JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME IV, 1914

BOARD OF EDITORS
Frederick Leslie Raxsome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLAXT INDUSTRY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY.

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICE OF PUBLICATION

THE WAVERLY PRESS

BALTIAIORE, MD.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IY JANUARY 4, 1914 No. 1

OCEANOGRAPHY".— 7^/ie circulation of the abyssal water of the
oceans. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

The geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the recent
crinoids, animals which, occurring at all depths, are thruout
life, with veiy few exceptions, strictly sessile, and of which the
j^oung are developed entirely in the water immediately surround-
ing the adults, furnishes data of the greatest importance for the
solution of the problems connected with the abyssal circulation
of the oceanic waters. This circulation, as would be expected,
differs radically from the circulation of the surface waters, and is
altogether of a much simpler type. As indicated by the distri-
bution of the recent crinoids, the general scheme of the abyssal
circulation of the oceanic water is as follows:

The surface water of the antarctic regions, bathing the shores
of the antarctic continent and forming the circumpolar antarctic
stream, is in reality abyssal water, derived entirely from the
abysses of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. It has nothing
whatever to do with the surface water of the rest of the globe,
from which it is separated by a broad neutral zone, the so-called
west wind drift. Antarctic water enters the basins of the Pacific,
Atlantic and Indian oceans in the form of great peripheral cur-
rents (the Humboldt, Benguela and Australian currents) flowing
along their southern, southeastern and eastern borders, which,
in the Pacific and Atlantic, plunge beneath the surface at about
the latitude of the equator, but are continued as deep currents
northward, westward, and finally for a greater or lesser distance

2 CLARK: CIRCULATION OF ABYSSAL WATER OF OCEANS

southward, along the eastern, northern and northwestern mar-
gins of these basins. At every point in their course these currents
give off water from their seaward (left) side which falls into the
abysses and forms the strictly abyssal water; on account of the
effect of the rotation of the earth this process is carried on far
more actively in the southern than in the northern hemisphere.
In the northern hemisphere the rotation of the earth; instead of
inducing the flow of water from the borders of these currents into
the abysses, tends to cause the currents to hug the coast and, by
rendering them more compact, to prevent the diffusion of their
water and hence to maintain their motion and to preserve them
as currents. Also it operates to bring their upper levels near
the surface so that, wherever a powerful surface current flowing
diagonally away from the shore causes the formation of a vacuum,
as it were, between itself and the coast, the water of these periph-
eral currents, composed of water of the strictlj" abyssal type,
and ultimately of antarctic origin, immediately rises to the
surface. This occurs off northwestern Africa and off southern
California, and again off the Kurile Islands and off the New
England coast from Cape Cod northward; on the New England
coast, however, the identity of the antarctic water is more or less
concealed by mixture with water of low salinity coming from the
north.

In the pocket-like Gulf of Alaska the rotation of the earth
causes the water of the antarctic current to pile up, and to rise
nearly, in the winter possibly in some places quite, to the sur-
face. Over the surface of this cold antarctic water flows the wind-
impelled drift from the Kuro-Siwo, which divides, part of it
skirting the northern part of the Gulf of Alaska, and part flow-
ing southward down the coast. The water of the Kuro-Siwo
drift and the antarctic water are of the same salinity, and there-
fore they mix readily. Hence the southern derivative from the
Kuro-Siwo drift, the so-called California current, as it flows
southward dissolves into itself the cold water of the antarctic
stream immediately beneath it, presenting the curious phenom-
enon of a current flowing southward, yet at the same time
becoming colder and colder.

dole: chlorine content of rain water 3

In the southwestern portion of the basins of the Pacific, At-
lantic and Indian oceans the abyssal water slowly rises and,
flowing southward, takes the place in the circumpolar antarctic
circulation of the water lost thru the Humboldt, Benguela and
Australian currents.

In the central portion of the oceanic basins the general motion
of the water is from east to west, the water lost from the currents
flowing northward across the basins and being picked up by the
southerly currents on the other side. This circulation is rapid in
the high southern latitudes, diminishing in intensity northward.

The water of the circumpolar west wind drift of low southern
latitudes, north of the true antarctic current, is mainly surface
water from the north caught up and driven forward by the strong
wind. This west wind drift forms a band dividing the abyssal
antarctic circulation from the superficial circulation further north.

By this drift many organisms, pelagic at some stage of their
existence, or capable of transportation by floating objects, are
distributed thniout the southern latitudes, tho they are unable
to withstand truly antarctic conditions; and to this is largely
due the similarity of the faunas of southern Africa, southern
South America, southern Australia and New Zealand, a simi-
larity which is in no way indicated by the crinoids of these
localities.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Note on the chlorine content of rain water
at Tortugas, Fla. R. B. Dole, Geological Surve}'. Com-
municated by F. W. Clarke.

The appreciable quantity of salt carried by normal rainfall
off the seacoast is well shown by test of a sample collected by
the writer on Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Fla. After heavy all-
night rains and morning showers had thoroly washed the roof of
the Marine Biological Laboratory a large sample of rain was col-
lected during the afternoon of June 13, 1913, in a galvanized
bucket under one of the gutters. This sample was immediately
bottled and later tested at Washington, D. C, by E. C. Bain. A
250 cc. portion concentrated to 25 cc. and titrated with a solu-
tion of silver nitrate, 1 cc. of which was equivalent to 0.5 mgm.

4 dole: chlorine content of rain water

of chlorine, had a chlorine content of 2.9 parts per million. The
residue from a liter dried at 180°C. was 31 parts per million, only
a small part of which could be attributed to solution of the
bottles for the residue contained but 2.0 parts per million of
silica.

Tho this content of chlorine can not be considered an average
because of the variable effect that wind-borne spray has on the
salt in the rain it serves as a contribution to the rather scanty
knowledge regarding the composition of rain water in the United
States. The above-mentioned chlorine, 2.9 parts per million, is
equivalent to about 5 parts of sea salt. With an annual rainfall
of 60 inches this is equivalent to a precipitation of 65 pounds of
salt per acre per annum. Figures quoted by Clarke^ for Barbados
are equivalent to 193 pounds and others range from 24 pounds in
England to 298 pounds in Ceylon.

1 Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry: U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 491, p.
50. 1911.

I I'll

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Some lavas of Monte Arci, Sardinia. Henry S. Wash-
ington. Am. Jour. Sci. (4). 1913.
This extinct volcano was visited in October, 1904. It has not been
described since 1857. It is shown that the volcano consists of a core
of rhyolite, with later flows of dacite, andesite and trachyte, closing;
with extensive sheets of basalt, in many respects resembling the nearby
and better known Monte Ferru. Detailed petrographic descriptions
of the lavas are given, together with seven complete analyses. An
apparenth- new mineral was found, which is to be further investigated.
The paper is a preliminary one, and the volcano is worthy of another
visit and fuller study. H. S. AV.

GEOLOGY. — Observations on the Daubree experiment and capillarity in
relation to certain geological speculations. John Johnston and L.
H. Adams. J. Geol. 1913.
Those who believe that meteoric waters are an important factor in
the production of the phenomena of volcanism must always face the
problem of devising a plausible account of the manner in which acces-
sions of water can be introduced into the magma. This difficulty they
have endeavored to obviate b}^ instancing an experiment of Daubree,
who found that water would pass thru a porous sandstone against a cer-
tain excess counter pressure of steam. This passage of water is, as
Daubree pointed out, a manifestation of capillar}^ action; the authors
show that this same effect may be secured by means of a much simpler
experimental arrangement. Now capillary forces are effective only
when there is a surface of separation within the pores; moreover they
diminish steadily with, rise of temperature, and vanish at the critical

6 abstracts: plant physiology

point of the liquid. Consequently, the Daubree experiment gives no
ground for supposing that capillary forces would be effective in causing
water to penetrate into deep seated and highly heated rock-masses.
This conclusion has l.een pointed out before ; the purpose of the present
paper is to enforce it, since the opposite, and erroneous, conclusion still
frequently appears as an argument in favor of the likelihood of the in-
troduction of water by means of capillarity into molten magmas. Even
if we make the' somewhat unlikely assumption of free liquid surfaces
far dowTi in the rocks, any pressure producible by capillarity is in general
likely to be small in comparison with the pressure due to the hydrostatic
column, except in pores of such fineness that the amount of water that
could flow thru them is infinitesimal. J. J. and L. H. A.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — The water requireme^its of j)lants. I. Inves-
tigations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911. L. J. Briggs and
H. L. Shantz. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 284, 1913.
This paper deals with the amount of water absorbed by plants in the
production of a unit weight of dry matter. In order to determine this
ratio, which is called the "water requirement," plants were grown to
maturity in large pots having a capacity of about 115 kilos of soil, pro-
vided with tight covers, with openings for the plants, the space between
the cover and the stem of the plant being sealed with wax. Thirty-one
varieties were tested at Akron, Colorado, in 1911, six pots being used in
each determination, and the results expressed with their probable error.
Of the crops tested, those most efficient in the use of water were mil-
let, sorghum and corn, the ratio being 275, 306 and362 respectively, that
is, these crops used 275, 306 and 362 pounds of water in the production
of one pound of dry matter. The least efficient were the legumes^
alfalfa, Canada Pea and sweet clover, with ratios of 1069, 800 and 709..
respectively, while the water requirement of the small grains was inter-
mediate, being 507 for wheat, 539 for barley, 614 for oats, and 724
for rye.

Different varieties of the same crop showed measurable differences in
their water requirements. Determinations made under field conditions
agreed very well with the pot determinations. A comparison of the re-
sults with wheat and sorghum grown at Akron, Colorado, and Amarillo
and Dalhart, Texas, showed that while evaporation in Texas was 18
per cent higher than in Colorado, sorghum had the same water require-
ment, while wheat required 36 per cent more water in Texas than in
Colorado. L. J. B. and H. L. S.

references: technology 7

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— r/)e water requirement of plants. II. A
review of the literature. L. J. Briggs and H. L. Shantz. Bureau
of Plant Industry, Bulletin 285, 19L3.
This paper reviews the literature relating to the water requirement of
plants. In summarizing the papers the data are presented in tabular
form and arranged Avith respect to the subject considered, such as the
effect of soil moisture content, type of soil, amount of soil used, ferti-
lizers, temperature, light, humidity, carbon dioxide content of the air,
relative leaf area, duration and period of growth on the water require-
ment, as well as the water requirement of different plants when grown
under comparable conditions. L. J. B. and H. L. S.

REFERENCES

TECHNOLOGY. — Recent -papers of the Bureau of Standards:

The dehydration of clays. G. H. Brown and E. T. Montgomery. Pp. 2.3.

1913.

The effect of overjiring upon the structure of clays. A. V. Bleininger mid

E. T. Montgomery. Pp. 23. 1913.

The technical control of the colloidal matter of clays. H. E. Ashley. Pp. 118.

1913.

The determination of phosphorus in steels containing vanadium. J. R. Cain

and F. H. Tucker. Pp. 11. 1913.

Electrolytic corrosion of iron in soils. Burton McCollum and K. H. Logan.

1913.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 273d meeting of the Society Avas held in the Cosmos Club on
October 29, 1913.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Physiography of the Southern Andes (illustrated.): Bailey Willis.
No abstract.

Use of physiography in the study of Rocky Mountain stratigraphy: W.
T. Lee. Reasons are here presented for abandoning the belief that
extensive land masses persisted in the southern Rocky Mountain region
thruout the Cretaceous period. Radical differences of opinion exist as
to the significance of certain continental deposits that rest unconform-
able^ on the Cretaceous rocks in the southern Rocky Mountain region.
In many places on either side of the mountains the base of these con-
tinental deposits is conglomeratic and contains pebbles of older rocks,
mainly the pre-Cambrian crystallines which constitute the core of the
range. Those who beheve that this conglomerate marks an unconform-
ity of considerable magnitude appeal to the evidence of these pebbles
as proof of a long interval of erosion following a notable upheaval of
the mountains. Others who doubt the magnitude of the unconformity
are of the opinion that the pebbles may have been derived from nearby
lands that had not been previously submerged, and argue that they
might have found their wa}^ to their present resting place without any
notable upheaval or long interval of erosion. It seems necessary, there-
fore, to inquire whether the evidence warrants the belief that any con-
siderable part of the southern Rocky Mountain region remained above
sea-level thruout Cretaceous time or whether the Cretaceous sea ex-
tended uninterruptedly over this region. The determination of this
question would materially aid in the solution of the problem whether
the unconformity in the southern Rocky Mountain region marking the
separation of the conformable Cretaceous beds, mainly of marine origin,
from the lowest conglomerate of the younger rocks of continental origin,
denotes an orogenic movement and erosion of sufficient magnitude to
make it the appropriate line of separation between the Cretaceous and
the Tertiary systems.

It seems evident that no notable crustal movement affected the
southern Rocky Mountain region for a long time prior to the beginning
of the Upper Cretaceous period, and that there was ample time for the
formation of a peneplain over this region.

proceedings: geological society 9

The distribution of the Dakota sandstone about the present moun-
tains and its attitude toward them; its presence within the mountains at
great altitudes; and its relation to the older formations seem to prove
that the Dakota sandstone extended practically continuously over the
present mountain region.

The distribution of the marine sediments of Colorado age, that lie on
the Dakota sandstone, is essentially the same as that of the Dakota,
that is, they occur on both sides of the mountains and at numerous
places within the mountain region and their lithologic character is not
such as to indicate that they were derived from the present mountain
area rather than from the continental land masses that existed both east
and west of the interior Cretaceous sea. Their presence near Brecken-
ridge, Colorado at an altitude of 13,4000 feet, and in many other places
at nearly as great altitudes, proves that these places at least were below
sea-level in Colorado time, and an inspection of their distribution leaves
little room for doubt that they were deposited continuously over the
mountain region.

The sedimentary rocks of Montana age in the Rock\' ^Mountain region
are more variable than those of Colorado age, but their general lithologic
character does not seem to harmonize with the postulate that any con-
siderable part of them was derived from the present .mountain area.
In general, the marine shale formations thicken toward the present
mountains while the sandstone formations thicken away from tha moun-
tains. In brief, the Upper Cretaceous formations behave as if no Rocky
]\Iountains existed when they were laid down.

If the Rocky Mountain region was covered with Cretaceous sedi-
ments, it follows that this region must have been uplifted and the
older rocks exposed to erosion before the conglomerate, consisting of
pebbles of these older rocks, could have been formed.

The 274th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club on
November 12, 1913.

Under informal communications ISlr. Edson S. Bastin discussed the
origin of the titaniferous iron ore at Caribou, Colorado. These ores
occur within small, irregular bodies of gabbro which in turn lie within
a large stock of monzonite. There is clear field evidence that both
gabbro and iron ores are magmatic differentiations from the monzonite
magma. The differentiation has proceeded along two lines leading to
the formation wdthin the same gabbro mass of (1) iron ores composed
essentially of augite, magnetite and spinel, and (2) ores much richer in
magnesia composed of olivine and magnetite. The chemical changes
during differentiation were shown by plotting a number of analyses of
these rocks and ores in diagrammatic form.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The change of optical and crystallographic properties of quartz with tem-
perature. F. E. Wright. This paper is published in full in Jour. Wash.
Acad. Sciences, 3, 485. 1913.

10 proceedings: geological society

Evidence of the inorganic origin of petroleum: C. W. Washburne. No
abstract.

Resins in Paleozoic Coals: David White. The discoveries by Eu-
ropean paleobotanists of supposed secretory cells and canals in petrified
woods of Paleozoic age, were reviewed, and in the light of data afforded
by certain American coals of low bituminous rank, interpreted as proba-
bly resin-bearing for the most part. This conclusion rests on the exami-
nation of the canal casts found in certain carbonized woods in the bi-
tuminous coals of the interior basins; on the observation of lumps of
exudate resins in Paleozoic coals of Iowa, Illinois and Indiana, and, in
particular on the physical and chemical characters of the canal fillings
found in carbonized petioles in the upper part of the Quadrant quartzite
of Montana all of which indicate that these secretions are resinous, and
that, accordingly, some of the Paleozoic woods found petrified were
resin-bearing. It appears that the resin contributions of the Paleozoic
plants were perhaps as large as those furnished by the coal-forming
floras of the Cretaceous and Tertiar3\

Studies in a number of western coal fields of the occurrence of resins,
which are always present and often conspicuous in the lower rank coals
of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, show that when, as the result of regional
metamorphism,. these coals are brought to a low bituminous rank the
effects of pressure metamorphism are found in physical changes as well
as in probable chemical changes in the resin lumps; also that during
the alteration indicated by the passage from about 58 per cent to 68 per
cent fixed carbon (pure coal basis) the resin lumps have become crackled,
changed to a dark brown, to a brownish black and, successively, to a
black carbonaceous granular powder. The process seems, in effect, to be
a devolatilization (carbonization) of the resin lumps. So far as known
no resin lumps are present in coals characterized by so high a percentage
of carbon (pure coal basis) as 68.

The deadening of the cannel coals found in association with high rank
coals, such as semi-bituminous and anthracite, is thought to be due to
the reduction of the waxy and resinous substances characteristic of the
cannel group of coals. As causally related to this phenomenon atten-
tion was called to the fact that, so far as observed by the speaker, no
commercial oil field has yet been found in any part of the earth in re-
gions where the coals of the formations that contain or overlie the oil
sands have been brought to a carbonization represented by 70 per cent
or more, the inference being that the distillation of the organic matter
has gone so far as to devolatilize or drive off the petroleum in the form-
ations of these regions.

The 275th meeting of the Societv was held in the Cosmos Clul? on
November 26, 1913.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Quaternary History of the Mount St. Elias Region, Alaska: A. G.
INIaddren. The southern slopes of the Mount St. Elias region front on
the Pacific Ocean with a rather regular coast line that is in marked

proceedings: geological society 11

physiooraiihic contrast with th(> deoply-fiorded coast line of the south-
eastern Alaska and Prince William Sound regions on either side of it.
This contrast is further accentuated by the much higher relief and re-
juvenated recent glaciation of Alpine type, so strongly developE-d in the
extensive area dominated by the great mountain masses of St. Elias and
Logan, whose heights are about 18,000 and 19,500 feet respectively.
The physiographic evidence clearly indicates that the Mount St. Elias
province has not passed thru the same episodes of Quaternary develop-
ment as have the deeply fiorded provinces which characterize the re-
mainder of the Pacific continental shores of Alska to the southeast and
southwest of its central part. The geologic evidence in this regard ap-
pears to prove that the relief of the Mount St. Elias region has been pro-
foundly rejuvenated in late Pleistocene time, and to indicate the strong
probability that this deformational uplift has continued thruout Re-
cent up to present time. This evidence is in the form of a stratified
marine coastwise terrane, from 4000 to 5000 feet thick where well de-
veloped, which is quite fossiliferous to the westward in the Yakataga
district and in the Chaix Hills, where it is not altered by deformation
as it is about Yakutat Bay and eastward. This terrane comprises one
or more thick marine shale members that are remarkable from the fact
that they contain quantities of ice-borne and glaciated bowlders and
cobbles of a great variety of metamorphic rocks in unassorted arrange-
ment. Blocks of these 5 to 10 feet in diameter are common in the
shale matrix and give a most distinctive lithologic character to the
terrane thruout its distribution, Avhich enables it to be recognized where
the shales are too much mashed to yield fossil remains. The fossils
appear to be of early Pleistocene age. The whole terrane has been
uplifted and deformed, so that it now stands at elevations from 3000 to
6000 feet above present sea level and forms the foothill mountains
along the south flank of the St. Elias range.

The Cretaceous-Eocene contact in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain.
L. W. Stephenson. The Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plain are separated from the overlying Eocene and younger for-
mations by an unconformity of regional extent. Several authors, includ-
ing Harris, Vaughan, Hill and Vaughan, and Dall, have stated some of
the important facts in regard to the differences exhibited by the faunas
on either side of the contact, but the magnitude of these differences has
not been sufficiently recognized by geologists.

During the time represented by the unconformity separating the Cre-
taceous and Eocene strata some very important changes took place in
the molluscan life of the area. A preliminary stud}' of the mollusks of
the upper part of the Cretaceous (Exogyra costata zone) of the eastern
Gulf region, where the hiatus is as narrow as it is anywhere in the At-
lantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, has showm that of 168 identified species
practically all became extinct before the Eocene ]\lidway formation be-
gan to be deposited. These species represent 89 genera, of which at
least 16 of the more common genera, including one whole order — the
Ammonoidea — became extinct. These faunal differences are greater

12 proceedings: geological society

than those which transpired thru evolutionary development during the
time of deposition of the Tombigbee sand and the overlying Selma
chalk and its non-chalky equivalents, or in terms of the Western Interior
section, approximately during the time required for the deposition of
the Niobrara formation and the Montana group.

Harris and Vaughn have both pubHshed statements to the effect that
there is a great break, both stratigraphic and faunal, between the Cre-
taceous and the Eocene, as evidenced by the fact that not a single
species is kno^vn certainly to have crossed from one system to the
other. Vaughan characterized the differences as expressive of a com-
plete faunal revolution. In his opinion the changed that took place in
the marine life of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain during the time
represented by the unconformity, are more striking than those that have
taken place between earliest Midway time and the present, for no great,
orders that lived during Midway time, comparable to the Ammonoidea,
have become extinct.

In the opinion of E. W. Berry, as expressed in a letter to the writer,
the differences in the Cretaceous and Eocene floras of the eastern Gulf
region are profound, and he believes that the unconformity represents
a very long interval.

The hiatus marks a great diastrophic movement, as a result of which
the shore lines were pushed far to the eastward and southward. The
faunas were thus forced into new environments. Altho there is no evi-
dence of marked climatic changes, unknown factors may have induced
more rapid evolutionary changes in the marine life, but liberal allowance
being made for a quickening of development, the hiatus must have been
of great duration in order to produce the observed changes, even when
measured in terms of geologic .time. How much of that time should be
classed as Cretaceous and how much as Tertiary cannot be determined
with the available data. Cretaceous time, however, did not end with
the deposition of the uppermost Cretaceous strata as preserved, neither
did Eocene time ])egin with the deposition of the lowermost Eocene
strata, but the lines separating the two periods probabl}^ lies somewhere
toward the middle of the hiatus.

The contact metamorphic copper deposits at Mackay, Idaho. J. B.
Umpleby. The contact metamorphic copper deposits at Mackay, Ida-
ho, are of particular interest because thej^ represent the replacement of
engulfed blocks of limestone after the solidification and jointing of the
porphyry inclosing them. Eight of these engulfed blocks and several
shoots of garnet-diopside rock, clearly of limestone derivation, crop out
in an area of about one scjuare mile. The most complete metamorphism
is of blocks along a pronounced fault, but metamorphism is locally in-
tense where onh' normal jointing of the porphyry was observed.

