ratio 12 : 11. Other things being equal, it would seem that volume relations favor the deposition of covellite rather than chalcocite where sphalerite comes into contact with copper sulfate solution. Altho the equations which have been given as a basis for the foregoing discussions are speculative, it is hoped that the sys- tematic arrangement here presented may hasten experimental work which is needed before the chalcocite problem can be solved. MINERALOGY. — Immense bloedite crystals. Preliminary note. Waldemar T. Schaller, Geological Survey. A recent find of bloedite by Mr. Hoyt S. Gale of the Geological Survey, is remarkable for the immense size of the crystals. An extensive deposit of soda forms a crust on Soda Lake, in Carriso Plain, San Luis Obispo County, California. This deposit has been described by Arnold and Johnson^ who give a detailed anal- ysis of the saline crust which shows it to be a nearly pure sodium 1 Bull. 380, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 369. 1908. 76 schaller: immense bloedite crystals sulfate with 1.66 per cent MgO. In the black mud below this crust were found the isolated crystals of bloedite — a hydrous magnesium-sodium sulfate with 12 per cent MgO. The larger crystals have a dark almost black appearance when the superficial covering of grey mud is removed tho the smaller crystals are nearly colorless, the black appearance being due to impurities. In places the larger crystals are likewise nearly colorless and translucent and in small pieces transparent. In fact, selected fragments are clear and glassy and together with the lack of cleavage, greatly resemble quartz fragments. The largest crystal at present on hand measures 16^ cm. (6^ inches) by 10| cm. by 3| cm. and weighs 652 grams. The crys- tals are flattened somewhat parallel to the base and show the following forms: Large c(OOl), d(Oll), m(llO) Medium ._ ._.... .n(210), p(lll) Small 5(201), s(211), u(lll), a:(121) The measurements were made with a contact goniometer and gave the following results: FORM m(llO) c(OOl) c(OOl) n(210) TO (110) d(Oll) c(OOl) c(OOl) :p(_lll)... :g(201)... :p{in)... : n"'{210). : m"'(110). :d'(0il).. :s(211)... : M(lll)... MEASURED CALCULATED 47° 46° 42' 50 50 06 36 36 55 68 67 06 105 105 58 67 66 46 55 55 16i 43 42 05 The form x(121) was determined by zonal relations. An analysis of selected pure material gave the following: Analysis of bloedite from California H2O 21 .37 ■ MgO 11 .93 Na^O 18.26 SO3 ■ 48.11 99.67 These proportions are close to those required by the formula Na2Mg(S04)2.4H20. coville: formation of leafmold 77 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.— T/ie formation of leafmold.' Frederick V. Coville, Department of Agriculture. When the leaves of a tree fall to the ground they begin to decay and ultimately they are disintegrated and their substance becomes incorporated with the other elements of the soil. The same thing happens with the leaves, stems, and roots of herbaceous plants. Such organic matter is one of the chief sources of food for plants, and its presence in the soil is therefore of fundamental importance in the maintenance of the vegetative mantle of the earth. In a series of experiments from 1906 to 1910 the speaker showed that a condition of acidity is a primary requirement of the blue- berry, laurel, trailing arbutus, and other plants associated with them in natural distribution. Other kinds of plants and plant associations require on the contrary a neutral or alkaline soil. It is the purpose of the present address to show how the leaves of trees in the process of the formation of leafmold produce at one time or under one set of circumstances a condition of soil acidity, at another time or under other circumstances a condi- tion of alkalinity, and since the acidity of the soil is a fundamental factor in plant ecology, to point out that a knowledge of certain phenomena in the decay of leaves is essential to a correct under- standing of the distribution of vegetation over the surface of the earth and its adaptation to the uses of man. In the early experiments with blueberries it had been found that these plants grew successfully in certain acid soils com- posed chiefly of partially rotted oak leaves. On the rather nat- ural assumption that the more thoro the decomposition of this material the more luxuriant would be the growth of the blue- berry plants, some old oak leafmold was secured for further experiments. It had been rotting for about five years and all evidences of leaf structure had disappeared. It had become a black mellow vegetal mold. When blueberry plants were placed in inixtures containing this mold they did not respond with luxuriant growth. On the 1 Address of the retiring President, Washington Academy of Sciences, presented at the annual meeting of the Academy, January 16, 1913. 78 coville: formation of leafmold contrary their leaves turned purple and afterward yellowish, their growth dwindled to almost nothing, and- at the end of the season when compared with other blueberry plants grown in a soil mix- ture in which the oak leafmold was replaced by only partially decomposed oak leaves the plants in the oak leafmold were found to weigh only one-fifth as much as the others. This astonish- ing result is exactly contrary to the ordinary conception. We have been accustomed to believe that the more thoroly decom- posed the organic matter of a soil the more luxuriant its vege- tation. In this case, however, thoro decomposition of the soil was exceedingly injurious to the plants. This remarkable difference in effect between partially decom- posed and thoroly decomposed oak leaves was found to be cor- related with a difference in the chemical reaction of the two mater- ials, the partially decomposed oak leaves being acid, when tested with phenolphthalein, and the oak leafmold alkaline. With rose cuttings and alfalfa seedlings in the same two soils exactly opposite results followed, those in the oak leafmold making a luxuriant growth, those in the partially decomposed oak leaves showing every sign of starvation. Every botanist is familiar with the rich woods where trillium, spring beauty, mertensia, and bloodroot delight to grow, in a black mellow mold made up chiefly of rotted leaves. He is familiar too with the sandy pine and oak woods where grow huckleberries, laurel, princess pine, the pink lady's slipper, and trailing arbutus. The soil here also is made up chiefly of rotting leaves and roots. Yet one does not look for trilliums in laurel thickets, or for arbutus among the bloodroots. Either habitat is utterly repugnant to the plants of the other. Tests of the two habitats show that the trillium soil is alkaline, the other acid, reactions corresponding exactly to those observed in the cultural experiments already described, rose cuttings and alfalfa requiring an alkaline soil, blueberries an acid soil. The difference is as conspicuous in nature as in the laboratory and the greenhouse. What are the conditions under which rotting leaves develop these opposite chemical reactions? In a ravine in the Arlington National Cemetery, near Washing- coville: formation of leafmold 79 ton, where the autumn leaf fall from an oak grove has been dumped year after year for many years, every stage in the decom- position of oak leaves may be observed, from the first softening of the dry brown leaf by rain to the black mellow leafmold in which all traces of leaf structure have disappeared. When freshly fallen the leaves show 0.4 normal acidity.- Those not familiar with the chemical expression "normal acidity" may per- haps most readily understand the term by reference to ordinary lemon juice, which has very nearly normal acidity in the chem- ical sense. Fresh oak leaves may be conceived therefore as hav- ing about one-third the acidity of lemon juice, gram to cubic centimeter. From a soil standpoint such a degree of acidity is exceedingly high. Probably no tree or flowering plant could live if its roots were imbedded in a soil as acid as this. A correct appreciation of the excessive acidity of freshly fallen leaves ena- bles one to understand why it is that the leaves of our lawn trees, if allowed to lie and leach upon the grass, either injure or destroy it. On such neglected lawns the turf grows thin, mossy, and starved. From the height of their initial acidity it is a long descending course thru the various stages of leaf decomposition to the point of chemical neutrality, and then upward a lesser distance on the hill of alkalinity, in the black leafmold stage. In order to ascertain the rate of decomposition in leaves of various kinds, observations were begun in the autumn of 1909 on leaves of silver maple, sugar maple, red oak, and Virginia pine, exposed to the weather in barrels and in concrete pits. In one experiment a mass of trodden silver maple leaves 2 feet in depth, with an initial acidity of 0.92 normal, was reduced in a single year to a 3-inch layer of black mold containing only a few fragments of leaf skeletons and giving an alkaline reaction. In these experiments sugar maple leaves have shown a slower rate of decomposition than those of silver maple, while red oak leaves still show an acidity of 0.010 normal after three years of exposure, ^ For a description of the method followed in determining the acidity see Coville, 1910, p. 27. Experiments in blueberrj^ culture. Bulletin 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri. 80 coville: formation of leafmold and leaves of Virginia pine an acidity of 0.055 normal under the same conditions. The alkalinity of leafmold is due chiefly to the lime it contains, the lime content expressed in terms of calcium oxid often reach- ing 2 to 3 per cent of the dry weight. One sample had a lime content of 3.55 per cent. Many of the soils that result directly and exclusively from the decomposition of limestone have a lower percentage of lime than this. An alkaline leafmold con- taining 2 to 3 per cent of lime is properly regarded as a highly calcareous soil. Yet such a deposit may be formed in a region where the underlying soil is distinctly noncalcareous, the lime content of the soil being only a small fraction of 1 per cent and the soil reaction being acid. Whence comes the abundance of lime in an alkaline, richly calcareous leafmold formed over a soil distinguished by an actual poverty of calcareous matter? If the leafmold is rich in lime the leaves from which it is de- rived should also be rich in lime. A determination of the amount of calcium oxid in the dried freshly fallen leaves of some of our well known trees shows this to be true, as illustrated by the fol- lowing selections: Per cent of Kind of leaves calcium oxid Red oak {Quercus rubra) 1 . 73 Silver maple {Acer saccharinum) 1 . 88 Pin oak {Quercus palustris) 1 . 91 Sweet gum {Liquidamhar styraciflua) 1 .92 Bur oak {Quercus macrocarpa) 2 . 39 Sugar maple {Acer saccharum) 2.56 Tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) 2 . 84 Hickory {Hicoria myristicaeformis) 3 . 66 Gingko {Ginkgo biloba) 4 . 38 It should be understood that the lime thus shown does not exist in the leaf in the form of actual calcium oxid. It is largely combined with the acids of the leaf and serves in part to neutralize them, but is insufficient in amount to effect a complete neutral- ization. In all the kinds of leaves and herbage thus far examined, the net result is an acid condition altho lime may be present in large amount. Thus in the leaves of silver maple a condition of excessive acidity exists, about 0.9 normal, notwithstanding the presence of nearly 2 per cent of lime. coville: formation of leafmold 81 As the decomposition of such leaves progresses the acid sub- stances are disorganized and largely dissipated in the form of gases and liquids, while the lime being only slightly soluble remains with the residue of decomposition, the black leafmold, and renders it alkaline. In soils poor in lime, trees and other plants constituting the vegetative mantle of the earth may be regarded as machines for concentrating lime at the surface of the ground. This lime is drawn up by the roots in dilute solution from lower depths, is concentrated in the foliage, and the concentrate is transferred to the ground by the fall and decomposition of the leaves. The proverbial agricultural fertility of the virgin timberlands of our country was undoubtedly due in large part to the lime accum- ulated on the forest floor by the trees in preceding centuries, and to the consequent alkalinity of such surface soils when the tim- ber had been removed and the leaf litter was thoroly decomposed. After a generation or two of reckless removal of crops the surface accumulation of lime was depleted and unless. the underlying soil was naturally calcareous a condition of infertility ensued which for the purposes of ordinary agriculture could be remedied only by the artificial application of lime. The chief agents in the decay of leaves are undoubtedly fungi and bacteria. There are other agencies, however, that contribute greatly to the rapidity of decay. Important among these are earthworms, larvae of flies and beetles, and myriapods or thou- sand-legged worms. Animals of all these groups exist in myriads in the leaf litter. They eat the leaves, grind them, partially decompose them in the process of digestion, and restore them again to the soil, well prepared for the further decomposing action of the microscopic organisms of decay. The importance of earthworms in hastening the decay of veg- etal matter was pointed out long ago by Darwin in his classical studies on that subject. The importance of myriapods, however, as contributing to the formation of leafmold has not been ade- quately recognized. In the canyon of the Potomac River, above Washington, on the steeper forested talus slopes, especially those facing northward, the formation of alkaline leafmold is in active 82 coville: formation of leafmold progress. The purer deposits are found in pockets among the rocks, where the leafmold is not in contact with the mineral soil and does not become mixed with it. The slope directly oppo- site Plummer's Island is a good example of such localities. Here during all the warm months the fallen leaves of the mixed hard- wood forest are occupied by an army of myriapods, the largest and most abundant being a species known as Spirobolus margin- aius. The adults are about 3 inches in length and a quarter of an inch in diameter. They remain underneath the leaves in the day time and emerge in great numbers at night. On one occa- sion a thousand were picked up, by Mr. H. S. Barber, on an area 10 by 100 feet, without disturbing the leaves. On another occa- sion an area 4 by 20 feet yielded 320 of these myriapods, the leaf litter in this case being carefully searched. Everywhere are evi- dences of the activity of these animals in the deposits of ground up leaves and rotten wood. Careful measurements of the work of the animals in captivity show that the excrement of the adults amounts to about half a cubic centimeter each per day. It is estimated on the basis of the moist weight of the material that these animals are contributing each year to the formation of leafmold at the rate of more than two tons per acre. The decay of leaves is greatly accelerated also when the under- lying soil is calcareous and alkaline, it being immaterial whether the lime is derived from a limestone formation or is a concentrate of the vegetation. On the rich bottomland islands of the upper Potomac the autumn leaf fall barely lasts thru the following summer, so rapid is its decay. These bottomlands have an alka- line flora, and they are found to have an alkaline reaction, caused by the lime brought to them in the flood waters. The acceleration of leaf decay by an alkaline substratum is due to the prompt neutralization of the acid leachings of the leaves and also to the fact that such a substratum harbors with great efficiency many of the most active organisms of decay, from bac- teria to earthworms. It must not be understood that in a state of nature the decom- position of leaves is always so simple and uniform a process as has been described, or that it always results in the formation of coville: formation of leafmold 83 an alkaline leafmold. The chief factors that contribute to the acceleration of leaf decay have already been enumerated, but there are other conditions of nature that obstruct and retard this process. Under certain conditions the progress of decomposi- tion may be permanently suspended long before the alkaline stage is reached. The soils thus formed, altho high in humus like a true leafmold, have an acid reaction and a wholly different flora. Examples of such suspensions of leaf decay are found in bogs, where the deposited vegetation is protected from the organisms of decay by submergence in non-alkaline water, and on uplands where the soil is derived from sand, sandstone, granite, or schist, in which there is not enough lime or other basic material to neutralize the acidity of the decaying leaves. There is of course a supply of lime in the leaves themselves, and as a new layer of leaves is added to the soil each year it might be expected that there would result an unlimited concen- tration of lime in the surface soil and that all surface soils that supported a growth of vegetation would ultimately become alka- line. Such an indefinite accumulation of lime is prevented, how- ever, by another factor which requires consideration. As soon as each successive layer of leaf litter is sufficiently decayed to permit the roots of plants to enter it and feed upon it, the lime it contains, together with other mineral constituents, begins to be absorbed. This loss of lime from the decaying leaves is suffic- ient, under many situations in nature, to prevent the decaying mass from reaching the alkaline stage. Decomposition is sus- pended while the leaf litter is still acid. True leafmold, with an alkaline reaction, is never formed under such conditions. The leaf deposit remains permanently acid and such areas bear an acid flora. In the vicinity of Washington one often sees hills of quartz gravel, wind-swept and rain-washed, where the soil contained little lime in the beginning, and none could be brought by flood waters or by the dust of the atmosphere. Character- istic plants of such hills are black jack oak, trailing arbutus, wild pansy, azalea, and huckleberry, all plants adapted to acute con- ditions of acidity. If one's front yard happens to coincide with 84 coville: formation of leafmold what was once such a spot, let him not undertake the herculean task of growing roses and a bluegrass turf. Let his lawn be of redtop and his shrubs be azaleas, laurel, and rhododendrons. Another factor that contributes to the suspension of leaf decom- position is the acid leachings from each new deposit of autumn leaves. Various acidity determinations show that after lying exposed to the weather over winter, leaves ordinarily have only one-fifth to one-tenth the aciditj^ they possessed when they fell to the ground. It has been found experimentally that the leach- ings from fresh leaves will serve to acidulate an underlying soil of moderate alkalinity. Unless therefore the conditions of a locality are such as to effect the decomposition of one year's leaf fall before the next year's deposit takes place, a permanent acid leaf cover is established. In many of the oak forests on the sandy coastal plain eastward from Washington there is a perman- ent accumulation of such material. The roots of the trees and undershrubs bind the half-rotted leaves into a dense mat. The principal trees are oaks. The principal shrubs that make up the dense underbrush belong to the Ericaceae and related fam- ilies. There is no mellow leafmold nor any of the leafmold plants. This kind of mat or turf is of such widespread occurrence, is so distinct in its appearance, and so characteristic in the type of vegetation it supports that it should have a name of its own, in order that it may come to be recognized as one of the important phenomena of nature. Because if its resemblance to bog peat in appearance, structure, and chemical composition, and because it supports a type of vegetation similar to that of bog peat, it has been proposed to adopt for it the name upland peat. As defined in an earlier publication-^ upland peat is ''a nonpaludose deposit of organic matter, chiefly leaves, in a condition of suspended and imperfect decomposition and still showing its original leaf structure, the suspension of decomposition being due to the development and maintenance of an acid condition which is inimical to the growth of the micro-organisms of decay." ^ Coville, 1910, p. 34. Experiments in blueberry culture. Bulletin 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri. coville: formation of leafmold 85 Upland peat would have become leafmold had not the orderly normal course of leaf decomposition been suspended and con- ditions of acidity established which rendered the further progress of that decomposition impossible. The rate at which leaves decay is greatly influenced by tem- perature. In the cooler northern latitudes and at high eleva- tions in lower latitudes the rate of decay is slower and the form- ation of upland peat is more general than in warmer climates. Except on calcareous soils the higher . Apalachian peaks, from 4000 to 6000* feet, bear an almost continuous layer of upland peat, from a few inches to a foot or more in depth. Their great rhododendron thickets are rooted in deep beds of upland peat. The spruce forests of the higher New England mountains lay down a similar formation. In the treeless west the decay of leaves where it is not actuallj' suspended by dryness is rapid and complete. At the higher elevations, however, where the land begins to be timbered the organic matter does not fully decay, and in the heavily timbered areas the deposit of upland peat often becomes characteristic- ally deep and continuous. In fighting creeping fires in the yellow pine forests at the lower elevations the favorite and most effective tool is the rake, which parts the light leaf litter and puts a stop to the progress of the flames. But in the dense fir and spruce timber the forest ranger's chief tools are the spade and the mat- tock, with which he must cut through the thick layer of dry peat to the mineral soil beneath if he is to effectually combat a slowly creeping fire. So strong is the tendency to the formation of peat under the low temperatures and heavy precipitation of the high mountains that even on limestone soils a superficial layer of upland peat is sometimes accumulated. Such a condition exists on innumer- able areas at an elevation of about 10,000 feet in the Manti National Forest of Utah. On the basaltic plateau of extreme northeastern Oregon, where the soil is naturally alkaline in reac- tion the lodgepole pine and Douglas fir forests at elevations of 5000 feet and over lay down a continuous bed of peat which sup- ports a characteristic acid flora. A quantitative test of one of 86 coville: formation of leafmold the acid flora soils of this region, at an elevation of 8000 feet, showed the customary high acidity at the surface, and succes- sively lower degrees of acidity underneath, until at the depth of 5 feet, at the surface of the basaltic rock, the reaction was neutral. The group of plants that forms the best index to the acid char- acter of a soil is the family Ericaceae, and the related families Vacciniaceae and Pyrolaceae. When these occur in vigorous growth on a calcareous soil or among calcareous rocks, as is some- times reported, one may expect to find, as the speaker in his own ^experience has always found, that a layer of upland peat has been formed above the calcareous substratum and that in this superficial layer the roots of the plants find their nourishment, really in an acid medium, notwithstanding the alkalinity beneath. Continued observations on the association of certain types of wild plants with acid and non-acid soils, supported by cultural experiments, are in all respects confirmatory of the theory that soil acidity is one of the most influential factors in plant distribu- tion and plant ecology. The relation of leafmold to the existence of acid or non-acid soil conditions may now be viewed with appreciative recognition. If the conditions in any area are such that the decay of leaves follows the uninterrupted course that leads to the formation of leafmold a state of soil alkalinity is reached, with all the resultant effects on the growth and distribution of the native vegetation. If on the other hand the conditions are such that the course of decay is diverted into the channel that ends in the formation of peat, a condition of permanent acidity is indicated, with the accompaniment of all those peculiar plant phenomena which are characteristic of such a state. It is perhaps desirable to call attention here to the fact that while partially decomposed vegetation appears to be the chief source of soil acidity there are mineral constituents of the soil, of wide distribution and great abundance, which are also acid in reaction. The acidity of which we hear so much in agricultural writings as characteristic of soils worn out by long years of careless farm- ing is doubtless due in large part to a natural mineral acidity unsheathed by the removal of the lime that once neutralized coville: formation of leafmold 87 it for like the leaves of trees many of the crops of agriculture are heavy with lime and their uncompensated removal year after year has its inevitable cumulative result. The speaker hopes that he does not overstep the proper bounds of this address if he calls attention to conditions in bog deposits which almost exactly parallel the two types of terrestrial organic formation, leafmold and upland peat. In bogs with alkaline waters, as for example those underlain by marl, a condition of permanent acidity is not maintained in the lower strata of the deposit. As far upward as the alkaline waters penetrate, the antiseptic acids are not present, decay continues, and the result- ing formation is not peat, but a plastic fine-grained black material that may best, perhaps, be designated by that much misused term muck. Muck corresponds in bog deposits to leafmold in upland deposits, contrasting with bog peat as leafmold contrasts with upland peat. We may follow this idea one step further. Coal is petrified peat. As the purest peats are not formed in alkaline waters, it can not be expected that the best coal will be found in situa- tions indicative of alkaline conditions. If coal is found imme- diately overlying beds of marl or limestone it is to be expected that such coal will be of an impure type corresponding in origin to muck. The speaker takes the liberty of suggesting to his geological friends that in reconstructing in theory the climatic and other conditions under which the various kinds of coal were deposited they may safely hypothesize that the purer coals were laid down in waters that were acid. Allusion has been made to the peculiar characteristics of plants that inhabit peat. Among these peculiarities perhaps none is more remarkable than the presence of mycorhizal fungi on the roots of many, perhaps most, peat-loving plants. It is known that peat is very poorly supplied with nitrogen in the form of nitrates, which most plants of alkaline soils appear to require. Organic nitrogen, however, is abundant in peat and there is very strong evidence that these mycorhizal fungi take up this organic nitrogen, and possibly atmospheric nitrogen also, and transfer it in some acceptable form to the plants in whose roots 88 coville: formation of leafmold they live. Unfortunately the work of botanists on these fungi has been confined largely to the determination of the mere ana- tomical fact of their occurrence on the roots or in certain of the root cells, with descriptions of their size and configuration. Little attention has been paid to the isolation of the fungi, their culture and identification, or to the demonstration of their physiological action. The only hypothesis, however, that satisfactorily ex- plains what we already know about the mycorhizal fungi is that they prevent the nitrogen starvation of peat-inhabiting plants. It is well known that certain peat-bog plants, as for example sundew, trap insects, digest them, and assimilate their nitrogen. It is to be hoped that within a few years we shall be equally well informed about the function of the mycorhizal fungi. But even now we may speak of their probable function with confidence. The mycorhizal fungi are known to occur on most of the trees that inhabit acid situations, for example chestnut, beech, oaks, and conifers. The ordinary hillside pasture in New England is a mycorhizal cosmos. The clubmosses have them, the sweet fern, the blueberries, the ferns, the orchids. In our sandy pine and oak woods about Washington almost all the vegetation possesses mycorhizal fungi. One comes to think of the giant oaks as dependent on these minute organisms. Were Solomon to write a new edition of the Proverbs today I am sure that he would tell us ' ' There be four things which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding strong," and that among the four he would include ''The little brothers of the forest, they seek not the light but the leafy earth; they prepare for the oak the strength that is his." Our American agriculture, derived in the main from the agri- culture of the Mediterranean region, and that in turn from the older agriculture of Persia, is chiefly made up of plants that thrive best in alkaline or neutral soils. Altho many of our soils in the eastern United States are naturally acid we try with only indifferent success to grow in them these alkaline plants of south- ern Europe and the East. Altho some of our agricultural plants are tolerant of acidity, our agriculturists have not yet recognized the possibility of building up for acid soils a special agriculture coville: formation of leafmold 89 in which all the crops are acid- tolerant. We may yet, perhaps, utilize for agricultural purposes even the sandy acid lands of the coastal plain instead of turning them over as we now do to the lank huckleberry picker, whose lonesome garden is all that he is able to reclaim by present methods from the imaginary wilderness that surrounds him. Yet these lands contain all sorts of delicious native fruits, and a natural vegetation rich and lux- uriant after its own manner. Had our agriculture originated not in the alkaline soils of the Orient but among the aboriginal peoples of the bogs of Scotland or of the sandy pine barrens of our Atlantic Coastal Plain we should have entirely different ideas of soil fertility from those we now possess. If our cultivated fruits were large and otherwise improved forms of the blueberry, the service berry, the thorn- apple, and the beach plum, if our only grains were rye and buck- wheat and our only hay redtop and vetch, and if our root crops consisted of potatoes, carrots, and onions, our high-priced agri- cultural lands would be the light sandy acid soils and the drained bogs, while our deep limestone soils would be condemned to use for the pasturage of cattle and of sheep. Thus far man has devoted himself largely to the utilization of the plants of the leafmold, which have gathered up for him the wealth of the earth. Let him now, I say, turn his attention also to the plants of the peat and try whether they will not yield to him in increased measure the luxuriance of foliage and of fruit that they have always yielded without assistance to nature herself. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— n,e binary system: NasAlsSisOg {nephel- ite, carnegieite) — CaAl2Si208 (anorthite). N. L. Bowen. American Journal of Science, 33 : 551-573. 1912. The study of the system Na2Al2Si208 — CaAl2Si208 was undertaken because of the importance of these compounds as rock-forming con- stituents. It was found that the soda compound exhibits enantiotropism with the inversion point at 1248°. The low temperature form (nephel- ite) crystallizes in the hexagonal system with a habit similar to that of natural nephelite. The high-temperature form is triclinic. It has no natural analogue and has been given the name carnegieite. Carnegieite melts at 1526°. The lime compound occurs only in the triclinic form, anorthite, and melts at 1550°. Both carnegieite and nephelite are capable of holding the lime com- pound in solid solution, the former 5 per cent and the latter as much as 35 per cent. The effect of solid solution on the inversion-point was well shown by the system. The temperature of inversion rises considerably as the amount of the lime compound in solid solution increases. The optical constants of the components were carefully determined. Crystals of the artificial nephelite were measured on the goniometer and their hexagonal nature confirmed. It was especially gratifying to be able to determine definitely the variation, with composition, of the optical properties of the hexagonal mix-crystals (nephelite). With increasing proportion of the lime molecule the birefringence of 0.004 (negative) becomes less, passes through zero, and finally becomes 0.002 (positive) . The problem as a whole, although in some measure complicated, was found capable of very definite laboratory solution. The extension of the study to include the potassium-bearing nephelites has already been be^un. N. L. B. 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held January 7, 1913, in the National Museum, wdth the President, Mr. George R. Stetson in the chair. Mr. E. Dana Durand, Director of the Census read a paper on Race statistics of the last census. During the decade 1900-1910 the white pop- ulation of the United States increased about 22 per cent and the negro about 11 per cent. This difference is partly due, however, to the direct or indirect effect of immigration of whites, in the absence of which the whites would have increased about 14 per cent. The Indians increased about 12 per cent, the Chinese decreased in number, while the Japanese nearly trebled. The whites have at practically every census shown a more rapid rate of increase than the negroes, and there is reason to beheve that the difference between the two races in rate of increase from 1890 to 1900 was greater than appeared from the census returns, on account of a probable underenumeration of the negroes in 1890. The census of 1910 showed that about 21 per cent of the negroes are mulat- toes, as compared with about 12 per cent in 1870, the last preceding census at which the question regarding blood mixture was asked in comparable form. There has been no very great migration of negroes out of the South, nearly nine-tenths of the total number being still found in that section. The number living outside the South increased 167,000 between 1900 and 1910, while the number residing in the South increased over 800,000. The rate of natural increase — that is, by excess of births over deaths — of the white population of the South, however, is much higher than that of the negroes, being higher also than that of the whites in the North. Among- the native white population whose parents were born in this country, there were, in 1910, 104 males to each 100 females, as compared with only 98.9 in the case of the negroes. Among all classes of the pop- ulation more boy babies than girl babies are born, but equality tends to be brought about by a higher death rate among the males. The dif- ference in sex distribution between the whites and the negroes is probably attributable, in part at least, to more favorable health conditions among the whites. The age distribution of the native white population is somewhat different from that of the negroes, probably chiefly on account of a lower death rate among whites, tending to greater longevity. There has appar- ently been a very marked decline in the birth rate among negroes in recent years, while there had been a gradual but less marked decline in the birth rate of the whites during each decade for a long period of time. 91 92 proceedings: botanical society Negroes tend to marry earlier than the native white classes; and, in fact, at all age periods, the proportion of married, widowed, and divorced persons, taken together, is higher in the case of the negroes of both sexes than in the case of the native whites of native parentage. There has been a marked change in the composition of the foreign- born population of the United States during recent years. Natives of northwestern Europe constituted more than two-thirds of the total for- eign-born population of the United States in 1900, but less than half in 1910, while southern and eastern Europeans formed only a little over one-sixth of the total at the earlier census, as compared with three- eights in 1910. The Germans and the Irish particularly have fallen off conspicuously in numbers, while the natives of Russia — largely Rus- sian Jews and Poles — Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and other coun- tries of southern and eastern Europe have increased by very high per- centages, no lesss than 1090 per cent in the case of natives of Greece. The natives of Russia now rank second among the foreign-born classes, and those of Italy fourth. Various inquiries, accompanied by additional statements of facts and explanations, were answered by Mr. Durand, but there was no discus- sion beyond these. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 12th annual business meeting was held on Wednesday, October 30, 1912. Officers were elected as follows: President, W. W. Stock- berger; Vice-President, C. R. Ball; Recording Secretary, H. L. Shantz; Corresponding Secretary, C. L. Shear; Treasurer, F. L. Lew- ton. The executive committee reported an active membership of 108. The 83rd regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 12, 1912. The following papers were read: A 'portrait of Linnaeus: Dr. J. N. Rose. Doctor Rose exhibited an engraved portrait of Linnaeus which had recently been presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Captain John Donnel Smith, of Baltimore who had previously given to that Institution his magnificent herbarium and library. This portrait is one rarely seen in this country, being a mezzotint of one of the earliest portraits of Linnaeus, the original being a replica of Hoffman's famous picture showing Linnaeus in Lap- land dress, of which the original is now the property of the Clifford fam- ily. This replica was known to have been in the possession of one Thornton as late as 1811; but its whereabouts now is not known. Doctor Rose also called attention to the large collection of portraits of Linnaeus in the possession of the Linnean Society; and also to the work of Tycho Tullberg, "Linne-portratt," a quarto volume of 185 pages with 25 portrait plates. Rough-hark disease of the yellow newtown pippin: Mr. John W. Rob- erts. Botanizing in the region of the natural bridges of southern Utah: Dr. P. A. Rydberg (by invitation). C. L. Shear, Corresporiding Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill, FEBRUARY 19, 1913 No. 4 METEOROLOGY. — Violent uprushes in cumulus clouds. W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Every observer of clouds is familiar with the peculiar boihng and tumbling of large cumuli, their formation of new heads, and the other evidences they give of rapid motions and confused turbu- lence. And indeed the violence is much worse than appearances would indicate, if we are to believe the emphatic statements of the few balloonists who have survived the experience of such an aerial maelstrom. As no such violent uprush is ever found in any other part of the atmosphere, one naturally asks what is there peculiar to the large cumulus cloud that produces this localized or exceptional result. And the answer, tho not obvious, should be indicated by a dis- cussion of the processes involved in the formation of the cloud itself. Let us assume the temperature of the atmosphere near the sur- face of the earth to be 30°C. and the relative humidity 42 per cent, and let ordinary vertical convection, resulting from this temperature, obtain up to the base of existing cumulus clouds — - substantially the conditions that frequently obtain of summer afternoons. Under the assumed conditions the temperature in the rising column decreases approximately at the dry-air adiabatic rate of 10°C. per kilometer from the surface of the earth up to the satura- tion level, 1.5 kilometers in the present case. At this level, how- ever, because of the latent heat set free by condensation, there 93 94 AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCES is an abrupt change in the temperature gradient. At first it is rather under 5°C. per kilometer, and then as the elevation still further increases and the temperature steadily grows colder, so that less and less moisture condenses out per degree change, it grows greater, with, of course, the adiabatic gradient for dry air, or 10°C. per kilometer, as the limit towards which it approaches. Now the ordinary summer temperature gradient in the free atmosphere, between the elevations of 1.5 and 8 kilometers, is approximately G'^C. Hence, in the assumed case, the tempera- ture within the rising column will begin to increase above that of the surrounding atmosphere at the same level, as soon as conden- sation begins, and the temperature difference, together with the resulting buoyancy, will go on increasing with the elevation to a certain maximum and then decrease to a zero difference. In fact the inertia of the rising' mass will carry it beyond the equilib- rium level to heights where it will be colder and denser than the adjacent air, and from which it therefore must correspondingly fall back until final equilibrium of temperature and density are established. Seemingly then the real cause of the violent uprush within large cumulus clouds is the difference in temperature between the interior of the clouds themselves and the surrounding atmosphere at the same level, due, as explained, to the change in the tempera- ture gradient caused by the latent heat of condensation. PHYSICS. — The high frequency resistances of inductances. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio-telegraphic Laboratory. To appear in full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. TVTiile the high frequency resistance of non-inductive resist- ances can be easily determined by substitution methods, the determination of high frequency resistance of inductances offers great difficulties. The decrement and half deflection methods, ^ in addition to being difficult to apply when very accurate results are desired, have also the disadvantage of including in the ob- served resistance all the sources of energy loss in the circuit. The present method, while laborious, seems capable of giving much more exact results than the others mentioned. 1 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 9: 66. 1912. AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCES 95 The principle of the method is briefly the following: Two equal inductance coils are placed in identical oil calorimeters, one coil is heated by a high frequency current and the other by du-ect. Vfhen the calorimeters are both brought to the same tem- perature in equilibrium with their surroundings, the heat im- parted to each per second must be the same. This heat is pro- portional to I^ R and the ratios of the resistances of the two coils at the given frequency and for constant current are inversely proportional to the squares of the currents.^ To compensate for the slight inequalities in the coils and calorimeters, the direct and TABLE I Diameter of double silk covered copper wire Diameter of coils = 8.6 cm. Turns of wire per centimeter = 18.9 0.04 cm. COIL LENGTH TUHNS OF WIRE INDUCTANCE cm. m.h. 1 0.60 11.0 0.022 2 1.10 20.5 0.066 3 1,55 29.5 0.115 4 2.65 50.0 0.273 5 3.75 70.5 0.475 6 5.40 102.0 0.775 high frequency currents are interchanged and the mean values of the ratios of the current squares taken. The high frequency current is produced by a rotary spark gap in an oscillatory circuit coupled loosely to the circuit containing the inductance coil to be measured. The two circuits are brought to resonance at the frequency desired, and the high frequency current thru the induc- tance, regulated by varying the coupling. The current is read on a non-shunted hot wire ammeter which has been accurately calibrated for high frequencies. The direct current for the other coil is supplied by a storage battery and the final regulation for equilibrium is made in this circuit. Equality of temperature between the two calorimeters is determined by a differential con- stantan copper thermoelement. The calorimeters are heated to 2 See J. Zenneck, Elektromag. Schwingungen, p. 415, 1905, and J. A. Fleming, Principles of electric wave telegraphy, p. 124, 1912. 96 AUSTIN: HIGH FEEQUENCY RESISTANCES from 20° to 30° above the temperature of the room. The uncer- tainty of the individual high frequency current readings is approx- imately one part in fifty. The mean of thirty or more readings is taken as a basis for each calculation. The calorimeters pro- vided with motor driven stirrers are of glass 15 cm. high and 10.8 cm. in diameter and contain sufficient petroleum to cover the coils under experiment. The coils of 0.40 mm. double silk-covered TABLE II con 1 COIL 2 COIL 3 X R X R X R m. ohms w. ohms 7)1. ohms 360 1.45 550 2.06 780 2.87 550 1.09 780 1.59 970 2.54 780 1.01 970 1.51 1150 2.20 970 0.72 1150 1.40 1440 2.02 D.C. 0.42 1440 1.31 1900 1.81 D.C. 0.78 D.C. 1.12 COIL 4 COIL 5 COIL 6 X R X R X R m. ohms 7n. ohm.s 7)1. ohms 780 6.60 1440 1 7.75 1500 13.3 970 5.93 1900 ; 6.55 2000 11.6 1440 4.65 2400 : 6.28 2500 10.9 1900 4.03 2900 5.93 3000 10.4 2400 3.52 D.C. 2.68 3500 9.6 D.C. 1.90 1 1 ^ 4000 D.C. 9.1 3.88 copper wire are wound on glass, and the principal constants are given in Table I and their resistances in Table II. After the determination of the resistance of the six pairs of standard coils a roller inductance of the Fessenden type was cali- brated by comparison with the standard coils. The method used is as follows: A buzzer-driven wave meter is used to excite an oscillatory circuit containing a sensitive thermoelement and variable air condenser. By means of switches either one of the standard coils or the variable inductance can be inserted in this circuit, the deflections in each case being observed on the galva- nometer of the thermoelement. Sufficient fine wire resistance is schaller: calculation of mineral formulas 97 then placed in series with the inductance giving the larger deflec- tion and adjusted until its deflection is reduced to that of the other inductance. The resistance of the standard coil for the given frequency being known, the corresponding resistance of the vari- able inductance at this point is at once deterixiined. When the variable inductance has been calibrated in this way for several points and at various wave lengths, it at once becomes a standard of comparison of resistance for any other inductances within its limits, by a method similar to the above. If the values of the resistances in Table II for any given wave length be plotted, it will be found that the results do not fall on a straight line, that is, the high frequency resistance increases more rapidly than in pro- portion to the number of turns of the coil. This result is not in accordance, I believe, with any of the various formulae which have been given for the high frequency resistance of inductances. The curvature appeals, however, only in the first part of the curve. This is probably due to the distribution of the magnetic field. IVIINERALOGY. — The calculation of mineral formulas. Walde- MAR T, Schaller, Geological Survey. In the calculation of the ratios of a mineral analysis, it is cus- tomary to select arbitrarily one of the constituents as unity, or as some rational multiple of unity, and on this basis to calculate the ratios of the other constituents. As an example I will give the analysis of pearceite from the Veta Rica Mine, Sierra IMojada, Coahuila, Mexico, as recently published^ by Frank R. Van Horn and C. W. Cook. ANALYSIS RATIOS s 17.46 7.56 59.22 15.65 0.00 0.5444 0.1008 0.2744* 0.1231* « 10.80 2,00 1 7.886 11 As 2 Ag Cu 8 Sb 99.89 * Considered as (Ago) and (Cuo) respectively. 1 Amer. Journ. Sci. (4), vol. 31, p. 518, 1911. 98 schaller: calculation of mineral formulas The ratios are sufficiently close to 11 : 2 : 8 to show that these are the correct numbers. In reality the ratios are very much closer to 11 : 2 : 8 than the figures given by Van Horn and Cook suggest, as will be shown below. The first column from the ratios given above is reproduced below (1) with the molecular proportions for silver and copper combined, and all the quantities multiplied by 100 for conveni- ence of calculation. When the lowest number is taken as unity it is readily seen that the ratios are approximatly 5^ : 1 : 4. If the first figure be divided by 2 times 5| (these numbers are doubled to avoid fractions), the second by 2 X 1, and the third by 2 X 4, the figures under (2) are obtained. These numbers should be nearly the same. Their average is 4.986. If now the ratios obtained from the analysis be divided by this average value, namely 4.986, the figures given under (3) are obtained which are considerably closer to 11, 2, and 8 respectively, than the ones given by Van Horn and Cook. (1) (2) (3) S 54.44 4- (2 X 5i) = 4.949 10.92 As 10,08^(2X1) = 5.040 2.02 Ag2,Cu2 39.75^(2X4) = 4.969 7.97 Av. = 4.986 Ratios such as those given above under (3) are still too far from the whole numbers they approximate for comparison as they stand. The figures should be reduced to multiples of approx- imate unity which can then be directly compared, as follows : S 10.92 = 11X0.99(3) =11X0.99 As 2.02 = 2X1.01 =2X1.01 Ag2,Cu2 7.97 = 8X0.99(6) = 8X1.00 These figures show that the ratios deducible from the pearceite analysis are in fact far closer to the whole numbers 11 : 2 : 8 than the ratios 10.80 : 2.00 : 7.886 given by Van Horn and Cook, which were obtained by arbitrarily selecting one of the numbers as unity. The form in* which the last set of ratios is given above appears to express most accurately the relations derivable from the analysis. swingle: chaetospermum 99 BOTANY. — Chaetospermuvi, a new genus of hard-shelled citrous fruits. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry. The wild relatives of the common orange may be divided into several rather distinct groups. One of these consists of the hard- shelled citrous fruits of which the best known representatives are the bael fruit, Belou marmelos (L.) W. F. Wight {Aegle mar- melos (L.) Correa), and the wood apple of India {Feronia ele- phantum, Correa). These two were known to Rheede, Rumphius, Hermann and other pre-Linnean botanists as well as to Linnaeus himself. A number of other plants belonging to this group are known to botanists. Four of them are natives of Africa and have come to light only recently. In the East Indies two species have long been known, but are little understood as yet. One of these, Feronia lucida Scheffer, grows in Java and is closely related to the wood apple of India. The other, the subject of the present note, was described in 1837 by Blanco, in the first edition of his Flora de Filipinas, under the name Limonia glutinosa. He saw it growing on Mt. Arayat, Province of Manila, Luzon Island, and noted that it was called malacabuyao or tabog by the Tagals. In the second edition of his Flora de Filipinas, published in 1845, Blanco recognized that this plant was related to the wood apple and renamed it Feronia ternata. About 1878, Andres Naves, in editing a new illustrated edition de luxe of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas, recognized that the tabog was more nearly allied to the bael fruit than to the wood apple and accordingly transferred it to the genus Aegle making a new specific name A. decandra. In 1904 Merrill restored Blanco's original specific name, Aegle glutinosa (Bl.) Merrill. An examination of the typical material in the Botanical Mu- seum at Dahlem bei Berlin, made by the writer in June, 1911, showed Limonia Engleriana, Perkins, to be the tabog, as had been noted by E. D. Merrill on one of the paratypes. In establishing a new genus, Aeglopsis,^ from tropical West 1 Swingle, Walter T., 1912, Le genre Balsamociirus et un nouveau genre voisin, Mglovsis, in Bull. Soc. hot. de France (1911), 58 (mem. 8d) : 225-245, figs. A, B, pis. 1-5 (March 2) also in Chevalier, Aug., Novitates florae africanae, fasc. 4, p. 225-245. ^'/5t>s ^ i^ -0"5a» 100 swingle: chaetospermum Africa, belonging to the hard-shelled citrous fruits, it became necessary to look up all the known plants of this group. This resulted in bringing to light a new species of wood apple from Indo-China, the type of a new genus^ closely related to Feronia. A reexamination of the tabog, undertaken at the same time was facilitated by a fruiting specimen in the National Herbarium collected by E. D. Merrill (No. 3641, Concepci6n, Prov. Tarlac, Luzon, November, 1903), and showed that this species differs from Belou marmelos in flower, fruit, leaf and germination char- acters so profoundly that it must be put in another genus. The stamens of the tabog are ten in number, being twice as many as the petals instead of very numerous (more than four times as many as the petals) as in the bael fruit. The ovary of the tabog has 8 to 10 cells instead of 10 to 15 commonly found in the bael fruit. The fruit is ob- long or long oval with low longi- tudinal ridges corresponding in number and position to the seg- ments, and has a thick leathery rind. The bael fruit is spherical or pyriform, never ridged, and has a very hard, woody rind. The cells of the tabog fruit are lined with a spongy tissue showing very large cavities or vacuoles. Nothing of the sort is found in any other of the hard-shelled citrous fruits (see fig. 1). The leaves of the tabog are persistent instead of deciduous as in the bael fruit and have smaller, more rounded lateral leaf- lets. On germination the cotyledons become aerial in the tabog but remain hypogeous in the bael fruit. Already in 1846 Roemer in his Synopses monographicae made a subgenus, Chaetospermum, under the genus Limonia, for this 2 This will appear shortly in the Bulletin de la Society botanique de France Fig. 1. Cross section of a fruit of Chaetospermum glutinosa (Concep- ci6n, Luzon, November, 1903, E. D. Merrill, No. 3641). Natural size. Shows the thick rind with long slender pointed oil glands; a thin intermedi- ate layer; and an endocarp composed of spongy vesicular tissue (thickened ovary walls) surrounding the cells. The pith is not vesicular. swingle: chaetospermum 101 species, stating that he beUeved this to be the type of a new genus ''-Typum novi generis certe format, ex ordine forsan excludendi."^ In view of Roemer's conviction that the plant constitutes a new genus it seems fitting to raise his subgenus to generic rank. Chaetospermum (Roem.) n. gen. Chaetospermum Roemer, M. J., 1846, Synop. Monogr. 1: 39, as subgenus of Linionia. Type species Limonia glutinosa, Blanco, M., 1837, Flora de Filipinas, p. 358. A genus related to Belou, from which it differs in having persistent leaves with small rounded sessile lateral leaflets, fewer stamens (twice as many as the petals), fewer ovarial cells (8 to 10), an oblong ribbed fruit with a thick leathery rind and cells lined with a spongy tissue containing many large cavities or vacuoles (see fig. 1). Leaves persistent, trifoliate, lateral leaflets small, sessile, usually less than one-third as long as the median, more or less blunt at the base or even rounded. Terminal leaflet gradually narrowed at the base. Petioles narrowly winged with a joint at the point of attachment of the leaflets. Spines slender, straight, sharp, in pairs at the axils or else one of the spines is replaced by a branch. Inflorescences axillary, composed of from one to several flowers on rather long, slender pedicels. Flowers perfect, 5-merous; calyx 5-lobed, petals 5, stamens 10, free. Pistil with a well developed style and a thick rounded stigma. Ovary with 8 to 10 cells, each containing numerous ovules. Fruit, oblong, longitudinally ribbed, with a very thick leathery rind, and with cells (filled with gum?) surrounded with watery tissue containing large cavities or vacuoles. Seeds numerous in the long narrow cells, flattened ovate, hairy. Germination — Cotyledons aerial, not increasing in size; first foliage leaves opposite, broadly ovate, subseriate, sessile, abruptly narrowed at base. A small tree native to the Island of Luzon, Philippine Ai-chipelago. Chaetospermum resembles Belou in having trifoliate leaves, a many-celled ovary, and hairy seeds, but differs in many essential characters as noted above. It agrees with Feronia in having aerial cotyledons which do not, however, show any increase in size during germination as in this latter genus. It agrees with Aeglopsis in having fruits with a leathery rather than a woody cortex, altho there are woody elements in the rind of an Aeglopsis fruit which seem to be lacking in Chaetospermum. 'Roemer, M. J., 1846, Syn. monogr. Fasc. 1: 39. 102 swingle: chaetospermum Chaetospermum differs widely from all the other hard-shelled citrous fruits and constitutes a striking new genus. It undoubt- edly belongs to the hard-shelled group of citrous fruits tho it alone does not (so far as known) have woody elements in the cortex. Only one species is known; its synonomy is as follows: Chaetospermum glutinosa (Blanco) n. comb. Limonia Glutmosa Blanco, 1837, Fl. Filip. Ed. I, p. 358. Feronia ternata Blanco, 1845, Fl. Filip. Ed. II, p. 252. u^gle decandra, Naves, 1878 (?), in Blanco, Fl. Filip. Ed. Ill, pi. 124. Aegle glutinosa (Blanco), Merrill, 1904, in Phillip. Gov. Lab. Bur. Bull. n. 6, p. 12. Limonia Engleriana, Perkins, 1905, Frag. Fl. Phillipp. Fasc. Ill, p. 163. Belou glutinosa (Blanco) Skeels, 1909, Bull. 162 Bur. PL Ind. Dept. Agr. p. 26. Illustrations : Naves 1878 (?) in Blanco, M., Flora de Filipinas, Ed. 3. vol. 2, pi. 124 (Lvs. fls. and fts.) Vidal y Soler, S., 1883, Sinopsis de familias y generos de plantas lefiosas de Filipinas, pi. 25, fig. J, 1-5 (Fls. fts. and seed). Swingle, Walter T., 1912, Le genre Balsamocitrus, etc., 1. c, pi. 5 (Young plant). The tabog is a small tree native to the central part of Luzon, Philippine Islands. This species has been reported from the provinces of Tarlac, Pampanga (the type locality is Monte Arayat in this province), Bataan, Manila, and M6rong. I have seen specimens from all of these provinces except Pampanga and M6rong, and have also seen a specimen in Herb. Kew col- lected by Vidal y Soler in 1886 at Angat, Prov. Bulacan. Young plants from 'one to three years old are now growing in the greenhouses of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It has been found that oranges, lemons, grape-fruits, kumquats and other citrous fruits grow well when budded or grafted on such young tabog plants. safford: chelonocarpus 108 BOTANY. — Chelo7iocarpus, a new section of the genus Annona, with descriptions of Annona scleroderma and Annona tes- tudinea. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry. While on a mission for the United States Department of Agri- culture, in April, 1902, Mr. Guy N. Collins of the Bureau of Plant Industry found at the railway station of Morales, not far from Puerto Barrios, Guatemala, a hard-shelled, globose custard- apple quite distinct from all iVnnona fruits hitherto known. He photographed two of the fruits, but was not able to secure flowers or leaves of the trees producing them. In February of the fol- lowing year specimens of the same fruit together with herbar- ium specimens of the leaves were collected by Mr. Percy Wilson of the New York Botanical Garden near Puerto Sierra, Honduras, where the species occurred as a forest tree locally known as ''Anona del monte," or wild Annona. One year later, in April, 1904, Mr. O. F. Cook collected fruits of a hard-shelled Annona very similar to the above species but oblate in form, broadly umbilicated and with the shell less regularly divided into poly- gonal areoles. At the same time Mr. Cook secured herbarium specimens including both leaves and flowers, the former differ- ing somewhat in size and shape from those of the Honduras tree, tho of the same character, and the latter resembling the flowers of the section Atta, in shape, but with the receptacle and consolidated gynoecium so distinct as to further set apart the Guatemala species and its allies as a distinct group or section of the genus Annona. For this section I propose the name Chel- onocarpus, suggested by the hard tortoiseshell-like surface of the fruit. On account of the complete nature of the material col- lected by Mr. Cook the species collected by him is made the type of the section. Section Chelonocarpus Hard-shell Custard-apple Group Flowers in shape resembling those of the section Atta; pedun- cles clustered, usually issuing from the bark of old branches or stems (caulifloral) ; calyx gamosepalous, 3-lobed; receptacle (tor- 104 safford: chelonocarpus us) hemispherical or conoid, not clothed with hairs or bristles but with minute scale-like processes subtending the bases of the filaments in more or less vertical rows; corolla 3-petaled, the petals valvate, oblong or linear-oblong, the upper part trique- trous or keeled within, the lower part concave and swollen so as to include the essential parts; stamens with stout iilaments bearing upon their back a pair of linear pollen sacs and termin- ating in an expanded minutely verrucose connective above them; carpels cohering firmly to form a solid gynoecium, with the outer ovaries minutely hirsute and the styles sharply articulated at the base and falling off soon after pollination has been effected; fruit (syncarpium) spheroid or conoid, composed of firmly con- solidated one-seeded carpels inclosed in a thick rigid shell with the surface divided into rhomoboid or polygonal areoles by raised ridges; seeds smooth and glossy, oblong, somewhat compressed but not marginate, brown, or grayish brown to mouse-colored, surrounded by juicy pulp; leaves coriaceous, oblong, acuminate, with the midrib impressed above and raised beneath and the lateral nerves anastomosing before reaching the margin and con- nected by inconspicuous reticulating veins. • The species belonging to this section have been confused with the common custard-apple or bullock's heart {A. reticulata L.) and the chirimoya (A. cherimola Miller) from both of which they are easily distinguished by the large glossy seeds and the smooth, flat, coriaceous oblong leaves, as well as by the coherent nature of the gynoecium and the thickness of the rigid shell of the fruit. The two species here described may be broadly distin- guished as follows: Fruit ■ oblate-spheroid in form, umbilicate; leaves not exceeding 9 inches (23 cm.) in length, abruptly acu- minate Anno7ia scleroderma Fruit globose in form, not umbilicate; leaves some- times 1 foot (30 cm.) long, gradually acuminate Annona testudinea In addition to these species it is probable that A. Pittieri Donnell Smith, from southern Costa Rica, should be assigned to this section, as the character of its leaves and flowers would in- safford: chelonocarptis 11)5 dicate. Its fruit is described as conoid and its leaves do not exceed 18 cm. in length. ^ Annona scleroderma sp. nov. Hard-shell Custard-apple. Box-te of Guatemala. A vigorous tree. Young growth minutely ferrugineous-pubescent. Leaf-blades oblong, abruptly acuminate, rounded at the base, 14 to 20 cm. long, 5.5 to 6 cm. broad, coriaceous, glabrous when mature, when young minutely ferrugineous-pubescent beneath, dark-green above, becoming olive-green when dry, midrib impressed above and raised beneath, lateral nerves not conspicuous, the parenchyma between them finely reticulate and punctate; petiole 14 to 18 mm. long grooved above in continuation of the median channel, when young minutely ferru- gineous-pubescent, at length glabrate. Peduncles extra-axillary, usuall}' in clusters of 3 or more issuing from the bark of old branches (cauli- floral) with a small ovate bracteole below the middle and one at the base, appressed ferrugineous-pubescent like the young growth, about equal to the petioles in length. Flowers cinnamon-brown, appressed puberulent, caljrx gamosepalous, 3-lobed, 6 to 6.5 mm. in diameter, minutely ferrugineous-pubescent on the outer surface; petals 3, val- vate, closely cohering in the bud, the upper part linear or linear-oblong and triquetrous, the base swollen and concave closely covering the essential parts of the flower; inner petals wanting (in all specimens examined) ; receptacle conoid or hemispherical, not clothed with hairs or bristles between stamens as in many other species but with minute scale-like protuberences subtending the bases of the filaments, disposed in distinct almost vertical rows; gynoecium about 4 mm. in diameter, composed of firmty cohering carpels 2.3 mm. long with the outer ovaries clothed with appressed glossy rufous or chestnut-colored hairs; styles ovate to oblong, sharply articulated at the base, turning black and soon falling off after polhnation has been effected; stamens 1.7 to 1.8 mm. long, with the stout filament light-yellow mottled with orange-red, and the swollen connective above the pollen sacs minutely verrucose, as seen under the microscope. Fruit depressed-globose, or oblate, broadly umbilicate, the surface of the thick rigid shell divided into angular areoles corresponding to the individual closely-cohering carpels by raised obtuse ridges; seeds oblong to oblong-obovate, somewhat compressed but not marginate, about 2 cm. long and 1 cm. broad, with the testa smooth and glossy, at length chocolate brown, endosperm ruminate, with the minute embryo embedded in its base; pulp juicy, not adhering to the seeds, pleasantly aromatic, with mango-like flavor, edible. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 850041, collected at Cahabon, state of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,, April 20, 1904, byO.F. Cook (No. 89). Distribution: Mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, across the boundary into Mexico and as far north as Oaxaca. X'- 1 A. PiUieri, Donn. Sm., Bot. Gaz. 24: 389. 1897. ^' 106 safford: chelonocarpus Explanation of Figure 1. A cluster of unopened flowers, leaves, fruit, and seeds of Annona scleroderma natural size; and the torus marked with vertical rows of stamen-scars and bearing the cohering mass of carpels (gynoecium), enlarged 3 diameters. Drawn by Mr. J. M. Shull. In addition to the type material, seeds sent in 1910 by Prof. Felix Foex to the U. S. Department of Agriculture from the state of Oaxaca belong very probably to this species (Seed collection No. 29316). In a note accompanying them Prof. Foex writes as follows: "These seeds came from a very interesting fruit of good size, good shape, pretty appearance, and having large seeds: the skin is thick as the shell of a coconut but not so hard; it resists well a pretty hard shock and pressure, and would be very good for packing and shipping." Mr. O. F, Cook in his field-notes made the following entry: "The fruit called by the Kekchi Indians of Alta Verapaz box-te, or bosh-te, is curious rather than beautiful. The shell is divided into angular depressed areoles by raised ridges. When mature the ridges are dark brown and the areoles between them green. The pulp is readily separable into slender pyramids. These are normally 1-seeded, but in many cases they are seedless. The texture of the pulp is perfect, the flavor aromatic and deli- cious with no unpleasant aftertaste. It is much richer than the soursop, with a suggestion of the flavor of the zapote bianco, or matasano (Casimiroa edulis), but not in the least objectionable. It can be eaten most conveniently with a spoon. The most fragrant pulp is close to the rind. The seeds separate from the surrounding pulp more readily than in most annona fruits." Annona testudinea -sp. nov. Tortoiseshell Custard-apple. Anona del Monte of Honduras. A forest tree 12 to 15 meters high. Leaf-blades oblong or oblong- elliptical, acuminate at the apex, abruptly cuneate or rounded at the base and usually decurrent on the petiole, those near the base of branch sometimes retuse or rounded at the apex, as in the case of many other species of Annonaceae, 25 to 35 cm. long and 7.5 to 9 cm. broad, coriaceous, smooth and fiat with the midrib impressed above and very prominent beneath; lateral nerves not prominent, connected by incon- spicuous anastomosing veins; petiole rather long (22 to 25 mm.), at length glabrous, grooved above. Flowers not observed. Fruit globose, hard- shelled, 8 to 9 cm, in diameter, its surface divided into polygonal areoles by raised ridges, suggesting tortoiseshell in its general appearance. Seeds 20 to 22 mm. long and 10 to 12 mm. broad, sometimes elliptical in cross-section or slightly compressed with one or both edges sharj:)- cornered but not marginate, testa smooth and glossy, light-brown or Fig. 3. Seeds of Annona tes- tudinea, a, compared with seeds of A. reticulata, b, with which the present species has hitherto been confused. Fig. 1. Annona scleroderma Safford. 107 108 safford: chelonocarpus mouse-colored, faintly revealing the transverse wrinkels of the ruminate endosperm; pulp very juicy, aromatic, edible. Type in the Herbarium of John Donnell Smith, collected in the forest near Puerto Sierra, Honduras, February 7, 1903, by Percy Wilson (No. 351). Specimens examined: Material from the type col- lection in the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and the Donnell Smith Herbarium, Baltimore, Maryland; also photographs of fruits purchased at Morales, Guatemala, not far from Puerto Barrios, April 6, 1902, by Mr. Guy N. Collins (No. 3833). Explanation of Figure 2. Annona testudinea, from type material, natural size, showing a typical acuminate leaf and a basal leaf with retuse apex. Drawn by Mr. Ivan M. Fitzwater. The fruit, as described by Mr. Collins in his field notes, "has a shell about one-eighth of an inch thick, which breaks with almost a fracture, with a fleshy core [receptacle] reaching from the base nearly to the center of the fruit. The pulp of the ripe fruit is rich, soft, and watery, with only a faint suggestion of the sandiness noted in the Annona observed at Sepacuite [A. reticulata L.], very aromatic and with a slight pine-like flavor, turning brown when perfectly ripe and not adhering to the seeds. The color of the outer surface is grayish or bluish green, somewhat pruinose, becoming purplish at maturity." According to Mr. Percy Wilson, the fresh leaves are dark green above and paler beneath. The tree, known locally as "anona del monte," or wild custard-apple, is highly esteemed by the natives for its fruit. The latter is green- ridged with brown seeds having the odor of turpentine when cut, and with good edible pulp, which is easily separable. Fig. 2. Annona testudinea Safford. 109 ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. ASTROPHYSICS. — Report on the astrophy steal Observatory, Smith- sonian Institution, for year ending June 30, 1912. C. G. Abbot. The year has been notable for expeditions to Algeria and California to test the supposed variability of the sun by making simultaneously at these two widely separated stations spectrobolometric determinations of the solar constant of radiation. The measurements in Algeria agree with earlier ones at Washington and Mount Whitney and indicate that Mount Wilson values are systematically a little low. Apart from this systematic error the average accidental differences between Algerian and Mount Wilson determinations were only 1.2 per cent, indicating an average accidental error of a single solar constant determination at one station of only 0.9 per cent. So far as yet reduced, high solar constant values obtained in Algeria coincide with high values at Mount Wilson and vice versa. A solar variation of 4 per cent was indicated at both stations in the first half of September, 1911. Many values remain to be com- puted, but it can now hardly be doubted that the outcome will prove conclusively the irregular short-period variability of the sun. Numerous copies of the silver disk pyrheliometer have been stand- ardized and sent out, mainly to foreign governmental meteorological services. Valuable results have been secured in the research on the transmission of radiation through atmospheric water vapor. An accurate method of estimating the total water vapor contents of the atmosphere between the observer and the sun has been devised by Mr. Fowle. C. G. A. METEOROLOGY.— ^^?/2osp/ienc studies. J. W. Sanstrom. Bulle- tin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 5: 3-51. 1912. The first part of this paper is devoted to a number of fundamental or general principles in meteorology, all of which are minutely and clearly 110 abstracts: meteorology 111 explained. The second part treats of the vortex movements of the atmos- phere, and is by no means such easy reading as the first part. The author made the observations upon which his article is based during the winter and in the mountains of Sweden, and hence under ex- ceptionally favorable opportunities for the study of air movements. A comparatively warm ocean was on one side of him and a cold continental area on the other, so that he himself was on the inside, as it were, of a gigantic heat engine where he could see and experience all that was taking place. Among other things, an account is given of the movements of the wind as it blows across regions covered by fine loose snow. In this case the lower air, to the depth of 20 to 50 meters, becomes filled with the snow in the same manner that it becomes filled with dust when blowing over a desert. Now the snow obviously increases the density of the stratum of air it is in, and hence this particular stratum moves up the windward side of a mountain or other slope comparatively slowly and then, as soon as it has passed the crest, flows down the leeward side with great violence. In one observed case, this rapidly falling loaded air set up great surging billows in the atmosphere at the foot of the mountain that lasted. for hours, with only 10 to 15 minute intervals between perfect calm and hurricane violence, and that were felt to a distance of 140 kilo- meters from their place of origin. The second part of the paper begins with a general account of vortex motion which the author makes clear by the aid of drawings and numeri- cal calculations applicable to simple cases. The principles thus estab- lished are then applied to the vortices of the atmosphere of which there are two distinct tyiDes : Those which are roughly circular and symmetri- cal, with their vortex filaments nearly vertical, and those which are very unsj^mmetrical with horizontal filaments. The first obviously applies to whirl-winds, tornadoes and the like, and is relatively simple, while the second concerns approximately^ horizontal circulation with an upper and a lower current flowing in opposite directions. This is called a "gliding" vortex and the plane separating the oppositely directed cur- rents a ''glide" plane. It is further explained that in general the "glide" plane is more or less inclined, and suitable equations are developed for the computation of the rate at which energy is being transformed in such a vortex. A remarkable example of the "gliding" vortex commonly occurs during the winter along the coast of Norway. Here a cold east wind flows down the mountains and onto the ocean with great violence, while 112 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism at an elevation of about 1 kilomete* a relatively light and warm counter current flows to the east. In reality this is a "land breeze" on a very large scale, so large indeed that per kilometer of coast-line heat energy is converted into wind energy frequently at the rate of 45 million horse power! W. J. Humphreys. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— A new; type of compass declinometer. R. L. Faris. Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity 17: 109-114. 1912. This paper describes a new form of instrument for ascertaining the magnetic declination at stations where the true bearing to some other point is already known, and is especially adapted for use of general sur- vey parties when working in remote regions, such as Alaska or the Philip- pines, where it is possible at nominal cost to ascertain the magnetic declination much in advance of the possibility of a general magnetic survey. E5fperience in the Coast and Geodetic Survey and elsewhere has shown that acceptable magnetic declination results can be obtained with pivot suspension needles. The instrument is described as follows : It is essentially a compass needle enclosed in a rectangular needle box with peep sights, which is rigidly mounted on a graduated horizontal circle. The needle lifter and some of the other details are novel and have been worked out with great care. The base rests on three leveling screws and has double centers of brass. The horizontal circle, which is 152.4 mm. in diameter, is read by two verniers to single minutes of arc. The needle is mounted in a rectangular box the inside dimensions of which are 164 mm. long, 31.5 mm. wide, and 17 mm. deep. This box is secured to the cover plate of the horizontal circle. At each end of the box is a graduated arc (arc graduated to 10 minutes), about 10° in extent on each side of the zero in the middle. Vertical peep sights, 40 mm. high, are attached to the ends of the box so that the zeros of the graduations, the needle pivot and the peep slits are in the same vertical plane. The top edge of the needle is straight, its ends and the apex of the agate cup suspension being in a straight line. The needle lifter is of special design and direct acting, and so arranged that the instrument cannot be packed in its packing case without first lifting the needle off its suspension pivot. When the needle is raised off the pivot it is held firmly in place between the lifter and a flat brass spring in the top of the needle box. The needle and horizontal circle readings are made with the aid of three reading microscopes. The instrument is leveled by means of an adjustable circular level mounted on the cover plate of the horizontal circle. The needle is 148.5 mm. long and is made of "magnet steel;" the dimensions of its cross-section are 0.6 mm. b}^ 3.5 mm. The width of the peep-sight slits is 0.5 mm. abstracts: physics 113 Upon testing this •instrument under actual field conditions it was found that the needle, on account of its rather unusual length, required too frequent readjustment of balance. As a remedy for this inconven- ience the point of suspension (agate cup) has now been raised, likewise the ends of the needle have been bent upward to bring them again in line with the suspension point. ' R. L. F. PHYSICS. — On the density of solid substances, with especial reference to permanent changes produced by high pressures. John Johnston and L. H. Adams. Journal of American Chemical Society, 34: 563-584. 1912. With a new and improved form of pyknometer the density of salts and other substances has been determined with an accuracy of 3 or 4 units in the fourth decimal place, that is, within 0.02 per cent. In many cases, however, such accuracy is unnecessary, since the variations of density due to inhomogeneities of the material may be much greater than this. Powdering a crystalline substance does not change its density by an amount which we can detect with certainty, provided that the material is homogeneous and free from cracks and holes ; but if the substance is not homogeneous, then, as might be expected, the fine powder is denser than the coarse particles. Neither does very high hydrostatic pressure produce any after-effect on the density of strictly homogeneous crystalline compounds. But if the pressure be not uniform, then the density of a metal which has been subjected to such compression — or has been deformed in any other way — ^usually increases first (owing presumably to the filling up of pores and cracks) and then decreases, sometimes even so as to reach a final density less than the original value. Subsequent annealing of the specimen causes a renewed increase of density. The direction of the change of density on compressing bismuth is, contrary to Spring's conclusion, the same as that for other metals, namely a decrease of density, following upon deformation. The bearing of these results upon the question of the "flow" of metals is discussed: they are shown to be in harmonj^ with the idea that the "flow" — ^or indeed any deforma- tion— of a metal is a manifestation of a real melting produced by the unequal strains set up during the process. Finally, it is important to emphasize the fact the density of most substances is somewhat variable, owing to a lack of complete homogen- eity of the material. In consequence of this, slight changes of density 114 abstracts: geochemistry can not be regarded as good evidence for the occurrence of any trans- formation or chemical reaction, whether produced by subjecting the system to compression or by other means. J. J. and L. H. A. PHYSICS. — Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and selenium as immersion media for the determination of high refractive indices with the micro- scope. H, E. Merwin and E. S. Larsen. American Journal of Science, 34: 42^7. 1912. Fused mixtures of sulfur and selenium are glassy when cold. By standardizing the mixtures with respect to their refractive indices by measurements on prisms molded into the angle between glass plates, they can be used to match the refractive indices of suitable substances immersed in them and studied under the microscope. A chart showing the refractive indices of various mixtures for several wave-lengths has been prepared, and a method of interpolating values of refractive indiqps, obtained by using a monochromatic illuminator, explained H.E. M. GEOCHEMISTRY. — The sulfides of zinc, cadmium, and mercury; their crystalline forms and genetic conditions. E. T. Allen and J. L. Crenshaw. Microscopic study by H. E. Merwin. American Journal of Science, 34: 341-396. 1912. The sulfides of zinc are enantiotropic, with an inversion point at 1020°. Sphalerite is the stable form below this temperature, wurt- zite above. Their indices of refraction, dispersion, and specific gravities were determined. Iron in the form of ferrous sulfide is present in solid solution in the ferruginous sphalerites, since the specific volume, index of refraction, and inversion-point change continuously with increasing percentage of iron. Sphalerite was formed synthetically by action of alkali sulfides on zinc salts at 200° and above. Wurtzite was obtained by action of hydrogen sulfide on solutions of zinc salts containing free acid at temperatures between 250° and 350°. Only one crystalline form of cadmium sulfide was obtained. It is identical with the mineral greenockite. Crystallographic and optical measurements and determinations of specific gravity were made on a very pure synthetic preparation. Besides cinnabar, a black sulfide of mercury, probably identical with metacinnabar, and a new form, hexagonal, but with properties distinct from cinnabar, were obtained. Cinnabar is the stable form; the other two are monotropic forms. abstracts: petrography 115 The most interesting result for geochemistry which was obtained in these synthetic studies was the following: The unstable crystalline forms, metacinnabar, wurtzite, and marcasite, are obtained only from acid solutions, while the corresponding stable forms, cinnabar, sphaler- ite, and pyrite, are the only product of alkaline solutions, tho they may be obtained from acid solutions also. E. T. A and J. L. C. PETROGRAPHY. — Microscopical petrography from the quantitative view- point. Fred. Eugene Wright. Journal of Geology, 20: 481- 501. 1912. In this paper attention is directed to the importance of good quantita- tive work in microscopical petrography which has now passed the quali- tative, reconnaissance stage of its development and is entering upon large problems, essentially quantitative in nature, which require pre- cise data of observation for their solution. The different optical prop- erties used in the determination of minerals are classified in detail and simple effective methods are briefly described which experience has shown to be well adapted for the determination of the different optical constants of mineral plates and grains. F. E. W. PETROGRAPHY.- — Petrographic study of the specimens of loess, tierra cocida, and scoria collected by the Hrdlicka-Willis Expedition. Fred. Eugene Wright and Clarence N. Fenner. Included in the vol- ume, Early man in South America, by Ales Hrdlicka in collaboration with W. H. Holmes, Bailey Willis, Fred. Eugene Wright, and Clar- ence N. Fenner. Bulletin, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith- sonian Institution, 52: 55-98. 1912. This collection was found to contain several extraordinary rock types, and for the solution of the problems which they present, three distinct lines of attack were followed: (1) the usual detailed petrographic-micro- scopic examination of the rocks; (2) chemical study of the different rock types ; (3) thermal study of the specimens at different temperatures and comparisons of the products thus obtained with the natural pro- ducts. The loess consists in large measure of volcanic and eruptive mate- rial. Salic volcanic glass is present in practically every specimen and may become so abundant that it constitutes 90 per cent of the whole. The minerals are remarkably fresh and unaltered, while the amount of argillaceous material present is relatively small in most of the spec- imens. These facts may be. considered indicative of tremendous and 116 abstracts: petrology widespread volcanic activity of the explosive type during or just pre- ceding the formation of the loess. The specimens of tierra cocida are composed, for the most part, simply of loess fragments which have been indurated and reddened by heat action, between 850° and 1050°. The loess and tierra cocida are similar in general character and composition. The scoriae are not normal volcanic scoriae. They have been produced by the melting down of an original clastic material (loess) under conditions which protected the molten mass from oxidation. The hypothesis is advanced that the loess formation was intruded by igneous masses which melted down the adjacent loess and formed the present black scoriae. The lack of oxidation of the scoriae and their abundance in the field precludes the possibility that they were formed by the melt- ing down of loess by bonfires or any type of fire in the open air. Pre- historic man is not, therefore, responsible for their occurrence. F. E. W and C. N. F. PETROLOGY. — Study of a contact metamorphic ore-deposit. The Dolores mine, at Matehuala, S. L. P. Mexico. J. E. Spurr, G. H. Garrey, and Clarence N. Fenner. Economic Geology, 7: 444-484. 1912. This is a study of an interesting jjroblem in applied geology, toward which the laboratory contributed an exhaustive petrographic investi- gation of the various types of rock which had been collected in the field. The problem comprised the study and elucidation of the phenomena of an unusual type of metamorphism and ore-deposition, associated with and consequent upon the intrusion of a great mass of eruptive rock into a series of sedimentary beds. In conjunction with the field-work a collection of typical rock-specimens was sent to the laboratory. From these the field relations which had been observed were confirmed and supplementary information obtained. From the different sources of in- formation thus made available it was possible to arrive at well-grounded conclusions regarding the geological history of events, including the sequence of mineral deposition, the nature of the circulating solutions, and the relations existing between the metallic sulfides and the gangue minerals. C. N. F. abstracts: geology 117 GEOLOGY. —Apishapa, Colo., Folio. George W. Stose. Folio No. 186, Geologic Atlas of the United States, U. S. Geological Survey. January, 1913. Topographic, geologic, and structure maps, and sheet of illustrations. The Apishapa quadrangle is one-quarter of a square degree situated 20 miles southeast of Pueblo, Colorado. It was geologically surveyed by G. K. Gilbert and his assistants some years ago and was recently completed and revised by G. W. Stose. The topography of the quad- rangle is tjTDical of the semiarid Great Plains region, comprising rolling treeless plains, low mesas, and deep rocky canyons. An old dissected peneplain, drainage modifications, and other physiographic features are discussed and figured. The rocks exposed are all of Cretaceous age except the oldest rocks observed in some of the deeper canyons — the Morrison formation of possibly Jurassic age — and the surficial gravels of Tertiary and Quaternary age. Lower Cretaceous rocks are recog- nized and mapped for the first time in this vicinity as the Purgatoire formation. The structure of the quadrangle is a sharp dome-like up- lift centering in the Rattlesnake Buttes, with a total vertical displace- ment of 2500 feet in the quadrangle. The hard Dakota sandstone forms the land surface over a large portion of the higher part of the dome. Numerous normal faults occur on the flanks of the uplift, and the resulting intricate displacements are brought out on the geologic structure map by deformation contours. A sharp local dome structure is regarded as probably the result of the intrusion of a laccolithic body of igneous rock emanating from the source of the Spanish Peak intru- sion 25 miles to the southwest. These igneous rock are represented in the quadrangle by scattered dikes of rather unusual composition. The petrographic description of these is contributed by Whitman Cross. G. \V. S. GEOLOGY. — Geology of the salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia. George W. Stose. Bulletin 530 (separate N), U. S. Geological Survey. Pp. 14^37. 1912. The salt and gj^psum deposits are in the vicinity of Saltville, Va., and occur in red and gray clays of Mississippian ("Lower Carbonifer- ous") age adjacent to the Rome fault, a great fault thrusting Cambrian dolomite and limestone upon the Carboniferous strata. A section is given of the lower Carboniferous rocks in the syncline adjacent to the fault, comprising the Price sandstone, at the base, Maccrady ("Pulaski") formation, and the Newman limestone, and the equivalence of the 118 ABSTKACTS: GEOLOGY gypsiferous and saline clays to part of the Maccrady formation is discussed. The various theories that have been offered to account for the accumulation of these deposits are described. The fact that the deposits are found only close to the fault and are not known to occur in quantity in the same strata any distance away from the fault, leads the author to the conclusion that disseminated salt and gypsum in the original sediments of earthy limestone, shale, and sandstone, have been concentrated in the same strata adjacent to the fault by circulating waters thru chemical affinity. The ammonia-soda process, which is used in converting the brine of these wells into soda products is described. G. W. S. GEOLOGY. — Index to the stratigraphy of North America. Bailey Willis. Accompanied by a geologic map of North America, com- piled by Bailey Willis and G. W. Stose. Professorial Paper 71, U. S. Geological Survey. 1912. This, report summarizes what are regarded as the most authoritative statements concerning the geology of the North American continent. The map, 60 by 77 inches, to which the text is an extended key, is printed in 4 sheets which are folded and encased in a separate box. Its scale is 1 : 500,000 or approximately 1 inch to 80 miles. The 42 color distinctions represent as many divisions of strata. There are distinguished 6 main divisions of the pre-Cambrian, 7 of the Paleozoic, 6 of the Mesozoic, and 7 of the Tertiary. Besides these main divisions larger equivalents in parts of the continent, where details are not known or are too minute to be mapped, are represented by distinct color effect. The color scheme is planned so that the map fulfills two purposes — that of a wall map and of a pocket map. Viewed on a wall only the larger units and the different geologic provinces stand out. The Cana- dian shield of pre-Cambrian rocks for example is set off sharply from the parallel bands of Paleozoic rocks of the Appalachians, and the lava fields of the western states from the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of the Great Plains and the older rocks of the Rocky Mountains. At close range, on the other hand, the more minute subdivisions can readily be distinguished. To facilitate references in the text, the map is divided into rectangu- lar spaces, each embracing 4 degrees of latitude and 6 degrees of longi- tude, which are designated by letters and numbers. The text is closely linked to the map by these coordinates, which form the basis of the arrangement of the quotations. Except the explanatory matter in the chapters on introduction and bibliography the descriptions are arranged abstracts: plant physiology 119 in 16 chapters, each treating of one of the major geologic divisions shown on the map. Under each chapter the statements are arranged geo- graphically according to the coordinates, in alphabetic and numerical sequence. Accordingly the geology of any locality where more than one geologic system is represented is distributed thru the various chap- ters in which those systems are discussed. The compiler has depended in most cases on the papers quoted to furnish other references to earlier literature. Nevertheless, there are references in the text to 953 separate papers. Each chapter is accom- panied by a small sketch map showing the areal distribution of the rocks described in that chapter as represented on the geologic map. G. W. S. BOTANY. — The phylogeriy of grasses. William H. Lamb, Forest Service. The Plant World, 15: No. 11. November, 1912. This is a discussion of the origin of grasses, the essential differences between the tribes of grasses, and their probable derivation from a common ancestral type. The grasses have come from lily-like plants by a reduction in the number of the parts of the flower. Among grasses the direction of evolution has been toward a reduction in the number of flowers in the spikelet. Forms with relatively more flowers in the spikelet are to be regarded as primitive, and forms that have but one flower in the spikelet have developed furtherest from the ancestral type. The first grasses were a primitive group, probably very similar to the bamboos as we know them today, and these are the progenitors, directly and indirectly, of all the other tribes. The Bambuseae have given rise to the other tribes by three great lines of development; the Festucean Line, the Phalaridean Line, and the Andropogonean Line. A diagrammatic drawing has been made of the spikelet, the inflores- cence, and the flower of one genus to typify each tribe, and a chart has been arranged which shows the relationship of the tribes of grasses, and the structural modifications which have segregated each distinct group. W. H. L. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— r/ie wilting coefficient for plants in alkali soils. Thomas H. Kearney. Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 109, pp. 17-25. 1913. The object of this investigation was to ascertain whether the presence of an excess of soluble salts in the soil affects the ability of plants to reduce the moisture content to the limit at which plants wilt and are un- 120 abstracts: plant physiology able to regain their turgor unless additional water is supplied (See Bulle- tin 230, Bureau of Plant Industry, 1912, "The Wilting Coefficient for Different Plants and Its Indirect Determination," by L. J. Briggs and H. L. Shantz) . For this purpose wheat seedlings were grown in a series of soils having a graduated salt content, with sodium sulphate as the principal component. It was demonstrated that the utilization of all "available" moisture in the soil is not prevented by the presence of "alkali" salts unless in quantity sufficient virtually to inhibit the growth of the plants. While the amount of growth made by the plants decreased regularly with the salt content of the soil, their roots, even in the mixture having the high- est salt content (0.74 per cent of the dry weight of the soil) in which any growth was made, were finally able to reduce the soil moisture to the calculated wilting coefficient. Absorption was much retarded, however, in the more saline soils, the length of time required for the plants to reach the wilting point having ranged from 18 in the soil having the lowest salt content to 43 in the soil having the highest. T. H. K. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. Some effects of refrigeration on sulfured and unsulfured hops. W. W. Stockberger and Frank Rabak. Bul- letin No. 271, Bureau of plant Industry, Department of Agricul- ture, pp. 21. 1912. This bulletin summarizes the results of a comparative study of the effects of cold and ordinary storage on sulfured and unsulfured hops. Trade experts agreed that the samples of sulfured hops in cold storage were best in quality, but differed widely as to the undesirable effect of the treatment upon the other samples. Determinations were made of the acidity and ester content of the volatile oils extracted from samples of the hops under each condition of storage. The conclusions drawn from these analyses are that both sulfuring and cold storage retard changes in the hops leading to an increase in acidity and ester content of the oils. Cold storage is appar- ently more effective than sulfuring in retarding the increase in acidity, but is less efficient than sulfuring in retarding increase in ester content. Cold storage and sulfuring combined are much more effective in retard- ing changes in acidity and ester content than either alone. The per- centage of decrease in the content of soft resins was found to be less in the cold-stored hops than in those in ordinary storage. The evidence from the analyses goes to show that the sulfuring tends to retard changes in the content of soft resins only when combined with cold storage. W. W. S. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The 80th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, December 18, 1912. Dr. L. 0. Howard gave an illustrated lecture on The danger from imported plants and fruits, and government efforts to avoid it. The life history of many accidentally imported injurious insects and the ravages they work were illustrated and explained. The best methods of keep- ing these pests in at least partial control were described. The last Con- gress passed a law that enables an effective quarantine to be established against insect pests of all kinds. Dr. Howard also gave an account, which follows in full, of the cele- bration of the 250th anniversary of the Royal Society of London, to which he was the official delegate of the Academy. W. J. Humphreys, Secretary. The 250th anniversary celebration of the Royal Society, Loyidon, Jidy 15-19, 1912: L. 0. Howard, Delegate of the Washington Academy of Sciences. To the President and Members of the Washington Academy of Sciences : I beg to submit a report on the two hundred and fiftieth anni- versary celebration of the Royal Society, and in submitting this report beg to express my deep gratitude to the President and to the Board of Managers of the Academy for the appointment as delegate to this extraordinary function, which has given me one of the pleasantest experiences of a lifetime. In talking recently with one or two members of the Academy, I have been rather surprised to find that they know little of the history of the Royal Society. One of them has even assured me that some time ago he attempted to read up on the subject, but was unable to find a com- petent historical sketch. Now I have no doubt that if one were to consult that much advertised but none the less reasonably competent Encyclopaedia Britannica full information on this important subject would be found. Since, however, there is undoubtedly a lack of infor- mation, it may be well to state briefly, by way of preliminary, certain facts which were brought to the writer's attention in the course of the memorable week follo^\dng July 15, 1912. The Royal Society is the oldest scientific society in Great Britain, and one of the oldest in Europe. It is usually considered as having 121 122 proceedings: academy of sciences been founded in 1660, and King Charles II, in fact, approved of its organization in December of that year. A Charter of Incorporation, however, passed the Great Seal July 15, 1662, and it appears that King Charles gave the newly founded society a small grant at that time, which, however, and sad to relate, he was forced to withdraw before the conclusion of his reign. The first Transactions appeared March 6, 1664-65. The headquarters of the Society at the start were in Gresham College, but after the great fire of 1666 meetings were held in Arundel House, at the invitation of Henry Howard of Norfolk. Isaac Newton was elected a fellow in 1671, and in 1703 was made President, retaining the office until his death in 1727. During his term the Society moved to Crane Court, and in 1780, under the presi- dency of Sir Joseph Banks, it again removed to apartments set aside in Somerset House, where it stayed until 1857, when it removed to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it has remained ever since. In the entire course of its history the Royal Society has been constantly consulted by the government for advice on scientific matters of national importance. Thus the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was in 1810 placed under the sole charge of the Society, and this policy has been continued down to the recent investigations of sleeping sickness and other diseases, conducted under the auspices of this organization. The Society administers large sums for the promotion of scientific research, possessing an annual grant exceeding twenty thousand dol- lars for this purpose. Five medals (the Copley, two Royals, the Davey and the Hughes) are awarded every year. The Rumford and Darwin medals are awarded every two years, the latter having been awarded the present j^ear to Dr. Francis Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, in whose honor the medal was struck. The Silvester medal is awarded triennially, and the Buchanan medal every four years. It is worthy of note that the Buchanan medal this year was awarded to Col. William C. Gorgas, sanitary officer in charge of sanitation of the Panama Canal. Fellows are elected strictly in accordance with their scientific attain- ments, except of course in the case of royalty. The admission fee is fifty dollars, and the annual dues twenty dollars, but, by the operation of a fund established in 1878, the admission fee and five dollars of the annual dues have been remitted since that time. In making preparations for the celebration of this two hundred and fiftieth anniversary, judging by results only, since I am not informed as to the steps which were taken, considerable care was exercised in the selection of the organizations which were invited to send delegates. Apparently only the principal academies of science and the principal universities of the world were invited. At all events, less than three hundred delegates, including those from Great Britain, were in attend- ance, and among these the United States of America had the largest number. It may be interesting to mention the American delegates proceedings: academy of sciences 123 in the order in which they appeared upon the printed diary, programme of proceedings, and hst of delegates : University of California Prof. H. C. Plummer University of Chicago Prof. E. B. Frost Clark University, Worcester Prof. Arthur G. Webster Columbia University, New York Dr. N. Murray Butler, President Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y Prof. J. H. Comstock Harvard University Prof. B. O. Peirce Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Prof. W. Bullock Clark Leland Stanford Junior University, California.. Prof. Vernon L. Kellogg University of Michigan Prof. William H. Hobbs University of Minnesota Dr. Arthur Hamilton University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dr. Edgar F. Smith, Provost University of Princeton, New Jersey. . . Prof. John G. Hibben, President University of Wisconsin Prof. Charles K. Leith Yale University Dr. Arthur Twining Hadley , President American Academy of Sciences, Boston Prof. Edwin H. Hall Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.. Prof. W. E. Brown, F.R.S. American Mathematical Society, New York. .Prof. H. B. Fine, President American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia Prof. W. B. Scott, Vice-President. Franklin Institute, Philadelphia Major G. O. Squier California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. . . .Mr. Joseph D. Grant Carnegie Institution, Washington Dr. R. S. Woodward, President National Academy of Sciences, Washington Dr. Arnold Hague, Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington Dr. Arnold Hague Washington Academy of Sciences Dr. L. O. Howard On Monday night, July 15, 1912, exactly 250 years from the date of the passage of the Charter by the Great Seal, Burlington House, become famous during the last 65 years from the notable social and scientific functions of the Society, was brilliantly illuminated, and the delegates assembled, many of them just from their steamers and trains, for the purpose of registration and for informal meeting and the making and renewal of acquaintance. The first formal function took place the next morning, Tuesday, the 16th, at Westminster Abbey. The heat of the day was excessive. It would have been excessive even in Washington, and in London it was almost overpowering. The majority of the delegates wore academic dress, and the service was attended by many distinguished Englishmen high in rank or in political service, one of the naves of the cathedral being reserved for delegates, the remainder of the space being filled by London society. Addison's superb hymn, "The Spacious Firmament on High," was sung by the choir, and, while appropriate to the occasion 124 proceedings: academy of sciences in other respects, brought a smile to the lips of the American delegates when the words were chanted. The unwearied sun, from day to day. Does his Creator's power display. And publishes to every land The work of an almighty hand. The service was impressive in the extreme, and most significant was the short address of the Dean of Westminster based on the passage ''But truth abideth and is strong forever." He recalled the perturba- tion which was wont to take possession of men's minds during the last century with regard to discoveries in natural science — perturbation which sometimes betrayed itself in fear, impatience and indignation; but times were now changed; he thought that he might claim to speak in the name of the whole world of contemporary Christian thought when he gave expression to the gratitude, which as a rule the clergy has little or no opportunity for offering, for the amazing enrichment of human thought which had resulted from patient researches into natural science during the past 250 years, and in particular during the past 80 years. They thanked God for the great and glorious work that had been done by the men of science for the widening of human thought; with all humility they expressed their grateful obligation for the benefits which had been rendered in Great Britain by the Royal Society. In the afternoon of Tuesday, delegates were received in the great library of the Royal Society, Burlington House. Sir Archibald Geikie, the President, was accompanied by Lord Rayleigh, Past President; Sir A. B. Kempe, Treasurer; Sir Joseph Larmor, and Sir J. R. Radford, Secretaries; and Mr. Robert Harrison, Assistant Secretary. The major- ity of delegates wore official robes or academic dress. Among the scarlet doctors' gowns were prominent the crimson and gold cloaks of some of the German professors, the claret and gold uniform with brown fur cloak of a Hungarian delegate, the inconspicuous but rather bizarre olive-green uniform of members of the French Academy, and the silk robes and turbans of the Indian representatives. The heat again was almost overpowering, and, although the hbrary is called "the Great Library" the 300 delegates were so closely crowded that it required the intense interest of the function to overcome the feeling of personal discomfort. Sir Archibald Geikie, the President, in welcoming the delegates, was necessarily obliged to make the rather trite but none the less true obser- vation that no more striking proof than was presented by this assembly could be given of the reality and cordiality of that spirit of frank and loyal cooperation which united into one great brotherhood the students of science in every land and in every language. He reviewed the events which led to the grant of the Charter of Incorporation by Charles II, and mentioned some of the famous names of men associated with the Royal Society and with the progress of science. Starting its career with a notable group of physicists and mathematicians, among whom proceedings: academy of sciences 125 were Robert Boyle and John Wilkins, it before long welcomed Isaac Newton into its ranks, published his immortal " Principia," and annually elected him as its President for nearly a quarter of a century. He called attention to the fact that the physical sciences had all along been strongly represented in the Society. It seemed but yesterday, he said, that James Clerk Maxwell's voice was heard in those rooms and that Stokes and Kelvin sat in the presidential chair; that the succession of leaders was still well maintained, he called attention to the presence that day of Lord Rayleigh, Sir William Crooks, Sir Joseph Thomson, Sir Joseph Larmor, and any others. Nor had the biological sciences been less prominent in the work of the Society. From the early days of John Ray down to those of Charles Darwin, Hooker, Huxley and Lister, every branch of biology has been illustrated and advanced by the fellows of the Society. The ceremony of presenting addresses of congratulation followed. Aside from the formal addresses there were speeches of complimentary character from a representative of each country. For America, Prof. W. B. Scott, of Princeton, as Vice-President of the American Philo- sophical Society, was selected. A notable incident of this function was the presentation to the Society by the German academies and societies of a large bronze tablet commemorative of the work of the Royal Society and of the admiration held for it in Germany. This tablet is to be set into the walls of the Library at Burlington House. At night on Tuesday a banquet took place at the Guildhall. The delegates were all present, and hundreds of men prominent in most walks of life in England graced the function by their presence. A glance over the table list shows many familiar names, from which are culled here and there a few which may be of especial interest to members of the Washington Academy: Lord AUerton, Lord Alverstone, the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, Mr. Asquith the Premier of England, Mr. Balfour, Cardinal Bourne, Mr. Francis Darwin, Sir George H. Darwin, the Dean of Saint Pauls, the Dean of Westminster, Prince Ahmed Fouad Pacha, Prince Boris Galitzin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Lord George Hamilton, Mr. Rudyard Kipling, Lord Morley, the Duke of Northumberland, Sir William Osier, Sir William Ramsay, Lord Rayleigh, Lord Reay, Hon. Walter Rothschild, Professor Schaefer President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Lord Strathcona, Lord Sudeley, Lord Tennyson, Sir William Thisleton- Dyer, Sir J. J. Thomson, and Sir. J. I. Thornycroft. Wherever one glanced around the assemblage his eye fell upon some man of world-wide fame. At the conclusion of the dinner there was an extraordinary list of toasts and responses. The word "toast-master" in England at a func- tion of this kind has a different significance from the term as applied in this country. There the toast-master is literally an announcer of toasts. On this occasion he was a very large man "with a very large voice, who announced in stentorian tones at the request of the presiding officer the toasts which were to be drunk, invariably beginning "My lords and gentlemen." 126 proceedings: academy of sciences A notable speech was that of Mr. Asquith, Prime Minister of England. It was historical in large part. One sentence which aroused laughter was as follows: "When the universities were ingrossed in the din of civil war, 'to the neglect/ as a contemporary writer says, 'of academical studies,' science and philosophy took refuge in the comparative peace and tranquility which the streets of the City of London could then afford." Another pleasantry of the Prime Minister's was given in the following words : "In the same roll with John Dryden is one of the chief victims of his satire, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, who, amid his various qualifications for the chief office of state, was as we know 'chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon,' and I see from your records that his- tory tells us that when this, perhaps the most original of the original fellows of the Royal Society was committed to the tower, a special laboratory was fitted up for him in order that he might practice chem- istry; and, according to Bishop Burnet, he was 'nearly' successful in discovering the philosopher's stone — an illustration which suggests that some people might be more profitably employed at present than at either Westminster or Whitehall." Characteristic of the address of the Prime Minister was the frank acknowledgment of the benefits derived by government from the work of men of science. The administration of the grants of the Royal Soci- ety is not, he said, a benefit conferred on the Society by the State, but a service conferred on the State by the Society. That distinguished scholar and late eminent politician. Lord Morley, proposed the toast of universities at home and abroad, and his address was a most scholarly and able production. The Archbishop of Canterbury proposed the toast of the learned societies in the old and new world, and called attention to the signifi- cance of the fact that this toast had been entrusted to an ecclesiastic. He called attention to the fact that Smithfield and St. Paul's Cross were very near to the Guild Hall, and he believed that the time might be found when, if under that roof or under the roof which preceded it, they had seen a great gathering of orthodox ecclesiastics together with a gathering of adventurous students of science, they might have agreed that they were on the way to Smithfield, that the one might see the other suffer. One of the speakers at this historic dinner was a member of this Acad- emy, Dr. R. S. Woodward, President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The morning of Wednesday, July 17, was devoted to visits to places of interest in London, including the Zoological Gardens, the British Museum, the Natural History Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum, Lambeth Palace, and Westminster Abbey. The most perfect arrange- ments were made for the entertainment of the ladies accompanying visiting delegates, and during this and the following mornings arrange- ments had been made for small parties to see many of the famous private houses of London, and a special reception was held in their honor. PEOCEEDINGS: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 127 In the afternoon of this day the Duke "and Duchess of Northumber- land gave a garden party at Syon House on the .Thames, about eight miles from Hyde Park Corner — Syon House, one of the famous houses of England, with beautiful grounds, containing a wealth of art. Hun- dreds of London society people also attended the garden party. In the evening one of the famous conversaziones of the Royal Society was held at Burlington House. The contrast between a conversazione of the Royal Society, from the social point of view, and one of the social functions of the Washington Academy of Sciences is striking to say the least. Wealth, beauty, and nobility abound at the one, while at the other the list is restricted to scientific attainments and personal beauty. At Burlington House on Wednesday night, among other interesting exhibits, there were shown the chronometer by Arnold, used by Captain Cook on his second and third voyages; an electrical machine constructed by Doctor Joseph Priestley, the original model of Sir Humphrey Davey's miner's safety lamp, a pair of compasses which belonged to Sir Christopher Wren, and Newton's original account of his reflecting tele- scope. Thursday morning also was devoted to specially conducted visits to points of interest, and in the afternoon His Majesty the King, Patron of the Royal Society, and Her Majesty the Queen received the President and Council of the Royal Society and the delegates at Windsor Castle. This was a function that commanded especial interest from the foreign delegates, and, curiously enough, especially from those coming from countries whose governments are of the republican form. The invi- tations alone, issued by the Lord Chamberlain at the command of their Majesties, and the cards of entrance signed by Chesterfield, Lord Stew- ard, were sufficiently novel to the republicans to demand their vivid interest. Special trains from Paddington Station took the delegates to Windsor, and on their arrival at the famous castle they were con- ducted through the rooms by Lord Chesterfield, and eventually formed in line upon the Rose Terrace. Finally the King and Queen appeared descending the staircase, and stood alone at its foot. Several person- alities, including King George of Greece, stood carelessly upon the stair- case above watching the proceedings. The delegates, 300 in all, were grouped according to countries, and passed in single file, each receiving a warm grasp of the hand and some of them a pleasant word or so from both the King and Queen. One of the members of the Washington Academy of Sciences, namely Major Squier, now military attache to the United States Embassy at London, and on this occasion represent- ing the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, received an especial word of greeting from the King, with whom he had hs^d a long personal inter- view a few days before on his arrival in London to assume his diplomatic position. Following this reception by the King and Queen, the delegates de- scended to the gardens below, where a gigantic garden party, attended 128 proceedings: anthropological society by nine thousand of England's best, was assembling. It was a beau- tiful day; the weather had grown milder although still bright and sunny. The wonderful of green the English trees and turf — the brilliant colors of the summer costumes of the women — the variegated refreshment marquees — the beautiful strains from several mihtary bands — the sound of the charming English voices as one passed from group to group — the feeling that one had that he was mingling with the best that England could produce in culture, in scientific attainment and social position — altogether produced an exalted condition of mind not to be forgotten. This royal reception at Windsor brought the celebration to a close so far as the official arrangements of the Royal Society itself were con- cerned, but, realizing that among the fellows there was a strong desire to offer to their guests from foreign lands and from the British domin- ions over the seas some less formal and more intimate hospitality, a numbers of the fellows gave private dinners, more or less especially to include those guests who brought their wives and daughters with them, while the Royal Society Club invited the rest of the foreign and colonial delegates to dine at the famous Trocadero Restaurant. At this last dinner no speeches were made. On Friday visits were made to Oxford or Cambridge, as the dele- gates preferred. Convocations were held at each of the universities, and luncheons were given to the guests. At both universities honorary degrees were conferred, and at Oxford, among others. Dr. W. B. Scott, Blair Professor of Zoology and Paleontology in Princeton University, was given the honorary degree of Doctor of Science. At Cambridge Dr. E. B. Frost, Director of the Yerkes Observatory, among others, was given the same honorary degree. The writer had on previous occasions met with the charming hospi- tality of the English, and he had had opportunity to witness their genius in the organization of scientific meetings and international con- gresses and celebrations; but never had he met with such perfection of arrangement, such wealth of hospitality, and never had he been given such an insight into many of the qualities which place the England of today in the high position which she occupies among nations as on this occasion, and he dare not hope for another similar opportunity in one lifetime. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 464th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wash- ington, D. C, was held December 17, 1912, at the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair. Prof. C. V. Piper read a paper on The 'Filipinos and the problem of their government. He began with a general resum^ of the insular condi- tions and various peoples dwelling there, of whom he said the Negritoes, now found mainly in four islands but once in nearly all, are generally regarded as the original inhabitants, the Igorrotes and other wild tribes proceedings: chemical society 129 being the next to arrive, the Fihpinos next, perhaps about 500 A.D. and the Moros last, about the time of the Spanish occupation. At some length he described the Filipino characteristics, distinguishing between the small educated minority and the majority of ignorant laborers. The most remarkable thing we are doing there, he said, is the attempt, for the first time in history, to educate an inferior people en masse. The Asiatic European colonies have little faith in its success. Dr. Riley B. Moore read a paper on Observations in St. Lawrence Island. This island in the Bering Sea includes one hundred by thirty miles of treeless swamp and tundra inhabited by some two hundred and fifty people, the debris of five different tribes. Some of these resemble Sioux Indians; others are typical Mongolians, with all inter- vening kinds. In summer they have a profusion of birds and fish to feed on; but in other seasons their food is whale-meat, seal-meat and walrus-meat. They live with little ventilation and suffer from many skin diseases. Tuberculosis also is very common. The death rate has long exceeded the birth rate. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary. THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 217th regular meeting was held on October 10, 1912, at the Cosmos Club. The general subject for the evening comprised reports on the meetings of the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chem- istry. President Le Clerc reported on the international meetings, addressed by Bertrand, Duisberg, Eyde, Perkin, and Ciamician. Ex- periments were shown by the speaker illustrating Perkin's success in fire-proofing cotton fabrics. F. K. Cameron reported on agriculture and silicate industries. The most important papers of the Congress, in his opinion, were concerned with the fixation of nitrogen. F. W. Clarke reported on atomic weights and sketched the history of the International Commission. W. D. BiGELOw summarized the papers on bromatology and hygiene, pay- ing especial attention to those on analytical methods, metabolism, and preparation of foods. H. E. Patten reviewed the electrochemical papers in all the sections. The papers on dust collection, sulfuric acid, and new alloys of tungsten and the iron group were given especial attention by A. L. Day in reviewing the sections on inorganic and physical chem- istry. Finally, C. E. Munroe spoke yqvj interestingly of new develop- ments in explosives brought out in the section on that subject. A special meeting was held on October 24, 1912, at the Cosmos Club. The f ollomng papers were read : Moisture determination by means of calcium carbide: H. C. McNeil. The apparatus used was briefly described and examples of determina- tions in a wide variety of substances were given. The method gives results concordant within 0.2 per cent on quantities of the order of 15 per cent. Discussion by Tolman. 130 PEOCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY Study of changes taking place in the conversion of cider into vinegar: L. M. ToLMAN The conversion of a large quantity of cider into vinegar was followed in a large factory in Michigan. The only important change that occurs is the conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid, the other substances present remaining nearly the same. The raw mate- rial, altho varying from year to year, is remarkably uniform in com- position in a given year. No general conclusions can be drawn from analyses of home-made vinegars, which vary quite widely. In the discussion by Gore the fact was brought out that the yield is about 73 per cent of the theoretical. Alsberg and Seidell also dis- cussed the paper. Potassium ammonomagnesate and •potassium a?nmonoharate: E. C. Franklin. The ammonia system of acids, bases, and salts was out- lined, and the analogy carried on into the amphoteric compounds of zinc, lead, etc. But cuprous copper, thallium, barium, and magnesium also act as amphoteric elements in the ammonia system, and the salts named in the title are among those recently prepared. The speaker showed the apparatus and described the methods of manipulating these compounds. £)iscussion by Foster, Johnston and Cameron. The 218th regular meeting was held on November 14, 1912, and was devoted to the election of officers for 1913 as follows: President, C. E. Waters, Bureau of Standards; First vice-president, M. X. Sulli- van, Bureau of Soils; Second vice-president, C. L. Alsberg, Bureau of Plant Industry; Secretary, R. B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory; Treasurer, F. P. Dewey, Bureau of the Mint; Councilors, C. L. Als- berg, Bureau of Plant Industry; S. F. Agree, Johns Hopldns Univer- sity; P. H. Walker, Bureau of Chemistry; J. A. Le Clerc, Bureau of Chemistry; Executive Committee, J. Johnston, Geophysical Labora- tory; E. W. BouGHTON, Bureau of Chemistry; R. C. Wells, Geological Survey; E. C. McKelvy, Bureau of Standards. Robert B. Sosman, Acting Secretary. The 219th meeting was held jointly with the Baltimore Branch of the American Chemical Society in Hokpins Hall, Baltimore, on No- vember 30, 1912. The following papers were read: The inflammability of coal dust: J. C. W. Frazer. Discussion by C. Caspari, Jr., W. A. Randall, B. F. Lovelace, Marshall, Roundtree, and J. A. LeClerc. The United States Pharmacopoeia, its origin, history and requireme7its: Charles Caspari, Jr. Discussion by Englehardt and Le Clerc. C. P. Van Gundy, Secretary pro tem. The 220th meeting of the Chemical Society was held 12 December, 1912, at the Cosmos Club. President-elect C. E. Waters was elected vice-president of the Washington Academy to represent the Society. The following papers were read: R. B. Dole of the Geological Survey: The concentration of mineral loaters in relation to their therapeutic activity. The efficacy of the waters proceedings: chemical society 131 of health resorts usually arises from other causes than the composition of the water. The reactions of substances usuall}'" present in the min- eral waters are those of the positive or negative salt radicals. Their effect can therefore be predicted by the experimental use of single pure salts in solution at known concentrations. The following phenomena interfere with simple deduction from such experiments: (1) cumulative effects of certain radicals; (2) "toleration" acquired against certain radicals; (3) "interference" of different radicals in the same water. Examples of very concentrated waters in common use in the West were cited, to show that waters having concentrations well above the nor- mally active physiological dose could be used for years with no appre- ciable effect. F. C. Cook, of the Bureau of Chemistry: A comparison of plant, meat, and yeast extracts. The paper was concerned largely with methods, and can not be briefly abstracted. Discussion: Alsberg suggested that removal of ammonia or presence of some unrecognized compound would result in better agreement be- tween the Van Slyke and Soerensen methods for hydrolyzecl proteins. M. X. Sullivan discussed the presence of small amounts of creatinin in plants, probably too small to affect the test for distinguishing plant from meat extracts. E. C. Franklin also discussed the paper. A. S. CusHMAN and E. B. Wettengel of the Institute of Industrial Research: The electrolytic determination of tin in canned food products. Read by Mr. Wettengel. The usual gravimetric method for tin is tedious and expensive. The electrolytic method is much simpler and shorter and was shown by thoro tests to give reliable results. The pulped material is digested with acid, neutralized with ammonia and ammonium sulfide, freed from insoluble matter, and electrolyzed hot, using a rotating cathode. Discussion by Taber and Smith. A. Seidell of the Hygienic Laboratory and F. Fenger of Armour and Company: Seasonal variation in the iodine content of the thyroid gland. Reacl by Seidell. A parallelism exists between the iodine content and the physiological activity of commercial thyroid as used in medicine. A standard commercial concentration of 0.2 per cent has been recom- mended. In order to obtain data upon the raw material used in manu- facturing commercial desiccated thyroids, and to study the possibility of meeting such a standard, Mr. Fenger collected samples at Chicago from sheep, hogs, and cattle at two-week periods, each representing about 300 animals. Maxima of iodine were. found in all three between September and November, and minima in summer. A rather variable ash content was found due to the wear of the ball mills. Discussion: Waters suggested that the iodine content varied with the amount of green food. Seidell believed tliis was not the only cause of variation. Dole suggested a geographical variation, which was ad- mitted as a possible explanation in spite of the large number of samples. Alsberg added further evidence of a geographical variation. Bunzel quoted the determinations of Koch to show a seasonal variation. Dole 132 proceedings: botanical society stated that no potable waters in this country have enough iodine to have any effect in preventing goitre, if a lack of iodine is the cause of that dis- ease. Cook quoted his analyses of corals, showing a selective absorp- tion of iodine by these organisms, Robert B. Sosman, Acting Secretary. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 85th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday evening, Januar}?- 7, 1913. The following scientific program was presented: Dr. David Griffiths : Performances in species of opuntia (illustrated with lantern slides) . This paper will be published in the near future as a bulletin of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Mr. J. B. Norton : So7ne interesting facts concerning the genus Asparagus (illustrated with lantern slides). This paper gave a review of features connected with the work of breeding a rust resistant variety of asparagus. Asparagus officinalis has never been found to be completel}^ immune to the attacks of its rust, Puccinia asparagi. Plants nearly immune to the destructive summer stages show no resistance to the aecidial stage of the fungus. Resistance seems to be due to morphological causes. Related species are attacked by the rust but the members of other sec- tions of the genus seem immune. The genus Asparagus and its relatives are entirely limited to the old world, the majority being African. A study is being made of the relationships of this group and many new characters based on the manner of growth, roots, stems, leaf scales, cladodes, etc., have been found. The arrangement of the stomata on the cladodes is very characteristic in the various groups. The old genus Asparagus contains several very distinct groups of species entitled to generic rank. Only one hybrid form of known parentage has been secured, a cross between A . officinalis and A . davuricus. Many other combinations have failed to produce seed. Asparagus grows rapidly, — some species average nine inches per day. The seed germination takes from twelve days with officinalis to sixty or more days with some African species. Several new ornamental forms were described. • C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill, MARCH 4, 1913 No. 5 RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — The measurement of received radio- telegraphic signals. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radiotele- graphic Laboratory. (A) A tester for rectifying contact detectors. The measure- ment of radiotelegraphic signals at a great distance from the send- ing station is complicated by the fact that the most common type of detectors, the contact rectifiers, can not in general be depended upon to give the same sensitiveness at all times. This type of detector has a great advantage over others for quantitative work, inasmuch as it can be used with a galvanometer as well as with the telephone. Experience shows that the loudness of signal in the telephone as measured by the shunt method is exactly propor- tional to the deflection of a galvanometer placed in the same cir- cuit, and in the case of nearly all tj^pes of rectifiers proportional to the square of the oscillatory current. In a former article^ I have described a method of calibrating the detector in terms of received current in the antenna. This method, while highly satis- factory in a laboratory or large station with more or less labora- tory equipment, is not suited to the use of the ordinary operator and quite impossible for use on shipboard since it involves neces- sarily two highly sensitive galvanometers and somewhat fragile thermoelements . In order to overcome these difficulties I have arranged a form of detector tester which serves to establish the sensitiveness of any rectifying detector at any given time. The principle of the 1 Bulletin, Bureau of Standards, 7: 295. 1911. 133 134 AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS apparatus is as follows: A buzzer-driven circuit of fixed induc- tance and capacity has its high frequency current square measured by a sensitive H. & B. hot wire watt meter giving full scale for 0.03 watt. To the buzzer-driven circuit is coupled a second cir- cuit with fixed condenser and two fixed inductances tuned to the buzzer circuit. This intermediate circuit is introduced to prevent any direct effect of the buzzer on the detector. To this second circuit is coupled with a fixed coupling a third circuit consisting of a fixed inductance, stopping condenser and the detector to be tested. A Paul microammeter of about 250 ohms resistance, giving two divisions per microampere, is placed around the stop- ping condenser in series with the telephones regularly used with the detector. 2 The plan of the apparatus is shown in the figure, and the value of the inductance and capacities are shown in the table. ,07 Hd&^ S-Jr t FsnCiT !l-2 1-3 J :.D Fig. 1. Radio-Detector Tester B, Ericsson buzzer, 3 ohms. >S, 1 or 2 dry cells. R, Variable resistance. A = 2000 m.3 Li = L2 = L3 = Li Inductance = 0.4 m.h. Ci, Fixed air condenser = 0.0028 m.f. C2, Fixed air condenser = 0.0014 m.f. W, H. & B. hot wire wattmeter, 6.5 ohms. M, Paul Microammeter, 250 ohms. T, Telephones 2500 ohms. D, Detector under test. 2 The object of placing the telephones in the circuit is to ensure an approximately normal amount of resistance in series with the detector. * Shorter wave lengths do not give enough energy to be measured on the watt- meter without using too much current thru the buzzer contact. AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS 135 It will be seen that this detector tester differs from others in that the wave lengths, inductances, couphng, etc., are fixed and the test becomes simply the measm-ement of the response of the detector to a definite amount of high frequency excitation. The sensitiveness of the detector is determined by observing the deflection on the microammeter corresponding to a reading of 0.005 watt on the wattmeter in the buzzer circuit. The ratio of wattmeter to microammeter reading may be expressed in terms of energy requii-ed to produce a response, arbitrarily taken as the least audible signal under average conditions. This energy cali- bration of the detector tester is made once for all by means of a detector calibrated immediately before by the thermoelement and galvanometer method. For example, a certain detector, which by the method already mentioned^ has been shown to require 3.1 X 10"^ watts to pro- duce an audible sound in our standard laboratory telephones, produces when placed in the tester a deflection of ten divisions on the microammeter for a reading of 0.005 watt on the buzzer cir- cuit wattmeter. Now, if some other detector be placed in the tester and gives five divisions for the same wattmeter reading, it is half as sensitive as the first and requires 6.2 X 10"^ watts for audibility in the standard telephones. Experience has shown that the amount of energy required to produce a certain strength of signal from the detector is indepen- dent of the wave length and approximately independent of the spark frequency.^ It has also been found that, when the detector circuit is coupled to the antenna just closely enough to produce maximum strength of signal, the energy is equally divided between the antenna and the detector circuit.^ From this it follows that, if we know the energ}^ in the detector, we have a measure of the received energy and, if the total resistance of the antenna, includ- ing that introduced by the coupled detector circuit be known, and the effective height of the antenna be also known, ^ from the ^ Bulletin, Bureau of Standards, 7: 295. 1911. 5 Entirely so for galvanometer deflection. 6 Bulletin, Bureau of Standards 7: 301, 1911. ^T. Ruedenberg, Ann. d. Phys. 25: 446. 1908. Journal of the Washington Academy, 1: 275. 1911. 136 AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS strength of signal or galvanometer deflection we can determine at once the intensity of the electric field at the receiving point. Some detectors, for example the perikon, ^ can not be calibrated with the microammeter as their adjustment is disturbed by the amount of high frequency energy required to make a suitable deflection. For such detectors the following method of calibra- tion may be used. The middle circuit may be opened and leads of about 50 cm. in length brought out to a coil of two or three turns of wire wound on a hard rubber core. On this same core, at a sufficient distance from the first coil to give proper coupling, a second coil of say 0.1 m.h. is wound, and to this coil is connected the detector to be tested with suitable stopping condenser and telephones with an audibility meter of the type described in this paper shunted across them. In this case the audibility meter takes the place of the microammeter of the first method and the coupling should be adjusted and made permanent for an audibility of about 100 times with an average detector for a wattmeter reading of 0.005 watt. (B) An audibility meter. For the determination of the loud- ness of the signals in the telephone by the shunted telephone method, the most convenient form of shunt resistance box is one in which all the resistances are controlled by a single dial arm. In general, thirty to forty studs are sufficient, giving differ- ent degrees of audibility varying by approximately 20 per cent. The exact inductive resistance of the telephone, of course, varies with the spark frequency, and to a lesser extent with the capacity used in the stopping condenser which seems to affect the wave form of the rectified pulses. The inductive resistance of modern 2500 ohm telephones used with a stopping condenser of not more than 0.02 microfarad at a thousand sparks per second, is approxi- mately 5000 ohms. With the old fashioned low frequency spark, the inductive resistance difl"ers very little from the direct current resistance. If the resistance box is made for use with a definite telephone and a definite spark frequency it may be very conven- iently marked in audibility instead of in resistance. 8 The silicon on the contrary is very stable. hillebrand: mineral separations 137 The following are the values of the resistance units and corre- sponding audibility for 2500 ohm telephones at 1000 sparks per second in an audibility meter designed at my suggestion by G. W. Pickard : AUDIBILITY RESISTANCE AUDIBILITY RESISTANCE ohms ohms 2 5000 100 51 2.5 3300 120 42 3 2500 160 31 4 1650 200 25 5 1250 250 20 6 1000 300 16.7 8 720 400 12.5 10 555 500 10.0 12 455 600 8.4 16 334 800 6.3 20 264 1000 5.0 25 208 1500 3.3 30 174 2000 2.5 40 128 3000 1.7 50 102 4000 1.3 60 85 5000 1.0 80 63 * MTNERALOGY.^ — A danger to be guarded against in making mineral separations by means of heavy solutions. W. F. Hille- brand, Bureau of Standards. To appear in the American Journal of Science and the Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineral. The occasional action of heavy solutions on minerals is usually evident to the eye. When using Thoulet's solution of mercury and potassium iodides to separate from its gangue a carnotite from Paradox Valley, Montrose County, Colorado, carrying cal- cium instead of potassium (probably identical with the tuy- amunite of Nenadkevich,i the author found that the calcium of the mineral was largely, if not wholly, displaced by potassium, without visible alteration, altho Mr. H. E. Merwin observed a large de- crease in the optic axial angle to have resulted. The observation shows how important it is to assure oneself, when using heavy solutions, that such chemical changes are not incurred. Question 1 Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 945. 138 cook: ivory palms in panama arises as to the validity of some formulas that have been assigned to minerals which have been separated by heavy solutions. The calcium carnotite will be described in detail by Mr. Mer- win and the author in a later paper. MINERALOGY. — Two varieties of calciovolborthite (?) from eastern Utah. W. F. Hillebrand, Bureau of Standards, and H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory. To appear in the American Journal of Science and the Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineral. Descriptions in some detail will appear in the above named journals of two hydrous minerals, one essentially a vanadate of copper, the other an arsenovanadate of copper and calcium. The minerals were briefly mentioned by J. M. Boutwell in Bulletin 260 of the U. S. Geological Survey a number of years ago, but analyses were not pubhshed. Better material not being forth- coming the analyses are now put on record, together with results of recent optical study. For the present both minerals are referred referred to calciovolborthite, since the molecular ratios show closer relationship to that imperfectly described species than to any other. One variety is yellow green, with little arsenic, the other, highly arsenical, is greenish yellow. The latter is pseudomorphic after the former. The locaUty of occurrence is Richardson, in the canyon of the Grand River, Utah. BOTANY. — Ivory palms in Panama. 0. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. New materials for the study of the ivory palms (Phytelephan- taceae) have become available in the collections of economic plants secured in Panama in 1911-12 by Prof. H. Pittier of the United States Department of Agriculture. The series is more extensive than any obtained by previous explorers and throws light on the geographical distribution, morphology and classifica- tion of this long-neglected family. It may be that special stu- dents and collectors of palms have felt at liberty to neglect the ivory plants because some botanists have denied that Phytele- cook: ivory palms in Panama 139 phas is really a palm, tho there is no adequate reason for such a separation. The nearest relatives of Phytelephas are to be found in other American families, such as the Cocaceae and Manicaria- ceae, whose status as true palms has never been questioned.^ GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IVORY PALMS The new specimens from Panama were obtained in four differ- ent localities; two near the Caribbean Coast, one near the middle of the Isthmus and one near the Pacific Coast. In each case a different species was secured, and all four of the species appear to be different from two others previously represented in the Eco- nomic Herbarium of the Department of Agriculture. In addition to the places where specimens were collected Professor Pittier heard reports of the existence of ivory palms to the north of the Isthmus, and this information is substantiated by Dr. A. E. Heighway of Bocas Del Toro, Panama, who states that ivory palms exist in small numbers in several places, most of them back a few miles from the coast, along the foothills. Thus it appears that the geographical distribution of the ivory palms extends beyond the Isthmus, so that the family Phytelephantaceae must be included in the flora of North America. The genus Phytelephas was based originally on two Peruvian species, from the eastern slopes of the Andes. One species has been described from the Pacific coast of Ecuador and another from the Magdalena Valley of Columbia. Thus only four defi- nitely localized species are known from South America to six in the region of Panama. The existence of so many local species in the narrow limits of the Isthmus makes it seem probable that more careful study of the South American members of the group will result in the discovery of a much larger number of specific forms. Even on general biological grounds it would not be expected that species with such large heavy seeds would retain their continuity over wide areas of distribution. The first require- ment for an adequate taxonomic treatment of the group is to '■ O. F. Cook, Relationships of the ivory pahns. Contributions U. S. National Herbarium 13: 133. 1910. 140 cook: ivory palms in Panama learn the characters which enable the species to be distinguished. In this respect the materials from Panama are of special value for they show several new lines of specialization not previously employed in the diagnosis of species. NEW CHARACTERS IN IVORY PALMS External sculpture of fruits. The species are all alike in having the external shell of the fruit divided into raised polygonal areas, each bearing a pyramidal tubercle or spine, but the areas are larger in some species than in others and have larger or more robust spines. In coarsely sculptured species the spines attain a length of about 2 cm. ; in other species they are only half as long. Cortical fibers. These form a lining of close-set bristles on the inner wall of the external shell of the fruit, to which they are firmly attached. Indeed, the shell seems to be formed by a pro- gressive hardening of the corky tissue in which the bases of the fibers are embedded. The species differ notably in the develop- ment of the cortical fibers, some having only short weak fibers and others long stiff fibers. In most cases the fibers are about as long as the external spines, but they may be longer or shorter. Pulj) fibers. The space between the cortical fibers and the true mesocarp fibers that form a coating around the nuts is occupied at first by a fleshy pulp. In some species the pulp seems to be entirely fleshy, so that only an empty space is left'inside the cor- tical lining after the pulp has disappeared. In other species there is an open framework of loosely connected fibers, especially near the base of the fruit. Mesocarp fibers. In addition to the pulp fibers there is a com- plete fibrous sheath around each of the nuts, not unlike the meso- carp of some of the cocoid palms, except that the fibers are not attached to the shell of the nut. Some species of ivory palms have the mesocarp fibers rather coarse and stiff, while in others they are very fine and thin and are compacted into a fabric, tough in some cases and brittle in others. Finally there are cases where the mesocarp fibers are so slightly developed that no coherent layer is formed and the dried pulp breaks away from the surface of the nuts in angular scales. The mesocarp sheath may cook: ivory palms in Panama 141 be closely adherent to the endocarp or shell of the nut, or free and readily separable from the nut. One species has the sheath much larger than the nut as though separated in the fresh state by a layer of pulp. Style. In most of the species the style disappears in advance of the maturity of the fruit, but one of the new species from Panama has a persistent woody style. Columella. Most of the species have a short column or bundle of compacted fibers suspended from the center of the cortex of the fruit in the position of a placenta. The species with the per- sistent style also has a more specialized, persistent columella extending down between the nuts nearly to the position of the -. hilum. Hilum. The hilum is very prominent in some species and nearly flat in others. The shape differs from long oval or ellip- tical to nearly round. The fibrovascular pits are irregular and scattered over the surface of the hilum in some species while in others the pits are nearly round and confined to a relatively small area in the middle of the hilum. Adhilum. This name is applied to a peculiar specialization of the shell of the nut to form a distinct process or spine at the upper angle of the margin of the aperture, close to the hilum. In some species the adhilum is a small rounded -prominence or angular tooth, but in^other cases it is developed into a slender acicular spine. The adhilum is formed of the same hard material as the shell of the nut, but is so brittle that it is usually broken off in removing the mesocarp, which may explain why it has not been noticed before. Seed coats. The shell of the nut has a lining of fine fibrous material through which the branches of the raphe are distributed. In some species this lining is free from the true seed coat and in others completely united with it. In the former case the branches of the raphe are not exposed, but appear as raised veins on the lining of the shell. In the latter case the branches of the raphe are exposed on the kernel as it comes from the shell, because the fibrous lining is torn apart into two irregularly separated layers, one adherent to the inner surface of the shell, the other to the true seed coat. 142 cook: ivoey palms in Panama diagnoses of new species from panama Phytelephas pittieri. Trunk erect, attaining a height of about 8 meters, with a diameter of about 25 cm. ; leaves about 12 with short petioles and about 70 pairs of pinnae equally spaced along the rachis; male inflores- cence cylindrical, about 1.20 meters long; male flowers with 300-400 stamens, fruits 8-9 in a head, with large external spines. Collected at Puerto ObaMia, Panama, August, 1911, by H. Pittier (No. 4323); type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 716082. Phytelephas cornutus. Trunk decumbent, creeping by numerous roots ; leaves about 20, with about 90 pairs of equally spaced pinnae; fruits 5-6 in a head, with 6-7 nuts in each fruit; cortex with rather long and slender spines, and a persistent woody style; cortical fibers long and slender, not densely crowded, compacted under the style into a persistent hardened columella about 2 cm. long; pulp and mesocarp fibers only slightly developed, the latter forming a very thin fragile layer adherent to the surface of the nut; hilum surrounded by a prominent margin bearing the adhilum as a long slender spine. Collected in the Rio Fato Valley, near Nombre de Dios, Panama, August 16, 1911, by H. Pittier (No. 4230); type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 691786. Phytelephas brevipes. Trunk very short; male inflorescence about 15 cm. long; fruits broad and flat, or slightly depressed in the middle, 9 in a head,. with 6 nuts in a fruit; cortex with rather coarse robust spines and rather short cortical fibers; pulp fibers distinct, but few; mesocarp fibers abundant, formed into a tough cloth-like sac entirely free from the nut and with an open space between; nuts rather large, usually strongly compressed; adhilum submarginal, transverse, triangular, cari- nate on the upper face. Collected at Gasapasabana, Upper Mamoni River, Panama, October, 1911, by H. Pittier (No. 4473); type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 679633. Phytelephas hrachinus. Trunk robust, decumbent, attaining a length of about 3 meters and a diameter of about 40 cm.; fruits somewhat rounded or lenticular, scarcely depressed in the middle, but sloping to the sides, 5-6 in a head, with 5-6 nuts in each fruit; cortex with rather small slender spines, cortical fibers very short and weak; pulp fibers slender and sparse ; mesocarp fibers very delicate and weak, but forming a rather tough, parchment-like membrane adherent to the bony endo- carp; nuts short and with the upper surface sloping outward; hilum small, oval or elliptic, not prominent, with a cluster of small rounded pits near the middle; adhilum represented by a small rounded triangular prominence. Collected at Garachine, San Miguel Bay, near the south coast of Panama, by H. Pittier; type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 691785. Phytelephas hi-achelus. Fruits obconic or obpyramidal, with a strong central depression, 9 in a head, with 6-7 nuts in each fruit; cortex with very short spines, about 0.5 cm.; cortical fibers well developed, attain- ing a length of about 1 cm.; pulp and mesocarp fibers thin, the latter maxon: new genus of davallioid ferns 143 rather abundant and forming a rather thick, partly adherent covering of the endocarp; nuts rather long; hilum basal, somewhat prominent, nearly circular, with scattered coarse pits; adhilum represented by a slight swelling above the margin. Supposed to come from Panama, but the locality unknown. Fruit head received from J. R. Smith, Waterbury, Conn., in Economic Herbarium of U. S. Department of Agriculture, bearing U. S. National Herbarium No. 691784. More extended descriptions with numerous photographic illus- trations have been prepared for publication, in connection with a general review of the South American species. BOTANY. — A new genus of davallioid ferns.^ William R. Maxon. In revising the treatment of the pteridophyta for the second edition of the Flora of the Southeastern United States the writer has found it necessary to remove from the genus Odontosoria the species known latterly as Odontosoria clavata (L.) J. Smith and to refer it to a new genus, Sphenomeris. The publication of this volume having been delayed, it seems desirable to pub- lish this name elsewhere, since a»paper- dealing with the species of true Odontosoria (with references to Sphenomeris) is already in proof and may conflict in date of publication with that of the Flora. In the unpublished treatment of Odontosoria just mentioned it is pointed out: (1) That the genus Odontosoria, as recognized by Diels in the Pflanzenfaixiilien of Engler and Prantl, comprises two sections or subgenera, the first (Eu-Odontosoria) containing rather small species of erect or ascending habit and determinate growth, the second (Stenoloma) containing three nominal species of indefinite scandent growth; (2) that these two groups are entitled to recognition as distinct genera; and (3) that, adopting this view, it is necessary to apply the name Odontosoria to the second group, the large climbing species, rather than to the first, as has been done erroneously by Diels. The grounds for this disposition are then presented, together with a review of the ^ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17, part 2 (unpublished). 144 maxon: new genus of davallioid ferns taxononiic history of Odontosoria in its broad sense and a revi- sion of the American species now properly to be referred to that genus. The group of species of upright or ascending habit and deter- minate growth; of which the Odontosoria clavata of authors is a familiar example, has no vahd name. It may be characterized briefly as follows: Sphenomeris Maxon, gen. nov. Mainly tropical ferns, with slender creeping hairy rhizomes. Fronds subfasciculate, erect or ascending, of small or medium size; stipes not jointed to the rhizome; lamina 3 or 4 times obliquely pinnate or pinnati- fid, the divisions alternate, the ultimate segments strongly cuneate; veins free. Sori terminal at or near the truncate apex of the segments, single or 2 to 4 joined; indusia similar in texture to the opposed leaf- margin, flattish, pocket-like, attached at the base and sides, single at the clavate apices of the veins or, if joined, borne upon a translucent receptacle connecting these. The type species and apparently the sole American representa- tive of this genus is: Sphenomeris clavata (L.) Maxon Adiantu?n clavatum L. Sp. PI. 1096. 1753. Davallia clavata J. E. Smith, Mem, Acad. Turin 5: 415. 1793. Stenoloma clavatum Fee, Gen. Fil. 330. 1852. Lindsay a clavata Mett. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV, 15: 64. 1861. Schizoloma clavatum Kuhn, Chaetop. 346. 1882. A large series of specimens of S. clavata is at hand from south- ern peninsular Florida, the Bahamas, Cuba, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Two common Old World species may also be mentioned: Sphenomeris retusa {Davallia retusa Cav.) and Sphenomeris chinensis {Adiantum chinense L.), both agreeing closely with S. clavata in habit. cobb: draconema 145 HELMINTHOLOGY. — Draconema: A remarkable genus of ma- rine free-living nematodes. N. A. Cobb, Bureau of Plant Industry, Communicated by Frederick V. Coville. Few nematodes, if any, are more remarkable than Draconema. From a comparative anatomical point of view it takes rank with the bifurcated Lepidonema. The main features of Draconema are illustrated in the adjacent cut. Though the head end is very peculiar, all its peculiarities are more or less comprehensible. While the cephalic setae, amphids, mouth, oesophagus, and car- dia, all present singular features, yet these features are referable to known types of nematode anatomy. Even the sudden loss in diameter behind the oesophagus, tho unique, is understandable on the supposition that unusual flexibility is required in this region owing to some odd habit of life. In contemplation of the remainder of the anatomy, however, one becomes lost in amazement, and can only speculate on the nature and function of the complicated longitudinal series of lateral and sub ventral appendages. These appendages are found fully developed on both sexes, young or adult, and must, therefore, have to do with functions exercised at various stages of growth, and without regard to sex. As we know little of the habits of Draconema beyond the fact that it occurs on or near red marine algae of strands in various parts of the world, speculation concerning the functions of its pecu- liar organs may be idle. One might suggest that the form of the body indicates possibly that the species inhabit tubes, which they may be imagined to construct, or which they may find already constructed and adapt to their uses. The existence of such a ' dwelling would harmonize with the expanded head and with the slimness of body behind the neck. Supposing the head end to be thrust out of the tubular home, the advantages of a limber body in seeking food can be readily understood. So too, the series of tubular organs might fit in with such a confined habit of life, and have to do with the construction and repair of the supposed tube; or with locomotion; or with aeration, by producing currents of fresher water inside the tube. 146 cobb: dkaconema Of great interest also are the adjacent associated internal ven- tral organs, the details of which suggest the discharge of important functions. These internal structures are rich in chromatin. Their number and distribution indicate that in some way they are definitely connected with the tubular organs. From a scientific standpoint it is especially desirable that fur- ther observations be made on this remarkable nematode. The following notes relate to the suggested type species of this new genus. 77 Draconema cephalata, n. sp. 3^9-0 — 2'.2 7.8 — U i-smm. The trans- parent, colorless layers of the cuticle are traversed by 800 to 900 plain transverse striae. The striae are rather uniformly fine on the body, but are much coarser on the anterior half of the neck, tho they suddenly cease on the head just behind the amphids.^ The fusiform neck ends in a rounded head, set off by the absence of striations. The mouth opening, it would appear, is surrounded by six forward-pointing lips, somewhat longer than they are wide, each rounded in front and supported by a forward-projecting pair of slender chitinous ribs. It is possible that the lips are three in number, and each two-parted. In any case they are so grouped as to form an elevated area on the middle of the head, and are surrounded by six short, forward-pointing setae, having a length about equal to the width of one of the wide cervical annules. The non-striated portion of the head bears numerous arcuate forward-pointing setae of variable size, the largest being half as long as the neck is wide, while the shortest are not very much longer than the minute labial setae already described. The amphids are shaped like the end of a shepherd's crook. Their anterior margins lie close to the lips, their posterior portions near the beginning of the striations. Measured crosswise at the widest part they have a width nearly as great as that of the group of lips when these latter are closed. All the more prominent cephalic setae are on the dorsal side of the head. On the dorsal side of the left amphid, near the striations, there is a pair of stout setae 1 Proposed new term for the organs hitherto called "lateral organs." cobb: draconema 147 Xiao cephalic setae amphid cervical striae d, posterior ditto e, nerve-ring /, oesophagus <7, cardia \, renette^ (?) i, intestine wall J, cuticle k, stump of seta I, intestine lumen m, end of testicle n, spermatocyte o, spermatozoon p, somatic seta q, vas deferens r, body cavity s, tubiform append' age s', tubiform append- age shown larger I, ejaculatory duct u, ventral organ V, a male seta w, 3 caudal glands .r, anus y, right spiculum z, accessory piece Fig. 1. Draconema cephalata placed close together one in front of the other; there is a similar pair on either side of the dorsal line, and another pair on the dorsal J side of the right amphid; there are also similar pairs between these sub- lateral and subdorsal pairs; — six pairs in all. These twelve setae on the dorsal face are the largest on the head, but others occur to the number of a dozen or more, both on the dorsal and ventral faces. On the neck and thruout the body there are numerous, very slender, spreading se- tae, having a length about equal to half the width of the neck, so that on the slender portion of the body immediately behind the oesophagus their length is greater than that of the corresponding body diameter. The nature and distri- bution of these hairs indicate unusual sen- sitiveness to external influences. 1 Proposed new term for organ previously known as the "ventral gland." 148 cobb: draconema There are no eyes. When the Ups are closed the pharynx appears as an elongated, narrow, irregularly fusiform cavity, reaching well into the anterior oesophageal bulb, and ending opposite the anterior cervical stria- tions. The greatest width of the pharynx is about equal to the distance between two successive striations of the adjacent cuticle. Near its hind end it suddenly widens out a little and then con- tracts again. There are no traces of pharyngeal teeth. The oesophagus is somewhat dumbbell-shaped, and consists of two bulbs connected by a short tube one-third as wide as the neck. The structure of the oesophagus and head suggests that the mouth can be opened widely. The intestine is built of cells of such a size that few are required to complete the circumference — probably two to four. There are no male ventral supplementary organs of the usual character. It remains to describe the peculiar series of arcuate tubular organs, found on both sexes on the posterior portion of the body in front of the anus. There are four series of these organs; two lateral and two ventrally submedian. The lateral sets comprise nine pairs. Each organ consists of a colorless, transparent, non- staining, arcuate, hollow tube, curving slightly backwards, but on the whole arranged nearlj^ at right angles to the ventral sur- face. The outer extremity of each tubg is enlarged a little and is distinguished from the remainder of the tube, not only by its width, but by difference in structure, for it is somewhat bell- shaped, and has an axial portion corresponding to the tongue of the bell. The tubes have a diameter about equal to the width of one of the adjacent annules, but are not perfectly uniform in diameter thruout their length, in fact taper gently from base to tip. That portion of the body occupied by the tubular organs is supphed with peculiar internal ventral bodies, the number and position of which correspond, approximately at least, with the number and position of the tubes. It is not that there is one of these bodies to each tube, but rather that all the tubes in the same zone are associated with one of the internal bodies. These cel- lular bodies are ventral in position and their number is about nine. cobb: deaconema 149 The adult female of Draconema cephalata is unknown. Females of other undescribed species show the vulva as central and the internal female organs double, symmetrical and refiexed, the rather short ovaries reaching well back towards the vulva. The eggs in these other species are usually prolate and thin-shelled, and few in number, generally only one in each uterus, and appear to be deposited before segmentation begins. Habitat. Marine algae, or sand at their base, shoal in King- ston Harbor, Jamaica; also the strand of a small island off Port Royal, Jamaica. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — A simplified formula for the change in order of interference due to changes in temperature and pressure of air? Irwin G. Priest, Bulletin Bureau of Standards, vol. 9, in Press. The author developed independently for use at the Bureau of Stand- ards the following correction formula : \ 1+fi l+at2 J \380X where ti = lower temperature Centigrade, tz = higher temperature Centigrade, 61 = pressure in mm. of mercury at temperature ti, 62 = pressure in mm. of mercury at temperature t^, I = distance between mirrors, n = refractive index at 0°, 760 mm., a = coefficient of expan- sion of air, X = wave length. He noticed later that the formula published by Pulf rich,^ viz : K = l(t,-t,) ^' ^ ^ 760 !+«0 10 tiF Tfi ,{ */ \ riP "M-s it- \ 1 Aj ^ Hli l\ 7 Y\\ ^ fi 05. .fi T " N, h . N 1^ LI rT ^ "■ ;" -^ f ^ K s- 4 J' V r' ^ y{ rt r- s, v.- •■• r ~^ / ^Ss MAX. 30 M u. res . WIN 30 4 M *X B9. _. M m, 1 06 M kX.1 M. Fig. 1. Curves of mean monthly temperatures for Valdivia and Puerto Montt, in southern Chile, compared with Edinburgh, Scotland; Posen, Germany; Hand, cock, Wisconsin; Aroostock County, Maine; Federal Point, Florida, and Washing- ton, D. C. Data from the firgt four were compiled from Hann's "Klimato- graphie;" the latter four from reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Europe runs south of the principal potato districts of Great Britain and northern Germany. The isotherm of 70°F. (21°C.) for June, July and August nearly marks the southern boundary of successful main crop potato production in the United States. The climate of the greater part of the United States is therefore too hot for best results with this crop. As shown in figures 1 and 3, the pro- duction of potatoes in the South is a matter of early spring plant- ing and summer harvesting, or of planting in late summer for autumn harvests. For the latter procedure a type of potato illus- trated by the variety McCormick is well adapted in the region of Washington, D. C, a fact worthy of mention here for its signifi- cance in the problem of securing a heat resistant potato for south- ern districts. The summer heat of the United States is the limit- orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 183 ing factor in potato production. Only young plants can survive exposure to 90°F. for any extended priod, hence we find a tendericy to plant late in the north in order that the time of tuber formation may come during the cooler weather of autumn. It appears that most or all of our present varieties originated in northern districts, from parent stocks having low temperature requirements. To secure varieties capable of extending potato culture southward local breeding should be practised if stocks possessing the necessary physiological qualities can be found. Our great need is to discover a variety of Solanum tuberosum, VALDIVIA 105 PUERTO MONTT 90-55 EDINBURGH Z7.t,i POSEN ISM ^£iiil^^Sgi§ — 1 ~^ 17 TWI IK ''// IS 14 W/, M >;^ vpm ■ ' h-^ :^ 1 L. %'■''/ ■•''■ ■■' ^ ' t— 1 U-. 1— J\ ~ - ™. ^ u„ - '-: — ^ 1. — r ™ .Tf b7 -J TD 1 t \ Ml r -_ cz rz ^. s; --y , ■■■■■)■■ i 1 rii 1 1 m 1 1 1 T ^- _ 11 Fig. 2. Chart showing average monthly rainfall for points in southern Chile as compared with Europe. or a species sufficiently related to hybridize with it, that is indi- genous to a region of high temperature, and capable of transmitting to crosses with existing cultivated races a heat enduring quality derived thru better control of transpiration, or in other ways. It will be evident from a consideration of the south Chilean ch- mate that the heat resistant factor cannot be found there. We must turn to more northern and warmer sections of South or Central America, a region that has been very inadequately ex- plored to date, but where Mr. Wight of this Society is now engaged on this mission. Turning now to the consideration of potato diseases, we shall find in the late blight, caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans, an excellent illustration of the extent to* which climatic environ- 184 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum ment influences disease. Late blight is limited by its require- ments of abundant moisture and moderate temperature, hence it is most common in the Northeastern States, occasionally extend- ing southward in early summer or autumn, never in midsummer. Hot or dry weather checks its spread. These well established facts strongly support the hypothesis that Phytophthora infestans is endemic in the native habitat of the potato. Our knowledge of the general principles of immunity in plants further suggests that there would be the place to seek strains of the host plant possessing a high resistance to this parasite. In early blight, due to the fungus Alternaria solani, we find that higher temperatures than those best for the potato appear to promote infection. The range of greatest prevalence is well to the south of that for late blight. Another instance of apparent geographical limitation of potato diseases is afforded by the wilts due to Fusarium oxysporum and Verticillium albo-atrum respectively. The Fusarium wilt is southern in its general range, being most prevalent in California, in the warmer irrigated valleys of the West and in the East Cen- tral States. Verticillium, on the other hand, occurs in the most northern districts from the Puget Sound to Maine. The two over- lap in their distribution but have the general tendency stated. Pathological conditions not due to parasites are even more conspicuously associated with attempts to grow the potato out- side of its natural range. A heat and drought reaction common in the United States is that known as tipburn, where the leaves exposed to the hot sun and low relative humidity of midday curl and burn at the margins, indicating an excessive transpira- tion. This is seldom met with in Europe. Premature ripening follows when potatoes bearing half-grown tubers are exposed to the midday heat of our Southern States. There is ip. addition to the tipburn a yellowing and early death of the foliage. Potatoes produced in these southern conditions lose their constitutional vigor and germinate later, with small weak sprouts and give a smaller yield than seed from northern sources. This constitutional defect is not cured by restoration to a northern environment. orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 185 There is another group of apparently physiological or inheri- table potato diseases, of which ''leaf roll" and "curly dwarf" are most important, which I bring into this discussion because they are probably deterioration phenomena connected in some way not yet fully understood with the effect of unfavorable environmental conditions. The great losses that have been caused by these diseases both in Europe and America have caused much alarm and led to much investigation and discussion. The suggestion that our potato VAN BUREN. MAINE 35-22 GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. 3466 ^ANC0CK,WI2 2981 . FEDERAL POINT. FIA I9.M ^?i§i^Ni^gis ZrcQ^Cr:^^ l<_c»ca_' — ::*t_3 11 1 1 IH )7 Tft I IS M n 1 1 1 4 1? 1 1 11 2 in 2 1 1 1 3 6 1 1 4 S 6 7 1 1 5 e 6 2 1 5 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 -T-f'^ E 5 1 I 1 I Z 1 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 4 3 2 I 1 2 4 1" 6 1 2 1 2 Z 2 2 9 7 e 7 6 5 4 s 3 2 6 Tt 5 3 2 1 4 3 4 5 6 6 2 1 1 3 3 3 1 5 5 5 5 II (4 9 6 14 e e 4 4 '" — 10 4 2 1 2 II 4 6 \\: Vi .1 z. 2 5 3 7 Z 3 t L. l_ m 2 u 8 II 9 ^ i: 24 16 15 14 1 6 i33 w 7 4 1 4 7^ ^ r:t^'IU ¥ i "z Id - J„ 1 ,1 TV '1,1 : — ■ i— ^ U. e J. 1r Tsl P.W H m :4 Tl 1 |7 'I' v) '6' '^0 wa 1 pH l-Ma llfll'lS 1 3J Ji_ i^ 5 10 lii'' ' '' 7 3 t ' 1 ' .^j? 4 .7 4 b M'' n (,", [n 1 i].iitY j I* 6 6 5,7 7 r\7 ■ 'N 6 1. 36138 36 36 36 S8 36|37 36 36 38 ^ ie| is| iS jaj IS|I3 IS [iSj laj 18 18 lii, I6|I7 I6ll?ll7|l7 17117 17 17 17 J7 ■ No of Years CountBd Fig. 3. Average monthly rainfall for four potato centers in the United States. Data from U. S. Weather Bureau. The heavy upper border of the shaded area shows the mean rainfall for the number of years indicated at the base of the column. The figures within the squares in the shaded area show the number of years within the period of record when the rainfall has been below the amount indicated. The corresponding figures in the white squares show the number of years during the period of record when the rainfall has exceeded the amount indicated. varieties may suffer rapid deterioration thruout extensive dis- tricts and without discoverable cause is naturally provocative of uneasiness. While the nature and cause of ''leaf roll" and related troubles is still largely a matter of speculation, the haze is parti- ally cleared by the separation of this complex into at least five different troubles, three of which are attributable to known para- sites. As pointed out by the writer in December, 1911, in a paper before the American Phytopathological Society, the following dis- eases have been more or less confused by various observers: 186 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 1. Potato wilt due to Fusarium oxysporum (Schlecht.) Sm. & Sw., a disease widespread in the central and southern United States but not yet proved to exist in Europe. 2. Potato wilt due to Verticillium albo-atrum, a disease occur- ring in the northern United States, in Great Britain and northern Europe. 3. Potato rosette and other troubles caused by Rhizoctonia, especially prevalent in the western United States. 4. Leaf roll, an inheritable, probably non-parasitic disease pre- valent in Europe and parts of America. 5. Curly dwarf, an inheritable, non-parasitic disease found both in Europe and America. Leaf roll (Blattrollkrankheit) is a disease characterized by an upward rolling of the leaves, by a decreased yield of tubers and by transmission of the diseased condition thru tubers planted. The rolling of the leaves is the most constant and conspicuous symptom of this disease. The leaflets curl or roll upward on their midrib, often assuming a nearly tubular shape, and giving the plant a staring appearance. This rolling is sometimes restricted to the upper leaves, while in other cases all or nearly all of the leaves on the plant exhibit it. This type of roll is distinct from the curly leaf condition but a very similar roll may be induced by other causes, such as wet soil, "black leg" and other diseases. The color of the foliage changes with the advent of leaf roll, but these color symptoms vary greatly, from cases where the leaves assume an unhealthy, light green color to those marked by pronounced yellowish, reddish or purplish colors. The time of onset is early as compared with Fusarium wilt. The effect on the plant is to check development. There is a lessening or cessation of growth. The duration of life of the plant, in some cases appears to be shortened by leaf roll, but in comparison with the rapid death of American potatoes attacked by Fusarium wilt the leaf roll is very slow in the action. The endurance of the seed piece as a character of leaf roll is an interesting point frequently mentioned in the German litera- ture, and is considered by Appel to be one of the symptoms of leaf roll. The effect of leaf roll on the tubers is strongly marked. orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 187 In general the yield is very much reduced. The diseased hills have numerous tubers very much smaller than normal so that the yield is only about half that of a healthy field. If one uses these potatoes again for seed, the greater part fail to develop, and an uneven stand is the result. The stronger tubers succeed in growing, but the stem remains weak, the leaves are from the beginning considerably rolled and more or less colored. Few or no tubers are found in such hills, so that a complete crop failure results. Stem end browning of tubers is no longer considered a reliable evidence of leaf roll. The true leaf roll is inheritable. The tubers from diseased plants produce diseased progeny as a general rule. This affords a means of distinguishing from genuine leaf roll those temporary conditions which give rise to a similar appearance of the plants. It is now quite generally admitted that the presence of fungous mycelium is not a character of the leaf roll. The leaf roll diseased plants in America have been free from fungous infection. The leaf roll disease of potatoes first came into the public eye in Europe in 1905 in Westphalia. In 1907 a more general out- break occurred in Germany and much alarm was expressed. Its occurrence is certain in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, as well as in the United States. Two developments of leaf roll in this country have been studied. One in a collection of seedlings grown by the Bureau of Plant Industry, the other a destructive outbreak in eastern Colorado and western Nebraska during 1911 and 1912, which was the cause of immense losses, the shipments from one district falling from an expected 7000 cars to 200 cars. The seedling potatoes showed every degree pf variation in plant characters, and in addition many showed distinct evidence of the diseased condition herein described as leaf roll. It is note- worthy that in neither field was there any trace of Fusarium wilt, nor of Verticillium wilt, ''black leg" or "mosaic," altho the latter three were common in adjoining fields. The evidence indicates that leaf roll and curly leaf are manifestations of physiological weakness and associated with decline or loss of vigor of the strain. 188 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum The hypotheses as to the cause of leaf roll are numerous and varied. It has been argued by one that leaf roll results from the use of unripe tubers for seed ; by another, that it is due to the em- ployment of matured tubers ; while a third believes that seed from prematurely ripened plants is a cause of leaf roll. . Hiltner is the leading advocate of the theory that the immature seedstock gives an abnormal growth. He limits this to those potatoes which are prematurely ripened by drouth or other unto- ward circumstances. Hiltner further holds that leaf roll may be the result of an overconcentration of salts as thru excessive applications of fertilizer, of unbalanced composition and applied at the wrong time. The first appearance of leaf roll in Germany was on the variety Magnum Bonum and was considered as an evidence of varietal deterioration. It seems certain, however, that leaf roll is not a result of "running out" of varieties thru old age, for many strains originated recently are affected. Its occurrence in seedlings has been observed by several workers. An interesting suggestion is put forward by Hedlung that leaf roll is a pathological adapta- tive mutation, and further, that since acquired characters are not ' inherited the leaf roll character must be latent in normal potatoes. The introduction of new and more vigorous varieties affords a hopeful means of ultimately controlling the situation. Under the name "curly-dwarf" there is to be differentiated from the leaf roll a peculiar disorder known in Germany as " Krauselkrankheit." This is characterized by a dwarfed develop- ment of the potato plant, accompanied by a pronounced curling and wrinkling of the foliage, which has been compared with Scotch Kale and with Savoy cabbage. The stem and its branches, the leaf petioles and even the midribs and veins of the leaves all tend to be shortened in many cases to a very marked extent, par- ticularly in the upper nodes of the plant, so that the foliage is thickly clustered. The diminished growth of the leaf veins, in proportion to the parenchyma, results in a bullate, wrinkled leaf, often strongly curled downward. There seems also to be a tend- ency to form more secondary branches than normal, and as these orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 189 remain short and with curly leaves, the compactness of the plants is more striking. The color of the fohage in curly-dwarf is typically normal green. The tuber yield is greatly curtailed. Severe cases have no tubers. In others, a few small potatoes are formed. The hereditary nature of the trouble is attested by the German authori- ties and has been observed by the writer. In the United States curly-dwarf plays a larger role in the deterioration of our potatoes than in Europe. It must be re- garded as a physiological disorder, which crops out in previously healthy stocks, under conditions not yet known to us. Once developed, it is apparently not possible to restore the vigor of the affected hills. Examination of a variety or seedling collection shows that there are all grades of the condition above described from pro- nounced types of curlj-dwarf to those approaching normal vigor. It will furthermore be apparent that this is a difference inherent in the varieties or strain under observation. Both leaf roll and Qurly dwarf develop suddenly from hitherto health}^ stocks and both are transmitted by planting tubers from diseased plants. That whole districts should be affected as in Westphalia in 1907 and in Colorado in 1911 indicates a physiologi- cal deterioration due to environmental relations, unless a parasite should be demonstrated, which has not yet been done. The climatic charts presented show that there is a great defi- ciency of moisture in Germany and Colorado in comparison with Chili. Is it possible that under these conditions varieties of potatoes may lose their vigor and undergo physiological changes comparable with those already noted for southern grown seed? That the leaf roll disease is being brought under control in Germany by the use of healthy seed potatoes from outside the affected districts supports these hypotheses and lends still more strength to the argument for potato breeding for a higher degree of climatic adaptation. Altho nothing like the present outbreak of leaf roll has occurred during the last forty years, an examination of old literature shows that about 1770 and in subsequent years there were epi- 190 cook: web-spinntng fly larvae demies of "leaf curl" and " Krauselkrankheit" in England and Germany respectively, the description of which are much like the troubles of today.^ Are our potato varieties passing thru an- other period of decline in vigor? ZOOLOGY. — Web-spinning fly larvae in Guatemalan caves. 0. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. The limestone mountains of the Department of Alta Verapaz' in eastern Guatemala, abound in caves, most of them as yet quite unexplored. Ancient remains show that some of the caves were used for burial places in prehistoric times, which may account for the aversion of the present Indian population to entering this underground world. Two caves on the Trece Aguas coffee estate near Senahu were visited by the writer on March 30, 1906, to see whether they contained millipeds or other cave-dwelling arthro- pods. In one of the caves, which was very dry, a few human teeth were found with small circular mounds of earth where ancient pottery vessels had crumbled, tho in some cases the rims remained. The other cave, which was entered by crawling thru a low narrow passage, partly filled with water, had also been used for burial purposes and one of the chambers showed a few rude designs traced in black, something after the manner of Mayan hiero- glyphics. There were several large chambers, some of them with lofty roofs and extensive deposits of stalactites and stalagmites. The air was very damp owing to wet walls and dripping water. It was in one of the inner chambers of this cave, probably at least 100 yards from the entrance, that curious fringelike webs were noticed hanging from the roof. A sloping floor brought us up close to the webs, and the light of an acetylene lamp rendered the glistening threads very conspicuous against a background of complete darkness. The general plan of these webs is entirely unlike that of any spider or other web-building arthropod of the. upper world, and could be used only in caves or in very sheltered recesses of forests. 2 Cf. Thos. Dickson, Memoirs Caledonian Hort. Soc, March 6, 1810. cook: web-spinning fly larvae 191 The only familiar objects to which the webs can be compared are the rope signals that are hung near bridges and railroad tunnels to avoid accidents to train crews. The construction is simple but rather exten- sive, the webs being usually over a foot long and sometimes nearly 2 feet. Usu- ally the same general direction is kept, along the roof of the cave, but some- times there is a simple curve and return. The whole structure is supported from the roof of the cave by a few perpendicu- lar strands, rather irregularly spaced, usually about 2 inches long, and often 2 or 3 inches apart. The ends of these supports are connected by a horizontal cable. Where the roof of the cave is un- even the lengths of the supports are varied, so as to maintain the horizontal direction of the cable. The ends of the cable are drawn up and attached to the roof, and there is only a little sagging between the supports. The remainder of the web consists of a fringe of perpen- dicular threads attached to the cable above and with the lower ends hanging free. The threads of this fringe are 2 or 3 inches long, and from about 1 mm. to 3 mm. apart. A diagram, kindly pre- pared by Mr. W. E. Chambers of the Bureau of Plant Industry, is shown in figure 1, to illustrate the plan and ap- pearance of the web. The drawing shows a small section of the fringe with a part of the horizontal cable and one of the vertical supports. The cable and its supports were very slender and had the appearance of or- Fig. 1. Diagram of web of cave dwelling fly larva. 