Both exomorphism and endomorphism are clearly recorded. The
former changed the blue limestone of White Knob into white marljle
thruout a mass one square mile in area and 1000 feet thick. It also
caused a conspicuous marmorization of the engulfed blocks of limestone.
Here a broken zone of garnet-diopside rock is external to the marble

proceedings: the chemical society 13

zone. On White Knob lime-silicate rock is not al)imdant, but in one
place it comprises a vein 3 to 5 feet wide which cuts across the marble
beds.

The garnetization of the porphyry is clearly shown at several places
in the mine. In one specimen garnet replaces the granite-porphyry
along joints and in another as a wave advancing into unfractured but
permeable material. In places ore bodies cut directly across the Hme-
stone-granite-porphyry contact. Elsewhere garnet-chalcopyrite ore,
in bunches of minable size, occurs at the intersection of joints well out
in the granite-porphyry.

These features are believed to indicate: (1) that the garnetization
took place after the solidification and fracturing of the inclosing por-
phyry, and (2) that, because the limestone blocks were entirely sur-
rounded by rigid porphyry at the time of metamorphism, the silica,
alumina, and iron of the silicate rock could not have been concentrated
from the limestone, but must have been supplied by deeper unconsoli-
dated portions of the batholith.

Adolph Knopf, Acting Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 231st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 25,
1913. Dr. P. A. Levene, of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re-
search of New York City spoke on The chemistry of the nucleic acids.
He told the story of his own initiation into the study of the chemistry
of living tissue, and sketched the early history of the researches on the
nucleic acids of protein. It was early estabhshed that the molecule
of one of the more complicated of these acids contains two purin bases,
two pyrimidine bases, phosphoric acid, and a carbohydrate. The Ger-
man investigators directed attention to a simpler acid, inosinic acid, the
study of which was taken up by Dr. Levene and his co-workers, with
gratif^-ing success. This acid contains hypoxanthin, phosphoric acid
and a new pentose sugar, ribose. Further studies showed the relations
of these groups in the compound. The successive details by which the
structure of the other analogous acids was worked out, both as to the
main groups and the structures within the groups, cannot be given in a
brief abstract, altho of the greatest interest even to those comparatively
uniformed in this complex branch of organic chemistry.

Discussion. Acree pointed out that the work of Dr. Levene has
cleared up the configuration of the pentoses, and emphasized the ul-
timate practical importance of these researches. Seidell inquired as to
the synthesis of these compounds; Dr. Levene stated that most such
efforts have been unsuccessful; furthermore, that their analysis is more
important at present than their sj^nthesis. Schreiner gave an apprecia-
tion of these researches from the standpoint of the student who wishes to
get at the composition of the compounds commonly produced in nature,
as against those devised by man. Berg inquired as to the molecftlar
weight of the nucleic acids; the simplest has been shown to be probably

14 proceedings: anthropological society

twice the structural formula. Voegtlin spoke of the application of en-
zymes in analyzing the acids into their component groups. In reply
to questions by Johnston, Acree, Chesnut and others the following
points were brought out: There is no evidence that tliere is more than
one animal nucleic acid and one plant acid of the polynucleitide struc-
ture, tho there are several mono-nucleitides. The origin of the sugar
groups is not knoAATi; experimentally, the breaking up of the hexoses by
enzymes always leads to two 3-carl3on chains, never to a pentose. The
animal acid contains a hexose, whose structure is not yet kno^vn. A
living animal enzyme is necessary for the analysis of the animal acid,
and the technique involves the skill of the surgeon as well as that of
the chemist.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 469th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wash-
ington, was held November 25, 1913, in the National Museum.

Dr. Daniel Folkmar, who has charge of the report on "Mother
Tongue" in the census, addressed the Society on Some results of the
first census of European races in the United States. Statistics of the
mother tongue, or native language, of the "foreign white stock" of the
United States are presented in the report soon to be issued by the Bureau
of the Census. It was prepared under the supervision of the chief
statistician for population, assisted by the speaker as expert special
agent. There are presented, for the first time in the census, figures
directly relating to the ethnic composition of the white population of
the United States, in so far as that is indicated by the native language.
This term is taken to mean the language of customary speech in the
homes of the immigrants before immigration.

One of the most interesting facts disclosed in this report is the great
numerical preponderance, which is still held by the mother tongues of
northwestern Europe as a whole, notwithstanding the high rank numeri-
cally which has been gained by a few individual mother tongues from
eastern and southern Europe — especially the Italian, Polish, and Yid-
dish. These three now stand third, fourth, and fifth in rank. The Eng-
lish mother tongue is by all odds the one most largely represented in the
foreign white stock of the United States. The numbe.', 10,037,420, is
considerably greater than that of the German mother tongue, which
latter, contributes more than one-fourth (27.3 per cent) of the total for-
eign white stock of the Ignited States, as reported in 1910. Italian,
Polish, and Yiddish come next in rank, but none of them number as
much as one-fourth of the German. To these three mother tongues,
intermediate in rank but considerable in number, may be added the
Swedish, French, and Norwegian, all l)elonging to northwestern Eu-
rope, except a portion of the French. No other mother tongue than the
eight thus far enumerated furnishes as much as 2 ])er cent of the total
of the foreign white stock of the United States, or numbers as much as

proceedings: anthropological society 15

1,000,000. The eight major mother-tongue stocks ah'eady named ac-
count for 87.5 per cent of the total foreign white stock.

How small a factor the ''new" immigration from southern and eastern
Europe really is up to the present time, may be better shown by compar-
ing it with the total white population of the United States. Taking as
100 per cent the total white population of the United States in 1910,
numbering 81,731,957, the so-called "native stock" constitutes 60.5 per
cent and the three great linguist families of foreign stock from north-
western Europe constitute 27.1 per cent, making a total of 87.6 per cent.
The elements from southern and eastern Europe constitute, therefore,
less than 13 per cent of the total. Of this the two principal Latin
mother tongues — the*French and the Italian — contribute less than 5 per
cent, and the two principal Slavic mother tongues — the Polish and the
Bohemian — and the Hebrew, taken together, contribute also less than
5 per cent, leaving to all the remaining mother tongues another 5 per
cent or less of the total. Of the total foreign white stock of the United
States, 32,243,382, there are 8,817,271 persons who are of German stock
when counted according to mother tongue, but a trifle under 8,500,000
(8,495,142) of German stock when counted by their country of origin,
Germany.

Immigrants from Austria are far more Slavic than Germanic. Rus-
sian immigration is shown to be far more Hebrew (52.3 per cent) than
Russian (2.5 per cent) or even Slavic. Immigration from Turkey in
Europe is not so much Turkish as Greek and Bulgarian.

Both the first and the second generations of immigration from Russia
show that over 0.50 per cent report Yiddish and Hebrew as their mother
tongue.

The returns for "Yiddish and Hebrew" reflect ethnic composition
less satisfactorily than the returns for other mother tongues. A part-
how large a part there is no means of judging — of those whose ancestral
language is Hebrew doubtless have reported German, English, Polish,
or other mother tongues. Of the total number of Yiddish-speaking
people 838,193 come from Russia, 144,484 from Austria-Hungary, 41,342
from Roumania, 14,409 from the United Kingdom and 7,910 from
German3^

The paper was discussed bj'^ Messrs. Stetson, Hough, and Farquhar
and yirs. James.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV JANUARY 19, 1914 No. 2

METEOROLOGY. — A return to normal atmospheric transpar-
ency. H. H. Kimball. Weather Bureau.

Attention has already been invited in this Journal, 3, 269, to
the diminution in atmospheric transparency which was quite
generally observed during the latter part of 1912, and which was
attributed, in part at least, to the presence at high levels of great
quantities of dust derived from the eruption of Katmai Volcano
in Alaska, in June, 1912. It will doubless be recalled that the
first violent eruption occurred on June 6, that the dust cloud was
first observed at Madison, Wis., on June 8, at Mount Weather,
Va., on June 10, at various points in Europe between June 20
and June 27, and at Bassour, Algeria, on June 19.

The purpose of the present paper is to present evidence de-
rived from observations made at the Mount Weather Observa-
tory, or under its supervision, relative to the gradual precipita-
tion of this dust from the atmosphere.

Humphreys^ has computed that dust particles of the size that
are thrown to the greatest heights by the most violent volcanic
eruptions require from one to three years to fall to the under sur-
face of the isothermal layer. From this level they will quickly
be carried to the surface of the earth by the processes of condensa-
tion and precipitation of atmospheric moisture. These compu-
tations seem to be in accord with the duration of the various
optical phenomena that have been observed to follow volcanic
eruptions.

1 Bull. Mount Weather Obs., 6, 11, 1913.

17

18 KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

The following observations are available for a study of the grad-
ual precipitation of dust from the atmosphere during the past
year:

1. Measurements of the intensity of insolation, or the in-
coming solar radiation.

2. Measurements of the percentage of polarization of skylight.

3. Measurements of the solar and the anti-solar distances of
the neutral points of Babinet and Arago, respectively.

4. Observations of the intensity and duration of twilight colors.

Solar radiation intensity measurements have been made at fre-
quent intervals thruout the day at Mount Weather since the
beginning of 1908. But few observations were obtained in 1910,
and in the winter months previous to 1912-1913.

For comparative purposes I have summarized in Table 1 the
observations made since May 1, 1912, with the sun at zenith
distance 60°, which is the highest point reached by the sun in De-
cember at the latitude of Mount Weather. The monthly means
of measurements made in the successive years are not strictly
comparable, for the reason that since May, 1911, the attempt has
been made to obtain measurements whenever the sun was unob-
scured by clouds, while previous to that time measurements were
made on the best days only, and when there was a prospect of
obtaining a series extending over at least two hours.

The ratios in column 6, Table 1, are the means of the quotients
obtained by dividing the monthly means, given in columns 2 and
3, by the corresponding averages for the respective months, de-
rived from observations obtained previous to June, 1912. ^ Simi-
larly, the ratios in column 7, Table 1, are the means of the quo-
tients obtained by dividing the monthly maxima, given in columns
4 and 5, by the corresponding average maxima for the respective
months, derived from observations obtained previous to June,
1912.

After what has been said relative to the monthly means for
consecutive years we might expect that the ratios given in column
7, which are derived from maximum radiation values, would be

2 These observations will be found tabulated in Bull. Mount Weather Obs., 5,
303-310, 1913.

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

19

larger than the ratios of column 6, which are derived from mean
radiation values. Actually, however, the averages of columns 6
and 7 are practically in accord for 1912, omitting the ratios for
May 1 to June 9, inclusive, while for 1913 the average of column
7 exceeds the average of column 6 by about 5 per cent.

TABLE 1

Monthly Summary of Solar Radiation Intensities with the Sun at Zenith
Distance 60°. Mount Weather, Va.

1912

May 1-June 9

June 10-30

July

August

September

October

November

December

1913

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

a. m.

p. m.

MAXIMUM

a. m.

p. m.

Gram calories per min. per cm^

RA- CURRENT

TIO AVERAGE

1.08

1.01

1.25

1.26

0.90

1.05

1.01

0.83

0.88

0.93

0.93

0.77

0.86

0.75

0.89

0.94

1.05

0.97

1.03

0.97

1.22

1.24

1.14

1.12

1.24

1.17

1.26

1.33

1.21

1.29

1.24

1.15

1.13

1.27

1.24

1.04

1.05

1.16

1.16

0.97

0.88

1.18

1.11

0.90

0.82

1.06

0.96

0.90

0.93

1.15

1.09

0.88

0.87

1.06

1.04

0.91

1.04

1.03

1.16

1.11

1.06

1.26

1.20

1.18

1.12

1.30

1.24

1.19

1.17

1.32

1.33

1.31

1.42

1.06
0.86
0.86
0.73
0.80
0.81
0.90
0.97

0.90
0.91
0.85
0.79
0.87
0.89
0.88
0.93
0.95
0.87
0.94
1.01

1.15
0.86
0.77
0.70
0.81
0.91
0.88
1.01

0.93
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.86
0.96
0.99
0.94
0.97
1.08

MEAN
RATIO

1.10
0.86
0.81
0.71
0.81
0.86
0.89
0.99

0.92
0.93
0.89
0.87
0.90
0.91
0.87
0.95
0.97
0.91
0.96
1.04

The last column of Table 1 is simply the average of the two
preceding columns. It is believed that it gives a close approxi-
mation to the monthly means of the relative intensity of solar
radiation for the period under consideration, as compared with
the intensity under normal conditions for the respective months.
These relative intensities, together with intensities for Madiso:i,

20

KIMBALL : NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

Wis.,^ obtained in a similar manner, are plotted in figure 1. The
curve that best fits the data shows a rapid fall from above nor-
mal between May 1 and June 9, 1912, to 29 per cent below nor-
mal in August 1912, followed by a ra,pid rise during the autumn
of 1912, and a slower rise in 1913 to normal values at the end of
the year. So few radiation measurements have been obtained
during winter months that the relative intensities computed for
these months are of doubtful value. The intensities measured at
Mount Weather on December 13, 1913, areas high as have ever
been measured at this observatory with the sun below zenith
distance 60°.

TABLE 2
Total Radiation Received on a Horizontal Surface for Hours that were

1912

Cloudless. Ratio

1913

Mount Weather, Va.

May 20- June 9

June 10- July 31

September 1-October 31

HOUR ANGLE FROM NOON

7-5
6-7

0.61
1.04

6-5
5-6

0.87

1.00

5-4
4-5

0.96
1.05
0.96

4-3
3-4

0.98
1.02
0.95

3-2
2-3

1.04
0.94
0.96

2-1
1-2

0.94

1-0
0-1

0.96

Measurements of the total radiation received on a horizontal
surface from the sun and sky have been made at Mount Weather
since May, 1912. A comparison of the results for 1912 and 1913
for hours when the sky was cloudless is given in Table 2. The
results for August are omitted, as a different register was used
in August, 1913 from that in operation during the other months.

There are not mahy hours during the summer, at Mount
Weather, when the sky is free from clouds. It can therefore
only be claimed that the data in Table 2 indicate that with a
cloudless sky the total radiation received on a horizontal surface
during September and October, 1912, was about 5 per cent less
than that received during the same period in 1913, and that there
was much less heat received diffusely from the sky between May
20 and June 9, 1912, than during the same period in 1913. This

^ The observations for Madison, Wis., previous to July, 1912, will be found
tabulated in Bull. Mount Weatlier, Obs., 5, 177-181, 1912.

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

21

latter is indicated by the smallness of the ratios for early morning
or late afternoon hours for the first period in Table 2. With low

TABLE 3
Monthly Summary of Skylight Polorization in the Sun's Vertical and at
Solar Distance 90°, With the Sun at Zenith Distance 60°. Mount
Weather, Va.

PERCENTAGE OF POLARIZATION

DEPARTURE
FROM AVERAGE

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1912

1913

January

58

65

53
54

57
61

62
64

58
61

59
64

62
62

64
65

69
C9

71

71

67
69

48
56

61
70

54
65

42
53

52
57

46
53

44
50

42
49

41

50

•44
50

- 2

+ 4

-18
-14

Mean

-12

Maximum

-10

February

Mean

-16

Maximum

- 9

March

Mean

-18

Maximum

-15

April

jNIean

-20

Maximum

-14

May

i\Iean

-15

Maximum

-ll'

June

i\Iean

-16

Maximum

-17

July

62
70

55

71

39
47

44
54

-19
-23

Mean

-14

Maximum

-16

August

Mean

61

56

59

32

49

-27

-10

Maximum

63

67

69

40

58

-26

- 8

September

Mean

65

64

60

40

56

-23

- 7

Maximum

69

67

70

44

63

-25

- 6

October

Mean

66

70

69

44

57

-24

- 4

Maximum '. . . .

71

71

75

51

63

-21

- 9

November

62

47

58

-15

Mean

- 4

Maximum

62

53

66

- 9

+ 4

December

68
70

52
61

59
66

-16
- 9

Mean

- 6

Maximum

- 4

22

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

sun, the proportion of the radiation that is received diffusely
from the sky is relatively great.

Skylight polarization is intimately connected with atmospheric
transparency, since an increase in the primary diffusion is ac-
companied by an increase in the secondary scattering in the lower
atmosphere. This increases the intensity of the horizontally or
negatively polarized component of the light, and neutralizes to
some extent the postive or vertical polarization of skylight. In
Table 3 are summarized skylight polarization observations made

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JUL Y.

AUG.

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OCT.

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Fig. 1. Variations in solar radiation intensities and in the percentage of sky-
light polarization. Circles indicate data for Mount Weather, Va.; crosses, data
for Madison, Wis.

at Mount Weather when the sky was free from clouds and there
was no snow on the ground. In the last two columns are given
the departures of the monthly values for 1912 and 1913 from the
averages for the respective months derived from observations
taken previous to June, 1912. These departures are plotted in

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

23

figure 1, and their variations are in close accord with the varia-
tions in the relative intensity of solar radiation.

TABLE 4
Antisolar Distance of Arago's Neutral Point. Mount Weather, Va.

1

DATE OF OBSERVATIONS

ALTITUDE OF SUN

May, 19n-
June, 1912

July 27, 1912

September,

1912-June,

1913

August-
November,
1913

December,
1913

degrees

degrees

degrees

degrees

degrees

+ 13.0

25.8

12.0

26.1

11.0

26.8

10.0

26.7

9.0

27.0

8.0

23.7

7.5

24.6

24.0

7.0

25.3

23.4

6.5

25.8

23.4

6.0

19.7

25.8

23.4

5.5

20.3

26.4

23.2

23.2

5.0

20.1

25.7

23.3

23.3

4.5

20.1

25.6

23.3

23.3

4.0

19.5

25.8

23.3

23.2

3.5

18.8

25.4

23.2

23.1

3.0

18.7

25.4

23.4

22.9

2.5

18.5

25.1

23.0

23.0

2.0

18.6

24.6

22.8

22.7

1.5

18.6

21.7

23.8

22.5

22.8

1.0

18.4

21.7

23.3

22.2

22.4

+0.5

18.3

19.8

22.2

21.7

22.0

±0.0

17.8

18.6

21.1

20.9

21.6

-0.5

17.8

16.5

19.5

20.2

21.5

-1.0

17.8

14.8

18.0

19.4

20.8

-1.5

17.0

14.5

17.0

19.5

19.7

-2.0

16.3

14.1

17.1

20.2

20.4

-2.5

16.3

13.7

17.0

20.7

20.8

-3.0

17.4

13.6

16.7

21.0

20.5

-3.5

17.5

13.8

16.5

20.9

21.1

-4.0

14.8

17.6

20.8

21.0

-4.5

15.5

18.7

20.8

21.2

-5.0

18.1

18.9

21.5

— 5.5

20.6

22.8

-6.0

23.5

-6.5

23.6

24 KIMBALL: NORMAL* ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

During the early part of 1913, it was noticed that after sunset,
as the lower atmosphere became less and less illuminated, the
skylight polarization increased rapidly, sometimes by as much
as 50 per cent, and to nearly the degree of polarization under
normal conditions. This increase became noticeably less after
the middle of August, 1913.^

The solar and the antisolar distances of the neutral points of Bab-
inet and Arago, respectively, have varied in accordance with
the variations in skylight polarization. This was to be expected,
since these distances depend upon the relative intensities of the
vertically and the horizontally polarized components of sky-
light.

Table 4 will serve to illustrate the movements of both the neu-
tral points. It will be noticed that simultaniously with the in-
crease in the diffusion of light by the dust in the upper atmosphere,
there was an increase in the antisolar distance of Arago's neutral
point with the sun above the horizon. With the sun below the
horizon, however, the intensity of the primary-diffused light from
the upper atmosphere, which was highly but not necessarily com-
pletely polarized, caused a decrease in the antisolar distance of
this neutral point. The minimum distance was not only smaller,
but it occurred with a lower sun than under normal conditions.

With the decrease in the intensity of the primary-diffused sun-
light, in 1913, the antisolar distance of the neutral point gradu-
ally increased with the sun below the horizon, and the minimum
distance occurred with a higher sun.

Jensen^ has shown that there may be a relation between varia-
tions in the color of skylight and the positions of the neutral
points.

At the present time the solar and the antisolar distances of
the neutral points appear to be decreasing with the sun both
above and below the horizon.

* Skylight polarization measurements made after sunset will be found tabulated
in Bull. Mount Weather Observatory, 6, 39, 1913.

5 Jensen, Dr. Chr., tjber die grosse atmospherisch-optische Storung von 1912,
pp. 10-11 (Separatabdruck aus den Mitteilungen der Vereinigung von Freunden
der Astronomie und kosmischen Phj^sik).

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY 25

The twilight colors are intensified by the presence of fine dust in
the atmosphere, as was markedly the case after the eruption of
Krakatoa Volcano in 1883. In another paper ^ I have presented
evidence that during the fall of 1912 the red colors, especially,
were unusually brilliant, and perhaps, also, of unusual duration.
At the Mount Weather Observatory the brilliancy of the twi-
light colors has been the occasion of frequent remark during the
past few months, and especially during September, October, and
November. On some evenings the glow in the west has been
distinguishable for nearly an hour and a half after sunset.

During the fall of 1912 a noticeable feature of twihghts was
the streaked appearance of the sky, as tho the dust or haze was
arranged in horizontal layers. This has not been the case during
the fall of 1913.

Notes relative to twilight colors made by Weather Bureau Ob-
servers at the various stations thruout the United States are
rather inconclusive as to the intensity of these colors in 1913 as
compared with their intensity in 1912. It seems evident, how-
ever, that while the maximum of intensity culminated in the
month of November, in 1912, in 1913 the maximum was reached
as early as September.

Summary. Pyrheliometric and polarimetric observations unite
in indicating a gradual increase in atmospheric transparency since
the marked minimum in August, 1912. This increase is prob-
ably due to the precipitation from the atmosphere of the dust
that was introduced into high levels by the eruption of Katmai
Volcano in June, 1912.

At the same time, the solar and the anti-solar distances of the
neutral points of Babinet and Arago respectively, indicate that
there may still be traces of this dust in the upper atmosphere.

The duration of the Katmai dust cloud appears to have been
less than the duration (2 years) of the dust cloud "that followed
the eruptions of 1902-03, and markedly less than the duration
(3 years) of the dust cloud that followed the eruption of Kra-
kotoa in 1883.

6 Monthly Weather Review, 41, 153-159, 1913.

26 "^ vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

GEOLOGY. — Sketch of the geologic history of the Florida coral
reef tract and comparisons with other coral reef areas. ^ Thomas
Wayland Vaughan, U. S. Geological Survey.

GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA

The southern end of the mainland of Florida is underlain by
two limestone formations, Viz : the somewhat sandy, rather soft,
light colored Miami oolite, and the more or less sandy, non-oolitic,
dark or light Lostmans River limestone, which may be friable
or indurated, and sometimes is crystalline. Four principal kinds
of material are represented in the Florida keys. The surface of
the keys north of Cape Florida is sandy. The most conspicuous
constituent of the main keys from Soldiers Key to the southern
end of Big Pine Key is the Key Largo limestone, an elevated
coral reef rock. The prevalent rock from the Pine Keys west-
ward to Boca Grande Key is the soft, non-arenaceous Key West
oolite. The surface material of the Marquesas is largely com-
posed of the detrital remains of calcareous algae probably over-
lying an oolitic foundation, while that of the Tortugas is largely
coral detritus underlain by more consolidated limestone.

In order to indicate the relative importance of oolite and the
elevated coral reef rock in the formation of the keys and nearby
parts of the mainland, the following rough planimeter measure-
ments are given: Miami oolite, area 1300 square miles; Key
West oolite, area 370 square miles — oolite, total area 1670 square
miles. Key Largo limestone, elevated coral reef, area 66 square
miles. According to these measurements chemical precipitation
of calcium carbonate with subsequent transformation into oolite
has predominated over the constructive agency of corals in the
ratio of roughly 25: 1, but, as undoubtedly the figures for the
oolite are too small and those for the elevated coral reef are too
large, 100 : 1 'is probably nearer to the proper ratio. In this
connection it will be stated that on Andros Island, Bahamas, the
ratio of the constructive work of the present reef to that of the
agencies that previously resulted in the formation of the Pleisto-

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and
of the President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 27

cene oolite, is approximately as 1 to several thousand, or, as a
constructive agent, chemical precipitation has been several thou-
sand times more effective in forming Umestone than corals.

topographic relations of the FLORIDA BARRIER REEF

The living barrier reef of Florida extends as a broken chain
from Fowey Rocks at the north to off Key West near Sand Key
at its southwest end. Luxuriant reefs also occur around the Tor-
tugas atoll. The principal reefs lie just within the 10-fathom
curve and stand on the seaward margin of a platform. They are
separated from the main line of keys by Hawk Channel, which
has a maximum depth of about 7 fathoms, and the keys in their
turn are separated from the mainland by a series of shallow bays
and sounds. The platform on which the reefs stand extends
around the entire coast of Florida. Northward of Fowey Rocks
the reefs disappear but the platform continues. The platform
also exists on the west side of the peninsula of Florida but
bears no reefs. It is evident that the platform is independent of
corals and that it owes its existence to agencies other than those
dependent upon the presence of coral reefs.

BUILDING OF THE MARQUESAS AND THE TORTUGAS

There are two rival hypotheses for the formation of atolls, one
of these attributes them to the submarine solution of the inte-
rior of a mass of limestone; the other accounts for them by
constructional agencies. In order thoroly to test the solution
hypothesis the results of four lines of invetigations were brought
to bear upon it, and all are concordant. (1) All the bays, sounds,
and lagoons within the Florida reef and key region are filling
with sediment; (2) Drew's investigations of denitrifying bacteria
show that chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate is taking
place in the lagoons; (3) the chemical examination by R. B.
Dole of samples of sea-water flowing into and out of the Tor-
tugas lagoon, collected twice daily for a lunar period, show that
altho both carbonate and bicarbonate radicles are in solution
uncombined carbon dioxide is not present, and that the water
possesses no capacity for further solution of calcium carbonate

28 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

by virtue of its content of free carbon dioxide; (4) the determina-
tions by Dole of the saUnity of the water within the Tortugas
lagoon and at the southern end of Biscayne Bay show a higher
concentration than that in the open sea-water on the outside,
indicating that tidal inflow and outflow are not sufficient com-
pletely to mix the water in the lagoons with the water of the sur-
rounding sea and that concentration by evaporation is taking
place. As the results of these lines of inquiry are so positive,
the formation of lagoons by submarine solution may be definitely
eliminated from consideration.

Of the constructional agencies to which the rims of atolls
might be attributed attention was directed to the effects of winds
and currents. It is a matter of common knowledge that if a
current impinges against an obstruction lying across its course it
divides, a part swerves to each side and incurves on the back of
the obstruction, with the result that crescentic accumulations
are built whenever the moving medium deposits material. It is
also well known that the form of a deposit from a current moving
in a straight line is correspondingly rectilinear. Current-shaped
crescentic keys and crescentic sand dunes are familiar phenom-
ena; as also are linear ridges formed either of water-borne sedi-
ment or of wind-driven sand. Good instances of crescentic keys
and a mud atoll (Breton Island) are found off the mouth of Mis-
sissippi River.

As regards coral reefs, Hedley and Taylor have pointed out
that, for the Great Barrier Reef of Australia :

The growth of an individual reef is shown to proceed in a regular
cycle. If the reef reaches the surface with its axis along the wind, then
its shape endures; but if across the wind, then its extremities are pro-
duced backward, forming first a crescent, later a horseshoe, and lastly
an oval, thus inclosing a lagoon.

There is a striking similarity in the configuration of the Mar-
quesas and the Tortugas. There is an entrance to the lagoon of
each in the southeast, southwest, and northeast quadrants; and
the principal arc of the rim of each is from the southeast to the
northwest entrance. The bow of this arc in each instance is
against the prevailing direction of the wind, which is predomi-
nantly from the east, and against the direction of movement of

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 29

the Florida counter-current, while its northern limb in each
instance trails with these currents. As many details of the ]Mar-
quesas and the Tortugas can not be considered in this summary,
the conclusion will at once be expressed that the atoll rims of
both the jMarquesas and the Tortugas are constructional phenom-
ena and owe their configuration to the prevailing winds and
currents. The detrital material on which these agencies have
worked in the Marquesas is mostly of other than coral origin;
while in the Tortugas, altho of complex composition, it consists
largely of coral debris.

The Marquesas rim is geologically Recent, and evidently re-
quired no change of sea level for its formation. As the surficial
material of the Tortugas rests upon an older, harder, calcareous
basement, it appears that the Tortugas atoll with its inclosed
lagoon was outlined during a previous physiographic cycle. Fur-
ther evidence, later to be adduced, renders it reasonably certain
that the Tortugas were initially outlined during subsidence after
uplift following the close of the Pliocene, that they were then
elevated to an amount of perhaps 50 feet, that the last event
has been one of subsidence back nearly to the same level as that
preceding the elevation, and that the Recent corals have estab-
lished themselves on an old atoll basement already prepared for
them.

OSCILLATIONS OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT

A study of the Florida coast line shows that its last important
movement was downward. This deduction is based on the ex-
istence of submerged channels and submarine fresh-water springs
on the east coast, on the indented character of the coast line
with accompanying submerged channels on the west coast, and
on the presence of underground passages containing salt water
and free openings or cavities that extend to a depth as great as
30 feet below sea level on the southern keys. The evidence is
clear that the keys participated in the uplift and subsequent
depression that affected the mainland, and that at one time they
stood more than 30 feet higher with reference to sea level than
the}^ now do. This uplift and the subsequent depression,
according to all available evidence, extended to the Tortugas.

30 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

The evidence presented shows that the platform on which the
present barrier reef of Florida is growing has, geologically just
antecedent to its present relation to sea level, stood 30 feet or
more higher, and has been brought to its present position by
depression.

The Pleistocene barrier reef, which is 105 feet thick according
to the boring on Key Vaca, was formed during the period of sub-
sidence which followed uplift at the close of Pliocene deposition.

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT

The geologic history of the Florida reef tract may be summa-
rized as follows : During Pleistocene time along a curve from the
eastern side of Biscayne Bay, first trending southward and then
bending westward, a barrier coral reef flourished. This was sep-
arated by a channel from the main bank on which the Miami
oolite was forming or had formed in strongly agitated waters.
West of the coral reef, on an extensive flat in shallow water, the
Key West oolite was forming, while still farther westward the
Tortugas were outlined under the influence of winds and cur-
rents. This period of events was succeeded by elevation of the
entire key region to probably 50 feet above its previous level.
The last period of uplift was succeeded by one of depression,
lowering the surface 30 feet or more and establishing prac-
tically the same relation of the sea level to land as now prevails.
Subsequent to the beginning of this depression the present
barrier reef has developed seaward of the keys on a platform
already prepared for it, the Marquesas have been formed by
winds and currents, and coral reefs have again established them-
selves in the Tortugas.

COMPARISONS OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT WITH THOSE OF
ANDROS ISLAND, BAHAMAS, CUBA AND AUSTRALIA

Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer showed in 1902, as is evidenced
by the pouch-shaped harbors of the Cuban coast and by the
submerged filled channels, such as the one in Havana harbor,
that the last movement of the Cuban coast was downward.
Therefore, the platform on which the Cuban reefs occur has

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 31

been brought to its present position by subsidence. The barrier
reef of Andros Island, Bahamas, also occupies the outer edge of
a depressed platform.

It has been shown by the Australians, Andrews, Hedley and
Taylor, and David, that the platform of the Great Barrier Reef
of AustraUa has been brought to its present position thru sub-
sidence apparently associated with extensive faulting along the
eastern Queensland coast. Therefore the Floridian, Cuban,
Bahaman, and Australian barrier reefs all have a similar relation
to change of sea level, as in each instance the platforms on which
they occur have been brought to their present position thru
subsidence.

There is one important difference between the relations of the
Recent barrier reefs of Florida and Andros Island, Bahamas, and
those of Cuba. The oscillations of the strand line in Florida
and Andros Island have taken place without appreciable differ-
ential crustal movement, while in Cuba there was notable de-
formation antecedent to the last depression. The Pleistocene ter-
races rise in height toward the eastern end of Cuba in Oriente
Province where altitudes of about 600 feet are attained near Cape
Maisi. The terraces decline in height toward the west, and west
of the longitude of Manzanillo there is a slope from the north to
the south coast. In Barbados Pleistocene reefs extend to 1000
feet in elevation.

COMPARISON OF WEST INDIAN WITH CENTRAL PACIFIC REEFS

Alexander Agassiz discovered that in the Paumotuan atolls the
Recent corals were growing as a thin crust on an older limestone
foundation. His explanation of the formation of the atolls by
the destruction of the interior of a limestone mass must be dis-
carded. As there was evidently a period of atoll formation in
the Paumotus previous to the establishment of the Recent corals
the conditions there simulate those in the Tortugas, Florida. A
great developnent of Pleistocene and perhaps late Tertiary coral
reefs in the tropical Pacific has been proven in the most convinc-
ing manner, and there is abundant evidence of differential crustal
movement in the tropical Pacific in Pleistocene time similar

32 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

to that indicated for the West Indies. E. C. Andrews and C.
Elschner have both described warping and tilting, the former for
the Fijis, the latter for the Pacific more or less in general. Agas-
siz described an elevated atoll Makatea, in the Paumotus; and
Andrews has given a detailed description of the elevated atoll of
IMango, Fijis. Because of the differential nature of the earth
movements, in certain places old atolls have been uplifted to
heights as great as 230 feet in Makatea, and 600 feet in Tuvutha,
Fijis; while other old atolls, such as Rangiroa and others in the
Paumotus, now stand at or near sea level. In other areas there
has been depression, Bora Bora for instance, as Dana, P. Mar-
shall, and more recently W. M. Davis, have shown. Systematic,
detailed studies of the relations of the Recent to the older reefs,
with special reference to oscillation of sea level and differential
crustal movement in Pleistocene time, are among the desiderata
in the investigation of coral reefs.

barrier reef platforms

It has already been stated that the existence of the platform
on which the Recent barrier reef of Florida stands is independent
of the reefs, as it is continuous irrespective of the geographic
limits of the reefs. A similar statement may be made regarding
the Bahamas and Cuba, where in each instance the platform is
independent of the reefs which merely grow upon its surface
where conditions are favorable for the life of corals. E. C. An-
drews in 1902 remarked regarding the platform of the Great Bar-
rier Reef of Australia that ' ' the continuance in width of the shelf
southwards of the limits of reefs (coralline), and the great shoals
thereon, points to a minor part only of the shelf being formed of
coral growth." An inspection of the Admiralty charts for the
eastern coast of Australia shows conclusively that the platform
on which the Great Barrier Reef of Australia stands has an exist-
ence independent of the Great Barrier Reef, and that corals have
established themselves on this platform where the conditions
favorable for their life are realized.

An examination of the barrier reef platforms of Florida, An-
dros Island, Bahamas, Cuba, and Australia, all lead to the same

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 33

conclusion, viz: (1) The platforms have an existence independ-
ent of coral reefs and were formed by other than coral reef agen-
cies; (2) the reefs exist only on those portions of the platforms
where the conditions requisite for the life of reef corals prevail.

In this connection attention is especially directed to the per-
sistence along the margin of continental plateaus of a rapid de-
clivity from about the 30-fathom curve to the 50-fathom curve
as compared with the usually gentler slope from the shore to
between 30 and 40 fathoms. This relation is well exhibited along
both the Australian and the North American platforms.

Having presented criteria for recognizing the relations of con-
tinental and large insular platforms supporting barrier reefs to
the presence of the reefs, islands such as those in the Society and
Fiji groups may be considered. Daly in 1910 pointed out that
the depth of the drowned valleys in these groups ''appears never
to exceed 45 fathoms." The maximum depth according to his
compilation is from 19 (Raiatea) to 41 fathoms (Murea), both
members of the Society group. There is wonderful accordance
between the maximum depths within the barriers of the Pacific
Islands and the depths on the Australian continental shelf both
within and without the Great Barrier Reef region. A study of
the charts of barrier reef islands, as Viti Levu, Fijis, and Tahiti,
Society Island, shows that the platforms are independent of the
presence of reefs, and therefore the relations in these islands are
similar to those indicated for barriers off continental shores, for
here the reefs are also superimposed on platforms antedating their
presence. The problem of the depth of barrier platforms is a
world-wide one for it is only an aspect of the general problem of
the history of continental shelves,

ATOLLS

The atolls previously discussed in this paper occur on plat-
forms, rise from comparatively shallow depths, and owe their
shapes to winds and currents. The atolls that margin flat sum-
mits of eminences rising from oceanic depth must be attributed
to somewhat different causes. The greater abundance and lux-
uriance of reef-forming organisms on the peripheries of atolls are

34 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

due mostly, if not solely, to the intolerance of such organisms to
sedunent. Certain of my experiments show conclusively that,
if the colonies are protected from sediment, the growth of corals
within a lagoon may exceed that of corals on the outside. The
possibilities of a basement attaining the proper depth, where the
other necessary vital conditions prevail, are numerous and need
not here be recapitulated.

As bearing on the relative stability of one so-called coral island,
it will be stated that Dr. Jos. A. Cushman has found Nummulites
in the borings from the Bermuda deep well at depths from 131
to 193 feet, or, expressed in fathoms, from 22 to 32 fathoms below
sea level. As these fossils indicate either a lower Oligocene or
an upper Eocene age for that part of the bore, it is evident that
crustal changes in the Bermudas since that time have been slight.
Relative crustal stability for the Paumotus has been indicated.
Daly's compilation of the depth of atoll lagoons is most signifi-
cant, as it shows accordance in depth with the lagoons of barrier
islands. Whether or no his hypothesis of the rise of sea level
to an amount of about 30 fathoms in the tropics, due to the dis-
appearance of glaciers, be accepted, it at least is evident that
great crustal subsidence for atoll areas is not indicated by the
facts at present available. ^

^ This paper is an abstract of data and conclusions bearing on the coral reef
problem from the following publications by the writer:

A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridian Plateau. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Publication 133, 99-185, 15 pis., December, 1910.

Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands and on the formation of the
Floridian and Bahaman oolites (abstract). Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 3, 302,
303, May 19, 1913.

Preliminary remarks on the geology of the Bahamas, with special reference to
the origin of the Bahaman and Floridian oolites. Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, Publication 182, 47-53, 1914 (in press).

The building of the Marquesas and Tortugas atolls, and a sketch of the geo-
logic history of the Florida reef tract. Idem, 55-67, 1914 (in press).

To the abstract of discussions included in the papers cited are added a more
general account of barrier reef platforms and some remarks on atoll rims that
margin the fiat summits of eminences rising from oceanic depths.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 92d regular meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the
Powhatan Hotel on Tuesday evening, December 2, 1913, at which a
dinner and special program were given in honor of the seventieth birth-
day of Dr. Edward Lee Greene.

Dr. C. L. Shear presided. Mr. John H. Parker was elected to mem-
bership. The program was as follows:

Personal experiences: Frederick V. Coville. Mr. Coville related
incidents in connection with his first meeting with. Dr. Greene at the
Madison Botanical Congress in 1893, and expressed a high appreciation
of his work, particularly of his Landmarks of Botanical History.

Berkeleyan days: V. K. Chestnut. Mr. Chestnut spoke of his student
days at the University of California and of the inspiration received
from Dr. Greene by his botanical students.

Botanical writings: A. S. Hitchcock. As a writer, Dr. Greene has
been prolific. Besides numerous papers in various periodicals, such as
the bulletins and the proceedings of the California Academy, Botanical
Gazette, Bulletin of the Torrey Club and Erythea, he has published several
books, notabl}' Flora Franciscana, Manual of the Botany of the Region
of San Francisco Bay, five volumes of Pittonia and two volumes of
Leaflets.

The value of Dr. Greene's influence upon botanical thought does not
rest solely upon the large number of new species he has described, but
in that he has studied many groups of plants from Cruciferae to Com-
positae, from Viola, Rhus and Eschscholtzia to Boraginaceae and
Polemoniaceae, has revised many genera, sections and groups, dis-
cussed relationships, and set on their feet, as it were, species and genera
of early authors that had been relegated to oblivion by those that
followed.

Reminiscences: Ivar Tidestrom. Mr. Tidestrom gave a brief ac-
count of Dr. Greene's earlier work, particularly his early collecting and
his work at Berkeley.

Rocky Mountain flora: Prof. Aven Nelson. Dr. Greene's work in
the Rocky Mountain states was reviewed briefly and special emphasis
was laid on the influence of this work on that of the later botanists.

Response: Dr. Greene. After expressing his appreciation of the
honor accorded him by the Botanical Society, Dr. Greene related a few
interesting incidents connected with his life, particularly his earl}- trips
of botanical exploration in the Southwest.

P. L. Ricker, Corresponding Secretary.

35

36 proceedings: chemical society

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 232d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December 11,
1913. Dr. M. X. SulUvan was nominated to represent the Society as
a vice-presidient of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The presi-
dent appointed A. B. Adams, J. A. Le Clerc, and R. C. Wells as an
auditing committee to audit the accounts of the treasurer for the year.

The following papers were then read :

J. G. Fairchild, of the Bureau of Mines: First paper: Electro-
anahjsis of the copper alloys. The methods described were planned in
order to obtain more rapid results in analyzing brass, bronze, type
metal and other copper alloys. The paper has been published in Met.
and Cheni. Eng.

Second paper: The iodometric determination of iron. This paper,
like the preceding, gave details of procedure for a rapid commercial
method.

Discussion: Andrews pointed out that the reaction used in the
method for iron comes to an equilibrium, which can be displaced
toward ferrous iron by extracting the iodine with a solvent such as
carbon bisulfide.

W. D. Collins, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Radioactivity of Vir-
ginia mineral ivaters. The tests were made by boiling out the gases
from the sample and observing their effect on an electroscope. Ac-
tivities of from 110 down to 0.7, in terms of the 10-" unit, were found.
These are of the same order of magnitude as radioactive springs in
other parts of the world.

Discussion: Ross called attention to investigations published in the
french Comptes Rendus showing that certain Italian springs caused,
rather than cured, certain diseases. He showed that quantities of ra-
dium emanation that can be taken without effect greatly exceed the
amounts that can be obtained from any spring water. Custis stated
that experiments show that repeated small doses of the emanation pro-
duce effects that cannot be obtained by single large doses. I. K. Phelps
mentioned that practically all waters are radioactive, but Collins pointed
out that the activity of sea-water, for instance, is only about 0.001 of
that of the least active of the springs in question.

G. A. Menge, of the Hygienic Laboratory : The Preparation of amino-
nitriles. The speaker described the methods for preparing nitriles, going
from anhydrous hydrocyanic acid thru cyanhydrin by means of liquid
ammonia, as the methods described in the literature did not give sat-
isfactory results. Amino-aceto-nitrile and a number of other mem-
bers of this series were prepared. The liquid ammonia method gives
practically the theoretical yield.

G. B. Spencer, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Goettingen. The speaker
first paid a tribute to Wallach, who has recently received the Nobel
prize for his work on the terpenes. He then described the city and the
university, and spoke in particular of the many important discoveries
which the sciences of chemistry, physics, and mathematics owe to the
men of Goettingen. Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV FEBRUARY 4, 1914 No. 3

GEODESY. — Our Northern Boundaries.^ O. H. Tittmann.
Coast and Geodetic Survey.

In accordance with the custom of this Academy, which prescribes
a theme in which the retiring President is especially interested, I
have chosen ''Our Northern Boundaries."

It happens that your speaker has been engaged for the last ten
years as Commissioner on the part of the United States, in co-
operation with Dr. W. F. King, the British Commissioner, in the
formidable task of delimiting the Alaska boundary and re-marking
and establishing in precise manner the boundary from the Pacific
Ocean to Lake Superior and from the St. Lawrence River to Grand
Manan Channel.

It would lead too far afield in an address of this kind to enter
into a detailed account of the complications and controversies
which had to be settled by 1>arious commissions before the treaties
negotiated by Secretaries of State John Hay and Elihu Root
afforded the means and prescribed the method for finally fixing
our northern boundaries. My purpose is to confine myself to
a few illustrative references of their origin and in this connection
I recall an incident which may serve to suggest the cause of many
difficulties in boundary questions. While serving on the staff
of General Foster, the American agent before the Alaskan Boun-
dary Tribunal which convened in London in 1903, a banquet was
given at which I was placed at a narrow table immediately oppo-

' Address of the retiring President of the Washington Academy of Sciences.
Delivered before the Academy on Thursday evening, January 14, 1914, at the
Cosmos Club.

37

38 tittmann: our northern boundaries

site Lord Alverstone, Chief Justice of England, who presided over
the Tribunal. In introduicng me to two gentlemen, between
whom I sat, he explained that they had been associated with him
in the consideration of various grave international boundary
questions and that they had all come to the conclusion that maps
were very unreliable evidence.

Having in mind that our contention before the Tribunal in-
volved the use of maps, the obvious answer was that some maps
were doubtless unreliable.

This difficulty of the unreliability of maps was encountered
immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Peace of 1783, in
regard to our northeastern boundary. For, that treaty carried
the boundary down the middle of the St. Croix River to its mouth.
This, in the light of our modern geography seems quite explicit,
but after the lapse of eleven years it became necessary to appoint
a commission to decide upon the identity of the St. Croix River.
This identification was successfully accomplished under the
Treaty of 1794. But how about the line from the mouth of the
St. Croix thru Passamaquoddy Bay?

Its course was defined in the Treaty of Peace of 1783 to be such
as to assign to the United States "all islands within 20 leagues of
any part of the shores of the United States and lying between lines
to be drawn due east from the points where the aforesaid boun-
daries between Nova Scotia on the one part and east Florida on
the other shall respectively touch th^ Bay of Fundy and the At-
lantic Ocean, excepting such islands as now are, or heretofore have
been, within the limits of the said province of Nova Scotia."