192 cook: web-spinning fly larvae diiiary spider-webs, but the threads that formed the pendant fringe were much thicker, perhaps 0.5 mm. in diameter, and ap- peared as though filled or heavily coated with water. The thicken- ing of the threads did not reach the junction with the cable, but began about 5 mm. below, with great regularity. The constiuction of such a web implies, of course, the possession of a highly specialized spinning instinct. Indeed, without observ- ing the operation it is not easy to understand how the webs are built unless we suppose that at least the supporting framework of the structure is first laid out on the ceiling of the cave, to be dropped into the pendent position afterward, perhaps when the heavy fringe is added. But even on this assumption the provi- sion for keeping the cable horizontal by varying the lengths of the supports would involve a high order of instinctive skill. The stretching of the cable by carrying a thread along the wall would not seem so difficult, but more talent would be required to carry the supporting threads up to the ceiling from the cable or to let them down from above to meet the cable. \^Tien the pendent threads were gathered upon the finger they formed a mass of slime, which shows that the material is very unlike the silk of spiders. Yet the webs evidently serve the same purpose of trapping insects. Several small insects were found em- bedded in the shme, from which they could be squeezed out by slight pressure. Mosquitoes and other soft-bodied forms, which have the habit of seeking dark roosting-places, probably furnish most of the victims, but one of the webs had caught a small beetle. If an investigation of the insect life of the caves were to be under- taken, these webs might afford considerable assistance in trapping the small insects that flit along the roofs of the caverns. The larvae which were evidently the builders of these curious structures, were slender, transparent, vermiform creatures about 20 mm. long. They were found in all cases lying along the main cable of the nest, on which they seemed to slide back and forth, with considerable speed. The attention of Mr. H. S. Barber, of the Bureau of Entomology who visited Guatemala in the same season, was called to these webs and he saw some of them in another cave near Trece Aguas. cook: web-spinning fly larvae 193 At first he was inclined to believe that the spinning larvae might belong to the family Tipulidae, but he now considers it more prob- able that they are Mycetophilidae, as several other members of this famih^ are known to spin webs or to live in web-like tubes of slime. The larval characters of this group of flies are so little known that a definite identification of the animals found in the webs is at present out of the question. But as no webs of similar construction seem to have been described, Mr. Barber has urged me to publish my notes on the subject. The specimen secured from a web by Mr. Barber was somewhat larger and somewhat tinged with brown or black, instead of being entirely transparent hke mine. Whether it represented a more advanced stage or a different species could only be conjectured. Mr. Barber also remembered that there were beads of moisture or slime on the fringing threads of the web, whereas my impression was that the threads or rods of slime were cylindrical and of con- stant diameter up to near the cable, where they were suddenly narrowed. Such differences might depend on the humidity of the atmosphere to which the webs were exposed. Nothing in the way of a specialized subterranean fauna was found in the caves, unless it be the larvae that spin these webs, and even these may not be confined to the caves. Other webs that may have been made by the same kind of larvae were seen after- ward in open recesses in the side of cliffs along the road between Senahii and Sepacuite, tho not in condition to compare with the much more perfect structures seen in the eaves. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the genus Glomerella. C. L. Shear and Anna K. Wood. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 252, pp. 1-110, pis. 1-18, text figs. 4. Issued January 25, 1913. This bulletin contains an account of investigations of fungous parasites which produce the diseases commonly called "anthracnoses." Most cultivated fruits and many other economic plants are frequently attacked and seriously injured by fungi belonging to the genus Glomerella. These fungi produce three distinct spore forms in the course of their complete development — conidia, ascospores, and chlamydospores, or appressoria. Until recently the two principal forms of fructification, conidial and ascogenous, have been described and treated as separate organisms, the genetic relationships not being known. The conidial stage is most frequently found and has usually been referred to one or the other of the form genera Gloeosporium and Colle- totrichum. About 500 so-called species probably belonging to the coni- dial stage of Glomerella have been described. The genetic connection of the conidial and ascogenous stage of these organisms was first definitely proven in cultures in 1898 by Atkinson in the case of Glomerella (Gloeosporium) cingulata (Stonem.) S. & v. S. found on privet (Ligustrum vulgare) , Since that date the life history of races, strains, or species of the organism from several other host plants has been recorded by various investigators as well as the present writers. The life histories of forms from 36 different host plants are recorded in this paper. In 17 cases they were developed in pure culture and in the other 19 cases on the host plant, either in moist chamber or under natural conditions. In 31 cases the connection between the conidial and ascogenous stages was first reported by the writers. 194 abstracts: phytopathology 195 In most of the forms studied neither morphological nor physiological conditions sufficient for the segregation of species have been found, but three species are recognized from the 36 hosts. Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) S. & v.S. found on 34 hosts, the type on Ligustrum vulgare. G. gossypii Edge, on one host, Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) and G. lindemuthianum Shear on Phaseolus vulgaris (wax bean). Glomerella cingulata is exceedingly variable in all its morphological characters. The cause of this variability is not clear. No constant or definite relation has been established between the environmental con- ditions and the most important variations observed. The fungus is found to be present in many cases on apparently normal healthy fohage fruits, and sometimes stems, as shown by its development and fructifica- tion on these plant parts after their surfaces have been thoroughly steri- lized by washing with an antiseptic solution which has been shown to kill not only ascospores and conidia, but also chlamydospores or appres- soria of the fungus. Germ tubes appear to penetrate the epidermis and then remain in a quiescent condition until circumstances favorable for further development occur. Inoculation experiments with fruits show that most of the forms from different hosts will produce the characteristic bitter-rot or anthracnose of fruits of other hosts. Practically the same degree of variability is found in the virility of races or strains of the fungus from the same host as from different hosts. The production or non-production of the perithecial stage of Glo- merella appears to be a fairly well-fixed hereditary race character. The organisms of this genus have developed special features, the most important of which are its method of infection by means of appressoria, and its ability to live in a dormant or inactive condition in the tissues of the host until some specially favorable conditions for its further develop- ment occur. In many cases the fungus never develops further until the infected part of the host dies. The fungus also develops in seeds of cotton and bean especially and thus insures its passing the winter and reaching the new crop. It has been shown by experimenters that diseases af apples and citrus fruits caused by this fungus can be satisfactorily controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, and it is probable that this method can be suc- cessfully used in prevention of diseases of other plants caused by the same fungus. The selection and breeding of resistant varieties may also prove practical in some cases. ' C. L. S. 196 abstracts: medicine ANTHROPOLOGY.— T'Ae distribution of animals and its bearing on the peopling of America. Austin Hobart Clark. American Anthropologist, 14: 23-30. 1912. The land connections between North and South America, and Asia, Africa and Australia, as deduced from a study of zoogeography, are indi- cated, and the conclusion is stated that the connection between Alaska and northeastern Asia persisted until after man inhabited that region and therefore indicates the path by which the first men reached America. The connection between Africa and the mid-American region was dis- rupted so far as the zoological evidence shows, in the Cretaceous, the connection between the Australian region and southern South Amer- ica was broken at a later epoch, but still too early to have formed path for human migration. A. H. C. MEDICINE. — An ingenious method of causing death employed by the Obeah men of the West Indies. Austin H. Clark. American An- thropologist, 14: 572-574. 1912. The West Indian Obeah man of the more advanced type has learned that, on account of the high class of local medical practice, it is no longer safe to employ the common mineral and vegetable poisons which in former days served him so well. He has therefore devised a scheme of infecting flies with streptococci and then liberating them in the houses of his victims. Owing to the habits of the people, especially to their sleeping naked but with the bed clothes (if they possess them) over their heads, to guard against "jumbies" (the local species of ghost), infec- tion is very easily brought about. A . H. C. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The 82d meeting of the Washmgton Academy of Sciences was held at the Cosmos Chib, Thursday evening, Januarj^ 30, 1913. Dr. Arthur L. Day gave an account of Some observations on the volcano Kilauea in action. The observations in question were made during the past sum- mer in connection with a successful effort to collect, in the crater of an active volcano, lava gases uncontaminatecl by the atmosphere. W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary. THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY The 221st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on January 9, 1913. The president . appointed committees as follows: Entertaijiment — McKelvy (chairman), Crenshaw, Lathrop, Smither, and Bunzel, Com- munications— Seidell (chairman), Emery (of Bureau of Chemistry), Gore, Turrentine, and Schaller. The following papers were read: L. A. Rogers, of the Bureau of Animal Industry: Drying by the freezing method. This method, used for drying organic materials of all kinds, consists essentially in drying the frozen material over sulfuric acid in a vacuum dessicator. The ice crystals evaporate directly leaving a very porous and dry powder. Numerous samples were shown and the apparatus was described. The author has used the method for preserving bacterial cultures in a very concentrated and active form. W. Salant and Clayton Smith, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Con- cerning the pharmacological action of the tartrates. Read by Dr. Salant. The wide differences in physiological action between optical isomers has been observed for a number of compounds. Contrary to the results of previous observers, the authors tlnd that laevo- and dextro-tartartic acid are about equally active. The manner of introduction of the acid makes a great difference in the effect. A carnivorous animal, such as the cat, is much more resistant to the acid than the rabbit; the difference is not explainable by oxidation alone. J. A. LeClerc and J. F. Brezeale, of the Bureau of Chemistry: The effect of lime upo7i the alkali tolerance of wheat seedlings. Wheat seedlings were grown in sand, clay and solution cultures containing the alkali salts sodium chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. Salts of cal- cium, barium, sodium, potassium, etc. were added in small amounts to 197 198 proceedings: chemical society these cultures. It was iound that the character of the medium did not affect the results. The presence of a few parts per million of calcium enabled the plants to overcome to a large extent the injurious effect of the alkali, altho the plants absorbed as much alkali in the presence of lime as they did in the control cultures. (Author's abstract.) Discussion: Cameron questioned first whether the beneficial action of clay might not have been due to absorption, second whether sodium chloride found in the ash might not have been present in sap streams. In reply to an inquiry by Sosman, LeClerc stated that petroleum coke was the form of carbon used in the absorption experiments. C. C. Moore inquired as to the bearing of these experiments on the toxic excreta theory. Johnston suggested that the absorption of sodium chloride was a chemical reaction in the case of clay, and a surface effect in the case of carbon. Salant inquired concerning the effect of calcium salts alone, and Cameron stated that calcium chloride was toxic in high concen- tration. H. C. Gore, of the Bureau of Chemistry: The estimation of tartaric and malic acids by the use of uranium acetate and ammonium molyhdate. The effect was shown of increasing amounts of uranyl acetate added to solutions of free and neutralized malic and tartaric acids respectively. Excessive amount of uranyl salt were found to cause depressions in the very high optical rotations observed. In case of malic acid the depres- sions were slight and the maximum activity could be restored by adding optimum amounts of acetic acid; in case of tartaric acid the depres- sions due to excess of uranyl salt were much larger and the readings were only slightly increased by addition of acetic acid. Ammonium molyb- date caused very large increases in specific rotatory power of the two acids. In the case of malic acid the maximum polarizations were much less for the neutralized than for the free acid; small additions of acetic acid stimulated the polarizations very greatly, and in presence of suitable amounts of acetic acid and ammonium molybdate the relation between the malic acid present and the polarizations was found to be linear. With tartaric acid the rotations shown when the free acid was treated with ammonium molybdate were higher than when the neutralized acid was used. The stimulating effect of acetic acid, while large, was smaller than with malic acid. Conditions were not found under which the relation between the polarizations and amounts of tartaric acid present were linear, but the specific rotatory power increased with increasing concentration. (Author's abstract.) Discussion: Hillebrand suggested the use of the method inversely for the rough estimation of uranium and molybdenum in ores. Robert B. Sosman, Secretary. proceedings: geological society 199 THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 264th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, January 22, 1913, at which the following communications were presented: A fall of volcanic ash at Juneau, Alaska in July, 1912: R. H. Chapman. Parts of a letter from Benj. D. Stewart, dated July 28, 1912, were read, giving a description of a fall of volcanic ash due to the eruption of Mount Katmai. A sectarian fro7n New Mexico: W. T. Lee. The habitat of the Cambrian brachiopoda: Lancaster D. Burling. A study of the Cambrian and Lower Ordovician, nearly 1200 localities, represented in the United States National Museum shows: (1) that from about 72 per cent of the localities brachiopods have been identified; (2) that, dividing the sediments into three groups, shale, sandstone, and limestone, 60 per cent of the genera and 85 per cent of the species have been identified from but one type of sediment; and (3) that, after divid- ing the localities into three groups, figures are obtained for each of the groups, indicating that the number of species per locality is smaller in shale than in sandstone and greatest in limestone. The accordance of the results seems to justify the conclusion that habitat influenced not only the nature but the number of species which are to be found in any particular locality. The relations of ilmenite to magnetite in titaniferous magnetite. (Illus- trated): Joseph T. Singewald, Jr. Experiments that have been con- ducted in the magnetic separation of merchantable iron ore from titani- ferous magnetite have yielded varying result, but in all cases only a partial elimination of titanium, and a study of the ores to show their mode of combination was undertaken. The problem was easily 'solved by the study of etched polished sections of the ores in reflected light. Ilmenite is unaffected by hydrochloric acid; whereas, magnetite is readily acted on, and etches to a dull black surface. On examining the etched specimens it is at once apparent that they consist of granular aggregates of ilmenite and magnetite. The magnetite grains are not homogeneous but contain minute intergrowths of ilmenite. These inter- growl^hs are in part irregularly disseminated through the magnetite and in part regularly intergrown with definite crystallographic orientation. Construction of a structure map of the northern anthracite field: N. H. Darton. The map showing the structure of the northern anthracite coal basin has been under construction for several years and is now nearly ready for publication. It was prepared incidentally in connection with a study of the origin of methane in coal, for the Bureau of Mines. The northern anthracite basin was one of the areas selected and as one branch of the inquiry was to ascertain the relation and the occurrence of methane to the deformation of the beds the structure had to be plotted in detail in various parts of the area. The data given on the large scale mine maps, were utilized as far as practicable but in areas not reached by mining the structure was determined from surface dips aided by num- erous bore hole records. The horizon selected for contouring was the lowest notable coal bed (Dunmore — Red Ash) and its configuration is 200 proceedings: anthropological society represented by 100-foot contour lines with sea level datum. The con- tours based on mine surveys in these lower beds are sho\^ai as full lines; those constructed from workings in overlying beds are shown by broken lines, while in areas not j^et worked, dotted lines are used. The struc- ture is still further represented by 15 vertical sections which cross the basin at frequent intervals. Much attention was given to the extension of the different coal beds and it is now practicable to correlate all the beds thruout the basin. The investigation has incidentally disclosed structural details, showing notable discordance in the forms of the flexed beds at different depths and in harder and softer layers. It was necessary to make a very careful study of the conditions under which variations of this character occur in order to represent the probable position of important coal beds in areas not yet worked. As such a representation becomes a prediction and may affect plans for the future exploitation of coal, its occurance is a matter of great economic importance especially in the deeper basins where some of the coal lies nearly half a mile below the surface. Frank L. Hess, Secretary. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held March 6, 1913 in the National Museum, the President Mr. George R. Stetson in the chair. Dr. Walter Hough read a paper on: Savage mutilations for decoration. The paper was a short excursion into the enormous field of custom with regard to ethnic mutilations, and sufficient examples were given to lay the subject rather completely before the society. In it were described the most striking forms of head shaping by pressure in infancy; the various forms of teeth mutilations; ear, nose, cheek and lip modifications and ornaments; pressure and mutilations in the arms, waist and limbs, and modifications of the bones of the feet. With mutilations also should be considered, perhaps, extraordinary hair dressing and treatment of the finger nails. Many slides were shown of tatooing, scarification and decoration of the skin by means of dyes and pigments, and some of their multifarious meanings given. On the whole, it was concluded that ethnic mutila- tions originated from many concepts, the more important being a desire for identification, in some cases individual, but in most cases tribal; a desire for ornamentation, mainly individual in its treatment, but follow- ing environmental and tribal fashions; and also very important mutila- tions growing out of superstitions and religious ideas. Many ethnic mutilations also relate to sex, puberty, social rank, honor for warlike feats, and the like. All these ideas, which at times have been advanced as the explanation of the causes, show that the matter is extremely complex. The bearing of ethnic mutilations on primitive surgery was also hinted at, as well as its effects on the development of costume. Dr. Williams and Dr. Swanton made certain inquiries and brief remarks. The meeting then adjourned. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill APRIL 19, 1913 No. 8 ECONOMICS. — The function of research in the regulation of natural monopolies.^ E. B. Rosa, Bureau of Standards. The social and political unrest of the present day, which mani- fested itself strikingly in the recent presidential campaign, is of course due to more than one cause. Senator Root in a notable speech recently delivered before the New York Chamber of Com- merce, attributed this unrest in large measure to the mutual distrust and mutual misunderstanding existing between the leaders of the financial and industrial world on the one hand and the great body of the American people on the other. To a large audience of bankers, merchants, and captains of industry he said : There are hundreds of thousands of people outside our great indus- trial communities who think you are a den of thieves. There are hun- dreds of thousands of people who think the bankers and manufacturers are no better than a set of confidence men. We have before us now great and serious questions regarding the financial problems of the country, and this is what stands in the way of their solution: It is that the men who understand the finances of the country and the merchants engaged in great operations are under sus- picion; great bodies of people will not accept what thej^ say about finance. They will not accept what the experts say because they do not believe their motives are honest On the other hand, what is your attitude toward the people? There are many in this room tonight who down deep in their hearts believe that great bodies of the American people really want to destroy their business and confiscate their property. Now, neither of these things is true; but one misunderstanding leads to conduct which seems to justify another. , ^ Address of the retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washingtonf delivered February 15, 1913. 201 202 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies Senator Root then went on to say that there is nothing more important today than that by education and the spread of ideas such misunderstanding shall be done awaj' with; that Americans shall interpret the spirit of popular government so that each shall be ready to do justice to the other, and every American shall desire the prosperity and happiness of every other American. But while there is great force in what Senator Root says, it remains true that this social unrest springs in a measure from causes which the government can remedy.- The part which the govermnent must play in our complex ci^*ilization is constantly increasing, and is immensely more important than in the simpler ci^dhzation of a century ago. In the early days the individual was much more independent, and each communit}^ was much less dependent on other communities than now. Society was simple, communication and commerce were Umited, and relatively few laws sufficed. The twentieth century differs from the eighteenth in many respects, but in none more strikingly than with regard to the increasing complexity of business deahngs. The regmlation and control of large corporations which have virtually secured the monopoly of particular industries is now recei\'ing the attention of many of our leading scholars and states- men, and the solution of the problem will be a triumph for popular government. The means that may be employed for this purpose are not so restricted as the}' formerh' were. The public is becom- ing educated rapidly, and the constitution has greater capacities now than formerly. State regulation of natural monopolies. '\Miile the federal gov- ernment in the last few years has been striding to break up giant aggregations of corporations into their constituent parts, with the hope of getting these parts to compete with one another and so put an end to an undesirable monopoly, some of the states have been dealing in constructive fashion with another class of monopolies, and .sho-^dng how they can be regulated and controlled to the end of conser^dng the best interests both of the public and of the stockliolders. I refer to that very large and important - In other words, the people acting co-operatively thru their chosen representa- tives can remedv. rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 203 class of corporations known as public utility companies, chief among which are the steam railways of the countn\ city and inter- urban electric railwaj-s. gas and water companies, electric hght and power companies, and the telephone and telegraph companies. The federal government through the Interstate Commerce Com- mission has of course taken a leading part in this development, particularly -u-ith respect to the railways of the country, but the work done by some of the state pubhc ser^^ice coromissions, promi- nent among which are the commissions of ^Massachusetts, Wiscon- sin, and Xew York, is of far-reaching influence and importance. The attitude of the pubhc regarding public utihties has been undergoing a profound change in recent years. Formerly a franchise for a street railway or gas companj'. for example, was usually granted \^-ithout compensation to the citj', with few, if any obhgations on the company, with no control by the city over prices or service, and with extensions of the ser\'ice into new terri- tory optional viith. the Company. Competition was sometimes sought by granting a francliise to more than one company, but generally such competition, if any, made the ser^dce poorer to the pubhc as well as the profits less to the stock holders. If the busi- ness \\as profitable and the franchises valuable, city councils would be corrupted, if necessary, to get what was wanted. And if the dividends were large, as thej' often were when no standards were set as to the quality of serAdee and no limit set as to price, the capital would be sufficiently watered to keep down the diAi- dends (capitahzing the value of the francliise. it was called). Occasionally a city became so dissatisfied with its gas or water or electric light company (either as to prices or ser\dce, or both) that in despair it built a new works, and two plants were oper- ated where one. if rightly managed, would have ser\-ed the pubhc better. Advantages of a monopoly. The change from this condition to the present (at least in certain states) is nothing short of revolu- tionark\ It is now coming to be recognized that competition cannot regulate rates in pubhc utilities, and that one company can generally give better and cheaper service than two. It is a waste of capital and a disadvantage to a city to have two sets of 204 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies gas or water pipes in the ground, or two sets of telephone or ele- tric hght wires and poles encumbering the streets. Having two telephone companies in a city forces a large proportion of their patrons to pay for both services; two street railway systems gen- erally give less satisfactory service and fewer transfers than one would do. In short, these utilities are natural monopolies, and the highest efficiency and lowest rates are only possible when each one has the entire business of a given city or territory. So long as the right to regulate public service companies was denied, the idea of granting monopoly privileges was repugnant, and hence competition was encouraged with the hope of escaping the ill effects of unregulated monopoly. But now that the right and duty of regulating all public service corporations is admitted by the companies themselves as well as by the courts, the ill effects of monopoly maj^ be escaped and at the same time the beneficial results of economy and efficiency may be realized. To understand what effective regulation involves, we must consider the obliga- tions imposed upon public utility companies, and the character of the service rendered by each. When a community grants an exclusive franchise for a term of years or for an indefinite period to a corporation, with the right to regulate the quality of the service it shall render and the prices it may charge for such service, it undertakes a serious responsi- bility. The interests of the public must be safeguarded, but at the same time the interests of the company and its stockholder must be respected. A public service commission, equipped with a full knowledge of the technical, commercial and legal aspects of the business, and endowed with a judicial spirit, will see that the following duties are fulfilled by each public utility company in its jurisdiction. 1. To perform any duties especially prescribed by law. 2. To serve all who request service and make nondiscrimina- tions. 3. To provide safe and adequate service. 4. To charge just and reasonable rates. ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 205 5. To fulfill its duties to its stockholders honestly and effi- ciently.^ Regulation of a gas company. For example, a gas company receives a franchise to manufacture and sell gas for light, heat and power in a given city, for a term of years, the city perhaps to have the right of purchasing the plant at the end of the fran- chise period. The quality of gas and the character of the ser- vice furnished, and the prices charged, are to be fixed by the pub- lic service commission. The commission must see that the company runs its mains into all the streets of the city ; so as to give service to all, that uniform rates are charged and no rebates are allowed to favored custom- ers ; that service charges if made are reasonable ; that the gas is of good quality, and as free from impurities as possible; that its heating value and candle power are kept up to the standard specified; that the methods of testing and the instruments em- ployed are up to date and satisfactory, and the persons doing the testing are competent; that the pressure of the gas is sufficient and not too great and does not vary enough to be dangerous; that gas appliances used are as safe as can be obtained, and con- nected in an approved manner; that the mains are properly located and properly protected from extremes of heat and cold ; that the meters are kept in good order and tested from time to time as to their accuracy; that the prices charged are as low as possible, consistent with a reasonable dividend to the stockholders; that the books are kept in an approved form, so that the state of the business can readily be determined by the commission ; that proper allowances are made for plant depreciation, or proper sums expended for upkeep; that no new stock is sold without approval by the commission, and that all dividends shall be from actual earnings, but that if actual net earnings are more than necessary to pay a reasonable dividend, the price of gas shall be ^ This of course supposes that the commission has been given the necessary au- thority by the state legislature. Many of the public service commissions were created as railroad commissions; and of these, s^me have had their functions extended to cover only a part of the duties mentioned above. 206 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies reduced. This usually in^'olves an appraisal of the company's property' to determine whether the capitaHzation is fair. From time to time the specifications for the quality of the gas and the methods of testing must be revised; the question may arise as to what candlepower or heating value will give the best service under prevailing conditions; new methods of manufacture, new apph- ances and new uses for the gas will all bring up new questions; and the commission must be prepared to consider and decide upon all kinds of scientific, engineering and commercial problems as thej^ arise in connection with the regulation of gas companies. These duties are so many and so varied that one might suppose that it would be impossible for a commission to accomplish them all even for a single company, much less for all the gas companies in a state. If it had never been done, it would indeed appear doubtful. But these functions are being performed (at least in large part) so successfully in a few states that many of the other states are looking forward to doing it as soon as their commissions are prepared for the work. The gain from such regulation is not alone to the public, which pays for and uses the gas. The com- pany is saved from unfair and hostile local legislation, which often forces resort to the courts, always an expensive and often unsatis- factory experience. The business is more stable, customers are better served and better satisfied, the credit of the company is often improved, new stock sells more readily and at higher prices, as the public knows the condition of the business and there is less risk to the investor. Stock manipulation is prevented, and those who profit by that process are the only ones to suffer. Regulation of an electric light company. Similar duties devolve upon a public service commission with regard to other utilities. Electric light companies are regulated with respect to their sche- dule of rates ; discriminations which are so frequent under ordi- nary circumstances must be prevented; wires, whether overhead or underground, must be run in such manner as to reduce the danger to the public; high potential wires must be especially guarded to keep them from telephone and other low potential wires; alternating current transformers must be grounded on the secondary side, and the grounds must be made according to ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 207 approved specifications; the steadiness of electric potential and uniformity thruout a given city must be satisfactory; proper precautions must be taken to safeguard the hves of the hnemen and other employees of the company; the meters must be fre- quently tested and provision made for extra tests on complaint; portable and station instruments must be tested; lamp renewals must be regulated and prices approved for other than free renewals, and rules and regulations made (in the absence of local rules) with respect to streets lights. Regulation of other utilities. Street railways and intwurban electric railwaj^s must be regulated wdth respect to kind and qual- ity of cars ; the speed of cars and car schedules ; kind of brakes, headlights, doors, and other safety appliances; the method of car heating and amount of heating required ; the method of car light- ' ing and the quality and amount of light that must be supplied; how the current is distributed from the sub-stations to the cars and the variations in voltage permitted between sub-station and cars ; how the railway current is returned from the cars to the sub- stations, in order that the resulting electrolysis may do the minimum of injury to gas and water pipes, lead sheathed cables and other underground structures ; the repairs and upkeep of road- way and rolling stock; the fares to be charged and the conditions under which free transfers are issued ; the wages paid employees and hours of labor; . the conditions under which new stock may be issued ; approval of plans for extensions or alterations of system; etc. Telephone companies must be regulated with respect to method of running their wires, so as to give the best and most reliable service possible under given circumstances; when and where wires must be put underground; the precautions to guard overhead wires against coming into contact with high potential electric light or power wires ; when and under what circumstances telephone and high potential electric wares may be put on the same poles ; the rates to be charged for different classes of service, both local and long distance; the service arrangements between different companies, the restrictions imposed by telephone com- panies respecting private exchanges and extensions; discrimina- 208 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies tions by a powerful company against smaller independent com- panies, etc. Both the Interstate Commerce Commission and the state com- missions deal with problems arising in connection with the regula- tion of the railroads, and these problems are numerous and of great importance. The first class of problems is connected with the fixing of freight and passenger tariffs, and discriminations in rates as between one locality and another or between one shipper and another. The second class of problems has to do with the operation of the road, with the safety and the adequacy of the service. This includes the question of the character of the road- bed and rails, the kind and quality of the engines and cars, the brakes and signalling apparatus, the kind of headlights and the " candlepower and distribution of the light from the same ; the heat- ing, lighting, and ventilation of cars; the investigation of accidents, the weighing of freight and the testing of the scales, includ- ing the scales on which empty and loaded cars are weighed. These and many other questions may come before both state and federal commissions, but not all of them have been fully considered as yet bj^ either. Similar duties pertain also to other utilities that are essentially monopolies, as telegraph companies, express comjianies, sleeping car companies, water supply companies, local express, transfer, and cab companies. Insofar as these utili- ties carry on an interstate business, they .are also dealt with by the federal interstate commerce commission. Co-operation necessary in regulation. It appears from the above formidable, altho incomplete, list of duties devolving upon a state public utility commission that to fully measure up to its respon- sibilities would require a considerable staff of engineers, account- ants, and scientific assistants, besides its- traveling inspectors and administrative officers. To decide many of the questions arising requires more technical knowledge than the experts either of the commission or the utility companies possess. Indeed, many of the questions can only be answered by extended re- searches carried out by scientists, engineers or statisticians, work- ing with the best of facilities. The interests at stake are in the aggregate so great that such researches ought to be made, and yet kosa: regulation of natural monopolies 209 the cost would be too great for every state to do the work inde- pendently, or even for the richest of the states to undertake it alone. ^ The best way in which the work can be well done and kept up to date is for all the states to co-operate, and for the federal government to assist and coordinate the work. This is being done to some extent already, altho comparatively few of the states as yet have commissions that are handling public utilities gen- erally, and hence the work is only fairly begun. On the part of the federal government, the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Bureau of Standards are co-operating with the state com-. missions, the latter with regard to standards and engineering questions which fall within its province. Some of these questions may be mentioned briefly. Instruments and standards. The instruments and standards employed in the measurement of heat, light, and electrical power, have been the subject of much study and investigation at the Bureau of Standards. The thermometers and pyrometers of various kinds employed in temperature measurements, and calorim- eters of different types for use in measuring the heat of combus- tion of gases and solids, are calibrated and certified by the Bureau and standard' samples of certified calorific value are furnished, so that the testing apparatus of public service commissions, public utility companies, and consulting engineers will agree (or special tests be made if they disagree) and causes for dispute are thereby removed. The methods of testing with such apparatus have been studied by the Bureau, and sources of error in apparatus and methods determined. As manufacturing methods are developed and refinements in works control are introduced, greater accuracy ■* Extract from Prof. R. T. Ely, in his Outlines of Economics, 1908: "The tasks which ^confront such commissions are stupendous, and the expense of conducting their work, when it is properly conducted, is enormous On the whole however, it is fortunate that the public have resolved to give this method of reform a thoro trial. It seems to be the next logical step in the evolution of natural monopoly, and does not appear to be attended with any grave danger. If it fails it will at least have trained up a corps of public servants thoroly familiar with the operation of public utility enterprises, and will at the same time have thoroly convinced the people that there is no other alternative but public ownership and operation." This was written five years ago, and much progress has been made since then. 210 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies in testing is required, and it is a great advantage to the industries to have uniform and rehable instruments, standards and methods. The same may be said respecting the measurement of hght and illumination. The candlepower of a gas flame depends upon the quality of the gas, the kind of burner used, the height of the barometer, the amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and the degree of purity of the air in which it burns; hence, if the quality of the gas is to be determined (in part) by the candlepower given, it is necessary that the test be made under very definite condi- tions. The Bureau has done considerable work on flame stand- ards employed in gas testing, but much remains to be done in this respect. Photometric standards are supplied by the Bureau for use in testing electric lamps of various kinds and colors, and gas standards are calibrated and certified. Thus, uniformity of value in light measurement is secured for the whole country, and indeed by means of international comparisons made by the Bureau for the whole world, the international candle being the name of the unit of light universally employed in this country. Calibra- tions are also made of photometers and auxiliary apparatus. Similar uniformity, together with a much higher degree of pre- cision, have been attained in electrical measurements. Electrical energy is sold by the kilowatt hour or the kilowatt year (or a com- bination of the two) and a large amount of testing is done by the companies and commissions to insure accurate measurement of the energy delivered. Here again uniformity and accuracy are promoted by having a national laboratory for calibrating and certifying standards and instruments, and settling such disputes as may arise from disagreeing measurements. A large amount of work has been done by the Bureau to secure and maintain accur- ate standards and instruments, but much remains to be done, particularly with reference to the specifications of instruments and apparatus and the improvement of methods of measurement and testing. In addition to its work on instruments and standards, the Bureau has carried out other investigations which have a bearing on the work of the public service commissions. One of these is concerned with the specifications of illuminating gas, and the methods of testing to be employed in controlling its quality. rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 211 Technical specifications for gas companies. Among public service utilities, none has been for so long a time and in so great detail subject to legal requirements and restrictions as the gas business. Such regulation is of course intended to insure good service. Many elements go to determine good or poor service, the principal of which (chemical purity, heating value, candle- power, and condition as to pressure of the gas) are enumerated and defined more or less completely in many of the gas ordinances now in force, together with the tests that shall be made and the penalties for failure to meet the requirements. These ordinances are sometimes, therefore, very technical and contain detailed specifications. In other cases the specifications are very meager. In some cases old ordinances long since out of date, so far as their technical specifications are concerned, are still in use; in other cases, old ordinances have been extensively amended; in still other cases entirely new ordinances have superseded old ones; in many cases no regulatory ordinances have ever been adopted. In some states possessing state commissions, the requirements have been fixed by the commissions. But in most states (and in all until recently) regulatory ordinances have been prepared and passed by state legislatures or city councils. The process of adopting such an ordinance is often long and painful. Suspicion, antagonism, and often political considerations combine to make the negotiations difficult, and sometimes it amounts to a long drawn battle. The representatives of the city endeavor to get all they can for the public, the company yields as little as possible. The result is generally unsatisfactory to both. Because the stand- ard of performance demanded of gas companies in different cities and states was so different, and because so much difference of opinion existed among experts as to what could fairly be required of a gas company under given conditions, the Bureau of Standards took up about three years ago a careful study of the subject of state and municipal regulations of the quality, purity, and pres- sure of illuminating gas supplied by gas companies. Investigation concerning regulation of gas companies. A com- pilation of all the state laws and city ordinances in force in the country was first made, and their technical requirements tabu- 212 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies lated. A detailed study was then undertaken of the various features of such laws, and an attempt made to formulate a model law that should contain reasonable standards of quality, purity, and pressure, and a reasonable set of operating requirements. In this study, a large number of the best informed gas experts in the country were consulted, and many gas plants visited. In this work the Bureau has been assisted by the responsible officers and members of the technical staffs of gas companies, and by members of public service commissions, gas inspectors, and consulting engineers. The Bureau has endeavored to consider all sides of the various questions involved, and has of course received very conflicting opinions on some questions. It has been a source of great gratification to those conducting this investigation to see the fairness and broad minded spirit shown generally by represen- tatives of the gas companies in discussing questions that affected them so vitally. They have met a spirit of fair play by a corres- ponding willingness to reach just conclusions. The results of this investigation were published by the Bureau of Standards, and the paper has had a wide circulation and careful study by those most interested in the subjects treated. Since its publication, the Bureau has continued to study the subject, and is now preparing a revision of the first edition. The com- pilation of laws and ordinances will be revised and some impor- tant changes will be made in the model ordinance proposed. These changes are, however, being discussed very fully before publication, both with representatives of the public service com- missions and of the gas companies, the latter including a special committee of the American Gas Institute. The position of the Bureau in this matter, as in so many others, is advisory. It has no authority to enforce its conclusions and no disposition to suggest federal legislation or regulation. It acts as an unbiased co-ordinating agency, to formulate the results of its own and other's investigations and to give expression to the concensus of opinion of those best qualified to express opinions on technical questions of great practical importance. A second investigation (already alluded to) is in progress on the methods and instruments employed in testing gas for its ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 213 heating value, its candlepower, and its chemical purity, as well as in testing meters and measuring gas pressures. This will be embodied in a separate publication which will be frequently- revised and kept up to date, in order to be as useful as possible to gas inspectors and engineers in determining whether gas meets the specifications under which it is sold. A third investigation scarcely begun, but which is much needed and deserves extensive study, is on the safety and efficiency of gas appliances. Too many fatal accidents result from defec- tive gas appliances, and the contamination of the atmosphere thru imperfect combustion due to defective appliances is a serious matter, even when no fatalities result. This is a question in which co-operation of all the interests concerned cannot fail to yield important results. Investigations of electrolysis. Another important investiga- tion carried out by the Bureau of Standards which also concerns public utility companies is the damage by electrolysis produced by street railway currents flowing thru the earth, upon gas and water pipes, lead covered cables belonging to telephone, telegraph, and electric light companies, and the reinforced concrete foundations of buildings and bridges. Such insulated double conductor systems as those of New York, Washington, and Cincinnati provide for the return of the current to the power houses without flowing thru the earth, but most cities use the single overhead trolley, and permit the current to return in part thru gas and water pipes and other underground conductors. Where the current leaves such metal conductors, the latter are corroded electrolytically, and in some cases holes eaten thru, thereby interfering with the service and involving expensive repairs. Many remedies have been proposed, but as yet comparatively little has been done to cure the evil. The Bureau undertook a thoro study of the question for the purpose of testing some of the proposed remedies and arriving at a solution of the difficulty, if possible, that could be applied generally. This investigation is not yet completed, but already vd,luable results have been reached and it is hoped that shortly information will be made available for the use of the street railways that will permit them 214 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies greatly to reduce the volume of the currents flowing thru the earth without unreasonable expense, and that will enable the public service commissions to deal more intelligently with the question. The problem is becoming each year more acute since the volume of electric current used is each year increasing as the traffic increases, and the damage produced is therefore increasing at an increasing rate. Many law suits have arisen because of this damage, and such litigation is expensive because of the large amount of conflicting expert testimony adduced and the long time consumed in the trials. Money expended intelligently in solv- ing the problem generally yields better returns than money spent in litigation. In England and some continental countries, there have been rules on this subject which have served as a guide to the electric railways in building their roadways, and hence, they have been saved very largely from the evil effects of electrolysis, altho at a somewhat increased first cost. In this country, the subject was neglected for years. In the absence of public service com- missions or similar bodies to establish regulations, and no govern- ment agency to take the lead in the investigation, the matter has been entirely neglected in many cases until the serious damage resulting has made the question a very acute one. Life hazard in electrical work. Another question affecting pub- lic utility companies is the life hazard in electrical work. There are altogether too many preventable fatalities due to high poten- tial electrical circuits not only to employees of the electrical com- panies but also to the public. In many cases such accidents could have been avoided if the companies had taken greater precau- tions, either by instructing their employees more carefully, or providing them with rubber gloves and other protective devices, or having repairs made only on dead lines, or using more substan- tial and more expensive construction, or running the high poten- tial transmission lines on private rights of way instead of on the highway, or keeping the dangerous wires away from telephone wires and on separate pole lines, or taking still other precautions which experience shows are necessary. The long distance trans- mission of power is being resorted to more and more, and higher rosa: regulation op natural monopolies 215 voltages are being used than a few years ago would have been thought possible. One thousand volts is a dangerous voltage, but transmission at fifty to a hundred thousand volts is becoming common. As water power is utilized more and more, the country will finally be covered with a net work of high potential transmis- sion and distribution lines, and it is a matter of vital concern that all reasonable precautions be taken in the construction and opera- tion of such lines. So long as public utilities were regarded as private business and a company was free to make as much money as possible and invest as little as possible in its plant, the tendency was to economize unduly with respect to protective devices, and any construction that was more expensive than the mechanical or electrical requirements demanded, was avoided. But when we regard railroads, electric light and power companies, and tele- phone and telegraph companies not only as public utilities, but as quasi-public institutions, and permit them to charge enough to make a good profit, but to make the rates as low as good service permits, then it is seen that the pubhc pays for the cost of pro- tection, and it is entitled to require that every reasonable pre- caution be taken to safeguard human life. This latter is the view which is now becoming general, and the public service com- missions are therefore greatly interested in making rules and regulations worked out in such a way as to be capable of enforce- ment upon the electrical companies. On the other hand, the electrical companies themselves are anxious for such information. It is not necessary to make original investigations in every case; it is often a question of collecting and digesting the information already in existence, and with the co-operation of numerous agencies which stand ready to assist, work out a body of rules and regulations that will be as useful as possible. Congress has re- cently made a special appropriation to permit the Bureau to undertake such a study of the life hazard in electrical work, and it is hoped that valuable results may be accompUshed. Railroad scales. Another investigation of great practical importance, in which the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Bureau of Standards are co-operating, is the investigation of the accuracy of railroad scales, especially car scales, for weighing 216 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies freight. Freights to the amount of two thousand milhons of dollars are annually collected by the railroads on weighings made with scales, most of which are seldom tested and, except in three western states, never officially inspected. Numerous disputes and complaints could be avoided if the scales were officially tested and certified, and if provision were made for retesting on com- plaint. Certainly, it is as important to test large scales as small ones, and the cost of doing so is trifling in comparison with the enormous interests at stake. Locomotive headlights. Another subject with which some of the state commissions have dealt is the kind of headlights used on locomotives, their candlepower and reliability. In some states legislation has been enacted requiring a particular kind of head- light. It has been charged that such legislation in some cases has been inspired by commercial interests. In one state the com- mission issued a rule requiring a certain candlepower but not specifying how it was to be measured or exactly what was meant. The railroads, contending that the order was ambiguous, impos- sible to comply with by one interpretation and undesirable by another interpretation, appealed to the courts. After a lengthy and expensive litigation, the order of the commission was set aside. This case is cited to illustrate the need of full technical informa- tion by state commissions before issuing mandatory orders, and also the hardship to railroads or other public utility compan- ies to be obliged to contest in the courts orders that work a hard- ship and which would not have been issued if full information had been at hand. There is great need of further investigation of the subject of headlights for use on steam and electric railways, to determine the best service that different types are capable of giving, and to formulate rules that could be enforced by the commissions. Some railroads economize unduly on the mainte- nance of headlights; in the interest of safety to the public, wise regulations should be in effect. Car lighting. The lighting of cars (both steam and electric) is another practical matter that has not received the attention that it deserves. Most people read more or less on trains and street cars, and with many who ride a long distance to and from ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 217 business, this is their best time for reading. As a rule, however, the Hghting of cars is insufficient and the arrangement of fights is often atrocious from the point of view both of the passengers who are not reading and those who are. Eye sight is too precious a possession and too easily injured to justify the continuance of poor lighting of cars. Better light is required than would be necessary if the cars were not moving. The problem is different on electric cars from what it is on steam cars, because in the former the current for lights comes from the same circuit that supplies the motors, and hence great variations occur due to the fluctuat- ing voltage on the trolley wire. To secure better lighting (1) a steadier voltage should be available, (2) better lamps should be used than are generally seen in electric cars, (3) a greater quantity of light should be available, and (4) the lamps should be so shaded and so located as to keep the glare out of the eyes of the passenger, and yet give good illumination for reading. The immense im- portance of this subject can only be realized when one considers the millions of people who daily spend a considerable time in steam or electric cars, and how much better the service would be if the cars were pleasantly and sufficiently lighted. The public service commissions have it in their power to effect an immense improvement in this respect, but first a thoro investigation should be made, with the co-operation of the railroads, to show what are the best methods to follow, and what it is practicable to ac- complish with present resources. Heating and ventilation of cars. Another question of great practical importance is the heating and ventilation of cars, includ- ing Pullman sleeping cars. Any person who has sweltered in an overheated, unventilated lower berth of a sleeping car (and who has not), will allow that there is great room for improvement. Surely the resources of American invention have not been exhaus- ted in this direction, nor, indeed, with respect to heating and ventilation of day coaches. It is one of the functions of public service commissions to see that the health and comfort of the public are kept in view by the utifity companies, and if it can be made clear what should be done in this respect, the way to reform is open. 218 kosa: regulation of natural monopolies Railway accidents. Another line of work which deserves an immense amount of investigation and study, and co-operation between the states and the federal government, is the prevention of railway accidents. Much has been done and is now being done, both by federal and state agencies, and by the railway companies; but far greater sums of money might well be expended by the states and the federal government in a systematic investi- gation of all phases of this question. It is nothing short of a national disgrace that American railways should kill and injure so many more people than do the railways of European countries, even where the speeds are as high and the passenger traffic as heavy. Life is too cheap with us, and the penalty for disasters too shght. The causes of these accidents are partly physical and partly psychological; no doubt greater attention given to the subject of how to prevent both kinds of accidents would be abun- dantly rewarded.^. Other subjects deserving research could be named that fall within the province of the public service commission, but enough has been said to show how important are their functions apart from the duty of fixing rates and preventing discrimination. These illustrations show how much better it is for the public as well as the companies that the commissions regulate by co-operat- ing with and assisting the companies instead merely of dictating to them what they shall do or shall not do; that the scientist, the engineer, and the statistician are more useful to them in their work than the lawyer;, that the bar of public opinion is more effective than the courts in enforcing their decrees. Many of these utilities are operated by big corporations, owning scores of plants in many states; in the case of the telephone and telegraph, * A recent writer states that 19,377 more persons were injured on railroads in the United States in 1912 than in 1911, and commenting on the slight amount of scientific information that has been collected regarding the causes of accidents, he adds: "The railroads of this country carry so many passengers and so much freight that in one year they are able to charge three billion dollars for the service. And yet it is admitted that no accurate engineering data showing the actual stresses which are set up in railway structures by locomotives and cars of different weights and moving at different speeds has ever been gathered." ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 219 they are gigantic systems operating over the whole country. It is therefore important that the rules and regulations in the differ- ent states shall be as nearly uniform as possible. Hence, in order to reach wise and just conclusions, and to secure uniformity, it is important that the states co-operate with one another, and the federal government can serve as a valuable aid and co-ordinating force in this co-operation. The results that are being attained in this way are only begin- ning to be realized. They will be of invaluable benefit, not only to the public served, but to the companies themselves, and to the cause of good government. With the utihty companies under the control of business-like state commissions, the business is better managed,^ discriminations in rates are eliminated,' the utilities are taken out of local politics, and the possibility of pure municipal government in America is enormously enhanced.^ * B. H. Meyer, speaking on the Wisconsin Public Utilities Commission, at the Pittsburgh Meeting (1908) of the National Municipal League, said: "The utility law is working a revolution in business management Many of the utility companies have not been operated on a business basis; in fact, it is probable that a good many of the managements did not have the remotest idea as to the exact standing, from a business point of view, of the plant, they were operating. Uniform accounting and rules governing the service and the regula- tion of ratio, compel the adoption of business and scientific methods. This is resulting in nothing short of a revolution in management." ^ The whole state of Wisconsin was literally streaked and plastered with dis- crimination in the rates of utilities, and in all the rest of the country, where the extent of the discriminations have not yet been determined, as they have been in Wisconsin, it is quite probable that discriminations similar in character and extent likewise exist." * Governor McGovern has this to say regarding the utilities and politics in Wis- consin: "Times were in Wisconsin when the railroads ran or tried to run the government of the state, and the minor utilities sought to boss the cities, towns and even vil- lages. They contributed liberally to campaign funds, urged their supporters and lobbyists to become candidates for public office, and in close election districts colon- ized voters in the old conventional way. Now, one and all, they are in this sense absolutely out of politics. There is, indeed, no reason now why public service corporations in Wisconsin should wish to dabble in public affairs. Their relations to the people of the state have been definitely and finally determined. They no longer have ansrthing to gain or lose by intermeddling in politics, and apparently they have decided to retire for good. What the elimination of public service cor- porations from participation in political campaigns signified in the purification of public life, no one here needs to be reminded." 220 ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES One of the best results of the method of regulation by public service commissions is the publicity it secures of the affairs of the company and the confidence it establishes in the public mind in the various utility companies. The suspicion and distrust which Senator Root emphasized so strongly in his New York address is everywhere felt toward these companies when their affairs are kept secret, and especially when the service is poor and the divi- dends good. Controversies arise which sometimes degenerate into bitter and partisan feuds. Who can feel kindly toward the maDagement of a street railway company if he is usually com- pelled to ride as a strap hanger, or toward a gas company if the rates are excessive or he believes that his meter races, or toward any company that appears to regard its franchise as the deed to a private monopoly. If the service is improved or the rates re- duced as the business grows more prosperous, the people as well as the stockliolders derive benefits from success. The pubhc soon realizes that utilities so conducted are in effect partnerships between the public and the stockholders, and are willing that the latter receive increased dividends with increased prosperity if the public is permitted to share the fruits of success. The slid- ing scale of prices for gas is a successful example of this system, but it is also realized in many cases where a sliding scale of prices has not been fixed in advance. The regulation of prices by a commission gives in effect a sliding scale, by which either the price goes down or the quality of the service goes up, as the success of the business justifies it. For want of a Public Service Com- mission in the District of Columbia, the Interstate Commerce Commission has recently been exercising the functions of such a commission with respect to the street railways, and with good effect. There is great need of a full fledged Public Service Com- mission in the District, and it is hoped that Congress in its wisdom will respond to public sentiment and establish such a commission. How infinately better is this method of regulation than the building of publicly owned utilities to compete with private plants already in existence. For a state or city to say that it is impotent to regulate a public utility is a confession of weakness; but there is far greater difficulty in city control than in regulation by state commissions. Except, perhaps, in the largest cities, it seems rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 221 much better to have strong state commissions, well equipped with technical assistants, than to have separate commissions for each city. And with the co-operation of other states and the federal government, any state commission can establish its work with only a fraction of the effort and expense required by those states that have pioneered the movement.^ Turning now to the great industrial and financial corporations popularly called trusts, the question suggests itself whether it is possible for the government to regulate them in a manner similar to the regulation of the natural monopolies we have been discuss- ing, so that full publicity may be secured, the rights of the public may be conserved, and at the same time the rank and file of the stockholders will be protected from the vultures that often hover over the executive offices of such concerns. One cannot say that it will be done as easily, but it is coming to be believed that the general method adopted in the regulation of public utilities is the right one, namely, less dependence on law and the courts, and more dependence on engineers, statisticians and business experts; that the government should prescribe affirmative duties for the giant corporations, and not merely negative ones; that a constructive policy that would benefit both the business concerns and the pub- lic they serve should be sought, rather than a retrograde policy that is no benefit to the business and does no good to the public. If such regulation could be realized, and consolidations and promotions in business could be limited to such as would benefit both the public and the stockholders, and not merely big finan- ciers and promoters, it would be a notable achievement in our political as well as economic history. It would assist mightily in the peaceful settlement of industrial disputes and in the bring- ing of a better understanding between capital and labor. It is just as reasonable to expect the government to perform this function of regulation of monopolies as to expect it to adjust international disputes by arbitration rather than by war. It is not socialistic, but rather the reverse, for it is the alternative of state ownership. In Germany the cities are great Imsiness 3 Writing in 1908, Professor Ely said: "States having commissions empowered to enforce uniform accounting will constitute great economic laboratories in this connection during the next quarter of a century." 222 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies concerns operated by business men for the benefit of the people, and as such they are models for the whole world. They own and operate most of the public utilities themselves, and do it well, and hence the necessity of public regulation is there less felt altho it has been practiced for many years. But in this country, municipal ownership has been less successful, except in the case of municipal water supplies. There have been three stages in the modern history of natural monopolies. In the first they went unregulated, being operated for the profit of the owners and exploited for the benefit of finan- ciers. In the second stage, regulation was by legislation and law suit. In the third, regulation is by commission; the regulation is more complete, as well as more intelligent, and co-operation and publicity are the keynotes of the method. The large industrial corporations which have virtual monopo- lies, are mainly in the first stage, altho some are in the second. Whether they will finally come to the third stage, and be regu- lated by the methods now apphed so successfully to natural monopolies, remains for the future to determine. If state regulation of natural monopolies becomes as general within a few years as it promises to be, and if it is as successful generally as it has been in the few states which took it up first, it will solve the problem of public utilities and largely solve the problem also of good municipal government. The signal success of the Wisconsin Commission was largely due to the influence of the University of Wisconsin. In its per- sonnel and methods it was a scientific commission, and entered into its work with the spirit of the investigator. Its spirit and its methods have been adopted by some of the other state com- missions, of which a larger number have been created recently and are now taking up their work. If the administrative officers of the commissions are assisted by scientists, engineers, and economists, and the work is done in a judicial spirit, as new problems being taken up as a scientific research would be, the states and federal government "acting in full co-operation, with the experience of each available to all; if the work is done in that way we may be certain that success will be sure and permanent. WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 223 MINERALOGY. The determination of the order of agreement between observation and theory in mineral analyses.^ Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory, and C. E. Van Orstrand, Geological Survey. In a recent number of this Journal, ^ Dr. W. T. Schaller published an interesting note on ''The Calculation of Mineral Formulas" in which he showed that the ordinary method of cal- culation— by first reducing the weight percentages of an analysis to mol numbers* and then dividing these by one of the mol num- bers thus obtained — furnishes results whose degree of approxima- tion to whole numbers is less than that of the values derived by a new method of calculation which he described. In view of the fact, however, that certain details of his method are open to criti- cism, it has seemed appropriate to the present writers to consider the principles underlying the subject, and to determine if possible the most logical basis and method for comparison. From Schaller's paper, the mineralogist or chemist may perhaps be led to infer (1) that the ordinary methods of calculation furnish only a rough measure of the degree of approximation of a chemical analysis of a mineral or chemical compound to the values derived from its chemical formula; and (2) that by a somewhat involved calculation the analysis can be expressed in more accurate form. 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 2 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 97-98. 1913. * The term mol number is here suggested as an appropriate name for the number obtained by dividing the weight percentage of a chemical substance in any given chemical analysis by its proper molecular (respectively atomic) weight. Such numbers have usually been called molecular ratios, but they are, rather, numbers indicating the number of mols (gram-molecules) of each substance present in n grams of the material analyzed where n is the sum of the analysis. The terms molecular ratios or molecular proportions apply logically only to the numbers of the chemical formula. Thus in the analysis cited below, the chemical formula num- bers or molecular ratios are S : As : (Ag + Cu) = 11 : 2 : 8, while the mol numbers from the analysis are S = 0.5444; As = 0.1008; (Ag + Cu) = 0.3975. To use the term molecular ratios indiscriminately for both sets of numbers is not conducive to precise statement and is not to be recommended. The term mol number seems preferable to molecular nujnber or molecular quotient (Molekularzahl Molekularquotient) which are in current use in German. The writers are indebted to Drs. Washington and Niggli for detailed discussion of the proposed term. 224 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES The underlying purpose of such calculations is not, however, to improve a chemical analysis by mathematical manipulation, which is obviously impossible, but to obtain a logical basis of comparison for the given analysis with the analysis calculated from the chemi- cal formula. In the following paragraphs the different methods which are available for such comparisons will be discussed with reference to their accuracy and general applicability. It will be shown that the best general method is to compare the actual analysis of the mineral with the weight percentage analysis de- rived from its chemical formula. This method is, moreover, in conmion use. The method suggested by Schaller is not only in- ferior to this and to the other methods considered below, but it is incorrect in principle in certain details. The problem is based on Dalton's fundamental law of simple atomic or molecular ratios, namely, that in a homogeneous chemi- cal substance in which the relations are not veiled by solid solu- tion, the atomic and molecular proportions can be expressed by small whole numbers. In practice, however, we find that because of various sources of error (lack of purity of material analyzed, inaccuracy in chemical methods and impurities in reagents employed, errors in atomijc weights, personal equation of analyst), the actual data of a mineral analysis, after reduction to mol numbers, only approximate whole numbers in their ratios, the deviations being usually small and to be treated as errors of obser- vation. In the present problem, only the final results of an analysis are given and the above sources of error can not therefore be differentiated and properly weighted, but have to be considered together and all analytical data equally weighted. It should be noted that in chemical data of this character, the systematic errors are relatively large, and that, furthermore, they can not be distinguished in the analytical data, as given, from the acci- dental errors. Too refined mathematical treatment is, therefore, unnecessary and misleading. For the sake of completeness, however, the various available methods will be considered below, even tho several of them are hardly to be recommended for the reasons cited above. From the mol numbers of an analysis we infer by inspection the WEIGHT AND VAN ORSTRANDI MINERAL ANALYSES 225 molecular ratios or simple chemical formula numbers, and then pro- ceed to determine how close the agreement is between the observed values and those deduced from the inferred chemical formula. This can be done by several different methods, which, however, are not all equally rigorous. The best and most logical methods are based on a comparison between the given analysis (weight per- centages) and the weight percentage analysis computed from the inferred chemical formula. Comparisons can also be made between the mol numbers and the inferred molecular ratios, but these are not strictly correct in principle. They have, however, often been adopted, by chemists and mineralogists, and merit, therefore, a brief word of description after the more rigorous methods have been presented in detail. In all the methods the assumption is made that after proper reduction of the weight percentages of the given mineral analysis, the chemical formula numbers (molecular ratios) can be inferred by simple inspection; this signifies that in the case of solid solution we know, or are able to determine, the particular molecules which should be consid- ered together. First jnethod. In this method the chemical formula numbers are first multiplied by the proper molecular (respectively atomic) weights and the corresponding weight numbers {x) obtained. These in turn are multiplied by a factor m which is determined by the least square method and furnishes the most accurate values {y') for the weight percentages. To find m we assume in accord with usual practice that the theoretical weight numbers {x) derived from the molecular ratios are free from error and that the observed quantities {y, the weight percentages of the analysis) contain errors of observation. Since the two series of numbers stand in a constant ratio m to each other we have the observation equations yi = mxi, y2 = mx-i, . . . yn = mx^. (1) The general equation, y = mx, is the equation of a straight line passing thru the origin. The rigorous solution consists, therefore, in adjusting the straight line thru the n given points. A higher degree of precision would be obtained by considering the 226 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES origin as an observed point but this assumption seems in the present instance unnecessary and incorrect in principle. To obtain the required solution let the equations be put in the form Piyi-fnpiXl=PiVi, P2y2-'mp2X2=P2V2, . . Pnyn-mPnXn=PnVn(2) in which yi,?;2 . • . ^n are the respective residuals or the dif- ferences between the observed values (2/1,2/2, . . . y^) and the computed values {y\, y'2, . . ?/'„); pi,p2, . . Pn are arbitrary weights assigned to the corresponding observation equations. By making now the sum of the weighted squares of the residuals (PiVi^ + P2%^ + . . . + PnVj) a minimum we obtain the best possible solution of the equation for m, namely, m = PlX^yl + p2X2y2 + r PnXnyn PlXl^ + P2X2^ + an expression which reduces to m = xiyi + X2y2 + + PnXj + Xnyn Xi" ~p Xo I r Xn (3) Pn) to be as- when we assume that the weights (pi, p2, . . . signed to the observation equations are all unity. To apply this method to the analysis cited by Schaller we ascer- tain first the mol numbers (Column 2) by dividing the weight 1 2 3 4 5 5a 6 6a 7 7a 8 8a « s D 0 S & 2 D i hi (^ 0 !S H <• P M H '-' 3g3 2 < a i « 0-C o-c o-c o-c S.. 17.46 0.5444 11 352.79 17.53 -.07 17.54 -.08 10.981 + .019 10.964 + .036 As 7.560.1008 2 150.00 7.45 + .11 7.45 + .11 2.033 -.033 2.030 -.030 Ag 59.220.2744* ^ 8 1191.85 59.21 + .01 59.24 -.02 8.018 -.018 8.006 -.006 Cu 15. 650. 1231* J 314.97 15.65 .00 15.66 -.01 99.89 1.0427 21 2009.61 99.84 99.89 .00 21.032 21.000 .000 * Considered as (Agj) and (Cuj) respectively. Sum = 0.3975 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 227 percentages of column 1 by the proper atomic (respectively molecular) weights;* from these mol numbers, we have S : As : (Ag2 + Cus) = 0.5444: 0.1008: 0.3975 and infer that the correct chemical formula numbers are S : As : (Ag2 + Cu,) = 55 : 10 : 40 = 11 : 2 : 8. These numbers (column 3) are th«n multiplied by the proper atomic (respectively molecular) weights and the (x) values of the equations (1) obtained (column 4). The value of m is now found from equation (3) by dividing the sum of the products of the observed values (y) (column 1) and the theoretically correct values (x) (column 4) by the sum of the squares of (x). On multiplying the (x) values by the value oi 7n ( = 0.049682) thus computed we find the values in column (5); the differences be- tween the observed (y) and computed (y') values (o — c, column 1 — column 5) are a proper measure of the degree of approxima- tion of the actual analysis to that computed from the inferred chemical formula. The rigorous test would consist in computing the probable error of a single observation but this procedure is perhaps unnecessary for data of the character here considered. Second 7iiethod. This method is a mathematical refinement of the first method but it does not give values which are of suffi- ciently greater precision to warrant the extra labor involved in computation nor does the assumption that {x) contains errors of observation seem to be rigorously justified unless errors in the atomic weights are of sufficient magnitude to be taken into account. In this method it is assumed that both the {x) and the {y) values of equations (1) contain errors of observation. The proper value of m to meet the conditions is then obtained from the equation (4) \ rrix/ wherein * In his paper Schaller did not state the atomio (respectively molecular) weights which he used in his computations. They are readily found, however, by dividing the numbers of the first column by the corresponding ones of the second. They are S = 32.07; As = 75.00; (Ag,) = 215.82; (Cua) = 127.13. 228 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES ^ _ x^yl-\^x^y2+ . . . + a^n^n 7/2] — ■ 0^1' + 0:22+ . . . +Xn^ yi' + y^'^ . . . +yr? 7TI2 — ""' • Xiyi + X2y2 + . . . + XnVn In these equations the weights of (x) and (y) and of all obser- vation equations are assumed to be unity; mi is the value of m in equations (1) when (x) is assumed to be correct and (y) to contain the errors of observation; m^ is the value of m in equations (1) when (y) is assumed to be correct and (x) to contain slight errors. On applying this method to the above analysis we find that the values obtained are identical with those in column 5 to the second decimal place. Third method. The results obtained by this method are only approximately correct but they are of sufficient accuracy to be satisfactory for most analyses and are, moreover, readily com- puted, the computation consisting simply in reducing the weight numbers (x) (Column 4) proportionately, so that their sum (col- umn 6) is equal to that of the given analysis (column 1), the as- sumption being that when the two analyses have the same sum (either the actual sum of the given analysis or 100.00), we have a common basis for comparison. The differences (column 6a) between the observed weight percentages (column 1) and those computed by this method (column 6) are then an approximate, but satisfactory measure of the agreement of observation with theory. This method is, for general purposes, the simplest and best. Mathematically it can be stated from a somewhat differ- ent viewpoint, altho the computations are the same. If we assume that the sum of the weighted residuals (piVi -\- P2V2 -{- . . • + PnVn) in equations (2) is zero, the resulting equation gives PiXi + P2X2 -h . . . + PnXn an equation which reduces to m' = ^■ + ^^^+ • • • +y.^ (6) Xi -f- X-2 -|- . . . -f- Xn WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 229 when we assign equal weight to all the observation equations. In Schaller's analysis, the factor \fy.r>j 049706 ^ 2009.61 ^-^^^^^^ which is only slightly different from the factor m obtained by the least square method. To find the required value for S in the above analysis by this method, we multiply the weight number 352.79 (column 4) by the factor m' = 0.049706 and obtain the value 17.54 listed in column 6; the remaining values of column 6 are obtained from column 4 by multiplying by the same factor. To impose the conditions (1) that the sum of the residuals shall vanish and (2) that the sum of their squares shall be a minimum, we write the observation equations in the general form y ^ a -\- mx, and adjust them by the usual least square method. There seems, however, to be no justification for adopting such a procedure here. Fourth, fifth and sixth ynethods. These methods are identical with the three preceeding methods except that the adjustments are made between the mol numbers and the molecular ratios. Thus the mol numbers may be taken as the observed values {y) and the molecular ratios as the theoretically correct values (x) to be used in the observation equations (1). Adjustment can then be made by any one of the methods described above. Thus in method (4), the factor m of observation equations (1) is found from equation (3) by considering the mol numbers (column 2) the {y) values and the molecular ratios (column 3) the {x) values. The final values are then obtained by multiplying the {x) values (column 3) by the factor m thus computed. In method (5) the same values of {x) and {y) are used and the proper value for m computed from, equation (4) above. Similarly in method (6) the proper value for m' is computed from equation (6). The results obtained by these three methods are, however, theoreti- cally inferior to those of the first three methods, for the reason that the mol numbers are obtained from the weight percentages by dividing them by the proper molecular (respectively atomic) 230 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND I MINERAL ANALYSES weights, and are therefore differently weighted because the mole- cular (respectively atomic) weights are different. In the present case these objections do not seriously affect the results obtained, but the objection is nevertheless valid and the methods are in error to that extent. Seventh, eighth and nmth methods. In these methods the adjust- ments are made on the assumption that the mol numbers are theoretically correct {x values), while the molecular ratios (y) contain the errors of observation. This is a still further depart- ture from correct theory, and neither these methods nor those noted in the last paragraph are to be recommended. The values obtained by the seventh method involving adjustment by least squares are listed in column 7, while the differences (o — c) between columns 3 and 7 are given in column 7a. Similarly, the results obtained by use of the ninth method, which corresponds to method 3, are given in column 8 and the differences (o — c) in column 8a. It may be noted here that insofar as the numerical computations are concerned, it is immaterial which set of quantities (x or y) are assumed to contain errors of observation when equa- tion (6) is used, but different results are obtained when the quan- tities are adjusted by means of equations (3) and (4). Schaller's method is in error in the following details of principle : 1. Comparisons are made between mol numbers and molecular ratios on the assumption that the mol numbers are theoretically correct while the molecular ratios contain the errors of observa- tion. The objections cited under methods 7 to 9 apply, therefore, to his method. 2. The numbers given in his column (2), page 98, are of unequal weight and the arithmetic mean is not, therefore, a correct aver- age. 3. The final values in his last column near the bottom of page 98 are obtained by dividing the computed numbers in his column (3), page 98, by the molecular ratios. These values are accord- ingly of different degrees of approximation because differently weighted. 4. His method may be stated in the form of an equation by putting WRIGHT AND VAN OSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 231 1 1 , V2 - . . Vn- X2 ^n in equation (5). Since the weights are here inversely propor- tional to the {x) values, it follows that small molecular ratios are adjusted more accurately than the larger numbers. Summary. Of the methods available for comparing the ob- served results of a mineral analysis with those obtained from the chemical formula to which the analysis corresponds approxi- mately, the best method is to ascertain first the weight numbers (derived from the chemical formula by multiplying these ratios by the proper molecular weights), and then to adjust these values to the given analysis by the least square method. Since the com- putations involved are, however, somewhat laborious, and further- more, since there are a limited number of observations and the systematic errors of observation are, in general, large as compared with the accidental errors, the simple method (3) (equation 6) is preferable for general use. It furnishes results which are very nearly correct and consists simply in reducing the weight num- bers proportionately so that their sum is equal to that of the given analysis. In other words, we compare the actual analysis directly with the weight percentage analysis computed from the inferred chemical formula, both analyses having a common sum. The differences between the observed and computed values are then a sufficient measure of the degree of agreement of observation with theory. The two general formulas (3) and (6) furnish the best solutions of the present problem. In these formulas y may be taken to represent weight percentages, mol numbers or molecu- lar ratios, while x represents respectively the weight numbers, the molecular ratios or the mol numbers. Equation (3) always gives a more precise adjustment, but equation (6) is in general suffi- ciently accurate for the computations here considered. The relation between weight percentages and weight numbers is rigorous. The relations between mol numbers and molecular ratios are lacking in rigor, but are usually sufficiently accurate for the purpose. ' 232 WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE PHYSICS. — A new thermal microscope for the measurement of the optical constants of minerals at high teinperatures. Fred. Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. With this microscope (fig. 1) three optical constants — bire- fringence, extinction angle, optic axial angle — of a properly ori- Fig. 1 ented crystal plate can be measured accurately at any tempera- ture between 10°C and 1200°C. Above 1200° the intensity of illumination from the furnace itself is so great that it tends to veil the optical phenomena produced by the polarized light waves transmitted thru the plate. The thermal microscope consists WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE 233 of two distinct parts: (1) a petrographic microscope equipped with a suitable device for simultaneous rotation of the nicols, either by means of gear wheels connected by a bar (fig. la) or by means of a direct connecting bar (fig. lb), the second method be- ing the more accurate and satisfactory; (2) an electric resistance furnace A (fig. 2) which is enclosed within the water jacket W (fig. 2). The details of construction of this furnace are shown in vertical section in figure 2. The furnace consists of two alundum Fig. 2 tubes made especiall}^ for the purpose and wound on the outside, in helical grooves of 1 mm. pitch, with platinum wire 0.35 mm. in diameter. It is then coated with alundum cement and finally baked at 1200° to 1400° for several hours. In this furnace the relatively small openings at the ends and the side, the enlarge- ment at the center and the close winding of the heating coil are arranged to insure uniformity of heating in the central space where the crystal plate is heated and its temperature measured. The water jacket consists of a hollow brass cylinder and sep- arate hollow end plates each of which is provided with an intake and outlet E for the circulating water. Into each end plate a plunger P is fitted for wiping away the air bubbles which happen 234 WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE to collect between the two glass windows B and thus to disturb the field of view. To the cylinder part of the jacket a support G is attached with conical center bearing for the crystal holder. The crystal plate whose optical constants are to be determined is held in position by platinum jaws (L fig. 2) which fit into and project beyond the porcelain tube A^, which in turn is held in position by the rotating holder H. The thermoelement wires D are passed thru the larger tube A^ in small porcelain tubes T and extend beyond these so that the thermoelement junction is di- rectly beneath or above and in contact with the mineral plate, thus insuring good temperature readings. The temperatures are read either on a direct reading millivoltmeter (Siemens and Hal- ske type) or in more accurate work by means of a mirror galvano- meter and potentiometer system as commonly used in this lab- oratory. ^ The holder H is equipped with a circle C, graduated to degrees, and with a clamp screw K for keeping the tube N in place. This part of the apparatus is complete. in itself and can be withdrawn from the furnace at any temperature without dis- turbing the other parts. To insure proper adjustment of the crystal plate a second holder (fig. lb) is clamped to the stage of a second microscope and the plate so mounted that the plane of its optic axes is normal to the axis of rotation of the holder. Fig. 3 For this adjustment a device for autocollimation has been used which has proved serviceable and promises to be of value in other autocollimating instruments. A thin cover slip of the shape indicated in figure 3a with one edge vertical and the oppo- site edge inclined 45° to the vertical, is placed in the rear focal plane of the low power objective. Light from a Nernst filament, sent thru the plate to the inchned edge, is totally reflected ' Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 31, 1905; 157, GS. 1911. WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE 235 and passes thence through the objective to the mineral plate, where it is again reflected and appears, after its return through the objective, as a sharp bright line in the dark field. When the mineral plate is normal to the axis of the lens system, the bright line is practically covered, thus enabling the observer to make very accurate adjustments.- This method has been improved by using two cover glasses as indicated by figure 3b, the space between the glasses serving to mark the center. The complete cross has also been obtained by means of cover glasses ground as illustrated in figure 3c. The grinding and mounting of four such cover glasses is, however, difficult and requires considerable skill to be accomplished satis- factorily.^ After the crystal plate has been mounted and adjusted and the thermoelement wires correctly placed, the holder H is in- serted into its support G on the water jacket (fig. 2) and the min- eral plate thus introduced into the furnace in a position ready for the measurement both of its optical constants and of its tem- perature. The birefringence of a mineral plate is measured on this micro- scope by the method used on the thermal microscope described several years ago.^ The thickness of the plate is determined be- fore insertion into the furnace. The change in thickness due to expansion on heating is so slight that it is negligible for most measurements of birefringence. The path-difference of the emer- gent waves from the crystal plate in the furnace is measured by means of a graduated compensating wedge. ^ Extinction angles are measured by means of a biquartz wedge ^ This scheme for autocoUimation is somewhat similar to that suggested by Nutting in this Journal 2, 404, 1912. In his arrangement a reflecting cover glass is used on end with the result that only a small part of it is in focus at any setting of the eyepiece while in the scheme outlined above the entire cover glass is in sharp focus and the field is less disturbed. ' These different types of cover glasses were satisfactorily ground for the writer by the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company. ' Am. J. Sci. (4) 27, 43. 1909. ' 5 Am. J. Sci. (4) 29, 417. 1910; Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 158, 102. 1911. 236 WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE plate^ combined with rotating nicols. This plate is useful for determining positions of total extinction of a mineral even at high temperatures where the strong illumination of the furnace field tends to cover up the interference colors from the mineral plate. The optic axial angle is measured directly on the graduated circle C (fig. 2), the crystal plate being rotated until each of its two optic axes coincides with the axis of the microscope (tested by rotation of the nicols, as in the universal stage methods); the angular distance between the two positions of coincidence is read directly on the graduated circle. These positions are sharply marked and the error of the measurement of the optic axial angle on a favorable section is not over ±1° even at relatively high temperatures. This thermal microscope has proved so satisfactory in practice that an extended series of measurements on selected natural min- erals of known composition has been commenced with a view to determine not only the changes in their optical constants but also their inversion and melting temperatures, these last temper- atures to be checked by means of the accurate temperature meas- uring methods now in use in the Geophysical Laboratory. At the same time the refractive indices and in some instances changes in crystal angles will be ascertained by the use of another fur- nace attached to the two circle goniometer and to be described in a later communication. 6 Am. J. -Sci. (4) 26, 377, 1908; Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 158, 139. 1911. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 265th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, February 12, 1913. An informal communication was presented: Cone in cone structure in coal from St. Anthony, Idaho: E. G. Wood- ruff. Cone in cone structure is not uncommon in clay and shale, but unusual in coal. The specimens exhibited from the St. Anthony coal- field, Idaho, show this structure well developed on the surface but not developed within the specimens, tho shearing is shown. Bed from which the sample is taken is crushed and faulted. Slickensiding is common. The cone in cone genetically in this case seems to be closely related to slickensiding. The complete explanation is not offered. The formal communications were: Certain metallic minerals as precipitants of silver and gold. Chase Palmer and Edson S. Bastin. The paper will be pubUshed in no. 2, vol. 8, of Economic Geology, and in shorter form in the Transactions (New York meeting) of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Time relations of glacial lakes in the Great Lakes region: Frank Lev- ERETT. The following tabulated statement of the order of development of lakes in the several basins sets forth the tentative correlation based upon a study of the moraines, lake outlets, and other features which bear upon correlations. The writer is responsible for the present tabulation but is indebted to various other geologists for data bearing upon the direction of outlet of the several lakes at different lake stages. Order of development of glacial lakes 1. General recession of ice border but with some oscillation. Lake Maumee, discharge (a) By Fort Wayne to Wabash River. (b) By Imlay outlet to Lake Chicago. Lake Saginaw, discharge in later stage by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River. 2. General recession of ice border. Lake Arkona, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River, 237 238 proceedings: geological society 3. Readvance of ice border. Lake Whittlesey, discharge by Ubly outlet to Lake Saginaw. Lake Saginaw, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River. 4. General recession of ice border. Lake Waj^ne, discharge by Syracuse outlet to Mohawk River. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River. Lake Duluth, discharge bj^ St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River. 5. Readvance of ice border. Lake Warren, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River. Lake Duluth, discharge by St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River. 6. General recession of ice border. Lake Lundy, Elkton, Dana discharge bj' Syracuse outlet to Mohawk Valley. Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River. Lake Duluth, discharge by St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River. 7. General recession of ice border. Lake Iroquois, discharge by Mohawk outlet. Lake Erie, discharge by Niagara outlet to Lake Iroquois. Lake Algonquin, discharge by (a) Trent outlet to Lake Iroquois. (b) By St. Clair outlet to Lake Erie. Lake Agassiz, discharge by River Warren to Mississippi River. 8. Ice border north of Great Lakes watershed. Lake Nipissing, discharge by (a) Ottawa outlet to Champlain Sea. (b) Part discharge by St. Clair outlet to Lake Erie. (c) Full discharge by St. Clair outlet Lake Erie, discharge by Niagara outlet to Lake Ontario or Cham- plain Sea. Champlain Sea in St. Lawrence valley. Close of Lake Agassiz, probably eastward discharge to Lake Algonquin followed by northeastward drainage to Hudson Bay. 9. Modern lakes discharging by St. Lawrence River. R. W. Richards, Secretary. The 266th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, February 26, 1913, and the following informal communication was pre- sented : Asphalt in a basaltic amygdaloid from British Columbia: Norman L. BOWEN. The formal communications were: The zinc-lead deposits of the Yellow Pine district, Nevada: J. M. Hill. The Yellow Pine district is in the southwestern part of Clark County, Nevada, near the California hne. The mines are located on both sides of the southern Spring Mountains over an area of nearly 400 square proceedings: geological society 239 miles. Jean, on the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake railroad is the principal shipping point. Goodsprings, 8 miles northwest of Jean with a population of 200 is the largest town. The ore deposits are of zinc and lead and form ver.y irregular replace- ments which usually occur in more or less crystalline upper Mississippian limestone. They are found thru a vertical range of 3000 feet and do not seem to be restricted to any particular member of the sedimentaries. The principal factors in the localization of the ore bodies appear to be the presence of joints and crushed zones which in general strike east and west or nearly north and south, and are in most places nearly vertical. The zinc and lead ores are usually closeh^ associated. The ratio of zinc to lead, however, is extremely variable even in the same ore body. In general, the lead content is higher in the upper part of the ore bodies. The only sulphide mineral common to these ores is galena. Part is probably original but some is undoubtedly secondary. At one place in the Potosi mine a small bod}^ of sphalerite ore was found entirely sur- rounded by oxidized zinc ores. This ore is considered to represent the primary ore, but it may be enriched. The sphalerite is intergrown with calcite and a little galena, and is iron-bearing. The ores now being mined in the district consist of white or red iron- stained smithsonite, with some cerussite, anglesite, and galena. Cala- mine is not abundant and where seen is usually developed in the latest open water-courses in the other ore. Hydrozincite is sometimes present in fairly large masses in the ore bodies near the surface and often shows as a white coating on the croppings. It is thought that the present bodies of carbonate ores have resulted in part from alteration of sulphide ores in place and in part from a down- ward concentration of the metals by surface waters which followed the fractures in their movement towards ground- water level. Pre-Wisconsin drift in the region of the Glacier National Park, Montana: W. C. Alden and Eugene Stebinger. An abstract of this paper was published in the preliminary list of papers for the New Haven meeting of the Geological Society of America. The full paper is to be published in vol. 24 of the Bulletin of the Society. Frank L. Hess, Secretary. THE SEMI-CENTENARY ANNIVERSARY OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The National Academy of Sciences will celebrate the 50th anniver- sary of its foundation at the National Museum in Washington April 22-24 inclusive. The program will include the following addresses, to which the members of the Washington Academy of Sciences and of its affiliated societies are cordially invited. Tuesday, April 22, — Opening session, 11 a.m. Welcome by Presi- dent Ira Remsen. The relation of science to higher edncatio7i in America: President Arthur T. Hadley, of Yale. International cooperation in research: Prof. Arthur Schuster, Sec- retary of the Royal Society. Afternoon session, 3 p.m. — 'The earth and sun as magnets: Dr. George *E. Hale, Director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. Wednesday, April 23, 10.30 a.m. — On the material basis of heredity: Prof. Theodor Boveri of the University of Wurzburg. The structure of the universe: Prof. J. C. Kapteyn of the University of Groningen. All addresses will be in English. 240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill MAY 4, 1913 No. 9 VITAL STATISTICS.^ — A natural population norm^ I. Alfked J. LoTKA. Communicated by G. K. Burgess. Birthrate and deathrate are in general functions of the age- distribution in a given population. Hence, for purposes of com- parison, it is customary to "correct," the "crude" death rates to correspond to some arbitrarily chosen "standard population." The age distribution itself is not, however, purely fortuitous, but tends to approach a certain "stable" type, as has been shown by the writer elsewhere. ^ Instead, therefore, of studying conditions in an arbitrary stand- ard population, it seems worth while to study the characteristics of a "natural population norm," in which the stable age-distri- bution is actually established. This is the purpose of the present paper. At the same time we shall compare the results obtained for such an "ideal" population norm, with figures actually observed in a case which approaches very nearly the calculated "normal" conditions. I. Birthrate, deathrate and age-distribution in life. As the basis of our present discussion we shall use the formulae developed on a previous occasion, which are as follows. 1 Paper read before the Philosophical Society of Washington on February 1, 1913. 2 Am. Jl. Sc. 24: 199, 375. 1907. Science 26: 21. 1907. Phil. Mag., p. 435. April 1911. Compare also Bristowe, St. Thomas's Hospital Report, 1876, as quoted in A. Newsholme, Vital Statistics, p. 295. 1899. 241 242 lotka: a natural population norm c{a) = h = d 1 i e~" p (a) da — h I e~" p (a) da (1) (2) (3) TABLE I Males ai 02 A'o A' I A'2 A' 3 A\ A', A '6 0- 5 4.009 9 25 40 5-10 3.598 28 110 330 10-15 3.512 44 280 1280 0.01 X 106 15-20 3.444 60 535 3250 0.02 20-25 3.344 76 855 6540 0.04 0.02 X 10' 25-35 6.295 188 2860 28170 0.24 0.16 35-45 5.622 224 4580 59330 0.63 0.53 0.04 X 103 45-55 4.758 238 5900 98670 1.26 1.29 0.11 55-G5 3.636 217 6520 128000 1.92 2.33 0.24 65-75 2.217 154 5300 126000 2.20 3.04 0.35 75- oo 0.918 74 3000 78670 1.58 2.62 0.34 2A' = A 41.353 1312 29965 530280 7.90 X 10" 9.99 X 10^ 1.08 X 10' Females 0- 5 4.142 10 25 40 5-10 3.744 28 115 300 10-15 3.657 46 295 1300 15-20 3.585 63 560 3300 0.02 X 10" 20-25 3.483 78 780 6900 0.04 25-35 6.579 196 2995 30700 0.24 0.02 X 108 • 35-45 5.956 230 4760 64300 0.65 0.05 p. 04 X 10» 45-55 5.203 264 6480 108700 1.37 0.14 0.12 55-65 4.208 252 7560: 150700 2.26 0.27 0.28 65-75 2.759 192 6700 154700 2.72 0.38 0.44 75-00 1.309 108 4200 114700 2.32 0.38 0.52 Svl' = A 44.62 1467 34470 635700 9.62 X 10" 1.24 X 108 1.40 X 10» lotka: a natural population norm 243 In these formulae b is the birthrate per head per annum, d the corresponding deathrate, r is the ''natural rate of increase" of the population, i.e., r = b — d; p{a) is the probability at birth that a given individual picked at random (at birth) shall reach age a, and is the function tabulated in the so-called life tables, where it is commonly denoted ?x; p(«) is the derivative of p(a) with regard to a. Lastly, c{a) is the coefficient of age-distribution, which is Fig. 1 . Age-distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871-1880. Areas represent numbers of persons. Males. so defined, that, out of the total number iV of the population, the number comprised between the age-limits a and' (a + da) is given by Nc{a)da. Now the formulae, as given above, are not in the form best adapted for certain numerical computations. They were there- fore developed in series by expanding the exponential function 244 lotka: a natural population norm under the integral sign, and integrating term by term. We thus obtain expressions of the form i = Ao - A,r + A^r^ - A^r^ + • • • (4) 0 TABLE II' Age — Distribution MALES FEMALES PERSONS a\ a% - Calculated Observed Calculated Observed Calculated Observed 0- 5 142 139 135 132 138 136 5-10 118 123 114 117 116 120 10-15 107 110 104 104 106 107 15-20 98 99 95 95 96 97 20-25 88 87 86 91 87 89 25-35 150 144 148 149 149 147 35-45 117 112 117 115 117 113 45-55 84 84 87 87 86 86 55-65 57 59 63 61 60 59 65-75 29 31 36 35 32 33 75-00 11 12 13 15 12 13 1001 1000 998 1001 999 1001 TABLE III Birthrate per head : 6.. Deathrate per head : d . Excess : (6- 28 ... « it- -. tz 10 Jevux^ 18 --■ M. CoJU. 16 1 + It 10 6 *" ' z — i Q (0 to 5c +o 50 > 6o 70 8o 90 roo Fig. 2. Age-Distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871- 1880. Areas represent numbers of persons. Females. 246 lotka: a natural population norm and, for the fraction of the population comprised between the ages fli and a^. I c (a) da = h {A\ - A\r + A'.r^ - A'^r^ + • • • ) (5) ^e co/c. 0 10 7.0 Jo ^0 5** ^° 7" *" ^^ '*'*' Fig. 3. Age-Distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871- 1880. Areas represent numbers of persons. Both Sexes. In these series the constant coefficients are given by 1 r°° An = — 1 a^p{a) da n ! Jo A'„ 1 f^' , — a° ?? (a n I J&x ) da (6) (7) lotka: a natural population norm 247 The value of the constants A, A' can be determined in a given numerical example by graphic integration. Using the data given in the Supplement to the Forty-Fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, etc., in England, covering the decen- Fig. 4. Relation between birthrate per head b, deathrate per head d and natural rate of increase r in a population with stable age-distribution (on the basis of statis- tics for England and Wales 1871-1880). nium 1871-1880, the numerical values shown in Table I were obtained, partly by the aid of the planimeter and partly by appli- cation of Simpson's Rule. Using the values of the constants thus obtained, and substitu- ting for r the observed values, as given in the source cited above, 248 lotka: a natueal population noem the results shown in Tables II and III were found. These results are also shown in graphic representation in figures 1, 2 and 3. It will be seen that there is a remarkably clpee agreement between observed and calculated values. In order to obtain an idea of the general character of the func- tion defined by equations (2), (4) and Table I, the values of b corresponding to a number of values of r were computed* and a curve was plotted. The numbers so obtained are shown in Table IV, and the curve in figure 4, It should be remarked that the portion of the curve corresponding to high negative values of r is of course only of geometrical interest — in nature such a value could only occur under exceptional circumstances, and then only for a limited time, as it would lead, in practise, to the extinction of the species. * To be more precise, the computation was performed by the aid of another series derived from (4). By (4) and Table I we have — = 41.35 - 1312r- + 29960r2 - SSOSOOr^ + 7.9 X 10 V - 9.99 X 10 V + 1.08 X lO^r^ - . . This gives 6m = 0.02418 + 0.7673r + 6.823r2 - 29.32r3 - 651.3r^ - . . . When r = 0, 6 = 6o = rfo = 0.02418. Putting /i = 6 — 6o and reverting the series by the method given by Prof. J. McMahon (Bull. Am. Math. Soc, April 1894, p. 170; see also C.'E. Van Orstrand, Phil. Mag., March, 1910, p. 366) we have: r = 1.3033/1 - 15. 10/^2 + ASiM^ - 12590/i* + 26500/i5 - . . . and finally, since r = {b — d), d = 0.02418 - 0.3033/i + IS.lO/i^ - AMM^ + 12590/1^ - 265000/15 _|_ . . . The actual computation was carried out by means of this last series. The rapidity of the convergence of the series above is indicated by the number of terms given, which is each case represents an accuracy of four significant figures in the result, when r has a value of about 0.01400. CAIN AND TUTTLE: DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHORUS 249 CHEJVIISTRY. — The determination of phosphorus in steels con- taining vanadium. J. R, Cain and F. H. Tuttle. To appear as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of Standards. Communicated by W. F. Hillebrand. In order to precipitate phosphorus quantitatively as phospho- molybdate from steels containing vanadium, it is necessary to reduce the latter to the quadrivalent state, otherwise precipitation is incomplete and there is contamination of the phosphomolybdate by vanadium. In the present method ferrous sulphate in slight excess is used as the reducing agent and the following conditions should be observed : (1) The temperature of precipitation should be held at a point (15° to 20°) where the nitric acid does not oxidize the excess of ferrous salt or the reduced vanadium before complete precipitation of phosphorus takes place; (2) the partial neutralization with ammonia, frequently used when phosphorus is precipitated as phosphomolybdate, must be made before reduc- tion of the vanadic acid, otherwise the heat of neutralization causes the oxidation of most of the ferrous iron and reduced vanadium by the nitric acid: (3) care must be taken to prevent the action of oxides of nitrogen, formed by interaction of ferrous salt and nitric acid, on the reduced vanadium since these sub- stances seem to catalyze the oxidation of the vanadyl salt and may in some cases completely prevent precipitation of phosphorus, owing to the large amount of vanadic acid produced ; (4) efficient means for shaking or agitation of the solutions in which precipi- tation is to take place must be provided. MINERALOGY. — The refractive indices of strengite. Waldb- MAR T. ScHALLER, Geological Survey. The only published values for the refractive indices of strengite, Fe2O3.P2O5.4H2O, which I have been able to find are those given by Schroeder van der Kolk,^ namely 1.81 + 0.03; Lacroix- has stated them in the form: a = 1.81, 7 = 1.84. Determination of these values for a manganese strengite from California^ gave ^Tabellen Mikrosk. Bestimmung d. Mineralien, p. 54, 1906. ^Mineralogie de la France 4: 475, 1910. »This Journal 2: 145, 1912. 250 schaller: refractive indices of strengite the values: a = 1.70-1.71, 7 = 1.72-1.73. Lacroix^ deter- mined the mean- index of similar material (called angelardite by him), as approximately 1.70. It therefore seemed necessary to redetermine the refractive indices of typical strengite in order to bring the conflicting determinations in accord. Professor Ledroit of Mainz very kindly presented me with several specimens of the mineral from the Eleonore mine on the Diinsberg, near Giessen. The strengite forms small spherulites associated with beraunite (eleonorite), cacoxenite, etc. Crushed fragments of these spherulites were used for determining the minimum and maximum refractive indices. The oil immersion method was"used and the values obtained are: a (normal elongation of fibers) =1.71 7 (parallel elongation of fibers) = 1.735 (7 - a) = 0.025 The values given by Schroeder van der Kolk are therefore wrong and it seems probable that his figure 1.81 was miscopied for 1.71. * Mineral ogie de la France 4: 523, 1910. ABSTRACTS . Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. METALLOGRAPHY. — Metallographic testing. Bureau of Standards Circular No. 42, 1913 (in press). The circular considers metallography in its wider sense and does not restrict it to the microscopical analysis alone. Thermal analysis, together with the correlation of physical properties with microscopical structure, thus find their place here. The different methods of thermal analysis are briefly reviewed and compared. The importance that is attached to the metallographic method in the iron and steel industry is illustrated by a partial list of the more common applications in that field. The tests that the Bureau of Standards is equipped at present for carrying out are: 1. Thermal. Cooling and heating curves, melting points, heat treat- ment of alloys as specified. 2. Microscopical. Preparation of specimens and photomicrographs of specified magnification up to 1000 diameters (higher magnification by special arrangement), microscopical examination after special heat treatment. 3. Miscellaneous. Examination of metals after failure for evidence of the cause of failure, determination of various physical constants of metals and their temperature coefficients. H. S. Rawdon. BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.— A biochemical study of the curly-top of sugar beet. H. H. Bunzel, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 277. 1913. Oxidase determinations were made on healthy and diseased sugar beets growing under different conditions at Utah in the summer of 1911. The experiments were carried out on the roots, leaves, and other parts of the plants separately, according to the method described in Bulletin 251 252 abstracts: biological chemistry 238 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The determinations show that the oxidase content of the leaves is abnormally high wherever the growth of the plants has been retarded, whether such retardation of growth is due to the curly-top disease, to excessive watering, to drought, or to unknown abnormal conditions of plant growth. Studies made on the distribution of the oxidases of different parts of the plant show that the seeds are highest in oxidase content, the leaves follow, the roots are almost as active as the leaves, while the stems show a lesser activity. Determinations of moisture, total nitrogen, ash, and sugar in the alco- hol-soluble and alcohol-insoluble fractions of the roots and leaves show no differences between the healthy and diseased material. It is sugges- ted that indications point toward the diseased plants being in a state analagous to "fever." H. H. B. BIOLOGICAL CREMl^TRY.— Biochemical factors in soils. M. X. Sullivan. Bureau of Soils. Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 15: 305. 1912. The soil possesses oxidizing and catalyzing powers which are stronger in the more productive soils and are more manifest in soils than in subsoils. There are evidences of enzyme action in soils but as yet no good method has been obtained for extracting enzymes from soil. Many of the substances found in soil undoubtedly arise to a consider- able degree as a result of the metabolism of microorganisms. In mold cultures have been found fatty acids, especially oleic and palmitic, purine bases, such as guanine, adenine and hypoxathine, histidine and probably thymine. In the solution in which molds have grown were found fatty bodies, guanine, adenine, hypoxathine, histidine, and prob- ably thymine. M. X. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— A^omaZ and abnormal constitu- ents of soil organic matter. E. C. Lathrop. Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 15; 147-151. 1912. Pentosans, pentose sugars, histidine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, cyto- sine and possibly creatinine may be considered, to be normal soil con- stituents. Arginine and adenine on account of their infrequent occur- rence and their rapid disappearance, and dihydroxystearic acid and picoline carboxylic acid on account of their detrimental action on plant growth, and the striking relation of the former to infertility, must be classed as abnormal soil constituents. Regarding agroceric acid, lig- noceric acid, paraffinic acid, and amono-hydroxystearic acid, agrosterol and hentriacontane no statement is warranted. E. C. L. abstracts: agricultural chemistry 253 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— ^#ec^ oj histidine and arginine as soil constituents. J.J. Skinner. Eighth International Congress of Apphed Chemistry, 15: 253. 1912. In this article attention is directed to the occurrence and distribution of histidine and arginine in soils. The effect of each on plant growth was tested in nutrient culture solution and both were found to be bene- ficial. Plants growing in culture solutions containing only potash and phosphate showed greatly increased growth when histidine or arginine is added. When large amounts of nitrate are present in the culture solution, histidine and arginine produce no appreciable effect on the growth. Plants growing in cultures, whether high or low in nitrate, showed a greatly diminished absorption of nitrate when histidine or arginine was present, whereas the removal of potash and phosphate was practically normal. It appears, therefore, that histidine and argi- nine, like creatinine, creatine, asparagine, and a number of other nitro- genous compounds can replace the effect of nitrate in producing plant growth. J. J. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— (?wanme from a heated soil. E. C. Lathrop. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 34: 1260. 1912. In the course of an investigation on the chemical changes in soil organic matter brought about by heating soil in an autoclave for three hours at 30 pounds pressure, guanine was isolated and identified. The guanine was not found in the unheated soil and arises from the breaking down by heat of higher forms of nitrogenous material, probably nucleic acid. E. C. L. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— iw/Ztfence of phosphate on the toxic action of cumarin. J. J. Skinner. Botanical Gazette, 54: 245. 1912. The toxic action of cumarin to wheat seedlings, and the action of phosphates in ameliorating the toxicity, was studied by growing the plants in nutrient culture solutions. It was found that calcium acid phosphate, mono-sodium phosphate, di-sodium phosphate and tri-sodium phosphate, had a similar effect in overcoming the harmful effect of the cumarin. Calcium and sodium phosphate, the latter under dif- ferent conditions, acid, neutral and alkaline, had the same effect. The effect of the phosphate salts in ameliorating the harmful action of cu- marin is due, therefore, to the phosphate radical, and not to the calcium or sodium or to an acid or alkaline condition. J. J. S. 254 abstracts: agricultural chemistry AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY —City street sweepings as a fertilizer. J. J. Skinner and J. H. Beattie. Circular of the Bureau of soils, No. 66. 1912. Several samples of street sweepings from one of the large cities were analyzed and found to contain sHghtly less phosphate, nitrate and potash than the average stable manure. The effect of the sweepings on growth was tested, by growing corn, wheat and cabbage in paraffined wire pats. The street sweepings produced increased growth, but were not as effec- tive as stable manure. The sweepings were analyzed for mineral oil and some of the samples contained as much as 2 per cent. The oil isolated from the sweepings was tested and found to be harmful to growth. After the oil had been extracted, the street sweepings were" as efficient in producing growth as stable manure. J. J. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— LaM;w soils and lawns. Oswald ScHREiNER, J. J. Skinner, L. C. Corbett and F. L. Mulford. Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 494. 1912. In this bulletin is presented the character of soils in respect to their suitability for lawn making. The texture of soils as related to lawns is emphasized. The soils suitable for the building of lawns, parks, parked embankments, terraces, etc., receive special consideration; also the best methods for building up artificial grounds by the hauling in of such suitable soil material, both for subsoil fillings and for surface layering. A list of soil types well adapted to grass growing is included. The establishment, fertifization and maintenance of lawns are con- sidered and suggestions given as to the selection of seeds adapted to lawn making. A chapter on the relation of walks, drives, trees and shrubs to the lawn is included. • J. J. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— 5ene/iaa^ effect of creatinine and creatine on growth. J. J. Skinner. Botanical Gazette, 54: 152. 1912. Creatinine and creatine are both beneficial to plant growth. Plants growing in culture solutions containing only potash and phosphate show increased growth when creatinine or creatine is added. When large amounts of nitrates are present in the solution, creatinine and creatine produce no appreciable effect on the growth. In the presence of these compounds the plants absorb less nitrate, while the absorption of potash and phosphate is normal. It appears that creatinine and creatine can replace nitrate in solution cultures. J. J. S. abstracts: agricultural chemistry 255 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— ^^eci of asparagin on absorption and growth in wheat. J. J. Skinner and J. H. Beattie. Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, 39: 429. 1912. Wheat seedlings were grown in nutrient solutions of phosphate, pot- ash, and nitrate in varying proportions and to these were added 50 p.p.m. of asparagin. Asparagine had a beneficial effect on plant growth. When large amounts of nitrate were present in the culture solutions asparagin produced no appreciable effect on growth. The plants ab- sorbed less nitrate from the culture solution while the phosphate and potash absorption was normal. While the effect of the asparagin on plant growth decreased with increasing nitrate, it had nevertheless a conserving effect upon the amount of nitrate left in the solution. It appears therefore that the plant can utilize this nitrogenous compound for plant synthesis. J. J. S. AGRICULTURAL CWEMISTRY— Manganese as a fertilizer. M. X. Sullivan and W. O. Robinson. Circular of the Bureau of Soils, No. 75. 1912. In this circular it is pointed out that fertilizing with manganese has led to varying results. The general conclusion is drawn that in view of the complexity of the soil and the discrepancy that has been found in the use of manganese fertilizers, manganese cannot be recommended in any way other than in experimentation and as a fertilizer comple- mentary to the usual chemical fertilizers, nitrate, phosphoric acid, potash and lime. M. X. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.- ,S^i/rfzes in soil catalysis. M. X. Sullivan and F. R. Reid. Bulletin of the Bureau of Soils, No. 86. 1912. • . Soils possess the power to decompose hydrogen peroxide. This power is greater in soil than in subsoils, m strong vital soils than in weak soils. It persists for years in air-dried soils. Tho good production is not dependent on the catalytic power, the presence of a strong catalytic power in a soil can be taken as a priori evidence that the many factors making for soil fertility would be prominent and that the soil would be a productive soil. The cataly - tic power is checked to some degree by carbon bisulphide, mercuric chloride and especially by hydrocyanic acid, which in some cases prac- tically destroys it. Heatmg in an autoclave under pressure of 10 at- mospheres retards the catalytic power, tho dry heat for one hour at 256 abstracts: agricultural chemistry 105° has little depressing action. Various inorganic substances and several organic compounds, especially those in a state of partial oxida- tion, have the power of decomposing hydrogen peroxide, while several organic compounds increase the catalytic power of manganese cUoxide. In general the catalytic power of soils seems to be due not to an en- zyme, such as catalase, but rather to the inorganic and organic matter working separately, conjointly, or in activating combination. M. X. S. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Some organic soil constituents. E. C. Shorey. Bulletin of the Bureau of Soils, No. 88. 1912. The isolation of 15 organic compounds is described, 14 of which have been identified. These together with those previously isolated and described make 35 organic compounds isolated from soils. The sub- stances here described belong to six classes of organic compounds, three of which, 'aldehydes, organic sulfur, and organic phosphorus com- pounds are classes not represented among those isolated and described before. The compounds isolated have been classified as follows: 13 organic acids, 9 organic bases, 3 sugars, 2 aldehydes, 2 alcohols, and 1 each, hydrocarbon, glyceride, resin ester, sulfur compound, phosphorus com- pound and an acid anhydride. The relationship between these groups as well as that between the isolated compounds and the organic matter in general is discussed. The compounds isolated and described here are oxalic acid, succinic acid, saccharic acid, acrylic acid, lysine, aden- ine, choline, trimethylamine, salicylic aldehyde, mannite, rhamnose, trithiobenzaldehyde, nucleic acid, of unloiown constitution, and an unidentified aldehyde. The conclusion is reached that the work, like that previously reported, while it emphasizes the complex character of the organic matter of soils, bears out the contention that this complexity is not so great but that the chemical nature of all of the organic matter of soils can be deter- mined by modern methods of research. M. X. Sullivan. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— T/ie chemistry of steam-heated soils. Oswald Schreiner and Elbert C. Lathrop. Bulletin of the Bureau of Soils, No. 89. 1912. This bulletin deals with the chemical changes involved when soils are steam heated, as in the process of sterilization. The results may be summarized as follows: (1) In accord with the work of other inves- abstracts: industrial chemistry 257 tigators it was found that there was an increase in water-soluble con- stituents and an increase in acidity. At the same time ammonia and amines were formed. (2) By the process of heating there were formed xanthine, hypoxanthine, guanine, cytosine, and arginine, when not previously existing. These compounds are decomposition products of nucleic acid and protein material and are all beneficial to plant growth. (3) Guanine is reported for the first time as a constituent of soil organic matter. (4) Dihydroxystearic acid was increased when present, and produced, when not previously present, by the heating process. This compound is harmful to plant growth. (5) Both beneficial and harm- ful compounds were produced by heating the soils and were isolated. This bears out the experience of previous investigators with cultural tests. (6) Cultural tests in these soils and their extracts showed that the heated soils gave a poorer plant growth. (7) Although the majority of compounds formed must be classed as beneficial, the harmful com- pound formed at the same time more than overbalances their effects. Not until this harmful compound is eliminated or diminished can the full beneficial effects of heating be demonstrated. (8) In soils there is a balance of beneficial and harmful factors, soil fertility or infertility being the resultant of the two groups. As one or the other group of factors gains the ascendency, the fertility is raised or lowered, as the case may be. This balance is influenced by cultural treatment, fer- tilizers, liming, crop growth, or crop rotation, etc., as well as by steam- ing. (9) The results show that altho the soils studied have received the same kind of organic matter and have received the same form treat- ment, they have been subject to different biochemical factors, result- ing in differences in their organic matter and in differences in their fertility. E. C. L. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY.— TAe effect of certain pigments on Un- seed oil with a note on manganese content of raw linseed oil. E. W. BouGHTON. Circular of the Bureau of Chemistry No. 111. 1913. Raw linseed oil was mixed with different pigments so that the paint thus prepared had a consistency similar to that of ordinary mixed paint, ready for use. The containers were air tight and the paints were kept for two years. Samples of the oil from each paint were withdrawn at the end of one and of two years, and the constants thereof determined. The raw oil had a specific gravity of 0.934 (15.6/15/6°C.). The great- est increase (to 0.940) was caused by white lead (basic carbonate). Flake graphite, zinc oxide and zinc chromate had no appreciable effect. 258 abstracts: geology « The iodine number of the raw oil was 179.6. The greatest decrease (to 171.6) was caused by kaolin. Flake graphite, artificial graphite, zinc chromate, zinc oxide, and chromium oxide had practically no effect, and basic carbonate of lead, Indian red, magnetic black, and lead chromate had but a very sHght effect. The percentage of ash in the raw oil (0.13 per cent) was raised to 0.40 per cent by the basic car- bonate of lead. The increases due to the other pigments were but slight. Basic carbonate of lead, kaolin, and lead chromate bleached the oil. The results as a whole show surprisingly small changes due to the pigments. At the end of two years the results obtained were prac- tically the same as those obtained at the end of one year. In no case was the iodine number lowered to a figure below that given by pure raw oil from South American seed (171). The percentage of manganese in sixteen samples of raw linseed oil of known purity and source varied from a faint trace (less than 0.0002 per cent) to 0.0008 per cent. E. W. B. GEOLOGY. — The Eagle River region, southeastern Alaska. Adolf Knopf. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 502. Pp. 61, with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1912. The Eagle River region. Id eludes the northern portion of the Juneau gold belt, extending northwestward from Salmon Creek, near Juneau, to Berners Bay. This strip of territory is 32 miles long and embraces approximately a third of the entire length of the gold belt. The rocks are arranged in belts that strike parallel to the general trend of the gold belt and dip steeply northeast. The general parallelism of stratification, cleavage, schistosity, gneissic foliation, dikes, and ore bodies is the salient geologic feature of the region. The larger part of the gold belt is underlain by an interstratified series of slates and graywackes, with some conglomerates. This assemblage of sedimentary rocks, together with intercalated masses of volcanic rocks, has been named the Berners formation. Fossil plants, consisting chiefly of ferns, indicate that it is of Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age. The volcanic rocks, associated with the slates and graywackes consist of lavas, flow breccias, tuffs and coarse breccias, conglomerates, and various kinds of mixed rocks. The clastic material far exceeds the mas- sive rock in bulk. The lavas are in many places extremely amygdaloidal and locally display a striking ellipsoidal structure. They are character- ized by the widespread prevalence of numerous well-formed and well- preserved phenocrysts of augite embedded in a dense-grained matrix of abstracts: geology 259 dark blue-green color, and to signalize this feature they are termed augite melaphyres. Toward the northeast the slates and graywackes pass gradually into phyllites and schists, which become progressively more and more crystal- hne toward the diorite gneiss that forms the northeast boundary of the gold belt. The schists where they adjoin the gneiss are garnetiferous, staurolitic, cyanitic, and coarsely biotitic. The gneiss on the northeast, which in local usage is known as the granite hanging wall of the Juneau gold belt, is the crushed and foliated margin of the great intrusive quartz diorite core of the Coast Range. The gneissic structure is best developed near the contact with the schist and fades out northeastward into the ordinary structure of normal granitic rocks. It is essentially a cataclastic effect which was produced by the crushing of the component minerals of the quartz diorite, and which was impressed on the diorite soon after the diorite had consoli- dated from fusion. In fact, a period of dynamic deformation set in dur- ing the pegmatitic stage, for some of the pegmatite and aplite dikes are sheared like the gneiss, but others have escaped the general dynamic metamorphism. The sedimentary rocks adjoining the gneiss have re- crystallized into schists, whose crystaUinity, as already stated, diminishes gradually from the contact. The region thus affords a remarkably fine illustration of a belt of highly crystalline schists formed as an effect of the heat and pressure accompanying a great batholithic intrusion of late Mesozoic age. The ore bodies are exclusively gold deposits. The great majority are stringer lodes, but include some mineralized dikes and a few fissure veins. Except for sporadic sheets of rich ore, the stringer lodes are of low grade. They range in width from a few feet to 100 feet, and appar- ently at a few prospects, to 300 to 400 feet. The greatest depth attained by mining anywhere in the district does not exceed 200 feet. Some of the mineralized dikes are of economic importance; all are of considerable interest because the profound alteration which they have undergone throws light on the character of the solutions that brought in the gold. A common change consisted in a large introduction of soda and the formation of albite, and this albitization is here shown to be a regional feature of the Juneau gold belt. Other changes consisted in the introduction of apatite into the altered wall rocks and the conversion of amphibole into biotite. From these and other features the vein-forming waters are believed to have been hot, ascending solutions of deep-seated origin, probably connected with the intrusion of the diorite magma. A. K. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY (Local Section of the American Chemical Society) 'The 222d meeting was held on January 31, 1913, at the Chamber of Commerce. Resolutions upon the death of Prof. J. W. Mallet, prepared by Professor Dunnington of the University of Virginia, were adopted by a rising vote. The following papers were read, all contributed by mem- bers of the Bureau of Soils: Problems in soil fertility: Oswald Schreiner. The essential prob- lem in soil study is that of infertility. Liebig's theory of impoverishment in chemical constituents as a cause of infertility was only temporarily useful, and chemical analysis proved inadequate in predicting fertilit3^ Soil extracts were then found to reflect very closely the degree of fertility of soils, but this fertility did not depend upon the inorganic substances in solution. Finally the cause of infertility was traced to organic poisons in soils. Along with this change in the point of attack have come great changes in the laboratory equipment necessary for soil investigations. Recent work on the chemical composition of humus: E. C. Shorey. The organic matter extracted from a soil, is separable into two fractions. From the portion of the organic matter soluble in 2 per cent sodium hydroxide about 35 pure organic compounds have been isolated, of which 11 are nitrogenous; 14 of these compounds are acids, and 10 bases. The portion precipitated by acids contains complex resins and other substances not yet separated. The author described 3 new compounds recently separated: (1) meta-oxytoluic acid, of which 5 grams were obtained from 50 pounds of soil; (2) vanillin, in very small quantity; (3) tetra-carbonimide, perhaps an intermediate compound in the oxidation of uric acid to urea. The origin of certain organic soil constituents: M. X. Sullivan. Cer- tain molds found in soils were separated in cultures, grown in consider- able quantities on Rankine's solution, and studied chemically. Fatty acids (such as oleic, stearic, and palmitic), xanthin, hypoxanthine, man- nite, thyurine, pentose sugar, and various other compounds were ob- tained from these molds. Purin bases and fatty acids were also found in the solution in which the molds were grown. The metabohsm of molds and bacteria is an important source of the compounds found in humus. Certain compounds come from the disintegration of plant debris. Discussion: In reply to inquiries, Dr. Sullivan stated that the rela- tion between the quantity of the compounds described and the quantity 260 proceedings: chemical society 261 of food in the culture solution was not determinable; he considered that the abundance and variety of organic food in a soil rendered the results entirely independent of any consideration of the composition of the cul- ture solution. The molds were grown in the absence of light. The physiological action of certain organic soil constituents: J. J. Skinner. Experiments were made on the effect of salicylic aldehyde, an organic soil constituent, upon the growth of wheat seedlings. Very dilute solutions reduced the growth markedly, or killed the plants. The effect is not neutralized by phosphates, nitrates, or potassium com- pounds. The metabolism of the plants is greatly retarded. Nucleic acid was found beneficial, the more so, the less nitrate was present. The compounds identified in soils have been classified into harmful and bene- ficial. GuanicUn, picoline-carboxylic acid, vanillin, and dihydroxy- stearic acid are harmful, while nucleic acid, histidine, arginine, creatine, creatinine, etc. are beneficial. Discussion by Schreiner, Cook, Hunt, Wells, Seidell, Waters, Cameron, Sullivan, and others. The principal points brought out were: The bene- ficial compounds seem to be absorbed unoxidized. Salicylic aldehyde was first found in soil from a rose garden at Mt. Vernon, where the soil was becoming unsatisfactory. The harmfulness of a compound can not be predicted from its composition or constitution. The experimental solutions all contain oxygen in solution. Lime and means for promoting oxidation act as a remedy for dihydroxystearic acid. Remedies for other poisons have not been worked out. The active poison in a given soil cannot be told from the appearance of plants grown in it. Floccu- lation of the soil, better drainage and promotion of oxidizing bacteria all aid in the oxidation of dihydroxystearic acid. Chemical changes in heated soils: E. C. Lathrop. A fertile and infer- tile soil from the same locality were compared as to the effects produced by heating under 30 pounds steam pressure (135°). The water soluble constituents were increased. Beneficial compounds were formed, but the production of harmful constituents and the destruction of useful bac- teria more than offset their effect. The net result was a decrease of fertility in the fertile soil. Dihydroxystearic acid was found before heating in the infertile soil, and after heating in both soils. Discussion by Schreiner, Sullivan, Sosman, and Cameron. The 223d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 13, 1913. The following papers were read: Tests for absinthe: E. K. Nelson, of the Division of Drugs, Bureau of Chemistry. The various modifications of Legal's test for the detec- tion of absinthe were found to give uncertain results in cases where the oil of wormwood was proportionately small in amount. By conversion of the ketones, including thujone from wormwood, into semi-carbazones, they can be freed by steam distillation from essential oils, such as anise, cloves, etc. The semi-carbazones are then decomposed with dilute acid, the ketones recovered, and Legal's test applied to the material thus puri- fied. In presence of thujone the test is not only more delicate but the characteristic thujone odor can be detected. (Author's abstract.) 262 proceedings: chemical society Discussion: Parsons inquired concerning the sharpness of legal defi- nition necessary under the present law against absinthe. The author did not have exact data to furnish on this point. The analysis of certain Pacific coast kelps: E. H. Parker and J. R. LiNDEMUTH, of the Burcau of Soils. Read by Mr. Parker. Specimens of the two most important kelps of the. Pacific coast from an economic standpoint, as found by previous investigators, were collected from differ- ent points along the coast and analyzed for potash, soluble salts, nitrogen and iodine. The conclusions are: (1) the average KCl content is high; (2) Apparently no definite relation exists between the different constitu- ents of kelp; (3) The average KCl content of the Nereocystis hi.etkeana is greater than that of the Macrocystis pyrifera this is true for kelp from different localities. In each single case, also, the KCl content of the Nereocystis is greater than the average of the Macrocystis; (4) Apparently the northern kelps are richer in KCl than the southern; (5) the iodine content of northern and southern kelps show no conclusive differences. Table of Aveeaqes. SOURCE Freshwater Bay, Washington (Macrocystis) (Nereocystis) Coast between Los Angeles and San Francisco.. (Macrocystis) (Nereocystis) Coast near San Diego Total average (Macrocystis) (Nereocystis) Average of all analyses of Pacific Coast kelps N. % 2.14 2.21 1.11 1.93 (Author's abstract.) Discussion: In reply to inquiry, the author stated that the soluble ash formed about 3 per cent of the dry plant. The influence of environment upon the composition of wheat: J. A. LeClerc and P. A. Yoder of the Laboratory of Plant Chemistry, Bureau of Chemistry. Read by Dr. Yoder. The composition and physical properties of wheats have been shown by the Bureau of Chemistry to be dependent upon climate rather than upon heredity. The present inves- tigation studied the effect of soils in comparison with climate, by inter- change of blocks of soil, 5 feet square and 3 feet deep, between Mary- land, Kansas, and California. The experiments have continued thru four years. The size of grain as well as other physical properties seem to depend chiefly upon the locality and very little on the soil. Results proceedings: chemical society 263 on protein content are similar but there is a possible first-year effect of the soil. Gliadin number was very nearly the same in all. Other organic constituents varied irregularly. A more marked effect of soil is to be expected in the inorganic constituents, but the reverse seems to be true even in this case ; for some constituents the effect of locality predomi- nates, for others the data are uniform for all the samples. The effect on yield was not considered. Discussion. M. X. Sullivan pointed out that varied treatment of the same soil in neighboring fields may cause wide variations in results. He further emphasized that a soil is like a living organism, and when transferred from one locality to another will itself change radically. Soil cannot therefore be considered a constant factor in comparative experiments such as these. Berger suggested that transfusion from the surrounding soil might rapidly affect the small blocks which were trans- ferred, since they were not cut off entirely from surrounding soil. Cam- eron suggested that it is really the subsoil below 3 feet that contributes the soil solutions that feed the plant, and that this is the true explana- tion of the results obtained. LeClerc stated that the variations found in composition are much larger between localities than are ever found between differently treated samples of soil in a given locality. Franklin and Waters adduced other examples of the effect of environment as pre- vailing markedly over heredity. Yoder and Sullivan came to essential agreement that these experiments do not show how climate exerts its influence, and that the possibility is not excluded that the climate may react upon the soil in a way to influence the characteristics of the crop, thus exerting its effect in a measure thru the soil. Sosman, Cook, Tas- sin, and others also discussed the paper. Hydrogenation with colloidal palladiimi as catalyzer: A. R. Albright, of the Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemistry. The great advantage of the palladium hydrogenation method lies in the low temperature and simple apparatus necessary. It has been found possible to attach hydro- gen to doul)le bonds which have usually been rather inaccessible to reduc- tion. Many detailed examples were quoted of these reductions, which it is not possible to discuss in abstract. The rate of cooling in the green and its influence on the physical properties of annealed metals: Wirt Tassin. It has been assumed widely that the properties of metal depend upon heat treatment (annealing) and its consequent changes in structure, rather than upon the conditions of casting. Hence the present widespread use of microscopic examination of specimens as a check upon properties. The author showed illustra- tions of a photomicrographic apparatus which he has developed for the examination of the casting itself. As a concrete example of its use, he showed numerous photomicrographs illustrating the effect of different rates of cooling "in the green," (i.e., in the casting fresh from the mold) both upon the initial properties of iron and steel castings, and upon their properties after the usual processes of annealing. The rate of cooling of the casting was shown to be a very important factor in the ultimate properties of the metal. Robert B. Sosman, Secretary. 264 proceedings: botanical society THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 86th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 4, 1913. The following were elected to membership: Prof. R. Kent Beattie, Dr. Charles Brooks^ Mr. J. G. Grossenbacher and Dr. Neil E. Stevens. The following program was presented: Mr. T. H. Kearney: Indicator value of natural vegetation in the Tooele Valley, Utah. The Tooele Valley lies between the Oquirrh and Stansbury ranges and extends to the south shore of Great Salt Lake. It was found that the valley is occupied by some half dozen principal plant associations, each of which is charac- terized by the presence of one, or, at most, two dominant species of shrubs or perennial herbs. The presence of one or another association was found to be closely indicative of the moisture relations and salt content of the soil. The areas occupied by the different associations are often so sharply defined as to be recognizable at a distance of several miles The presence of a good stand and growth of sage brush {Artemisia, tridentata) is always associated with a soil of rather light texture, very dry during the summer months, free from alkali salts, and with a low water table. This Artemisia association occupies mainl}^ the higher lands of the valley. Descending the valley toward the shore of Great Salt Lake, successive zones are traversed which are occupied by the following associations: (2) Kochia vestita, (3) Atriplex confertifolia (Shadscale), (4) Atriplex confertifolia and Sarcohatiis vermicidatus (Greasewood), (5) Allenrolfea occidentalis, (6) Distichlis spicata (Salt Grass) and two species of Salicomia. Where associations 2 and 3 occur the soil is very dry during the sum- mer, but has a higher moisture capacity than in the Artemisia association and the sub-soil is strongly saline. Under association 4 the soil becomes saline to the surface and the ground water table is relatively high. Associations 5 and 6 occupy the wet and highly saline soils near the level of the water surface of the lake and are interrupted by bare ex- panses covered with a crust of salts (chiefly sodium chloride). The suitability for crop production of the different types of land in this valley can be predicted with much confidence from the character of the native growth. Mr. Harry B. Shaw: The control of seed production in beets. Prac- tically all sugar-beets seed used in the United States is imported. Suc- cessful attempts have been made in Utah, Idaho and Washington States to produce sugar beet seed, but in other regions such attempts have not been very successful, inasmuch as many of the plants have failed to mature seed. Observations were made to ascertain the cause of this. In order to make the subject readily comprehensible attention was invited to the surprising responsiveness of the beet to environment In these varied manifestations was sought a common factor, or group of factors, which acting at a critical period in the life of the plant, might be found to control the manner of its development. Experi- ments were carried on in Utah during 1912 to determine, if possible, the nature of the conditions responsible for the variations mentioned. proceedings: botanical society 265 It was discovered that the condition absolutely necessary for the perfect development of the reproductive parts is a period of restrained growth in the bud rediments of seedlings, or the buds in the crown of so-called mother beets. While in general this condition is brought about by low temperatures (a mean temperature of 38 to 45°F. appar- ently being required for the sugar beet) when prevailing for several weeks, the necessary degree of growth inhibition may be brought about by other factors, such as pathological conditions, drouth, starvation. The withdrawal of such a period of inhibited metabolism, according to degree, will result in the greater or less degree of approach to foliage conditions, as opposed to the development of reproductive parts. Thus, by a study of climatic conditions, suitable locations where the production of seed may be assured, can be selected with a considerable degree of certainty. The proper time to plant the mother-beets can also be indicated, so that we may be reasonably certain that the beets will produce seed. This necessity for a period of inhibited metabolism, and the fact that it may be brought about by the conditions mentioned, may explain the remarkable inflorescence of moribund fruit trees, or of trees that have been girdled, also the abnormal behavior of plants carried from a cool to a warm climate. The 87th regular meeting was held on February 25, 1913, at the Hotel Cochran. This was the regular annual opening meeting of the Society. Fifty members and forty-two guests were present. The retiring president, Mr. W. A. Orton, delivered an address entitled Environmental influences in the pathology of Solanum tuberosum. This paper was published in this journal 3: 180. 1913. The 88th regular meeting was held on April 1, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. Mr. James T. Jardine was elected to membership. The following papers were presented. Dr. G. G. Hedgcock: N'otes on Diseases of Trees Causedby Mistletoes. Mistletoes are found only on conifers in northern and northeastern United States; only on angiosperms in southeastern and southern por- tions ; and on both in western and southwestern regions, where they are the most widel}^ disseminated. The rate of spread of mistletoes is with- out doubt very slow. Near Frazer, Colorado, on an old burn in the forest, the rate of spread of Razoumofskya americana (Nutt.) Kuntze on the lodge pole pines (Pinus contorta Loud.), is estimated to be from 6 to 12 feet per annum, where mechanical expulsion of the seeds aided by winds are the controlling factors. Sporadic infections at much greater distances are caused possibly bj^ birds or animals. Light is the most important factor in determining the spread of mis- tletoes of species of both Razoumofskya and Phoradendron. Trees in the open, and in more exposed conditions, whether on ridges or edges of can3'ons or on level areas are most subject to attack by mistletoes on account of the abundance of light. Mistletoes are stunted bv dense 266 proceedings: botanical society shade, and bear but few, if any seeds, and can not well maintain them- selves under such conditions. One of the immediate effects of the presence of the sinkers of these parasites in the tissues of trees and shrubs, is a tendency to hypertrophy in the immedate region of penetration. In case of species of Phoraden- dron, unless the mistletoe plant is broken off there is little or no ten- dency for its lateral sinkers to spread in the tissues of the host, and when broken off, the rate of spread is slow, and no witches brooms are formed. In case of species of Razoumofskya, witches brooms are com- monly produced; the lateral sinkers spread in the soft tissues of the host, keeping pace with each year's growth, and sending forth new aerial shoots. The stimulus of the presence of this ramifying network of sinkers of the parasite causes an increase in the number of buds and twigs pro- duced by the limb of the host attached and results in the formation of a more or less dense witches broom. The ability of the mistletoe to grow out to the extremities of the limbs, enables it to send out shoots in the best illuminated portion of the broom, and to bear seeds under the most favorable conditions of light. All species of mistletoe are considered injurious in their final effect upon trees and shrubs. The leafy Phorandendrons are no doubt less injurious, because of their increased chlorophyll bearing surface and consequent greater ability to manufacture hydrocarbons. The leaf- less species of Phoradendron are more injurious than the leafy ones. Species of Razoumofskya are most injurious and stunt the growth of the hosts. In view of the slow spread of species of mistletoe in the forest, it will be possible to lessen, if not entirely to shut out these par- asites from our future forests, by cutting down all diseased trees on areas where timber sales are conducted. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock: Notes on the botany of Trinidad. Mr. Hitch- cock remained on the island of Trinidad from November 25 until De- cember 31 except a few days spent on Tobago. On Trinidad there were collected 350 numbers of grasses representing about 175 species. Grisebach (Fl. Brit. W. Ind.) describes 87 species from the island and Hart (Herb. List, Bot. Dept. Trinidad) lists 112 species. Several species known to grow in Trinidad were not obtained by Mr. Hitchcock but many species were added to the known flora. Among the more inter- esting regions of the island were: Pitch Lake, where several unique species of grasses were found including Panicum chloroticum, growing only in the water-holding depression of the pitch ; Aripo and Piarco savannas, isolated low flat grassy openings in the valley of the Caroni river, where were found a probably new species of Raddia and Paspalum serpentinum Hochst. not found since the original collection by Keppler in Sur- inam nearly a century ago, and two new species of Panicum; and St. Joseph savanna on the mountain side near the ancient capital of the island, St. Joseph. This savanna is of especial interest because the mountain sides are generally covered with forest except where cleared for cultivation; it has occupied its present position since an indefinitely early period as shown by the flora. The dominant grass is Trachijpogon proceedings: biological society 267 plumosus, a species which has not been reported from Trinidad. This species together with others of the association are the common con- stituents of the savannas fomid on the Pacific slope of Panama and Central America. In this savanna was found an undescribed species of Axonopus, a beautiful golden annual, allied to A. aureus. At Taba- quite in the center of the island in the original forest or "High woods" was found another undescribed species of Raddia and the rare Pharus parvifolius Nash. Several other apparently undescribed species were found on various parts of the island. Most of the species, whose types were from Trinidad were re-collected at their type localities. The re- sults of the expedition to Trinidad and to Jamaica visited earlier on the same trip, were very satisfactory and will supplement the large West Indian collections previously incorporated in the National Herbarium. C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 508th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cos- mos Club February 22, 1913, with President Nelson in the chair and 76 persons present. The program consisted of a lecture by Edmund Heller on Hunting with Rainey in Africa. The communication was chiefly descriptive of the maps and numerous lantern slides exhibited and also of the physical features and vegetation of the country, as well as the animals secured during the expedition. The 509th meeting was held March 8, 1913, with Vice-President Paul Bartsch in the chair and 37 ]:!ersons present. Under the head of Brief notes and exhibition of specimens, Wm. Pal- mer exhibited the head of the small devil ray, Mobtda olfersi, and a plaster cast made from the same, and explained the feeding habits of this fish. A. C. Weed gave some further account of its habits, and Theodore Gill added some historical notes about devil fishes. Barton W. Evermann reported results of the sale of blue fox skins from the Pribilof Islands at Lampson's (London) auction on March 7. The 384 skins offered sold at an average price of $56, the highest price being $85. The regular program consisted of two communications: J. W. Gid- LEY gave an account of a fossil camel recently found in America north of the Arctic circle. The only bone found was a phalanx. The species was an extinct one and its occurrence so far north was regarded as further proof that there once existed land coimection between the continents by way of Alaska. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wilcox, 0. P. Hay, Weed, Gill, Evermann, Lyon and others. The second communication was by Paul Bartsch on some Remark- able Philippine molluska obtained by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries expe- dition. Specimens of the mollusks described were exhibited by the speaker. 268 proceedings: biological society The 510th meeting was held March 22, 1913, with Vice-President Bartsch in the chair and 52 persons present. . Barton W. Evermann reported the executive order of President Taft made March 3, 1913, setting aside the entire chain of the Aleutian Islands as a wild mammal and bird reservation. The reservation is to be under joint charge of the Departments of Agriculture and of Com- merce. A. D. Hopkins announced the recent organization of a new scientific society, The Society for the Advancement of Forest Entomology in America. ^ The regular program consisted of two communications: 1. Recent progress in the study and culture of the common eel: Hugh M. Smith. This was a comprehensive outline of the recent discoveries concerning the life history of the common eel. Statistics of the com- mercial uses of the eel and the methods employed abroad for its propaga- tion and distribution were given. Numerous lantern slides were shown. 2. Tree-shrews: Marcus Lyon, Jr. This paper was based upon a study of many specimens of these squirrel-like, insect-eating animals. Of less than 800 known specimens in museums, the British Museum possesses 355, the U. S. National Museum 324, and about 100 are in other collections. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Messrs. Bartsch and Wm. Palmer took part in the discussion. The 511th meeting was held April 5, 1913, with President Nelson in the chair and 43 persons present. Under the heading Brief notes, Paul Bartsch reported observations on the habits of the two common toads of the District of Columbia, Bufo americanus and Bufo fowleri. Henry Talbott commented on the possible agency of man in the dispersion of animals during the relatively recent geological ages. The regular program consisted of two communications: 1. A commercial aspect of paleontology by a layrnan: Henry Tal- bott. 2. The zoological results of the Denmark expedition to northeast Green- land: Fritz Johansen. The speaker, who accompanied the expedi- tion, gave an account of climatic conditions and the fauna and flora encountered. Mammals and birds received the principal attention. Maps and numerous lantern slides were used. D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill MAY 19, 1913 No. 10 METEOROLOGY. — The unusual atmospheric haziness during the latter part of 1912. H. H. Kimball, Weather Bureau. In a previous paper^ it has been shown that when first observed at Mount Weather on June 10, 1912, the haziness did not differ materially from that usually observed on the rear of anti-cyclonic areas, except in its unusual density. Subsequently,^ after the haze had continued almost uninterruptedly for over two months, it was thought that dust from Katmai Volcano, in Alaska, had added its hazing effect to that of purely meteorological origin. A careful compilation of all available observational data relative to unusual haziness or smokiness or decreased atmospheric trans- parency, during the latter part of 1912, was at once undertaken. The results, of which the following is a summary, will be found in greater detail elsewhere.^ Observational data. The observations have been derived from the following sources: 1. Descriptive papers and notes in various scientific journals. 2. Extracts from the meteorological reports for June, 1912, of the cooperative observers of the U. S. Weather Bureau. 3. Rephes to a circular letter dated December 7, 1912, addressed to officials in charge of Weather Bureau Stations, and requesting copies of all notes made in the Daily Local Record since June 1, 1912, relative to 1 This Journal, 2, 402, 1912. 2 Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory, 5, 161. ' The effect upon atmospheric transparency of the eruption of Katmai Volcano. Monthly Weather Review. January, 1913. The effect of the atmospheric tur- bidity of 1912 upon solar radiation intensities and skylight polarization. Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory 5, pt. 5. 269 270 KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912 the occurrence of any unusually hazy or smoky conditions of the atmos- phere, or of unusually brilliant colors at sunrise or sunset. 4. Extracts from the meteorological reports of observers in British Columbia, which were kindly forwarded to the Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau by the Director of the Meteorological Service of Canada. 5. Extracts from the logs of ships sailing on the North Pacific Ocean in June, 1912. 6. Replies to a circular letter dated December 28, 1912, addressed to members of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, and requesting copies of any observational data they might have relative to a possible diminution in atmospheric transparency after June 1, 1912. 7. Observations of skyhght polarization made by me at Mount Weather, Virginia, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, and pyrheliometric measurements made under my supervision at Mount Weather, Virginia, Madison, Wisconsin, and Lincoln, Nebraska. Fall of volcanic ash. Katmai Volcano which is in the Aleutian Range, Alaska, latitude 58°N., longitude 155°W., approximately, became violently eruptive on the afternoon of June 6, 1912, and continued in a state of great activity for about three days; it was more or less active until the end of October and perhaps until the end of the year. As a result of these eruptions volcanic ash fell between June 6 and June 10 over an area extending in latitude from Rampart, Alaska, latitude 65^°N to Loring, Alaska, latitude 55|°N and in the state of Washington to latitude 48^°N. In longitude the fall extended from Nushagak, Alaska, longitude 158|°W., to Chicken, Alaska, longitude 142°W., to Loring, Alaska, longitude 131° W., and in the state of Washington to longitude 122^° W. There also appears to have been a fall of very fine dust at Mount Wilson, California, on August 3-4, which dis- colored the silver film on the coelostat mirrors. Haze and smoke. The observations show that a hazy or smoky period set in over British Columbia on June 6-8, and over the northwestern part of the United States on June 8-10. This continued until June 11-12, and in the meantime gradually ex- tended eastward. A second hazy or smoky period set in over British Columbia on June 18-20, and over the northwestern part of the United States at about the same time. It extended gradu- ally eastward and southward, and diminished in intensity before the end of the month, especially in the states west of the Rocky Mountains. KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912 271 It appears that the haziness of these two periods is to be attri- buted to three different causes, namely: 1. The meteorological conditions, which are especially favor- able for the formation of haze on the rear of anti-cyclonic areas. A well defined anti-cylonic area crossed the region east of the Rocky Mountains between June 6 and June 11. Another was central over the Rocky Mountain region between June 17 and June 21, and had passed eastward to the Atlantic ocean by June 24. 2. Smoke from forest fires. There were extensive forest fires in Yukon Territory, Canada, south of Dawson, during the latter part of May, 1912, and in British Columbia about June 6, and between June 11 and June 26. There were no important forest fires in the United States during the month of June. 3. Smoke or dust from Katmai Volcano. While it is impossible completely to separate the effects of these three causes, it seems evident that the haze and smoke in British Columbia on June 9-10, which was generally accompanied by sulfur fumes, was at least in part of volcanic origin. The same may also be said of the smoke and haze that was particularly noticeable in the states of Washington, Montana, and Wyoming on the same dates, coming, as it did, at about the time of the fall of volcanic ash in the state of Washington. Several observers state that the haze of the latter part of June, as well as that of June 8-12, was a high haze, having some of the characteristics of cirrus clouds, but lacking their fibrous appearance. At Madi- son, Wisconsin, these cloud-like forms were first observed at 11 a.m. of June 8. If, as seems probable, they consisted of dust from Katmai Volcano, their rate of transportation had been about 73 miles per hour. The haze appears to have been first observed in Europe between June 20 and 27, altho there is evidence that it was present previous to June 12. It was first observed in Algeria, Africa, on June 19, altho it is probable that it affected the bolometric determinations of solar radiation intensity as early as June 17. The characteris- tics of the haze, and its effects, appear to have been practically the same in Europe and in northern Africa as in North America. 272 KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912 Astronomical observations. While most of the repHes to the circular letter addressed to members of the Astronomical and As- trophysica Society of America were to the effect that no data had been obtained bearing upon the question of a diminution in atmospheric transparency during the latter part of 1912, a consid- erable number furnished data that were confirmatory of such a diminution. For convenience of discussion these data were divided into four classes, as follows: a. Visual observations of a general whiteness of the sky and a lack of transparency of the atmosphere. b. Instrumental determinations of atmospheric transparency, which generally showed a decrease commencing with June or July. c. Unsatisfactory results in astronomical photography, and a general increase in the exposure time required. d. An observed increase in the brilliancy and duration of twi- light colors. These last were confirmatory of observations made by Weather Bureau observers, which indicated that twilight colors were unusu- ally brilliant in October and November, altho at a few stations the colors were the subject of remark as early as June. The decrease in atmospheric transparency as determined by observations classified under b and c was generally estimated at from 10 to 20 per cent. A few observers detected a change in the color of sunlight as well as in that of sky light, apparently due to the excessive absorption or scattering of the shorter wave lengths. Pyrheliometric observations. At Mount Weather, during the last half of 1912, the solar radiation intensities measured with the sun at zenith distance 60° averaged only 83 per cent of the corre- sponding intensities measured under normal conditions. At Madison, Wisconsin, they were 86 per cent of the average; while at Lincoln, Nebraska, in November, 1912, they averaged only 82 per cent of the intensities measured in November, 1911. Sky light polarization. At the point of maximum polarization the percentage of polarized light averaged about 20 per cent less during the last half of 1912 than the average under normal con- ditions. Also, the solar and anti-solar distances of the neutral wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 273 points of Babinet and Arago, respectively, were materially in- creased when the sun was above the horizon. With the sun below the horizon the increase was slight, and in some cases there was even a decrease. These effects upon sky light polarization are in every way simi- lar to the effects observed in 1903 after the eruption of Mount Pelee n 1902. The effect of decreased solar radiation intensities upon air tem- peratures. In the Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory 3 : 1 1 1 , a diagram is given which shows that diminished solar radia- tion intensities comparable with those of 1912 occurred in 1884-86, 1891, and 1903. Each of these periods was accompanied and fol- lowed by temperatures below the norma] in the United States. While the minus temperature departures were not greater than have occurred in other years, they persisted for a greater length of time. It will be of interest to observe if the present depression in the solar radiation intensity curve is also followed by a long continued cold period in the United States. PHYSICS. — Recent theories of heat and radiation.^ W. Wien, Professor of Physics, University of Wiirzburg. In a series of lectures at Columbia University, I am treating several problems which are of peculiar interest to modern physics but which already present grave theoretical difficulties. The hypothesis of elements of energy or quanta, as given by Planck and expressed in the well known formula, is indispensable in the statistical treatment of molecular physics. It contains something, however, which lies beyond the commonly accepted system of ph.ysical theory. The difficulty in all these problems lies in the fact that one must constantly make use of relations, which are difficult to determine, between the theory of quanta and the older classical theory. It is impossible as yet to say to what extent the theory of quanta may be applied. Thus far, its application has been confined to ^ An address delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences on April 23, 1913. 274 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation statistical considerations, and has been successful, but the assump- tion that the emission of radiation can only take place by quanta has not yet been necessary in any direct physical experiment. The success of the statistical treatment of the phenomena of heat, which has led to the theory of quanta, must- be due to some peculi- arity of the atom which has found its simplest expression in Planck's hypothesis of quanta, but it remains to be proved whether this assumption represents the true theory of the actual phenomena. We can not say that the atom radiates energy only thru quanta, for if we accelerate an atom of canal radiation, it must send out energy according to the laws of the electromagnetic field. This energy can be calculated and may reach any arbitrary value. Nor is it possible to overcome this difficulty by assuming that the theory of quanta holds only for periodic variations, and an acceleration is not periodic — ^for in an alternating field we can impress such vibrations upon a charged atom that it will emit a radiation which is periodic but has nothing to do with the quan- tum. Again, if we regard heat as the elastic vibration of the atoms, it leads to the conclusion that the theory of quanta must apply there. On the other hand, acoustical vibrations of the same character have nothing to do with the quantum. To apply the theory of quanta to every possible kind of vibration seems, therefore, to lead to impossible consequences. Once it seemed necessary to limit the application of the theory to the phenomena of irregular molecular motion, and, indeed, we may call Planck's formula the general expression of this irregular motion. From this point of view the theory of quanta tells us that such irregular molecular motion diminishes with temperature and disappears at absolute zero — ^which is synony- mous with the assertion that entropy vanishes at zero as required by the Nernst theorem. Since the theory of quanta gives us only a formula for the statis- tical treatment of the partition of energy, it is extremely difficult to find its true physical meaning. We might, of course, content ourselves with applying this statistical treatment to observed phenomena only, merely exchanging the theorem of equipartition wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 275 of energy for the general formula of the theory of quanta, but then our need for adequate causes remains unsatisfied, and, besides, we can not in this way avoid being forced to use the theory of quanta in connection with the classical theory of mechanics and electro- dynamics. So long as these relations remain unknown, the theory will stand on uncertain ground. At the moment, the best way appears to be to apply the theory of quanta to as large a number as possible of the problems related to the theory of heat. We may begin with the theory of radiation in the form given by Debye in connection with the theory of Rayleigh and Jeans. And this has the additional advantage of bringing out more clearly the true meaning of the theory of quanta, namely, that another partition of energy takes place, for the energy can only be divided in parts of magnitude hv.- This theory of quanta also lies at the foundation of the theory of specific heat, for the heat of solids is identified with the vibrations of the atom. The assumption that energy can only be distributed in mul- tiples of hv corresponds with the first hypothesis of Planck, that emission and absorption can only take place in aliquot parts of magnitude hv. But it is well known that this theory is open to serious objections, for a discontinuous absorption of continuous radiation is hardly imaginable. Therefore Planck has now given up the assumption of quanta for the absorption and applies the hypothesis only to the phenomenon of emission, leaving the ab- sorbed energy to reach any arbitrary value. The question then arises, How is it possible to bring this into harmony with the theory of specific heat? According to Planck's new theory, each atom conceals a quan- tity of energy the mean value of which is ^ for each free vibration. This energy exceeds the heat energy, even at temperatures which are not very low. Is it therefore possible to assume two kinds of energy of vibrations, one that can not be transferred and another that we call the energy of heat? If elastic vibrations remain in the solid in such an amount that the he^t energy is only a small - Where v is the number of vibrations, and /( a universal constant. 276 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation fraction of the total energy, how is it possible for the electric con- ductivity to depend in anj^ considerable degree upon temperature? The assumption that the energy can be distributed only in multiples of hv can, it seems to me, be combined with Planck's new theor}^ only on the hypothesis that the absorption of energy is continuous, but that the absorbed energy exists at first only in the form of energy of electrons. The vibrations of the atoms are identical with the heat energy, and disappear completely at abso- lute zero, but the energy of the electrons remains arid amounts hv in the mean to ^. On this assumption, the theory of specific heat remains unchanged. There is one further difficulty with vibrations of the infra-red rays which are assumed in the theory of dispersion to excite elastic vibrations of the molecules. These vibrations would also be hv heat vibrations, but there would remain an amount ^ not depend- ing on temperature. Perhaps in this case also the motion of the h electrons is primary. Then ^ would again represent the energy of the electrons. The assumption that the electrons have a motion independent of temperature seems not to be a new hypothesis. It is founded on the theory of quanta, because the emission can only take place if the energy reaches hv. Now we know from Zeemann's phe- nomenon that the radiating particles are moving electrons, and therefore that the electrons must move before the radiation can begin. The theory of diamagnetism also requires the hypothesis of moving electrons independent of temperature. Debye's theory of specific heat is founded directlj^ on the formula of partition of energy. It requires only the assumption that the heat energy is identical with the vibrations of the atoms, and that the forces are those which are assumed in the common theory of elasticity. A serious difficulty arises in connection with the heat conduc- tivity which should be determined by the elastic waves in the solid. The theory of elasticity is used for the determination of the number of free vibrations, and is thus connected with the wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 277 theory of quanta, but we do not yet know how to use this theory to calculate the velocity of molecular vibrations thru the solid. In considering Planck's new theory, we assume an amount of energy >, independent of temperature. To find the true law of radiation,, one must adopt a definite law of emission, and so obtain a relation between the probability of emission and the rate of increase of energy to the critical value hv. It would be freer from objection to consider the law of radiation as determined by the considerations offered by Debye, and then to derive inversely the law of emission. The now well-known theory of electrons was founded on the hypothesis that electric conductivity in metals is determined by free electrons moving in the metal with complete irregularity. In this form the theory can not hold, for H. A. Lorentz has shown that such free electrons must yield a radiation following the law of Rayleigh and Jeans. This radiation, especially for short waves, would be many times greater than is found by observation. The theory of specific heat also shows that only the molecules, not the electrons, possess heat energy. One might perhaps hope to find a way out of the difficulty by assuming that the number of electrons is small in comparison with the number of atoms, but for low temperatures one would be forced to apply Planck's formula, not only to the atoms but to the electrons as well, and a new difficulty would at once result, since the free electrons can not have a vibration frequency equal to v. If it were possible to identify the v for an electron with the value for an atom, the electrons could no longer be regarded as free and there would be no difference between the free electrons and the electrons fixed in the atom. All the electrons would take part of the heat energy, and, their number being greater than the number of atoms, the value of the specific heat for high tempera- tures would be too high. There are many circumstances which make it probable that the energy of the electrons is independent of temperature. All emissions of electrons by radiation are inde- pendent of temperature, and the electrons coming from hot bodies can be emitted bv radiation. 278 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation It is possible to develop a theory of electric conductivity if one considers the motion of electrons in metals to be independent of temperature. In this case the conductivity of metals could change only thru variation of the free path of the electrons. The free path of electrons will depend only upon the vibrati ons of the atoms, and must be inversely proportional to the numberof vibrat- ing atoms. It would be more difficult to find the relation between the free path and the amplitude of the vibrations. A statistical consideration shows that the free path must be independent of the partition of the quanta only in case the free path be inversely pro- portional to the square of the amplitude. The vibrations are sup- posed to be identical with the elastic vibrations of the solid. In this way, one arrives at a formula for the conductivity, using the values obtained by the theory of elasticity, which agrees with the observations of Kammerlingh-Onnes except at very low tempera- tures. It also yields the high value for the temperature coeffi- cient for iron and nickel. The derivation of the formula for elec- tric conductivity suggests that the electrons are in irregular motion but the energy of this motion will not depend, as assumed in Drude's theory, on the temperature, for the motion considered remains unchanged even at the lowest temperatures. It is possible to identify this energy of the electrons with the energy ^ of the theory of radiation. Some considerations have been offered by Einstein, which have considerable importance for the theory of quanta. They relate to fluctuations in the radiant energy caused by the irregu- larity of the emission. The theory of the Brownian movements founded on the theory of errors has shown such a surprising agree- ment with observation that it is necessarj^ to take account of this theory in its application to radiation. Using Boltzmann's theorem of the relation between entropy and probability, this can be calculated from the known formula of the entropy of radia- tion. Applying the law of errors we can calculate the fluctuations of the radiant energy about its mean value. The calculation gives an expression which cannot be interpreted from the mean values for interfering rays, meeting in a point distant from the radiating wien: eecent theories of heat and radiation 279 surface. The expression which represents the fluctuations con- tains two terms, one having the form which would result if the elements of energy were concentrated in points of space, the other expressing the fluctuations caused by interference alone. ^ But the second term of the formula also contains the constant h and one can combine the two terms into one, in consequence of which it is not quite certain whether the separation into two terms is due to the phj^sical phenomena. Certain it is that at low tem- peratures the calculated fluctuations are larger than those caused by interference alone. Inasmuch as this case applies only to radiation which exists free in space it has no relation to observa- tion. Another case, which was also treated by Einstein, is therefore of great interest here. It concerns the irregular motion of a mirror accelerated by pressure of radiation in free space. In the calcula- tion of this pressure the effect of small velocities vanishes because the pressure is the same on the front and on the back of the mirror. It is therefore necessary to calculate the second term which is proportional to the velocity. The expression for the mean energy of the irregular motion of the mirror is also made up of two terms and is quite analogous to the expression for radiant energy. If the mirror be suspended in a space filled with radiation from a black body an energy equilibrium is established and it may be expected that the irregularities in the pressure of radiation will reach the magnitude given by the law of equipartition of energy. Therefore the mean energy of the mirror moving in one direction would be ^ kTJ But if we calculate the irregular motions caused by interference alone w^e shall find them smaller, the mean energy being proportional to kT and independent of h. It is unlikely that the mean energy of the real motions would be differ-" kT ent from the value -^, for the irregularities caused by the pres- sure of radiation must be in equilibrium with the irregularities caused by other thermal phenomena. It seems therefore neces- ' From this expression Einstein was led to suggest the assumption that quanta also exist in space. ^ Where k is the constant of the theory of gases and T the absolute temperature. This quantity of energy is equal to the mean energy of a gas-molecule. 