This general provision was difficult of interpretation .because
both governments claimed some of the islands. Several treaties
which failed of ratification were proposed. One of them contained
an extraordinary provision which would have placed Campo
Bello Island within the limits of the United States boundaries,
but provided that it should remain under British jurisdiction.

Thus, there was no settlement of the disagreement of the two
governments until the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, the beginning of
the hundred years of peace which we are to celebrate in December
of this year. Under that treaty Commissioners were appointed

tittmann: our northern boundaries 39

for the settlement of the dispute and altho they decided on the
ownership of the principal islands, they were not required to lay
down the line. Their decision rendered in 1817, may therefore be
likened to a first approximation of the solution of the problem.
Three-quarters of a century later, under the convention of 1892,
Commissioners were again appointed and they marked a part of
the line and disagreed as to the rest, principally because the
nationality of a little islet, less than half an acre in extent, and
lying in the course of the boundary, had not been specifically es-
tablished by the Commissioners under the treaty of 1814. This
was a second approximation. One hundred and eighteen years
after the Treaty of Peace of 1783, it became possible to fix this
part of the line by courses and distances and by reference to mon-
uments on the ground and it may surprise you to know that the
line from the mouth of the St. Croix to its headwaters has never
been laid down on a chart, or marked on the ground, except in so
far as the work of the present commission has progressed.

These complications in the settlement of the boundary thru
Passamaquoddy Bay, briefly outlined in the foregoing, are typical
of the process of the delimitation of the whole line.

In 1803 Jefferson, in his annual message to Congress, said that
a further knowledge of the ground in the northeastern and north-
western angles of the United States had evidenced that the boun-
daries established by the Treaty of Paris between the British
Territories and ours in those parts, were too imperfectly described
to be susceptible of execution.

At one time a part of the northeastern boundary matter was
.submitted to the King of The Netherlands for arbitration, but his
decision rendered in 1831 was rejected by both governments. A
remarkable example of difficulties caused by unreliable maps or
surveys is afforded by that portion of the line which forms the
boundary between the State of New York and the Province of
Quebec. As early as 1606, James I proclaimed the 45° parallel
as the boundary between the Provinces of New York and Quebec,
and between 1771 and 1774, two surveyors, Valentine and Collins,
marked the boundary supposedly along the 45th parallel. When
the Commissioners under the Treaty of Ghent attempted to trace

40 tittmann: our northern boundaries

the line along the 45th parallel, called for by the treaty, it was
discovered that the 45th parallel was about three-quarters of a
mile south of the Valentine-Collins line and that the United States
had built a fort costing about a million dollars at Rouses Point,
north of the 45th parallel and therefore under the treaty defini-
tion in British territory. This discovery was made in 1818 and
caused a dispute which was settled by the Webster-Ashburton
treaty of 1842 under which the Valentine-Collins line was adopted
by a compromise in regard to other disputed parts of the boundary.

Here I may digress from my subject for a moment to interject
the remark that the Commissioners under the Treaty of Ghent
missed their opportunity of demonstrating the great practical
value of one of the most useful and precise astronomical instru-
ments, the Zenith telescope. For they were equipped with one,
but failed to use it, because its verticality was dependent on a
plummet. A similar instrument, which however was equipped
with a level, was in the possession of the Coast Survey and this
was transferred, ''ceded" as Superintendent Hassler said, to Lieut.
Talcott for the purpose of another boundary survey in 1833 and
to him fell the distinction of developing and applying the method
of determining latitudes with the Zenith telescope.

We may resume the story of treaties based on incorrect maps,
at the northwestern angle of the Lake of the Woods. The Treaty
of 1783 provided that the boundary should run from the north-
westernmost point of the Lake of the Woods, on a due west
course to the Mississippi. A glance at the map will show the
impossibility of such a line and the fact was recognized in the
Treaty of 1794 by the admission that the course and location of
the Mississippi was uncertain and, in the Treaty of 1818, it was
provided that if the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the
Woods was not on the 49th parallel, a line should be drawn north
or south to the 49th and the boundary should run from their inter-
section due west to the Stony Mountains. By the time of the
Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842 it was known that the north-
westernmost point of the Lake of the Woods was north of the 49th
parallel and the description of the boundary was accordingly
modified.

tittmann: our northern boundaries 41

In this cursory account we have now reached the summit of the
Rocky Mountains. The controversies connected with the Oregon
question were formally settled by the Treaty of 1846 which defined
the boundary from the summit to the Pacific Ocean.

That portion of the boundary which was described as running to
the middle of the channel which separates the continent from Van-
couver's Island and thence southerly thru the middle of said
channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific Ocean gave rise to a
serious and prolonged controversy as to which channel was meant,
a controversy in which insufficient charts played but a minor part,
but which would have been avoided if the treaty makers had laid
down the line concurrently with the making of the Treaty, This
dispute was submitted to the German Emperor who decided in
favor of the United States by the award of October, 1872.

A review of the condition of the demarcation of the northern
boundary when Secretaries Hay and Root undertook to perfect it,
discloses that from Grand Manan Channel to the headwaters of
the St. Croix, a distance of 110 miles, the boundary had not been
marked on any series of maps nor had reference monuments been
placed on the ground.

From the headwaters of the St. Croix to the River St. John it
was monumented. Thru the St. John and to the headwaters
of the St. Francis it was marked on treaty maps. Thence to
the St. Lawrence it was monumented and laid down on maps.

Thru the Great Lakes and thru the water communication,
to the northwestern angle of the Lake of the Woods, a dis-
tance of 1500 miles it was unmarked, but was laid down on inac-
curate maps and therefore impossible of definition on the ground
by either government acting for itself.

It was marked at intervals from the Lake of the Woods to the
Gulf of Georgia, but in the region between the summit of the
Rocky Mountains and the Gulf of Georgia, a distance of 410 miles,
about 220 miles had never been surveyed, traced or monumented.
From Point Roberts on the Gulf of Georgia to the Pacific Ocean
it was laid down on a chart, but had never been referred to objects
on shore or defined with such accuracy that it could be reproduced
without question. This condition was giving rise to international
questions on different parts of the boundary.

42 tittmann: our northern boundaries

In connection with the re-marking of the boundary from the
summit of the Rocky Mountains westward, it developed that no
trace could be found of the report of the American Commissioners
on the delimitation of the boundary between 1856 and 1869,
By a singular coincidence and fatality no trace could be found by
the British Government of the records of its Commissioner, al-
tho copies of the maps were on file in both countries. The
circumstances connected with the discovery of the British records
have perhaps never been published and may be here recorded.
Pending the consideration of the marking and re-marking of the
line the Dominion Government despatched Dr. Otto Klotz, a
Canadian astronomer, to London to make another attempt at
their recovery. He searched the archives of the Foreign Office
and War Department, but in vain. While on a visit to the obser-
vatory at Greenwich, he happened to note a box on one of the
upper shelves with the letters ''B.N.A." inscribed on it. Reinter-
preted them to mean British North America and their possible sig-
nificance flashed thru his mind. He asked what the box con-
tained. No one knew. A ladder was sent for and the box opened
and the records were found.

The relevant and important parts were printed for the use of
the Canadian Government. A copy was furnished to this govern-
ment. This happy find by Dr. Klotz doubtless prevented com-
plications which might otherwise have arisen as to the details of
the boundary and obviated the necessity of a new treaty or of
special provisions in the general treaty already referred to in the
beginning of my address as having been negotiated by Secretary
Root, Under this Treaty of 1908, the task of marking and re-
marking the boundary was assigned to two Commissioners, The
definition of the line through the Great Lakes was assigned to
the existing International Waterways Commission and extends
through a distance of about 1200 miles.

The survey and re-marking of the remainder of the distance,
about 2500 miles, that is from the Pacific Ocean to Lake Superior
and from the St. Lawrence to the Grand Manan Channel, was
entrusted to the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey, representing the American Government and Dr. W. F. King,

tittmann: our nobphern boundaries 43

Chief Astronomer of the Dominion of Canada, representing the
British Government.

To avoid wearying you with details, I have placed against the
wall a map which will convey to your eyes the progress made.
It indicates that a careful trigonometric and topographic survey
has been made of the greater part of the line and that compara-
tively little of the field work remains to be done on the boundary
under consideration. The labors of the International Waterways
Commission, it is understood, are also drawing to a conclusion and
thus we shall soon have a thoroly marked boundary and be in pos-
session of accurate maps and a precise definition of the whole line
as the result of processes based on sound engineering principles.

THE ALASKA BOUNDARY

Included in my subject is the delimitation of the Alaskan fron-
tier, but this chapter I shall treat very briefly, as the circumstances
connected with it are fresh in your memories.

The Alaskan boundarj^ naturally divides itself into two sections..
The first is the 141st meridian of west longitude and runs from the
Arctic Ocean to a point about 10 marine leagues from the coast, a
distance of 645 miles. About this stretch there never was any
dispute, but it was deemed best to prescribe by a treaty, signed at
Washington in 1906, the manner of ascertaining the location o£
the 141st meridian and of tracing the line.

Our knowledge of geodesy makes it evident that if in a stretch
of 600 miles various points should be determined astronomically
on the 141st meridian, the resulting line would be a zigzag, fol-
lowing the intersection of the verticals with the ground, that is,
the meridian would not lie within the plane of one geometric
great circle.

The Commissioners were therefore directed to determine the
141st meridian by telegraphic longitude at a suitable point thru
which the}'' were to trace a north and south line. This point
havmg been established at the crossing of the meridian and the
Yukon River, a zealous, able and energetic corps of engineers cut
a line thru the timber from Mount Natazhat on the south, to
the Arctic Ocean, monumented it and made a careful trigonometric

44 TITTMANN : OUR NORTHERN BOUNDARIES

and topographic survey, extending about 2 miles on each side of
the boundary. Aside from its immediate purpose this monu-
mented line and attendant triangulation will serve as a most valua-
ble base for the orientation of future topographic and economic
surveys both sides of the line. In the main this distance was a
transit line, but owing to the difficulty of traversing the ice
fields and rugged mountains, between Mount Natazhat and
Mount St. Elias, a trigonometric survey was carried for a distance
of about 150 miles, around by way of the Scolai Pass to the merid-
ian south of Mount Natazhat to a point on the slopes of the
Elias Alps.

It gives me pleasure to announce to the Academy that the
Commissioners believe that the field work along the 141st merid-
ian is completed. The reservation implied by the word ''believe"
means that the final plotting of the work between Mount Natazhat
and Mount St. Elias has not been completed and that this plotting
may develop a topographic lacuna in the ice fields of that region.

The other section of the line extending from Mount St. Elias to
the Portland Canal and thence thru Dixon Entrance to Cape
Muzon shared the fate of our other boundaries in being a subject of
controversy which was happily settled by the Tribunal of London
which rendered its decision in 1903. It is interesting to recall,
however, that at the time of the Alaska Purchase, Senator Sumner,
in advocating the purchase, began his scholarly speech with the
following words: ''In endeavoring to estimate its character, I
am glad to begin with what is clear and beyond question. I refer
to the boundaries fixed by the treaty."

The correctness of this statement was not borne out by subse-
quent events. Thirty-six years elapsed before the ensuing dis-
putes were settled by arbitration. Under the terms of the arbitral
award, Messrs. King and Tittmann were appointed to effect the
delimitation on the ground. Excepting some trigonometric
determinations and a final monument or two this has been ac-
complished. The boundary peaks have been determined trigono-
metricall}^, a photo-topographic survey has been made and
monuments have been placed at important and accessible points
and now the preparation of the final maps for the whole boun-

gray: micrometer microscopes 45

dary from Cape Muzon to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of about
1600 miles, nieasur-ed along the frontier is in progress.

All honor to the distinguished statesmen of both countries who
successfully strove to find a peaceful settlement of the many con-
troversies which have been barely touched upon by me. Their
justification lies in the homely adage, that, "Good fences make
good neighbors."

PHYSICS. — Micrometer microscopes. Arthur W. Gray. Bureau
of Standards. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of
Standards.

The purpose of this communication is to outline a simple and
rapid method of applying the proper corrections to the readings
of micrometer microscopes when making length measurements
of precision, and also an accurate graphical procedure for comput-

TABLE 1

1 *

•

B

C

D

E

1

+151

-38

-1

-8

-15

2

+102

. +27

0

+1

- 9

3

+101

-21

+1

+8

+12

4

- 40

-49

+1

+7

+ 9

ing convenient correction tables. The numerous sources of error
that need attention will not be discussed in this brief paper.

In order to emphasize the advisability of examining a microscope
intended for accurate measurements Table 1 is introduced, which
shows the magnitudes of the periodic errors found in some micro-
scopes. On the assumption that the micrometers read correctly
at the beginning and at the end of a turn, the corrections in ten-
thousandths of a turn that must be added to the reading at the
end of each fifth turn indicated in the first column are recorded in
the other columns. Under A are the corrections for one turn of a
microscope that had been repaired as well as possible after its
micrometer thrust bearings had been discovered scored by a grain
of dirt. Under B are those found for a turn of a microscope used
in making important length measurements. The instrument had

46 gray: micrometer microscopes

never before been investigated. A curious feature of this micro-
scope was the regular repetition *of this series of corrections every
other turn, with a somewhat different but equally regular series
for the alternate turns. Column C represents a screw of unusual
excellence, made by a firm noted for high-grade astronomical in-
struments. D represents the average and E the worst of a group
of ten others made by this same firm. The irregularities which
these ten exhibit are of the same order of magnitude as those of the
best microscopes belonging to the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures.

While the need of applying corrections to some of these micro-
scopes is perfectly evident, it may be well to point out that screw
irregularities are of importance even in such micrometers as those
of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. An exami-
nation of the correction tables appended to one of Benoit's
papers^ shows that an error of about 1.5 ^ can be made in com-
paring two lengths if the only corrections applied are those for
deviations of the mean screw values from the nominal value of
100 M per revolution; and further that most of the error will be due
to neglecting the periodic corrections.

In comparing two lengths with a transverse comparator it is a
common practice to multiply the changes in each ixiicrometer
reading by the mean scale-value and subtract. But even less labor
is required to take into account all necessary corrections, after the
microscopes have been calibrated once for all. The writer's
method of doing this is essentially a simplification of the procedure
followed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
in measuring the national prototype meters.- The principal gain
is effected by reducing to two tables (both of which can be mount-
ed on a single card) all the information contained in the six tables
used by the International Bureau. The table for the left micro-
scope gives at one inspection the total correction AL that must be
added to any reading U of the left microscope to give the cor-
rected reading aL; that for the right microscope gives — A^, the

' J. R. Benoit: Mesures de dilatation et comparaisons des regies metriques,
Trav. et Mem., 2, C. 131, 1883. The tables are on pp. c, xi, and xii.
^ Described in the above mentioned paper by Benoit.

gray: micrometer microscopes 47

negative of the total correction to the reading R'. Reversing the
sign of aR is merely a matter of convenience. It is usually suffi-
cient to enter the corrections for every tenth of a turn and to
obtain those for the hundredths by interpolation. A convenient
arrangement is one similar to that followed in most mathematical
tables: the whole turns are indicated at the side and the tenths
at the top.

The displacement corresponding to one division ( = 0.01 turn)
of the microscope may differ so little from 1 n that only small cor-
rections will be required to reduce the readings to microns. It may
however, well happen that reduction to the desired length unit
might require corrections so large as to be inconvenient. It then
becomes advisable to select an auxiliary unit corresponding to
the average screw-value, and to express all corrections in terms
of this unit, which should be the same for both microscopes.^ It is
further advantageous to minimize the magnitude of the correc-
tions by adjusting both microscopes to give almost the same mag-
nification— if possible one that permits a simple reduction factor.
Then all computations can be made in terms of the auxiliary unit,
multiplication by the reduction factor being deferred until the end.

Another gain is effected by recording obser^'ations in such a
form that the corrections can be added directly without any copy-
ing of figures. For example, the complete record and computation
for a single comparison of two bars A and B would appear about
as follows:

A

B

L'

3027 .9
2938.1

2431 .9

R'

3505 .7

L'-R'

aL - aR

89.8
3.0

-1073.8
-1.4

L-R

92.8

-1075.2

' All these considerations apply with increased force to a larger group of micro-
scopes, for example; a group of four used to read a divided circle, or several used
to step off a considerable length by means of a bar reaching from one microscope to
the next.

48 gray: micrometer microscopes

.". Lj^ — L^ = 1168.0 divisions. Since the magnification by the
microscopes was such that 1 division = f m

L^ - L^ = i oi 1168.0 = 876.0 m.

The accuracy that can be obtained with microscopes having
errors even as large as those Hsted under A in Table 1 is shown by
measuring three times with each of a pair the same interval of
999.05 M = 1332 (f m). The results are recorded in Table 2
below. In each series the center of the field was located consec-
utively near the right edge, the center, and the left edge of the
image, so as to obtain wide variations in the corrections, which
were taken from a correction table of the type described. Part of
the deviations from the averages are to be ascribed to inaccurate
focusing and another part (perhaps )to linear interpolation, which
is not altogether justifiable with such large and irregular periodic
errors. Nevertheless, the agreement is even better than would
have been predicted.

The calibration of a microscope by one of the processes usually
described involves such laborious computations and least-square
adjustments that it is no wonder to find it attempted only as a
last resort when the demands of high accuracy compel. While, of
course, the complete calibration of any divided scale requires con-
siderable time, it is, however, possible to determine microscope
corrections more accurately and with less labor than would appear
from previous accounts. The whole procedure can be made one
of direct measuremxcnt and simple graphical addition.

In determining the screw errors it is customary to use the ocular
of the microscope under investigation for viewing the displacement
of the spider-lines. An enormous gain, however, is secured by
removing the ocular and measuring the displacements by means
of a second micrometer microscope.^

•• The use of an auxiliary microscope for this purpose was first brought to my
attention by Mr. E. D. Tillyer, of the Bureau of Standards, to whom I am indebted
for many valuable suggestions and criticisms. He informed me that it was the
regular practice at the United States Naval Observatory. (See J. C. Hammond :
Introduction to Publications of U. S. Nav. Obs. 6, A XIII. 1911.) Sir David Gill
(Roy. Astrom. Soc. Monthly Notices 45, 65. 1884) also employed a compound
microscope in a simple apparatus he designed for rapidly and accurately investi-
gating screw-errors; but his method is in several respects inferior to that of the
Naval Observatory.

gray: micrometer microscopes 49

With this second microscope the following distances are deter-
mined: (1) That traveled by the spider-lines as the screw (S)
under investigation is advanced five whole turns. (A different
number of turns may sometimes be more convenient.) (2) That
traveled during each single turn. (3) That traveled during each
fifth (or tenth) of a turn. It is not necessary that the screw of
the auxiliary microscope (A) be very accurate, because all the
pointings will be confined to the same portions of this screw,
each only a fraction of a turn long. Besides, any irregularities
here will be rendered negligible by choosing an objective that
will magnify the interval to be measured sufficiently to make its
image nearly fill the usable portion of the field of view. The
measurement of consecutive five-turn intervals for the entire
length of the screw is not necessary, but it is advisable in order to
reduce the acumulation of errors by addition in determining the
progressive corrections; and the extra time consumed is a small
item. Again, it is hardly worth while to carry out measurements
(2) and (3) with everj^ turn. It will usually be found sufficient
to measure the first and the last turn of each five-turn interval.
Since adjacent turns are not hkely to differ much, this grouping
in pairs will check blunders.

After all the intervals have been measured, a length close to
the average for one turn of S is selected as a basis of comparison.
A multiple of ten divisions of A is convenient. By simply adding
the deviations of the measured five-turn intervals from five times
this basis, we compute the progressive corrections at the beginning
of each five turns, choosing the point of zero correction at the
middle of the screw. These corrections will be expressed in divi-
sions of A, and the same unit is retained in all stages of the compu-
tation until the end, when the correction curves are read off by a
scale which automatically translates into the numbers to be en-
tered in the final table.

We now plot a series of curves the abscissae of which are the
whole turns of S, that is, the comb readings of the micrometer to
which it belongs. The ordinates of the first curve (Co) are the
progressive corrections mentioned in the preceding paragraph;
those of the second (Cioo) are the lengths of the one-turn inter-

50 gray: micrometer microscopes

vals; those of the next five (opso, 20^40, 40P60, eoPso, soPioo) are the
lengths of the one-fifth turn intervals in proper order. The next
step is to adjust these curves so that they are mutually consistent,
that is to say, the progressive corrections found by adding five
consecutive ordinates of Cioo should agree with the corrections
represented by Co, and any ordinate of Cioo should equal the sum
of the corresponding ordinates of the curves 0P20, ....
soPioo- If the curves are plotted to a suitable scale the additions
are quickly made by marking off the distances on strips of paper.
These adjusted curves afford a fairly safe means of interpolation
to obtain the corrections for intervals not actually measured. The
curve plotted from the sums of the components of each interval
is likely to lie above or below that plotted directly from the entire
intervals. This divergence can 'proceed from progressive error
or gradual change of scale value in the screw of the auxiliary mi-
croscope, or from thermal expansion of S; but it is of no conse-
quence. The adjustment is first directed towards rendering the
two curves parallel, then any distance separating them is divided
among the curves representing the components of the interval by
merely shifting the base lines from which the deviations would be
measured.^

After the adjustments have been completed, the curves for the
one-fifth turn intervals are added graphically to form a new set
(C20, C40, Ceo, Cso) yielding the corrections at the beginning of each
fifth. If interpolation is necessary, it is readily accomplished
graphically with sufficient accuracy. The interpolating curve
for any selected turn will exhibit the corrections at every drum
reading within this turn. Five points besides the initial zero are
obtained from the correction curves just mentioned. If inter-
polating curves are plotted for several turns evenly distributed
along the course of the screw, sufficient data can be obtained for
plotting curves (Cio, C30, C50, C70, C90) to give the correction at
every tenth of a turn, or oftener, as functions of the comb readings.

5 Altho adjustments of this kind made by different computers would prob-
ably differ slightly, a least-square solution would be a sheer waste of effort, since the
differences in almost any case would affect the final corrections by considerably less
than the accidental error of a pointing in using the micrometer of which S forms
a part.

gray: micrometer microscopes 51

All that now remains is to determine the magnification and to
translate these curves into the figures that forms the final table.

It is, of course, desu'able that the numbers in the correction
table, and also the tabular differences, be small. Tabular dif-
ferences arising from periodic irregularities cannot be reduced
except by improving the screw. Progressive errors and deviations
from the nominal screw-value, however, even if small, lead to the
accumulation of large corrections when many turns must be used.
But if the magnification is adjustable, these corrections can often
be materially reduced. The first of the series of curves plotted,
namely, that representing the progressive errors, was based on
deviations of the measured lengths of individual turns from the
length represented by the basis selected for comparison. If a
known length, such as a standard millimeter, be measured with
the microscope to which the screw S belongs, and the readings cor-
rected by using the curves described above, the distance measured
that would correspond to the basis of comparison is likely to differ
somewhat from the distance to be represented by 100 divisions
(one turn) in the correction table. A little reflection will make
it apparent that corrections for this divergence can be added to the
progressi\'e corrections by the simple device of drawing a line at
the proper angle thru the point selected for zero correction. The
distance parallel to the axis of ordinates between this line and the
progressive curve (Co) measures the total correction for any comb
reading. It is, therefore, evident that these corrections can be
reduced to a minimum for any given part of the screw by adjust-
ing the magnification of the microscope so as to give this line the
most favorable slope. A moment's inspection of the progressive
curve will decide what this should be. After the magnification
has been adjusted with sufficient closeness, a standard length
interval should be carefully measured, and the correcting line
accurately located. Several measurements using different parts
of the screw will afford valuable checks on the accuracy of the
correction curves. Table 2 represents measurements of this kind.
We are now ready for the final step of reading off the corrections
from the curves and entering them in the table. A translating
scale is used which reads the pbts in terms of the unit chosen for

52

:^OSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL : SILVER VOLTAMETER

expressing the corrections in the table. A piece of co-ordinate
paper cut diagonally at the proper angle forms a convenient scale.
The corrections at the beginning of each turn are measured by the
distances between the curve of progressive corrections and the
inclined line correcting for magnification. The corrections at the

TABLE 2

Measurement of 999. 05^ = 1332 (fju)

XTNCORBECTED

CORRECTIONS

CORRECTED

DEVIATIONS

1341 .5
1333.1
1337.1

-8.7
-1.4
-5.5

= 1332.8
= 1331.7
= 1331.6

+0.8
-0.3
-0.4

Averages with left microscope 1332 .0

±0.5

1319.5
1316.0
1318.7

+13.1
+15.5
+13.6

= 1332.6
= 1331.5
= 1332.3

+0.5
-0.6
+0.2

Averages with right microscope 1332.1

±0.4

tenths of a turn are read from the corresponding curves, the base
line of each being shifted if necessary to correct for magnifica-
tion within a turn. (Progressive errors within a turn as well as
periodic errors were cared for in deriving the curves.) These
internal corrections must, of course, be added to the correction at
the beginning of the turn before entering in the table.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— r/ie silver voltameter. Part IV. E.
B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal, and A. S. McDaniel. To appear in
full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

In the three papers preceding this, the course of the work has
been traced from its beginning in 1908 until the International
Technical Committee met in Washington in April, 1910, to carry
out a joint investigation of the voltameter and to determine the
voltage of the Weston Normal Cell in terms of the international
ohm and the international ampere, the latter being derived from
the silver voltameter. The object of the present work is to make
a further comparison of the porous cup and Smith forms of volta-
meter, since these have been found the most reliable forms dur-

ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL! SILVER VOLTAMETER 53

ing the committee's work and to make such other experiments
as might afford data for the voltameter specifications, not yet
adopted.

The International Committee fixed the voltage of the cell to
five significant figures (1.0183 volts at 20°C.), but it is desirable
to reach an accuracy sufficient to justify recording six figures,
since the voltameter is a primary standard. Results are ex-
pressed as the voltage of the Weston Normal Cell at 20° computed
from the defined electro-chemical equivalent of silver, 1.11800
mg. per coulomb.

The procedure was according to the best methods learned from
previous work. In all cases the electrolyte was carefully tested
for its purity and the acidity determined. The voltameters
used were chiefly the porous pot and Smith's form, but on several
occasions we used the siphon form, the modified ring-shaped
siphon, and the Poggendorff form.

Since we had learned from previous work that the effect 'of acid
in pure electrolyte is to lower the deposit, we sought to find if
possible a quantitative relation between the amount of acid, ex-
pressed in equivalents of HNO3 per million, (X) and the decrease
in deposit, also expressed in parts per million, (F). As a result
of a large number of comparisons of neutral voltameters with
others made acid by varying amounts we have found the following
relation

Y = -4.5X + 0.02X2

which we think is justified by the figures given in the complete
paper.i

For acidities below 10 parts per million the square term is of
course unnecessary. The above equation was used in comput-
ing a correction to each deposit, but this correction was very small
in all cases for the results given below. The result of 156 deposits
in the porous cup form is:

1.01826- volts
The average deviation of a single observation from the mean is

1 Von Steinwehr's recently expressed opinion to the contrary (Instrumenten-
kunde, November 1913) was based on earlier work which was not so conclusive as
our recent work.

54 ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER

0.00003 0 and the computed probable error of a single observation
is 0.000025. The probable error of the mean result is O.OOOOO2.
The result of 55 deposits in the Smith form is:

1.018274 volts

The average deviation of a single observation from the mean is
0. 00004 0 and the computed probable error of a single observation
is 0.000084. The probable error of the mean result is O.OOOOOs*.

The mean of the porous pot form and the Smith form is there-
fore

1.01827 volts

which we give as the final result. The electrolyte was so pure
that no volume effect was observed in either form of voltameter.

With other forms of voltameter we have obtained the follow-
ing results: Siphon form (relative experiments, 5 observations)
1.01832; Modified siphon (7 observations) 1.01835: Poggendorff
form (9 observations) 1.01830. We thus have results with five
forms of voltameter all confirming the decision of the International
Committee, but the difficulties arising from the anode slime in the
last two make them more uncertain and difficult to use. The
siphon voltameter requires so much electrolyte that the presence
of the slightest trace of impurity increases the ''volume effect"
noted previously in several other forms.

We made a number of miscellaneous observations on the effect
of various impurities, but will mention here only the excessive
deposits obtained when considerable CO2 is present in the atmos-
phere above the voltameters. Two possible theories are given in
the complete paper to account for the slight difference occasion-
ally appearing in the deposit between the Smith form and the
porous pot form.

A further study of the effect of acid on solutions known to he
impure has shown the effect to be quite variable depending on the
nature of the impurity. This fact we believe accounts for much
of the conflicting opinion found in the literature on this subject.
We have endeavored to find just what the action of acid is by
which it reduces the deposit from pure electrolyte, but our results
are chiefly negative. It seemed possible that in the case of an

ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL! SILVER VOLTAMETER 55

electroh^te appreciabh' acid the decrease might be due to a de-
positing out of the hydrogen ions before the silver begins to de-
posit, since there is probably at the instant the current begins to
flow a greater difference of potential at the cathode than obtains
later, as the discontinuous character of the deposit indicates that
the potential difference must break thru a sort of surface film
and establish outlets for the current to the platinum cathode.
If this were possible, by making deposits of about 1 mg. each
from solutions containing acid and without acid, the difference
ought to be apparent. This we have done for varying lengths of
deposit, measuring the silver by titration with ammonium sul-
phocyanate. The results showed always an agreement of both
deposits between themselves and with the computed value for the
silver within the experimental error. But when we electrolj'zed
oxygen into the platinum cathode for four hours previous to
making a deposit a loss of about 0.2 mg. was observed, this was
not again found on subsequently using the bowl unless it had been
oxygenated as before.

We have made a careful study of the effect of various septa
other than filter paper on the voltameter. First raw silk was in-
vestigated. Extracting raw silk in neutral double distilled water
we find the extract to be distinctly basic toward both methyl
and iodeosine and the concentrated extracts will restore the
color to magenta solution previously decolorized by sulphurous
acid, thus indicating the presence of an aldehyde. The colloidal
character of the solutions was ascertained by the ultra-microscope.
After prolonged washing or use in the voltameter the so-called
''silk glue" which probably gives rise to the above effects is elimi-
nated and a hydrolytic process into amino acids appears causing
a reverse action in the voltameters. We have never claimed that
these two actions take place at the same time, as implied recently
by von Steinwehr. We think that silk like filter paper should be
excluded from use in the silver voltameter.

Our experimental evidence indicates that porous pots if prop-
erly prepared are without influence on silver nitrate. A new
pot or one that has been baked may contain free alkali which must
be washed out with nitric acid and water until perfectly neutral

56 ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER

and then several portions of silver nitrate filtered thru the
pores until equilibrium between the pot and solution is obtained
since at the beginning the pot acts as a catalyzer, to reduce a very
small amount of solution. After being properly prepared there
is no evidence of stenolysis or other abnormality in the ordinary
use.

The question of the purity of the deposited silver is an impor-
tant one, but the conflicting evidence in the literature does not
enable one to decide even whether inclusions are present or not.
The uniformity of the results that we have obtained in three series
of experiments suggests that the inclusions must be very small
or surprisingly constant in amount. It seems to us that inclu-
sions if present would be between crystals rather than in a crystal
perfectly formed according to the cubic system and hence greater
inclusions are to be expected in deposits which are less crystaline
because of the action of colloids.

We have endeavored to detect the presence of AgNOs in the
deposits by amalgamating them with mercury then washing the
amalgam and testing for nitrates by phenol sulphonic acid. Our
blank experiments, adding AgNOs to the amalgam after precipi-
tating any mercury and silver salts present worked satisfactorily,
but we have been unable to detect any appreciable AgNOs in the
best deposits altho a trace was found in striated deposits.
If considerable filter paper was used some organic matter was
visible after amalgamating the deposit. We tried to determine
the water content of a striated deposit having an excess weight
over a normal deposit of 0.56 mg. by alloying the deposit to the
platinum crucible in which it was made over an alcohol blast, and
found a loss of 0.053 mg. which previous experiment showed was
not due to the change in the platinum crucible alone. We were
not able at this time to make further experiments and therefore
do not consider the result conclusive.

The reactions in the voltameter have not generally been con-
sidered as reversible, that is, an equivalence of the loss in weight at
the anode and gain at the cathode, but since our previous work has
shown that the supposed complex reactions at the anode do not
probably exist we examined the possibility of reversibility. For
an anode we used a hea\^^ deposit contained in a large platinum

ROSA. VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER 57

bowl and connected the electrolyte in this thru a siphon to a
second bowl serving as cathode. First we measured the pro-
gressive change in acidity of the anode solution as electrolysis
took place and found that practically no change of acidity occurs
until the silver on the anode was reduced to about 0.5 gram after
which it rose very abruptly. Next we measured the potential
difference between the anode and an intermediate electrode and
found this also constant until about 2.5 gram of silver remained.
We then examined the question quantitatively as follows:

WEIGHT OP SILVER
ON ANODE BOWL

grams

8

DEPOSIT IN
CURRENT ' LOSS AT ANODE ! GAIN AT CATHODE ' STANDARD

I I VOLTAMETER

amp. mg. \ mg. mg.

0.500 2164.81 1 2164.78 I 2164.81

9 I 0.500 , 2092.12 2091.92 ^ 2091.83

* '

The results show a surprising agreement. These were made
using a pure crystalline deposit for the anode. With a striated
deposit made from a filter paper contaminated solution the result
was very different. The anode turned dark and had a very large
amount of slime all of which was collected and added to the bowl.
The results using a pure solution and this impure anode are as
follows :

Anode lost 2095 .43 mg.

Cathode gained 2092 .21 mg.

Standard voltameter 2091 .83 mg.

The conclusion leaves no room for doubt that the purity of the
anode is essential in such an experiment and this should be con-
sidered in voltameter work in general.

We have added to our complete paper a further discussion of
the volume effect (see Part III) in reply to von Steinwehr's criti-
cisms. (Zs. f. Instr., November, 1913) we have shown that this
phenomenon of excess deposit in large bowls over small bowls,
when impure electrolyte is used, is not confined to the porous cup
form as von Steinw^ehr asserts, but has been observed in the filter
form by Schuster and Crossley and in the siphon and Smith
forms by ourselves. We have overcome this troublesome volume
effect by purifying the electrolyte. We wish to lay great stress
on the purity of the electrolyte used in obtaining the results

58 CLARKE AND STEIGERI METALLIC ELEMENTS

recorded in this paper. This question of the purity of the elec-
trolyte has received less attention from previous observers than
it deserves. We have described our methods for purifying silver
nitrate in Part III of this series of papers.

GEOLOGY. — The relative abundance of several metallic elements.
F. W. Clarke and George Steiger,U.S. Geological Survey.

During the past twenty-five years, several estimates of the
relative abundance of the commoner chemical elements have been
published from the laboratory of the United States Geological
Survey. 1 These estimates, however, covered only such consti-
tuents of the earth's crust as are usually determined in the course
of fairly complete analyses; including, in many cases, the less im-
portant elements barium, strontium, nickel, chromium, vanadium
and zirconium. For the more familiar metals, copper, lead, zinc
and arsenic, no really adequate data were available ; and no attempt
was made to compute either their abundance or their frequency.
Such attempts have been made by others, however, but not alto-
gether conclusively. -

In order to gain a definite idea as to the relative abundance of
the elements in question, a number of composite analyses were
made. That is, in each group of substances investigated, many
samples were blended into one uniform sample, and that was then
analyzed. The average content of each metal was determined
in that way with as close an approximation to accuracy as could
have been attained by many individual analyses. Four such
composites have been studied thus far; namely, two of oceanic
clays, contributed by Sir John Murray;^ one of silt or mud from
the delta of the Mississippi; and one of igneous rocks which had
previously been analyzed in the laboratory of the Survey. For the
the Mississippi silt the general analysis, not heretofore published,
is as follows:"* The composite was made up of 235 separate sam-

^ For the latest of these estimates see Survey Bulletins 419 and 491. Also a
paper in Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 51, 214.

2 See for example Vogt, Zeitsch. prakt. Geol., 1S9S, pp. 225, 314, 377, 413, and
1899, pp. 10, 274; and Kemp, Econ. Geol., 1, 207.

' For the complete analyses of these clays see Journ. Geol., 15, 783.

* Except when otherwise stated the analyses given here were made by Mr.
Steiger.

CLARKE AND STEIGERI META.LLIC ELEMENTS 59

pies, collected by E. W. Shaw. For the determination of NiO,
CiiO, PbO, ZnO and AS2O5, 200 grams of the silt were taken. The
presence of organic matter prevented the separate, determina-
tion of ferrous iron. The chlorine in this analysis is doubtless
due to salt from the Gulf of Mexico.

TABLE 1
Composite Analysis of 235 Samples of Mississippi Silt

SiO, 69.96 CI 0.50

AI263 10.52 F 0.07

FeoOs 3.47 CroOs 0.01

MgO 1.41 V2O3 0.02

CaO 2.17 NiO 0.017

NasO 1.51 MnO 0.06

KoO 2.30 BaO 0.08

H2O- 3.78 SrO trace

H2O+ 1.96 CuO 0.0043

TiOo 0.54 ZnO 0.0010

ZrO, 0.05 AsiOs 0.0004

CO2 1.40 PbO 0.0002

P2O5 0.18 Organic 0.66

SO, 0.03 100.6229

S 0.07 Less 0 0.13

100.4929

For the four composite analyses aboye mentioned the data
under immediate consideration are as follows :

A. The ''red clay" of the oceanic depths. Composite of 51 sam-
ples, dredged from the sea bottom and representatiye of all the
great oceans. The larger part of this material was collected by
the Challenger Expedition. Determinations (by E. C. Sulliyan)
of CuO, ZnO, PbO and AsoOs made on 150 gram portions.

B. "Terrigenous clays," from oceanic depths of 140 to 2120
fathoms. Composite of 52 samples, namely 4 ''green muds,"
and 48 "blue muds," also mainly from the Challenger Expedition.
Determinations made on 300 gram portions.

C. Composite of 235 samples of Mississippi silt, as in the fore-
going analysis. For the heax-y metals 200 gram portions were
taken.

60

CLARKE AND STEIGER : METALLIC ELEMENTS

D. Composite of 329 igneous rocks, all American. Determi-
nations on 90 gram portions.

In the red' clay a trace of molybdenum was also detected by Dr.
Hillebrand.

TABLE 2
Summary op Data from Composite Analyses

A

B

c

D

AVERAGE

NiO

0.0320
0.0010

0.0630
trace

0.0170
0.0004

0.00655
0.00074

0.0296

AsiOs

0.0005

PbO

0.0073

0.0004

0.0002

0.00081

0.0022

CuO

0.0200

0.0160

0.0043

0.01167

0.0130

ZnO

0.0052

0.0070

0.0010

0.00638

0.0049

These figures give quite clearly the order of magnitude of the
several percentages, and they are corroborated by the work of
other investigators. In a series of 36 igneous and metamorphic
rocks of British Guiana, Harrison found ^ mean percentage of
0.025 copper. In 23 of his samples lead was also sought for, and
detected in 5 of them, the maximum amount being 0.02 per cent.
In a typical specimen of the Columbia River basalt Wells found
0.034 of copper, and the same quantity was determined by Jensen
in an andesite from Fiji. In the porphyries of Leadville, Colorado,
Hillebrand was able to determine lead. Out of 18 samples, taken
at points remote from ore bodies, the average amount found was
0.002 per cent of PbO. One porphyry also yielded 0.008 per
cent of zinc oxide, and a rhyolite contained 0.0043 per cent.

In four rocks granite, porphyry and diabase from the Archean
of Missouri, Robertson determined the following percentages of
lead, zinc, and copper:

Pb 0.00197 to 0.0068; average, 0.004

Zn 0 .00139 to 0 .0176; average, 0 .009

Cu 0.00240 to 0,0104; average, 0.006

The adjacent limestones also carried these metals, but in slightly
smaller proportions. Similar results were obtained by Finlayson
from igneous rocks adjacent to lead mines in Great Britain. His
averages are Pb, 0.0032 per cent, and Zn, 0.028. In the lime-
stones and dolomites of the Dubuque region, Iowa, Weems de-
termined lead and zinc. The average of nine samples gave

CLARKE AND STEIGER: METALLfC ELEMENTS 61

0.00326 per cent of Pb, and 0.00029 of Zn. Many other deter-
minations of the hea\'y metals in rocks are scattered through
the literature of geology but these examples are sufficient to illus-
trate what has long been known. The researches of Forchham-
mer, of Sandberger, and of Dieulafait are familiar to geologists,
but they lack the quantitative basis which is supplied by the com-
posite analyses given here.^ The heavy metals are widely dif-
fused throughout the crust of the earth, and generally in determi-
nable proportions. The order of abundance, as now ascertained,
appears to be Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, As, with, of course, local variations.

With the aid of the estimate here given for zinc, which is near
0.005 per cent of ZnO or 0.004 Zn, it becomes possible to gain some
notion as to the relative abundance of cadmium; for the two metals
are commonly associated. In 10906 shipments of zinc ores from
Webb City and Joplin, Missouri, mostly in carload lots, Waring^
found an average percentage of 57.96 Zn and 0.358 Cd, The
ratio is 1 Cd to 162 Zn. From 42 analyses of sphalerite given
in Hintze's Handbuch der Mineralogie, the mean ratio is 1 to 163.
From 82 analyses of European zinc ores, cited by Jensch,^ the
ratio 1 to 277 appears. The mean of these three estimates is 1
to 201 ; that is, in round numbers, zinc seems to be about 200
times as abundant as cadmium. A more precise estimate can
hardly be made at present; but the figure is better than no esti-
mate at all. It has a quantitative basis, and is therefore some-
thing more than a mere guess. If the percentage of zinc in the
earth's cinist is 0.004, then that of cadmium is of the order of
0.00002.

In the course of the regular rock analyses made in the laboratory
of the Geological Survey, many determinations have been made of
elements of minor quantitative importance. These determi-
nations are numerous enough to fix their numerical significance
between maximum and minimum limits as follows :

* For literature references see Survey Bulletin 491, The Data of Geochemistry,
pp. 600-602, 643. *

* Cited by Siebenthal in U. S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources, 1908,
1, 796. See also, for other data, Waring's paper in Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, 26,
16.

^ Ahren's Sammlung chem. techn. Vortriige, 3, 201.

62

CLARKE AND STEIGERI METALLIC ELEMENTS

In round numbers, abolit 1200 such analyses, nominally com-
plete, have been made and in 793 of them barium oxide was
determined or proved to be absent. The mean of these determi-
nations, counting absences as zero, is 0.0104 per cent, which is
probably a maximum. If the remaining 407 rocks were all free
from barium, and so regarded, the average percentage of BaO
would be 0.069, a minimum; and between the two figures the most
probable value would lie, their mean being 0.086. Upon this
basis of computation the following table of percentages has been
constructed.

TABLE 3
Summary of Data from Rock Analyses

NUMBER OF
DETERMINATIONS

MAXIMUM

MINIMUM

MEAN

BaO

793

0.104

0.069

0.086

SrO

649

0.040

0.022

0.031

Li.,0

581
299

0.011
0.026

0.005
0.006

O.OOS

NiO

0.016

CroO,

293

0.050

0.012

0.031

V0O3

102

0.026

0.002

0.014

ZrOa

372

0.023

0.007

0.015

In three of the composite analyses already cited, similar deter-
minations were made, and the results obtained fit in fairly well
with the figures of this table.

The percentages found are shown in the following table :

TABLE
Data from Analyses of

1

4

Composite Samples

RED CLAY

TERRIGENOUS CLAY

RIVER SILT

BaO

0.17
0.046
0 032

0.05

0.025

0.065

0.044

0.028

undet.

0 OS

SrO

trace

NiO

0 017

CroOg

V2O3

ZrOa

0.01

0.028
undet.

0.01
0.02 ■
0.05

The data so far obtained may not be final; but they clearly
indicate the several orders of magnitude which it was sought to
determine.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

BOTANY. — Annona sericea and its allies. William E. Safford.

Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 16,

Part 10. pp. 263-275. December 13, 1913.
In continuance of his studies in the Annonaceae, the writer finds that
the silky annona of French Guiana (Annona sericea Dunal) is the type
of a natural subgroup of the genus Annona, that should be segregated as
a section, for which he proposes the name Pilannona to give it co-ordinate
rank with Euannona, Atta, llama, Annonella, and Chelinocarpus. As
in other natural plant groups there are certain species which appear to
form connections with allied groups, so in the section Pilannona the type
species, Anno7ia sericea Dunal, which has normally 3 petals, appears to
be allied to the 6-petaled A. paludosa Aubl., while at the opposite end of
the series Annona jamaicensis Sprague approaches A. cherimola, belong-
ing to type section Atta. In addition to descriptions of the principal
species included in this section photographs of a number of original type
specimens are presented, including that of Annona echinata Dunal in the
De Candolle Herbarium at Geneva, and the flower of A . sericea described
and figured by Dunal in his classical monograph of the Annonaceae.
Among the new species described and figured are Annona jenmanni,
from British Guiana; A. trinitensis, from the island of Trinidad; A.
longipes from southern Veracruz, Mexico; A. holosericea, from the
Pacific coast of Costa Rica; spraguei, from Panama; Annona cercocarpa,
from Colombia and acumhiata, collected on the Isthmus of Panama in
1861 by Dr. Sutton Hayes. In addition to the above Annona jamaicen-
sis Sprague is redescribed and illustrated with two photographs.

This paper deals with the taxonomy of the species described. It will
be followed shortly by a more comprehensive one on the '' Classification

63

64 abstracts: botany

of the genus Annona with descriptions of new and imperfectly known
species/' which will form part 1 of the Contributions from the United
States National Herbarium volume 18. Both papers are preliminary to
an account of the economic custard-apples and their allies, to be pub-
lished by the United States Department of Agriculture.