280 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation sary to suggest a proper cause for increasing the irregular motions by the amount of the pressure. For the calculation of these irregularities it is altogether probable that the mirror cannot be considered to be a continuous body and the molecular structure of the mirror must be taken into consideration. The theory of the Rontgen rays, is also connected in some way with the theory of quanta but is founded on purely electromag- netic considerations. Sometime ago I tried to calculate the wave length of the Rontgen rays from the theory of Stokes and Wiech- ert using only the measurements of energy. The electromagnetic theory gives the energy radiated by the retardation of an electron in a path of definite length. The radiated energy increases with the velocity of the electron and diminishes with the length of the path of retardation. The electron on the other hand radiates only in this path and the wave of electromagnetic disturbance is therefore enclosed between two spheres the centers of which lie at the extremities of the path. Hence the wave length can be calculated from the length of the path, that is, from the velocity and the radiated energy. The energy of the electrons can be calculated from the energy of the excited Rontgenrays. One can therefore calculate the wave length of Rontgen rays from the ratio of the energies of electrons and Rontgen rays. The value found in this way is considerably smaller than that found by obser- vations of diffraction. Another way of calculating the wave length of Rontgen rays is given by the theory of quanta. If secondary electrons are excited by Rontgen rays the velocity acquired is much greater than can be explained by the electro- magnetic theory. Only a few atoms, however, radiate secondary electrons. For the simplest explanation of this observation the hypothesis is made that the energy of secondary electrons is derived from the energy accumulated in the atom and having the mean value ^ . At first those atoms will radiate which possess a quantity of energy not very different from hv, and which need only to absorb a small amount of the incident radiation to reach the critical value hv. These atoms will then radiate and the energy of the emerging wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 281 electron is ^ i'^ = hv. The energy of the secondary electrons being known one can calculate the value of v and obtain a wave length for the Rontgen rays of the same order of magnitude as that which results from experiments in diffraction. It also seems probable that the Rontgen rays affect only the electrons and that the whole absorption is therefore caused by collisions of the secondary electrons with the atoms. In the production of Rontgen rays almost the whole energy of the -cathode rays is transformed into heat. Sommerfeld has given a formula unit- ing the theory of Rontgen rays with the theory of quanta. He puts the action integral (principle of least action) equal to the constant ^ , the integration being taken over the time of the molecular action. It is then possible to calculate from the values of the kinetic and potential energies and the constant h, the time of molecular action which corresponds to the time of radiation. According to this reasoning the value of the wave lengths resulting from the electromagnetic theory should agree with the value derived from the theory of quanta. In fact much smaller values for the wave lengths result from the electromagnetic theory. Som- merfeld explains this by assuming that the Rontgen rays are not monochromatic but consist of two kinds of radiation, one depend- ing on the nature of the anticathode while the other is the radia- tion of the retarded electrons. The latter must be polarized in a plane such that the electric vibrations are parallel to the direc- tion of retardation. One can then calculate the radiation of the retarded electrons from the polarized portion of the Rontgen rays. Using the observations upon the polarization of Rontgen rays one now finds an agreement. Sommerfeld applies his theorem also to the electrons expelled by ultraviolet light by supposing that the energy acquired by the electrons is accumulated by resonance, but with this supposition I cannot agree. In this case a very long time must elapse before emission begins. For the explanation of the emission of electrons by light it seems to me rather that M^e must take account of the energy concealed in the atom. 282 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation One of the phenomena, in which the emission of Ught undoubt- edly takes place thru the collision of molecules and atoms, is the positive rays. There we have atoms and molecules moving with high velocities which can be measured by means of magnetic and electric deflection or by direct methods. One can calculate the mean energy emitted by one atom in one spectral line from the ratio of the emitted intensity in the Doppler line to the number of atoms, which number can be found by observation of the current of positive electricity. On the other hand we find that the par- ticles which are active in the positive rays do not retain their charge but lose it thru collisions with atoms at rest, and after being without charge for a time, they get a new one thru a second collision with a particle at rest. We have therefore always two kinds of particles, one charged and the other uncharged, — neglect- ing the negatively charged particles, whose number is compara- tively small. In the state of equilibrium the number of particles in unit volume losing their charge, is equal to the number receiv- ing a new charge, so that the number of charged as well as of uncharged particles remains constant. But the ratio of the number of charged particles to the number of those uncharged depends upon the number of collisions of both kinds of particles, and is equal to the ratio of the free path of charged particles to the free path of those uncharged. This ratio may be determined by taking away the charged particles in an electric field. The free path itself can be found if the charged partic'es are deflected and the distance measured, thru which the uncharged particles must pass before a definite number receive their positive charges. It is found that the free path of the uncharged particles is greater than that of the charged particles but that the ratio of the one to the other depends on the pressure of the gas at rest. This is not in accord with the fundamental concept of the kinetic theory of gases, which demands that the free path be inversely proportional to the pressure. Also the absolute value of the free paths is not inversely proportional to the pressure but at low pres- sures diminishes more slowly than the pressure increases. These results show that the atoms cannot be regarded as entirely inde- pendent of each other. One may also observe that the absorption wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 283 of positive rays is not proportional to the pressure but is very much slower. Thus we see that even under these simple conditions the behavior of the atoms is very complicated. Now it is certain that the emission of light takes place thru collisions of the moving atoms with atoms or molecules at rest and the question is whether or not the collisions effecting the emis- sion of light are the same as the collisions which cause the atoms to lose or receive their charges. If we assume that the two kinds of collisions are the same, we must perforce apply the theory of quanta, because one atom cannot send out less radiation than one quantum. From the free path we know the number of col- lisions per cm of path, and, having found the mean energy emitted by one atom, we may calculate how many collisions are neces- sary to effect the emission of one quantum of a spectral line, that is, how many collisions must occur for each one which excites one quantum emission. But the emission of light by the positive rays depends very greatly on the velocity of the particles. If the velocity is very small no emission at all can come from the particles. The emission increases rapidly with the velocity but after reaching a maximum value it decreases so that for great velo- cities it again disappears. The emission of light is therefore associ- ated with a small range of velocities. In the light emitted by the positive rays we always have two spectral lines, one coming from the molecules at rest and the other from the moving molecules. One might think it possible to find a relation between those two by applying the principle of relativity. If we make the whole system move with the velocity of the moving atoms and in the opposite direction, then the atoms at rest become moving atoms, the moving atoms are now at rest and nothing is changed. One might therefore conclude that the light emitted by the moving atoms differs from the light coming from the atoms at rest only by the amount of the change de- manded by Doppler's principle. But we have here a complica- tion in that not- only atoms or molecules but also electrons are emitted by atoms in collision and these secondary electrons like- wise cause an emission of light if they are absorbed. All these considerations show that the emission of light by the 284 AUSTIN: APPARATUS FOR RADIOTELEGRAPHY positive rays is also a complex phenomenon, in which the emission of a spectral line depends not only on the radiating atom but also on the velocity of the atom or electron which excites the radia- tion. One must therefore try to make the conditions of experi- ment still simpler. Another phenomenon to which it may be possible to apply the theory of quanta is the scintillation caused by the impact of a-rays against a phosphorescent body. In a sense we have here an ele- mentary operation because the light, which is emitted in one scintillation is caused by a single a-particle. But the amount of energy radiated in the scintillation is much larger than one quan- tum and it seems that this energy does not come from a single atom of the phosphorescent substance but from a great number of atoms, all excited by the same a-particle. After this survey of the field we are thus compelled to admit that for the moment we have no experiment which permits the observation of a single quantum of energy. With light We can- not hope to make such observations directly because more than thirty quanta are necessary to be perceptible to the eye. In Rontgen rays the element of energy is more than 1000 times larger but here we have no instrument of observation as sensitive as the tmman eye. It is therefore unavoidable that in the study of the quanta theory we are confined to statistical methods, and these do not give us a convincing interpretation in terms of physical fact. It is only by applying the theory of quanta to many and widely different phenomena that we can hope to find out the true physi- cal explanation of this novel theory. On the other hand it is evident that hardly more than the first steps have yet been taken and that by far the greater part of the work still remains to be done. RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A Comparison of arc and spark send- ing apparatus for radiotelegraphy . L, W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radiotelegraphic Laboratory. It has been claimed by the users of continuous oscillations in radiotelegraphy that these waves are less absorbed in passing AUSTIN: APPARATUS FOR RADIOTELEGRAPHY 285 over the surface of the earth than the damped wave trains pro- duced by spark sending. Several attempts have been made to settle this question by experiment, but over the moderate dis- tances employed no difference in absorption has been observed. In order to extend these experiments to greater distances, a 30- kw. arc operated with 500-volt direct current was installed at the high power station at Arlington, Virginia. At a wave length of 4100 meters, the arc gave an antenna current of from 47 to 53 amperes. Comparisons were made of the received current from this arc and from the 500 cycle spark set giving from 100 to 120 amperes in the antenna. A very careful set of observations of the received currents from the two types of apparatus was made at St. Augustine, Florida, the measurements being taken by the calibrated detector and galvanometer method. The distance between the two stations was 530 nautical miles. The received currents were found to be simply proportional to the radiation currents at Arlington with an error not greater than 10 per cent; that is, at this distance there was no evidence of a difference in the absorption. These results were verified by the shunted telephone method using the slipping contact detector, ^ at New Orleans and also at Key West, both places being approximately 900 miles from Washington. The receiving apparatus was then placed on the U.S.S. Ar- kansas and taken to Colon, 1800 nautical miles from Arlington. During the two days available for observation at Colon the receiving apparatus was taken to the Naval Radiotelegraphic Station. During these two days, the arc signals were heard at each schedule both day and night, while the spark signals were heard only at night. These observations indicated that at 1800 miles the continuous waves show a smaller degree of absorption than the damped waves. It was not possible, however, to draw this conclusion with certainty, since at the season of the year in which the observations were taken, late December, exceptional days occur which might perhaps affect the continuous oscillations in a different manner from those of the spark. / » Journ. Wash. Acad. 1: 8. 1911. 286 HESS AND hunt: TRIPLITE from NEVADA An additional series of observations has been made during the recent voyage of the Salem to Gibraltar and return. Here it was found, in verification of the Colon experiments, that for distances over 1400 miles the arc as received in the day time was equal to or somewhat better than the spark, notwithstanding the fact that the spark radiation current at Arlington was considerably more than twdce as great as the corresponding arc current. Messages were continuously received with both arc and spark in the day time up to 2100 miles. Several times day signals were heard at greater distances, the arc being uniformly louder. The night signals were heard all the way to Gibraltar. MINERALOGY. — Triplite from eastern Nevada. Frank L. Hess and W. F. Hunt.^ Communicated by F. L. Ransome. Triplite, a manganese fluophosphate of pale salmon color, was found in specimens of tungsten ore sent by G. G. Sims from the Reagan district in the Kern Range, White Pine County, Nevada, to the United States Geological Survey. It occurs with wolfram- ite (hiibnerite?), scheelite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, an argentiferous sulfide of bismuth and lead, which is possibly cosalite, native bismuth, and a little sericite. The triplite is in irregular masses, the largest of which is less than an inch in diameter. The mineral association strongly suggests pegmatitic origin and from its occurrence in other places the presence of triplite in a vein wouM appear to indicate that the vein is either an end product of differentiation in a pegmatite magma or was deposited by magmatic waters. An analysis (by W. F. H.) gave only 1.68 per cent of FeO. Previously published analyses of triplite from other localities have shown from 7.69 to 41.42 per cent FeO, and the minerals have been of much darker color. The formula for the Reagan mineral approximates MnO.P2O5.MnF2. A more extended description will be later submitted for pub- lication in the American Journal of Science. ^Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey. cobb: notes on mononchus and tylenchulus 287 HELMINTHOLOGY. — Notes on Mononchus and Tylenchulus. N. A. Cobb. Bureau of Plant Industry. Mononchus. Various observers have suggested that species of the genus Mononchus may be injurious to vegetation. For some years the writer has accumulated observations showing the species of this genus to be carnivorous. On various occasions the intes- tine has been seen to contain other nematodes that have been swallowed whole. On one occasion a Mononchus was captured in the act of swallowing another nematode. When Mononchi are placed in water with other species of nematodes the latter are sometimes seen suddenly to exhibit active motion, apparently Fig. 1. Seven females of Tylenchulus semi-penetrans in various stages, as found on a feeding root of orange tree. The two outside specimens are younger than the others, which are adult or nearly so. A considerable portion of the head end of the worm is inside the root. The roots are injured, a, tail end; b, vulva; c, excretory pore; d, immature egg; e, ripe egg. expressive of fear, when touched by the head of one of the Mon- onchi— acting, in fact, as if suddenly nipped or bitten. It would appear that Mononchi are beneficial to vegetation, rather than injurious, as the nematodes they feed upon are often injurious species. Tylenchulus (New genus). Mr. E. E. Thomas has recently announced in Circular No. 85 of the California College of Agri- culture a very interesting discovery in connection with the roots of citrus trees. Mr. J. R. Hodges, California State Horticultural Inspector, observed nematodes from the roots of orange trees, and concluded they were injurious. Thomas' investigations showed the nematodes to be of common occurrence, but he nevertheless con- cluded that the species was one not hitherto found on citrus 288 cobb: notes on mononchus and tylenchulus Fig. 2. Nearly adult male of Tylenchulus semi-pene- trans, a, mouth pore; b, an- terior part of spear; c, pro- truding-muscle of spear; d, beginning of oesophagus; €, deteriorated median bulb; /, nerve-ring; g, deteriorated posterior bulb; /t, beginning of intestine; i, terminus; j, larger intestinal granule; k, smaller intestinal granule; I, anus; m, left spiculum; n, excretory pore; o, sper- matocyte; p, vas deferens; q, spermatozoon. roots, and Circular No. 85 was issued to call the attention of other investigators to the subject. The writer has recently examined the nematode mentioned, and finds it a new generic form, for which the name Tylenchulus is most appropriate. Tylenchulus has the characters of Tylenchus, except that, (1) there is no functional anus; (2) the excretory pore is near the middle of the body, or even farther back in the adult female; (3) there is no male bursa; (4) the male prac- tically loses the spear at the final moult ; (5) the cuticle of the female is much thickened when the posterior portion of the body becomes saccate at maturity; (6) the vulva is located in a deep suture. The type species is : Tylenchulus semi-penetrans, nov. gen., n. sp. U. _^l^ 67.' '90. 94.' 7.1 2:7 -M 88. 2.2 7.1 8.7 20. 3.3 16. 29. 2.7 .5 mm. 4 mm. 2.2 2.7 2.7 3. Cuticle naked, traversed by 400-500 plain transverse striae. Neck cylindroid, becom- ing convex-conoid near the continuous head, which is rounded in front. No lips, amphids or eye-spots. Spear and oesophagus typi- cally tylenchoid. Median bulb ellipsoidal, with valve; posterior swelling pyriform to elongated, without valve. Male tail conoid to the somewhat blunt terminus. Posterior part of the adult female saccate, with wide blunt tail bent toward the ventral side. Vulva in the midst of a prominent ventral suture. Habitat: Parasitic on citrus roots in Cali- fornia and Florida. Fuller publication with illustrations will follow. 1 Measurement near the middle of the saccate part. * Arbitrary, as there is no anus. lotka: a natural population norm 289 VITAL STATISTICS.— A natural population norm.' II. Alfred J. Lotka. Communicated by G. K. Burgess. II. Proportion of sexes. In addition to the features discussed in part I of this paper, Table III also shows the calculated and observed ratio of the total number of females to that of males in the population. The calculated figure is obtained as follows: Let Bra be the total number of male birth per annum, and Nm the total number of males in the population. Let B{, N{ similarly refer to females. Then b^, hi, the male and female birthrates per head per annum, are defined respectively by &m = Hence N^ N^ B^ h (8) (9) Bi Now — , the proportion of female births to male births, is Bra a characteristic constant of the population, and in the case under 1 consideration its value was 1 . \joo2i bjn, b{ we have by (4) and Table I Hence (9) becomes Ni = 0.9632. For the values of = 41.35 - 1312r^ + 44.62 - 1467rf + (10)^ A. = 0.9632 = 1.0395 44.62 - 1467rf 41.35 - 13"l2r„, 1 -32.878rf ) r^31.729r„i (11) ri2) 1 See this Journal 3: 241-248. 1913. - The convergence of the series (10) is such that in the computation of 6 and of c (a) seven terms had to be retained; but the quotient (12) is much more rapidly- convergent, so that only two terms are here required. 290 lotka: a natural population norm In the numerical case here considered Tj^ = 0.01431, n = 0.01373. This gives, for the ratio ~zrr- the computed value 1.045, as against the observed value 1.054. III. Age-distribution at death. (3) we have for the total num- ber of deaths between the age-limits 0 and oo D = -Nb ^e-'^i){a)da (13) Similarly, between the age-limits a and (a + da) --^ da = — -- e-^"" p (a) da (14) da d Introducing a coefficient of age-distribution at death, defined in a manner analogous to that applied to the living population, but denoted by c'{a), this gives c'{a) = --e-"p(a) (15) d To find the proportion of deaths between the ages ai and az we integrate \ c'{a) da = I e-^^ p (a) da (16) = -^[e-p(a)l"-f^ \^c{a)da (17) 0 L J ai b iJ 0.1 The last integral has already been computed in determining the age-distribution in life, so that we can now readily calculate the age-distribution at death. As a matter of fact, in the process of computing the age-distribution in life many of the data required for computing e~'* p (a) aj by series are obtained, so that the work is largely disposed of. The computation was carried out for males only. The results obtained are shown in Table V and figure 5. Here again the agreement between the observed and calculated values is very close. lotka: a natural population norm 291 TABLE V Age-Distribution at Death (Males) i CALCULATED OBSERVED 0- 5 429 419 5-10 37 36 10-15 18 18 15-20 21 23 20-25 28 28 25-35 62 59 35-45 69 68 45-55 79 75 55-65 88 88 65-75 93 97 75-00 75 89 999 1000 IV. Average age at death. The average age at death is given by A^ = ac'{a)da (18) Jo In the case of the stable age distribution this becomes (see 15) A^= — -\ a e-^^p(a) da (19) dJo I, r • "1 "" ?i r* °° = — - ae-^^ p (a) + - (1 — ra) e-"'' p (a) da dl Jo d Jo = 0 + - \ c{a) da — - \ a c{a) da d Jo d Jo ^-^^■' (20) (21) (22) if we denote by A^ the mean age of the living population. In a stationary population we have r == 0, d ^ do and hence 1 f" A^ = -r = h where I is the mean length of life, viz., I = \ p{a) da. do J" V. Third equation between b, d and r. We have so far considered b, d and r as connected by two relations, namely equation (2) (or 292 lotka: a natural population norm its equivalent 3), and the defining equation r = (b - d). In actual fact of course 6, d and r are in every instance completely determined. There must therefore be a third relation between Fig. 5. Age-distribution at death, England and Wales 1871-1880. them. In fact if one male, at age a, gives rise, on an average, to /3m(«) male births per unit of time, we must have 6m = 1 I c„, (a) /?„, (a) da Cm (a) I3,„ (a) da Jo (25) (26) lotka: a natural population norm 293 For the stable age-distribution this becomes by (1) b,n = 6m e-" pm (a) /3,n (>) da (27) e-" Pn. (a) I3m (a) da (28) an equation which determines r. Equation (28) gives rise to two reflections. In the first place it can be seen by inspection, that r ^ 0 accord- f" > ing as I Pm{a) I3m{a) da^=l. This is due to the fact that this last integral represents the ratio of the total male births in two suc- cessive generations. The second conclusion which we may draw from equation (28) is at first sight somewhat surprising. In that equation we may, without altering its meaning in any way, write the limits of the integral Gi and ^2, instead of 0 and oo , if we denote by ai and a-> the lower and upper limits of the reproductive period. For outside these age limits the function /3(a) has everywhere the value 0, so that the terms of the original integral outside these limits contribute nothing to the numerical value of the integral. This being so, the per cent rate of increase of a population in which the stable age-distribution has become established is quite indepen- dent of any factors which may afTect the life of individuals out- side the reproductive age limits — so long as conditions within these limits remain unchanged. Thus, if we were dealing with a herd of cattle, for instance, it is quite immaterial, so far as the effect upon r is concerned, how we slaughter the cattle of the herd, so long as we spare the individuals of breeding age. This is a somewhat surprising result, especially as it applies not only to the superannuated, but also to the young, immature cattle. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific .bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. BOTANY. — The catalpa septum: a factor in distinguishing hardy catalpa. William H. Lamb, Forest Service. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, 7: No. 1. 1912. This is a discussion of the distinguishing characteristics of hardy catalpa (Catalpa speciosa), and common catalpa {Catalpa catalpa), with emphasis upon the septum as a distinguishing feature. The septum is the long wrinkled partition within the pod, along which the seeds are arranged. The septum of hardy catalpa is greatly thickened along the middle, giving it a rounded appearance in general outline. The septum of common catalpa, on the other hand, is only shghtly thickened along the middle and appears relatively flat. This variation in shape fur- nishes us with a valuable means for recognizing hardy catalpa. Dia- gramatic drawings of enlarged sections of tj^pical septa have been made to illustrate this important distinction. W. H. L. ZOOLOGY. — Crinoidea (supplement). Austin Hobart Clark. Ergebnisse der Hamburger siidwest-australischen Forschungsreise 1905, Bd. 4: Lief. 6: S. 307-315, Taf. 4. 1913. Since the publication of the author's memoir on the crinoids of west Australia (this series, 3, part 13, pp. 435-467) additional specimens col- lected by the Hamburg Southwest Australian Expedition have come to light. An account of these, including the description of a new genus (Petasometra) and species (P. helianthoides) , is here given. Li an ap- pendix is a list of annotations by which the information included in the original memoir, written three years ago, is brought up to date. A. H. C. 294 abstracts: ichthyology 295 ICHTHYOLOGY. — The sense of smell in fishes. G. H. Parker and R. E. Sheldon. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 32:33-^6. 1912. Issued May 3, 1913. The common beUef that fishes have a sense of smell has been hitherto without the support of physiological evidence. In this paper are recorded the results of experiments with three common species of fishes which show reactions undoubtedly dependent upon the olfactory appa- ratus. 1 . A current of water passes thru the nasal chambers of many fishes in a direction from anterior to posterior. It may be produced by ciliary action (Ameiurus), by pressure due to the action of the respiratory mus- cles (Fundulus) , or it may be a part of the true respiratory current (Mustelus) . 2. By means of this current dissolved substances in the water are brought into contact with the olfactory surfaces. 3. Fishes distinguish packets containing hidden food from similar packets without food. 4. This power of distinguishing the two classes of packets is lost when the olfactory tracts are cut, when the anterior olfactory apertures are stitched up or when the apertures are plugged with cotton wool. It is revived on reopening the apertures by taking out the stiches or removing the cotton wool. 5. Mustelus and Ameiurus discover their food chiefly thru the ol- factory sense ; Fundulus uses the eyes in addition to the olfactory organs for this purpose. 6. Mustelus, Fundulus, and Ameiurus use the olfactory organs to scent food much as land animals do; these organs are true organs of smell, i.e., distance receptors for the chemical sense. G. H. P. and R. E. S. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF AVASHINGTON The 718th meeting was held on January 18, 1913, at the Cosmos Club, President Abbot in the chair; about 35 persons present. The minutes of the 716th meeting were read and approved. Mr. M. D. Hersey presented a paper on A mechanical model of the least square adjustment. The apparatus exhibited consisted of a sheet of coordinate paper mounted on a board for the plotting of points, a light aluminum rod, and a supply of rubber elastics and push pins. The values under discussion were plotted by the push pins, allowance being made for the unstretched lengths of the elastics by which the bar was suspended. The model was used to show the mechanical adjustment of the tests of a mercury barometer ; the results were compared with those by the usual solution of normal equations. The speaker discussed methods for weighting different observations, the determination of the probable error by the model, and the application of the principle for solution of case involving several unknowns. The paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Rines, and Abbot. Mr. H. C. Dickinson presented a paper by himself and Mr. E. F. Mueller on New calorimetric resistance thermometers, describing and exhibiting the improved type of sensitive resistance thermometer devel- oped at the Bureau of Standards. A coil of 0.1 mm. platinum wire is wound on a thin mica strip and enclosed with mica insulation in a plati- num (or silver) sheath pressing firmly on the fiat coil. The upper end of the sheath is fused or soldered to a glass tube carrying the leads. The instrument may be used from — 180° to 500°. The constancy of this type is shown by the fact that for the best of them the resistance at 0° has not changed more than 3 or 4 parts per million in three years, an amount that may be due to impurities in ice used, errors in resist- ance standards, or changes in the leads. Thermometers of this type are now^ being manufactured commercially. Mr. Marvin discussed certain details of their construction. Mr. H. L. Curtis spoke on Some properties of electric condensers. A perfect condenser should maintain a constant capacity independent of outside conditions, should have an infinite insulation resistance and no absorption. The problems of construction are mechanical and elec- trical ; the first being to keep the plates so they will have the same area and be the same distance apart, and the second being the insulation resistance and the anomalies of the dielectric. The speaker discussed these problems for the air or gas, mica, paper, and glass condensers. 296 proceedings: philosophical society 297 For the gas dielectric the greater problem is the mechanical one, while for the solid dielectric the question of anomalies is the more serious. The paper was discussed by Mr. Gray with reference to values of capacity at different voltages. The Secretary read communications inviting members of the Society to attend the meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences on January 30 at the Cosmos Club to hear an illustrated address, Some observations of the volcano Kilauea in action, by Dr. A. L. Day; and also to attend a meeting on January 27, at the Bureau of Standards to hear Professor Magie of Princeton on Our conception of energy. The 719th meeting was held on February 1, 1913, at the Cosmos Club, with President Abbot in the chair and 16 persons present. The minutes of the 718th meeting were read and approved. By invitation Mr. Alfred Lotka presented an illustrated paper on A natural population norm. Pubhshed in full in this Journal, 3: 241, 289. 1913. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Burgess, Wolff, Burrows, and Abbot. Under informal communications Mr. Abbot spoke of the recent work conducted and the results obtained with the pyrheliometer showing that a standard scale of pyrheliometry is now well established. Mr. Humphreys offered an explanation of the present mild winter in the District of Columbia and neighboring region in that the high pressure center usually located in the East Atlantic off Gibraltar has shifted of late to the neighborhood of the Bermudas and in consequence we receive with southerly winds the mild marine climate. No cause for the shift could be assigned. Mr. Kimball spoke of the remarkable dimi- nution since June 10, 1912, of the Solar radiation as measured at the surface of the Earth; during the six months to December the radiation was but 83 per cent of what it had been in previous years at Mt. Weather. There appears to be some relation with the eruption of the Volcano Katmai in Alaska of June 6, 1912. A study of the results promises to give interesting light on the circulation of the atmosphere. The 720th meeting was held on February 15, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. President Abbot in the chair; 50 persons present. The evening was devoted to the address of the retiring President, Mr. E. B. Rosa, on The function of research in the regulation of natural jnonop- olies. Published in full in this Journal, 3 : 201. 1913. The 721st meeting was held on March 1, 1913 at the Cosmos Club. This meeting was held conjointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences. President Tittmann, of the Academy, presided. There were about 200 persons present. The Right Honorable James Bryce, 0.!M., British Ambassador to the United States, gave an address on The physical aspects of Australia and New Zealand. The islands of New Zealand are very mountainous and the scenery of great beauty. The climate is generally moist. A 298 proceedings: philosophical society large part of the country is suitable for cultivation but because of the distance from market the raising of cattle and sheep is the industry most developed. The vegetation is remarkable, particularly the tree ferns, which grow to great size. The native Maori people are much like the Hawaiians in character and language and are of a very high order of intelligence. Australia is quite unlike New Zealand in its physi- cal features. The interior is a great plain and is generally quite arid as the outside fringe of mountains on all sides prevents the rains from reaching it. The presence of copious deep level water makes possible the use of artesian wells and much of the interior may be developed by irrigation. The interesting question as to the source of this deep level water was discussed briefly. The flora and fauna are peculiar. The aborigines are entirely unlike those of New Zealand, being of negroid type and of a very low state of culture. The address was illustrated by wall maps and lantern slides. To express the appreciation of the meeting for the delightful and instructive address, the President called for a rising vote, which was unanimous. The 722cl meeting was held on March 15, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. Vice-President Fischer in the chair; 27 persons present. The minutes of the 719, 720, and 721st meetings were read and approved. Because of illness, Mr. G. W. Spencer, who was to have presented a paper Relationship between terrestrial gravity and observed Earth move- ments of eastern America, was unable to address the meeting. Mr, I. G. Priest read a paper on A photometric error sometimes accom- panyifig the use of a pair of nicols, and a proposal for its elimination, illustrated with lantern slides. In extensive optical trains such as occur in spectrophotometers and colorimeters the use of a pair of nicols fol- lowing the simple theory may be impaired by oblique reflection^ of the plane polarized beam whose plane of polarization is rotated with the rotating nicol. An example was cited and illustrated by lantern slides and formula given showing variation of intensity of beam from propor- tionality to the square of the sine of the angle 6 thru Avhich analyzing nicol is rotated from the position of " crossed nicols." A triplet of nicols in train instead of a pair is proposed with end nicols fixed and middle one rotating, in which case, with principal planes of end nicols parallel, the intensity is proportional to sin^ d, and if perpendicular, to sin^ d cos^ 0. Trouble may be more simply eliminated by using only a pair of nicols but rotating the polarizer instead of the analyzer, provided the beam incident on polarizer is entirely unpolarized. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Coblentz and Tillyer. Under informal communications Mr. W. Bowie presented a paper on The precise level net of the United States, giving the results of the recent adjustment by the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the different circuits of the precise leveling net of the United States. 44,720 kilometers of leveling have been run in two directions and about 10,700 permanent bench marks have been placed in all but seven states. The values proceedings: philosophical society' 299 resulting from the adjustment will probably be held as standard eleva- tions for an indefinite time and be of great benefit to surveyors and engineers. New circuits will be fitted to the old levelings as, while they would theoretically give new and better values, the changes would be small as regards practical use. The paper was discussed by Messrs. C. A. Briggs, Rines, Wright, Humphreys, and Sosman. Mr. W. J. Humphreys presented an illustrated paper on Factors in climatic changes in the past. The suggestion that the important factor has been the presence of veils of volcanic dust in the atmosphere was made in a revised form. Considerations of the material, density, and size of particles of volcanic dust show that interference with ingoing radiation would be five or more times that on outgoing radiation, which would mean lower temperature. Calculations show that one-tenth cubic mile of dust would account for a glacial period. The 723d meeting was held on March 29, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. President Abbot in the chair; about 40 persons present. The minutes of the 722d meeting were read and approved. Mr. L. W. Austin presented a paper on Recent experiments in radio- telegraphy. Owing to non-receipt of data from S.S. Salem giving results of tests between the Arlington station and the Salem while en route to and from Gibraltar the speaker could not report on this work as he had expected. The results of the United States Navy experiments of 19D9- 10 were reviewed and formulae discussed. The high power station at Arlington was brieflj^ described. In it are incorporated the suggestions and ideas developed in the 1909-10 work. It differs from most high power stations in that it has a three tower arrangement for antennae instead of the more usual umbrella type; one tower is 600 feet and the other two each 450 feet high. Ground resistance has been practically eliminated by grounding with copper net — this was found to be essential and makes no difference in the radiant energy. The seasonal variation of received signals was discussed — the energy received dropping during the summer. Difference in ease of transmission during day and night was pointed out; day conditions are generally more constant while at night there are great fluctuations. Discussed by Mr. Bauer as to greater ease of transmission along magnetic meridians; by Mr. Abbot as to magnitude of difference between day and night conditions; by Messrs. White, Humphreys, and Wolff as to the calculations at Arlington. Mr. F. A. Kolster spoke on National and international regulation of radiocommunication. The uses and chief purposes of radiocommunication are protection to life at sea, aid to navigation, communication between ship and ship and shore, and naval and military operations. The first regulation conference held in 1906 in Berlin was due largely to attempts made to monopolize the business and the great amount of interference due to amateurs. .At the second conference held in 1912, in London the discussion w^as practically confined to matters relating to operation of apparatus. Interference can l^e best avoided by restricting use of waves of definite lengths for definite purposes, e.g.. wave lengths between 600 and 300 proceedings: geological society 1600 meters are used only for naval and military purposes. In most foreign countries amateurs are not allowed to operate; in the United States they may do so but are restricted to the use of wave less than 200 meters in length. The speaker read and discussed at length some of the regulations. The next International Conference will be held in Washington in 1917. Paper was discussed by Mr. Bowie as to impor- tance of radiotelegraphy in the determination of longitude on islands and in unexplored regions; also by Messrs. Bauer, Rines and Abbot. Mr. Bauer told of the receipt at Salah, through the courtesy of a French officer, of time signals by the magnetic party crossing the Sahara, the signals being received directly from Paris, 1600 miles distant. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 267th meeting was held on March 12, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. The following informal communications were presented: An over- thrust fault in miniature from Montana: G. S. Rogers; Some new occur- rences of alunite: F. C. Schrader. regular program Geology of a portion of Northwest Alaska (Illustrated) : Philip S. Smith; A Pleistocene cave in Devonian limestone near Cumberland, Mary- land: J. W. GiDLEY. The work of the Alaska Railroad Commission: Alfred H. Brooks. In accordance with an act of Congress, approved August 24, 1912, President Taft appointed on August 31 the Alaska Railroad Commission as follows: Major J. J. Morrow, U. S. Army, Chairman; Alfred H. Brooks, U. S. Geological Survey, Vice-Chairman ; Lieut.-Commander Leonard M. Cox, U. S. Navy; ColUn M. Ingersoll, Consulting railway engineer, New York City. The Commission sailed from Seattle, September 10, and spent some two and a half months in field investigations. The work included an examination of all the harbors on the Pacific seaboard of Alaska which have been suggested as coastal terminals, also all the existing railways of central Alaska. The journey was extended to the lower Susitna Valley, and later to Fairbanks by the winter trail which follows closely one of the proposed railway routes into the Yukon basin. The Commission began its office work on December 2. This included a careful analysis of all the engineering data available regarding Alaska railway routes, aggregating some 3000 miles in length. On the basis of this information estimates of construction and operating costs were made for some sixteen different lines. A fairly comprehensive study was also made of the data relating to the resources of central Alaska, includ- ing minerals, agriculture, forests, and water power. The work of the Commission included a consideration of the existing transportation conditions in Alaska, together with statistics on commerce. Climate proceedings: geological society 301 and distribution of population were also among the subjects investigated. The report was submitted to the President on January' 20, 1913, and has since been published under the title, Railway Routes in Alaska: Docu- ment No. 1346 H. R. 62d Cong., 2d Session, 172 pp., 1913. The maps and profiles were submitted on March 1, 1913. These are now in print as Part II of the report. Ralph W. Richards, Secretary. The 268th meeting was held on March 26, 1913, at tlie Cosmos Club. At the session of the council preceding the open meeting the following members were elected delegates to represent the Societj^ at the meeting of the International Geological Congress at Toronto, August 7 to 12, 1913: — F. L. Ransome, David White, J. S. Diller, E. 0. Ulrich. The following informal communications were presented: A discovery of gypsum and anhydrite in a drill hole at Centerville, Iowa: F. C. Greene. Niter near Melrose, Montana: Ralph W. Richards. Niter is found as thin crusts on the surface of black limestone presumably of Devonian age on Camp Creek about 3| miles northeast of ]\Ielrose; it is also dis- seminated in veinlets to a less extent thru the rock. The purest salt occurs as a snowy white to slightly yellow mass of needle-like crystals, in the loose rock talus at the base of ledges. About 86 per cent of the mass is soluble in water; the soluble portion has been analyzed by R. H. Bailey and the following results obtained. Calcium sulfate 13.94 Sodium sulfate 3.30 Sodium chloride 20.42 Sodium nitrate 21.77 Potassium nitrate 39.48 The nitrates make up about 61.25 per cent of the total water soluble portion. An attempt was also made to determine the niter present in the limestones; the water soluble portion was found to range from 1 to 5 per cent. regular program Quaternary problems of central Alaska: Henry M. Eakin. The pres- ent drainage of Alaska is evident^ superimposed upon an older topog- raphy whose drainage had little resemblance in arrangement to that of today. This is shown by the topographic irregularities of the valleys of the present master streams that were developed, in part at least, in Quaternary time; in the irregular distribution of alluvial plains that represent old erosional depressions; and in old valleys that are now traversed by inadequate streams or are entirely abandoned. The assumption of crustal movements to account for these features is pre- cluded by the irregularities of the lowland basins; by the flood plains of tributaries in reaches where the trunk stream has no flood plain, and in the wide accordance in elevation of high terraces and silt deposits. The hypothesis advanced involves the ponding of water in the old 302 proceedings: geological society drainage basins l)y glacial obstruction: the establishment of drainage lines across the lowest available divides; and the topographic adjustment of the present river systems. The maximum known extent of ice in late geologic time is inadequate to the requirements of this hypothesis, but data bearing on this point are incomplete. Igneous rocks of the Raton Mesa Region: J. B. Mertie, Jr. The mesas near Raton, New Mexico, have resulted from the differential effect of erosion upon a series of lava flows and the surrounding sedi- mentary rocks. The vulcanism began in post-Eocene time and con- tinued intermittently to recent time. The oldest flows cap the highest mesas, thus preserving the original land surface over which they spread; while the latest flows lie in the present lowlands. Four series of flows have been recognized on the basis of erosional unconformities which separate them. The first or oldest series is composed of numerous fissure flows of great thickness and originally of great extent. They are uniformlj^ olivine basalts. The second series is not materially dif- ferent from the first. The third series contains a variety of rock types, among which hornblende hyalorhyolite, cegerite trach}^e, augite ande- site, hauyne basalt, basanite, quartz basalt, and normal olivine basalt have been recognized. Many of these flows came from central vents, and most of the resulting rock types show greater or less amounts of glass. The flows of the fourth series have come in every instance from volcanic cones of the central type and are uniformly glassy in character. They are, so far as observed, normal olivine basalts. The dyke rocks of the area include kersaijtites, vogesites, camptonites, limburgites, and nephelinites. The results of the investigation show a gradual change from the fissure to the central type of eruption, an increasing viscosity in the lavas accompanied by explosive volcanic action, and the development of numerous extreme rock types, or magmatic end products. All these phenomena are interpreted as the results of dying volcanic activity. Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands, and on the formation of the Floridian and Bahaman oolites: Thomas Wayland Vaughan. The author gave a brief resume of some studies he has conducted during the past seven years under the joint auspices of the United States Geological Survey and the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. The remarks on the geology of the Bahamas were based on observations made and material collected by him as a member of an expedition conducted by Dr. A. G. Mayer of the latter organization, during last April and May. The submarine and subaerial topographic features of the Bahamas were described briefly. The general country rock, across the Great Bahama Bank from Gun Cay to Northwest Passage and that of New Province and Andros islands, is oolite similar to the oolite of Florida. Along the windward faces of the islands ridges of wind-blown material rising above the lower platforms are usual. The studies of Dall, Sanford, and the author, in association with Geo. C. Matson, led to the opinion that the finely divided calcium car- proceedings: geological society 303 bonate oozes so abundant in Florida waters are chemical precipitates. Drew showed in 1911 that denitrifying bacteria are an important agent in effecting this precipitation in Florida waters; and in 1912 h6 extended his researches to the Bahamas, where he found them enormously abun- dant and active, as many as 160,000,000 being found in 1 cc. of surface mud on the west side of Andros Island. Rainey in 1858, Harting in 1871, and Linck in 1903 (and perhaps others), showed that calcium carbonate precipitated by an alkali forms spherulites; and Drew noted a similar tendency of the calcium carbonate precipitated on his cul- tures. Murray and Irvine showed that at higher temperature chemi- cally precipitated calcium carbonate is of the aragonite form. Bahaman shoal water bottom muds were collected at many stations, especially through South Bight and off its west end. The muds when collected were not observed to contain oolite grains, altho these may have ])een present and may have escaped notice, but all the muds when examined at the end of November did contain such grains, which ranged from spherulites 0.004 or 0.006 mm. in diameter, to grains of ordinary size, 0.10 to 0.80 mm. in diameter. The muds are composed of a mixture of aragonite and calcite. In order to test the growth of the grains, samples of a number of muds were strained through No. 10 bolting cloth, which has a mesh of about 0.13 mm. in size, and the fine material was put into bottles containing sea-water. During the first half of March a portion of each sample was studied. The formation of oolite grains was found to be in progress in every sample, and numer- ous grains were so large as manifestly to preclude their having passed thru the mesh of the bolting cloth. The experiments demonstrated both the increase in the number of spherulites and the increase in the size of the grains. The precipitated calcium carbonate may segregate around a variety of nuclei, for instance, spherulites formed of precipi- tated calcium carbonate, small grains of sand, shells of foraminifera, and gas-bubbles. Altho there is need for additional study of the factors that accelerate, retard, or inhibit the formation of spherulites and the growth of the grains, the empirical facts in the process of the formation of the Floridian and Bahaman oolites are demonstrated. They are as follows: (1) De- nitrifying bacteria are very active in the shoal waters of both regions and are precipitating enormous quantities of calcium carbonate which is largely aragonite; (2) this chemically precipitated calcium carbonate may form spherulites which by accretion may become oolite grains of the usual size, or it may accumulate around a variety of nuclei to build such grains. Two important deductions may be made from the knowledge of this process, viz.: (1) Neither the Bahamas nor the oolitic keys of southern Florida are coral islands, but they have been formed by this other process. Elevated coral rock is exceedingly scarce in the Bahamas and the recent reef of Andros is comparatively insignificant as a construc- tional geologic agent. The material composing the land masses and much of the submarine platforms of the Bahamas are thus removed 304 proceedings: anthropological society from the category of "coral rock" and the hving reef reduced to a sub- ordinate ratio as a builder of limestone. (2) Drew's unfortunately incompleted studies of the distribution of denitrifying bacteria have shown them to be most prevalent in the shoal-waters of the tropics. They therefore conform to the principles enunciated by Murray for the distribution of lime secreting organisms. By combining the results of Drew and Murray, the deduction seems warranted that great limestone formations, whether they be composed of organic or of chemically pre- cipitated calcium carbonate, were laid down in waters of which at least the surface temperatures were warm, if not actually tropical. Frank L. Hess, Secretary. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 466th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washing- ton was held in the National Museum February 18, 1913, the President, George R. Stetson in the chair. Professor W. H. Holmes read a paper on: Agricultural implements of the mound-builders. The rich alluvial prairie of the middle Mississippi valley is especially suited to the practice of agriculture, and here are found large numbers of skillfully made flint blades of large size adapted to hafting as hoes and showing unmistakable evidence of long usage in operations that gave the edge a high degree of polish. They are made of grayish flint or chert, which occurs in the form of flattish nodules especially in southern Illinois. These nodules were readily shaped by fracture with stone hammers, and vast numbers were worked up by the mound-building tribes. The processes of manufacture were demon- strated by the speaker and it was shown with what ease and rapidity the blades could be made. It was also shown by examples obtained from the Missouri river tribes that hoes made of scapulae of the buffalo were in use in very recent times and that the hoes found by excavation in ancient sites near Omaha correspond to these recent Indian forms in shape, manner of hafting, and surface polish, and that both display, altho in bone, precisely the same kind of polish and markings as the similarly shaped hoes of flint. It was suggested that these flint hoes were modeled after scapular hoes, since these were in general used by the tribes and have doubtless been in use from very early times among all the tribes advanced to the seden- tary agricultural stage of culture. With regard to questions of the antiquity of the stone and bone hoes which have recently been raised, it was suggested that since the buffalo was a comparatively recent arrival in the Mississippi valley, a culture in which the bones of buffalo are represented must be younger, not older, than that of the mound-builders, since no traces or representations of the buffalo are found within the older Indian mounds. This paper was briefly discussed, Mr. Stetson read some notes con- cerning stone articles recently found in Britain, and Professor Holmes commented thereon and then read a paper on the Scope and relationship proceedings: anthropological society 305 0/ history and archaeology, in abstract as follows: The term history as applied to the human race is a comprehensive designation corresponding to Anthropology which is defined as the science of man. According to Powell's classification Anthropology may be considered under seven heads giving rise to as many branches of research, as follows : Somatology psychology, philology, sociology, sophiology, technology, and esthet- ology. The records or sources of information to be drawn upon in these researches are comprised under two principal heads: Intentional or purposeful records, and non-intentional or fortuitous records. The intentional records are of five forms (1) The pictorial — picto- graphs; (2) the commemorative — -monumental structures; (3) oral — tradition and lore; (4) objective-mnemonic — -quipu, wampum; (5) inscribed, written — ^glyphic, alphabetic. Fortuitous records take numer- ous forms: (1) The diversified material results of human activities in which the commemorative-mnemonic motives are absent but which comprise the great body of the products of handicraft; (2) the immaterial results of human activity as embodied in language, beliefs, customs, music, philosophy, etc.; (3) the ever existing unpremeditated body of memories which accrue to each generation and are in part transmitted adventitiously; (4) the record embodied in the physical constitution of man which when properly read, tells the story of his development from lower forms; (5) the records of intellectual growth and powers to be sought and studied in the constitution of the mind; (6) the environments which may be made to reveal the story of the nurture and upbuilding of the race throughout the past. It is from these diversified records that the story of the seven grand divisions of the history of man must be drawn. Archeology stands apart from this classification of the science, traversing in its own way the entire field of research. It claims for its own more especially that which is old or ancient in this vast body of data. It is even called upon to pick up the lost lines of the earlier written records as with the shadowy begin- nings of glyphic and phonetic writing and restore them to the historian. It must follow back the obscure trails of tradition and substantiate or discredit the lore of the fathers. It must interpret the pictorial records inscribed by the ancients on rock faces and cavern walls. Archeology is thus the great retriever of history. The services of archeologic science are equally potent in the field of the fortuitous records for it reads that which was never intended to be read. The products of human handicraft, present and past, which have auto- matically recorded the doings of the ages are made to tell the story of the struggles, the defeats, and the triumph of humanity. The fortuitous records embodied in the non-material products of man's activities of today, are made to cast a strong light on the history and significance of the material things of the past. Even the body of knowledge gathered from many sources, stored in the memory of the living, may be made to illumine the past ; and the physical and psychical man are in themselves records and may be made to tell the story of their own becoming and to 306 proceedings: anthropological society explain the activities and the products of activity thruout the ages. All that archeology gathers from this wide field of research is contributed to the volume of written history. It is thus not only the retriever of that which was treasured and lost, but also the savior and conservator of vast resources of history of which no man had previously taken heed. In the great work of assembling the scattered pages and completing the volume of the history of man, archeology may well claim first place among the contributing sciences. This paper was discussed by Messrs Casonowicz, Carroll, Swanton, Stetson, Hewitt, and others. The 467th regular meeting was held on March 18, 1913, at the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair, Dr, John R, Swanton read a paper on The Creek confederacy. After explaining the geographical and linguistic positions of the tribes of the Creek confederacy with the assistance of a map, Dr, Swanton traced the evolution of the confederation from a small nucleus of tribes speaking the Muskogee language to a large association, comprising a number of Hitchiti speaking people, the Alabama, Koasati, some of the Apalachee and Yamasi part of the Natchez, the Yuchi, and, for a time, some of the Shawnee. He showed that this association was facilitated thru the insti- tution of a dual division of towns into white or peace towns and red or war towns, the towns of each division, or "fire," considering each other friends or allies and having opposing but not warlike relations with the towns of the other "fire," It thus happened that when an outside town or tribe came to be accepted as a "friend" of one of the white or red towns in the confederacy its position with reference to all of the other white and red towns was thus established and it entered into the confed- erate scheme. The communication of other common features to the new towns also took place, altho more slowly. Such features were the "green corn dance" or busk, or perhaps rather the Muskogee form of it, participation in common altho irregular councils, and the adoption of Muskogee as the standard language of intercommunication. The actual discontinuance of the proper languages of the various members of the confederacy was, fortunately for the ethnologist, much slower, several of them having persisted down to the present day. Thru the progressive adoption of smaller tribes and the practical destruction of some in war- fare, a process accelerated by white contact, the Creek confederacy came to be almost the sole representative of eastern Muskhogean culture, andjeven influenced the culture of the Chickasaw to a marked degree. The great Choctaw body, on the other hand, maintained its cultural independence and was never dominated by the Creeks, In sharp con- trast to the Creeks, whose national structure was built up by fitting numerous distantly related tribes into an artificial fraternal scheme, the Choctaw seem to have owed their sense of unity to an actual homo- geneity in the Choctaw population, the occupancy of a common area, and the necessity to resist common enemies. They preserved perhaps the simplicity of culture existing among all Muskhogean Indians in proceedings: anthropological society 307 times long anterior to the formation of more complicated associations or confederacies. A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held March 25, 1913 in the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson in the chair. Professor George Graves MacCurdy read a paper on Ancient man, his environment and his art. This paper dealt with the environmental factor in human development. The newly discovered human remains from Piltdown, Sussex, and their significance. Recent finds in the terraces of the Somme Valley. The San Isidro Valley de- posits near Madrid. Torralba, a large camp site in the Province of Soria, Spain, where a rude stone industry associated with an ancient fauna has been found. Caves of the Island of Jersey occupied by Mous- terian man. Typical caves and rock shelters of southern France: La Quina, La Ferrassia, Placard. The art of the cave man in Spain and France: Altamira, Castillo, La Pasiega, Covalanas, Pindal, Font-de- Gaume, Cap Blanc, Niaux, Gargas, Laussel, Alpera, Cogul. Represen- tations of the human form. La Combe, a cave in the Dordogne excava- ted last summer by Professor MacCurdy. Tuc d'Audoubert, a Pyre- nean paleolithic cavern of great beauty discovered last July; its parietal art and unique figures of the Bison modeled in clay. Paleolithic art in its relation to magic ; some of the causes which led to its development and eventually to its decay. The paper is based largely on first hand observations made during the past summer. The lantern slides reproduce faithfully in color the remarkable paleolithic cavern frescoes. The epochs covered by the paper, beginning with the oldest, are: Eolithic or pre-Chellean, Chel- lean, Acheulian, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, and Azilian. These are all pre-Neolithic. A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held April 1, 1913, at the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stet- son, in the chair. Dr. J. H. Gore, who returned recently from a visit to the King of Siam, read a paper on Siamese life and industries illustrated by lantern slides. He described the Siamese basketry, matting, textile fabrics of silk and other material, also the bronze vessels, silver vessels, and ex- cellent hammered silverware, the method of producing the latter being to fill a silver vessel with sand and hammer in the surface from the outside to form the ground, leaving the decorative human figures in series (beside other ornaments) in high relief. Usually the figures rep- resent some mythological story. Dr. Gore's lantern pictures included farm-scenes, illustrations of games, festivities and elephant-capturing and views of the city of Bangkok, the aquatic human life of its rivers and canals, the palacC; imperial crematories, and temples, including a beautiful rock cavern temple. The chief resources of the country are the teak-wood forests and rice culture, most of the ships-decks of the world being supplied from the 308 proceedings: anthropological society former now managed by an expert forester, while the export of rice is great, about seventy rice mills of modern equipment being operated in Bangkok, besides a large amount of similar work which is done by more primitive methods and apphances throughout the country. The soil is exceedingly fertile in the main valley of the kingdom. There are about eighty miles of good roads around Bangkok and the streets of the city are well made, modern street-car lines running on some of them: but the remainder of the country is practically without roads. The late king was notable for many enlightened reforms, such as freeing slaves, relinquishing the royal ownership in the land in the favor of those who had been long in occupancy and use of it, waiving the exemption of the royal lands from taxation and compiling and publish- ing an edition of the Buddhist scriptures, which he supplied to the libraries of the world. The inhabitants of Cambodia are of stock similar to the Siamese, but are regarded by them as inferior. Their language is akin to the Sanscrit. The human images before their temples are not idols, but for ornament. There is a fiame-like upward aspiring tendency in their decorative work. No magical or religious importance is attached to white elephants, so called, which are albinoes, white only in patches; they are regarded as curiosities and as such are given to the king. The 468th regular and 34th annual meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held on April 15th, 1913, at the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair. The minutes of the last preceding annual meeting were read and approved. Obituary notices were presented as follows: Miss Alice Fletcher for Miss Sarah A. Scull; Mr. F. W. Hodge for Mr. W J McGee; Dr. Lamb for Dr. Robert Fletcher. The following officers were elected and installed for the ensuing year : President, Mr. George R. Stetson; Vice-President, Dr. John E. Swanton; Secretary, Dr. Daniel Folkmar; Treasurer, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt; Councillors: Mr. George C. Maynard, Mr. Felix Neumann, Dr. I. M. Casanowicz, Dr. E. L. Morgan and Mr. Francis La Flesche. Invitations to meetings of the National Academy of Sciences and of the German Anthropological Association were presented and accepted with thanks. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill JUNE 4, 1913 No. 11 ASTROPHYSICS.— r/ie variation of the sun. C. G. Abbot, F. E. FowLE, and L. B. Aldrich.^ In the year 1902 preliminary experiments were begun at Wash ington to detennine the solar constant of radiation. About 700 determinations of it have now been obtained, depending on obser- vations at altitudes ranging from sea-level to 4420 meters. As originally devised by Langley we determine spectral energy inten- sities and atmospheric transmission coefficients for numerous wave-lengths between about 0.30/x in the ultra-violet and 2.5fx in the infra-red, by spectrobolometric observations at high and low sun. The indications of the spectrobolometer are reduced to the standard scale of calories per square centimeter per minute by means of the readings of the pyrheliometer. At the time when the observations were begun in 1902 there was no satisfactory establishment of the standard scale of pyr- heliometry, nor indeed any pyrheliometer which was invariable relatively to itself from year to year. We at first made use of a modification of TyndalFs mercury pyrheliometer. This was improved in 1906 as the copper disk pyrheliometer, which has been in use on Mount Wilson ever since, and which is described in volume 2 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. A still later improvement took place in 1910 with the introduction of the so-called "Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer" which has attained considerable favor, and which is now in use in numerous countries. Neither of these instruments is capable of yielding independently ' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 309 . 310 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH! VARIATION OF THE SUN the standard scale of radiation, but they possess the vahiable quahties of simpUcity and of being constant from year to year. Beginning with the year 1903 and extending until the end of the year 1912 we have repeatedly devised and exper'mented with instruments to fix the standard scale of radiation. Three of these instruments (called Water-flow Pyrheliometers Nos. 2 and 3, and Water-stir Pyrheliometer No. 4) have been tested with satis- factory results which are stated in a publication by two of us.^ We are now satisfied that the measurements made since 1903 can be reduced to the standard scale of radiation to within 1 per cent. Measurements of the solar constant of radiation were begun at Washington, practically at sea-level, and were continued when favorable opportunities presented themselves from October, 1902, until May, 1907. Measurements were begun on Mount Wilson in California (elevation 1730 meters) in 1905, and have been con- tinued with the exception of 1907 during about six months in the year in each of the succeeding years. Expeditions to Mount Whitney in California, altitude 4420 meters, were made in 1908, 1909, and 1910. Expeditions to Bassour, Algeria, altitude 1160 meters, were conducted in the autumn of 1911 and the summer of 1912. In all 696 complete determinations of the solar constant of radiation have been made, and still others are unreduced. The differences found between the results at different elevations are very small, and seem attributable rather to experimental error or slight atmospheric irregularities than to any difference of ele- vation. The mean of all these 696 determinations made princi- pally between the years 1905 and 1912 is 1.932 calories per square centimeter per minute. Subject to the possibility that there may exist ultra-violet rays of appreciable intensity beyond the wave-length 0.29^, which are cut off by the absorption of ozone from reaching the earth's surface, we believe that this value represents the intensity of the radiation of the sun as it would be found in space at the earth's mean solar distance for the epoch 1905 to 1912. 2 See "Smithsonian Pyrheliometry Revised;" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections 60: no. 18. 1913. ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICHI VARIATION OF THE SUN 311 In the year 1903 we found indications that the radiation of the sun is not constant from day to day.^ It has been a main object of the work to ascertain if these apparent variations of the sun are really solar, or are due to some accidental or atmos- pheric influences not fully eliminated. As early as the year 1910 it had been shown that practically equal solar-constant values were obtained on good days at sea-level, at 1730 and at 4420 meters elevation, and it had been shown that the apparent fluc- tuations of the solar radiation found on Mount Wilson from day to day marched by regular steps from high to low values and return, not fluctuating wildly as they would have done had they been due to experimental error. Accordingly it seemed from the first consideration (namely that altitude did not appear to affect the results) that the atmosphere was not the cause of the fluctu- ation; and from the second consideration (namely, that the values marched step by step from high to low or vice versa) that it was not an accidental fluctuation. Hence, the most probable con- clusion was either that the radiation of the sun is actually vari- able, or that some meteoric or other matter, by interposition between the earth and the sun, alters the quantity of the radiation received at the earth from day to day. The fluctuations appeared to be of irregular magnitude and period, often ranging through 5 per cent or more, in an interval of seven or ten days. However probable the result just stated might appear, it could not be fully verified without carrying out the observation simul- taneously at two stations widely separated on the earth's surface, so that no local atmospheric influence could be supposed to affect both stations at once. This extension of the work was made possible by the Algerian expeditions of 1911 and 1912. Solar- constant determinations were made nearly simultaneously at Mount Wilson, California, and Bassour, Algeria, separated by about one-third of the circumference of the earth. A difference of time of about eight hours generally occurred between the observations, but inasmuch as the apparent fluctuations of the sun seldom reach 1 per cent in a day, this difference of eight hours seems not much prejudicial to the comparison, 3 See Astrophysical Journal 19: 305. 1903. 312 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN We were somewhat unlucky in oui' expeditions. In 1911 a box containing the bolometer and other necessary parts was delayed one month in reaching Algeria, so that a long period of good weather in August was lost. Also the months of September, October, and November, 1911, proved less favorable than usual at Mount Wilson and less favorable than had been hoped at Bassour. Thus the number of days in 1911 in which good obser- vations were secured in both places was rather small. In the year 1912, although the sky was generally cloudless, the eruption of the volcano of Mount Katmai in Alaska of June 6 and 7 so filled the sky with haze, both at Mount Wilson and at Bassour, that a great many days of July and August were rendered unsuit- able for comparison between the two stations. Thus it occurred that of 75 days in which observations were secured at both sta- tions in the years 1911 and 1912, only 48 were found good enough for satisfactory comparisons of the solar constant values obtained. For the purpose in view namely, to show whether the apparent fluctuation of solar radiation is due to something outside the earth, it is immaterial whether the days of observat'on are con- secutive or not. It is only required to know whether, if high values are found at Bassour, high values will occur on the same day at Mount Wilson, and, if low values are found at Bassour, low values will be found on Mount Wilson. It matters not whether the days in question be found in one year or another, provided that they be numerous enough to exclude the probability that an agreement, if obtained, is owing wholly to chance. The accompanying illustration gives the results of all the days found suitable for comparison between Bassour and Mount Wil- son. Ordinates are solar constant values as obtained at Mount Wilson, abscissae are solar constant values as obtained at Bassour. Circles represent the results of days of the year 1912, and crosses represent the results of days of the year 1911. If the solar radia- tion had varied, and all determinations of it had been free from error, the points must all have lain upon the straight line inclined at 45 degrees to the axis. As it is impossible that results shall be entirely free from error, we must expect that the points repre- senting individual days will be well represented by the 45 degree ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN 313 line if the sun is variable, but will fall uniformily distributed about one point on that line if the sun's radiation is constant. There is no difficulty in deciding that the line and not some single point of the line best represents the results here given. The variation of the sun shown between the extreme obser- vations amounts to 11 per cent, and many observations unite in f T ■ G ©? ''/ ?? '/' - + 1 -r / _l_ 1 o / I / e I80 i > ^ » 4 S < i 1 90 i > ^ (- ( 3 ( 9 2 oo - J * < 5 8 6AS50UR VALUES CALORIES showing a variation of 7 per cent. The average deviation of the separate determinations at Bassour from those of the same days at Mount Wilson is 1.6 per cent. Hence the average deviation of a single day of solar-constant (-1 /^ \ --=-=) 1.1 per cent, and the probable error of a single solar-constant measurement at one 314 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN station will be 0.9 per cent. Had the condition of the sky in 1912 been free from the haze which prevailed owing to the vol- canic eruption of Mount Katmai, we believe the probable error of the separate determinations of 1912 would have scarcely reached 0.5 per cent. It will be seen that the measurements of 1912 are on the aver- age above those of 1911, at both stations. The difference 1912- 1911 is 0.03 calories per square centimeter per minute. This in itself may be regarded as an indication of the variation of the sun depending upon nearly twenty days of observation in 1911 and about thirty days of observation of 1912. In further study of the variation of the sun we have compared the mean solar-constant values obtained on Mount Wilson for the different months of the years 1905 to 1912 with the monthly values of the sun-spot numbers as published by Wolfer. We find a fluctuation of solar radiation in the sense that when the sun- spot numbers are high the solar radiation is high and vice versa. It is also indicated that when the solar radiation is increased the intensity of the violet and ultra-violet rays of the solar spec- trum (as it would be found outside the atmosphere) is increased with respect to the intensity of the red and infra-red. Again it seems to be indicated that when the solar radiation is high the contrast between the brightness of the centers and edge of the solar disk is greater than normal. These and other results of this long investigation are published with details in volume 3 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Obser- vatory of the Smithsonian Institution, now in press and expected to appear about July 1, 1913. The most important conclusions are as follows: 1. The mean value of the solar constant of radiation for the epoch 1905-1912 is 1.932 calories per square centimeter per min- ute. 2. An increase of 0.07 calories per square centimeter per minute in the ''solar constant" accompanies an increase of 100 sun-spot numbers. 3. An irregular variation frequently ranging over 0.07 calories per square centimeter per minute within an interval of ten days kanolt: melting points of refractory oxides 315 is established by numerous nearly simultaneous measurements at Mount Wilson, California, and Bassour, Algeria. 4. Indications of two wholly independent kinds incline us to think that these variations of solar radiation are caused within the sun, and not by interposing meteoric or other matter. PHYSICS. — The melting -points of some refractory oxides. C. W. Kanolt, Bureau of Standards. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. Altho a considerable number of oxides are used as refractory materials, the melting points of but few of them have been deter- mined, and many of the determinations that have been made are quite uncertain. For example, some of the determinations would indicate that lime and magnesia are more fusible than alumina, which can easily be demonstrated to be untrue, for alumina is readily fused in the oxyhydrogen flame, while pure lime and pure magnesia are infusible in it, at least under ordinary conditions. The principal difficulties encountered in the accurate determi- nation of the melting points are the production of very high temperatures uniform thru a sufficient space and controllable; the supporting of the oxide in the furnace without its contamina- tion by the material used as a support; the avoidance of smoke, which would interfere with the measurement of temperature by an optical pyrometer; and, finally, the accurate measurement of temperature. The furnace used was an Arsem graphite resistance furnace, with some minor modifications. This furnace was designed to be used with a vacuum, which prevents the oxidation of the graphite and diminishes the heat losses. It was found impossible, however, to melt lime or magnesia in a vacuum, for they are completely vaporized before the melting point is reached. When these oxides were melted, and also in some other cases, the furnace was filled with a non-oxidizing gas, such as hydrogen, under atmospheric pressure. The temperatures were determined by means of a Morse optical pyrometer of the Holborn-Kurlbaum type, which was sighted ver- 316 kanolt: melting points of refractoey oxides tically downward thru a glass window in the top of the furnace. The carbon-filament pyrometer lamps were calibrated against the following melting points : Material Melting point degrees Antimony 630 Copper-silver eutetic 779 Silver 960.5 Copper 1083 Diopside 1391 These materials were melted in graphite crucibles, the pyrome- ter being sighted into a thin-walled graphite tube inserted in the metal. Heating curves or cooling curves were plotted. As the temperatures to be measured were far above the working limit of the pyrometer lamps, absorption glasses were interposed between the pyrometer and the furnace. The true temperatures were then found from the apparent temperatures measured thru the glasses, by means of the equation: where T^ is the absolute temperature of the furnace, T^ is the apparent temperature observed thru the glasses, and A is a con- stant. The value of A for each glass or combination of glasses used was determined by sighting the pyrometer at a black body held at a constant temperature within the working limit of the pyrometer lamps, and taking readings alternately with and with- out the interposition of the glass. It was found that a small error might be introduced by the lag of the pyrometer lamp when its temperature was thus changed at short intervals. This was avoided by using two pyrometer lamps, each maintained approxi- mately at one of the temperatures to be measured. A correction was applied for the absorption and reflection of the glass window of the furnace. It was found that measurements of the same high temperature made with different pyrometer lamps or different absorption glasses were always in satisfactory agreement. As a check upon the work five determinations of the melting point of platinum kanolt: melting points of kefractory oxides 317 were made. The value of this fixed point accepted by the Bureau of Standards is 1755°. The platinum was melted in magnesium aluminate tubes in an iridium furnace, and both heating and cooling curves were plotted. The weighted mean of the five determinations was 1755°, with an average deviation of 5°. The problem of avoiding smoke when the oxides are not heated in a vacuum has received very little attention in previous work, and is probably responsible for many low results It was found that errors from the presence of smoke could be avoided by introducing into the oxide to be melted a tube of suitable material into which the pyrometer was s'ghted, and keeping this tube clear by a gentle current of gas. The cooling effect of the gas was found to be quite negligible. With this apparatus it is impossi- ble to see the oxide while it is melting, but as all melting points were determined by heating curves, this is not necessary. All determinations were checked by the examination of samples that had been heated to temperatures slightly below that obtained for the melting point, and also of samples heated slightly above the melting point. Magnesia was melted in graphite crucibles, for it forms no carbide at high temperatures. It does react with carbon with the formation of carbon monoxide and magnesium vapor, as shown by Watts; but this introduces no contamination into the mag- nesia. The determinations were made at atmospheric pressure to avoid too rapid vaporization of the magnesia and smoke was avoided by the introduction of a graphite tube thru which gas was blown. Lime forms carbide rapidly in contact with graphite at high temperatures; graphite is therefore out of the question as a cruci- ble material. Lime was successfully melted in tungsten crucibles with an inner tube of tungsten, thru which hydrogen was blown. Three results in excellent agreement were obtained in this way, but the tungsten usually melted as soon as the lime had melted. This was probably the result in part of contamination of the tungsten by carbon, but the tungsten a' so appeared to be con- taminated by contact with the fused lime, perhaps with the for- mation of metallic calcium. This led to the suspicion that the 318 kanolt: melting points of eefractory oxides melting point of the lime might be changed by the presence of the tungsten. To confirm the results another method was used. A tube made of lime was inserted into the furnace, being supported by the upper end, which was at a low temperature, while the lower end extended into the hot part of the furnace. The tube was kept free from smoke by a gentle cm-rent of hydrogen, which passed out thru a small oblique opening at the bottom. The pyrometer was sighted down the tube and a heating curve was plotted. Determinations made in this way were in close agree- ment with those made in tungsten crucibles. It is believed that this method will be very useful with other substances for which it is difficult to find crucible materials. Alumina can be melted in a vacumn high enough to avoid all smoke without vaporizing so rapidly as to cause serious trouble. Determinations were made in this way with both tungsten and graphite crucibles. TVlien the alumina was melted in graphite it did not form appreciable carbide until after it had completely melted and the melting point had been determined; and then the contamination was not rapid. The results with graphite cru- cibles and tungsten crucibles were in agreement. Determinations were also made at atmospheric pressure with the apparatus con- structed for magnesia, the smoke being removed by a current of gas. These results agree with the others. Chromium oxide was melted in tungsten crucibles in a vacuum. When melted in graphite it is rapidly reduced. The results are summarized in the following table: OXIDE MELTING POIJfT CENTIGRADE NUMBER OP DE^TERMlNATIONa AVERAGE DEVIATION MgO degrees 2800 2570 2050 1990 6 5 8 5 degrees 13 CaO 3 AI2O3 4 Cr203 6 white: thermoelectric methods 319 PHYSICS. — New modified thermoelectric methods in calorimetry. Walter P. White. Geophysical Laboratory. Communi- cated by A. L. Day. In the common calorimetric method, the " ^lethod of IMixtiires," the work of the last five years has shown that the error due to heat loss from the caloruneter into the air, once thought to be an unconquerable foe to accuracj', is, in fact, ordinarily quite negligible. With a proper installation, the attainment of very high precision, to 0.1 per mille or better, requires merely sufficient precision in the temperature measurement. Such precision has been attained for ordinary' systems by using electric thermome- ters. It remains to make the operation of these thermometers as simple and as free as possible from experimental precautions and corrections, to facilitate the attainment of unusual precision where this is desirable, and to take advantage of the facilities which the electrical system offers for making various measure- ments such as could not be attempted with the older mercurj- thermometers. For a variety of measurements the thermoelectric thermometer system is especially well adapted, as has already been shown elsewhere. The present paper deals with the securing of certainty and high precision by means of the thermoelement. The essential feature of the methods is to use, around the "cold junction" of the thennoelement, in place of an ice bath, a body at nearly the same temperature as the calorimeter. The smallness of the electrical quantity to be measm-ed then gives to the temperature measurement extraordinary^ precision combined with extraordi- nary ease. These methods, accordingly, while specially advan- tageous for precision in determining very small heat quantities, are in nearly all cases among the best in convenience and cer- tainty. Determinations of great delicacy have already been made on this principle, especially in Nernst's laboratory. In these the other body was a twin calorimeter. If the two calorimeters are ahke, the external temperature and its changes affect both alike, and hence have but a slight effect upon the thermoelement read- 320 white: thermoelectric methods ing which measures the difference in the temperatures of the two. It is thus possible to proceed almost as if the external tempera- ture had no effect at all. This has been claimed as a second great advantage of the twin method. A complete jacket, how- ever, is much more effective in this direction, and, on the other hand, there is a cooling correction error peculiar to the twin naethod. It arises whenever the two calorimeters are not exactly alike, and can easily be shown to be (Ka — Kb) * (^b — ^j) where Ka and Kb are the cooling rates of the two calorimeters, 6^ and dj the temperatures of the comparison calorimeter and of the jacket, respectively. This error is nearly eliminated if three observation periods are run (as in the usual Pfaundler Method with one calorimeter) , but it can be more easily avoided by mak- ing the temperature difference, 0b — Gj, small, say below 0.2? Only two observation periods are then needed. The trouble of the temperature adjustment is largely or wholly avoided by either of two schemes, both of which utilize the low cooling rate of a vacuum-jacketed flask, which is used for the comparison calorimeter. In one scheme, a regulator keeps the jacket temperature constant. The flask is then constant to a very high degree of precision (easily to 0.0001°) without any further attention whatever. This has been called the constant comparison body method. The other scheme avoids the regulator. A specially adjusted (shunted) thermoelement is used in determining the cooling cor- rection. The two unlike calorimeters can then be operated as easily and conveniently as if they were twins, but the tempera- ture adjustment is so much less exacting as to be almost negligi- ble. This has been called the compensated calorimeter method. A combination of the two methods can be made at will, either temporarily or permanently, involves no difficulties, and reduces precautions and corrections to a very low minimum. The gain in simplicity and ease of construction by using vacu- um-jacketed bottles is evident. An effective and particularly simple way of us'ng the bottle is to immerse it wholly in the jacket water, with an inverted cap over it containing air, A tube running down thru the cap allows the thermoelernent to be white: thermoelectric methods 321 inserted or withdrawn at will without escape of air. The jacket water surrounding the thermoelement above the cap insures defi- nite conditions as to temperature. The best of these methods call for a complete inclosure by the jacket, but this is almost indispensable in any calorimetry of precision, and can be easily obtained. For instance, the calo- rimeter chamber may be a cylindrical pot, suspended in a com- mercial paper tub. The cover is a square box, filled with water, and closed, save for two pipes which project downward thru the surface of the water below and so provide for a complete circu- lation. The protection against evaporation of the jacket water which is usually necessary for precision work is very easily secured by a layer of paraffin cast on the surface of the water. This layer can of course be easily sawed or recast. By a suitable and rather evident arrangement of thermoelements, any of these schemes can be operated with the two calorimeters in two sepa- rate jackets. This procedure is necessary in the case of adiabatic methods. A precision of 0.0001° is very easily reached, under fair conditions, with a thermoelement of 24 couples. Elements of 8 couples, ordinarily precise to 0.0003°, are so very compact that the use of anything smaller will rarely be advisable. Work with these methods has emphasized the desirability of providing, not only abundant thennometric sensitiveness, but, especially, a thoro and uniform jacket inclosure, with vigorous stirring thru wide openings. The trouble required for these pre- cautions is slight in itself, and is insignificant compared to that likely to be entailed by trying to dispense with them. The requirements of these methods in the way of auxiliary electrical apparatus (potentiometer, etc.) are unusually simple and inexpensive, but are nevertheless exacting in certain directions. Elaborate apparatus and methods, admirable for other kinds of work, may fail here, tho success is easy by appropriate arrange- ments. A revised account of the essential requirements is in preparation. The great advantage of these methods is in the ease and precision of the temperature measurement. Otherwise, they present disadvantages, which, however, are evidently slight, and far outweighed by the advantages. 