W. E. S.

BOTANY. — Descriptions of new plants, preliminary to a report upon the
flora of New Mexico. E. O, Wooton and Paul C. Standley,
Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16, 109-196.
pi. 48-50. 1913.

For some time the authors of this paper have been engaged in the prep-
aration of a Flora of New Mexico. This work, which has now been com-
pleted, will, it is expected, be published in the near future. The only
general descriptive manual covering any portion of the arid south-
western United States heretofore available has been Coulter's Botany of
Western Texas (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., vol. 2), a work which unfortu-
nately is now out of print.

Little attention having been given by taxonomists to the flora of
New Mexcio in recent years, it was to be expected that many unde-
scribed species would be discovered during the progress of the investi-
gation just mentioned. These are described in the present paper, partly
to reduce the bulk of the complete Flora and partly to prevent confu-
sion on the part of those who wish to use it. Altogether 198 species are
described as new. The largest number in a single family (50) is found in
the Carduaceae, the group which has the largest number of representa-
tives in the state. In this family a new genus, Herrickia, is named,
based upon a plant of northern New Mexico, related to Aster and
Xylorrhiza. Among the other plants described may be mentioned two
new Yuccas, an Agave from the Organ Mountains, two oaks, six species
of Padus, a Robinia (the second species of this genus kno\\ai from the
western United States), eight species of Gaura, five of Penstemon, eight
of Erigeron, and four thistles. In addition to the new species described,

65 new names or new "combinations" are published.

P. C. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 16th annual meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was
held at the Cosmos Club, January 15, 1914, with President Tittmann
in the chair. The following were elected officers for the ensuing
year: President, David White; Corresponding Secretary, George K.
Burgess; Recording Secretary, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, E. W. Vab,-
KER[ y ice-Presidents, Representing the Anthropological Society: F. W.
Hodge; Botanical Society: F. L. Lewton; Entomological Society: A.
L. Quaintance; Electrical Engineers Society: E. B. Rosa; Foresters
Society: W. B. Greeley; Historical Society: J. D. Morgan; Biolog-
ical Society: PaulBartsch; Chemical Society: M. X. Sullivan; Engi-
neers Society: G. W. Littlehales; Philadelphia Society: L. A. Fisch-
er; Geological Society: F. L. Ransome; Archaeological Society:
Mitchell Carroll; N on-Resident Vice-Presidents, Ira Remsen and J.
M. Coulter; Managers, Class of 1917, A. H. Brooks and L. 0.
Howard.

The report of the Corresponding Secretarj^ showed the total member-
ship as 369, an increase of 14 during the past year, and that the Academy
has lost by death the following: Dr. J. R. Eastman, the first President of
the Academy; Prof. Alexander Macfarlane; Dr. Robert Fletcher; Gen.
C. W. Raymond.

The Treasurer's report showed the total receipts $4805.69, disburse-
ments $3657.82, cash on hand $1147.87, investments $12,090.

The report of the Auditing Committee was also received.

The following were elected to resident membership: Erwin F. Smith,
L. H. Dewev, W. W. Stockberger, Haven Metcalf, Bert S. Butler, Monroe
Hopkins, W. R. Blair, C. W. Burrows, W. Blum, J. T. Kellev, Jr., Paul
JyFox, Dr. W. W. Randall, J. F. Mitchell, W. Salant, A. Seidell, C. S.
Hudson, W. N. Berg, G. E. Patrick, R. O. E. Davis, Percy H. Walker,
W. W. Skinner, W. H. Waggaman, H. C. Gore, Rene de M. Taveau.

President-elect White then took the chair and President Tittmann
delivered an address on ''Our Northern Boundaries" (this Journal 4,
37, 1914).

George K. Burgess, Corresponding Secretary.

65

66 PEOCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 516th meeting was held November 15, 1913. Vice-President
Paul Bartsch in the chair and thirty-five persons present.

F. V. CoviLLE presented a commmiication on The physiology of the
blueberry. His remarks were based on wide experience in green house
and outdoor culture of this plant. Three conditions are essential to its
successful propagation: (1) an acid soil; (2) the presence of the micor-
rhizal fungus to enable the plant to obtain nitrogen; and (3) the stimu-
lating effect of cold on the twigs while they are dormant. The last is a
condition of vital importance, associated as it is with the transformation
of starch into sugar. As a result of this series of experiments, the com-
mercial propagation of the blueberry is now possible. Very large berries
have been developed, some of them from | inch to | inch in diameter.
The various means of cultivation were explained and illustrated by
means of numerous lantern slides.

W. C. Kendall, the second speaker announced on the program,
was absent, and the chairman asked Dr. Leon J. Cole of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin to address the Society. He responded by giving
an account of his experiments in breeding pigeons for the study of color
inheritance.

Owing to the lateness of the hour, the communication by Barton
W. EvERMANN was postpoucd.

The 517th meeting was held November 29, 1913. President E. W.
Nelson in the chair and sixty-three persons present.

The meeting was devoted to a discussion of Parallel Development.
A. D. Hopkins read a paper on Parallelism in mor-phological characters
and physiological characteristics in Scolytoid Beetles. He had made a
special study of these beetles and his ideas of parallelism in nature were
largely founded on evidence they have furnished. He defined the subject
as follows :

"Parallelism in morphological characters and physiological charac-
teristics in Scolytoid beetles relates to the occurrence of the same or
similar elements of structure or the same kind of activity in two or
more species, genera, subfamilies, or families. Parallel species, genera,
and larger groups are those in which structure or habit is in many
respects alike. Such species or groups may be closely allied or more or
less widely separated. Universal parallelism relates to repeated or
multiple origin, development, and evolution of the same or similar
inorganic or organic forms or activity.

"This tendency towards parallel development appears to be in ac-
cordance with a fundamental principal or law of parallelism in evolution,
under which the origin and evolution of the same form or activity,
under the same or similar physical influences, has been repeated many
times; or, in other words, that under similar environments, needs, and
requirements in nature, independent development and evolution from

proceedings: biological society 67

a common base may produce repeatedly the same or similar morpho-
logical and physiological results."

Nmnerous examples were given and illustrated on the board, of
characters of structures and characteristics of habit which were paralleled
over and over again in connected and disconnected genera, subfamilies,
and families. He also illustrated characters and characteristics which
were paralleled in all of the species of a single genus and in connected
genera, groups, subfamilies, and famiUes, and said further:

"Thus we see that parallel modification in morphological and physio-
logical elements is an important factor to be considered in taxonomy.
It is evident from a comparative study of the various systems of classi-
fication that the failure of taxonomists to fully realize its importance
has led to many erroneous conclusions and much confusion.

"In conclusion, it seems to me that we have two fundamental ques-
tions to be answered in regard to the origin, evolution, and classification
of organisms.

"1. Are the taxonomic characters and characteristics of the species,
genus, family, order, class, and kingdom the result of phylogenetic descent
from a single ancestral nucleus, thru natural selection and the inheritance
of selected characters f or

"2. Are they the result of phylogenetic descent from many nuclei
thru natural selection and natural parallelism?

"I am inclined to the belief that an affirmative answer to the second
question would be more nearly in accord with natural law."

President Nelson exhibited a series of mammal skins in pairs
similar in outward appearance but widely different in structure and
classification, showing the parallelism of shape and color.

0. C. Oberholser discussed parallel development as illustrated
in birds. He showed a large series of specimens in which resemblances
in form and color were very striking.

J. W. GiDLEY pointed out the difference between parallel and con-
vergent development.

Messrs. Lyon, Hay, Baker, Bartsch and Gill took further part in
the discussion.

Dr. Hopkins closed the discussion by stating that the illustrative
material presented by Messrs. Nelson and Oberholser had sho^vn
only one phase of the principle — homomorphic parallelism, which is not
correlated with evidences of natural affinity, but is repeated in more
or less widely separated groups and species, while the other — homol-
ogous parallelism — is parallelism of structure, color, habit, etc., which
is correlated wdth evidence of natural affinity and is repeated in the
same species or in connected genera or larger groups.

The 34th annual meeting and 5 18th regular meeting was held De-
cember 13, 1913, President E. W. Nelson in the chair and twenty-eight
persons present.

The annual reports of officers were received. The election of officers

68 proceedings: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

for 1914 took place and resulted as follows: President, Paul Bartsch;
Y ice-Presidents, J. N. Rose, A. D. Hopkins, W. P. Hay, Mary J.
Rathbun; Recording secretary, D. E. Lantz; Corresponding secretary,
W. L. McAtee; Treasurer, Wells W. Cooke; Members of council,
William Palmer, Hugh M. Smith, Vernon Bailey, Marcus W.
Lyon, Jr., N. Hollister.

The president, Paul Bartsch was selected to represent the Society
as a vice-president of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

The president appointed as Committees on Publication the following :
N. Hollister, W. L. McAtee, Wells W. Cooke.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV FEBRUARY 19, 1914 No. 4

ELECTROCHEMISTRY. ~Compariso7i of the silver and iodine
voltameters and the determination of the value of the faraday.
G. W. ViNAL and S. J. Bates. To appear in full in the Bul-
letin of the Bureau of Standards and Journal of American
Chemical Society. Communicated by E. B. Rosa.

A form of iodine voltameter was devised by Washburn and Bates
and described by them in the J. Am. Chem. Soc. 34, 1341. This
instrument was found to be of about the same order of reproduci-
bility as the silver voltameter. Because of the reversibility of
the reactions taking place at the anode and the cathode and the
character of the deposit which precluded the possibihty of inclu-
sions of foreign material it seemed a desirable instrument to
use in the determination of the faraday, especially since the values
for this constant had heretofore been based on the silver measure-
ments alone.

Accordingly arrangements were made for a comparison of the
silver and iodine voltameters at the Bureau of Standards during
the summer of 1913. The operation of the iodine voltameters
was in general the same as previously described by Washburn and
Bates. The silver voltameters were of the porous cup and Smith
form following the usual procedure of the Bureau of Standards.
Since the same current passed through the silver and iodine
voltameters, the ratio of silver to iodine may be immediately
calculated. As a result of ten experiments in each of which
several voltameters of both types were employed we find the ratio

^^ = 0.85017
Iodine

69

70 hedgcock: injury by smelter smoke

which is slightly higher than the ratio (0.84998) of the present
atomic weights. All sources of error have been carefully examined
and are critically discussed in the full paper. None, however, are
believed to be sufficient to account for the difference between
this value and the ratio of the present international atomic weights.
Using the results of the silver voltameter to measure the
coulombs passing through the circuit according to the decision
of the London Electrical Conference (1.11800 mg. of silver = 1
coulomb) the electrochemical equivalent of iodine is:

1.31502 mg. per coulomb.

The value of the faraday on the basis of the present internation-
al atomic weight of iodine (126.92) and the foregoing value of the
electrochemical equivalent of iodine is:

'- = 96,515 coulombs.

0.00131502

The value of the faraday derived from the atomic weight of
silver and the defined electrochemical equivalent of silver is:

107.88

0.00111800

= 96,494.

The mean value of the two is 96,504, but we recommend for
general use the round number 96,500.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — Injury by smelter smoke in southeastern
Tennessee. George Grant Hedgcock, Bureau of Plant
Industry. Communicated by Karl F. Kellerman.

Observations were made on the condition of the vegetation in
the region surrounding Ducktown and Copper Hill, Tennessee,
in the neighborhood of the copper smelters during the month of
September, 1913, before any frost injury had taken place. The
area affected by the acute form of injury is probably larger than
it was during 1905 and 1906 when J. K. Haywood^ of the Bureau
of Chemistry made studies of the effects of the smoke in this
region. The actual damage by acute injury at present is possibly
slightly less, owing to a greater area of smoke diffusion, but is

1 U. S. D. A. Bur. CJaem. Bui. 113, pp. 13, 1908.

hedgcock: injury by smelter smoke 71

still continuing in the same general directions as reported by Hay-
wood, extending farthest to the north, 12 to 15 miles, and to the
west 8 to 10 miles or even more. The acute injury to the south
and east does not extend more than half the latter distance. No
accurate estimate can be made of chronic injury which apparently
extends much farther in all directions. Prevailing winds are the
deciding factors as to the directions in which acute injury extends
the farthest, and owing to the contour of the country all localities
in any direction are not equally affected. In the worst affected
area little herbage is found, and the hills look like a desert with a
greatly eroded appearance. Beyond this area grasses have been
able to maintain themselves owing to the greater dilution of the
fumes. Various flowering plants, such as asters, goldenrods,
and legumes begin to appear at a still greater distance than grasses,
and along with them certain species of trees. Garden beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris) are especially susceptible to the fumes, and
are a good index of the SO2 injury.

Deciduous trees appear to be more resistant to smoke than
conifers in this region. The deciduous trees along the Ocoee
River to the westward appear to be resistant in the following order,
the most highly resistant being named first: Quercus alba, Acer
rubrum, Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, Populus deltoides, Oxy-
dendrum arboreum, Liriodendron tulipifera, Robinia pseudacacia,
Platanus occidentalis, and Uhiius crassa. On the uplands the most
severe injury was found. It was most noticeable on slopes of
hills facing the smelters. Of the Oaks the following order of
resistance was noted: Quercus alba, Q. prinus, Q. coccinea, Q.
palustris, Q. digitata, Q. minor, Q. marylandica, Q. veluiina, and Q.
triloba.

The element of the smoke that is the chief cause of injury is
undoubtedly SO2. Haywood ascribes the inj ury to this gas. The
usual form of acute injury to deciduous trees consists of irregular,
reddened areas of dead leaf tissue between the veins. The region
in the immediate vicinity of the midrib and principal veins of the
leaves is last to be affected. Repeated acute injury of this sort
kills the twigs of the trees, and finally brings about the death of
whole trees. Few conifers are found in the region of acute injury,
and no observation of these was made.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

PHYSICS.— TAe histonj of Ohm's law. J. C Shedd and M. D. Heesey.
. Pop. Sci. Mo., 83, 599-614, December, 1913.

The earlier part of this paper gives an outline of the experimental de-
velopment of Ohm's law in the hands of Cavendish and others using the
static discharge; of Barlow, who, using the steady current from a voltaic
pile, concluded that the resistance of a conductor varies with the square
root of its length; of Cumming, who was led to this same conclusion; of
Davy, who discovered that wires having the same ratio of length to cross-
section offered the same resistance; of Becquerel, who was the first to
show that the resistance of a wire varies directly as the length and in-
versely as the cross-section; and finally in the hands of Ohm himself,
who, publishing first a radically incorrect relation, gradually arrived at
the present complete form of the law which bears his name.

The latter part of the paper endeavors to trace the sequence of ideas
in Ohm's mind, and also to explain the origin of the misconceptions re-
garding his work which prevailed for so many years among scientific
men. M. D. H.

'PHYSlC^.—ThePentajie Lamp as a working standard. E. C. Critten-
den and A. H. Taylor. To be published in the Bulletin of the
Bureau of Standards and in the Transactions of the Illuminating
Engineering Society.
The best standards of candlepower are electric incandescent lamps,
but it is not always practicable to use them. Of the various flame
standards the Harcourt 10-candle pentane lamp appears to be the best
for general use. This lamp has the disadvantages of being large and not
easily portable, of using fuel which is expensive and somewhat dangerous,
and of requiring more air than ordinary ventilation will supply, but in
spite of these faults its use is increasing rather rapidly.

The candle power is not usually exactly ten, and the exact value
must be determined by a photometric test. The intensity is affected

abstracts: geodesy 73

by atmospheric conditions, but when the proper corrections are made
a given lamp will repeat its value very closely.

It is found that the pentane commercially obtainable increases in
density rather rapidly by the fractional distillation which occurs in the
lamp. The density (at 15°C.) should be between 0.6235 and 0.626, but
it usually reaches 0.635 when a little over half of the liquid has been
used. Beyond this point there is a marked increase in the intensity of
the flame. For an approximate correction, the variation may be as-
sumed to be linear and to be 1 per cent in candle power for each 0.01 in
the density of the liquid.

When the lamps are operated in a well ventilated room the most im-
portant cause of variation is the humidity. Water vapor in the air
lowers the intensity of the flame and variations due to that cause may
exceed 15 per cent. Previous work at the Bureau of Standards^ has
indicated that 1 per cent, of water vapor in the air causes a decrease of
5.67 per cent, in the candle power of the flame, whereas the correction
officially established in England is 6.6 per cent. The present paper
gives further data based on about 75,000 individual photometer settings
on 27 lamps, including all lamps tested in 1911 and 1912 whose tests
have extended over a range of 0.5 per cent or more of water vapor in
the air. The mean result is an exact check of the correction factor pre-
viously found at the Bureau.

To facilitate the reduction of observations to normal candle power a
■chart is given from which the departure of a lamp from normal value
can be read directty when the barometric pressure and the readings of
the wet and dry bulb thermometers of a ventilated hygrometer are
known. The chart is plotted for a pentane lamp, but it may be applied
to other flames without introducing serious errors. E. C. C.

GEODESY. — Triangulation on the coast of Texas, from Sabine Pass to
Corpus Christi Bay. Charles A, Mourhess. Special Publica-
tion No. 17, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1913.
This publication contains the results of the triangulation of the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Engineer Corps, U. S. Army, along
a portion of the coast of Texas. The earliest observations involved in
this work were made in Galveston Ba}' in 1850, and the most recent work
was completed in 1912. The geographic positions of over 700 points,
all correlated to the same geodetic datum, are given, together with a
complete description of all permanently marked stations. A series of

1 Rosa and Crittenden, Transactions Illuminating Engineering Society, 5,
753, 1910.

74 abstracts: zoology

sketches and an index of stations make it possible to find readily the
data for any given locality. The triangulation is tertiary in character,
which makes it reasonably certain that the length of any line in the main
scheme is known with an accuracy as great as one part in ten thousand.

C. A. M.

BOTANY. — Plants of the Alpine Club expedition to the Mount Robson

Region. Paul C. Standley. The Canadian Alpine Journal, special

number, pp. 76-79, pi. 1-5. 1913.

The special number of the Canadian Alpine Journal, of which this

paper is a part, contains a report upon an expedition undertaken by the

Alpine Club of Canada in 1911 to explore Jasper Park, Yellowhead Pass,

and the Mount Robson region in British Columbia and Alberta. The

first three papers consist of a report upon the mammals, by Mr. N. Hol-

lister, one upon the reptiles and batrachians by Mr. Hollister, and one

upon the birds, by Mr. J. H. Riley.

The plants reported upon were collected by Mr. Hollister and Mr.
Riley while engaged primarily in collecting mammals and birds, no
attempt being made to secure a complete representation of the flora of
the region. One hundred and forty-seven species are listed, five of them
{Cryptogramma acrostichoides, Vagnera pumila, Ophrys convallarioides,
Orchis rotundifolia, Artemisia laevigata) being illustrated by photo-
graphs. Four new species were described from the collections previous
to the publication of the final report. Several of the species collected
in the Mount Robson region represent notable extensions of range.

P. C. S.

ZOOLOGY. — Two interesting mammals from the island of Tobago, West
Indies. Austin H. Clark. Annals and Magazine of Natural
History, (8), 13, no. 73, pp. 68-70, 1914.

In this paper are recorded specimens of Marmosa tobagi Thomas, and
of Dasypus novemcinctus hopUtes G. M. Allen from the island of Tobago.

The distribution of the species of the genera Marmosa and Dasypus
in the West Indies is given, and it is suggested that, while probably
endemic on Tobago, the mouse-opossum was possibly introduced into
Grenada and the Grenadines by man.

A sketch of the history of our knowledge of these interesting forms is
given, and it is pointed out that, while armadillos were reported from
Tobago so long ago as 1658, and from Grenada in 1667, the animal occur-
ring on'CJrenada was not specificall.y determined until 1911, while that
on Tobago has up to the present time remained quite unnoticed by
mammalogists. A. H. C.

abstracts: technology 75

ZOOLOGY. — Sopra una piccola CoUezione di Onychophora da Australia.
Austin H. Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 43, no. 7, pp. 316-319.
January 7, 1914.

This paper is based upon a small collection of onychophores sent to
the author by Prof. R. Hamlj-n Harris, the Director of the Queensland
Museum, at Brisbane, Queensland.

The species represented in the collection are Peripatoides gilesii Spen-
cer, P. orientalis (Fletcher) and P. oviparus (Dendy).

In an appendix is given a complete list of all the species of onycho-
phores known from the Australian region (including New Britain, New
Guinea and the Moluccas), with the habitat of each in detail. A. H. C.

TECHNOLOGY — Surface insulation of pipes as a means of preventing
damage hy electrolysis. Burton McCollum and O. S. Peters,
Bureau of Standards. Technologic Paper No. 15. (In press.)
An investigation of the subject of surface insulation of pipes as a
means of preventing damage to underground metallic structures by stray
currents from electric railways has recently been completed at the Bureau
of Standards. Tests were made of the various substances available for
the purpose of insulation of underground structures, including paints,
pitch and asphalt dips, pitch and paper and asphalt and felt wrappings,
and so forth. Test specimens were made by Hning shallow sheet iron
cones with the material to be tested. Before being subjected to the final
test each cone was filled nearly full of ten per cent salt (NaCl) solution
and an alternating difference of potential of 80 volts (effective) applied
across the coating for thirty seconds in order to be sure that it was con-
tinuous and without flaws. A milli-ammeter in series with the specimen
indicated a defective coating by a kick of the needle. The electrical
resistances of the perfect specimens were then approx'mately determined
with a Wheatstone bridge. In the case of the paints these resistances
were found to be of the orders of from 10^ to 10" ohms per square centi-
meter while for the wrappings they were much higher.

The final test of the specimens which survived the preliminary test
consisted in allowing water and air alternately to come in contact with
the coating while a direct potential difference of either 4 or 15 volts was
applied across the coating. The value of the voltage applied depended
on the thickness and other characteristics of the coating. In some of
the specimens made up from each material the iron of the cone was made
negative and in others positive, while in the case of the paints some of
the specimens were subjected to the alternate action of air and water

76 abstracts: technology

with no potential difference applied in order to check up the effect of
the electric stress.

The alternating contact with the coating of air and water was obtained
by filling the cone and allowing the water to evaporate which took about
a week. Readings of the current flow were made at suitable intervals.
The first appearance of current flow was taken as indicating the end of
the useful life of the specimen as an insulating coating.

The average life of the paints was about one hundred and sixteen days,
the maximum life obtained from any specimen being but little more than
a year. No conclusive evidence was obtained that the low potential
differences applied had any effect in hastening the initial failure of the
coatings. The wrappings lasted longer than the paints and dips but
none of them much more than four hundred days. It seems from the
results that the failure of the coatings must be caused by absorption by
them of water which in time penetrates to the iron, allowing current to
flow and destroy the coating by electrolysis. After the first appearance
of current flow the destruction of the coating was observed to proceed
very rapidly.

The conclusion drawn from the results of the laboratory tests, i.e.,
that the protection against electrolysis which is obtained by wrappmg
or painting pipes or other metallic bodies for use underground is only
temporary, is borne out by tests on insulated pipes buried in the ground
under practical conditions, and also by correspondence with gas and
water companies whose experiences lead to the same conclusion.

B. McC.

TECHNOLOGY — Industrial gas calorimetry. C. W. Waidner and E.
F. Mueller. To appear as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of
Standards.

After reference to the more important types of calorimeters that have
been applied to the measurement of the heating values of gases, the
principle of the flow calorimeter is set forth, and an example is given
showing the reductions of, and corrections to the observed data that are
required in order to find the total and net heating values.

The results of an experimental investigation of laboratory gas meters,
showing the errors to which such meters are liable, the precautions to be
observed and the accuracy attainable in their use, are given at length. It
is shown that an accuracy of about 0.2 per cent may be attained if the
meter is calibrated in situ at the time of use, and that the calibration
may be reproduced from time to time by making suitable adjustments,
to an accuracy of about 0.5 per cent.

abstracts: technology 77

The results are given of an extended series of investigations of the
various factors that may affect the accuracy of heating value determina-
tions with flow calorimeters, such as: Completeness of combustion;
accuracy of the temperature measurements; the magnitudes of the vari-
ous heat losses from the calorimeter, particularly as affected by the vol-
ume of the entering air and of the products of combustion and by the
atmospheric humidity; and the accuracy of measurements of the quanti-
ties of water and of gas. The effects of certain other factors, which
depend on the nature of the gas tested and are particularly noticeable
in the testing of illuminating gas, are briefly considered.

The results are given of an extended series of experiments with natural
gas and with nearly pure hydrogen which show that, when the necessary
corrections for losses of heat from the surface, for the effect of atmos-
pheric humidity, etc., were applied to the observed heating values
obtained with flow calorimeters of suitable design and construction, the
total heating values thus found were in agreement to about 0.3 per cent
with the total heating values obtained with calorimeters of theBerthelot
bomb type, provided due allowance was made for the difference between
the heat of combustion at constant pressure and the heat of combustion
at constant volume. The results obtained with illuminating gas indi-
cated that the heating values obtained with the Berthelot bomb type of
calorimeter were probably in error, being too low (about 1 per cent),
but further investigation will be required to determine the cause of the
discrepancy found.

The summarized results are given of a critical investigation of eight
flow calorimeters, representing types widely used in this country or
abroad, and of one calorimeter of the comparison type.

The investigation has shown that several of the calorimeters that were
investigated could be used, when proper precautions were observed and
suitable corrections were applied to the observed heating values obtained
with them, to determine the total heating values of most kinds of gases
to an accuracy of about 0.3 per cent. Some of the calorimeters are,
however, subject to constant errors that cannot be eliminated or be read-
ily determined except by comparison with a standard instrument, such
errors for one calorimeter amounting to nearly 2 per cent.

Examination of a very large amount of data obtained during the in-
vestigation indicates that with those calorimeters free from significant
constant errors, total heating values should be determinable, under
conditions obtaining in the practical testing of gas, to an accuracy of*
the order of 1 per cent. C. W. W. and E, F. M.

78 abstracts: technology

TECHNOLOGY— .So/»e kadless fritted glazes. E. T. Montgomery.
Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper. (In press.)

In the manufacture of American whiteware, china and porcelain and
of English bone-china, a glaze composed of borosilicates of the alkalies,
lime, lead and alumina maturing at a relatively low temperature (about
cone 3, approximately 1100°C) is applied to a body previously fired to
the desired maturing point fof the given body, approaching vitrification
more or less closely. It is essential in this process that the maturing point
of the glaze be considerably below that of the vitrification temperature
of the body in order to avoid, in the glost fire, undue softening of the
body and consequent deformation and loss. To accomplish this purpose
and at the same time to secure their inherent qualities of long tempera-
ture range, brilliancy and low viscosity, such low fusing glasses as boro-
silicates containing lead oxide are employed.

Chiefly on account of the poisonous nature of the lead compounds
used in making these glazes, the subject of leadless glazes has aroused
the interest and has received the serious attention of both technical
ceramists and of manufacturers for many years. The present work was
undertaken for the purpose of investigating the merits of the various
types of leadless glazes thus far reported, of studying their properties
and possibilities, of improving them if possible; and of making a general
comparison from a technical standpoint, between lead and leadless-
glazes for whiteware and china at a glost heat of Segar cone No. 3 (ap-
proximately 1100°C).

To this end numerous series of glazes were made up, being so planned
as to include a number of previously reported leadless glazes of merit,
and all methodically arranged in such a way as to fully cover the range
of composition which it was believed desirable to study. All of the glazes
were tested over six standard underglaze colors of known composition
and all of their properties were studied in direct comparison with a stand-
ard whiteware or china glaze made with lead, half of each trial being
dipped in this standard lead glaze and half in the leadless test glaze.

The results of this investigation developed many interesting technical
points both in regard to leadless glazes in themselves and in comparison
with lead glazes. In general, we may say that while lacking some of the
valuable characteristics and qualities of lead glazes, leadless glazes have
a few distinct advantages of their own. On the other hand, it is the
writer's opinion that it would be premature at the present time to say
that we can make a leadless glaze for whiteware, china or porcelain
which could be substituted for the present lead glaze. E. T. M.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was
held at 4.30 p.m. December 9, 1913, in the National Museum, the presi-
dent, Mr. Stetson, in the chair. About fifty persons were present.

Dr. Charles B. Davenport of the Carnegie Institution, director of
the laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, addressed the So-
ciety on Man from the standpoint of modern genetics. He said that the
problem of the origin of species has now become largely reduced to
the problem of the origin and survival of the characters of the species.
Since groups differentiated by a single character are called biotypes, the
question of the origin of species is now that of the origin of biotypes.
Man is a congeries of biotypes. If these do not exist as distinct ele-
mentary species it is because of the tremendous hybridization that is
taking place between biotypes. These biotypes are most nearly real-
ized in islands, peninsulas, and out-of-the-way places. The most dis-
tinct of the human races exist today in such places as Australia and Cey-
lon, the Japan Islands (Ainos), Cape Horn, and inside of the Arctic
circle within the old and new world. But in small islands off the coast,
where people have been long settled and little disturbed, they tend to
approach a pure race or biotype.

Under the shelter of this isolation, incidentally, opportunity has been
afforded for an adjusted race to spring up; but there is danger of deterio-
ration thru too close inter-breeding. Hybridization, as stated, is con-
stantly preventing the complete development of these biotypes. This
hybridization has gone on with man since early times so that few bio-
types are now actuality realized. It is now going on faster than ever
and even the rare fairly pure biotypes are fast disappearing from the
globe. The work of the anthropologist of the future must be largely
with these hybridized biotypes; his principal study will be the inherit-
ance of the various differential traits.

The method of inheritance of some of these traits has already been
studied. Thus we know that the brown iris is dominant over its ab-
sence, as seen in blue eyes. The skin color of the negro is complex,
being due to two double (or four) factors; and these may work inde-
pendently of one another, so that we have over two, three, or four pig-
ment factors in the skin, producing the typical quadroon, mulatto,
Sambo, and full negro skin coloration. Dark brown hair is dominant
over blond hair; so that when both parents have only blond hair the

79

80 proceedings: anthropological society

children are all blonds. Two red-haired parents have only red-haired
offspring. But two glossy black-haired parents may carry red hidden
and so have red-haired children, as we so often see among the Irish.
Kinky or curly hair is dominant over straight. Two straight-haired
parents have, typically, only straight-haired children.

Many "hereditary diseases" depend on a "diathesis," a non-resist-
ance that is clearly inherited, and if matings of like or of relations occur
extensively we have the elements necessary for the production of a
biotjT^e. Among such diseases are Huntington's chorea, presenile cat-
aract, and night blindness. Other diseases are inherited as sex-linked
characters — such are color blindness and the "bleeding tendency."
Very striking is the tendency to produce a real biot3^e of the imbecile
class, because imbeciles tend to segregrate themselves and to inter-marry.
This is the reason why we get such histories as the Nams of New York,
the Hill Folk of Massachusetts, the Pineys of New Jersey, and the
Jukes of New York. Any condition that favors consanguineous mat-
ings, or matings of likes, favors the formation of a variety of the human
race, as Dr. Alexander Graham Bell (the Francis Galton of America)
long ago pointed out. Thus most institutions which do not provide
permanent custodial care tend to promote such marriages; for example,
among the deafmutes, tubercular, nervous paupers, and even alcohol-
ics and users of narcotics. On the other hand, in consequence of social
stratification, fine near-biotypes, like the Lowells of Boston, the Dwight
Woolseys of Connecticut, the Bayard-Jay-Livingston complex of New
York, and the first families of Virginia have arisen. Actors tend to
marry each other and so rapidly produce nearly pure strains of histrionic
talent. This nation owes more than it recognizes to its strains of in-
ventors, surgeons, commanders, statesmen, authors, artists, and finan-
ciers that have made her famous and given her the high standing she
has attained in the family of nations.

Thus biotypes in man prove to be real things and their study is quite
as much within the proper field of research of the anthropologist as are
the commonly recognized races of men.

The paper was discussed by Doctor Hrdlicka.

At the 470th regular meeting of the Society held December 16th,
1913, James Mooney, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, delivered
an address on TJie Gaelic factor in the world's population. The speaker
dealt chiefly with the Irish Gaels and drew a distinction between the
Irish of native Gaelic stock and the unassimilated alien element massed
in several of the northeastern countries as the result of the "Plantations"
under James I and Cromwell. This alien element was of English and
Lowland Scotch stock, with a slight Highland Gaelic infusion, Prot-
estant in religion and mostly Unionist in politics, while those of the
old native stock were as solidly Catholic and Nationalist. Speaking
broadly, in Ireland the Catholics represent the original Gaelic stock;
the Episcopalians, those of English stock; and the Presbyterians and
Methodists, those of Scotch origin, constituting respectively about 74,

proceedings: anthropological society 81

«

13, and 11 per cent of the total population. The present Gaelic race of
Ireland is a blend of the Gael proper, a Keltic people who arrived in the
country probably from northern Spain about 1000 B.C., and of all other
races who preceeded or followed them up to the end of the thirteenth
century, including the neolithic man, the unknown megalith builders,
the dark haired Firbolg, the Picts, Danes, Normans, and Welsh. The
Irish immigration to the American colonies previous to the Revolution
was mainly of the alien Scotch and English element, known sometimes
as Scotch-Irish. The Gaelic Irish immigrants did not begin to arrive in
any great number until after the war of 1812, excepting in Maryland.

The wars growing out of the Reformation and the Stuart contests
reduced the Irish race from an estimated 2,500,000 in 1560 to about
960,000 at the end of the Cromwellian war in 1652. In 1845 it reached
its maximum estimate of 8,500,000. Then came the great famine of
1846-47. Within three years nearly 1,500,000 perished of hunger or
famine fever. By the great flood of emigration Ireland has lost vir-
tually one-half of its population within sixty years. In 1911 it stood at
4,390,219, the lowest point reached in over a centur3^ Owing to gov-
ernmental and economic conditions this decrease has been chiefly at
the expense of the old native Gaelic stock rather than the Planter stock,
the Gaelic percentage, as indicated by the religious statistics, having
fallen from 83 to 74. In the sixty years ending March 31, 1911, accord-
ing to the official British figures, 4,191,552 emigrants left Ireland, or
nearly as many persons as are now living in the country. About 3,000,-
000 of these came to the United States, the total Irish immigration to
this country from 1821 to 1900 being, officially, 3,871,253. From 1821
to 1850 the Irish constituted nearly one-half of all our immigrants. Pre-
vious to the Revolution the "Scotch-Irish" immigration was so great
that in an official Parhamentary inquiry in 1778 it was asserted that
nearly one-half the American Revolutionary Army was of Irish origin.
Since 1870 the number of Irish-born in the United States has steadily
decreased, by death and dwindling immigration. According to the
census of 1910 there are now in the United States: Irish born, 1,352,155;
American born of full Irish parentage, 2,141,577; American born, one
parent born in Ireland the other in the United States (in most cases the
result of an Irish immigrant marrying an Irish American), 1,010,628.
Total of Irish birth or parentage, 4,504,360. This does not include any
of the 811,000 non-French Canadians in the United States, of whom a
large proportion are of Irish blood, or any of the 876,000 coming from
England, of whom also a large number are of Irish origin. Neither
does it include an}^ of the 1,177,000 American born "of mixed foreign
parentage," including such parentage combinations as Irish and German,
which alone probably runs above fifty thousand. Among the states.
New York stands first, with 1,091,000 of Irish birth or parentage; Mas-
sachusetts second, with 633,000; and Pennsylvania third, with 570,000.
For all these figures it may be asserted that more than four-fifths are of
Gaelic stock.

By the latest British census, 1911, the population of Ireland was

82 proceedings: anthropological society

4,390,219, of whom all but 157,037 were native born. Of the native born
about 74 per cent or 3,245,000 represent the old Gaelic stock. By the
same census there were 375,325 persons of Irish birth then living in Eng-
land and Wales, while an unofficial estimate puts those in Scotland at
about 220,000, or nearly 600,000 for the whole island, which with the
children of Irish parentage would probably total at least 1,500,000. The
same census gives 139,434 Irish born to Australia, or perhaps 350,000 of
Irish blood. South Africa and the other British colonies, exclusive of
Canada, have 100,000 of the same stock, while Canada has in round
numbers 990,000 of Irish birth or parentage, of whom about 750,000 are
of Gaelic origin, as indicated by religious denomination. Outside the
countries already named, Argentina has some 15,000 Irish born and the
rest of Latin America possibly as many more, with perhaps another
15,000 or 20,000 scattered over the rest of the world. To sum up, the
the total Irish-born population thruout the world is now about 6,875,000
or about 1,625,000 less than the population of the home country alone in
1845, while the whole nmnber of unmixed Irish blood may be about
seventeen million, of whom nearly fifteen million are of Gaelic stock.
The total Gaelic population — Irish, Scotch and Manx — of fairly pure
stock and racial identit}^, in every part of the world, probably numbers
close to twenty million.

At a special meeting of the Society held on January 6, at the National
Museum, Dr. Trumaj^ Michelson of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, delivered an address. Notes on the Fox Indians of Iowa. — ^Their
own native name is Meskwa'ki'Ag', "Red-Earths;" the French name,
les Renards, is derived from the appellation of a single gens, Wago'Ag',
"Foxes;" the English name "Foxes" is a translation of the French les
Renards; the term "Outagamies" (and variants) is derived from the
Ojibwa UtAgamig, "they of the other shore." Their closest linguistic
relations are first with the Sauk, then the Kickapoo, then the Shawnee,
and then the so-called Abnaki tribes. They are also comparatively close
to the Menominee and Cree as compared with the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and
Potawatomi. The thesis that the Foxes were once an Iroquoian people
and subsequently took up an Algonquian dialect cannot be substantiated.
There is presumptive evidence that the Foxes were once in the lower
Michigan peninsula. However their proper history begins in the last
half of the seventeenth century in Wisconsin on the Wolf and Fox
Rivers. The long French wars broke out in the early part of the eight-
eenth century. Even the transportation of Kiala (that is, Kyanaw'^)
by De Villiers to Montreal, and his subsequent exile to Martinique, did
not break their spirit; and De Villiers paid for his overconfidence with
his life. Soon there was peace with sporadic outbreaks till Beauharnois'
recall, when war began again in earnest. However the Foxes assisted
the French against the English. After the overthrow of French power
in Canada the Foxes were favorable to the British interest. The fraudu-
lent treaty of 1804 with the United States was probably responsible for
the Foxes siding with the British in the war of 1812, and the subsequent

proceedings: anthropological society 83

troubles which culmmated in the famous BUick Hawk war. The Foxes
claim that as a body they took no part in this. However owing to con-
tinued disturbances with Indians and the pressure of white settlers, the
Sauks and Foxes sold their remammg lands in Iowa and agreed to remove
to Kansas. Nevertheless small bands of the Foxes returned continually
to Iowa, and it is even likely that a number of individual Foxes never did
remove to Kansas. In 1856 the Iowa legislature passed a bill enabling
the Foxes to settle in that state. Accordingly they purchased land with
their own money, near Tama, Iowa. From time to time this has been
added to till they now owti about 3000 acres. The maui body of the
Foxes as a matter of fact did not leave Kansas till the outbreak of the
Civil War when MAmlnwaniga'', the Fox chief, was unwilling to sign a
proposal to allot the Sauks and Foxes in Kansas. He was deposed
from his chieftainship by the agent for this reason and he went to Iowa
with nearly all the Foxes. In 1896 the state relinquished jurisdiction of
the Foxes to the federal government, and at the same time certain claims
of the Foxes against the Sauks were adjusted. There are some Foxes
enrolled A\ith the Sauks of Kansas and Oklahoma; the present population
of those in Iowa is about 356.

As an abstract of Dr. INIichelson's paper "Notes on the Social Organiza-
tion of the Fox Indians," read at the recent meeting of the American
Anthropological Association and largely incorporated in his present ad-
dress, A\'ill appear in Science, the main facts of Fox sociology are here
presented in but brief form. The tribe is divided into a number of ex-
ogamic gentes with animal names, which gentes perform certain courtesies
for each other such as burial and acting as ceremonial attendants at
clan-feasts. The tribe furthermore has a dual division in membership
which is thus regulated: the first child, boy or girl, belongs to the side
to which the father does, and so on alternately. The side the mother
belongs to is immaterial. These divisions are not exogamic, and are
not, as can be readily seen, in any fixed relation to the various gentes.
The dual division figures prominently in clan-feasts, and not merely in
rivalry in athletics, as has been thought. The folklore and mythology
of the Fox Indians is rich. A comparative stud}^ shows the contact of
two cultures, namely, that of the woodlands, and that of the plains.
European elements also enter into them.

At the 471st meetmg of the Society, held January 20, 1914, at the
National ISIuseum, Mr. Wm. H. Babcock, its recent Secretary, addressed
the Society on The North Atlantic Island of Brazil.

The speaker suggested that the Island of Brazil, which is conspicuous
as a round figure in the Atlantic in the latitude of southern Ireland on
many mediaeval maps, maj^ be the projecting northeastern corner of
America, which includes the Gulf of St. La^^Tence.

He exhibited twenty lantern-slide maps, beginning with a recent map
to show first the obstacles which defeated many attempts to reach Brazil
until John Cabot made his way thru ; secondly the structure of the Amer-
ican region above mentioned, which has islands in its included expanse of

84 proceedings: botanical society

water, also a curved north and south water passage from the strait of
Belle Isle to that of Cabot, dividing the land mass in two and leaving
Newfoundland cut off in front, also the true position of islands, moved
unduly far toward Europe on the mediaeval maps; also the three present
Brazils — that in South America, dating from soon after 1500; that in
Terceira of the Azores, from before 1351 ; and the still surviving tradition
of the West-Irish peasantry of a great Brazil west of them, which goes
back on the maps to 1325 and as a man's name beyond history.

The maps of Dalorta 1325, Dulcert 1339, the Atlante Mediceo 1351,
the Pizigani 1367. the Catalan Atlas 1375, Pinelh 1384, Giraldi 1426,
Beccaria 1435, Bianco 1448, a fifteenth century map, perhaps 1480,
copied by Nordenskjold, Prunes 1553 and others were given to show the
persistency of the tradition among geographers as to form and latitude.
The Catalan map* and another also show the island as including a sheet
of water containing islands. The map copied l)y Nordenskjold and that
of Prunes are instances of the island divided by the curved north and
south channel. The former of these two shows also a second Brazil
below Ilia Verde, recognized as Greenland, which must mean Labrador,
or Newfoundland or the region including them.

It is no doubt (like Bianco's map above) an instance of retaining two
traditions in one showing. Sylvanus 1511, Cantino 1502, an anonymous
Portuguese map 1502, and Schoner 1520 were presented as instances of
bringing this region eastward on the maps and comparatively near to
Ireland; Nicolay 1560 and Zaltieri 1566, as instances of shifting Brazil
on the maps over into Newfoundland waters after the width of the At-
lantic had become well known. Coppo, 1528, was given as an instance of
American land masses interpreted as islands — especially Greenland,
called Isola Verde. The Pizigani map records pictorially a disastrous
Breton expedition to some region southwest of the circular Brazil and
bearing the same name.

Outside of Ireland the word is first found in the expression "grana de
Bresile"^ — grain of Brazil — of a list of commodities embodied in a com-
mercial treaty dated 1193 between Ferrara and one of her Itahan neigh-
bors. In Ireland "Brazil" or "Breasail" is very ancient, having been
borne by a prehistoric celebrity and a sixth century saint.

This latter fact and the correspondence in direction and geographical
features of the North American region in question with the mediaeval
map-island of Brazil make the suggestion of some very early visit to
America by some one who spoke Irish well worthy of consideration.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY

The 93d regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was
held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, January 6, 1914, ^vith 42 members
and 5 guests present.

Application for membership of Messrs. H. Pittier, Arno Viehoever,
and Raymond B. Wilcox were read. Messrs. Charles Thom, Charles
S. Ridgway, George D. Clark, Clarence W. Carpenter, William A. Day-
ton, Orlo A. Pratt, and Nathan R. Smith were elected to membership.

proceedings: chemical society 85

Mr. F. L. Lewton called attention to the discovery of the records of
the AVashington Botanical Club, a predecessor of this society from
1898-1902. He stated that these records were missing when the history
of the society was ^vritten up a few years ago, and also gave a brief
review of the club.

The scientific program was as follows:

Mr. Peter Bisset: The James River Hybrid Walnut. Lantern
slides were shown of a walnut tree on the Rowe Farm, on the James
River, opposite Lower Brandon, Va. The tree is 100 feet high, with a
spread of 123 feet, altho until a recent storm the spread was 134 feet.
At 4 feet from the ground the tree is 31 feet 3 inches in circumference,
and at 6 feet from the ground is over 25 feet in circumference. At 12
feet from the ground it divides into 4 large branches, three of which are
larger than any tree in the neighborhood. No one has any definite
knowledge of the age of the tree, but as the old farm house was built
about 200 years ago it is supposed that the seed was planted at that
time. Its growth was probably rapid, judged from seedlings which at-
tained a height of 5 feet 10 inches in one season, as compared with 3
feet in seedlings of Juglans nigra which grew beside them. A seedling
planted nearby about 1860 is now 2| feet in diameter and of the height
of the parent tree. The characters of the leaves and nuts are such as to
suggest a possible hybrid origin. The pubescence of the branches and
leaves agree with Juglans cinerea and the fruit and other leaf characters
suggest Juglans regia instead of /. nigra. The nuts are of low vitality
and very thick shell.

Dr. G. G. Hedgcock: Smelter Injury in Southeastern Tennessee
(with lantern), published elsewhere in this Journal.