322 nutting: absorption of light PHYSICS. — On the absorption of light in heterogeneous media. P. G. Nutting. Eastman Kodak Company. Rochester, N. Y. Photographic density depends upon the size and number of the imbedded silver grains and to a shght extent upon their form and distribution as well. The mathematical problem of relating density to grain is obviously to be treated by probability theory rather than by infinitesimal analysis. The solution here presented will be of interest to students of the theories of radiation and of entropy in discontinuous systems, in that it is a much simpler problem treated by similar probability methods. Suppose snowflakes of a given size to be falling with perfect irregularity upon a surface. When a given number per unit area have fallen, what will be the mean relative areas covered and uncovered? In the plate grain problem as in the snowflake prob- lem, the distribution is completely irregular, but in a volume instead of a plane. The grains are contained in a layer of the order of 10 to 20^ thick and are themselves 0.5 to 3m in diameter, irregular in outline and fairly uniform in area in any one plate. The grains are not crystals, but aggregates of finely divided silver resembling platinum black or soot, of very high absorbing and low reflecting power. This reflecting power has not yet been directly determined, but estimates based on scattering make it well under 2 per cent. In the following discussion both reflec- tion and diffusion are neglected, tho both may be readily entered in the equations. Consider the absorbing body divided into layers about 1 grain thick, parallel with the surface, so that there will be but a negli- gible amount of overlapping of grains in any one layer. That certain grains lie partly in two successive layers is of no conse- quence, since in the equations they are counted but once in the layer in which their greater bulk lies. In the first layer let there be ni, grains per unit area and let ai be their average projected area. Then the probability of a ray of light being stopped by this layer is the ratio of the covered to the total area, or as ni Oi to 1. Similarly the probability of a ray passing the first layer is nutting: absorption of light 323 1 — 7ii Gi. In other words the absorption and transmission coeffi- cients are respectively the probabilities of being stopped and of being passed. In the second layer let the corresponding quantities be nz and a2, in the third n^ and as and so on. For brevity call the product rii «: = Ai, etc. Now the only manner in which a ray may pass thru all layers is to pass each layer separately hence the probabil- ity of passing all layers is the continued product (1 - Ar) {I -A,) .... (1 _ A J ^ T^ (1) of the probabiUties of passing each separate layer. This is the transparency of the whole sheet. The corresponding absorption Bm is the complementary quantity Bra = l -T^ (2) It may be noted that the absorption of the whole is not the product {Ai Ao . . . A^) oi the probabilities of absorp- tion in the various layers since the action is not alike in all layers, a ray may be passed by several layers to be stopped in another. The above product {A1A2. . . A2) is the probability of pos- sible stoppage in all layers, i.e., the probability per unit area of a continuous train of grains lying one behind the other, thru all the successive 7n layers. In fact, if the value of Tn, in (1) be written in (2), multiplied out and grouped according to the num- ber of ^'s multiplied together, then each group gives the proba- bility of 2, 3 . . . m grains overlapping. In the special case of all layers alike in number and size of grain, the transparency of all m layers will be Tn. = (1 - A)- (3) since in (1) Ai = A2, = . . . = Am- This corresponds to Beer^s Law in ordinary optics. Photographic density D has of late years been precisely defined by the relation D ^ - logio T (4) T being the transparency in the sense used above. The value of Tin in either (1) or (3) may be substituted in (4) according to 324 nutting: absorption of light conditions. Equations (1) and (4) give the general relation sought between density and the number, size and distribution of grain. In all ordinary practice the size and distribution of grain thru- out the film is so uniform that (3) gives a very close approxima- tion indeed. In this case. D = - mlog(l - A). (5) If further A is so small that the overlapping of grains is negligi- ble, as is the case with low and medium densities, D=mA=mna (6) The ratio of the mass of reduced silver per unit area to the density (4) is an important quantity, the so-called photographic constant. Now the film is m layers deep, hence m n = N is the whole number of grains per unit area. Mass of silver (M), per unit area is then proportional to N and to the average volume of the grains, M = cNa '/', (7) the constant c involving the specific gravity of the silver and certain numerical factors. The photographic constant (P), defined as mass of silver per unit area per unit density, is then p M cNa'/' ,- .^. P = — = = c\a (8) D Na ^ ^ if the overlapping of grains is negligible, or is p=- , , :^ , (9) Slog(l — na) without assumptions as to overlapping or uniformity of grain thru the film. From these equations it appears thatP, to a first approximation, is independent of N and hence of exposure and development, but that it will vary among different brands of plates in propor- tion to the mean diameter of grain. The first of these conclu- nutting: absorption of light 325 sions is a well known experimental fact. P is of the order of 10 mg. of silver per square decimeter of film, per unit density. The relation between P and size of grain has not yet received experimental confirmation, tho P is known to vary in different kinds of plate. In the following table are numerical values calculated for dif- ferent photographic densities. TABLE r D T \-A A 10.4 5 0 00001 0.316 0.684 6.8 3 0 001 0.501 0.499 5.0 2 0.010 0.631 0.369 3.7 1 0.100 0.794 0.203 2.1 0.7 0.200 0.851 0.149 1.5 0.5 0.316 0.891 0.109 1.1 0.2 0.631 0.955 0.045 0.45 0.1 0.794 0.977 0.023 0.23 T is the fraction of the Ight transmitted by the entire thickness of film, 1 — J. is the corresponding transmission of any single layer 1 grain deep while A is the fraction absorbed, on an aver- age, in any single layer. The final column, 10 A, is what the absorption of a film 10 grains deep (an ordinary film) would be if each grain were fully effective. Thus, for unit density, the transparency is 10 per cent, the absorption of a single layer 20 per cent and there are present 2.1 times as many grains as would completely cover a surface. Taking the particular case of unit density and Ai =20 per cent (0.20) and computing the absorption of the first n layers by the formula 5i....n = 1 - n = 1 - (1-^)", B^ = A = 0.20, 5:,2 = 2A - A.2 = 0.4 - 0.04 = 0.36 that is, in the first two layers 36 per cent is covered and 4 per cent of this covered twice. In the first three layers Bx..z = 3A - 3^2 + ^3 = 0.60 - 0.12 + 0.008 = 0.488 326 AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY the probability of overlapping is 0.12, of triple overlapping of grains is 0.008. Tabulating for ten layers, TABLE II n 7'n fin ABn A^ IjPlO per cent 1 0.794 0.206 0.21 2.06 2 0.633 0.367 16.1 0.04 1.80 3 0.501 0.499 13.2 0.008 0.96 4 0.398 0.602 10.3 0.0016 0.336 5 0.316 0.684 8.2 O.O332 0.080 6 0.251 0.749 6.5 O.O464 0.013 7 0.200 0.800 5.1 0.043 0.0017 8 0.159 0.841 4.1 O.O526 O.O3I2 9 0.126 0.874 3.3 0.0651 0.0^52 10 0.100 0.900 2.6 O.OslO O.OfilO The second and third columns give respectively the transparency and absorption of the first n layers. The fourth column gives the increment of absorption due to the nth layer. The fifth column gives the probability of n grains overlapping in n layers. The last column gives the probability of n grains being in line in all ten layers, it is A- 10! / N! (10-?i)! RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Difference in strength of day and night signals in radiotelegraphy . L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio- telegraphic Laboratory. The first explanation, given of the difference in strength of day and night signals after the discovery of the phenomenon by Mar- coni, was that sunlight, by ionizing the air around the sending antenna, produced energy losses which resulted in a decrease in the strength of the received signals. This idea has long been abandoned as affording a full explanation of the phenomenon. Recent observations between the Arlington station and the sta- tion at the Bureau of Standards, 8 kilometers apart, show that if the effect exists at all it is a matter of not more than 1 or 2 per cent. At a later period it was supposed by many workers in radio- AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN KADIOTELEGRAPHY 327 telegraphy that the increase in strength of signals at night was caused by the decrease in an absorption in the upper conducting layers of the atmosphere after the ionization due to the sunlight and possible cathode rays from the sun had ceased. The data accumulated by the U. S. Navy Department during the last three years appear to make this explanation improbable for the two following reasons: (1) It is known that in certain regions and at certain wave lengths the ground absorption is more than twenty times as great as would be the case if the signals were sent over salt water. The sun's rays can hardly be thought to affect the losses in the earth to any extent, yet on some nights these waves travel across the same region, reaching the receiving station with as great strength as would have been the case if there had been no absorption at all.^ (2) Observations on un- damped oscillations from the arc have shown that at night there is a selective strengthening and weakening of the signals with changing wave length. For example, during the recent tests of the arc at Arlington, it was found that when the night signals at the receiving station were faint at the regular wave length of 4100 meters, changing to 3950 meters would almost invariably bring them in with greatly increased strength and vice versa. This suggests the light and dark interference bands of optics and, as Dr. De Forest has suggested, ^ the phenomenon may be explained by the interference of a set of waves traveling along the earth's surface with another set which has been reflected from the con- ducting layers of the upper atmosphere. Calculations show that the height of the reflecting surface would be from 40 to 60 miles, which are very probable values for the point at which conduc- tivity would begin. This phenomenon has been observed so con- stantly in the work with the arc that there can be absolutely no doubt of its existence. The fact that it has not been observed in the case of spark waves is due partly to the fact that spark apparatus is generally not changed in wave length by such small 1 In many well authenticated cases signals have been received with more than twice the strength which the simple Duddell and Taylor law would have indi- cated. / * Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers 1 : 37. 1913. 328 AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY percentage steps, and partly to the shortness of the wave trains which would not permit the direct and deflected trains to overlap for any considerable difference of path. These facts indicate that the greater strength of night signals is probably due not to a decrease in absorption, but rather to additional energy which reaches the receiving station by reflec- tion. This explanation would involve the idea that at night the vipper atmosphere becomes stratified in such a way that at some given height differing at different times, there is a sufficiently sudden change in conductivity to permit reflection. It is con- ceivable that this stratification is broken up in the day time either by vertical convection currents, or by the more or less irregular ionization produced by the ultra violet rays or cathode particles from the sun.'^ It is certain that the difference between night and day signals is much less at long waves than at short, but the observations on the Clifden signals (X about 7000 meters) at Brant Rock (2460 miles) and at Arlington (2840 miles) do not agree with the obser- vations of Marconi at Glace Bay that the day signals are equal to or better than those at night.* At Brant Rock during the autumn and winter the received current from Clifden thru 25 ohms resistance was in general about 35.10"'' amp. in the day time, rising at times to 55.10"" amp., while at night the current frequently amounted to more than 100. lO"*' amp. In summer the signals were always faint and much of the time inaudible in the day time, varying probably between 7.10"" and 12. 10"'^ amp. Night signals were much louder, no exact measurements being made on them. The observations on Clifden at Arlington agree qualitatively with the Brant Rock results. ^ The difference in summer and winter day signals at great distances perhaps indicates that reflection plays some part even in the day time. * It is conceivable that the directive receiving antenna at Glace Bay may have an influence on the phenomenon. BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON 329 METALLOGRAPHY. — Preliminary note on the critical ranges, A3 and A2, of pure iron. G. K. Burgess and J. J. Crowe, Bureau of Standards. In view of the recent publication by Professor Carpenter of his very interesting results^ on this subject and considering its theoretical importance, we deem it advisable at this time to give a brief account of some preliminary observations taken in 1911 and 1912 on the location of the critical ranges in pure iron both on heating and cooling. We had intended deferring publication until results were ready on a specially pure sample of iron pre- pared here by Mr. J. R. Cain. Since, however, with five samples of iron of the same order of purity as the single one used by Professor Carpenter (99.97 per cent Fe) we are not able to reach the same conclusion he does, namely, ''that were it possible to remove the last traces of impurity, iron would cease to show even these faint indications of Ar2," it may be of interest to put on record now some of the results so far obtained. Cooling and heating curves of five samples of electrolytic iron have been taken in vacuo, three samples being separate preparations in the form of cathode plates from Prof. C. F. Burgess of Wisconsin; and two samples remelted by us in vacuo to remove gases, one pre- pared by the Langheim-Pfanhauser A. G. furnished by Dr. H. Goldschmidt and one a sample of the C. F. Burgess iron. The samples weighed from 21 to 31 grams. Two methods of locating the critical ranges were used simul- taneously, requiring two observers. The first was the Osmond inverse-rate method, times being recorded to 0.1 second on a cylindrical chronograph and temperatures taken in steps of 2°C. by means of a Diesselhorst potentiometer. The second was the Roberts-Austen differential method with a platinum neutral and reduced by Rosenhain's derived differential method. The plotted curves should be strictly similar in shape, and in practice, unless something is the matter, they are similar. Using a specially designed liquid rheostat, it was possible to ^ H. C. H. Carpenter, The critical ranges of pi^re iron. Iron and Steel Insti- tute, May, 1913. 330 BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON !z; o I— I o O o « O !z; o m O > n O p; -H s. ^ c^- t ^ 00 ^ O lO lO ^ t^ t^ t^ 00 lO t- t^ t^ t^ t^ 00 t-- CO C^l (M CO r-l t^ ^ O rt o 1 — 1 T-H Q Gi "^ Oi C5 C-. o o o s ■c^ 1 ■2 S8 1-H *— 1 o ,-H 'S. ^ 05 C-. Ci CT) 05 0 lO u •^ CD CO CO CO CD t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ c^- c^. ■*-« cc IM ^ Oi 02 o o c 1 •^ T3 2 1^ 5 00 Pi ^ ^ 2; ^ m V — ' ^ 0) V <*- 0) 4 p. +3 b 0 1 03 ;- £ .a fr i o p:: b o: a. c ) 1-^ 1 < • ! H ' H < 0 « > « s « H S^ Sp2 S 0 t< ■* CD lO i^ t^ p -< «§> c^- ■»*^ CO c^- g ■¥ 00 ■* Oi »0 lO 00 f- ^ lb CD CO t^ t^ CD p- t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ ^ "3 ^ t^ 00 cq CO (3i O C5 O rH o 00 05 00 Ol 05 Oi S s g ^ Tt< rt< O ^ (M th •tr^ CO C^ (M C^ Ol 05 05 Oi Oi Oi 1^ Oi Oi 00 '^l ^ 7-1 00 00 b- t- b- 00 t^ t^ b- t^ b- t- c^. "^ ^ cj O c- ^ t> .s 73 OJ ■IJ 2 2 a § ^ ^ ^ m '^ v a: ^ ^ a «*- tt) a Pr ■•^ bi 03 1^ £ a (£ ■J o pi a, c 1-^ <( ]] BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON 331 T3 a 0 O O o « o iz; o Ph o U o DQ o h-l EH - » OQ O I— I iJ « Ah DATE NUMBER OF OBSER- VATIONS TjH CO lO 1> t^ 682? 724 720? 756 744 O 1 T}< l^ ■* O ^ 00 00 00 ao C3 O -« 1 SO 00 fo CO ^+1 ■* -* CO CO CO CO O O O C5 o 1 ^ ^ 5^. >* CD (M CO CO .-( o 00 00 00 00 00 l:^ l^ t^ »0 5>- 1 c c CO c a 09 u 3 m d No. 3 remelted in vanno 0. 5 c 03 B -a bl a 3 C a; a; la o o 0 01 p ■ the value of e-' - ^ is computed from the formula by putting — e-' and iV = > - -' m: ^^ n: ikf = y — e-^ and iV = > - e~\ m being an even and n an odd integer. The values of the separate terms in these expressions may be computed by suc- cessive divisions. Then the appropriate summations give M ^N = e-' + \ a known quantity, and M - N = e~'- ^ the quantity to be determined. The equation for M + N, pro- vides a check on the values of M and A^, but the difference which is the quantity sought is not verified by this method until an- other interpolation is made. Glaisher gives 10-place logarithmic values and 9 significant figures of the natural values of both the ascending and descend- ing function for the following ranges of argument: From X = 0.001 to a; = 0.100 at intervals of 0.001 '' X = 0.01 " X = 2.00 " " " 0.01 " X = 0.1 " X = 10.0 " " " 0.1 X = 1 '' a: = 500 " " " unity. Since the natural values were computed from the logarithmic VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 347 values, the maximum tabular error is one unit in the ninth sig- nificant figure with the exception of values of e'"" contained in Newman's tables. The remaining values of Glaisher's tables were checked either by differences or by duplicate computation. Mr. Shanks^ had previously obtained the value of e to 137 places by direct substitution in the series. Glaisher verified this result by means of the continued fraction^ e - 1 11 1 1 2 l+6+10+---4n + 2H He also evaluated e-^" to 32 places of decimals, using the for- mula e-=^+^ (1). The quantity y X 10"" is here an approximate value of e^"". Burgess gives 30-place values of e-* for x = 0.5, 1,2, . . . 10; and 14 values of e"""" at irregular intervals betwe'en the limits 1.0 and 3.0, ranging in extent from 23 to 27 decimals. These values were used in his evaluation of the probability integral, but no information seems to have been given with regard to either method or accuracy of computation. The present table has been computed roughly to 35 decimals or significant figures by means of the derivative formula A ten-groove computing machine of the millionaire type was used in making the computations. In a few instances the eval- uation was carried to 40 or more decimals for the purpose of obtaining a complete check on my own values and the more extended values given by Schulze and Glaisher. In order to obtain a check on the successive computations, the value of the constant factors 6=*="-^ were evaluated from the series with the aid of Glaisher's table of factorials. The value of e is well known and its reciprocal to 44 places of decimals * One year later the value of e was given to 205 places. See Proc. Roy. Soc. 6: 397. 1854. 6 Chrystals Algebra 2 : 495; A. Hall, Math. Monthly. 1861. 348 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables was given by Schulze and repeated by Glaisher. This value I also computed by reciprocation and found the error to be 1 unit in the 44th decimal. Ten interpolations between the limits x = ± 0.1 and X = ±1.0 thus suffice to check the constant factors e'^^-^ and the successive powers e^'^-^, e^^-^, . . . 6=^° -^ Proceed- ing in this way, the functions were first evaluated at intervals of unity by repeated multiplications by the factors e^^ " and with these values as a basis, the values at intervals of 0.1 and 0.5 were obtained by successive multiplications by the factors e^^-^ and e^°^ a check being obtained on the fifth and tenth interpo- lations. Further independent checks were obtained by use of the factors, e^^^.o, g^j-^^j e=^io.o q^}^g maximum difference between any value obtained by use of the factors e^^-^ as compared with the value obtained by use of the factors e^^-^ and e*^° was about 15 units in the 35th decimal or significant figure. Comparisons based on the other factors just mentioned showed differences of the same order of magnitude. Another check consisted in com- puting a few isolated values by means of equation (1). The applications of the exponential function in pure and applied mathematics are so numerous and many of them so well known that it would be useless to attempt a discussion of them in this paper. It appears desirable, however, to call attention to a simple check which this function provides for the evaluation of sin X and cos x. We may evidently write e"" = sin X + cos x -\- 2 Since all of the quantities in the right-hand member of the above equation are known, the value of 6^ is readily obtained by a simple summation. I have applied this check to my values" of sin X and cos x for x = 0.1, 0.2, . . .1.6. No errors were discovered. In the following table the values from x = 0.0 to x = 32.0 have been tabulated to either 20 decimals or 20 (sometimes more) significant figures. The tabular error is always <5 units in the next succeeding tabular value. The more extended values are to 6 This Journal 2 : 299. 1912. [x^ x'' 1 L2: 6: + 2 [3: 7: J VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 349 Table of the Exponential Function X / • 0.0 1 . 00000 00000 00000 00000 1 .00000 00000 00000 00000 .1 1 . 10517 09180 75647 62481 0.90483 74180 35959 57316 .2 1.22140 27581 60169 83392 .81873 07530 77981 85867 .3 1.34985 88075 76003 10398 .74081 82206 81717 86607 .4 1.49182 46976 41270 31782 .67032 00460 35639 30074 0.5 1.64872 12707 00128 14685 0.60653 06597 12633 42360 .6 1.82211 88003 fl0508 97488 .54881 16360 94026 43263 .7 2.01375 27074 70476 52162 , .49658 53037 91409 51470 .8 2.22554 09284 92467 60458 .44932 89641 17221 59143 .9 2.45960 31111 56949 66380 .40656 96597 40599 11188 1.0 2.71828 18284 59045 23536 0.36787 94411 71442 32160 .1 3.00416 60239 46433 11206 .33287 10836 98079 55329 .2 3.32011 69227 36547 48953 .30119 42119 12202 09664 .3 3.66929 66676 19244 22046 .27253 17930 34012 60312 .4 4.05519 99668 44674 58722 .24659 69639 41606 47694 1.5 4.48168 90703 38064 82260 0.22313 01601 48429 82893 .6 4.95303 24243 95114 80365 .20189 65179 94655 40849 .7 5.47394 73917 27199 76079 .18268 35240 52734 65022 .8 6.04964 74644 12946 08373 .16529 88882 21586 53830 .9 6.68589 44422 79269 41607 2.0 7.38905 60989 30650 22723 .1 8.16616 99125 67650 07345 .2 9.02501 34994 34120 92647 .3 9.97418 24548 14720 73996 .4 11.02317 63806 41601 65224 •2.5 12.18249 39607 03473 43807 .6 13.46373 80350 01690 39775 .7 14.87973 17248 72834 11187 .8 16.44464 67710 97049 87150 .9 18.17414 53694 43060 94268 3.0 20.08553 69231 87667 74093 .1 22.19795 12814 41633 40483 .2 24.53253 01971 09348 64356 .3 27.11263 89206 57887 42682 .4 29.96410 00473 97013 34816 3.5 33.11545 19586 92313 75065 .6 36.59823 44436 77987 75259 .7 40.44730 43600 67390 52889 .8 44.70118 44933 00823 03756 .9 i 49.40244 91055 30173 87976 1 4.0 I 54.59815 00331 44239 07811 • .14956 86192 22635 05264 0.13533 52832 36612 69189 . 12245 64282 52981 91022 .11080 31583 62333 88333 .10025 88437 22803 73373 .09071 79532 89412 50338 0.08208 49986 23898 79517 .07427 35782 14333 88043 .06720 55127 39749 76513 .06081 00626 25217 96500 .05502 32200 56407 22903 0.04978 70683 67863 94298 .04504 92023 93557 80607 .04076 22039 78366 21517 .03688 31674 01240 00545 .03337 32699 60326 07948 0.03019 73834 22318 50074 .02732 37224 47292 56080 .02472 35264 70339 39120 .02237 07718 56165 59578 .02024 19114 45804 38847 0.01831 56388 88734 1S029 350 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables Table of the Exponential Function — Continued .6 .7 .8 .9 8.0 X e^ . e-^ 4.0 54.59815 00331 44239 078 0.01831 56388 88734 18029 .1 60.34028 75973 61969 497 .01657 26754 01761 24754 .2 66.68633 10409 25141 645 .01499 55768 20477 70621 .3 73.69979 36995 95796 912 .01356 85590 12200 93176 .4 81.45086 86649 68117 444 .01227 73399 03068 44118 4.5 90.01713 13005 21813 550 0.01110 89965 38242 30650 .6 99.48431 56419 33808 735 . .01005 18357 44633 58164 .7 109.94717 24521 23498 880 .00909 52771 01695 81709 .8 121.51041 75187 34880 757 .00822 97470 49020 02884 .9 134.28977 96849 35484 840 .00744 65830 70924 34052 5.0 148.41315 91025 76603 421 0.00673 79469 99085 46710 .1 164.02190 72999 01743 945 .00609 67465 65515 63611 .2 181.27224 18751 51179 370 .00551 65644 20760 77242 .3 200.33680 99747 91684 835 .00499 15939 06910 21621 .4 221.40641 62041 87087 025 .00451 65809 42612 66798 5.5 244.69193 22642 20387 915 0.00408 67714 38464 06699 .6 270.42640 74261 52628 153 .00369 78637 16482 93082 .7 298.86740 09670 60232 672 .00334 59654 57471 27277 .8 330.29955 99096 48654 120 .00302 75547 45375 81475 .9 365.03746 78653 28777 315 .00273 94448 18768 36923 fi.O 403.42879 34927 35122 608 0.00247 87521 76666 35842 .1 445.85777 00825 16931 792 .00224 28677 19485 80247 .2 492.74904 10932 56254 570 .00202 94306 36295 73436 .3 544.57191 01259 29033 059 .00183 63047 77028 90683 .4 601.84503 78720 82056 609 .00166 15572 73173 93450 6.5 665.14163 30443 61840 694 0.00150 34391 92977 5724i> .6 735.09518 92419 72894 907 .00136 03680 37547 89342 .7 812.40582 51675 43113 472 .00123 09119 02673 48118 .8 897.84729 16504 17697 578 .00111 37751 47844 80308 .9 992.27471 56050 25876 973 .00100 77854 29048 51076 7.0 1096.63315 84284 58599 264 0.00091 18819 65554 51621 .1 1211.96707 44925 76721 198 .00082 51049 23265 90427 .2 1339.43076 43944 17829 687 .00074 65858 08376 67937 .3 1480.29992 75845 45222 837 .00067 55387 75193 84424 .4 1635.98442 99959 26540 066 .00061 12527 61129 57256 1808.04241 1998.19589 2208.34799 2440.60197 2697.28232 44560 63206 904 51041 17959 252 18872.08523 980 76244 99077 249 82685 08M7 211 2980.95798 70417 28274 744 0.00055 30843 70147 83358 .00050 04514 33440 61070 .00045 28271 82886 79706 .00040 97349 78979 78671 .00037 07435 40459 08837 0.00033 54626 27902 51184 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 351 Table of the Exponential Function — Continued X e^ e-^ 8.0 2980.95798 70417 28274 7 0.00033 54626 27902 51184 .1 3294.46807 52S38 41333 1 .00030 35391 3807S 86666 .2 3640.95030 73323 54721 6 .00027 46535 69972 14233 .3 4023.87239 38223 09841 5 .00024 85168 27107 95202 .4 4447.06674 76998 56085 6 .00022 48673 24178 84827 8.5 4914.76884 02991 34375 4 0.00020 34683 69010 64417 .6 5431.65959 13629 80321 6 .00018 41057 93667 57912 .7 6002.91221 72610 21980 1 .00016 65858 10987 63341 .8 6634.24400 62778 85158 5 .00015 07330 75095 47660 .9 7331.97353 91559 92905 2 .00013 63889 26482 01145 9.0 8103.08392 75753 840Q7 7 0.00012 34098 04086 67955 .1 8955.29270 34825 11710 8 .00011 16658 08490 11474 .2 9897.12905 87439 15886 9 .00010 10394 01837 09335 .3 10938.01920 81651 83753 3 .00009 14242 31478 17334 .4 12038.38073 02169 84397 6 .00008 27240 65556 63226 9.5 13359.72682 98618 72275 9 0.00007 48518 29887 70059 .6 14764.78156 55772 72615 6 .00006 77287 36490 85387 .7 16317.60719 80154 32232 8 .00006 12%34 95053 22210 .8 18033.74492 78285 11246 0 .00005 54515 99432 17698 .9 19930.37043 82302 89490 6 .00005 01746 82056 17530 10.0 22026.46579 48067 16517 0 0.00004 53999 29762 48485 .1 24343.00942 44083 88346 0 .00004 10795 55225 30071 .2 26903.18607 42975 00999 0 .00003 71703 18684 12670 .3 29732.61885 28914 13820 8 .00003 36330 95185 71899 A 32859.62567 44433 12762 3 .00003 04324 83008 40364 10.5 36315.50267 42466 37738 9 0.00002 75364 49349 74716 .6 40134.83743 08757 93109 5 .00002 49160 09731 50320 .7 44355.85513 02978 66938 6 .00002 25449 37913 21219 .8 49020.80113 63817 18305 1 .00002 03995 03411 17194 .9 54176.36379 66987 33990 J) .00001 84582 33995 78056 11.0 59874.14171 5197S 18455 3 0.00001 67017 00790 24566 .1 66171.16016 S3766 04182 3 .00001 51123 23819 85503 .2 73130.44183 34154 97311 6 .00001 36741 96065 68095 .3 80821.63754 03135 52465 4 .00001 23729 24261 78823 .4 89321.72336 08055 55699 4 .00001 11954 84842 59094 11.5 98715.77101 07604 9742S 1 0.00001 01300 93598 63071 .6 1 09097.79927 65075 80429 2 .00000 91660 87736 24761 .7 1 20571.71498 64506 07884 3 .00000 82938 19160 75737 .8 1 33252.35294 55309 39735 4 00000 75045 57915 070S6 .9 1 47266.62524 05526 56665 7 .00000 67904 04807 37947 12.0 1 62754.79141 90039 20808 0 0.00000 61442 12353 32821 352 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables Table of the Exponential Function — Continued ,' e' e-^ 12 .0 1 62754.79141 90039 2081 0.00000 61442 12353 32821 .1 1 79871.86225 37510 9920 00000 55595 13241 65014 2 1 98789.15114 29545 3040 .00000 50304 55607 11144 .3 2 19695.98867 21377 3472 .00000 45517 44463 08323 .4 2 42801.61749 83235 4102 .00000 41185 88707 53571 12 .5 2 68337.28652 08744 5696 0.00000 37266 53172 07867 .6 2 96558.56529 82029 2813 .00000 33720 15234 13918 .7 3 27747.90187 38118 2492 .00000 30511 25558 03642 .8 3 62217.44961 12478 8501 .00000 27607 72572 03720 .9 4 00312.19132 98824 5794 .00000 24980 50325 86664 13.0 4 42413.39200 89205 0333 0.00000 22603 29406 98105 .1 4 88942.41461 54600 5914 .00000 20452 30624 52349 2 5 40364.93724 66919 4289 .00000 18506 01197 58191 3 5 97195.61379 28162 5102 .00000 16744 93209 43427 .4 6 60003.22476 61566 2768 .00000 15151 44112 14325 13 .5 7 29416.36984 77013 3186 0.00000 13709 59086 38408 .6 8 06129.75912 39902 1700 .00000 12404 95079 95671 .7 8 90911.16597 91609 4551 .00000 11224 46365 23434 .8 9 84609.11122 90349 8465 .00000 10156 31471 00249 .9 10 88161.35540 26400 4287 .00000 09189 81357 89796 14 .0 12 02604.28416 47767 7775 0.00000 08315 28719 10357 .1 13 29083.28081 20933 7242 .00000 07523 98299 21642 2 14 68864.18965 40950 1126 .00000 06807 98134 39763 .3 16 23345.98500 84583 7318 .00000 06160 11626 13205 .4 17 94074.77260 62144 4606 .00000 05573 90369 26946 14 .5 19 82759.26353 75687 6714 0.00000 05043 47662 56789 .0 21 91287.87560 68098 3073 .00000 04563 52636 79040 . 7 24 21747.63325 24135 5075 .00000 04129 24941 58733 .8 26 76445.05518 90966 6'594 .00000 03736 29937 98853 .9 29 57929.23882 23613 3726 .00000 03380 74348 39047 15 .0 32 69017.37247 21106 3930 0.00000 03059 02320 50183 .1 36 12822.93074 02438 4433 .00000 02767 91865 8540S 2 39 92786.83521 09471 8256 00000 02504 51637 23276 .3 44 12711.89235 04420 6186 .00000 02266 18012 77657 .4 48 76800.85327 22664 0485 .00000 02050 52457 56119 15 .5 53 S9698. 47628 30123 6782 0.00000 01855 39136 26160 .0 59 56538.01318 46158 9453 .00000 01678 82752 99957 . 7 65 82992.58458 37360 0443 .00000 01519 06596 75690 .8 72 75331.95838 95879 2106 .00000 01374 50772 79214 .9 80 40485.29975 85202 6673 .00000 01243 70602 36029 16 .0 88 86110.52050 78726 3676 0.00000 01125 35174 71926 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 353 Table of the Exponential Function — Continued X e^ e-^ 16.0 88 86110.52050 78726 368 0.00000 01125 35174 71926 .1 98 20670.92207 13565 829 .00000 01018 26036 93120 .2 108 53519.89906 44180 455 .00000 00921 36008 34566 .3 119 94994.55120 13332 337 . .00000 00833 68107 89963 .4 132 56519.14046 35683 002 .00000 00754 34583 49844 16.5 146 50719.42895 35169 101 0.00000 00682 56033 76335 .6 161 91549.04176 52861 894 .00000 00017 60013 35580 .7 178 94429.11955 46139 056 .00000 00558 83313 92518 .8 197 76402.65849 77754 614 .00000 00505 65313 48336 .9 218 56305.08232 56648 961 .00000 00457 53387 69446 17.0 241 54952.75357 52982 148 0.00000 00413 99377 18785 .1 266 95351.31074 27049 134 .00000 00374 59705 56295 .2 295 02925.91644 54583 711 .00000 00338 94943 26197 .3 326 05775.72099 58447 955 .00000 00306 69412 94564 .4 360 34955.08814 16391 553 .00000 00277 50832 42241 17.5 398 24784.39757 62250 219 0.00000 00251 09991 55744 .6 440 13193.53483 40439 307 .00000 00227 20459 92774 .7 486 42101.50633 36988 598 .00000 00205 58322 29760 .8 537 57835.97888 36562 281 .00000 00186 01939 26692 .9 594 11596.94254 29315 756 .00000 00168 31730 69674 18.0 656 59969.13733 05111 388 0.00000 00152 29979 74471 .1 725 65488.37232 22497 751 .00000 00137 80655 54895 .2 801 97267.40504 71134 145 .00000 00124 69252 78575 .3 886 31687.64519 41289 611 .00000 00112 82646 49550 .4 979 53163.60543 32304 455 .00000 00102 08960 72360 18.5 1082 54987.75023 07572 487 0.00000 00092 37449 66197 .6 1196 40264.19819 05133 978 .00000 00083 58390 10137 .7 1322 22940.62272 72454 491 .00000 00075 62984 11827 .8 1461 28948.67868 13129 204 .00000 00068 43271 02222 .9 1614 97464.36864 74215 134 .00000 00061 92047 68266 19.0 1784 82300.96318 72608 449 0.00000 00056 02796 43754 .1 1972 53448.41573 97114 127 .00000 00050 69619 86232 .2 2179 98774.67921 04573 696 .00000 00045 87181 74665 .3 2409 25905.95158 92662 027 ,00000 00041 50653 68770 .4 2662 64304.66872 50454 290 .00000 00037 55666 76594 19.5 2942 67566.04150 88065 667 0.00000 00033 98267 81950 ■6 3252 15956 12198 05562 885 .00000 00030 74879 87959 .7 3594 19216.80017 87860 031 .00000 00027 82266 37102 .8 3972 19665.80508 38215 537 , .00000 00025 17498 71944 .9 1 4389 95622.73550 64203 802 .00000 00022 77927 04121 20.0 1 4851 65195.40979 02779 691 0.00000 00020 61153 62244 354 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables Table of the Exponential Function — Continued X 6^= e-* 20.0 4851 65195.40979 02779 7 0.00000 00020 61153 62244 .1 5361 90464.42938 89023 6 .00000 00018 65008 92190 .2 5925 82107.83683 56144 9 .00000 00016 87529 85751 .3 6549 04512.15323 «0392 4 .00000 00015 26940 15913 .4 7237 81420.94827 82113 2 .00000 00013 81632 59108 20.5 7999 02177.47550 54067 0 0.00000 00012 50152 86639 .6 8840 28623.85131 39326 5 ,00000 00011 31185 09177 .7 9770 02725.82690 79801 1 .00000 00010 23538 59776 .8 10797 54999.46453 41371 3 .00000 00009 26136 02206 .9 11933 13824.05498 96018 6 .00000 00008 38002 52695 21.0 13188 15734.48321 46972 1 0.00000 00007 58256 04279 .1 14575 16796.05142 39203 8 .00000 00006 86098 43997 .2 16108 05175.60282 86330 4 .00000 00006 20807 54094 .3 17802 15034.76198 29093 5 .00000 00005 61729 89244 .4 19674 41884.33997 16024 6 .00000 00005 08274 22551 21.5 21743 59553.57648 85454 9 0,00000 00004 59905 53787 .6 24030 38944.05268 31647 5 .00000 00004 16139 73942 .7 26557 68755,97023 86819 9 ,00000 00003 76538 80736 .8 29350 78394.23224 92632 9 ,00000 00003 40706 40224 .9 32437 63283.57765 25326 8 ,00000 00003 08283 90131 22.0 35849 12846.13159 15616 8 0,00000 00002 78946 80929 .1 39619 41421.38043 39369 9 ,00000 00002 52401 51068 .2 43786 22438.02895 04595 5 .00000 00002 28382 33124 .3 48391 26179.74308 56773 5 .00000 00002 06648 87892 .4 53480 61522.75056 74038 5 .00000 00001 86983 63804 22.5 59105 22063,02329 06142 7 0,00000 00001 69189 79226 .6 65321 37094.69782 0S990 2 ,00000 00001 53089 25479 .7 72191 27949.94318 43117 3 .00000 00001 38520 88603 .8 79783 70264.14427 69362 6 .00000 00001 25338 88086 .9 88174 62789.57177 77864 5 .00000 00001 13411 30934 23.0 97448 03446.24890 26000 3 0.00000 00001 02618 79632 .1 1 07696 73371.15763 45779 4 ,00000 00000 92853 32670 .2 1 19023 29806,97713 79397 3 ,00000 00000 84017 16439 .3 1 31541 08760,01606 93214 9 ,00000 00000 76021 87410 .4 1 45375 38454.77387 81110 0 ,00000 00000 68787 43627 23.5 1 60864 64720.62247 86090 6 0,00000 00000 62241 44623 .6 1 77561 89565.52034 81110 5 ,00000 00000 56318 38950 .7 1 96236 24323.65135 78359 1 ,00000 00000 50958 98614 .8 2 16874 58909.74138 08217 4 .00000 00000 46109 59745 .9 2 39683 48874.00676 57400 7 .00000 00000 41721 68910 24.0 2 64891 22129.84347 22941 4 0.00000 00000 37751 34544 VAN or.strand: exponential function tables 355 Table of the Exponential Function — Continued X e^ e-' 24.0 2 64S91 22129.84347 2294 0.00000 00000 37751 34544 .1 2 92750 07423.25706 4644 .00000 00000 34158 82994 .2 3 23538 86830.63240 9461 .00000 00000 30908 18748 .3 3 57565 74811.92562 5176 .00000 00000 27966 88456 .4 3 95171 26612.13642 0480 .00000 00000 25305 48362 24.5 4 36731 79097.64641 4530 0.00000 00000 22897 34846 .6 4 82663 27438.62807 1853 .00000 00000 20718 37766 .7 5 33425 41407.48840 7859 .00000 00000 18746 76335 .8 5 89526 25459.80221 2347 .00000 00000 16962 77294 .9 6 51527 27202.37940 9210 .00000 00000 15348 55167 25.0 7 20048 99337.38587 2524 0.00000 00000 13887 94386 .1 7 95777 20706.64333 6067 .00000 00000 12566 33127 .2 8 79469 82651.72848 9980 .00000 00000 11370 48674 .3 9 71964 47559.19382 9904 .00000 00000 10288 44186 .4 10 74186 87182.68578 4733 .00000 00000 09309 36717 25.5 11 87160 09132.16965 0965 0.00000 00000 08423 46375 .6 13 12014 80802.87690 0607 00000 00000 07621 86519 .7 14 50000 60991.79992 1679 .00000 00000 06896 54882 .8 16 02498 50527.33242 0126 .00000 00000 06240 25543 .9 17 71034 74428.77727 5411 .00000 00000 05646 41661 26.0 19 57296 09428.83876 4270 0.00000 00000 05109 08903 .1 21 63146 72147.05767 2841 .00000 00000 04622 89492 .2 23 90646 84809.99645 0452 .00000 00000 04182 96831 .3 26 42073 37190.92910 8305 .00000 00000 03784 90624 .4 29 19942 65405.62132 1415 .00000 00000 03424 72479 26.5 32 27035 70371 . 15483 0785 0.00000 00000 03098 81914 .6 35 66426 01133.37854 3676 .00000 00000 02803 92751 .7 39 41510 30919.46297 1238 .00000 00000 02537 09853 .8 43 56042 56701.72586 5296 .00000 00000 02295 66168 .9 48 14171 56296.70645 4111 .00000 00000 02077 20059 27.0 53 20482 40601.79861 6684 0.00000 00000.01879 52882 .1 58 80042 42526.42283 5338 .00000 00000 01700 66800 .2 64 98451 88545.30248 8513 .00000 00000 01538 82804 .3 71 81900 03631.65428 0827 .00000 00000 01392 38919 .4 79 37227 05666.34806 3338 .00000 00000 01259 88584 27.5 87 71992 51318.76492 8310 0.00000 00000 01139 99185 .6 96 94551 01915.23018 6295 .00000 00000 01031 50728 .7 107 14135 85016.77547 8991 .00000 00000 00933 34639 .8 118 40951 35391.71069 4413 .00000 00000 00844 52674 .9 130 86275 07869.76518 2279 .00000 00000 00764 15939 28.0 144 62570 64291.47517 3677 0.00000 00000 00691 44001 356 VAN orsteand: exponential function tables Table of the Exponential Function — Continued X e^ e-^ 28.0 144 62570 64291.47517 37 0.00000 00000 00691 44001 .1 159 83612 47516.40054 90 .00000 00000 00625 64079 .2 176 64623 67334.23784 68 .00000 00000 00566 10320 .3 195 22428 36252.86153 64 .00000 00000 00512 23136 .4 215 75620 07648.18119 79 .00000 00000 00463 48610 28.5 238 44747 84797.67787 68 0.00000 00000 00419 37957 .6 263 52521 87043.08195 73 .00000 00000 00379 47032 .7 291 24040 78915.26116 10 .00000 00000 00343 35895 .8 321 87042 89702.04007 26 .00000 00000 00310 68402 .9 355 72183 74864.02890 80 .00000 00000 00281 11853 29.0 393 13342 97144.04207 44 0.00000 00000 00254 36656 .1 434 47963 34436.96185 95 .00000 00000 00230 16039 2 480 17425 53781.40567 44 .00000 00000 00208 25773 .3 530 67462 26525.50089 96 .00000 00000 00188 43939 .4 586.48615 99163.66652 72 .00000 00000 00170 50701 29.5 648 16744 77934.32021 79 0.00000 00000 00154 28112 .6 716 33581 33446.16669 SO .00000 00000 00139 59933 .7 791 67350 84845.35758 17 .00000 00000 00126 31470 .8 874 93453 81880.23393 20 .00000 00000 00114 29427 .9 966 95220 68253.50589 75 .00000 00000 00103 41773 30.0 1068 64745 81524.46214 70 0.00000 00000 00093 57623 .1 1181 03809 24255.46209 01 .00000 00000 00084 67127 .2 1305 24895 28882.52476 97 .00000 00000 00076 61374 .3 1442 52318 35807.87724 47 .00000 00030 00069 3229S .4 1594 23467 11433.85149 18 .00000 00000 00062 72602 30.5 1761 90179 51355.63141 22 0 00000 00000 00056 75685 .6 1947 20262 44891.01937 18 .00000 00000 00051 35572 .7 2151 99171 21859.31322 48 .00000 00000 00046 46858 .8 2378 31865 62477.10567 99 00000 00000 00042 04651 .9 2628 44861 28017.22881 21 .00000 00000 00038 04526 31.0 ^ 2904 88496 65247.42523 11 0.00000 00000 00034 42477 .1 * 3210 39438 53582.96612 05 .00000 00000 00031 14882 .2 3548 03451 02513.33135 61 .00000 00000 00028 18462 .3 3921 18455 70585.46635 66 .00000 00000 00025 50250 .4 4333 57913 68684.45663 27 .00000 00000 00023 07561 31.5 4789 34563 32463.72707 54 0.00000 00000 00020 87968 .6 5293 04551 04764.87666 92 .00000 00000 00018 89271 .7 5849 71996 62294.84813 16 .00000 00000 00017 09484 .8 6464 94038 55632.86150 88 .00000 00000 00015 46805 .9 7144 86410 12173.08287 19 .00000 00000 00013 99607 32.0 7896 29601 82680.69516 10 0.00000 00000 00012 66417 COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES 357 be published elsewhere. Further interpolations are being made for the purpose of obtaining a complete table of this important function. Credit is due Messrs. R. Weinstein and A. G. Seller for the thoro and careful manner in which the computations have been made. PHYSICS. — Summary of tests made on bismuth thermopiles. Wm. W. CoBLENTZ, Bureau of Standards. During the past year various tests have been made in con- nection with the improvement of the radiation sensitivity of thermopiles made of bismuth and some other metal, e.g., silver, iron, etc. The results of these tests are now published with the hope that they may be useful to others. The term radiation sensitivity is to be emphasized for the thermo junction giving the highest thermal sensitivity (emf.) ; it is not necessarily the one having the highest radiation sensitivity. With reference to the radiation sensitivity, Johansen^ has shown theoretically: (1) that the radii of the two wires of the element should be so chosen that the ratio between the heat conductivity and the electrical resistance is the same in both; (2) that the heat loss by conduction thru the wires should equal the heat loss by radiation from the junction; and (3) that the radiation sensitivity is proportional to the square root of the exposed surface. Johansen's practice, however, was poor, in that he joined the ''cold," unexposed, junctions directly to the metal posts supporting the instrument and unfortunately some manufac- turers of thermopiles are now following his example. In the construction of thermopiles the most important desid- eratum is symmetry of the "hot" and the "cold" junctions, just as is true of bolometers. The unexposed junctions must be cov- ered with receivers having the same size and emissivity as the exposed junctions. Furthermore all the junctions must be free from the supports so that they may quickly take the temperature of the surrounding air which becomes heated by the incident ijohansen Ann. der Phys. (4) 33: 517. 1910. 358 COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES radiations. If the unexposed junctions are joined directly to the metal pins used in supporting the elements, the galvanometer mirror will ''drift/' so that it is practically impossible to use such an " unsymmetrical" thermopile with a sensitive galvanometer. The novelty in the thermopiles as constructed at the Bureau of Standards is the receiver, which, like a bolometer, can be made entirely opaque and can be built up so as to present a large sur- face.^ The square root law, cannot of course hold for a very large receiver attached to a thermo junction. With bismuth wire 0.1 mm. diameter it was found that the optimum length of receiver was 2.5 to 3 mm. which, however, is sufficiently long (loc. cit) to enable the construction of a large receiver by using many junctions. The importance of submitting the theoretical conclusions to experiment is further illustrated in connection with the square root law. For example: Four receivers each having exposed areas of 1 X 1 mm! are twice as sensitive as a single receiver 1x4 i^j^\ Experimentally however, with bis- muth wire, 0.1 mm. diameter, there is but little gain in sensi- tivity by placing more than two junctions per millimeter length of the composite receiver. In order to keep the resistance low, it was shown (loc. cit.) that the best diameter of bismuth wire is 0.1 mm. The proper diam- eter of silver or copper wire is 0.036 to 0.038 mm. In spite of theory which would have required a wire having a larger diameter, it was found that an iron wire, 0.036 mm. in diameter, joined to bismuth (in these tests the receivers are the same size, loc. cit. figure 2, and they are exposed alternately, or simultaneously for the differential deflection) was about 9 per cent more sensitive radiometrically than a similar sample 0.0418 mm. in diameter. In order to still further reduce the resistance, two junctions are joined in parallel, by joining them to a single receiver. These pairs of junctions are then joined in series. It is found that the thermal emf . of various samples of bismuth varies from 75 to 82 mv. per degree with but little variation in 2 Bull. Bur. Standards 9: 7. 1912. In further references this' will be cited "loc. cit." COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES 359 V resistance. It is therefore necessary to test the material to be used. In the following tests one end of the bismuth wire was joined to silver (0.36 mm.) and the other to iron, and both were covered with receivers of the same area. A sample of steel wire (0.036 mm. diameter) having an emf. of 9 mv. when joined with bismuth has a radiation sensitivity about 23 per cent higher than the other junction of bismuth sil- ver. A sample of iron wire (0.36 mm. joined to bismuth) hav- ing an emf. of 13.5 mv. was 28 per cent more sensitive than the junction of bismuth and silver. The increase in sensitivity of iron over steel was not so marked as was anticipated. Since, however, it is difficult to place more than two junctions per millimeter length of receiver, it will be a decided advantage to use junctions of bismuth iron, when the instrument is in a vacuum to avoid rusting. The resistance is kept low by joining two junctions in parallel to the same receiver. For work in air exposed to sulphur fumes, a thermopile of bis- muth-copper (or pure gold) will probably outlast iron or silver. In all cases, however, the wires are given a thin coat of shellac. The bismuth wire cannot be rolled, but it can be easily flat- tened by pressing the wire (cut to the proper length for the thermopile) between plate glass. The samples tested were of 0.1 mm. diameter and were pressed to a width of 0.25 to 0.3 mm. and a thickness of 0.04 mm. If pressed thinner the breakage is increased. To test the radiation sensitivity a flat bismuth wire 3 mm. long was welded to a similar piece of the round wire. The free ends were joined to silver wires (0.036 mm.) and to these junctions were attached receivers 1.5 x 1 mm. which were painted with lamp black and smoked. When exposed to radiation (either alternately or simultaneously) it was found that the flat wire had a radiation sensitivity about 9 per cent higher than the round wire. It is convenient to handle the flattened wire and therefore desirable to construct the thermopile of flattened wire which reduces the heat conduction. 360 COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES Reduction of the gas pressure to 0.1 mm. pressure eliminates air currents and doubles the sensitivity. Owing to the high sensitivity of this device, it would seem de- sirable to attach it to a recording device and test its usefulness for measuring solar radiation at the earth's surface and at the highest altitudes attainable with a balloon. Its application to the radiomicrometer (loc. cit) is also important. In this connec- tion it would seem desirable to construct the device in accordance with the resistance requirements for critical damping in moving coil galvanometers rather than adhering to the older theory worked out by Boys which requires but a single turn of wire and a single thermoelement. The application of such instruments to the measurement of radiation from stars, fireflies, etc., seems futile, unless absorption screens are used to determine the quantit^y of radiation in differ- ent parts of the spectrum. Otherwise the measurement is but little more than a test of the sensitivity of radiometer. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. METEOROLOGY. — Atmospheric humidity as related to haze, fog, and visibility at Blue Hill. A. H. Palmer. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory 5: 231-246. 1913. This is a detailed account of the conditions under which haze, fog, and different degrees of visibility occurred during a period of ten years at Blue Hill, Mass., and is of special value to any one who wishes to know the minutia of the local climate. W. J. Humphreys. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— £'fedro^//s?:.s in plain and reinforced con- crete. E. B. Rosa, Burton McCollum and O. S. Peters. Tech- nologic Paper No. 18, Bureau of Standards. This paper treats of the problems arising out of the passage of stray electric currents thru reinforced and non-reinforced concrete. The first part of the paper describes and gives the results of a large number of laboratory experiments. These experiments show that if iron is made anode in moist concrete at a temperature of 45°C., or more, rapid cor- rosion of the iron occurs. This is followed by cracking of the concrete which is due to the pressure developed by the formation of the rust on the surface of the iron. Below 45''C. there is almost no corrosion of the anode. With continued application of the current there is an enormous rise in the resistance of the specimen which greatly reduces the flow of current and thus tends to protect the iron. The addition of salt to the concrete completely destroys the passivity of the iron at all temperatures. When the iron is made cathode the sodium and potassium in the cement are concentrated ^bout the iron by the cur- rent, resulting in disintegration of the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the iron and destruction of the bond. The strength of non-reinforced 361 362 abstracts: geology concrete is not affected by the passage of the current. Parts two and three of the paper consist of a discussion of the possibilities of trouble from stray currents occurring in practice, and precautions which should be taken to prevent damage where it is Hkely to occur. B. McC. GEOLOGY. — Coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk Mountains, Colorado. Willis T. Lee. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 510. Pp. 237 with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1912. The coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk Mountains lie in central western Colorado. Grand Mesa is a large lava-covered table- land rising about 10,000 feet above sea-level and 5000 feet above the surrounding country. The coal beds underlie the mesa and outcrop in its sides. The West Elk Mountains consist principally of igneous rock both intrusive and extrusive. The most conspicuous peaks are formed by the laccoliths exposed by erosion of the sedimentary rocks that once covered them. The sedimentary rocks described are principally of Cretaceous and Tertiary age. The Dakota sandstone rests unconformably on the Gun- nison formation which contains fossils that correlate it with the Mor- rison, and is overlain by the Mancos shale which is about 3000 feet thick and which is of Colorado age below and Montana above. This is followed by the Mesaverde formation nearly 3000 feet thick which is divisible into a basal sandstone (Rollins); a coal-bearing member of marine and brackish water origin (Bowie) ; a coal-bearing member of fresh-water origin (Paonia) ; and a thick series of undifferentiated rocks. The non-marine beds contain fossil plants that seem to show that they are younger than Mesaverde. The Paonia shale is separated from the Bowie by an unconformity. (In the official publication these shales are given the rank of members of a formation. The writer personally dissents from a decision whereby rocks both above and below an unconformity are placed in a single formation and believes that the Rollins, the Bowie, and the Paonia, which ought properly to include the undifferentiated beds overlying it, should be raised to the rank of formations.) The Tertiary beds lie unconformably upon the Mesaverde and con- sist of the Ohio Creek conglomerate, the Wasatch, and the Green River formations. The Wasatch of the eastern part of the area described was formerly known as the Ruby formation, but this name has been aban- doned inasmuch as the Ruby seems to be a part of the Wasatch. Coal beds of little economic value occur at the base of the Mancos shale. High grade, bituminous coal is found in the Bowie shale, and a abstracts: geology 363 lower grade, varying from subbituminous to bituminous coal, in the Paonia shale. In the West Elk Mountains the coals of both members have been changed to anthracite, presumably by the rock movements and the heat attending the intrusion of great masses of igneous rock. Some of the laccoliths were intruded below the coal beds, others within the coal-bearing rocks, and still others above them However, it is a fact worthy of careful consideration in connection with the metamor- phism of coal, that some of the unmetamorphosed coals lie close to the igneous rock and that much of the anthracite lies at considerable dis- tances from any of the known intrusive masses. W. T. Lee. GEOLOGY.^ — Geology and ore deposits of the Butte district, Montana. Walter Harvey Weed. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 74. Pp. 262, maps, and sections. 1912. A central mass of granitic rock is exposed in the Butte region for about 64 miles in length and 12 to 16 miles in width and is surrounded by upturned and folded sedimentary rocks whose edges are abruptly cut off by the granite. Remnants of a former capping of dark-colored, baked andesites occur as patches over the northern part of the granite region, and extensive areas of these same rocks form mountain masses flanking the granite on the east, north, and west, concealing the sedimentary contact in these areas. These andesitic rocks are partly intrusive but are mainly extrusive lavas or volcanic debris. The granite itself con- tains numerous patches and dikes of white aplite, in places tourmaline- bearing, that are regarded as a later siliceous phase of the granite itself. All these earher rocks, including the sedimentary limestones, etc., are cut by rhyolitic dikes and capped by extensive accumulations of frag- mental rhyolitic rocks and lava flows. Mineral vein formation preceded this later volcanic period and is still in progress in some parts of the district. Over the northeastern part of the granite region quartz veins, usually barren, are extremely common and of unusual size, forming the crests of long, high ridges and dominating the local topography. The deeper older valleys of the district are filled by alluvial and lake beds largely composed of rhyolitic volcano dust and material washed down the slopes when the rhyolitic eruptions occurred. The metalliferous ores of the Butte district are of two distinct classes, copper and siliceous silver. The copper ores contain a little silver; the silver ores rarely contain copper; both copper and silver ores contain little gold and the high-grade silver ores contain it in important amounts. The typical ores of the two classes are distinctive and are characterized 364 abstracts: geology b}'^ well-marked mineral association, but other ores occur which are not typical but are a mixture of both kinds. The wall rocks of the veins contain copper. Chemical analyses of fresh unaltered material show that the Butte quartz monzonite holds copper, though in less amount than the altered rock. The question as to the source of the copper in the lodes is complex, as the amount of copper present in the altered rocks is in excess of that in the fresh rock and there is no body of leached rock from which this excess of copper could have come. The evidence seems to indicate that the alteration of the rock and its impregnation with copper are due to a common cause, and that copper has been added to the rock, together with silica and iron, the two other constituents which are so abundant in the altered granite. Tho the evidence is not conclusive, it is believed to indicate that the copper and other metals of the quartz-pyrite veins are derived from magmatic emanations coming from a deep-seated mass of igneous magma. The rhyolite porphyry intrusion appears the most probable. A second and later mineralization occurred at the time of the rhyolitic eruption, forming the silver veins and the ores of the Blue vein and other fault vein series. The sequence of the vein systems is considered to be as follows: (1) East-west or Anaconda system (oldest); (2) Silverbow system; (3) Blue Vein system; (4) silver veins; (5) Steward system; (6) Mountain View fractures; (7) Rarus fault zone. The enargite veins are of different ages, but are all younger than the Anaconda system. The veins of the Anaconda and Silverbow systems are quartz-pyrite veins; those of the Blue and Steward systems are mineralized fault veins. Many of the most productive lodes of the district are compound or composite veins, due to a combination or superposition of the two types in one vein — that is, a reopening of an old vein with deposition of new material. As many of the older veins have been reopened in this way they have the characters of both the quartz-pyrite and fault veins. The four systems embrace practically all the productive veins of the dis- trict. It is not certain, however, that all the veins having a similar direction are of the same age. It is known that the district has been an area of movement and fracture ever since the time of the granite intrusion, and has continued so to the present day. The early fractures, tho cemented by mineral matter, have been lines of weakness and have been reopened either by direct fracture or during the straining of the rock mass by the faulting of blocks by other crossing fractures. W. H. W. I. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill JULY 19, 1913 No. 13 GEOPHYSICS. — Volcanic dust as a factor in the production of climatic changes.^ W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. To be published as a Bulletin of the Weather Bureau. Geological investigations have given us a great deal of informa- tion in regard to the cUmates of the past, and the following tentative conclusions appear to be well established: (a) The cli- matic changes were several, probably many. (6) They were simultaneous over the entire earth, and in the same sense. That is, colder everywhere at the same time (climatically speaking) or warmer everywhere, (c) They were of unequal intensity. (d) They probably were of irregular occurrence, and of unequal duration, (e) They, at least one or more, progressed with sec- ondary variations of intensity, or with advances and retreats of the glacial edge. (/) They have occurred from very early, prob- ably from the earliest, geological ages down to the present, and presumably will continue irregularly to recur for many ages yet to come. Many efforts have been made to find a probable and at the same time an adequate physical basis for, or cause of the climatic changes that are known to have occurred; but, one after another, nearly all have been definitely and finally abandoned, either because of inconsistency with known physical laws or because they proved inadequate to meet the conditions imposed by geo- logical investigations. 1 Presented in substance before the Astronom'cal and Astrophysical Society of America, at Cleveland, O., January 1, 1913. 365 366 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES Doubtless there have been several contributing causes of cli- matic change, but it is the specific purpose of this paper to dis- cuss only one of these, — a cause that during historic times has often been fitfully operative, and concerning which we have much definite information. The cause or factor in question is the presence of volcanic dust in the upper atmosphere. Volcanic dust has often been mentioned as a possible cause of cold seasons. Thus in May, 1784, Benjamin Franklin (and he may not have been the first) wrote as follows: During several of the summer months of the year 1783, when the effects of the sun's rays to heat the earth in these northern regions should have been the greatest, there existed a constant fog over all Europe, and great part of North America. This fog was of a perma- nent nature; it was dry, and the rays of the sun seemed to have little effect towards dissipating it, as they easily do a moist fog, arising from water. They were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it, that, when collected in the focus of a burnhig-glass, they would scarcely kindle brown paper. Of course their summer effect in heating the earth was exceedingly diminished. Hence the surface was early frozen. Hence the first snows remained on it unmelted, and received con- tinual additions. Hence perhaps the winter of 1783^ was more severe than any that happened for many years. The cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained. Whether it was adventitious to this earth, and merely a smoke proceeding from the consumption by fire of some of those great burning balls or globes which we happen to meet with in our course round the sun, and which are sometimes seen to kindle and be destroyed in passing our atmos- phere and whose smoke might be attracted and retained by our earth; or whether it was the vast quantity of smoke, long continuing to issue during the summer from Hecla, in Iceland, and that other volcano which arose out of the sea near that island, which smoke might be spread by various winds over the northern part of the world is yet uncertain. It seems, however, worth the inquiry, whether other hard winters, recorded in history, were preceded by similar permanent and widely extended summer fogs. Because, if found to be so, men might from such fogs conjecture the probability of a succeeding hard winter, and of the damage to be expected by the breaking up of frozen rivers in the Spring; and take such measures as are possible and practicable, to secure themselves and effects from the mischiefs that attend the last.- 2 See Sparks, "Life of Benjamin Franklin," 6: 455-457. (Cited in Proceedings of the Amer. Phil. Soc, 45: 127. 1906.) HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 367 The idea then that volcanic dust may be an important factor in the production of climatic changes is not new, but hitherto the idea has not been supported either by a clear explanation of the process by which such dust can lo-v/er average tempera- tures or by a discussion of all the available observational data. In fact the rational or theoretical discussion has not long been possible since, in almost every particular, it depends upon the results of recent investigations. We shall now briefly consider, under separate heads, the sev- eral points essential to an understanding of how volcanic dust may influence, and of the extent to which it actually has influenced, our average temperatures — by what process it may modify and to what extent it actually has modified our climates. Atmospheric regions. At an elevation that in middle latitudes averages about 11 kilometers the temperature of the atmosphere becomes substantially constant, or, in general, ceases appreciably to decrease with increase of elevation, this is, therefore, the upper limit of distinct vertical convection and of cloud formation. Hence, while volcanic or other dust in the lower or cloud region of the atmosphere is quickly washed out by snow or rain, that which by any process happens to get into the upper or isother- mal region must continue to drift there until gravity can bring it down to the level of passing storms. In other words, while the lower atmosphere is quickly cleared of any given supply of dust, the isothermal region retains such dust as it may have for a time that depends upon the size and density of the indi- vidual dust particles themselves, or upon the rate of fall. Size of volcanic dust particles. From the angular dimensions of a reddish brown corona, known as Bishop's ring, seen around the sun after the eruptions of Krakatoa, Pele and certain other volcanoes, it has been calculated, by the aid of the laws of dif- fraction, that the average diameter of the particles to which this ring was due, assuming them spherical, was about 1.85 microns. Hence, with this information, it becomes possible to calculate the time of fall of volcanic dust. Tiine of fall. By using the excellent measurements recently made by McKeehan^ on the terminal velocity of falling globules, ■^ Phys. Rev., 33: 153. 1911. 368 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES it is easy to show that spherical particles of volcanic dust of the size above determined would require more than a year to fall from only the maximum height already reached by sounding balloons down to the upper cloud limit. But as most volcanic dust does not consist of solid spheres, but rather of flakes and rods, and again, as much of it is finer than the size assumed, it follows that the time of fall may, in rare cases, be as much as two to four years, or possibly even longer. Obviously then vol- canic dust once in the upper atmosphere must remain in it for many months and be drifted out, from whatever origin, into a thin veil covering perhaps the entire earth. Hence to find its effect on the temperature of the lower atmosphere it is necessary to determine its action on radiation, both terrestrial and solar. Comparative action of volcanic dust on terrestrial and on solar radiations. Since those vqlcanic dust particles that remain long suspended in the atmosphere are large in comparison to the cube of the wave-length of solar radiation, at the region of maximum intensity, and small in comparison to the cube of the wave- length of terrestrial radiation, also at the region of maximum intensity, it is easy, by the use of equations developed by Ray- leigh,^ to compare the action of the dust on the two kinds of radiation. This calculation shows that volcanic dust particles, of the size indicated by Bishop's ring, is roughly 30 fold more effective in shutting solar radiation out than it is in holding terrestrial radia- tion in. Therefore a veil of volcanic dust must produce an inverse green-house effect, and, if long continued, should per- ceptibly lower our average temperature. Let us see then what observational evidence we have on the effect of volcanic dust on insolation intensity and average temperatures. Pyrheliometric records. This subject has been carefully studied by Dr. Kimball^ of the U. S. Weather Bureau, who finds that there was a marked decrease in the insolation intensity from the latter part of 1883 (the year this kind of observation was begun) to and including 1886, from 1888 to 1892, and during 1903. There has also been a similar decrease since about the Phil. Mag., 47:375. 1899. * Bull. Mt. Weather Obsy., 3: 69. 1910. HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 369 Discrepancies Between Average Temperatures and Sun-Spot Numbers NATURE or DISCREPANCY 1755-56 1766-67 1778-89 1784-85-86 1799 1809 1812-13-14-15-16 1831-32 1856-57 1872-73 1875-76 1884-85-86 1890-91-92 1902-03-04 1912-13 Cold Cold Warm Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold Cold PROBABLE CAUSE Kotlugia, Iceland, 1755. Hecla, Iceland, 1766. Mayon, Luzon, 1766. Maximum number (annual) of sun-spots ever e- corded and unusually short spot period. Can it be that the solar constant actually was dis- tinctly greater than usual at th's time? AsAMA,! Japan, 1783. The most frightful erup- tion on record. Skaptar JokuU, Iceland, 1783. Vesuvius, Italy, 1785. Fuego (?), Guatemala. (Uncertain.) St. George (?), Azores, 1808. (Uncertain.) Etna(?), Sicily, 1809. (Uncertain.) Soufriere, St. Vincent, 1812. Mayon, Luzon, 1814. Tomboro, Sumbawa, 1815, very great. Graham's Island, 1831. Babujan Islands, 1831. Pichincha, Ecuador, 1831. Cotopaxi (?), and others, 1855-56. (Uncertain.) Vesuvius, Italy, 1872. Merapi, Java, 1872. Vatna JokuU, Iceland, 1875. Krakatoa, Straits of Sunda, 1883, greatest since 1783. Saint Augustin, Alaska, 1883. Tarawera, New Zealand, 1886. Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands, 1890. Awoe, Great Sangir, 1892. Pele, Martinique, 1902. Santa Maria, Guatemala, 1902. Colima, Mexico, 1903. Katmai, Alaska, 1912. Capitals indicate exceptional violence. 370 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES middle of 1912. Now all these decreases of insolation intensity, amounting at times to 20 per cent of the average intensity, fol- lowed violent volcanic eruptions that filled the isothermal region with a great quantity of dust. Surface temperatures. It has been known for a long time that the number of sun-spots and the average temperature of the earth are roughly related in the sense that the greater the num- ber of spots the lower the temperature, and the smaller the number of spots the higher the temperature. But this relation has many marked exceptions, every one of which, or at any rate all the more important ones, occurred immediately after violent volcanic explosions and presumably therefore were caused by volcanic dust. The list on l^age 369 gives the more important of these dis- crepancies, since the beginning of sun-spot records to the present, and their probable causes. From the above it appears quite certain that volcanic dust can lower the average temperature of the earth by an amount that depends upon the quantity and duration of the dust, and that it repeatedly has lowered it certainly from 1°F. to 2°F. for periods of from a few months to fully three years. Hence it certainly has been a factor, in determining our past climates, and presumably may often be a factor in the production of our future climates. Nor does it require any great volume of dust to produce a marked effect. Thus it can be shown by a simple calculation that less than the one thousandth part of a cubic mile of rock spread uniformly thru the upper atmosphere as volcanic dust would everywhere decrease the average intensity of insolation received at the surface of the earth by at least 20 per cent and therefore would, presumably, if long continued, decrease our average temperatures by several degrees. CONCLUSION It has been shown in the above, among other things, that volcanic dust in the high atmosphere decreases the intensity of solar radiation in the lower atmosphere, and therefore the aver- age temperature of the earth, substantially as theory indicates BURGESS AND WALTENBERG: MELTING POINTS 371 « a priori that it should; and this effect has been clearly traced back to 1750, or to the time of the earliest reliable records. Hence it is safe to say that such a relation between volcanic dust in the upper atmosphere and average temperatures of the lower atmosphere has always obtained, and therefore that vol- canic dust must have been a factor, possibly a very important one, in the production of many, perhaps all, past climatic changes, and that thru it, at least in part, the world is yet to know many another climatic change in an irregular but well-nigh endless series — usually slight tho always important, but occasionally it may be, as in the past, both profound and disastrous. PHYSICS. — Melting points of the refractory elements. I. Ele- 7nents of atomic weight from 4-8 to 59. G. K. Burgess and R. G. Waltenberg, Bureau of Standards. To appear in The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. The elements included in this list are the iron group: nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese and chromium, and also vanadium and titanium. In subsequent papers results will be given on other refractory elements now being studied, and it is hoped eventually to include all the available refractory elements in this series of melting point determinations. The method mainly used is that of the micropyrometeri which, with substances that melt sharply as nickel, cobalt and iron, permits working to a precision of 1 or 2 degrees with a few thousandths of a milligram of the material. An estimation of the melting points of the iron group elements^ was made some years ago by a similar but less sensitive method at a time when none of these melting points was well known. The object of these earlier measurements was primarily to demon- strate the convenience and reliability of the method especially for those elements which can be obtained pure only in minute quan- tities. It is believed that the present series of determinations, with the improved apparatus, will contribute to a more exact 1 A micropyrometer, by G. K. Burgess, Jl. Washington Academy of Sciences, 3:7. 1913. Phys. Zs., 14: 158. 1913. Bull. Bureau of Standards, 9: 475. 1913. 2 Melting points of the iron group elements by a new radiation method, by G. K. Burgess. Bull. Bureau of Standards, 3: 345. 1907. ^ 372 BURGESS AND waltenberg: melting points knowledge of these melting points. The melts were made for the most part in pure hydrogen, and except for titanium, were taken on platinum strips 6 to 8 cm. long, 4 mm. wide, and 0.01 or 0.02 mm. thick. Manganese was also melted on nickel strips and titanium was melted on iridium strips. Calibration with nickel and palladium. For melts on platinum the pyrometer was calibrated in terms of the melting points of nickel and palladium. The melting of these metals is extremely sharp on platinum and they appear to show no alloying until they melt. It is assumed that they melt on platinum at the same temperatures as in crucibles; this we have found to be the case for nickel, palladium, platinum, and iron. Numerous observa- tions were made with various metals upon the possible effects on the melting point determinations of alloying with the platinum strip. We are convinced, that except possibly in some cases which we shall not consider here in which there may be a chemical reaction among the materials in the furnace, as for example when silicon, platinum and hydrogen are together, there is no signifi- cant alloying effect with the apparatus and materials as we use them. The melting points of both nickel and palladium may be con- sidered as well established by several series of measurements.^ We have made an independent optical determination of the nickel melting point in hydrogen with an Arsem furnace.* The nickel was melted in a magnesia crucible contained within an out-glazed, closed-end porcelain or kaolin tube. Temperatures were meas- ured with a Holborn-Kurlbaum form of Morse pyrometer which had been calibrated by Dr. Kanolt at the melting points of anti- mony (630°), AgaCuo (779°), silver (960?5), copper (1083°), and diopside (1391°). Five observations by Dr. Kanolt on the melt- ing point of platinum with this pyrometer gave 1755° =t 5 in an iridium furnace, or in exact agreement with the generally accepted value. ^ For nickel, four observations gave us 1449°, 1450°, 1449°, 1449° ' See Day and Sosman, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 157, 1911. Waidner and Burgess, Bull. Bureau of Standards, 3: 163. 1907. « Jl. Am. Chem. Soc, 28: 921. 1906. BURGESS AND WALTENBERG: MELTING POINTS 373 in the Arsem furnace, by the method of optical heating and cool- ing curves,^ values which are close to Day and Sosman's value, 1452°. Four observations of the melting point of nickel on iridium with the micropyrometer gave us 1452°. With the long filament pyrometer lamps used, the equation® log c = a + 6 log r (in which c = current and T = absolute temper- ature and h is very nearly unity) is sufficient for very considerable temperature ranges, and permits a calibration in terms of two temperatures only, i.e., nickel and palladium. Applying this equation by extrapolation to the determination of the platinum melting point by observing the melting of platinum strips mounted as usual for taking metal melts, we obtained 1755° ± 5 from six observations. The values found for diopside (1391°) and anor- thite (1549°) by Day and Sosman were also exactly reproduced by us with the micropyrometer. The metals actually used for calibration in hydrogen were "Kahlbaum" electrolytic nickel {MP -= 1452°) and pure Heraeus palladium {MP = 1549°), both of the same grade as used by Day and Sosman.^ A sample of their palladium gave exactly the same melting point as ours. In controlling the constancy of the pyrom- eter lamps and studying the reproducibility of the melts some 35 observations were taken of nickel and 20 of palladium. The various metals were not studied in regular order but were mixed as indiscriminately as possible, with observations on the standard points, nickel and palladium. Iron. Pure electrolytic iron from three sources and as many different methods of preparation was used, namely, from Prof. C. F. Burgess (99.97 per cent Fe) from Langheim-Pfanliauser Werke A. G. (99.98 per cent Fe) and from a sample (99.99 per cent Fe) prepared by Mr. J. R. Cain of this Bureau. "Kahl- baum" iron in powdered form and iron reduced on the platinum strip in hydrogen from Kahlbaum iron oxide were also used. 5 C. W. Kanolt, Tech. Paper No. 10, Bureau of Standards, 1912. 6 Pirani, Verh. Phys. Ges., 12: 323. 1910. ^ Day, Sosman and Allen, 1. c. The analysis by Dr. Allen of these products gave the nickel as 99.835 pure and the palladium 99.975. 374 BURGESS AND WALTENBERG : MELTING POINTS TABLE I Melting Point of Iron in Hydrogen by Micropyrometer Electrolytic, C. F. Burgess 1538°, 1537°, 1530°, 1534°, 1530°, 1532° Mean 1533° Electrolytic, Langheim-Pfanhauser 1524°, 1532°, 1534°,. 1534°, 1535° Mean 1532° Electrolytic, Cain 1533° Powder, "Kahlbaum" 1534° From Oxide, "Kahlbaum" 1532 o The mean value is 1533° ±1°. This is somewhat higher than all other recent determinations, which range from 1502° to 1532°. In the Arsem furnace, we obtained in vacuo 1531°, 1529°, 1531°, 1527°, and in hydrogen 1523° and 1527°. Cobalt. The cobalt used was cobalt ''Kahlbaum" in the form of powder, Kahlbaum's Wiirfeln, cobalt reduced in hydrogen on the platinum strip from ''Kahlbaum" cobalt oxide, and a sample kindly furnished by Messrs. Day and Sosman, cut from material which had been used for their determinations and which was originally powdered cobalt "Kahlbaum,"^ shown by Dr. E. T. Allen to be 99.951 per cent cobalt. The mean is 1477° ± 2. TABLE II Melting Point of Cobalt by Micropyrometer (( Kahlbaum," powder and Wtirfel together; 1478°, 1479°, 1482°, 1476°, 1475°, 1476°, 1478° Mean 1478° Co from the oxide "Kahlbaum" 1475°, 1478° Day and Sosman's sample 1474°, 1478°, 1478 o Three observations taken in the Arsem furnace each gave for the melting point of cobalt 1478°. Finally two melts of cobalt on iridium gave with the micropyrometer 1477° and 1478°. The value of the cobalt point which Day and Sosman found is 1490° in a nitrogen atmosphere. Chromium. Strictly pure chromium was not available, and it is difficult to locate exactly the melting points of an impure vis- cous substance. Observations were taken on two samples from * Day, Sosman and Allen, 1. c. BURGESS AND WALTENBERGI MELTING POINTS 375 Kahlbaum and on one from Dr. H. Goldschmidt, all of a purity probably not greater than 98 per cent. TABLE III . Melting Point of (98 per cent?) Chromium by Micropyrometer Kahlbaum I 1527° Kahlbaum II 1536°, 1513°, 1513° Goldschmidt 1514°, 1524° As the best representative value we may take 1520°. The melting point of pure chromium, however, may well be above that of iron, as may be shown by a consideration of the well known formula for lowering the freezing point by metallic impurities. On the other hand, the value 1520° may be more nearly correct if the oxides present do not lower but raise the chromium melting point as was found in the case of vanadium by Ruff and Martin.^ If chromium is melted, for example, in a slightly oxidizing atmos- phere or in impure hydrogen, an apparent melting point above that of platinum may be obtained. Manganese. We have not been able to obtain pure manganese, and the impure samples from Kahlbaum and from Goldschmidt are even more sluggish than chromium. The Goldschmidt man- ganese was from a sample of about 97.5 per cent pure. Melts were taken both on platinum and on nickel strips with the micro- pyrometer using gold (1063°) and palladium as calibration points. Those on nickel were less satisfactory, due apparently to evapo- ration of nickel. TABLE IV Melting Point of (97.51) Manganese by Micropyrometer Kahlbaum on Pt., 1242°; on Ni 1221° Goldschmidt on Pt., 1261°, 1264°, 1279°; on Ni 1254° The mean is 1254°, which is probably lower than the melting point of strictly pure manganese by 20°. Vanadimyi. Dr. v. Wartenberg of Berlin kindly sent us some 97 per cent vanadium prepared by him from the suboxide by ' Ruff and Martin, tJber reines Vanadin. Zs. Angew. Chem., 25: 49. 1912. 376 BURGESS AND WALTENBERG! MELTING POINTS the alumino-thermic method with calcium; it contains traces of Ca, Al and Fe. Professor Wedekind of Strassburg also furnished us with a sample of his 97 to 98 per cent vanadium. We have also examined' two samples purchased from Kahlbaum at different dates. None of the samples melts sharply, the substance being viscous; all samples show evidences of incipient melting many degrees below the temperature at which the melting is complete. With the Kahlbaum samples, evidences of melting were appar- ent as low as 1500°; melting was complete at about 1720°, the samples showing evidences of non-homogeneity of composition. With Dr. V. Wartenberg's and Professor Wedekind's vanadium the following results were obtained: TABLE V Melting Point of 97 per cent Vanadium by Micropyrometer 97 to 98 per cent V from Wedekind 1700°, 1757°, 1773°, 1717° 97 per cent V from v. Wartenberg; 1680°, 1691°, 1691° (pieces of about 0.001 mg.), 1685°, 1699°, 1705° (medium sized pieces), 1725° (largest pieces). Evidences of incipient melting were apparent at about 1650° with these materials. Other determinations of the vanadium melting point range from 1680° to 1750°. We would place the vanadium melting point at about 1720°, both from a consideration of our own and of other determinations. Titanium. Prof. M. M. A. Hunter, of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute kindly placed at our disposal a sample of pure titanium, which he had prepared from material furnished by the Titanium, Alloy Manufacturing Company of Niagara Fails. This titanium, analyzed by Professor Hunter, contains only a trace of iron and no other detectable impurity. Professor Wedekind likewise kindly sent us two samples prepared by him of 94 to 95 per cent purity and one by Dr. v. Wartenberg. The colloid titanium of Wede- kind melted at 1508° to 1451°, and his powdered titanium at 1452°. We also took observations on two samples from Kahl- baum, which were evidently quite impure, showing evidences of an extended melting range. For the Kahlbaum samples the fol- lowing melting points were obtained: 1664°, 1724°, 1677°, 1737°, 1641°. The titanium of Hunter and of v. Wartenberg showed BURGESS AND WALTENBERG : MELTING POINTS 377 no signs of melting on platinum ; their melting points were taken on iridium strips. TABLE VI Melting Point of Titanium by Micropyrometer Ti From Professor Hunter 1790°, 1785°, 1785° Mean 1788° Ti From Dr. v. Wartenberg 1778°, 1807,° 1815° Mean 1800° These melting points are fairly sharp, and the location of the temperature was made by calibrating the micropyrometer for the iridium strip by taking observations on it of the melting of pal- ladium (1549°), and of platinum (1755°). Summary. We have shown that the mipropyrometer may be made an instrument of precision for the determination of the melting points of refractory metals and salts ; that in the case of the metals examined, the effect of alloying of microscopic particles on platinum and iridium is inconsequential until after melting which we have shown for nickel, cobalt and iron to occur at the TABLE VII Melting Points of Elements of Atomic Weight 48 to 59 METAL MELTING POINT WITH MICROPYROMETER PURITY PROBABLE MELTING POINT OF PURE ELEMENT Nickel [1452°* \ 14491 [1477 ± 2 \1478 ± U [1533 ± 1§ \l528 t 1255 1520 1720 1794 ± 12 per cent 99.835 99.95i 99.98 ± 01 97 to 98 98 to 99 97 to 98 99.9+ 1452° ± 3 Cobalt 1478° ± 5 Iron 1530° ± 5 Manganese 1260° ± 20 Chromium 1520° to > Fe Vanadium 1720 ± 20 Titanium 1795 ± 15 * Assumed value on platinum strip; also observed value on iridium strip. t Crucible melts in electric furnace. t Crucible melts in electric furnace; also on iridium strip "with micropy- rometer. § Five samples all agreeing to within 3°. 378 BURGESS AND waltenberg: melting points same temperature for minute particles on the strips as for con- siderable quantities in crucibles of magnesia. Assuming the melting points of nickel to be 1452°, palladium 1549° and platinum 1755°, and the calibration curves of the pyrometer lamps of the form log c = a + 6 log T, for the range here studied, we have determined the melting points of Fe, Co, Cr, Mn, V and Ti with the micropyrometer and of Ni, Co and Fe in quantity in the electric furnace, all melts having been taken in pure hydrogen and Fe also in vacuo. For Cr, Mn and V, strictly pure materials were not available, and we can but esti- mate the melting points of the pure elements. In the complete paper, the method is discussed more in detail and photomicrographs are given showing characteristics of the various melts. \. 7^/ PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 89th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washngton was held on May 6, 1913, at the Cosmos Club with twenty-four members and two guests present. The following papers were presented: The effect of the recent freeze in California (illustrated) : Dr. David Griffiths. Dr. Griffiths discussed the effect of the January freeze on vegetation of the southwest, with special reference to California. The main regions where tropical and subtropical things are being grown were visited. He showed 40 lantern slides made from negatives taken in February and March, showing injuries to citrus fruits, avocados, cherimoyas, mangoes, carobs, acacias, olives, eucalyptus, etc. While the temperatures were unusually low, there are indications that they have been lower in the remote past. That such cold spells of weather are very infrequent is proved by the fact that such natives as Rhus lauriiia, eriogonums in California, and the giant Cereus, scholia, Celtis, Olneya, etc., in southern Arizona are severely injured. Many introduced trees which had attained a diameter of 3 feet were killed outright. Injuries were very severe thruout all of the citrus regions, but even where the temperatures went to 10-17° Fahr. in general thruout a region, an occasional orchard situated upon an abrupt elevation above the general plain escaped with even unfrozen fruit. Because of differ- ences in elevation, air-drainage and exposures, conditions are exceed- ingly varied and present some of the most important problems in con- nection with the relation of climatic conditions to crop development. At no time in the present generation has there been such an oppor- tunity to determine the adaptability of the scores of introduced plants of the Pacific Coast region. Thru some of the various agencies oper- ating in agricultural lines a careful survey should be made the present season to systematize and place on record the results of a condition which, altho of infrequent occurrence, is nevertheless of the utmost scientific and economic import. The method of types applied to the nickernut: Mr. H. C. Skeels. Mr. Skeels called attention to the last sentence of division (e) under Canon 15 of the American Code of Botanical Nomenclature, which reads as 379 380 proceedings: botanical society follows: "The genera of Linnaeus' Species Plantarum (1753) are to be typified thru the citations given in his Genera Plantarum (1754)." Under this clause the following genera were mentioned : GENUS TYPE SPECIES NOW REFERRED TO Aloinia A. racemosa C. ahouaj C. aria C. lagenaria G. apios H. malvaviscus J. manihot M. radiata Renealmia Cerbera Thevetia Crataegus Sorbus Cucurbita Glycine Lagenaria Apios Malvaviscus Hibiscus ... Jatropha Manihot Medicago Trigonella Applying the method of types to the nickernut, Mr. Skeels called attention to Mr. Trimen's identification of the Flora Zeylanica speci- mens which are published in volume 24 of The Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany. On the basis of these identifications, Mr. Skeele con- cluded as follows : "In conclusion, going back to our three original species, the 'Catti kitsjir of the East Indies, the Caesalpinia nuga (L.) Alton of the floras, under the method of types of the American Code, becomes Caesalpinia crista L., the type being Fl. Zeyl. 157. The common grey-seeded nicker- nut generally known as Caesalpinia or Guilandina honducella, becomes Guilandina bonduc L., the type being Fl. Zeyl. 156. And the yellow- seeded, large-leafletted nickernut, generally known as Guillandina bonduc becomes Guilandina major (DC.) Small, being based thru De CandoUe, on Guilandina bonduc L. Species Plantarum, ed. 2." What would be the effect of the irctic night on tropical or subtropical vegetationf Dr. F. H. Knowlton. Dr. Knowlton called attention to the ancient floras of the North Polar region. Many of the fossil plants found there are of a tropical or subtropical character. No satisfactory explanation of the relation of such plants to the conditions of light and darkness supposed to have prevailed has been found. Dr. Knowlton asked for suggestions from the members of the Society and a brief discussion followed. C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE ^"^^ * WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill AUGUST 19, 1913 No. 14 METEOROLOGY. — Evaporation in the great plains and inter- rnountain districts as influenced by the haze of 1912. Lyman J. Briggs and J. O. Belz, Bureau of Plant Industry. It has recently been shown by Abbot and Fowle^ and by Kim- ball,^ that the haze of 1912, presumably due to the eruption of Mt. Katmai on June 6 and 7, 1912, gave rise to a marked dimin- ution in the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth's surface. Abbot and Fowle found that the total direct radiation of the sun was reduced about 20 per cent at Bassour, Algeria, and also at Mt. Wilson, California, when the effect reached its maximum in August. Kimball reports an average reduction of 17 per cent in the intensity of the solar radiation received at Mt. Weather, Va., during the last half of 1912, while at Madison, Wis., an av- erage reduction of 14 per cent was observed for the same period. During the past five years the writers have been engaged in a series of evaporation measurements^ in the great plains and in- tennountain districts, and it has seemed desirable to determine to what extent the reduction in the solar intensity during 1912 affected the evaporation. In making such a comparison, it must of course be recognized that evaporation is profoundly in- 1 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 60: 29. 1913. 2 This Journal, 3: 269. 1913. Also, Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory, 5: 295. 1913. / ' In cooperation with the Office of Dry Land Agriculture, and the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 381 382 BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE fluenced by a number of other factors, such as temperature, cloudiness, humidity, and wind velocity. In any comparison of this kind one would, therefore, expect to encounter anomalies in the records from an individual station resulting from these disturbing factors (see Table III). The evaporation records are based upon daily measurements of the change in elevation of a free water surface, after correct- ing for precipitation. The evaporation tanks are either 6 or 8 TABLE I Normal Evaporation at Stations in the Great Plains and Intermountain Districts STATIONS Amarillo, Tex Dalhart, Tex Garden City, Kans... Hays, Kans Akron, Col North Platte, Neb.... Newell, S. Dak Edgeley, N. Dak Dickinson, N. Dak... Williston, N. Dak.... Judith Basin, Mont... Nephi, Utah San Antonio, Tex Fallon, Nev Yuma, Ariz Sn NO. OP YEAB3 OBS. 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 4 3 APRIL MAT inches 7.55 7.89 7.61 6.85 5,43 6.05 4.81 3.89 4.08 4.72 4.10 4.80 5.93 •6.20 8.34 88.25 inches 9.09 9.73 8.76 7.26 6.91 6.75 6.49 4.87 5.03 6.11 5.40 7.21 6.57 8.34 10.92 109.44 JUNE 1-15 inches 5.22 5.70 4.63 4.24 4.10 3.72 3.44 24 55 79 86 25 44 91 92 61.01 JUNE 16-30 JULY inches 5.54 6.25 5.51 4.61 4.43 4.79 4.53 3.42 3.65 4.04 3.25 4.82 4.83 4.99 5.59 70.25 inches 9.68 10.56 10.00 9.09 9.36 8.50 9.23 6.91 7.34 7.92 7.61 9.67 9.61 11.05 11.33 AUGUST 137.86 inches 9.06 10.04 9.35 8.82 8.61 7.74 7.53 5.88 6.31 6.24 6.94 9.23 9.55 10.05 11.10 SEPT. TOTAL Apr.l to Oct. 1 126.45 inches 8.00 8.26 7.69 6.96 6.85 6.44 5.54 4.31 4.28 4.11 4.86 6.13 7.24 6.14 8.19 95.00 inches 54.14 58.43 53.55 47.83 45.69 43.99 41.57 31.52 33.24 35.93 35.02 46.11 48.17 51.68 61.39 feet in diameter, and 2 feet deep, and are sunk in level ground in a freely exposed space to within 4 inches of the top, the water level being maintained at approximately 4 inches below the top of the tank. At most of the evaporation stations, ''normals" based upon at least four years records, exclusive of those of 1912, are now avail- able. The monthly normal evaporation, from April to Septem- ber inclusive, for 15 stations located in the great plains and in- BRIGGS AND BELZ : INFLUENCE OF HAZE 383 termountain districts, is given in Table I. Since the eruption of Mt. Katmai occurred early in June, the records for this month are divided into two parts. At the foot of the table is given the sum of the combined evaporation occurring at the 15 stations for each month, designated as Hn. In Table II is given the evap- oration for the corresponding periods during the summer of 1912, the combined evaporation for all of the stations during TABLE II Evaporation in 1912 at Stations in the Great Plain.s and Intermountain Districts ST.\TIONS APRIL MAY JUNE 1-15 JUNE 16-30 JULY AUGUST SEPT. TOTAL Apr. 1 to Oct. 1 Amarillo Dalhart inches 7.05 8.21 6.86 6.08 4.68 4.84 4.85 3.69 3.65 3.88 2.62 3.54 4.08 5.67 7.29 inches 9.90 10.24 10.82 .8.28 7.10 7.54 6.42 4.60 4.67 4.78 4.14 6.30 7.61 7.46 9.00 inches 4.95 4.64 4.77 3.13 2.90 2.80 3.65 2.33 2.26 3.81 2.74 4.20 3.56 5.24 5.46 inches 4.04 3.84 3.81 3.29 3.85 4.80 4.53 2.67 3.26 3.29 3.66 5.08 3.50 5.36 4.78 inches 10.95 11.10 10.64 9.99 7.62 8.97 7.98 5.69 6.02 5.98 5.97 9.24 10.59 9.64 9.44 inches 9.49 9.13 9.15 9.18 7.05 7.46 6.60 4.24 5.92 4.99 6.24 8.89 10.65 8.89 9.00 inches 6.49 6.75 7.09 7.02 4.65 5.29 3.71 2.74 3.21 2.98 '3.42 6.16 8.55 6.07 7.62 inches 52.87 53.91 Garden City 53.14 Hays Akron North Platte 46.97 37.85 41.70 Newell Edgeley Dickinson Williston Judith Basin 37.74 25.96 28.98 29.71 28.79 Nephi San Antonio Fallon Yuma 43.41 48.54 48.33 52.59 2e 76.99 108.86 56.44 59.76 129.82 116.88 81.75 Se/2/i 0.87 0.99 0.92 0.86 0.94 0.92 0.86 each period being given at the foot of the table and designated as 2e. In comparing the evaporation during 1912 with the normal evaporation, two procedures have been followed. Fir§t, the ratio (Ze/XriJ of the total evaporation occurring at all of the stations during a given month in 1912 to the normal evaporation for that period has been calculated (Table II). Second, the ratio of the 384 BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE evaporation at a given station during a given month in 1912 to its normal evaporation for the corresponding period has been de- termined, and the mean of these ratios for all stations for each month has been computed, together with the probable error. These results are given in Table III. The results of the two meth- ods of comparison will be seen to be in good agreement. The mean value is given in Table IV, with the corresponding ratios TABLE III Ratio of the Monthly Evaporation in 1912 at Each Station to the Normal Evaporation STATIONS Amarillo, Tex Dalhart, Tex Garden City, Kans.. Hays, Kans Akron, Colo North Platte, Neb... Newell, S. Dak Edgeley, N. Dak.... Dickinson, N. Dak.. Williston, N. Dak... Judith Basin, Mont.'. Nephi, Utah San Antonio, Tex.... Fallon, Nev Yuma, Ariz Mean Probable error 0.93 1.04 0.89 0.89 0,86 0.80 1.01 0.95 0.89 0.82 0.64 0.74 0.69 0.92 0.87 0.86 =0.019 1.09 1.05 1.24 1.14 1.03 1.12 0.99 0.94 0.92 0.78 0.77 0.87 1.16 0.89 0.82 0.99 =0.025 JUNE 1-15 0.95 0.81 1.03 0.74 0.71 0.75 1.06 1.04 0.89 1.14 0.96 0.99 0.80 1.06 0.92 0.9S =0.023 JUNE 16-30 0.73 0.61 0.69 0.71 0,87 1.00 1.00 0.78 0.89 0.81 1.13 1.05 0.72 1.07 0.86 0.86 =0.028 1.13 1.05 1,06 1,10 0.81 1.06 0.86 0.82 0.83 0,75 0,78 0.96 1.10 0.88 0.83 0.93 =0.024 AUGUST 1.05 0.91 0.99 1.04 0.82 0.96 0.88 0.72 0.94 0.80 0.89 0.96 112 0.88 0.81 0.92 =0.019 SEPTEMBER 0.81 0.82 0.92 1.01 0.68 0.82 0.67 0.64 0.75 0.77 0.90 1.00 1.13 0.99 0.93 0.84 =0.026 for the temperature and sunshine. Sunshine records were not available at all the evaporation stations, and the ratios given were obtained from Weather Bureau records for 30 stations in the region in which the evaporation tanks were located. It will appear from the ratios given in Table IV, that the evap- oration during 1912 was abnormally low. The evaporation dur- ing April was 14 per cent below nonnal. However, the average number of hours of sunshine during April was also 7 per cent BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE 385 below normal, which would account at least in part for the dimin- ished evaporation. May was normal, both with respect to evap- oration and hours of sunshine. The evaporation for the first half of June, during which the eruption of Mt. Katmai occurred, was 8 per cent below nonnal; the second half of June was 14 per cent below normal; July, 6 per cent below; August, 8 per cent below; and September, 15 per cent below. The number of hours of sun- shine was also somewhat below normal during this period. The Weather Bureau sunshine records are obtained with the Marvin sunshine recorder, which is essentially a differential thermometer in vacuo, one bulb being blackened. When the rate, at which solar radiation is received, is sufficient to develop a certain differ- ence in the temperature of the bulbs, the sun is recorded as shin- ing. It is evident that any reduction in the intensity of the solar radiation in midsummer (due to dust in the atmosphere or other TABLE IV Ratio of the Evaporation, Sunshine, and Temperature Corresponding Normals IN 1912 to the APRIL MAY JUNE 1-15 JUNE 16-30 JUlY AUGUST SEPTEMBER Evaporation. . Temperature. Sunshine 0.87 1.00 0.93 0.99 1.03 1.01 0.92 0.95 1. 0.86 0.96 01 0.94 0.97 0.93 0.92 0.98 0.97 0.85 0.88 0.92 causes) would enter into the records from this instrument as a reduction in the number of hours of sunshine. The observed reduction in sunshine (Table IV) following the eruption may therefore be attributed, in part at least, to a reduction in the in- tensity of the solar radiation transmitted by the upper atmos- phere, rather than to an actual increase in cloudiness. There is obviously no way of separating these two factors from a con- sideration of the sunshine records alone. It thus appears that the average evaporation as measured at 15 stations was below normal during the four months following the eruption of Mt. Katmai, the average reduction in evaporation being about 10 per cent. This "is somewhat less than the ob- served reduction in the intensity of solar radiation as reported 386 AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER by Abbot and Fowle and by Kimball, if we assume that for small changes in radiation, the evaporation is directly. proportional to the radiation received. In this connection, it should be re- called that the pyrheliometer measurements deal only with the direct rays of the sun. Since the scattered radiation would be proportionately somewhat increased b}'^ the dust, the actual re- duction in radiant energy during 1912 was probably not quite so great as indicated by the solar measurements. This would tend to bring the results more nearly in accord with the evapora- tion measurements. In addition to measurements of the energy of the direct solar beam. Abbot and Fowle* have also measured the total sky ra- diation and the absorbed radiation. In former years, the sum of the three parts of the solar radiation has found to fall below the value of the solar constant by not more than 0.05 calorie. Their measurements in 1912, however, show an outstanding difference of about 0.28 calorie, which they attribute to the greater diffuse reflection of the atmosphere resulting from the haziness. This amounts to a reduction in the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth's surface of about 10 per cent, a value which is in good agreement with the observed diminution in evaporation. The reduction in the mean evaporation at the 15 observing stations following the haze of 1912 thus appears to afford an approximate measure of the reduction in the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth's surface. RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A crystal contact disturbance preventer for radiotelegraphic receiving. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radiotelegraphic Laboratory. In 1908 I published the results of a study of the rectifying action of certain contacts, silicon-steel, carbon-steel, and tellur- ium-aluminum. Soon after this it occurred to me that the prop- erty of rapid change of resistance with impressed voltage shown by these contacts, might be made use of in shunting to earth loud interfering signals and atmospheric disturbances, so trouble- ^ loc. cit., p. 13. AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER 387 some in radiotelegraphic receiving, and in the spring of 1909 very encouraging results were obtained from a tellurium-aluminum contact placed around the primary of the receiving transformer. It was found however, that in actual service, while occasionally remarkable results were obtained in cutting out disturbances, the tellurium-aluminum contact was too unstable to be depended upon. Silicon in contact with metals was found to be less sensitive than the tellurium contact and also too unstable for practical use. Iron pyrites, zinkite, galena, and many other crystals have been tried at various times and unsuccessful ex- periments were also made with the Lodge-Muirhead mercury TABLE I DISTURBANCE PREVENTER IN OUT Deflection Deflection 7nni< mm. 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 3.5 4.5 7.0 22.0 15.0 130.0 21.0 240.0 40.0 off scale 2.5 2.5 coherer, several other types of coherers, with vacuum valves and the electrolytic detector. It has recently been found that silicon in contact with certain crystals, especially with metallic arsenic, of which the dark colored impure variety is the best, forms a practical device for leading strong disturbances to earth without interfering with the reception of the regular signals. Table I shows the detector galvanometer deflections with the disturbance preventing circuit in and out, the antenna being excited by a tuned buzzer circuit with different degrees of close- ness of coupling. , Table II shows the relation between tuned buzzer circuit signals and natural atmospherics, the maximum throw of the 388 AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER galvanometer during a period of 10 seconds being taken as the atmospheric reading. The disturbance preventer is more effective in the case of strong interfering signals than against atmospheric disturbances, as it is quite possible to read signals of twenty times audibility thru disturbing signals of many hundred times audibility on the same wave length. The best results are obtained with loose coupling and with a considerable amount of inductance in the antenna, with a series condenser if necessary, and the disturb- ance preventer contact shunted across only that part of the in- ductance which acts as the primary of the receiving transformer. TABLE II DISTUBBANCE PBEVENTEB IN OUT Deflection Deflection mm. mm. Signal Aim. Signal Approx. Aim. 10 7 12 51 a 7 « 80 a 6 ^r. near ^r^s(ot,o^^ ^o° Y^'^ arbitrarily fa/refi ^^ "■ Fig. 2. Temperature about an iceberg In approaching or leaving a berg the temperature of the sea water may rise or fall or remain practically constant. In figure 2, the temperature records of figure 1 are reproduced, the tem- perature at the iceberg being arbitrarily taken as the zero of temperatures for each course. Curve a, figure 2, is the temper- WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE! OCEAN TEMPERATURES 411 ature record in approaching and leaving a growler. The re- mainder of the curves in figure 2 are the records for all the courses around the large berg, shown in figure 1. The temperature records for the several courses differ so much that no certain effect can be attributed to the iceberg. The mean of the curves for all the courses is shown in the lower part of figure 2. Course -/ -2 oppraacAwd /eai^//7^ /OM /ff/f Mean Cuf^i^^ +; \ ./^""^' .y ..-/ -/ Temperature r?ear ber^sCahouf 5O0 ycfs) arb/fran'/y f^/re/? as o° Fig. 3. Average temperature about several bergs In figure 3 are reproduced all the temperature records, ex- cept those of June 17, for approaching and leaving icebergs, the temperatures at the bergs being always arbitrarily taken as the zero of temperature. The mean curve shown below, indicates 412 BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS that in general there was a fall in temperature of about 1° in 4 or 5 miles in approaching the various bergs. In all but two in- stances the minimum temperature was found near the bergs. So far as our records go, therefore, it does not seem possible to draw positive conclusions as to the absence or proximity of ice from the temperature records of sea water. This is not a condemna- tion of the use of suitable recorders on ships. As Barnes has shown, the temperature record may give valuable information on the approach to shore and shallow water, on the identifica- tion of characteristic ocean currents, and, as his records seem to show, even of the proximity of icebergs in some parts of the ocean where the variations are less erratic than in the regions in which our observations were made. If the "characteristic iceberg effect" observed by Barnes, i.e., rise of temperature on approaching icebergs, had been present around the bergs observed by us and of the same or even much less magnitude, our records would have rendered such an effect evident, notwithstanding the irregular variations of temperature usually found to exist. In view of the differences in the charac- ter of the records obtained by Barnes and by us, it is very desir- able that further observations be made in different parts of the ocean, and under as varied conditions as possible, before attempt- ing to draw final conclusions. In conclusion, we wish to express our indebtedness to Captain Decker, Captain Hughes, and their officers and crews for their hearty cooperation and many acts of kindness during our stay on shipboard. ELECTRICITY. — High-frequency amjiieters. J. H. Bellinger. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, Sci- entific Paper No. 206. For the measurement of current at radiotelegraphic frequen- cies, about 50,000 to 2,000,000 cycles per second, it is general practice to utilize the thermal effect of the current. The elec- trodynamic effect of the current has not been very successfully utilized; because, when the wire is coiled up to form an electro- dellinger: high frequency ammeters 413 dynamometer, conditions are favorable (impedance large and capacity large) for part of the current to flow thru the dielectric instead of the wire, in amount varying with the frequency. The superiority of the hot-wire ammeter and the modifications there- of, in high frequency work, is due to the simplicity of form which the portion of the circuit within the instrument may have, per- mitting a minimum of self-inductance and capacity, A single straight wire of very small diameter is the only form of ammeter circuit which can be taken as a 'priori reliable at all frequencies. When the instrument is required to carry relatively large cur- rents, such a wire is not sufficient, and more than one elementary path must be provided for the current. The distribution of cur- rent among these paths is determined solely by the resistances, at low frequencies, while at high frequencies the inductances pre- dominate. Consequently the current distribution and the read- ings of the instrument are likely to change as the frequency is varied. There are three general types of ammeters in use for large cur- rents of high frequency: (a) that employing wires in parallel, (b) the so-called unshunted ammeter in which a single wire has different portions of its length in parallel, and (c) the ammeter employing thin metal strips. Both experimental and commer- cial instruments of all these types were investigated, experimen- tally and theoretically. All types were found to be subject to errors at radiotelegraphic frequencies. This fact is of great moment, for the ammeter is the cardinal instrument in high fre- quency work. It is of value in measurements of resistance and power, as well as of current. In some of the ammeters investi- gated the readings were found to increase with increase of fre- quency, and in others to decrease. These changes are entirely independent of the thermometric method used to measure heat production. The thermometric device may depend on expan- sion, calorimetry, electric resistance, or thermoelectric effect. The observations were made by passing high-frequency and low-frequency current successively thru the instruments. An instrument under test was always in series with an instrument which could be taken as standard, and the two were observed 414 BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS simultaneously. Thus the ratio of indicated current at high and low frequency, for equal total current in the circuit, was obtained. The high-frequency current was generated by the. oscillatory dis- charge of a condenser across a spark gap. The instruments were in a secondary circuit, loosely coupled to the primary, and con- sisting of an inductance coil, the instruments, and Leyden jars, in series. The chief source of accidental error in the observations was the slight unsteadiness of the current together with the dif- fering lag of the indicating devices of the instruments. From the dimensions and arrangement of the wires it was found possible to predict quantitatively the changes of reading of the wire instruments with frequency, while theoretical considera- tions also made it possible to predict qualitatively the perform- ance of the strip instruments. It is an interesting coincidence that the changes of reading occur just in the range of radiotele- graphic frequencies. In some of the instruments, the current distribution was constant from low frequencies up to about 100,000 then underwent changes, and became constant for 1,500,000 and higher frequencies. Thus, in one sense, physically infinite frequency was practically attained. The order of agreement of calculation and experiment attained with these instruments is in itself one of the most interesting results of the investigation. It shows that calculations based on the formulas for self and mutual inductance of finite portions of a circuit are valid, to the observed degree of accuracy, for short lengths and for damped high-frequency oscillations. In the case of the parallel wire ammeter, mutual inductances between parts, which had hitherto been supposed to be negligible, are the determining factor in the change of current distribution. In the so-called unshunted ammeter, the errors are chiefly due to the self-inductances of parts other than the hot wire. In this case, they can be minimized by symmetrical location of the cur- rent leads. In the strip ammeter, the terminal blocks have been found to be the source of large errors. These are reduced by proper shaping of the blocks. One effective means of reducing the errors of these ammeters at high frequencies is by using working parts of high resistance. BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS 415 i.e., metal wires or strips which are very thin and of high resis- tivity. Another expedient is to change the design so that the deflections depend on the entire heat production in the instru- ment instead of on that in one branch of its circuit. It was found possible to apply this idea to the thermocouple instruments, as well as to those whose indications depend on other thermometric principles. Still another method of improvement is to arrange the working parts (either wires or strips) as equidistant elements of a cylinder, so that each has the same set of mutual inductances. This design approaches as a limit the circular tube, which theo- retically has no change of current distribution with frequency. In common with the others, however, it is subject to an error which has hitherto been overlooked. It is difficult to obtain very thin wires or strips of uniform cross-section, and this variation results in the resistances of elements being unequal while the inductances are substantially equal. As a result the current distribution may be uniform at high frequency and not at low frequency. Eddy currents induced in neighboring masses of metal are found to cause no error. Inductive action of the leads near an instrument in some cases appreciably affects the readings, and must be guarded against. The distributed capacity of the cir- cuits within the instruments is found to cause no error, but the capacity of auxiliary parts produces an appreciable effect at the highest frequency used, 1,500,000 cycles per second. This ef- fect was very striking, two instruments in series carrying differ- ent amounts of current. Apparently part of the current was shunted out of one of the instruments by electrostatic induction. A means of eliminating the effect was found for the purposes of ammeter comparison. This phenomenon suggests that the cur- rent in a conducting circuit may not be a definite quantity at frequencies over 1,000,000. In conclusion, it may be said that all types of ammeters in use for large currents of high frequency are subject to errors. The sources of error have been isolated and studied. Some were shown to be negligible, and others very serious. Means of hn- proving the designs have been worked out. 416 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses CHEMISTRY. — The interpretation of mineral analyses.'^ Roger C. "Wells, Geological Survey. In a recent number of this Journal W. T, Schaller proposed an improvement in the usual method of reducing a mineral analysis to a chemical formula which seems to have some advantages. ^ A little later F. E. Wright and C. E. Van Orstrand published a paper on the determination of the order of agreement between observation and theory in mineral analyses in which they state that Schaller's method is in error in certain details of principle and discuss several methods of making comparisons between analytical data and theoretical formulas based upon the method of least squares.^ Without doubt both of these papers represent certain advances, but as they stand there is too much variance between them. The subject is one of general interest and fun- damental importance so that some further observations may not be inappropriate. The excellent analysis of pearceite upon which the discussion in these papers is based was published some time ago by F. R. Van Horn and C. W. Cook.^ At present only methods of com- paring the analytical data with theory are in question. Van Horn and Cook obtained from their analysis the atom numbers of sul- fur, arsenic and silver 10.80, 2.000 and 7.886 from which they easily deduced the correct formula, 8Ag2S.As2S3. The real ques- tion decided concerned only one atom in 15, that is between the formulas 9Ag2S.As2S3 and 8Ag2S.As2S3. The analysis was con- siderably more accurate than necessary to decide this point. The improvement proposed in the calculation by Schaller is suggestive altho not essential to the evaluation in this case and consists in the use of an arithmetic mean instead of a single value of the greatest common divisor by which percentages found in an analysis are reduced to numbers of atoms. The details of carrying out this calculation may be found in his paper. He thus obtained the numbers 10.92, 2.02 and 7.97 which are closer to ^ Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. ^ Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 97. 1913. 3 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 223. 1913. " Amer. Journ. Sci., (4) 31: 518. 1911. wells: interpretation of mineral analyses 417 the whole numbers of the formula 11, 2 and 8 than the numbers above. Schaller also expressed the numbers in another form intended to show their variation from whole numbers more clearly as follows 11 XO.993, 2 x 1.01 and 8 xO.996. In this form devia- tions from the requirements of theory are shown as factors of the quantities involved. Wright and Yan Orstrand begin their discussion on page 224 as follows: ''The underlying purpose of such calculations is not, however, to improve a chemical analysis by mathematical mani- pulation, which is obviously impossible, but to obtain a logical basis of comparison for the given analysis with the anal3^sis calcu- lated from the chemical formula." Unfortunately, while object- ing to "mathematical manipulation'' the authors of the second paper appear to have recommended and rejected methods of cal- culation on purely mathematical grounds entirely apart from any consideration of the necessary chemical relationships involved. In the first method of calculation described they begin by infer- ring that the correct numbers are 11, 2 and 8. They then derive by the method of least squares a "weight percentage composi- tion" (column 5) for comparison with the analysis which totals 99.84. In other words they present a basis of comparison that totals less than the original investigators obtained in their analysis, viz., 99.89, and conclude "the differences between the observed (y) and computed (y') values {o-c, column 1-5) are a proper measure of the degree of approximation of the actual analysis to that computed from the inferred chemical formula." Let us see how this works out. Assuming equal errors in all the percentages of an analysis of the mineral in question, say, 0.10, we come out of the comparison with the following differences: 0.05, 0.09,0.05 and 0.08. In other words the chemist should have unequal errors in his percentages to obtain a perfect comparison! Now as a matter of fact he does have unequal errors in his percentages, and these errors are roughly proportional to the percentages involved. Working out the scheme on the assumption that the errors are the same fraction, say 1 /200th of all the percentages gives no differences whatever. Obviously the more nearly all errors can be made proportional to the quantities of substance involved the better the comparison will turn out on the whole. 418 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses This leads us to the conclusion that ''residual errors" or "dif- ferences" have very little meaning by themselves. This meaning can only be brought out by comparison with the magnitudes involved. For example an error of 1 gram in weighing 7 grams of arsenic is a very different order of error from that of 1 gram in 59 grams of silver. This is a general proposition but it has partic- ular application in chemical operations where we are so frequently concerned with the numbers of atoms involved, the atoms hav- ing different weights. If we are to make equally good determina- tions of atomic quantities of two substances we must keep our relative errors not our absolute errors the same in the two deter- minations. So far as my experience in tracing the effects of errors upon the results in different chemical operations goes, I believe that the best policy for the chemist to pursue is to assume a given error in a measurement, carry thru the whole calculation and ascertain exactly what effect the error will produce in the final result. As is well known, relative errors in a magnitude are trans- mitted unchanged in multiplication and division of the magnitude by other magnitudes, but they are affected irregularly or may practically disappear in additions and subtractions. The chemist well knows that in addition to "random" errors there are errors that depend on the elements involved and the methods used. For example, it is not difficult to determine silver with accuracy; the same cannot be said of arsenic. Sulfur is usually weighed as barium sulfate, a substance over seven times heavier than its equivalent of sulfur, while copper is frequently weighed as metal. Even if the same accidental error in milli- grams is made in weighing these two substances the sulfur deter- minations will turn out to be seven-fold as accurate as that of the copper. Neglecting these special relations, however, it may be said that errors will tend to be proportional to the magnitudes involved. This relation does not hold strictly because the analyst usually allows himself a little more laxity in the case of the minor constituents and in these the "constant" errors attain more signif- icance. This difference in the nature of the errors is of fundamental importance in deciding upon methods of calculation and comparison. In the method employed by Van Horn and Cook one deter- wells: interpretation of mineral analyses 419 mination is assumed to be free from error and the remaining atom numbers show discrepancies from the requu-ement of theory. Schaller's method is a simple method of distributing the dis- crepancies. It occurred to Wright and Van Orstrand that the method of least squares would give a still better distribution of discrepancies. In the illustration worked out by them, however, (first method) it is obvious that the tj values (observed data) are weighted by multiplication by the respective molecular weights {x values). It would be perfectly possible to weight the observa- tion equations in any arbitrary manner. It would seem, however, that if the discrepancies are assumed to be random ones the weight- ing should be based upon the magnitude of the discrepancies rather than that upon the molecular weights involved. In view of what has been said it can be seen that the weighting should probably also vary with the mineral, the number of atoms, etc., so that the chief difficulty would be in getting chemists to agree upon a system of weighting. There is some objection from a chemical point of view to any method involving a distribution of discrepancies. It must be borne in mind that a mineral may be a mixture, a solid solution, or a molecular species. All these possibilities occur in nature and some species occur in a state of remarkable purity. Yet it is hardly to be expected that natural products formed from, or open to attack by, migrating solutions of various kinds can be wholly free from inclusions of foreign matter. Under these circum- stances a clear differentiation between fact and hypothesis should be preserved. An analysis is a more or less imperfect expression of certain facts, viz., the composition of the substance in question; that this composition may be expressed in a chemical formula is an hypothesis which may find only approximate verification in the case of a mineral. As our knowledge widens minerals are being found more and more to be solid solutions to a slight extent ; these interesting relationships are brought out by independent derivations of the atom numbers but masked by a distribution of ''errors." Methods involving a distribution of errors are there- fore strictly applicable only to very pure compounds. But in reverting wholly to a comparison of percentages we lose 420 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses some advantages possessed by a comparison of the atom numbers. Residuals of the latter may be compared with one another with respect to the possibility of their combination into simple mole- cules. In objecting to this method of comparison on mathematical grounds the authors of the second paper appear to have over- looked an important distinction. In weighing out the mineral for analysis as well as in all the analytical operations there are the same atoms involved, atoms of different weights — here eleven atoms of sulfur, two of arsenic and eight of silver — so that the percentages of the different elements are already weighed, i.e., ''weighted" according to these proportions and, in dividing, the chemist simply tends to restore unit weight to each determina- tion of the common divisor upon which the atomic theory depends. When we compare percentages we compare data for eleven atoms of silver, two of arsenic, and eight of silver; on the other hand, when the comparison is between different values of the greatest common divisor we are comparing numbers having a significance common to all the atoms in the mineral. Now in view of the consideration on page 419 it appears in general that (a) when percentages are compared the principal constituents will contain the smallest relative errors while con- stant errors will tend to compensate one another. The tptal essential constituents expanded to 100 per cent will therefore be the best basis of comparison with the theoretical percentages. (b) When the atom numbers are to be compared the one obtained from the minor constituent will be most affected by "constant er- rors" such as those of weighing and measuring, the one obtained from the major constituent will be most affected by "relative errors," those proceeding from chemical transformations. Which kind of error will predominate here will depend again upon the mineral and the method of analysis. The plan has heretofore been to base the value of the common divisor upon the minor constituent. Schaller's proposal bases the divisor upon all the constituents. Another plan would be to base the value of the common divisor upon the chief constituent or the most accurately determined one. A factor may be very simply obtained, however, by taking 1 /100th of the molecular weight assumed for the mineral, wells: interpretation of mineral analyses 421 which is obviously theoretically correct for each formula assumed.^ It is then only necessary to multiply the combining ratios found, bj^ this factor, to obtain the exact atom numbers found in the analysis. The comparison of the analysis under discussion with theory may therefore be made by either of the two following methods: First Method PERCENTAGES FOUND EXPANDED TO THEORY FOR 100 PER CENT 1 SAgaS.AssSs 1 ABSOLUTE DISCREPANCY RELATIVE DISCREP.\NCY IN PER CENT s 17.46 7.56 59.22 15.65 17.48 7.57 59.28 15.67 17.56 7.46 59.321 15.66 -0.08 +0.11 -0.04 +0.01 -0.5 + 1.5 -0.1 +0.1 As Ag Cu 99.89 100.00 100.00 Mean ±0.06 Mean =±=0.5 Second Method COMBINING RATIOS FOUND2 ATOM NUM- BERS FOUND* THEORY ABSOLUTE DISCREPANCY RELATIVE DISCREPANCY IN PER CENT s 0.5451 0.1010 0.2748 0.1233 10.95 2.029 8.000 11.00 2.000 8.000 -0.05 +0.029 0.000 -0.5 + 1.5 0.0 As Ag3 Cu^ Mean ±0.02 Mean ±0.5 (0 2748\ „ ' „ j X 107.88. Simi- larly for the copper. In the case of replacements such as that of copper for silver here the molecular weight assumed must be obtained by taking proper propor- tions of the atom numbers of the simplified formula. As the number of replace- ments increases, the more difficult it becomes to derive either a "theoretical" molecular weight or a theoretical percentage. - Obtained from 17.48, etc., above by dividing by -atomic weights. ' Considered as Ag2 and Cua. /2009 1^ * Obtained from 0.5451, etc., by multiplying by ( molecular weight assumed. where 2009.1 is the M ^ If M is the molecular weight assumed 1 per cent of M is — ; if y per cent of IT an element has been found, the molecular portion will be — and this will be as many atoms as the atomic weight of that element is contained in ^— - or -^ — ; hence the factor for each molecular ratio will be 100' 422 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses If the arguments set forth in the preceding discussion are vahd the relative discrepancies in the last columns are the best indices of the agreement of the data found with the formula assumed. To say that 10.95 has a discrepancy of —0.5 per cent from the theoretical value 11 is very simular to expressing 10.95 as 11. X 0.995. In my opinion the "mean relative discrepancy" is probabl}^ the best single value which can be found to indicate the order of agreement of a mineral analysis with the formula. The principal conclusions in this paper may be summarized as follows: 1. "Differences" are not a good measure of concordance when comparisons are made between several numbers of different mag- nitude or where different chemical elements are concerned. The discrepancies should also be thought of as factors or percentages of the quantities involved. 2. Before a mathematical simplification in analytical data is attempted the nature of possible errors and their mode of trans- mission to the final result should be considered. 3. The analytical percentages of a mineral analysis will in general contain some random errors and will certainly contain errors characteristic of the individual elements. The errors will however tend to be proportional to the quantities of substance involved. If the chemist wishes to bring up the accuracy of all the constituents to their full measure in the determination of the whole mineral, he should devote his chief attention first to the constituent which he believes to be subject to the greatest abso- lute error and next to the other constituents in the order in which they occur by weight beginning with the predominating one. 4. Any method of comparing the analytical data with theory which involves a distribution of the discrepancies may mask some relations, such as those of solid solution or the presence of a free element and should therefore be used only in the case of pure compounds. 5. The percentage of the essential constituents found should first be expanded to 100 per cent and then compared directly with the theoretical percentages. Or the combining ratios found may , 1.- T 11 ji r J molecular weight assumed , ,, be multiplied by the lactor -—- and the atom numbers thus found compared with theory. steiger: analysis of deep well water 423 6. The ''mean relative discrepancy" of all the determinations is probably the best single index of the agreement of a mineral analysis with a chemical formula. CHEMISTRY. — Note on the analysis of water fro??i a deep well in Pennsylvania. George Steiger, Geological Survey. The well from which the water was obtained is situated eight miles southwest of Imperial, Allegheny County, and five miles northwest of McDonald, Washington County, Pennsylvania. ^ Down to 6300 feet the well was perfectly dry; at this point water was encountered and finally filled the well to a depth of 3000 feet. At the request of Dr. G. F. Becker, the Peoples Gas Company, owners of the well, collected two samples of five gallons each. One sample was sent to the laboratory of the Bureau of Mines at Denver for radioactive tests; the other was shipped to the laboratoiy of the U. S. Geological Survey for the general chemi- cal analysis. Grams per Kilogram of Water Fe 0.16 SO4 0.05 Mg 2.48 CI 161 .80 Ca 25.19 Br 0.70 Sr 3.55* I Ba trace Na 64.55 263.64 K 5.16 Sp. G 1.211 112.5 X 10~" grams of radium per liter. Silicon, aluminum, titanium, phosphorus, manganese, lead, bismuth, and carbonic acid, were tested for and were found to be absent. * Equivalent to 7.8 grams of SrCl2 per liter. This water contains about eight times the cjuantity of dissolved salts per kilogram as that of sea-water. When received, a quan- tity of suspended matter was present, probably finely divided rock introduced through the process of drilling. This was sep- arated by filtration and the filtrate which was perfectly clear was used for analysis. Dr. Becker who will be assisted by Mr. C. E. Van Orstrand, in the near future, intends studying the well regarding temperature and radioactivity. It was in rela- 1 A complete description of this well by I. C. White will be found in the Bulle- tin of the Geological Society of America, 24: 273-282. 1913. 424 ashe: a new shrubby buckeye tion to the radioactivity that lead, bismuth, and barium were very carefully tested for. When time permits drill cores of the accompanying rock will be analyzed in the hope of throwing some light on the source of the large strontium content; this metal being of rare occurrence in surface rocks of this locality. Dr. R. B. Moore who kindly made the determination of the radioactive matter states that the amount is not excessive for water of this character. For the collection of the water the Survey is indebted to Mr. John G. Pew, Vice-President of the Company. BOTANY. — A new shnibby buckeye. W. W. Ashe, Forest Service. Aesculus microcarpa sp. nov. Leaves with slender glabrous pet- ioles, much longer than the middle leaflet; mostly five obovate- oblong leaflets, which are sharply serrate, slender petiolulate, glabrous on unfolding except for minute tufts of hair in the axils of the veins; when mature glabrous, firm in texture and pale be- neath; twigs slender, glabrous, glaucescent. Flowers, opening in Rabun County, Georgia, the last of April and early in May, about 3 cm. long, pale yellow or toward base orange, petals con- nivent, very unequal, puberulent, the claws puberulent; claws of lateral pair longer than calyx tube, the limb ovate or oblong; pedicels slender, mostly longer than the oblong-campanulate puberulent calyx tube. Fruit smooth, about 3 cm. thick, one- seeded, with thin, smooth reddish brown valves; seed spheroid, about 2 cm. in diameter. A shrub 1 to 3 m. in height. Growing with Aesculus pavia L. along rocky banks of streams and open red clay hills of western South Carolina and northern Georgia, between altitudes of 160 and 500 m. Type material which is in the herbarium of the author, is from Cherchero Creek, Rabun County, Georgia; it was collected in April and September, 1911. This shrub is most closely related to Aesculus octandra Marsh, which grows with it along the upper edge of its distribution in Rabun County, Georgia. The flowers of the proposed species are about one-third larger than those of Ae. octandra, more slen- der, not so pubescent, the calyx more tubular, and the thyrse is smaller. The seed is solitary, spheroid, and about one-half the size of that of Ae. octandra. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — The determination of aqueous vapor above Mount Wilson. F. E. FowLE. Astrophysical Journal, 36: 359. 1913. The quantity of precipitable water existing in the form of vapor be- tween the top of Mount Wilson and the outer hmits of our atmosphere during fair weather from June to November, 1910, and 1911, was deter- mined by the spectrobolometric method described in detail in the Astro- physical Journal, 35: 149. 1912 (see this journal, 2:318. 1912). The average quantity present was 0.69 cm. and the range from 0.2 cm. to about 2.8 cm. of precipital)Ie water. The difference in the monthly means would be small but for a few exceptionally moist days in August; almost the dryest day indeed for 1910 was August 13 (0.17 cm.) and the dryest for 1911, September 12 (0.12 cm.). A gradual but generally slow increase in atmospheric water vapor often took place during the observations which extended from about 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. This averaged 0.12 cm. For about 40 per cent of the days this increase was less than 0.1 cm. These spectrobolometric results were then used in a study of the formula of Hann which, with a coefficient determined from balloon and kite observations, has been in use for connecting surface humidities with the quantity of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. This coefficient was redetermined by means of the data above discussed. The general mean for the coefficients (1.8) agrees closely with that derived by Hann (1.9), also with that from Humphrey's data (1.7). The range of values is, however, so great (from 0.33 to 11.80) that we must regard the for- mula, though applicable for mean conditions, as of no value for individ- ual days. F. E. F, 425 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 724th meeting was held on April 12, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. President Abbot in the chair; 55 persons present. ' The minutes of the 723d meeting were read and approved. Mr. R. S. Woodward presented a paper on The laws of falling bodies. The history of the subject, beginning with the first consideration of the problem by Gauss and Laplace 110 years ago, was reviewed. These investigators differed in their conclusions, Gauss maintaining that there is a meridional deviation towards the equator, which Laplace denied. Poisson made some corrections to Gauss's work but accepted his con- clusions, as did most of the subsequent workers. In view of conflicting opinions, differences in experiments, and of obvious defects in the mem- oirs, the speaker has thought it worth while to study the subject further, taking into account the recent work in geodesy. The method of La- grange was used to derive the equations. The height of fall was limited so that there wovild be no exterior effects on account of other bodies. Discussion of equations was carried to terms of the second order and some results of the application of the formulae given. The conclusion reached was that the deviation in the meridional plane due to the rota- tions and figure of the Earth is towards the north. The easterly devia- tion is very much larger than the northerly. There is need of more information regarding the geodesy of the subject. The paper was dis- cussed by Messrs. Bauer, Littlehales, Wead, and Rosa. Mr. C. W. Waidner spoke on Sea water temperatures iyi the vicinity of icebergs, giving results of the experiments carried out by a party of three from the Bureau of Standards on a United States cruiser. The thermometer was a flat rectangular nickel coil enclosed between two copper plates pressed close to the side of the ship and connected to a Leeds and Northrup recorder. The equipment and charts showing some of the records were illustrated by lantern slides. So far as detection of proximity of icebergs is concerned, the general conclusion was that, while such records may be of help, the normal variations are generally so erratic and large in comparison with effect due to icebergs that it is practically impossible to get definite indications from the records. Other experiments made on salinity and density of sea water indicated that nothing could be accomplished, as the diluting effect is infinitesimal. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bauer, Littlehales, and Burrows as to the radiation method from the surface of icebergs and by Mr. Abbot. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. 426 proceedings: biological society 427 THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 512th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held on April 19, 1913 at the Cosmos Club, with Vice-President Hay in the chair and about 30 persons present. Henry Talbott exhibited an unusually large tooth of the fossil shark, Carcharodon megelodon. from South Carolina and by way of compar- ison the much smaller teeth of Odontaspes from Chesapeake Beach, Maryland. Wells W. Cooke commented on the spring migration of birds, not- ing that this year the yellowthroat, redstart, wood thrush and catbird had arrived three da}' s ahead of schedule time. The regular program consisted of a communication by C. D. Marsh, on Stock Poisoning by Larkspur. He stated that ranchmen of the west had long claimed losses of stock due to larkspur, and on scientific in- quiry had found their observations correct, and that the monetary loss was considerable. Altho larkspur occurs in other parts of the world it apparently only causes trouble in the Western United States. The average mortality in affected areas of the west is from 3 to 5 per cent, but as many as 20 head out of a herd of 200 have been fatally poisoned in twenty-four hours. The low larkspur appears to be always dangerous, but the tall only becomes so in August after the fruit matures. The poison is a cumulative one and requires from 3 to 10 per cent of the ani- mal's body weight of larkspur plant to cause death or alarming symp- toms. The symptoms consist of general discomfort, nausea, constipa- tion, a characteristic arching of the back and sudden collapse, followed by partial recovery and a repetition of similar attacks, and if the case is a fatal one, to end in respiratory paralysis and death by asphyxia. Animals do not become immune to the poison. Horses may be experi- mentally poisoned but when feeding on the range do not eat into a patch of larkspur enough to consume a toxic quantity. Sheep are naturally immune to the poison and may be fed a continuous diet of little else than larkspur without showing any symptoms. The cowboy's treatment of the disease is bleeding but the proportion of recoveries by this method is not greater than in natural recovery. Rational treatment consists in placing the poisoned animal on sloping ground with head upward so that the abdominal viscera fall back from the thoracic organs. ^ Drug treatment consists of eserin pilocarpine and strychnine administered hypodermically. Under this method 96 per cent of poisoned animals recover. Alcohol is also effective but less practical. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides, showing the larkspur in detail and on ranges, and numerous animals in various stages of poisoning. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bailey, Weed, Hitchcock, Gill, Lyon and others. The 513th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held on INIay 3, 1913 at the Cosmos Club, with President Nelson in the chair and 56 persons present. 428 proceedings: biological society Dr. H. M. Smith called attention to a large whale shark captured during the past year in Florida waters. It originally measured 38 feet in length, but as now mounted, 45 feet. Pictures of this shark were ex- hibited and extracts from a letter by the captor read. Dr. Smith's remarks were discussed by the chair and by Dr. Gill. BEGULAR PROGRAM The remarkable extinct fauna of southern California revealed in the asphalt deposits near Los Angeles: Dr. C. Hart Merriam. The asphalt in this region was known to the Indians for centuries and was mentioned by the early Spanish padres. Altho remains of animals in the asphalt deposits have been known since about the middle of the last century,. they have only' lately been extensively studied by Dr. J. C. Merriam of the University of California. The viscous asphalt appears to have acted as a natural trap, first entangling certain birds and mammals, which in turn served as bait to larger predatory forms. The remains may be. roughly divided into three groups: (1) Birds, some still existing,*but mostly extinct, among them, hawks, eight genera of eagles, vultures, including both North and South American condors, a condorlike bird, Teratorms of huge size, owls, ravens, herons, a pea- cock; (2) Small mammals, as spermophiles, kangaroorats, etc., and small carnivorous forms as weasels, skunks, badgers, bobcats, grey foxes; (3) Large mammals, as deer, antelopes, buffaloes, elephants, mastodons, glyptodons, and large predatory forms as wolves, mountain lions giant lions, sabertoothed tigers, and bears. Often several individuals of car- nivorous forms, as giant wolves, sabertoothed tigers are associated with a single large ruminant. Discussed by Messrs. Gill, Hay and others. Notes on the big bears of N or th America: Dr. C. Hart Merriam. The speaker commented on the lack of adequate material for a systematic study of these bears. The black bear and allied forms he regarded as constituting a distinct genus from the brown and grizzly bears belonging to the genus Ursus, about forty forms of which could be recognized as inhabiting the North American continent and adjacent islands. Distribution of game animals in Africa: Edmund Heller. Mr. Heller spoke of the life zones and areas of East Africa illustrating the subject with maps, views of topography, and characteristic mammals. The following areas, based mainly upon watersheds, were recognized: West Nile, East Nile, Uganda, East Africa, Abyssinia; and these life zones: Congo Forest, Tropical, Nyika, Highland Veldt, Highland Forest. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary, pro tem. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill OCTOBER 4, 1913 No. 16 CHEMISTRY. The electrolytic reduction of iron for analysis. J. C. HosTETTER. Geophysical Laboratory. Communicated by A. L. Day. In the view of the ease with which reductions can be carried out electrolytically, it is surprising that this subject should have been so neglected in the field of analytical chemistry. The electro- lytic reduction of iron for subsequent titration seems to have attracted little attention. ^ W.th other ends in view, ferric salts have often been reduced by this means. This method has been investigated to some extent by the writer for the specific purpose of subsequent titration, and has been em- ployed by him at intervals during the past year. Since the method is entirely practicable and occasionally very desirable, it may not be amiss to call attention to the conditions to be controlled when this method is used for analytical purposes and to indicate the degree of accuracy of which it is capable. The optimum conditions for complete reduction are primarily those which lessen the formation of oxidizing compounds by the current. The most suitable electrolyte for this particular prob- lem is dilute sulfuric acid. The temperature during electrolysis should be above 60°C. and the current density low. These con- dition s^ are unfavorable to the formation of both hydrogen per- 1 The only work hitherto undertaken from this viewpoint which has come to the attention of the writer, is a paper offered by H. C. Allen at the Rochester meeting of the American Chemical Society (Sept., 1913). The paper was read by title only and appears not to have been published. 2 For discussion of these conditions see Gmelin-Kraut Handb. d. anorg. Ch., 7th Auf., Bd. I, Abt. 1, 128, 558. 429 * 430 hostetter: electrolytic reduction of iron oxide and persulfuric acid. The amount of peroxide formed at the cathode by the action of nascent hydrogen on oxygen diffusing from the anode depends partly on the cathode material.^ Thus Pd, under given conditions, yields most hydrogen peroxide, Pt, and Hg come next, while metals, which do not readily absorb hydrogen, as Au, Ag, Zn, Cu and Pb yield but very little. With oxidizable anodes, such as Mg, Zn, etc., hydrogen is the sole product of the anode.* In the presence of ferrous sulfate, however, the amount of hydrogen peroxide formed in the cathode chamber must necessarily be low. With the reducing action of the current any peroxide would oxidize the ferrous sulfate to ferric and this, in turn, would be reduced by the current. This was tested out experimentally with 1 mg. of iron present and found to be true. Therefore, the time of electrolysis after complete reduction can produce no excess consumption of permanganate due to peroxide formation. Considering the above facts, it was decided to use a gold dish of 800 cc. capacity as cathode (effective surface, 200 sq. cm.). Inasmuch as soluble anodes yield no oxidizing materials in the solution, Mg and amalgamated Zn anodes were first employed. By this means, the reduction is made very rapid and the use of a porous cell around the anode is dispensed with. Since, however, it is difficult to obtain these metals free from impurity, such as iron — thus introducing a correction — the use of soluble anodes was abandoned and a Pt anode with porous cell substituted. The use of a porous cell as an anode chamber introduces two sources of error: (1) The absorption of iron salt by the cell itself; (2) diffusion of iron into the anode chamber where it is immedi- ately oxidized. The first is probably negligible since the cell "seasons" rapidly. The second is made neghgible in the follow- ing manner. W^hen the reduction is complete in the cathode chamber — as shown by test for ferric iron with thiocyanate — the current is stopped, the contents of the anode chamber poured into the cathode chamber and, after filling the anode chamber with fresh acid, the current is allowed to run some 5 to 10 minutes ' M. Traube, Ber. 15: 2434. 1882. ' Cf. Elsasser, Ber., 9: 1818. 1876; 11: 587. 1878. hostetter: electrolytic reduction of iron 431 longer until the last of the iron is reduced. In this manner, the iron left in the anode chamber at the end of the electrolysis is reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 mg. A siphon connecting the two chambers was also employed to lessen this diffusion. The large currents, however, caused so much heating in the siphon tube that its use was abandoned in favor of the above scheme. Of the materials tested for suitability as porous cells, the un- glazed ]\Iarquardt porcelain crucibles (20 cc.) seem to answer best. To keep spray from the anode out of the cathode chamber, TABLE I Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate GR.iMS KMn04 soLN. (0.1 N) AMOUNT OF S.VLT TITRATED DIRECTLY REDUCED ELECTROLYTICALLY AFTER OXIDATION 3000 mg. 89.53 89.43 3000 mg. 89.44 89.40 3000 mg. 89.47 TABLE II Electrolytic Reduction of Ferric Ammonium Sulfate Solution Fe PRESENT TIME OP RE- DUCTION VOLTS AMPERES Fe IN ANODE CH.VMBER Fe IN 1 GRAM SOLUTION 570 mg. 570 mg. 570 mg. 150 mg. 780 mill. 79 mill. 109 min. 60 mill. 2.5-8.5 6.0-7.0 4.5-9.0 6.5-10.0 0.35-8.5 8.0-10.0 4.8-10.0 8 0.29 mg. 0.11 mg. 0.22 mg. 0.15 mg. 0.005693 0.005696 0.005690 0.005709 570 mg. 570 mg. Reduction with Zinc 0.005702 0.005695 570 mg. Reduction with SO2 0.005684 the top of the crucible is covered with a funnel of the same dia- meter. The anode lead is brought down thru the stem. The funnel is clamped over the crucible with a frame of glass rod; tension is secured with rubber bands. Oxygen escapes thru a lateral hole in the funnel stem. The anode is of Pt foil with an effective area of some 28 sq. cm. / The Method. The ferric (sulfate) solution (volume 300 cc.) is placed in the gold dish (cathode) and 10 cc. sulfuric acid (1.84) 432 cobb: new nematode genera added. The anode chamber is filled with acid (1 : 30), the anode inserted and electrolysis started. The temperature is raised to 80°C. The current employed is about 8 amperes, while the volt- age drop across the cell is 8 volts. Under these conditions 0.5 gram iron is reduced to the ferrous condition in 60 to 70 minutes. After a drop test with thiocyanate shows that reduction in the cathode chamber is complete, the current is stopped, the anode chamber acid is added to the main solution and, after refilling the anode chamber, the electrolysis is continued 10 minutes. At the end of this time the cathode liquid is titrated with permanganate. It will be seen that the method as carried out is not particularly rapid. On the other hand its favorable features are : (1) nothing is introduced into the solution that may carry impurity, and (2) conditions need be defined only within wide limits. The accuracy of the method can only be determined by more extensive compari- son with reductions by other methods. The precision attainable under the best conditions is shown in Table I and II. Under ordinary conditions a precision of better than 1 part in 200 or 300 can not be expected until after the method has been more completely developed. HELMINTHOLOGY. — New nematode genera found inhabiting fresh water and non-brackish soils. N. A. Cobb, Bureau of Plant Industry. Communicated by Walter T. Swingle. The following pages give the characters of twenty-six proposed new nematode genera, as well as those of a type species' for each genus. Seventy-three per cent of these genera are found in arable soils in various parts of the world. Nearly half of them have come to light thru a study of the soils of the Arlington Farm of the United States Department of Agriculture, located on the Potomac River, in Alexandria County, Virginia, directly oppo- site Washington, D. C. In the following pages wherever the word '^4rlington" is used, it refers exclusively to this farm. As this farm is close to the District of Columbia, and its soils similar to those of the District, it may be assumed that all the species cobb: new nematode genera 433 found at Arlington occur in the District of Columbia, and prob- ably also in adjacent parts of Maryland and Virginia. Nine-tenths of the proposed genera are due to the discovery of new forms; the others are proposed on the basis of later in- vestigations of species earlier made known, and assigned, with some doubt, to existing genera. A number of the genera are known to the writer to contain numerous species, and in such cases it has been possible to select as a type species one already known to be thoroly representative of a well defined generic group. Most of these genera are injurious to vegetation, and many of them contain species that are very abundant and widespread. The morphology, physiology, life-history, distribution and eco- nomic relationships of the species belonging to these genera will be treated in a separate publication. The following diagram illustrates the nature of the formula used in the tabulation of the various necessary measurements: „ ,■■- 88^ Fig. 1. Diagram of the descriptive decimal formula used for nematodes; 6, 7, 8, 10, 6 are the transverse measurements, while 7, 14, 28, 50, 88 are the correpond- ing longitudinal measurements. The formula in this case is : 7. 14. 28. 50. 88. 6. 7. 8. 10. 6. The unit of measurement is the hundredth part of the length of the body, whatever that may be. The measurements become, therefore, percentages of the length. The absolute length is ^iven in millimeters as a final non-paired term. The measurements are taken with the animal viewed in profile; the first are taken at the base of the pharynx, the second at the nerve-ring, the third at the cardiac constriction or end of the neck, the fourth at the vulva in females and at the middle (M) in males, the fifth at the anus. Owing to the fact that the measurements vary somewhat with varying technique, a brief note as to the method of fixation and 434 cobb: new nematode genera KEY AKD CHAHACTERS She iollowlng characters are common to all known species of these twenty- Six proposed new genera: pharynx present, all known males have two equal spicula; no bursa, except in Eutylenchus. Diploseapter . ana Isonehus: no eye-spots. MOUTH ARMED WITH AN AXIAL^ no spinneret ; quite naked,(Exe.2 & 3). Spear bulbed at base. 1-3^ of body-length(Exo.l&4) ;no amphidsl Exc .l&G) Canal Dorylaimoid *amphids stirrupform;Hd .papillate, -rf- '8' •** Canal Tylenchoid ;** spear 6-80$S of body-length in lota- Cephalic setae four; striae coarse; renette present. Bursa none;skin grooved lengthwise; no lips. -rf -9 Bursa ribless; skin not grooved; lips 3. -rf Cephalic setae none;renette present .doubtful in 6&7. Striae huge .retrorse; oesophageal bulbs faint. -rf -9 Striae fine! or none in 6); has oesophageal swellings. Head somewhat beaklike, lipless; renette present. ;rf -5- Head as usual, not beaklike; renette( pore)present . Lips papillate; spear diffuse; amphids slitlike, -rf? '$'' Lip-region helmeted ; spear obvious ; no lips or papillae. =cf -9- Spear plain. amphids stirrupf orm(unknown in 8&ll);no renette(Exc .in 8 Canal Tylenchoid ;** striae coarse; lipless;bursa ribbed. -cT -? Canal Dorylaimoid;* striae finelor 0);lips 6(0 in 14 ) ,bi-papillate. Vestibule broad; spear acute ,cylindroid. Lip region discoid, much expanded. '9' Lip region not discoid;(f's with 2 anal papillae side by side. Labial ribs uniform, not grouped;llps united. -J- '9' Labial ribs in groups, lips distinct. '9' Vestibule small or none. Lip region protrudable. -rf- '9' Lip region not protrudable. Spear conoid, short, toothlike. Spear slender, very long, 40% of neck, flexible. -""|--,y— ~-g;9 "ivs" '^ ™"' slender, spreading, nearly as long ~ as the head is wide. Spear acute, shaft half as wide as the adjacent annules; its bulb twice as wide. Median bulb ellipsoidal, half as wide as the neck with small valve; posterior swelling oblong, half as wide as the neck, without valve. No supplementary organs or special male papillae or setae. Spicula arcuate, one and one-third times as long as the anal body diameter, tapering; constricted slightly at the proximal end. Hot sublimate to balsam. Habitat; distribution. On roots of cranberries {Oxycoccus macrocarpus) , Cranberry bog, New Lisbon, New Jersey, Atwood Grove, Fla. 3. Eutylenchus n. g. setiferus (Cobb) n. Comb. r^ .2.-.5 .i.o.-.-r .!&.• 7K......Ski.^. .7 mm. Amphids unknown. Caudal glands '~ * probably absent. Supplementary organs absent. Other characters as given in the original description of the species. (Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. IV, Part 10, Oct., 1893.) Measured fresh. Habitat ; distribution. Genus here established for the reception of the writer's Tylenchus setiferus, found about the roots of plants in Northern New South Wales, Australia. Tylenchus setiferus, Cobb, thus becomes the writer's Eutylen- chus setiferus. 4. Iota squamosa, n.g., n.sp. Striae about 150, each subdivided, r_ ...•.7.....(.i.5:.!....?.Q.-.-^.-..2.?.-....!.5.4— ?.§-• 8 mm. and consisting of eight squamules. l^ £.6 (7.) 7,2- 7,3 5.3 3.9 .,• j -i 37 Spear one-third as wide as one (;^ „,.7...Jiaa......V.:..2.2...^..rM....5.|.:.^.. .3 mm. of ^^e annules, posterior fourth twice as wide; bulbous base one- third as wide as the neck. Tail convex-conoid, of nine annules. Vulva between the twelfth and thirteenth annules. No male supplementary organs or pap- illae. Spicula twice as long as the anal body-diameter, slender, tapering, acute. 438 cobb: new nematode genera proximal third a little wider and uniform. Flemming to glycerine. The meas- urements in parentheses are taken at the base of the spear. Habitat; distribution. Roots of Mango, Bangalore, India. The genus Iota is widespread in acid soils, swamps, bogs, etc., and doubtless contains many species, a number of which are known to the writer from various parts of the United States, Europe, Australia and Oceanica. The males, in some species at least, at the final moult, become much longer and slenderer, and lose the oral spear. Many species onlj^ about 0.5 mm. long; relatively very wide and inflex- ible, with coarse retrorse annules. 5. Tylenchorhynchus cylindricus, n.g., n.sp. Wings indicated by two longi- /-_ .9 . ii.6/._. .17.8 ...-57- 94..3.... .7 mm. tudinal lines. Head with '^— .9 3.2 ~ 3.J 3.1 3.1 • ^ • •. , J , ■^■ minute six-ribbed, chitmous, C^ :| ^2'^'' = ^lii '^.5 ^Ili ^* "™* yellowish framework with in- distinct posterior equatorial band. Spear minute, barely knobbed at base- Median bulb prolate, half as wide as the neck with an obscure elongated valve; cardiac swelling pyriform, three-fourths as wide as the neck. Excretory pore — uncertain. Hot sublimate to balsam. Habitat; distribution. A single species from the soil of reclaimed coastal swamp lands. Southern California. 6. Archionchus perplexans, n.g., n.sp. Papillae marginal, spreading. r-=,, 4.2 13.2/^ 25. 'bV 94.8 .5 ^. Amphids transverse, half as long " ' ' 43 ' as the head is wide. Pharynx ^=■0 1^1 — •''b's = ^ai? — ^TTs ^a!i - '^ '°°' twice as deep as head is wide; surrounded by distinct, massive, muscular sac, set off from the oesophagus by a constriction. Spear tooth- like at the end of large, tubular apophysis, which is prominently expanded at its base. Tooth and apophysis thrust forward together. Oesophagus^ tubular, one- fourth as wide as the neck, widening gradually in the posterior third to half as wide as the neck. . Oesophageal tube not passing through the tooth. Intestine joining the middle of the posterior surface of the oesophageal swelling. Supple- mentary organs two, one in front of the other, mammiform, opposite the posterior half of the spicula. Spicula one and one-half times as long as the anal body diam- eter, tapering slightly, rather blunt; proximal ends cephalated by constriction. Flemming to glycerine. Resembles Chaolaimus, Cobb. Habitat; distribution. This species from the roots of pasture plants, Arling- ton; citrus roots, Valencia, Spain. A widespread genus. 7. Nemonchus galeatus, n.g., n.sp. Lips connate, amphids unknown. C;=. 5L.3....7.5/_ 11,6. ...r§4.-.. 9.5.9 5^,5 „jn. Spear relatively massive, four .8 1. 1.3 1.5 1.. , ii i_ J • go tunes as long as the head is (;=- \'l {'"^--^^'X "2.2 ^iil 1-3 mm. wide; anterior portion about one-sixth as wide as the head, somewhat more distinctly chitinized than posterior two-fifths which is twice cobb: new nematode genera 439 as wide. Bulb of spear two-fifths as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. Median bulb ellipsoidal, two-thirds as wide as the neck. No supplemen- tary organs or special male papillae. Spicula about three times as long as the anal body diameter extending nearly straight forward, but slightly arcuate, and tapering in the distal third to the blunt, somewhat cephalated tips; proximal two-thirds uniform, one-fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the body. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. A single species from Arlington. 8. Isonchus radicicolus, n.g., n.sp. Wing single. Spear simple, mi- C^ lis |l|^"^2:8 "a! ^f:f ■ 1-1 """• nute, with double guide, some- what wider than one of the f_ 2.2 10,3/_ 11.8 -M 96.5. .8mm. ,. , , tj . x *-"^ 1.9 3^ z.i 3.8 2.5 adjacent annules. rrolate me- dian bulb, two-thirds as wide as the neck. Posterior swelling fully half as wide as neck, ending indefi- nitely. No male supplementary organs or papillae. Spicula tapering, one and one-half times as long as the anal body diameter; proximal ends cephalated by constriction. Accessory piece parallel, half as long. Bursa extending from opposite the proximal ends of the spicula to terminus; one rib barely in front of the anus; four others together toward the terminus, all smaller, especially the final. Female tail with two terminal innervations. Bursa with ribs more numer- ous and more strongly developed than in Tylenchus. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. Single species from soil about the roots of cotton plants, Springfield, South Carolina. 9. Discolaimus texanus, n.g., n.sp. r^ .5 8.2 24.1 .'41^° 97.9 1.3 mm. ^^P^ connate, palmately innervated, ^ '' 1.4 2.6 3. 3.2 1.9 margin crenate. Papillae several to each lip. Amphids half as wide as the corresponding part of the head, appar- ently connnected with lateral series of spaced ellipsoidal internal structures extending from end to end of the body. Spear tapering, rather stout, about as long as the lip region is wide, with single guiding-ring. Posterior three-fifths of the oesophagus, two-thirds as wide as the neck; lining very distinct. All the characters of Dorylaimus, but with the lip-region strongly modified to form a mobile sucking disk for use in opposition to the spear. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. The present species from the roots of alfalfa, San Antonio, Texas, and from roots of citrus trees. Riverside, California. Wide- spread genus, known to the writer from the West Indies, Texas, California, Japan and Europe. 10. Actinolaimus radiatus, n.g., n.sp. Amphids about one-third as wide C:^c j| Ifl — '^{[r, '^e! ^rX' ^'^ '™' as the head. Pharynx as deep as head is wide, lined with six radia- Vw- — '^i.s 3. 3.6 2. 1.4 tmg grooved, strong, chitmous ribs. Mouth opening circular, half as wide as the head, very finely corrugated, leading to the cup-shaped pharynx. Spear somewhat longer than the head is wide, one-fifth as wide as the head, with 440 cobb: new nematode genera single, distinct, guiding ring. Oesophagus widening considerably in front of the middle to three-fourths as wide as the neck. First fascicle of nine supple- mentary organs about twice as far in front of the anus as the proximal ends of the spicula; second fascicle of about five, about twice as far from the anus as the first; third fascicle of two still ftirther forward; the larger fascicles one-fourth as long as the body is wide. Spicula faintly constricted in the middle, taper- ing both ways; not cephalated; twice as long as the anal body diameter. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. Roots of plants and among algae, Potomac River and its banks, Arlington Farm near Washington, D. C; Douglas Lake, Mich. Genus represented in all parts of the woiid, and proposed for the reception of species similar to the writer's Dorylaimus labyrinthostomus, in which the pharynx is more or less immobile, radially striated and elaborately constructed. Dorylaimus labyrinthostomus, Cobb, thus becomes Actinolaimus labyrinthostomus (Cobb). 11. Antholaimus truncatus, n.g., n.sp. r-=. ..9 8- 2?.. .....'49^*. 99...... 1.5 mn. ^^P^ angular. Amphids unknown. 1.5 3.5 4.1 3.8 2.6 Spear small, nearly as long as the lip region is wide. Pharynx cup-shaped, then fitting the spear. Oesophagus very narrow, very suddenly enlarging a little in front of the middle to three-fourths the width of the neck; lining unusually massive. Chain of contiguous circular organs throughout the length of the body in the lateral fields, one-fourth to one-third as wide as the body. Characters of Dorylaimus, but with the lips petaloid and strongly developed, and specially modified and mobile. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. A single species from the roots of cotton plants, South Carolina. 12. Dorylaimellus virginianus, n.g., n.sp. Head set off by a narrow con- C:^c;-| 1^1 ^^ 3^^ ?|^ 1.5 n^. striction. Lips connate, rounded; one set of papillae near the mouth r_-.4 6.4 £4.3 -M- 96.5 1.4 mm. ■ u.-t^ xu xu l-=^.7 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.5 -^'^ """• openmg, the other on the margm of the head. Amphids three- fourths as wide as the head. Spear Dorylaimoid, compound; first and second sections of equal length, each a little shorter than the head is wide; third section a little longer, expanded, faintly chitinized; followed by a short constriction, and then a rudimentary, elongated, ellipsoidal oeosphageal bulb one-third as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. Posterior half of the oesophagus three-fifths as wide as the neck. Supplementary organs in iso- lated pairs located one in front of the other, one pair as far from the anus as is the terminus, the other twice as far, all flattish-conoid. Spicula as long as the anal body diameter; plump, strongly tapering, bent at the middle, cephalated by expansion, without accessory pieces. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. A single species from Arlington. cobb: new nematode genera 441 13. Nygolaimus pachydermatus, n.g., n.sp. 7.7 22. 56 98. 1.9 2.4 ■ 2.5 1.9 f-=^r- -6 v-7 22. 56 ^?*„-- 1.8 nrni. Measurements derived from a t— t^l.l 1.9 2.4 2.5 1.9 . r^ +• 1 X, - 1 young specimen. Cuticle thicker on the tail. Lips connate, set off by constriction. Amphids half as wide as the corresponding part of the head. Spear half as long as the head is wide, conical, slender, pointed, tooth-like; without guiding-ring. Posterior half of the oesoph- agus enlarged to three-fourths the width of the neck. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. A single species from roots of cherry trees, Tokyo, Japan. Other species occur in Eastern United States. 14. Trichodorus obtusus, n.g., n.sp. Papillae fiattish-conoid, outward r^.^'LiA Li^J IL; 22.^ — IMl — ii^^- i. mm. pointing, on margin of head. ^— '^l.g (3.3) 3,6 4.1 4.V 2.3 \ f ° . Amphids nearly halt as wide as a^^l'.l (lis) ^sU ^3:9 ~4.4 ^2.1 ^-^ """• the head. Pharynx exceedingly narrow. Spear flexible, exceed- ingly slender, inclosed in a long muscular sheath. Oesophagus mainly narrow and tubular, about one-sixth as wide as the neck. Supplementary organs three, fiattish-conoid, distinctly interrupting the ventral contour; the hindermost opposite the proximal ends of the spicula; the second twice ais far from the anus as the first ; third nearly twice as far from the anus as the second. Spicula slender, uniform; proximal ends cephalated by expansion. Flemming to glycerine. The measurements in parentheses are taken at the base of the spear. Habitat ; distribution. Several species from various parts of the United States, the present one from about the roots of grasses, Arlington. 15. Achromadora n.g. minima (Cobb) r*.o2-8 "^^ ■ 17. . .'45' 87. sinin,. Habitat; distribution. Genus pro- L''^2.5 ? • 3^ 4.4 2.8 J t \-u 4.- f+i, •; ' posed for the reception ot the writer s Chromadore minima, and similar soil and fresh-water species. Distinguished from Chromadora by the presence of well developed spiral amphids. The dor- sal tooth is farther back and is opposed by a small ventral "pocket" as shown in the figure of Chromadora minima. Measured fresh. Species found, probably, in all parts of the world. Species are known to the writer from Australia, Fiji, and various parts of the United States. 16. Cryptonchus nudus, n.g., n.sp. <_ 3.2 9.2^ 26. . '54^*. .91. > 1.9 mm. Striae resolvable with difficulty, and '-""'^1.4 i.v ■ 2. 2.2 1.5 ^jj^Q rows of dots. Lips six, rather inconspicuous, each with one papilla. Amphids as wide as pharynx, about one- fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck; located opposite the junction of the first and second quarters of the pharynx. Oesophagus plain, half as wide as neck, lining relatively massive. Eggs elongated. Hot sublimate to balsam and Flemming to glycerine. Caudal gland apparently a single cell. Habitat; distribution. Single species. Differs from Cylindrolaimus in the form of the amphids, and the strongly developed oesophagus with its various regions, and in the presence of a dorsal tooth at the base of the pharynx and in the absence of setae. Found about the roots of aquatic plants, Potomac River, Arlington and in Douglas Lake, Mich. 442 cobb: new nematode genera 17. Nannonchus granulatus, n.g., n.sp. Head continuous. Lips six, thin, ?,^ol.4 9.3 17. '52'*^'' .91. ,i.imra. arched over pharynx, each with one f^^l.e ""3. 3.4 4.3 2.5 .,, o . , ,■, . . -u 9.3 " 3 . 17. 3.4 ■52?^ 4.3 91. 2.5 > 1.1 mm. Hf 8.7 2.9 15. ■ 3.3" M 3.6 82. 2.5 > 1 .3 nun* papilla. Spiral amphids of two winds, one-fourth as wide as the head. Oesophagus two-thirds as wide as the head; finally expanding to two-fifths as wide as the base of the neck; lining very distinct. Eggs ellipsoidal, as long as the body is wide. No supplementary male organs or papillae; about seven finger-shaped ventrally submedian setae on the anterior two-thirds of the tail. Spicula tapering, nearly straight, somewhat longer than the anal body diameter, accompanied by a relatively massive acces- sory piece, parallel to and two-thirds as long as themselves. Distal end of ac- cessory piece expanded laterally, and relatively massive. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. A single species found about roots of aquatic plants, Potomac River, Arlington. Another similar species, Long Key, Fla. 18. Oionchus obtusus, n.g., n.sp. /-^ 2.5 7.6/? .23, '57^^ 98- . , .9 mm. ^eck conoid, convex-conoid at the t^^^2.5 3.6 4.6 4.2 2.9 head. Lips confluent; region low, flat. Amphids at the slight labial constriction; one-fourth as wide as the lip region. Pharynx narrow; cylindroid or prismoid. Somewhat arcuate dorsal tooth, like a short Dorylaimoid spear, but not hollow. Oesophagus beginning two-fifths as wide as the head, almost imperceptibly expanding to the middle; thence cylindrical, and one-half as wide as the neck; three small organs at base, as in Trilobus. Lining very distinct. Peculiar series of four small internal lateral organs just be- hind the neck. Terminus of tail with peculiar large pore, presumably a peculiar spinneret pore. Eggs elongated. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. About the roots of grass, borders of irrigation ditch, Jamaica, West Indies. 19. Udonchus tenuicaudatus, n.g., n.sp. - . ,- ,,25 Traces of labial papillae. Amphids 0, „ 1-9 8.4 „ 16. 01 °°: > .5 mm. ^ ^ — °2.3 3.2 3.ii 3.6 2.6 transverse, ellipsoidal, one-fifth as ong as the corresponding diameter of the neck. Pharynx cyathiform, then narrow, with small, acute, narrow, forward-pointing dorsal tooth at the base of cyathiform portion, opposed by a very minute ventral tooth. Anterior two- fifths of the oesophagus three-fifths as wide as head, then suddenly slightly increasing in diameter, so that at the nerve-ring it is half as wide as the neck; enlarging finally into a spherical bulb with simple valve. Thin-shelled eggs, elongated, one at a time in the uterus. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. On aquatic plants and among algae. Cockpit Springs, Jamaica, West Indies. 20. Diploscapter n.g. coronata (Cobb) Habitat; distribution. Com- C_ 4.5... i6,5/_. 24.2 .'55' .89.5 .4 mm. mon about the roots of diseased V 4 . 5^4 6.1 6 . o c . o 50 plants, especially in warm coun- C= i:!" • -iii =■ -Ls '7.1 '5:2 -2^ - '^5 '"'"• tries. Genus established to re- ceive the writer's Rhabdilis cobb: new nematode genera 443 coronata. Flemming to glycerine. This species occurs in Fiji, Panama, Europe, Africa, and the United States. Possibly more than one species may be repre- sented in the descriptions of the various authors who have reported upon Rhab- ditis coronata, or, as now proposed, Diploscapter coronata. 21. Haliplectus pellucidus, n.g., n.sp. gg Head end markedly convex-conoid, /-— r, -5 . 7.3 11.6 '43' 95.2 ,x. mm. finally truncated: no cephalic se- ^— °1.1 2.J 2^7 3.1 2.3 ^ ' ,, , . 65 tae. Pharynx apparently absent, (;=0j^-^ I'l ■'■gle ~z~s ^I'.l '''■• ""• really present and narrow. Am- phids circular, one-third as wide as corresponding part of neck; located one-third the distance to the median bulb. Oesophagus one-half as wide as the head, to the relatively small ellip- soidal median bulb, which is two-fifths as wide as the middle of the neck. Cardiac bulb oblate, five-sixths as wide as neck, with rather simple, elongated ellipsoidal striated valve. Opposite the spicula a ventral row of six small somewhat hemispherical, equidistant, contiguous, innervated supplementary or- gans. Post-anal flatfish, inconspicuous papillae to the number of about six on each side, — -two ventrally submedian on the anterior half, and four subventral, rather evenly distributed. Spicula arcuate, uniform, yellowish, one and one- fifth times as long as the anal body-diameter; proximal ends plain. Accessory piece yellow, more or less parallel, half as long. Hot sublimate to balsam. Habitat; distribution. Found in brackish and sometimes in fresh water in the Eastern States. Several species found on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. 22. Wilsonema cephalatum, n.g., n.sp. r— o 4...1 i7.../..-^„.28^ :s.2.' .??.t.™.>.3 mm. Habitat ; distribution. Genus proposed ^ 3.9 5. 5_// 7-1 o-'i r 2^1 X- r • ■ -1 J. for the reception of species similar to Plectus otophorus, de Man, Plectus auriculatus, Blitschli, and Plectus cephalatus, Cobb. This genus is doubtless worldwide in its distribution. Known to the writer from Australia, North America and Europe. Flemming to glycerine. Species probably fairly numerous and individuals of certain species very widespread. The present remarkable species is widespread in the United States, in arable soils. Named in honor of James Wilson, for sixteen years Secretary of Agriculture of the United States. 23. Gymnolaimus n. g. exilis (Cobb) 4.5 7.5 23. -46^"^ 73. i.07 mm. Habitat; distribution. Genus pro- ^~ 1.6 1.9 2.1 2. 1. • posed for the writer's Aulolaimus exilis, from Fiji. Differs from Cylindrolaimus in absence of amphids, caudal glands and cephalic setae. Measured fresh. 24. Chronogaster gracilis, n.g., n.sp. Striae about 650. Lips three, r ^1.5 11./ • 25. '56 89. ,1.2 mm. somewhat confluent. Amphids L^^ "^ 1.2 ' 2.3- 2.6 3. 1.6 1 in • 1 1, J T)U ^ 4g half as wide as head. Pharyjmx r=-D^-^ . 12..1./. 2^.1. -M- . 92-.7 >i.i mm. ^s deep as the head is wide, one- i. '^ .9 1.9 • 2^ 2.4 1.9 ,. , ., ,, ,• • third as wide as the up region. 444 cobb: new nematode genera Oesophagus half as wide as the neck. Cardiac bulb three-fourths as wide as the neck, joined to the intestine by a slender ampulla as long as the neck is wide. Eggs elongated, one at a time in the uterus. Spinneret with about four finger-shaped, rather backward pointing setae, each not much longer than the width of one of the adjacent annules. Spicula slender, tapering, actite, barely cephalated, one and one-half times as long as the anal body diameter. Supple- mentary organs nine, oblique, tubular, arcuate, protrudable, half to four-fifths as long as the body is wide, occupying a distance twice as great as the length of the tail, smaller and more amply spaced anteriorly, hindermost opposite the proximal ends of the spicula. Hot sublimate to balsam. * Habitat; distribution. Potomac River, near Washington, D. C. Douglas Lake, Mich. 25. Anonchus monohystera, n.g., n.sp. Striae about 500. About forty inter- j'__^i..4 8.2/„.l7r '5Q...,.85.. ., 1. n,ni. nal ellipsoidal bodies in each lat- ^' ' ' * ' eral field, spaced, in two series. [=a|-^ ■ I'^^^^ils '2.9 ^i-9^^" """* No cephalic papillae. Amphid one- • ' fifth as wide as head. Pharynx half as wide as head; about as deep as wide. Oesophagus nearly half as wide as the neck, joined to the intestine by a narrow cardia as long as the neck is wide. Twenty tubular supplementary organs, each one-third as long as the body is wide, extending from the anus to the middle of the body, and continued to the head by a series of about seventy minute depressions. Four to five well devel- oped ventral, sublateral setae on the tail, one in front of the anus. Spicula slender, twice as long as the anal body diameter; proximal ends slightly cephal- ated by expansion, accompanied by accessory piece near the anus and extending inward and slightly backward. Hot sublimate to balsam. Habitat; distribution. Potomac River, near Washington, D. C. Douglas Lake, Mich. 26. Trischistoma pellucida, n.g., n.sp. ^.e 9.1 22. '80^^ 92. . A mm. Cuticle naked, plain. Head continu- l'^'^2.. 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.1 ^^g Pharynx Unarmed. Oesopha- gus two-thirds as wide as neck. Cardia rather cylindrical, two-thirds as long as the diameter of the neck. Tail terminus one-sixth as wide as the base of the tail; apiculate by what appears to be a very minute spinneret. Flemming to glycerine. Habitat; distribution. Roots of sugar cane, Jamaica, West Indies. Re- sembles Trilobus Bastian. There is an European species. Errata. On p. 434 Trichodora should read Trichodorus. " " 435 T. obtura should read T. obturus. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Park City district, Utah. John Mason Boutwell, with contributions by Lester Hood WooLSEY. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 77. Pp. 231, with maps, views, and sections. 1912. The greatest geologic activity in the Wasatch Mountains took place in the middle portion at its junction with the great east-west Uinta Range. Within this area the most diverse formations are found on a prominent spur which extends eastward from the main divide. Extensive and irregular intrusion, widespread extrusion, thoro contact metamorphism, persistent and recurrent faulting, and glaciation have produced in a comparatively small area highly varied and complex results. At the heart of the area, in the focus of these contending factors, have been formed the most extensive and richest ore bodies in the range. This area is known as the Park City district. The general anticlinal structure of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds which characterizes the Wasatch as a whole is interrupted in the Park City district by a transverse (east-west) anticline or dome. Sediments ranging from Cambrian to Tertiary here dip quaquaversally from a series of laccolithic masses. It is noteworthy that these intrusions have taken place along the line of the Uinta axis extended westward. The doming by these masses athwart the general course of the Wasatch naturally raises a query as to similar action in the formation of the Uintas. This transverse Wasatch dome and the. Uinta dome are sepa- rated topographically though not structurally by a north-south trough. Into this, and thus blanketing the surface connection of these structures, have flowed extensive and thick masses of andesite. The Park City district is traversed diagonally by this axis. Here the sediments include 445 446 abstracts: geology beds ranging in age from lower Carboniferous to Triassic. They have been cut, deformed, and altered by a series of instrusives including the highest of the laccolithic masses and the upward cutting stocklike and dikelike masses which extend northeastward diagonally across the area to the andesite flows which cover the sediments at the northeast. These sediments rim around the instrusives and dip off from them to the northwest, north, northeast, east, and southeast. The sedimentary rocks of the Park City district are separable into six divisions. The lowest comprises quartzites and limestones, each mapped separately. The quartzites are unfossiliferous but undoubtedly repre- sent the Weber quartzite (of Pennsylvanian age). Some of the lime- stones, however, are of Pennsylvanian age, and others have yielded lower Mississippian (Madison) fossils. Overlying the quartzite is the Park City formation, consisting of limestone and sandstone. The Park City formation has not furnished very abundant or well-preserved fos- sils, but the fauna obtained from it is characteristic and has provisionally been referred to the Permian. Next above is the Woodside shale, un- fossiliferous in the Park City district, but in Idaho it has yielded a fauna which is quite different from that of the Park City formation and closely related to that of the overlying Thaynes formation. The Thaynes has been recognized in Idaho and Wyoming and includes the well-known Meekoceras zone, the typical lower Triassic of North America. These characteristic cephalopods have not yet been definitely recognized in the Thaynes formation in this district, but Meekoceras types have been found at the same horizon elsewhere. The next formation is the Ankareh shale, whose fauna does not differ conspicuously from that of the Thaynes, which lies below. Overlying the Ankareh shale is the basal part of the Nugget sandstone, whose age has not been definitely determined, but is either Jurassic or Triassic and which in the Park City district is repre- sented by beds 515 feet thick. A few miles to the northwest of the district the Nugget sandstone is thicker and is overlain by the Twin Creek limestone of Jurassic age. The ores of the Park City district occur as lode deposits and as bedded deposits in sedimentary and intrusive country rocks. The two types of deposits are commonly associated thruout the region, tho some lodes and veins occur alone.. The facts indicate that between early Triassic and early Tertiary time dioritic intrusives invaded this area, metamorphosed the sediments, and induced the deposition of rich lead-silver ores in certain members of the calcareous formations; that after these intrusives had cooled to at least references: geology 447 partial rigidity, the composite country rock was broken by persistent fractures in northeast-southwest directions; that aqueous solutions of alkaline nature and some gases arising from the deep-lying* still molten portion of the magma transported ore-making elements outward toward the surface; that these were deposited, on attaining suitably lower tem- peratures and pressures, as lead-silver ores with associated copper and gold in the form of bedded deposits in limestone and lode deposits in fissures, by replacing certain more nearly pure limestone members along and adjacent to feeding fissures and partly by filling fissures, partly by replacing their walls; that movement recurred along these northeast - southwest fissures brecciating and faulting the ore and was followed by fracturing in a northwest-southeast direction; and that along the path- ways thus formed waters descending from the surface have altered the superficial portions of the primary sulfide ores to rich oxide and carbon- ate ores, and that this process is still in progress. J. M. B. REFERENCES GEOLOGY.— T/ie mining districts of the western United States. James M. Hill, with geologic introduction by Waldemar Lindgren. U. S. Geological Sur- vey Bulletin .507. Pp. 309, with maps, views, and sections. 1912. .Bibliography of North American Geology for 1911. John M. Nickles. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 524. Pp. 162, including subject index. 1912. Thirty-third Annual Report of Director of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior. Pp. 175, with maps and sections. 1912. ENGINEERING.— i^esiiZ^.s of spirit leveling in New York, 1906 to 1911, inclusive. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer. Work done in cooperation with State of New York. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 514. Pp. 139. 1912. Results of spirit leveling in Pennsylvania, 1899 to 1911, inclusive. R. B. Mar- shall, Chief Geographer. Work done in cooperation with State of Pennsyl- vania. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 515. Pp. 164. 1912. Results of spirit leveling in Florida, 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 516. Pp. 23. 1912. Results of spirit leveling in Alabama, 1911, R. B. Marshall, Chief Geogra- pher. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 517. Pp. 38. 1912. Results of spirit leveling in Ohio, 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer. Work done in cooperation with the State of Ohio. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 518. Pp. 108. 1912. Results of spirit leveling in Tennessee, 1910 and 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 519. Pp. 45. 1912. B.YT>ROhOGY .—Surf ace-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part XI. Pacific Coast in California. Prepared by W. B. Clapp, F. F. Henshaw, and H. D. McGlashan. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 291. Pp. 218, views, and sections. 1912. 448 references: hydrology Surface-water supply of the South Atlantic coast and 'eastern Gulf of Mexico, 1909. M. R. Hall and R. H.. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper No. 262. Pp. 150, 5 pis. 1910. Surface-water supply of the St. Lawrence River basin, 1909. C. C. Covert, A. H. HoRTON, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 264. Pp. 130. 1910. Surface-water supply of the North Pacific coast, 1909. J. C. Stevens and F. F. Henshaw. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 272. Pp. 521, 8 pis. 1911. Surface-ivater supply of United States, 1910. Part I. No7'th Atlantic Coast. C. C. Babb, C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 281. Pp. 305, 2 pis. 1912. Surface-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part III. Ohio River basin. A. H. HoRTON, M. R. Hall, and H. J. Jackson. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 283. Pp. 158, views, and sections. 1913. Surface-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part IV. St. Lawrence River basin. C. C. Covert, A. H. Horton, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey-Water-Supply Paper 284. Pp. 125, with sections. 1912. Surface-ioater supply of the United States, 1910. Part IX. Colorado River basin. W. B. Freeman, E. C. La Rue, and H. D. Padgett. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 289. Pp. 233, views, and sections. 1912. Surface-ivater supply of the United States, 1910. Part X. The Great Basin. E. C. La Rue, F. F. Henshaw, and E. A. Porter. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 290. Pp. 264, maps, and sections. 1912. Gazetteer of surface waters of California. Part II. San Joaquin River basin. Prepared by B. D. Wood, under direction of John D. Hoyt, in cooperation with the State Water Commission and the Conservation Commission of the State of California. U.^S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 296. Pp. 102. 1912. Water resources of California. Part I. Stream measurements in Sacramento River basin. H. D. McGlashan and F. F. Henshaw. In cooperation with the State Water Commission and the Conservation Commission of the State of California. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 298. Pp. 411, views, and sections. 1912. Water resources of California. Part II. Stream measurements in San Joaquin River basin. H. D. McGlashan and H. J. Dean. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 299. Pp. 439 views, and sections. 1912. Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part I. North Atlantic Coast. C. C. Babb, C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 301. Pp. 221, views, and sections. 1-913. Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part IV. St. Lawrence River basin. C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper 304. Pp. 98, with map. 1912. Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part XI. Pacific Coast in California. H. D. McGlashan and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 311. Pp. 304, map, and section. 1913. STATISTICS.— Mineral resources of the United States. Calendar year 1911. Part II. Nonmetals. George Otis Smith, Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 1912. Pp. 1224, with maps. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill OCTOBER 19, 1913 No. 17 PETROLOGY. —Magnetite basalt from North Park, Colorado.^ H. S. Washington and E. S. Larsen. Geophysical Labo- ratory and Geological Survey. The rock described in this paper was collected by A. L. Beekley of the United States Geological Survey, to whom the authors are indebted for the material and for the description of its occur- rence. The specimen was collected at the top of Pole Mountain in North Park, Colorado, about three miles southwest of Coal- mont. The summit of Pole ]\Iountain is a small remnant of the Tertiary volcanic rocks which are extensively developed on the higher slopes to the south. The outcrops are poor and the mate- rial probably represents a breccia. Most of the neighboring Ter- tiary volcanic rocks are basaltic; but they are rich in soda and in them magnetite is not exceptionally high. The magnetite basalt is black, aphanitic and very porous; megascopically it shows no determinable crystals. The micro- scope shows that it is holocrystalline, and is made up of about one-half magnetite, with nearly equal amounts of bytownite and pale green augitic pyroxene, and a smaller amount of apatite. The texture is poikilitic; euhedral crystals of magnetite are rather evenly included in anhedrons of both feldspar and pyroxene. The rock is apparently perfectly fresh. On account of the poros- ity no determination of the specific gravity was made. A chemical analysis was made, using the standard methods. All of the major constituents, (except the alkalies,) and also titanium were determined in duplicate, with closely agreeing ^ Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 449 450 WASHINGTON AND LARSEN: MAGNETITE BASALT Analyses of Iron Ore Igneous Rocks Si02. . AI2O3. FeoOg. FeO.. MgO.. CaO.. Na20. K2O.. H2O+ H2O- CO2... Ti02.. P2O5. . CI.... s CrsOs. V2O3.. MnO.. NiO.. CoO.. BaO.. 19.74 9.72 39.70 15.60 3.70 6.64 0.46 0.66 0.32 0.04 none 0.58 1.67 none 0.44 0.38 none 99.75 21.42 7.03 30.34 22.81 6.92 3.59 0.53 0.41 0.95 tr. 5.2 0.14 0.42 0.04 none tr. 17.90 10.23 15.85 27.95 6.04 2.86 1.33 0.10 15.66 0.04 0.14 0.51 0.55 tr. 99.81 99.1599.191 D 11.73 6.46 30.68 27.92 3.35 3.95 0.50 0.26 0.64 0.32 12.31 0.82 0.12 0.04 0.04 E 26.62 11.62 19.50 21.87 2.57 6.47 1.06 0.34 1.30 9.50 0.20 101.05 20.30 7.60 29.99 25.65 3.68 3.50 1.70 7.80 0.03 0.102 0.34 G 10.77 4.61 39.27 21.73 2.34 4.84 0.31 0.24 0.44 13.52 0.02 0.11 0.52 0.37 0.27 0.07 0.07 100.69 99.50 H 7.82 3.20 29.40 29.78 5.67 3.42 0.61 0.17 0.38 17.23 0.14 0.06 0.63 0.22 0.43 0.10 99.26 4.08 6.40 33.43 34.58 3.89 0.65 0.29 0.15 1.32 14.25 0.02 0.20 0.45 8.04 0.39 88.41 2.52 0.06 0.23 0.05 0.29 0,17 0.39 tr. 0.02 0.02 99.71100.59 1 Including 0.05 C. 2SO3 A. Magnetite basalt (Arapahite). Pole Mountain, North Park, Colorado. H. S. Washington, analyst. B. Iron ore. Elizabethtown, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand analyst. J. F. Kemp, 19th Ann. Rep. U. S. G. S., 3: 408. 1899. C. Iron ore. Westport, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst. J. F. Kemp, loc. cit., p. 402. D. Iron ore. Lincoln Pond, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst. J. F. Kemp, loc. cit., p. 407. E. Magnetite rock. Joubrechkine, Wichera, North Ural Mountains. Duparc (?), analyst. Duparc and Pearce, Mem. Soc. Phys. Gen., 36: 187. 1909. F. Magnetite rock. Joubrechkine, Wichera, North Ural Mountains. Duparc (?), analyst. Duparc and Pearce, loc. cit., p. 187. G. Iron ore. Pine Lake, Victoria County, Ontario. F. J. Pope, analyst. F. J. Pope, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 29: 380. 1899. H. Iron ore. Horton, Renfrew County, Ontario. F. J. Pope, analyst. F. J. Pope, loc. cit., p. 380. I. Magnetite spinellite. Routivaara, Sweden. W. Petersson, analyst. W. Petersson, Geol. For. Forh., 15: 49. 1893. J. Iron ore. Kiruna, Lapland. G. Nyblom, analyst. P. Geijer, Geol. Kiruna Distr., 1910, p. 177. WASHINGTON AND LARSEN: MAGNETITE BASALT 451 results. Titanium was determined (in duplicate) by the color- imetric method, as its amount was small, the color effect of the very large amount of iron being removed by the addition of phosphoric acid, a corresponding amount being added to the standard manganese solution.- In a special large portion nickel, chromium and vanadium were tested for. Not a trace of nickel was found with dimethylglyoxime as a reagent. A coloration, possibly due to chromium, was barely perceptible, even when the solution was highly concentrated, and the amount of this cannot be as much as 0.01 per cent, even if present. Vanadium was determined by Hillebrand's method and its presence was verified after the titration. Combined water was determined by Penfield's method. The amount of V2O5 was subtracted from that of P2O5, as it is precipitated and weighed with the phospho- molybdate,^ if the latter is in sufficient excess. This is a point to be borne in mind in the analysis of rocks containing notable amounts of vanadium. The analysis shows some remarkable features and, while nearly all its constituents can be matched in the other analyses of iron ore rocks derived from igneous magmas, it does not correspond in all respects with any of them. One of the Adirondack ores (B) resembles it most closely. It is especially remarkable in the very low titanium, the hematite ore of Kiruna alone approaching it in this respect. The phosphorus is notably higher than else- where, while the absence of nickel and chromium is noteworthy. The amount of vanadium is about that of most of the Adirondack and Ontario ores. The norm of the Colorado basalt is as follows: Or 3.89 Mt 49.88 Ab 3.67 An 22.24 C 0.10 Hy 7.70 01 1.12 / 99.77 2 Cf. W. F. Hillebrand, Bull. 422, U. S. G. S., 1910, p. 134. 3 Cf. J. R. Cain and J. C. Hostetter, Techn. Pap. Bur. Stand., No. 8, 1912. II 1.06 Hm 5.28 Ap 4.03 Rest 98.97 0.80 452 WASHINGTON AND LARSENI MAGNETITE BASALT This places it in the dofemane class and in the domitic order (adirondackore), but transitional to the permitic order, hyper- sthene and olivine being very low. It is in the permii-ic rang and perhemic subrang — a position which is briefly expressed by the symbol IV.4(5).1.1. The rang and subrang are as yet unrep- resented and unnamed. The North Park District was occupied by the Ute and Arapaho Indians, according to information fur- nished by Mr. W. Marr of Hebron, Colorado. As the use of the name Ute would suggest a locality in Utah, it seems to be prefer- able to name the rang arapahase and the subrang arapahose. The mode of the rock can be approximately estimated from the norm, the corundum, hypersthene, olivine and a little anor- thite being assumed to enter the pyroxene. The mode would then be about as follows: Bytownite 25 Augite 15 Iron ores 56 Apatite 4 The mode is, therefore, practically normative. As remarked by Iddings^ this is ''at present the only known example of ex- truded lava corresponding to the segregated iron ores." It may be pointed out that nearly all such other iron ore rocks are asso- ciated with gabbros, those of Kiruna (which are of hematite) being derived from syenites, according to Geijer, and those of Brazil (of which there are no analyses available) being associated with highly sodic, nephehte-rich rocks. The relations of the Colorado rock are too little known as yet for any discussion of its associations. While the rock would logically be called a magnetite basalt, on account of its extrusive character and mode, yet it is so unique as to occurrence and chemical composition, that a spe- cial name seems to be justified. For this that of arapahite is suggested. J. P. Iddings, Igneous Hocks, 2: 332. 1913. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — Latent heat of fusion of ice. H. C. Dickinson, D. R. Haeper, and N. S. Osborne. Bulletin, Bureau of Standards. In Press. Of the two experimental methods employed, one is the well known method of mixtures in which an ice sample of from 100 to 200 grams weight was allowed to melt in the calorimeter, cooling the water. The other was an electrical method of somewhat higher precision. An ice sample 500 grams in weight was put directly into the water and the approximate amount of energy required to melt the ice supplied elec- trically and measured, the small excess or deficiency being determined from the small rise or fall of temperature of the calorimeter. The usual calorimetric cooling correction was thus rendered relatively very small and the heat capacity of the calorimeter needed to be known only approximately^ The ice specimens used were from commercial plate, can, and natural ice, and from ice frozen in the laboratory from double distilled water both free from air, and containing air. They were cut in the form of hollow cylinders to secure a more uniform rate of melting. The samples were kept at the uniform temperature of either — 0?72 or — 3?78 for several hours previous to the experiments, and were so weighed and handled as to introduce each into the calo- rimeter at the selected constant temperature with no significant error. The heat of fusion of each of 92 samples of pure ice was determined by one of the two methods. The results of the first half of these obser- vations, made before the best experimental conditions were secured, indicate no differences between the heats of fusion of the different kinds of ice greater than the limits of precision, that is, about one part in a thousand. The latter half show no difference as great as one part in five thousand between the commercial Idnds of ice. The final figure for the heat of fusion of pure ice is 79.63 cabs per gram mass. H. C. D. 453 454 abstracts: geology GEOLOGY. — The enrichment of sulfide ores. W. H. Emmons. Bulle- tin U. S. Geological Survey No. 529, pp. 252. 1913. The theory of sulfide enrichment is stated as follows: No metallic sulfide that is long exposed to air and water remains unaltered. Iron sulfides, which are present in practically all sulfide ores, are changed by weathering to iron oxides, and the changes are attended by the liberation of sulfuric acid. ]\Iany of the metals form soluble sulfates with sulfuric acid, and when conditions favor their migration downward they are carried in solution to depths where air is excluded. Unoxidized rocks are in general alkaline. Acid solutions that encounter such rocks in the regions where air is excluded will lose acidity, and as the solutions approach a neutral or alkaline condition some of the metals they contain are deposited. If the solutions of the metallic sulfates encounter metallic sulfides in depth precipitation may take place, or there may be an interchange between the metals in solution as sulfates and the metallic sulfides. Thus as a result of precipitation or chemical interchange the metals are redeposited and certain portions of the ore bodies become enriched. The effects of physical conditions on the process of enrichment are discussed and the chemistry of the process is approached from botii the experimental and the theoretical side, the chemical relations of min- erals of copper, silver, gold, lead, zinc, and iron being discussed in turn. The literature of the principal deposits of copper, gold, and silver sulfide ores in North America is reviewed with special reference to the extent, character, and distribution of the secondary ores in each. Of copper deposits with deeply enriched zones none are known to carry pyrrhotite or abundant sphalerite. The data indicate that, in general, ores containing abundant pyrrhotite and sphalerite become more thoroly oxidized than those containing pyrite and chalcopyrite without pyrrhotite or sphalerite; but oxidation and enrichment are not likely to extend as deep in pyrrhotite or sphalerite ores. Many auriferous deposits in the surficial zone appear not to have been enriched by secondary agencies, while in others there is no evi- dence of solution and re-precipitation of gold. It is concluded that the solution of gold depends in the main on the presence, simultane- ously, of manganese and chlorides. Its migration depends on the per- meability of the lodes and the material of the primary ores. Of the common minerals calcite and pyrrhotite will probably precipitate gold from auriferous solutions most rapidly. All the districts of silver-gold deposits in which gold is assumed to have migrated include mangan- iferous ores. In deposits carrying both metals, especially where chlor- abstracts: geology 455 ides form, secondary silver minerals are likely to be precipitated as bonanzas near the sm*face, while gold may be carried to greater depths. Abundant pyrrhotite in the primary ore quickly halts the downward migration of both silver and gold. Sidney Paige. GEOLOGY. — Kenova, Ky., West Virginia and Ohio, folio. W. C. Phalen. Geologic Atlas of the United States, Folio 184, page 16; with maps and sections, U. S. Geological Survey. 1912. The rocks exposed include both the igneous and sedimentary classes. The igneous rocks are peridotite dikes which cover a small area in the western part of the quadrangle and are of interest in having been pros- pected for diamonds. The sedimentary rocks belong in the Carbon- iferous and Quaternary systems. The former system includes both the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian series. Included in the Mississippian are the Logan Formation and the Maxville Limestone. In the Penn- sylvanian are included the Pottsville, Allegheny, Conemaugh and Mo- nongahela formations. Pleistocene and Recent deposits constitute the Quaternary system. Tho no part of the quadrangle lies within the glaciated region, it contains deposits of Pleistocene age. These are the low and high level river gravels along the Ohio and Big Sandy Rivers and back of the city of Ashland, in a district known as the ''Flatwoods." They were formed by rivers that abandoned their former courses as a result of the inva- sion of the neighboring region bj'^ ice. The asymmetry of the drainage is probably dependent both on pres- ent structure and the character of the rocks which are mainly sand- stones, sandy shales and shales. Excepting the shales, the rocks are water-bearing and produce many springs. The underground currents flow more readily mth the dip than against it, with the consequent tendency for erosion, both surficial and possibly underground to pro- ceed up the dip. Thus the main streams of the region tend to lengthen those tributaries, which, flowing with the dip, erode more rapidly than those flowing against it, and consequently to push the divides between trunk streams westward on the west side of the synclinal axis and east- ward on the east side of this axis. W. C. P. 456 abstracts: botany BOTANY.—^ key to common Nebraska shrubs. William H. Lamb, Forest Service. Forest Club Annual, University of Nebraska 5. 1913. This is a key, based on prominent distinctive characteristics that can readily be observed by those who have had no special training in botany, and intended as a guide in the identification of the more common genera of shrubs and woody vines native and original in Nebraska. W. H. L. ZOOLOGY.^ — Descriptions of twenty new recent unstalked crinoids, belong- ing to the families Antedonidce and Atelecrinida:, from the Dutch East Indies. Austin H. Clark. Notes from the Ley den Museum, 34: No. 2, Note XXV. 1912. The following new species, all collected by the Dutch steamer Siboga in the Dutch East Indies, are herein described: Antedon moluccana, Compsometra iris, Compsometra parviflora, Compsometra longicirra, Comp- sofnetra gracilipes, Iridometra (Eumetra) aphrodite, Iridometra gra- cilis, Toxometra purpvjrea, Psathyrometra major, Psathyrometra minima, Psathyrometra inusitata, Psathyrometra anomala, Nanometra clymene, Trichometra delicata, Trichometrabrevipes, Thaumatometra alcyon, Thau- matometra thysbe, Atopcrinus (a new genus of Atelecrinidte) siboga, Atelecrinus sidcatus and Atelecrinus anomalus. A. H. C. ENTOMOLOGY.— Ptccofe note su degli Onychophora. Austin H. Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 42: 253-255. 1913. Thru the courtesy of President J. C. Branner of Stanford University, California, and of Prof. J. H. Comstock of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, the author has been enabled to examine a specimen of Peri- patus taken by President Branner at Breves, on the island of Marajo at the mouth of the Amazons, in 1882 and recorded by him, under the generic name only, in 1886. It proves to be an example of Peripatus (E piper ipatus) simoni Bouvier. A specimen received thru Mr. W. E. Broadway from Tobago, British West Indies (a new locality for the group) represents Peripatus {Epiperi- patus) trinidadensis Stuhlmann, but appears possibly to indicate a local variety, for which the name Peripatus {Epiperipatus) broadwayi is suggested. A specimen of Peripatus (Peripatus) juanensis Bouvier is recorded from Vieques, near Porto Rico, and three specimens of Peripatoides novae-zealandiae (Hutton) are recorded from New Zealand. A. H. C. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill . NOVEMBER 4, 1913 No. 18 GEOPHYSICS. — Water and the viagmatic gases. Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd. Geophysical Laborator}'-. Two serious attempts have been made in recent years to estab- lish a conclusion which geologists generally have been somewhat slow to accept, namely, that water of magmatic origin is not found among the gases exhaled by active volcanoes.^ Notwith- standing the fact that this conclusion is diametrically opposed to the commonly accepted explanations of volcanic activity and the further fact that the evidence offered in both instances is of a somewhat fortuitous kind, it has hitherto remained uncontro- verted by well-established facts of observation. It may there- fore have some interest to present very briefly the preliminary results of a study of the volcanic gases emanating from the Kil- auea crater during the summer of 1912 the ultimate purpose of which is to endeavor to establish the character and effects of the chemical reactions concerned in volcanic activit}^ It happens that both of the attempts to show that volcanic emanations are anhydrous have depended chiefly upon evidence obtained at this crater. The character of the evidence hitherto offered may be illus- trated briefly as follows. Green noted that active lava flows, and even the Kilauea crater itself, often appear to be giving off gases in quantity when no steam cloud can be seen above them. Brun observed that the cloud when present does not evaporate in the air and shows no optical phenomena in sunhght. He was able to obtain no condensed moisture in glass tubes exposed within ' William Lowthian Green, Vestiges of the molten globe, vol. 2. 1887. Albert Brun, Recherches sur I'Exhalaison Volcanique. 1911. 457 458 DAY AND shepherd: water and magmatic gases the smoke cloud (100 meters distant from the point of emer- gence), and he observed further that a dew-point hygrometer exposed within the cloud indicated a smaller moisture content than in the clear air near-by. Some other observations were offered pointing to the same conclusion, but the above citations fairly serve to show the character of the observations which led to the conclusion that water had no part in these exhalations. Jt has seemed to the writers, in considering this problem, that evidence of this kind is unconvincing. Such evidence may serve to prove that the cloud above Kilauea does not consist entirely of steam, but it is a very different matter to conclude from it tiiat no steam is emitted, particularly in view of the fact that the extensive hygrometer measurements offered by Brun all show that the observations were made in an unsaturated atmosphere, and the further fact that the temperature of the gases at the moment of emission was not far from 1200? The latter point seemed to us of vital importance in any attempt to identify volcanic gases, for nearly all the recorded analyses of the gases contained in volcanic rocks^ include gases (e.g., CO or H2) which undergo im- mediate alteration and lose their identity if released into the air at such a temperature as 1200? We therefore undertook the somewhat hazardous task of going io the bottom of the crater itself and collecting the gases direct from the liquid lava before they had come in contact with the air at all. The gases were collected under the following conditions. A lava fountain broke thru the floor of the crater beside the lava lake and by its own spattering quickly built for itself an en- closing dike. When this dike had grown to a completely enclos- ing dome, an ideal gas collector was provided by the volcano itself; for this dome, because of the continual bursting of great gas bubbles within, was lined with the same liquid lava from which the gas was being released. From the narrow cracks in the sides of the dome, sheets of pale blue flame could be seen burn- ing at night, which indicated (1) an excess pressure within, and in consequence (2) that the gases released from the liquid lava first came in contact with the air upon emerging from the dome. 2 R. T. Chamberlin, The gases in rocks, Publications of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington, No. 106. 1908. DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES 459 We accordingly chose a favorable opportunity, descended into the crater and inserted a tube directly into one of these cracks behind the flame which was burning there. This tube was con- nected with a pipe-line some 7 or 8 meters in length, leading to a train of 20 collecting tubes, each of one-half liter capacity, and finally to a piston pump with a capacity of abour 2^ liters per stroke. The splashing of the lava within the dome could not only be heard and seen thruout the 15 minutes during which the pumping was continued but the jar could be felt beneath the observer's feet. The temperature at which the gases entered the tubes was about 1000°. With the first stroke of the pump water began condensing in the glass tubes in considerable quantity, in plain view of the ob- servers. This water, tho unexpected (in view of the statement of Brun) also served as a most excellent wash bottle by means of which to trap the halogens or other soluble salts asserted by Brun to be present. At the close of the pumping the tubes were sealed and taken out of the crater without mishap. Four days later the contents of Tube No. 3 were removed for preliminary analysis at the College of Hawaii in Honolulu. With the limited facilities there available, no very elaborate analysis was possible, but the following gases were found : TABLE I Weight Per cent SO2 51 .6 CO, 39 . 8 CO 5.5 It was not possible to analyze for H2 or N2, but a 1 : 1 mixture of the gas residue with air gave no explosion on test. The tube also contained about 50 cc. of water with sufficient free sulfur to make it appear quite turbid. This water, when filtered and treated with acid silver nitrate, showed no trace of chlorine. No titanium was found. The remaining tubes were transported to the Geophysical Lab- oratory in Washington at the close of the field season (nearly a year later) and analyzed there. The analysis of the fixed gases contained in five of the tubes is tabulated below. 460 DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES TABLE II Analyses of the Fixed Gases (Proportions by Volume) , TUBE 1 TUBE 2 TUBE 9 TUBE 11 TUBE 17 C02 23.8 5.6 7.2 63.3 none none none 58.0 3.9 6.7 29.8 1.5 none none 62.3 3.5 7.5 13.8 12.8 none none 59.2 4.6 7.0 29.2 none none none 73.9 CO 4.0 H2 10.2 N2 11.8 S02* none Rare Gases Hydrocarbons none none * Inasmuch as all the tubes contained water, practically all of the SO- had gone into solution in the water and become altered before the final analysis was made. TABLE III Analyses of the Water (Proportions by Weight) 0.080 grams Na20 0.0214 K2O 0.0102 CaO 0.0120 FejOs \ AI2O3 / CI 0.220 F 0.565 NH3 0.0018 TiOo 0.005(?) Total S as SO3 0.480 2 grams o.osr 0.011 0.14 \ 0.010 0.208 0.492 none none 0.508 The major portion of these may have come from the glass or from Pele's hair. The conclusions from these analyses may be briefly recounted as follows: (1) To anyone familiar with gas equilibria, it is immedi- ately obvious that this group of gases can not exist together in equilibrium at a temperature of 1000° or more, but must be in process of active reaction at the time of release from the liquid lava. Reaction will begin between the gases in the rising lava column the moment pressure has diminishd to the point where they begin to be released from solution. As the lava rises to the surface, the pressure upon it diminishes steadily, setting free a continually increasing quantity of gas which is then free to enter into new chemical relations. iVIoreover, these reactions (e.g., H2 + SO2 and H2 + CO2) are of a kind to produce heat in such DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES 4(51 quantity as seriously to affect if not to determine the temperature of the whole mass. This chemical activity will be a maximum at the surface at the moment of discharge into the atmosphere and the proportions of the reacting gases will vary with every bubble which bursts from the liquid lava, as is plainly shown by the variations from one tube to another in the above analyses. It would seem to be a necessary consequence of this mode of release of the gases previously in solution and the resulting exo- thermic reactions between the gases after release, that the tem- perature of the lava lake should rise when the quantity of gas given off is large, and should diminish again when the gaseous exhalation diminishes in volume, and this was found to hold true thruout the activity of the summer of 1912 of which we were witnesses. The measured changes in temperature in the lava basin in this interval of about four months (the quantity of lava in the basin remaining practically constant) amounted in maxi- mum to 115° (June 13, 1912, 1070°; July 6, 1912, 1185°). (2) The exhalation unquestionably contains water, of which about 300 cc. were found condensed in our tubes. In view of the fact that the water condensed and remained behind while the fixed gases passed on thru the tubes and pump, it is not possible from these observations to estimate the proportion of water to the fixed gases. (3) The presence of free S, SO2 and SO3 in the cloud affords adequate explanation of the phenomena observed by Brun. The visible cloud consists mainly of free sulfur (not of chlorides) and we were able to collect it from the cloud, both at the point of emergence and at the crater rim where Brim's observations were made. It follows from this that the cloud would not evaporate in the air nor show optical phenomena (rainbows), neither could it be expected to condense upon the crater walls, nor in tubes, if the point of collection was too far away from the point where the gases were released from the lava. The observations of fact made at Kilauea by Brun are for the most part confirmed by our observations, but we were unable to discover in them any basis for his conclusion that the exhalation is anhydrous, for the tiny sulfur particles would supply abundant nuclei of condensation for any 462 DAY AND shepherd: water and magmatic gases water in excess of the quantity required to saturate the atmos- phere and any quantity smaller than this would evaporate freely in the comparatively dry air at 1300 meters elevation. Further- more, Brun's observation that the exposure of a dew-point hygrom- eter within the cloud showed less moisture present than in the clear air outside, finds equally ready explanation in the fact that the cloud has been shown to carry SOo and SO3, and by conse- quence sulfuric acid, which are excellent dehydrating agents. A cloud charged with drying agents like these must, a priori, be found drier than the surrounding air which is not provided with siich drying agents. In confirmation of this we find that the decomposition of the surface lava, which is continually exposed to these gases, is everywhere a sulfuric acid decomposition, the decomposition products being sulfates (alum, gypsum) together with considerable quantities of free sulfur. (4) If the total quantity of gas drawn into our tube system be estimated at about 1000 liters, then the quantity of chlorine is less than 0.02 per cent. In confirmation of this low chlorine content, analyses of the lava near the volcano which has been constantly exposed to the smoke cloud for 20 years or more, showed no test for chlorine in a 2 gram sample.^ (5) It is of the highest importance to note further that the nitrogen exhaled by the volcano contains no argon. Bearing in mind that argon is always present in the atmosphere in measur- able quantities, and that it enters into no chemical combination whatever, it would seem to be a necessary conclusion that the atmosphere does not contribute to the gases which are given off by the lava. If atmospheric ingredients were present in the lava, then surely the argon must be given off again. This must apply to all atmospheric ingredients including water, whether originally gaseous or condensed, for if meteoric water were to 2 Brun appears to have tested for chlorine with a silver nitrate solution in an atmosphere which is shown above to contain S, SO2 and SO3, and notes that it immediately becomes clouded, but mentions no test to ascertain whether it was the chloride or the sulphite which was thus precipitated. Similarly, he nowhere offers a chemical analysis of the particular gases which he collected in tubes at Kilauea, but contents himself with presenting two analyses of other gases pumped from solid lava fragments reheated in vacuo some months afterward. (L'Exha- laison Volcanique, p. 115.) swingle: botanical name of the lime 463 find its way into the lava it must do so as a gas and on the same terms as the other atmospheric gases, for the reason that the critical temperature of water is but 374°, whereas the lava tem- perature is 1000° or higher. It is therefore plain that capillary phenomena (Daubree) can not be invoked to assist in the trans- mission of water into the liquid lava in the temperature region between 374° and 1000° in which H2O has no surface tension. But quite apart from this, there is no more reason for assuming that the water is of atmospheric origin than for assuming the carbon compounds to be so. In conclusion, we may add that the much discussed question whether water is an active participant in volcanic activity ap- pears to find adequate answer in these preliminary experiments, so far as Kilauea is concerned. Not only was water actually collected in considerable quantity (300 cc.) directly from the liquid lava, at a temperature of 1000° or higher, but this was done under conditions which completely excluded contamination with air. Moreover, the presence of free hj^drogen associated with CO2 and SO2 at this temperature is of itself a sufficient guarantee of the presence of some water among the volcanic gases. Indeed, the reaction between Ho and CO2 (the water gas reaction H2 + CO2 ^ CO + H2O) has long been well known and has been studied in great detail. ^ BOTANY. — The botanical name of the lime, Citrus aurantifolia- Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry. The lime, altho closely related to the lemon and the citron, differs from them in having small white flowers, fewer stamens, thin-skinned fruits and winged petioles articulated with the blade of the leaf. Because of these and other divergent characters it seems proper to recognize it as a distinct species, as has been done by many botanists. It is quite distinct from Citrus his- trix, D. C, which is considered by Bonavia^ to be the ancestral ^ F. Haber, Thermodynamik technischer Gasreactionen. Berlin, 1905. ^ Bonavia, E., 1886, On the probable wild source of the whole group of culti- vated true limes {Citrus acida Roxb., C. medica, var. acida of Brandis, Hooker, and Alph. de CandoUe), in Journal Linn. Soc, Botany, 22: 213-218, figs. 1-3, (n. 145, Jul. 23). 464 swingle: botanical name of the lime form from which the cultivated hme was derived and to which Urban^ refers the lime as a variety. The earliest postlinnean binomial name applied to the lime was Limon spinosum, published by Philip Miller in 1768 in the 8th edition of his Gardener's Dictionary. The specific name spino- sum cannot be transferred to Citrus because it would be a homo- njmi of Citrus spinosus published by Gmelin in 1774'' for a form of the lemon quite unlike the lime. The next oldest name, Li- mon'a acidissima, was published by Houttuyn^ in 1774 in spite of the already existing name Limonia acidissima used by Lin- naeus for the wood apple of Ceylon and India, which name Hout- tuyn ruled out because he considered it inappropriate, rechris- tening the wood apple Limonia pinnatifolia. Under the rules of botanical nomenclature, no such substitution of names is per- mitted no matter how inappropriate the original name may be. The Limonia acidissiina of Houttuyn was undoubtedly the common lime of the East and West Indies as it was based on the Limonellus sive Limon Nipis of Rumphius^ and also on an ex- cellent plate published in 1705 by Juffrouw Marie Sibylla Mer- ian,^ the famous illustrator of insects who spent two years at the beginning of the eighteenth century in Surinam drawing and studying the insects of that colony and the plants upon which they feed. In 1777 Christmann^ in the German adaptation of Houttuyn 's great work renamed the lime Limonia aurantifolia, this name be- ing an avowed substitute for the invalid Limonia acidissima of 2 Urban, 1, 1905, Symb. antil., 4: 321, as Citrus Hystrix acida. ^ Gmelin, S. G., 1774, Reise durch Russland, St. Petersburg, 3: 278-279. * Houttyun, Martin, 1774, Natuurlyke historic . . . , volgens het samen- stel van den Heer Linnaeus, Amsterdam, Deel 2, 2: 444-445. " Rumphius, G. E., 1741, Herb, amboin., Amsterdam, 2: 107. tab. 29. ^ Merian, Maria Sibylla, 1705, Metamorphosis insectorum surinamensium ofte veranderung der surinaamschc insecten, Amsterdam, p. 17, pi. 17 (s. d. but pub- lished 1705 vide Hagen, H. A., Bibl. Entom. 1: 534-535). As Houttuyn does not specify the edition of Merian's work, it may be that he quotes from the second Dutch edition, published in 1719. Color is given to this surmise by the fact that the quotation made by Houttuyn differs by one word from the original text of Juffrouw Merian as published in 1705. ^ [Christmann, G. F.], 1777, in Linne, Pflanzensystem nach der vierzehnten lateinischen Ausgabe und nach des hoUandischen Houttuynischen Werkes iiber- setzt, Niirnberg, 1: 618. swingle: botanical name of the lime 465 Houttuyn. The fact that Houttuyn's name was preoccupied and consequently untenable was doubtless realized by Christmann, altho he makes no mention of his reasons for changing the name. His description and citations of older literature, practically trans- lated from Houttuyn, are ample to establish Limonia aurantifolia as a valid species. The name Citrus lima was published by John Lunan in 18 14^ for the common lime and has been recently revived by Percy Wilson (North America Flora, 25:222, 1911). This name is a homonym, however, since it was used for the common lemon by Alexander Aitcheson before ISOG.^*^ The name Citrus limetta Risso, commonly applied to the lime, was published by Risso in ISIS^^ but refers distinctly to a va- riety of sweet lime having an abnormal fruit, probably a garden variety of hybrid origin and certainly not a true lime. This be- ing the type of Risso's species, his name cannot properly be ap- plied to the common acid lime. The subsequently published names for the lime, such as Cit- rus spinosissima Meyer^^ 1818, C. acida Roxburg^^ 1832, C. Not- issimus Blanco," 1837, C. Limonellus HasskarP^ 1842, and the many varietal names under the various specific names for the citron, the lemon or Citrus histrix, D.C. need not be discussed here as Christmann's name has priority over all of them. The oldest tenable name for the lime is therefore Christmann's Limonia aurantifolia which upon being transferred to Citrus, be- comes Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) n. comb.^* 5 Lunan, John, 1814, Hortus Jamaicensis, Jamaica, 2 : 451-452. 1° [Aitchison, Alexander], 18 (?), in Encyclopaedia Perthensis, 2 ed. (?) Perth. 5: G86. The "New and Complete American Encyclopaedia. . . . From the Encyclopaedia Perthensis with Improvements," New York (John Low), 1805, 2: 578, gives a verbatim reprint of the description of Citrus lima in the edition cited above. " Risso, A., 1813, in Ann. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, 20: 195, pi. 2, fig. 1. 12 Meyer, G. F. W., 1818, Primitae Flora Essequeboensis, Gottingen, p. 247. 13 Roxburgh, W., 1832, Flora indica, Serampore, 3: 390. '" Hasskarl, J. C, 1842, Flora, 25, 2 (Beibl.): 43 1^ Blanco, M., 1837, Flora de Filipinas,. Manila, p. 607. 18 The genus Limonia was founded on plants with pinnate leaves. The specific name aurantifolia of Christmann undoubtedly means having orange-like leaves in contrast with the original Limonia acidissima of Linnaeus (the L. -pinnalifolia of Houttuyn and of Christmann). ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for- ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY— TAe Yentna District, Alaska. S. R. Capps. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 534, pp. 72, with maps, sections, and views. 1913. The geological formations that outcrop are: (1) a thick slate-gray- wacke series of undetermined age, but pre-Tertiary; (2) intrusive gran- ites and diorites, probably of Jurassic age; (3) Eocene clays and sands with some lignite; (4) Tertiary gravels; (5) glacial moraines and out- wash gravels; (6) recent stream deposits. The gravel series which overlies the Eocene beds was found to be structurally conformable upon the Eocene, and to antedate by a con- siderable time interval the period of maximum glaciation. These grav- els have hitherto been thought to be Pleistocene. The placer gold of Cache Creek and the neighboring creeks is thought to have been derived from quartz veins in the slate-graywacke series. Its present distribution has been largely influenced by glacial erosion, the present placers being found only in those places where ice erosion was feeble, or where post glacial erosion has effected a reconcentration of the glacially scattered gold. On Twin Creek and its tributaries the placer gold is the product of post glacial concentration of gold from the Tertiary gravels. S. R. C. GEOLOGY. — Bismarck, N. Dak., folio. A. G. Leonard. Geologic Atlas of the United States, No. 181. U. S. Geological Survey in cooperation with North Dakota Geological Survey. 1912. The formations represented range in age from Cretaceous to Recent. The Fox Hills sandstone (marine), the lowest of the formations, is ex- posed in the lower parts, of the bluffs of Missouri River in the southern part of the area and in some tributary valleys. The base is not ex- 466 abstracts: geology 467 posed, but along the Cannonball River, just south of this area, the formation has a thickness of 200 feet. Overlying this over most of the area, in apparent conformity, are 650-700 feet of dark, gray, brown, and black shale and sandstone of the Lance formation (fresh water), the approximate equivalent of the Ceratops beds of Wyoming. In this there is at least one workable 5-foot bed of lignite. Conformably overlying the Lance or "Somber beds" are the ash- gray and yellow shales and sandstone of the Fort Union (Tertiary), having a maximum thickness of 200 feet. In this are numerous beds of lignite ranging in thickness from a few inches to 35 feet,^ — -thick- nesses of 5 to 10 feet are common. In places the lignite has burned out along the outcrop baking the overlying shale to red or pink clinker. The Fort Union carries a rich fossil flora, many freshwater shells and a few vertebrate fossils. The area, altho outside of the terminal moraines of the Wisconsin stage of glaciation, contains considerable glacial drift. Remnants of moraines, patches of till, and patches of boulders are found, the latter so abundant in places as to form a pavement. This drift, tho indicated on the map as probably of Early Wisconsin age, is in the text provi- sionally referred to the Kansan stage of glaciation, since the appearance is that of remnants of a much eroded deposit. The western limit of continental glaciation is 50 to 60 miles west of the Missouri in this latitude. Much of the dissection of the area is believed to have been accomplished in Tertiary time but it also appears that there has been a long period of erosion since the deposition of this drift. The valley of Missouri River the author regards as pre-glacial. The economic resources of the area are lignite, clay, gravel, sand, surface and under- ground waters, and a good soil. Wm. C. Alden. GEOLOGY.- — Geologic reconnaissance of a part of the Bampart Quad- rangle, Alaska. H. M. Eakin. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 535. The area treated is in central Alaska, between Yukon and Tanana Rivers west of the 150th meridian. The consolidated stratified rocks of the area include a greenstone group probably of late Paleozoic age, a limestone and schist group of earlier Paleozoic age, a slate, quartzite and schist group, in part of Lower Cretaceous age and a slate sand- stone and conglomerate group, probably also of Mesozoic age. These groups trend northeast and southwest across the area in a series of belts, the succession from northwest to southeast being in the order given. 468 abstracts: zoology The consolidated stratified rocks are intruded by batholiths and thick sills of monzonite, by a complex system of dikes of widely varying rock types, and by pegmatite and quartz veins. Some pegmatite dikes have centers of pure vein quartz. The solid rocks are overlain locally by loosely cemented Kenai (Eocene) beds, and widely by alluvial deposits. The latter include flood plain deposits of the present streams, stream terrace deposits and high lying silts and gravels. Some of the high lying gravels are evidently beach deposits. Gold occurs in the metamorphic rocks at a number of places l)ut no workable deposit has been discovered. Placer gold is mined in stream terrace deposits and in the high lying beach gravels. Cassiterite occurs in commercial quantities in some of the gold placers. H. M. E. ZOOLOGY. — Description of a collection of unstalked crinoids rnade by Captain Suenson in Eastern Asia. Austin Hobart Clark. Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 26: 177-182. 1913. The crinoids listed and described are the following: from near Hong Kong, Comanthus japonica (J. Mliller), Zygomeira comata (A. H. Clark), Catoptometra ruhroflava (A. H. Clark) and Dichrometra flagellata (J. Miiller); of these only one, Zygometra comata, was previously known from this locality; from the Philippine Islands, Oligometra serripinna (P. H. Carpenter); from south of the Goto Islands, Parametra orion (A, H. Clark); and from northeastern Korea, Thaumatometra tenuis (A. H. Clark). The faunal relationships of the east Asiatic coasts are discussed, and the thirty-six endemic species occurring between southern Japan and Korea and Cochin China are found to fall into four distinct categories: (1) East Indian species, occurring in the Phihppine Islands and on the coast of Cochin China, and extending northward as far as Hong Kong, one of them possibly to Fuchow; (2) southern Japanese species, ranging from Tokyo Bay westward to the Korean Straits and thence southward along the Riu Kiu Islands to Formosa (Taiwan) and Hong Kong, where they occur together with East Indian forms; (3) Arctic species, inhabit- ing the cold water which bathes the continental shores of the Sea of Japan, and ranging southward as far at least as the Korean Straits, possibly even to Shanghai; and (4) Antarctic species, inhabiting the Pacific coast of Japan and reaching their southern limit at Tokyo and Sagami Bays. A systematic list of all the species recorded from the region is given, and the faunal division, to which each belongs, indicated. A. H. C. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. Ill NOVEMBER 19, 1913 No. 19 MATHEMATICS. — A useful type of formula for the interpolation and representation of experimental results. L. H. Adams. Geophysical Laboratory. Mellor, in his Higher Mathematics,^ remarks, ''The reader will perhaps have been impressed with the frequency with which ex- perimental results are referred to a series formula of the type: y = A -\- Bx + Cx- + Bx^ H , in physical or chemical text books. For instance, I have counted over thirty examples in the first volume of Mendeleeff's The Principles of Chemistry and more than this number in Preston's Theory of Heat^ It is well known that for the representation of experimental results limited power series often leave much to be desu'ed, and that such formulae adequately represent the data only in comparatively few instances or over short ranges; and yet as indicated by the above quotation this fact is seldom ap- preciated. It is the purpose of this note to point out the ad- vantage of functions other than power series and to advocate their more general employment in cases where power series ob- viously do not conform to the known general form of curve given by the measurements. By far the larger number of physical changes follow laws as yet unknown, and so, until the precise theoretical function is ascertained, the experimental results in question can be repre- sented only by some sort of empirical formula. In the choice of 1 J. W. Mellor, Higher mathematics for students of physics and chemistry, p. 273. 469 470 ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA the most suitable equation to be fitted to a given set of experi- mental results there is usually considerable latitude; but among the host of mathematical functions there will often be certain ones which from their peculiar characteristics or general shape are especially adapted to the data in hand. Nevertheless most chemists and physicists, who desire to fit their experimental re- sults to some equation, turn blindly to the familiar power series. When the graph representing the results is obviously non-linear, the quadratic or parabola, y = A -\- Bx + Cx^, is first tried; if a satisfactory fit is not obtained another term is added, and so on until there is sufficiently close agreement between the calcu- lated and observed values thru- out the range of observation. Now it happens that in some cases a parabolic equation repre- sents the relation between two physical quantities with great exactness. A notable example is the resistance of pure platinum, which is a quadratic function of the temperature between 0° and 1000° to within 0.05 per cent or better. Such accidents, how- ever, are rare. More often than not a cubic or a fourth power equation is necessary especially for experimental observations of high precision. For instance, according to Bridgman^ a power series of at least five terms — and probably more — ^would be re- quired to represent the resistance of mercury as a function of pressure, with an accuracy of iV per cent, the degree of accuracy of the experimental work thruout the range of pressures investi- Fig. 1 Proc. Am. Acad. 44: 237, (1909). ADAMS: A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA 471 gated (0-6000 atm.) As a first step in the search for a suitable equation it is advantageous to plot the data and to consider the general form of the graph, especially its limiting characteristics. As an illustration let us consider the e.m.f. of a copper-con- stantan thermoelement as a function of temperature. If we plot e.m.f. against temperature we obtain a curve of the type shown in figure 1. The most important characteristic of this curve is its property of becoming more nearly linear the farther it departs from the origin. That is, the curve is asymptotic to a straight line (such as the dotted line shown in the figure), which does not pass Fig. 2 thru the origin. It is apparent that neither a parabola nor a cubic equation (nor any power series with a reasonable number of terms) can conform over a wide range to this essential con- dition, namely, that of steadily increasing linearity with increas- ing values of E or t. A power series can be made to approximate only to a greater or smaller portion of the whole curve, the de- gree of approximation being better the greater the number of terms included in the series and the smaller the portion of the curve dealt with. On the other hand there are a number of possible functions which have the desired general form. To derive one let us con- sider the course of the slope dE/dt of the curve given in figure 472 ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA 1. The derivative is finite at the origin and increases with t, rapidly at first and then more slowly, tending toward a constant value as a limit (see fig. 2). Such a curve referred to the dotted line as the axis is given by — - = 1 — e~\ in general by ^ — = at dt 6 (1 — e^^), C being a negative quantity ;3 or when referred to the dE t — axis by equation — = a + 6 (1 — e*^'). Integrating and ap- plying the initial condition that E = 0, ^ = 0, we have, E = At -{- B (1 - e"). Where A = a -\-h,B = —. This equation is of the desired form, and, as we have found by trial, is highly satisfactory in a number of cases where the graph has the general form of figure I, as for instance, the relations between temperature and e.m.f. of copper-constantan thermoelements and between pres- sure and resistance of manganin or of "therlo" wire. The calculation of the constants of this type of equation offers no especial difficulty: in fact it involves no more time or labor than in the case of the cubic equation: E = A't + B'P + C't' a form of equation which is often used and is in general of less utility. The method of evaluating the three constants, A, B and C is as follows : Write down three simultaneous equations con- taining pairs of corresponding values of E and t. Eliminate A by addition or subtraction and B by division; we then obtain an equation in C of the form : (1 - e^'^) - P (1 - e''^) El - P E_2 ^ ^ (1 - e'^^) - Q (1 - e''^) E2 - Q E3 where P = — ^^^^ Q = j-- Assume now several values of C and with the aid of tables of the exponential compute the corre- sponding values of K. Then plot K against C and determine the proper value of C by graphical interpolation. The value of C being now known, B and finally A are readily calculated. dE 3 Another suitable function is —- = a -{- b tanh ct which would lead to the equa- dt tion E = nT -\- h log cosh ct. ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA 473 The result of the application of this equation to the copper- constantan element is shown in table I. The eonstantan wire consisted of selected lengths cut from a spool of No. 30 B. and S. "Ideal" wire made by the Electrical Alloy Co. The points at 100°, 217?95 and 305?9 were obtained by immersing the ele- ment (enclosed in a glass tube) in the vapors of boiling water, naphthalene and benzophenone;^ those at the lower temperatures by comparison with an element"^ previously calibrated against a resistance thermometer. As table I shows, the curve when passed thru the three upper points fits the three lower points very satisfactorily; indeed the divergence is no greater than the experimental error. TABLE I Comparison of Observed e. m. f. (E) of Copper-constantan Element with THAT Calculated from the Equation E = 74.672 t - 13892 (i-g- 0-00261 /■) TEMP. E (OBS.) MICROVOLTS E (CALC.) MICROVOLTS difference! microvolts 24?30 961.1 960.9 0.2 49?59 2010.9 2010.8 0.1 78?7r, 3291 .7 3291 .4 0.3 100?00 4276. (4276.) . . . 217?95 10248. (10248.) ... 305 ?9 15203 . (15203.) ^1 microvolt corresponds to about 0?02. The above equation as compared with a series formula con- taining a like number of constants (i.e., a cubic equation) pos- sesses the following advantages, (1) In accord with what might be expected from the general shape of the curve a better agree- ment has been obtained between '^observed" and ''calculated" ^'alues. For instance if a cubic should be substituted for the exponential equation described, the differences in the fourth column of table I would each be greater than 5 microvolts (0?1). (2) Since values of (1 — e~^) may be obtained by inspec- ^ Proper correction being made for barometric pressure. Cf. Adams & Johns- ton, Am. J. Sci., 33: 538 et seq. 1912. * This element belongs to Dr. W. P. White of this Laboratory. For descrip- tion of the comparison of this element with the resistance thermometer, see Phys. Rev. 31, 159. 1910. 474 PALACHE AND schaller: hodgkinsonite tion and in one operation from tables of the Descending Expo- nential/ the operation of calculating a series of values from the exponential equation involves less labor than from a cubic equa- tion. (3) Altho extrapolation is, in general, an operation beset with many pitfalls, nevertheless, if an extrapolation is unavoid- able, it is more reasonable to employ a function of proper general form than to take some random function which can not be ex- pected to fit the experimental results except over a small part of the range of observation. MINERALOGY. — Hodgkinsonite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, N. J. C. Palache, Harvard University, and W. T. Schaller, Geological Survey. The mineral here described was sent to the Harvard Miner- alogical Museum for identification in April of this year by Mr. J. J. McGovern of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. On being informed that the mineral was of a new species, material for further study and for analysis was freely supplied by Mr. H. H. Hodgkinson, M. E., Assistant Underground Superintendent of the mine, who first found the mineral in the mine workings and whose name it bears. Mr. Hodgkinson states that the new min- eral was found in the northern part of the ore body, in that part of the Parker Mine formerly known as the Hamburg Mine and quite near the hanging wall of the west leg of the ore body, be- tween the 850- and 900-foot levels. The locality was marked by a number of slips and faults, along some of which the mineral occurs. It has been found in a number of specimens during the year but nowhere in abundance. Hodgkinsonite is a hydrous silicate of zinc and manganese ■crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It occurs in seams in massive granular ore of the typical willemite-franklinite mixture; the seams are generally very thin with but a film of the mineral which is always associated with white barite and not uncommonly with plates of native copper. Locally the film thickens to a narrow vein and then the new mineral may show individuals up to 2 cm. across, sharply angular in form and apparently with ^ Such, for example, as those in Becker and Van Ostrand's hyperbolic functions (Smithsonian Mathematical Tables, Washington. 1909). PALACHE AND SCHALLERI HODGKINSONITE 475 crystal faces but in reality determined in their outline almost wholly by the older platy barite which encloses them. The clear pink color and brilliant cleavage of hodgkinsonite, together with the snow white barite make such specimens both striking and attractive in appearance. One mass of ore with a surface 20 cm. square is at least half covered with hodgkinsonite. In one case only has such a vein been found in which the angular cells formed by the intersecting barite plates were not wholly filled by hodg- kinsonite so that the latter was free to develop crystal planes. From this specimen three crystals of good quality were detached and these served to establish the axial ratio of the species. Other crystals were found occupying cavities in thicker veins free from barite. These crystals, the largest 1 cm. long, were much affected by solution, the faces being generally dull or facetted. They were accompanied by black rhombohedral crys- tals of pyrochroite and scalenohedral crystals of calcite, both later in age and encrusting hodgkinsonite. The latter is im- planted directly on willemite or franklinite and in one specimen on manganese garnet. The association and mode of occurrence both indicate a pneumatolytic origin for the new mineral. Hodgkinsonite is monoclinic with normal symmetry. The highly perfect cleavage, normal to the symmetry plane, has been taken as the basal pinacoid. The elements were calculated from the angles of the forms taken as (110), (Oil), and (221) together with the inclination of the cleavage (001) to the prism zone. These angles follow. (001)=^ _ o .-,_i, > Average of 2 readings on 2 crystals. (11^) "1 _ ' „_, )> Average of 7 readings on 3 crystals. ' f

_ , > Average of 4 readings on 2 crystals. The axial elements thus calculated are: ' Po = 0.7254 qo = 1.1114 /x = 84° 33J'. a :b :c = 1.539 : 1 : 1.1165 0 = 84° 33^'. 476 PALACHE AND SCHALLER: HODGKINSONITE The forms observed are c(OOl), m(llO), s(Oll), r(221), i(401), x(305), g(552), it(322). The last four of these forms were found only on the etched crystals, which had been measured with con- siderable care before the better crystals were found. These four high-index forms are no doubt vicinal and due to etching of the crystals; they are nevertheless retained in the table of measure- ments and a figure showing them is given since they are charac- teristic of most of the specimens. In the following table may be found all the observations made on these crystals, together with the calculated angles for the various forms. TABLE 1 Angle Table for Hodgkinsonite CALCULATED MEASURED LIMITS

d V and consequently E and AE — A v. This set of measures can be repeated for different wave lengths, and the variations in the quantities determined; from A ?; we find the axial chromatic aber- ration and the departure from the Gauss condition, and from AE — Av, the oblique chromatic aberration and the variation of coma with color. 0.01 n: 0.01 E The diaphragm plate, generally used with moderate size lenses, has holes of 1 mm. diameter arranged in a line and located at about 3 mm. intervals. The error in the known position of the- holes is less than 0.005 mm. which corresponds to an error of about one part in ten tliousand in A E for the edge ray of an ordinary small lens. The shadowgraphs are easily measured on a small Zeiss comparator with sufficient accuracy for rays somewhat 484 tillyer: variation of equivalent focus distant from the center. Near the axis it is almost impossible to obtain an accurate value of either AE or A ?; and the problem be- comes physically indeterminate. This method was first tried upon a telescope objective of 320 mm. equivalent focus, the trigonometric residuals of which were already known. TABLE 1 Telescope Objective, E = 320, X = 0.55 ju- Residuals in Hundredths of a Millimeter h In mm. 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 27.5 Obs Av +0 +4 0 0 +17 - 2 - 1 0 -1 +4 _2 0 -7 -8 -3 +1 -1 0 -5 +1 -7 _2 -6 +1 -1 +3 —5 0 Obs AE-Av Av Comp +5 — 1 Comp AE-Av From these residuals it is seen that the probable error of a determination near the edge of the objective is only a few hun- dreths of a millimeter. Moreover it is evident that this objec- tive is exceptionally well made. The results of measurement of the spherical aberration and departure from the sine condition for three photographic objec- tives are plotted in figure 2. Curves A and B were made from high speed anastigmats with an aperture ratio of about F 3.5 while curve C is an older much used type of symetrical anastigmat having an aperture ratio of about F 7.7. One pecuUar feature of curve B is the difficulty experienced in determining the relative positions of the zero values of E and v, the v curve apparently having a point of inflection near the axis. This may be due' to a small error in grinding the surface, to an error in the measurements, or to a true aberration in this type of lens. Some evidence exists that this is a true aberration since the actual coma found in this lens changes sign at only a small angle with the axis. Both lenses, however, are remarkable for their freedom from aberra- tions and for the care taken in their construction. ' WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ 485 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. The change in the crystal angles of quartz with rise in temperature. Fred. E. Wright. Geo- physical Laboratory. Crystallographers agree that in the development of the science of crystallography the two minerals, quartz and calcite, have played an exceedingly important role. Quartz was the first crys- tal substance to attract the attention of the ancient Greeks. They observed that its crystals are bounded by plane and not curved surfaces, as is the case in plants and animals; and they named it ''crystal," i.e., clear ice, on the assumption that it had been formed from water thru the action of intense cold. Later they found that other substances had different but equally characteristic shapes and they accordingly extended the term ''crystal" to signify the state of being bounded by flat surfaces rather than to denote the mineral quartz to which the name "rock crystal" is still applied occasionally. Further observa- tions on crystals were not made until 1669, when Nicolaus Steno, a Danish physician, found that^the angles between any two cor- responding quartz crystals were the same even tho the shapes and sizes of these faces varied from crystal to crystal. Steno 's law of the constancy of crystal angles is of fundamental importance and on it all subsequent work in crystallograpy has been based. Steno's observations were made at room temperature and under ordinary atmospheric pressure, and practically all subsequent measurements of crystal angles have been made under similar conditions of pressure and temperature, with the result that these two factors have been less carefully considered by crystallogra- phers than their importance possibly merits. We may look upon a crystal as a system of forces which finds expression in the development of the crystal faces and in the other crystallographic properties and which, in turn, exerts a definite influence on external forces, either physical or chemical, within the range of its action. This system is not invariant but has two degrees of freedom, temperature and pressure, and, even tho their effects may be relatively shght, yet their recognition and study should furnish data of value. In physical chemistry the investigation of the temperature-pressure effects on chemical- 486 WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ physical systems has led to results of the greatest interest. In crystallography the relations between the differential changes in the crystallographic properties and the attendant differential changes in the optical and other constants should lead to differ- ential equations which on integration would state the relations between the two systems of forces (crystallographic and physical) and thus give us information on the character and order of mag- nitude of the crystallographic forces themselves. It is essential in this connection to measure not only the changes in the crystal- lographical and optical constants with temperature and pressure but also the specific heats at the different temperatures (energy changes) . The measurement of these properties on a few selected minerals is now being carried out at this Laboratory. In the present preliminary paper the results of the measurements of the changes in the crystal angles of quartz with temperature are presented briefly. Method and apparatus. The quartz crystals were measured on the thermal two-circled goniometer described recently in this journal.^ With this goniometer "the position of the normal to each crystal face in space was fixed by two angles (angular polar distance and azimuth angle) for each measured temperature. The crystal was mounted in platinum jaws and securely fastened. No effort was made to adjust the crystal accurately because it was evident that any mechanical device consisting of different mate- rials would not remain fixed in position over a temperature range of 1200°. The entire crystal was first measured at room temper- ature and then the furnace heated to a definite temperature, and held there 5 or 10 minutes; at this temperature the entire crystal was remeasured, the temperature being held constant during the measurement and the angular values on several of the faces re- peated to insure constancy of position of the crystal during the readings. This procedure was repeated at each temperature of measurement up to 1250°. By this method adjustment troubles are eliminated and the measurement of the entii-e crystal is com- plete for each temperature and independent of previous adjust- ment and of any slight shifts in position which may have occurred. 1 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 396-401. 1913. WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ 487 From the position angles of the faces thus measured the angles between the unit rhombohedrons over the pole were computed; also the angle between the unit rhombohedron and the prism face immediately below it. During the measurements the adjustment of the goniometer was tested and found satisfactory. Readings were made to j of arc, the circle being graduated to ^'.^ j^^ h^q j^igj^ temperatures the light from the furnace itself is so intense that an arc light is re- 51-30 35 5140 45 51 50 ■ ■1 :- .-. '■(• '. .. : • f" ■■ .■ ■ 7 — » / •/ . /. / /■ '/^' , ,^' . ^ ^^ !f ^ r^ ■^ ^ O 500 1000° Fig. 1 quired for illuminating the signal. The Hght of the furnace was cut out to a large extent by means of a blue filter (Wratten tri- color blue) which absorbed all of the red and yellow and most of the green of the spectrum, colors which are most intense in the furnace, whereas the arc light emits relatively more blue light. At 1250° the signals observed thru this filter were perfectly sharp and the measurements were as easy to make as at room temperatures. The results of measurements are listed in Table 1 and are rep- resented graphically in figure 1. / 2 In making the readings the quarters of minutes were recorded as follows : /^' = 1-; 3^' = 1'; M' = 1' ; this method of indicating the quarter minutes was found convenient and satisfactory' in practice. 488 WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ TABLE 1 g m go DECREASE IN ANGLE p IN MINUTES SERIES TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES DECREASE IN ANGLE P IN MINUTES SERIES TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES DECREASE IN ANGLE P IN MINUTES SERIES TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES DECREASE IN ANGLE P IN MINUTES SERIES TEMPERATURE IN 1 DEGREES DECREASE IN ANGLE P IN MINUTES SERIES TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES DECREASE IN ANGLE P IN MINUTES SERIES 18 'o.Oh 180 1 .,9k 305 3.6f 426 5.7f 531 8.2g 602 11 .8h 20 O.Oe 181 2.0d 3.9f 6. If 8.5g 12 .2h i 1.6d 4. If 437 5.9e 7.9g 12 .4h 21 0.0a 2. Id 326 4.0e 5.4e 8.0k 12. 6h f 185 1.9e 3.8e 5.8e 7.8k 613 12.0k g 1.7e 3.5e 6.0e 552 9.0d 11.9k 22 O.Ob 1.9e 3.7e 461 6.0b 9. 2d 12.3k k 2.0e 330 4.01 5.9b » 9.6d 614 12.21 23 0.0c 2.3e 3.91 6.3b 554 8.9b 12.21 d 190 1.91 3.81 6.9b 9.7b 11 .51 1 1.81 3.91 484 7.0g 9.7b 12.01 79 0.5i 2.11 4.21 7.6g 9.1c 12.51 0.4i 2.21 341 3.9i 6.3g 9.2c 636 12. 2e 0.7i 2.21 4.0i 7.0g 9.0c 11 .9e 108 l.le 203 1.8i 4.3i 494 7.5d 9.0c 12. 2e 0.7e 2.0i 344 4.2k 6.9d 560 9.61 12 .4e l.Oe 2.2i 4.0k 7.7d 8.91 647 12. 7d 110 0.8f 206 1.8a 4.3k 500 7. Oh 9.61 12.3d 1.2f 2.2a 346 3.9c 7.1h 552 9.5h 11 .9d 1.2f 2.2a 4.0c 7.6h 9.5h 670 12.3c 111 1.1c 213 2. If 3.8c 7.7h 9.7h 11.7c 1.0c 2.2f 3.9c 504 7.2c 9.5h 12.2c 0.7c 2.3f 377 4.2b 7.5c 565 9. 2d 13.3c 0.7c 2.2f 4.7b 7.6c 9.9d 703 12. 2h 1.2h 255 2.4c 4.8b 519 7.81 10.3d 12. 6h 1.2h 2.4c 4.4b 7.91 582 11 .5f 13. Ih 1.5h 2.6c 392 4.4h 7.51 12. If 12. 7h 122 1.0a 267 2.9g 5. Oh 7.81 12. 3f 713 12. 2g 0.8a 3.2g 5.2h 521 8.6b 583 12. 5d 12 .5g 0.8a 3.4g 5.3h 8.0b 12. 5d 12 .8g 151 1.2g 3.5g 408 5.0d 7.9b 11 .9d 722 12. 3i 1.5g 272 3. Oh 4.9d 8.2b 592 12. Og 12. 6i 1.5g 3.3h 5.6d 8.2f 12 .5g 731 12.8c 1.7g 3.1h 426 5.0c 8. Of 12. 2g 12.2c 163 1.5b 3.4h 5.2c 7.5f 12 .9g 12.4c 1.7b 294 3.5d 5.6c 531 8.2e 13. Ig 12.1c 1.6b 3. 2d 5.0c 8.4e 595 12.4c 13.0c 1.7b 302 3.5b 5.3f 8.2e 12.0c 732 12. 8e 180 1.8k 3.1b 5.4f 8.2e 11.9c 12. 4e 1.7k 3.7b 5.8f 8.2e 602 11 .8h 12. le WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ 489 TABLE 1— Continued -s ij ij >J ^ g dj fe o g o g 2 Iz; O a o g M 2; z !5 M 15 IH z » "S « S ^» a ^ffl a ^CD a ^.0 a ^to K IZ H » :5 a » Is a » ^ a K K a « Z a 1= m « H 1= to " H t= m " 6: 0 to " H != to " H (= to '- H H H a D 1 5 H a d Ej H a 1= El a a D Ej a a => Ei a a 0 t w S 12 :S s 5 !5 i a 00 z •^ a is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Wasliington. 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A- THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — The constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly heated enclosure. W. W. Coblentz 177 Phytopathology. — Envronment influences in the pathology of Solanum tuberosum. W. A. Orton . . . . : 180 Zoology. — Web-spinning fly larvae in Guatemalan caves. O. F. Cook -; 190 Abstracts Phytopathology 194 Anthropology 196 Medicine '. 196 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 197 The Chemical Society , 197 The Geological Society of Washington 19d Anthropological Society 206. Vol. III. No. 8. April 19, 1913. JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright QBOLOaiCAL 90RVBT BURBATJ OF PLANT INDCTSTRT QBOPHTSICAL LABORATORT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES / OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journai, is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care ii; seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints.— On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers . .25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of aclentlfic societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Economics. — The function of research in the regulation of natural monopolies. E. B. Rosa 201 Mineralogy. — The determination of the order of agreement between obser- vation and theory in mineral analyses. Fred. E. Wright and C. E. Van Orstrand 223 Physics. A new thermal microscope for the measurement of the optical con- stants of minerals at high temperatures. Fred. E. Wright 232 Proceedings The Geological Society of Washington 237 Announcement of Meetings The Semi-Centenary anniversary of the National Academy of Sciences 240 Vol. III. No. 9. May 4, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY r T OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright GBOLOQICAL SURTBT BURBAtT OF PLANT INDaSTRT QBOPHTSICAL LABORATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BT THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. WD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and ia a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies S.55 $.60 $.65 *50 copies .60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 cqpies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. .The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Aqents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from .Tuly 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. Special ilftei are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS MALTIMORE, U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS ' Original Papers Page Vital Statistics.^A natural population norm. Alfred J. Lotka 241 Chemistry. — The determination of phosphorus in steels containing vana- dium. J. R. Cain and F. H. Tuttle 249 Mineralogy. — ^The refractive indices of strengite. Waldemar T. Schaller . . . 249 Abstracts Metallography. . \ 251 Biological Chemistry .^ 251 Agricultural Chemistry 252 Industrial Chemistry 257 Geology 258 Proceedings The Chemical Society 260 The Botanical Society of Washington 264 The Biological Society of Washington 267 Vol. III. No. 10. May 19, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransoms Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Weight GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY. BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publicatio-n (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or, emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undeitake to do more than correct obvious minor e/rors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as. many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55. $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies... .70 .80 .95 Covers: — ^25 copies..... . .$.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. * The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MGller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges, — ^The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1012 will be sent for $3.00. Special rate* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS ' OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES •There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Meteorology. — The unusual atmospheric haziness during the latter part of 1912. H. H. Kimball 269 Physiq^. — Recent theories of heat and radiation. W. Wien 273 Radiotelegraphy. — A comparison of arc and spark sending apparatus for radiotelegraphy. L. W. Austin 284 Mineralogy. — Triplite from eastern Nevada. Frank L. Hess and W. F. Hunt 286 Helminthology. — Notes on Monochus and Tylenchulus. N. A. Cobb 287 Vital Statistics. — A natural population norm. II-V. Alfred J. Lotka 289 Abstrac'ts Botany 294 Zoology ■ ^ 294 Ichthyology . , 295 Proceedings -"'The Philosophical Society of Washington ■; 29G The Geological Society of Washington '. . . 300 The Anthropological Society of Washington 304 Vol. III. . No. 11, June 4, 1913. JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS . Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scopield Fred. Eugene Wright GBOLOaiCAli 8URVHY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY GBOPaTSIOAL LABORATORY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES / OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the sumnaer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volume^ now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature' published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and program's of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undeitake, to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied wi]th the manuscript. Proof. — In or^er to secure prompt publication no proof, willbe sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containittg his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each,- Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. ,, ipp.- ' 8 pp. 25 copies- $.55 .$.60. ;..-... .$.65 50 copies , 60 ...'.;.. ....70. ...;. 80 100 copies. 70 .....:. .80 ,., 95 Covers: — ^25 copies $.15, 50 copies $:25 100 copies' $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should ^jreferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is ..",.., $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers -. 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MttUer, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Nximbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. Soeclal rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS IKALTIMOHE. U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Astrophysics. — ^The variation of the sun. C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich ;..... 309 Physics. — ^The melting points of some refractory oxides. C. W. Kanolt... 315 New modified thermoelectric methods in calorimetry. Walter P.White 319 On the absorption of light in heterogeneous media. P. G. Nutting... 322 Radiotelegraphy. — Difference in strength of day and night signals in radio- telegraphy. L. W. Austin 326 Metallography. — Preliminary note on the critical ranges, A3 and A2, of pure iron. G. K. Burgess and J. J. Crowe 329 Abstracts Meteorology. 333 Climatology 334 Chemistry 334 Paleontology 336 Zoology 336 Bacteriology .". 337 Proceedings The Washington Academy of Sciences : . 339 The Chemical Society 340 The Geological Society of Washington 343 Vol. III. _ No. 12. June 19, 1913. JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright GBOLOaiCAt, SURVET BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY GEOPHT8ICAL LABOBATORT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES office of publication the waverly press baltimore, md. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undeitake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their di^retion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no groof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise (/are in seeing that copy is followed. Authors^ Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65i.: 50 copies 60 70.. 80 100 copies 70 80 .95 Covers: — ^25 copies $.15, 60 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers ....*. 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London,^nd Mayer and MUller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges.— The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Vohimel however, from .July 19, 1911 to December 10, 1612 will be Bent for $3.00. Special ntM are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. -■ THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen vohimes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mathematics. — ^Tables of the exponential function. C. E. Van Orstrand. . . 345 Physics. — Summary of tests olQ bismuth thermopiles. Wm. W. Coblentz.. 357 Abstracts Meteorology 361 Electrochemistry 361 Geology 362 Vol. III. No. 13. July 19, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofibld Fred. Eugene Wright QBOLOaiCAL SURVEY BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRT GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints .—On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. <• 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers .' 25 Monthly numbers : 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MilUer, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Nuynbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for 83.00. Special rnton are clven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A, THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request bj^ the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Sir., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Geophysics. — Volcanic dust as a factor in the production of climatic changes. W. J. Humphreys 365 Physics. — Melting points of the refractory elements, I. Elements of atomic weight from 48 to 59. G. K. Burgess and R. G. Waltenberg 371 Proceedings The Botanical Society of Washington 379 Vol. III. No. 14. August 19, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scopibld Fred. Eugene Wright QBOLOaiCAL SURVEY BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATOHT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES / , OFFICE OP PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY press * BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the VVaf^hington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond 'to calendar years. Scope. — The Journai. is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident njembers of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to anymember of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without esseijtial changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be uSed only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no clfarge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — ^25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. _ • The rate of Subscription per volume ia ; . .$6.00* Semi-monthly numbers '. 25 • Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road. Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Ar/ents; William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Mi.fsing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume J however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. Special rateis Rro elven to rrrombers of arlentlfie societies affiliated v/lth the AcRdemy. THE WAVERLY PRESS PAI.TIMORE- U. S. A, THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survej^, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS Page Meteorology. — ^Evaporation in the great plains and intermountain districts as influenced by the haze of 1912. Lyman J. Briggs and J. O. Belz ... 381 Radiotelegraphy. — ^A crystal contact disturbance preventer for Radiotele- graphic Receiving. L. W. Austin .' 386 Geophysics. — Data on the intrusion temperature of the palisade diabase. R. B. Sosman and H. E. Merwin 389 Physics. — An electrical goniometer furnace for the measurement of crystal angles and of refractive indices at high temperatures. Fred Eugene Wright 396 Abstracts* Astronomy 402 Geodesy : 402 Geology 403 Entomology • 404 Vol. III. ' No. 15. September 19, 1913. JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDi'rORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofibld Fred. Eugene Wright OBOLOaiCAL SURVEY BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY GBOPHTSICAL LABORATORY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES / OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy ot Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 191 1 . Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the- Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. " Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 ■ 70 80 100 copies 70 ' 80 95 Covers: — ^25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 60 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road. Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Mllller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from .luly 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent (or $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESfe BALTIMORE. U.S.A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Oceanography. — Observations on ocean temperatures in the vicinity of icebergs and in other parts of the ocean. C. W. Waidner, H. C. Dickinson and J. J. Crowe 405 Electricity. — High frequency ammeters. J. H. Bellinger 412 Chemistry. — ^The interpretation of mineral analyses. Roger C. Wells 416 Chemistry. — Note on the analysis of water from a deep well in Pennsyl- vania. George Steiger 423 Botany — ^A new shrubby buckeye. W. W. Ashe 424 Abstracts Physics 425 Proceedings The Philosophical Society of Washington 426 The Biological Society of Washington 427 Vol. III. ^ No. 16. October 4, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OK SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofikld Fred. Eugene Wright OBOLOQICAL SURVEY ' BURBAC OF PLANT INDU8TRT OEOPHT8I0AL LABORATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY. BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION •THE WAVERLY press BALTIMORE, MD. * Journal^of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and Ib a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of jJublication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 .80 95 Covers :-^25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies.... . .$.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 /■ Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley «& Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MUHer, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from July 19, rtll to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. Special ratM we given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS PALTIMORE-U.S.A THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS « Original Papers Page Chemistry. — The electrolytic reduction of iron for analysis. J. C. Hostetter 429 Helminthology. — New nematode genera found inhabiting fresh water and non-brackish soils. N. A. Cobb 432 Abstracts Geology : . . . 445 References Geology 447 Hydrology 448 Vol. III. * No. 17 -October 19, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield - Fred. Eugbnb Wright OEOLOaiCAL SURVEY BUR^A.n OV PLANT INDD8TBT QEOPHYSICAL LABORATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY BXCBPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, V BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abst«acts of current-scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts^ may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors^ at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will bejsent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that. copy is followed. Authors' Copies, ajid Reprints^ — On request the author of an original article will receive ton copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows; 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies ^ $.55 $.60 $.66 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 00* Semi-monthly numbers ^ 25 Monthly numbers , 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road. Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MilUer, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. SDecIal rate.s are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS • BALTIMORE. U.S. A THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volimies of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or. Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Petrology.— Magnetite basalt from North Park, Colorado. H. S. Washing- ton and E. S. Larsen 449 Abstracts Physics 453 Geology : 454 Botany ' 455 Zoology . . .~ 456 » Entomology 456 Vol. III. No. 18 November 4, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofibld Fred. Eugene Wright OBOLOOICAL aUBVKY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY OEOPHT8ICAI. LABORATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY press , BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 18 a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first vohime began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritteiAnd in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannor'trndertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manusci'ipt in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers:— 25 copies $.15, 50 ^pies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author rriay not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his jnanuscrjpt. _ ■ The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road. Baltimore, Md., or •to the European Agents. European. Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MtiUer, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Nujnbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1812 will be sent for $3.00. Special rate.s are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A- THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis- Ferdinand Str.. Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Geophysics. — Water and the magmatic gases. Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd 457 Botany. — The botanical name of the lime, Citrus aurantifolia. Walter T. Swingle " 463 Abstracts Geology 460 Zoology 468 Vol. III. No. 19 November 19, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransomb Carl S. Scofibld Fred. Eugene Wright GBOLOaiCAL SUBTBT BURBAU OP PLANT INDUSTRT OEOPHTSICAL LABORATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, EY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a re,cord of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Ilhistrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitaljje cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. ■ 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies S.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies....^ 60 70 .80 100 copies 70 \.. .80 95 Covers:— 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25^ 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript; The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remiilnnccs should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Milller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Miasing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Voliimfil however, from .Inly 19, 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be sent for $3.00. SpecUl rat«} are given to members of scientific societies affillnted with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS RAITIMCBE.U.S.A THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen vokimes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survej^, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mathematics. — A useful type of forrtiula for the interpolation and represen- tation of experimental results. L. H. Adams 469 Mineralogy. — Hodgkinsonite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, N. J. C. Falache and W. T. Schaller 474 Proceedings The Anthropological Society of Washington 479 Vol. III. - No. 20 December 4, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES , BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofibld Fred. Eugene Wright QBOLOaiCAL SURVKT BUBBAU OF PLANT INOUSTBT GEOPHTSICAL LABOBATOBT PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL -OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and- will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 80 100 copies 70 .80 .95 Covers: — 25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Acjents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Mtiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — ^The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Afissing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty daj's after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from July 19. 1911 to December 19, 1912 will be aent (or $3.00. Special rates %n given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ^ THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE U. S. A THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — Determination of the zonal variation of the equivalent focus. E. D. TiLLYER 481 Crystallography. — The change in the crystal angles of quartz with rise in temperature. Fred. E. Wright 485 Palaeontology. — The systematic position of the Crinoid family PUcatocrin- idae. Austin H. Clark 494 Abstracts Geodesy '. 500 Geophysics 500 Physics 501 Electricity ' 501 Physical Chemistry 501 Geology 502 Petrology 503 Mineralogy 503 Crystallography.'. '. ^ . . 504 Botany - 504 Zoology 504 PROCEEDINC^S The Washington Academy of Sciences 505 The Chemical Society 505 The Botanical Society of Washington 506 The Biological Society of Washington - 509 The Anthropological Society of Washington , 510 • ' Announcement of Meetings The Washington Academy of Sciences 512 The Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists,. .- 512 Vol. III. No. 21 December 10, 1913. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright GEOLOQICAI/ SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT 1NDU8TBX. ^ GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY, BV THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY press BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences THE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a semi-monthly publication and will be sent to subscribers on the fourth and nineteenth of each month; except during the summer, when it will appear on the nineteenth only. The first volume began with the July issue and ended with 1911. Volumes now will correspond to calendar years. Scope. — The Journal is a medium for the publication of original papers and is a record of scientific work in Washington. It accepts for publication (1) brief papers written or communicated by resident or non-resident members of the Academy; (2) abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of the affiliated societies; and (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors and must be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. Footnote references should be complete, including year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, altho no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to secure prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. They are urged to submit their manuscript in final form and the editors will exercise care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors* Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many addi- tional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at cost, or approximately as follows: 2 pp. 4 pp. 8 pp. 25 copies $.55 $.60 $.65 50 copies 60 70 .80 100 copies 70 80 95 Covers: — ^25 copies $.15, 50 copies $.25 100 copies $.50 As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should reach the editors before his paper goes to press and should preferably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to Alfred H. Brooks, Treasurer, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 York Road, Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and MUller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journau does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1612 will be sent (or $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy, THE WAVERLY PRESS eAt.TIMORE- U. S. A. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects. The volumes contain from 200 to 700 pages and separates of each paper, to a limited number, are also available. A list of the titles with prices will be furnished on request by the Treasurer of the Academy, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., by William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, or Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Terrestrial Magnetism. — Preliminary results of a first analysis of the sun's general magnetic field. L. A. Bauer 513 Radiotelegraphy. — Further comparison of arc and spark radio transmission. L. W. Austin 517 Abstracts Geophysics 520 Physics •• 521 Chemistry 522 Physical Chemistry 522 Mineralogy 523 Petrology 524 Geology 526 Palaentology 530 Botany 532 Zoology 533 Technology 533 References Hydrology 535 Technology .' 535 Proceedings The Philosophical Society of Washington 536 The Geological Society of Washington 538 Announcement op Meetings Chemical Society of Washington 540 Inde.v 541 WH iflxn R