Dr. D. N. Shoemaker: Some Chinese Horticultural Brassica Species
(with lantern). Horticultural Forms of Chinese Brassicas in the
Lnited States at present are :

Three well marked varieties of Mustard, Brassica juncea. These are
well established in the American Seed Trade.

Four types of non-pungent Brassicas, of uncertain specific relations :

1 . The heading forms, Chinese name Pai Tsai. These make long heads
resting on the surface of the ground, and present many varieties. 2. A
form with long broad petioles, and long light green leaf blades, the veins
of which are quite prominent. 3. A form with very broad short flat
petioles, and dark green leaf blades. These usually send up swollen
seeding stems. 4. A very loose-leafed round-petioled form, used by the
Chinese as a summer vegetable.

P. L. RicKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 233d Meeting was held on Monday, December 22, 1913, at the Cos-
mos Club. Prof. Earle B. Phelps, of the Hygienic Laboratory, lectured on
Recent advances in sewage chemistry. The chemistry of sewage has been de-
veloped by a process of evolution from the older water chemistry, but with
our present conception of the purposes of sewage disposal and of the objec-

86 proceedings: chemical society

tions to stream pollution, the older scheme of sewage analysis has failed
to yield results commensurate with the labor involved. In place of the
nitrogen cycle of water chemistry we are substituting a carbon cycle with
special reference to the oxygen relations. The difficulty of dealing an-
alyticalty with the reactions that are involved in the oxidation of sewage
under artificial or natural conditions makes it necessary to employ indi-
rect methods for this purpose.

"The oxygen requirement" of a sewage or effluent is defined as the
amount of oxygen which Avill be eventually consumed by the organic
matter when that sewage or effluent is brought into equilibrium with
oxygen-saturated water. The ''relative stability" of a given effluent
or polluted stream is similarly defined as the relation between the avail-
able oxygen in the mixture in the form of free dissolved oxygen, nitrites,
and nitrates, and the total oxygen requirement of the organic matter as
defined above. This establishes a practical working method for the
determination of the degree of purification of a sewage or of the degree
of pollution of a stream.

The actual determination of relative stability is made by the use of
methylene blue as an indicator for the oxygen-zero point. By the appli-
cation of the methods of physical chemistry the reaction has been shown
to be of the first order and from the time required to decolorize methyl-
ene blue one determines the relative stability ratio. A more direct
and generally applicable method is the actual determination of dissolved
oxygen before and after a period of incubation. These data give directly
the velocity of the reaction and its probable future course. By the ap-
plication of these newer methods the study of stream pollution is being
placed upon a quantitative scientific basis (Author's abstract).

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Sullivan, Gore, S. T. Powell,
and Bunzel, the following points were brought out: The deficiency in
oxygen is the factor which harms fish in streams. The effect of sewage
on oysters is entirely a -hygienic, not a chemical question. "Available
oxygen" includes free oxygen, nitrites, and nitrates, but no other sources
of oxygen. Acidity ancl alkahnity also enter as factors in the rate of
reaction.

Medical Director Ames, U.S.N. , who was a visitor at the meeting,
discussed the question of cooperation between municipal chemists and
sanitarians and manufacturers whose byproducts pollute streams, as
well as various projects for utilization of sewage. Professor Phelps
stated that our present knowledge of methods is in advance of our prac-
tice, because of the great expense of sewage disposal. The question of
saving the sewage for agricultural purposes was discussed by Ames,
Schreiner, Sullivan and Yoder. It was shown that the great dilution
of modern American city sewage makes it almost impossible to utilize
it for fertilizer, and that the concentrated sludge obtained by certain
methods of concentration is also not utilizable; in China the sewage is
very largely utilized, and in Hong Kong its disposal is a source of revenue
to the city.

proceedings: chemical society 87

The 234th meeting was lield on Thursday, January 8, 1914, at the
Cosmos Club. The president appointed the following committees:
Committee on Communications: H. C. Gore, Chairman, A. Seidell,
E. C. Shorey, W. Blum, and J. Johnston. Entertaiimient Committee:
A. N. Finn, Chairman, J. G. Riley, J. W. Turrentine, E. A. Inger-
soll, and J. C. Hostetter. The Secretary's and Treasurer's reports
were read.

Dr. William Duane of Harvard University was presented by the
chairman, and spoke briefly and informall^^ on radium and the radium
emanation, shomng samples of both and illustrating their effect in pro-
ducing phosphorescence in willemite.

The papers on the regular program were as follows :

L, F. Kebler, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Chemical investigations
in tablet medication. Medication by tablets has so many advantages
that it has come into wide use, altho the invention is of comparatively
recent date (1843). The speaker sketched the history of the patents
and the development of modern rapid machinery for making various
types and forms. A study has been made of the variations in Aveight of
various tablets due to the kind of machine used. A variation of not
over 2 per cent in the number made from a batch of given weight is
claimed for some machines and materials. Satisfactory tablets should not
vary more than 10 per cent. Fifty-four kinds of tablets made by single
punch machines showed 44 per cent exceeding a 10 per cent total weight
variation, and the rotary machine gave nearly the same results. The
tablet triturates however showed best results by the single punch ma-
chine. Molded tablets (compressed by hand) showed 79 per cent -with
a total weight variation of 10 per cent or over. Variations in composi-
tion as determined by analysis (324 samples, 449 analyses) sometimes
ran very high, 20 to 40 per cent variations, (usually below declaration)
being fairly common. Nitroglycerin tablets showed the widest variation.

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Yoder and Foster, it was stated
that the filling of the molds is by volume only, and that each of the
analyses reported on represents from 10 to 25 tablets as a sample.

Wirt Tassin: Metallography applied to inspection. Failures of engi-
neering structures whose members have passed all ordinary tests on sample
pieces have frequently occurred, and have been usually laid to "fatigue"
of the material due to repeated stresses. The failure of test pieces
really to represent the properties of the structural member is becoming
recognized as a frequent cause. The speaker described improvements
in the apparatus which he exhibited before this Society at the meeting
of February 13, 1913, and which is now being regularly used for examin-
ing directly large structural pieces in the foundry or shop. Slides illus-
trating the effects of various heat and mechanical treatments were shown
and discussed.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

88 proceedings: philosophical society

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 729th meetmg was held on November 8, 1913, at the Cosmos
Club, Vice President Eichelberger in the chair; 38 persons present. The
minutes of the 728th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. R. B. SosMAN presented a paper, illustrated by lantern slides,
giving the results of an investigation by himself and Mr. A. L. Day on
A method for determining the expansion of liquid metals. After reviewing
existing and rather conflicting data on the change in volume on fusion of
various rocks, the apparatus designed for such volume determinations
of metals and of solid and liquid silicates from 250° to 1600° was de-
scribed. The fundamental constant is the expansion coefficient of arti-
ficial graphite given by formula 10*^13 = 0.55 + 0.0016^ Volume measure-
ments on quartz up to 1600° show a dilatation which increases rapidly
as the inversion point of 575° is approached. Above this temperature
quartz contracts slightly. At about 1300° there begins a second and
(under these conditions) irreversible dilatation. Granite has a curve of
similar form. The volume of diabase glass was determined up to 1250°
and compared with Barus' well-known values. A simple explanation
of some of the conflicting features of his observations has been found.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Burgess.

Mr. A. W. Gray then spoke on Some peculiarities of invar. He de-
scribed some of the results obtained by himself and previous observers
in measuring the thermal expansion of invar. Numerous lantern slides
were exhibited to show various peculiarities of the alloy, method and
apparatus used by the speaker in determining expansivities, the precision
obtained in measuring elongations by the use of both freely suspended
and upwardly stretched wires, and the uniformity of temperature easily
secured in an electric furnace of the type used for most of the work. One
most striking feature is that at temperatures above- about 170° invar may
follow with considerable regularity either of two different expansion
curves, without ever jumping from one to the other except, perhaps,
when close to this critical temperature. Further above about 220° for
the upper curve and about 280° for the lower one, the expansivity of in-
var appears to be identical with that previously found for a specimen of
Bessemer steel. Under some conditions the same piece of invar may,
at high temperatures, expand noticeably faster than Bessemer steel.
Comment was made upon progressive shortening produced by repeated
alternations of temperature between 20° and 150°.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MARCH 4, 1914 No. 5

ASTROPHYSICS.— r/ie solar constant of radiation. C. G. Ab-
bot. ^ Smithsonian Institution.*

We live in a world warmed by the sun. While it is not
to be expected that everybody will devote himself to the
measurement of solar radiation, yet it is not surprising that
many have concerned themselves with measuring the quantity
on which all lives depend. So far as I am aware, this subject
was not pursued by the ancients to such a point as to obtain
measurements worth much present consideration. This is a
great pity, for thus we lack proof whether the sun's radiation
has changed progressively. Beginning about a century ago in-
vestigations of solar radiation were pursued with great assiduity
by various observers. The need was almost immediately per-
ceived pf reducing the observations to represent conditions out-
side the earth's atmosphere, as for example, on the moon, so
as to be independent of the haze and water vapor, and even of
the gaseous constituents of the air. It is required to know the
measure of solar radiation in free space as an index of the con-
dition of the sun, quite apart from its influence on terrestrial
affairs, but secondly it is of great importance and interest to
apply this knowledge to promote meteorological inquiries.

Sir John Herschel, who was a pioneer in solar radiation work,
proposed to express solar radiation in terme of a unit which
he called the actine, which is based on the melting of ice. But
by general consent, the gram calorie has been adopted as the
unit of measurement, and we say that the ''solar constant of
radiation" is the number of calories per square centimeter per

1 Address of the retiring president delivered before the Philosophical Society
of Washington, January 3, 1914.

89

90 abbot: solar constant of radiation

minute which would be produced by the complete absorption of
the solar radiation in free space at the earth's mean solar distance.

Preparatory researches of great interest were made in the eight-
eenth century by Bouguer, Lambert, DeSaussure and Leslie.
Determinations of the solar constant of radiation, however, may
be said to have begun about eighty years ago with the investiga-
tions of Sir John Herschel, Principal Forbes, and Pouillet. The
problem comprises two parts : First, to measure the intensity of
the solar radiation at the earth's surface; second, to estimate the
loss it has suffered in passing through the atmosphere. It will
be convenient to consider the atmospheric influences briefly be-
fore taking up the methods of measuring the solar radiation, and
then to return to a more thorough discussion of the atmospheric
transmission.

Atmospheric transmission. The determination of the trans-
mission of the atmosphere rests primarily upon the hypothesis
of Bouguer, first put forward in 1729 and elaborated in Bouguer's
posthumous work published in 1760. The late Dr. Langley has
placed this matter in so very clear a light in his paper on the
Amount of the Atmospheric Absorption- that I cannot do better
than to quote from his statement.

If a beam of sunlight enters through a crevice in a dark room, the
light is partly interrupted by the particles of dust or mist in the air, the
apartment is visibly illuminated by the light laterally reflected or diffused
from them, and the direct beam, having lost something by this proc-
ess, is not so bright after it has crossed the room, as before. In com-
mon language, the direct light, to an observer in the path of the beam,
has been partly "absorbed," and the problem is, to determine in what
degree. If a certain portion of the light (suppose one-fifth) were thus
scattered, the beam after it crossed the room would be but four-fifths
as bright as when it entered it ; and, if we were to trace the now dimin-
ished beam through a second apartment altogether like the other, it
seems, at first, reasonable to suppose that the same proportion (i.e.,
four-fifths of the remainder) would be transmitted there also, and that
the light would be the same kind of light as before, and only diminished
in amount (in the proportion i x f). The assumption originally made
by Bouguer and followed by Herschel and Pouillet, was that it was in
this mamier that our solar heat was absorbed by our atmosphere, and
that by assuming such a simple progression the original heat could
be calculated.

2 Amer. Jour. Sci., third series, 28: September, 1884.

abbot: solar constant of radiation 91

If ^0 be the intensity of the original beam before entering the
transparent medium whose transmission is to be investigated,
then after the passage through the first stratum of unit thickness
let us suppose a fraction of the original, represented by p, has
passed through, so that what was A o becomes A op. Then since
a second stratum identical with the first in constitution and
thickness must, according to Bouguer's assumption, have an
identical effect, the ray which was Ao will emerge from the sec-
ond stratum Aop~, and so on. The fraction p transmitted by
the unit of thickness is the common ratio of a geometric progres-
sion, so that after passing through a thickness m of the medium,
the intensity of the light which was formerly Ao will become
AoP".

As the height to which the atmosphere extends in appreciable
density is very small compared with the radius of the earth,
the thickness of the layer traversed by a solar beam of a zenith
distance not exceeding 70° is approximately proportional to the
secant of the zenith distance of the sun at the time of observa-
tion. If we regard unit thickness as that corresponding to a
barometric pressure of 760 mm. of mercury, then p in our for-
mula corresponds to the vertical transmission coefficient of the
atmosphere above sea-level, and for any station where the baro-
metric pressure is B the intensity of the ray from the sun as it
reaches the earth's surface, which we call A, may be expressed
by the formula.

A = Aop ^

760 ^®°^'

Some writers have preferred to use the formula as a formula
of "absorption" rather than of transmission. In that way the
expression reduces to a somewhat different form, but its funda-
mental principles are the same. The investigations of Herschel,
Forbes, Pouillet and others up to the time of Langley had refer-
ence to this exponential formula, based upon the hypothesis of
Bouguer, which was to the effect that successive equal layers of
transparent material transmit equal fractions of the incident ray.

A convenient method of applying the atmospheric transmis-
sion formula is to take logarithms of both members of the equa-

92 abbot: solar constant of radiation

tion so as to reduce the expression to the form of the equation
of a straight line. Thus

log A = TjQQ sec z log p + log Ao

By this equation the intersept of the best straight line on the
axis of ordinates is the logarithm of the intensity of solar radia-
tion outside the atmosphere, and the inclination of the line to
the horizontal is the logarithm of the atmospheric transmission
for vertical rays.

The reader must bear in mind that the simple expression thus
obtained is given only in illustration of the work of the earlier
investigators, and it must be hedged about with certain condi-
tions and limitations in order to apply it, as we shall see later,
to the determination of the solar constant of radiation by the
most approved methods.

Instruments. Herschel's actinometer: This instrument con-
sists of a thermometer with a large cylindric bulb, containing a
deep blue fluid (the ammoniacal sulphate of copper) and en-
closed in a wooden case blackened interiorly and covered with
a piece of plate glass. The thermometer has a very large bulb,
and it is adjusted in volume by means of a screw, so as to regu-
late the position of the column of liquid on the thermometer
scale. Herschel introduced what is termed the dynamical meth-
od of observing the solar radiation, for he obtained not the total
rise of temperature of the instrument when long exposed to the
sun, but its initial rate of rise, corrected for the cooling or warm-
ing of the thermometer due to external conditions when the sun
is shaded. The determination of the cooling correction is done
by observing the rise or fall of the temperature for a certain time
interval before exposing to the sun, and again determining the
rise or fall after such exposure to the sun is completed. The
mean rate of warming or cooling, due to the surroundings, is
applied as a correction to the rate of warming due to the exposure
to the solar radiation.

Pouillet's pyrheliometer : A flat metal box, blackened on the
front, and filled with water, has a thermometer inserted at the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 93

rear, extending away from the direction of the sun. The in-
strument, hke that of Herschel, was exposed to the influence of
the surroundings while shaded for a certain interval of time, the
shade was then removed for a similar interval so as to allow the
solar radiation to fall upon the blackened box, after which the
instrument was again shaded. In practice it was found that the
water within the box could not be well enough stirred in order
to allow the average temperature of the water to be well ascer-
tained. The instrument was greatly improved by Tyndall, who
substituted mercury for water, and, in order to contain the mer-
cury used iron in the making of the box.

Crova alcohol actinometer : A large spherical bulb thermome-
ter containing alcohol, is enclosed in a nickel pated metal cham-
ber with a vestibule for the entrance of the rays. The stem of
the thermometer runs back, directly away from the sun, and is
enclosed in a nickel plated tube with a side opening for reading
the thermometer. A short mercury thread is introduced in the
alcohol column at a suitable point for observing. The method
of observing is the same as that adopted by Herschel and by
Pouillet.

Violle actinometer: A large spherical double walled enclo-
sure filled with water is kept at a known constant temperature.
A spherical blackened bulb thermometer lies at the center of the
enclosure, and the sunlight is introduced to it through a suitable
vestibule in the double walled chamber. Violle 's method of read-
ing was static, as opposed to the dynamic methods we have just
considered. He observed the total rise of the thermometer and
its fall after the cutting off of the sun rays, noting the position
of the column at fixed intervals after exposure and after closure.
The theory of the instrument as developed by Violle is simple
and elegant. As a standard the instrument is open to the ob-
jection that the water equivalent of the bulb of the thermometer
is very small, and difficult to measure, and that several corrections,
rather difficult of determination, should be applied. It was used
by Dr. Langley in his expedition to Mount Whitney in 1881.

Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometer : This instru-
ment has had the most extensive adoption in recent years of any

94 abbot: solar constant of radiation

form of instrument for measuring solar radiation. It was in-
vented about the year 1895. Two metal strips exactly similar
to one another, and blackened upon the front, are exposed
alternately to heating by the sun. Arrangement is provided for
passing an electrical current through the strip which is not at
the moment being heated by the sun. Thermo-elements, fas-
tened to the back of each strip, indicate when the temperature
of the exposed strip is equal to that of the strip which is electric-
ally heated. Under these circumstances it is assumed that the
energy of the electric current is equal to the energy received
from the sun. About 160 copies of this electrical compensation
pyrheliometer have been sent out from Upsala to different parts
of the world.

Several other kinds of pyrheliometers have been used in re-
cent years, among them two forms which have been devised by
the writer. We shall have occasion to speak of these later.

Early observations. Forbes observed with the Herschel actin-
ometer in 1832 at Brientzr and the Faulhorn. He showed that
the transmissibility of sun rays continually increases as the length
of path of the ray in air increases. Forbes rightly attributed this
to the non-homogeneity of the solar radiation, and the inequality
of transmission of the different component parts of it. Under
such circumstances Bouguer's formula of course cannot apply.
Forbes concluded that equal barometric columns of air give
equal transmission, whether taken from the high or low station.
In this he was wrong. He formed an empirical curve to repre-
sent all his observations at both stations, employing air masses
as abscissae and actinometer readings as ordinates. Instead of
extrapolating this curve directly to air mass zero he preferred to
find its tangents and thus derive the subsidiary curve of tangents
from which he derived a formula for extrapolating his observa-
tions. In this way he obtained results corresponding to the
value 2.85 calories per square centimeter per minute for the solar
constant. Thus Forbes cut loose entirely from Bouguer's ex-
ponential formula of atmospheric transmission.

Pouillet observed in the years 1837 and 1838 at Paris. His
work was published before that of Forbes, although done later.

abbot: solar constant of radiation

95

He found transmission coefficients by means of Bouguer's for-
mula. He apparent!}' did not investigate the defects of this for-
mula as thoroughly as Forbes did. His result for the solar con-
stant of radiation is 1.7633 calories per square centimeter per
minute. This value, on account of the non-homogeneity of the
solar rays, is necessarily too low.

Quetelet observed with a Robinson actinometer, similar in
form to Herschel's, at Brussels, from 1843 to 1853. These ex-
periments might well repay a critical examination now, not for
their value in determining the absolute measure of the solar
constant of radiation, but in connection with the variation of the
EA'erage intensity of the solar radiation from year to year as
influenced by volcanic eruptions.

Desains employed a thermopile, and compared the transmissi-
bility of the rays of the sun through a water cell at different
stations. He found the transmissibility of solar rays through
the water cell always increased by a long preliminary course
through moist air. This result is essentially the same as that
of Forbes, although obtained in a different manner.

Violle observed at many different stations, including Mont
Blanc. His instrument apparently read much too high, as no-
ticed by Langley in the report of the Mount Whitney expedi-
tion. He used a somewhat complicated empirical formula of
extrapolation, as he was fully cognizant of the defect of Bouguer's
formula, as indicated by Forbes. He obtained the following
values :

OUTSIDE
ATMOSPHERE

Altitude. . .
Barometer.
Calories.. .

2.54

These values should be reduced about one-fourth to make them
comparable with observations made in recent years at high eleva-
tions by many observers. In such a case the value outside the
atmosphere would become about 1.9 calories.

Crova made many observations at Mont-Pellier with his alco-
hol actinometer standardized against the Tyndall pyrheliometer.

96 abbot: solar constant of radiation

He made some attempts to extrapolate his observations to the
limit of the atmosphere, but these, like other solar constant val-
ues obtained by pyrheliometry alone, are not definitive. Great
value, however, attaches to the long series of direct observations
continued from 1883 to 1900 at Mont-Pellier. These show plainly
the influence of the volcano Krakatau and others.

K. Angstrom observed with the electrical compensation pyr-
heliometer at several stations at different altitudes on the island
of Teneriffe in the years 1895 and 1896. Some of his measure-
ments were made at the altitude of 3700 meters, and give direct
readings' of solar radiation as high as 1.63 calories per square centi-
meter per minute. Angstrom declined to determine from these
a value of the solar constant of radiation, recognizing that this
demanded observations of the solar spectrum as well as pyrhe-
liometric work. In later years he prepared spectro-bolometric
apparatus for this purpose, and made many solar constant meas-
urements therewith at Upsala. These measurements are still
being continued there by his successors. It is hoped that this
long and interesting series will soon be published.

Passing from this work of Angstrom, which belongs in a later
period, and omitting mention of valuable pyrheliometric obser-
vations by numerous observers in Italy, Switzerland, and Russia,
which I regret that space forbids me here to discuss, attention
must now be directed to the work of Langley, which marked an
epoch in this kind of investigation.

Langley 's observations. Prior to Langley's observations, there
had been numerous attempts to determine the solar constant,
which are well summed up in the excellent little book of Radau,
entitled Actinometrie. It is shown that nearly all observers were
in comparative agreement, so far as their actual observations go,
and if the transmission of radiation by the atmosphere be esti-

_B

mated by the simple formula A = Aop ''''^ which was em-
ployed by Pouillet and many others, the value of the solar con-
stant would be found in the neighborhood of 1.75 calories.

But Forbes, Desains, Violle, Crova and others showed con-
vincingly that this equation does not accurately express the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 97

diminution of radiation attending the decline of the sun from
zenith to horizon, or the descent of the observer from a high alti-
tude to a lower one. Accordingly several empirical formulae of
more complexity were proposed, which owing to their more nu-
merous constants, could be made to fit the observed variation of
the total intensity of radiation under different conditions more
closely. By the aid of such empirical formulae higher values
of the solar constant have been obtained. Some of these in our
own time have gone as high as 4 calories. Radau however says
''it is clear that the intensity of the solar radiation outside the
atmosphere cannot be certainly obtained from experiments which
have been made [prior to 1878] for the result depends essentially
on the manner of calculation." This conclusion is still applica-
ble to pyrheliometer measurements not supported by spectrum
observations.

The tendency toward high values of the solar constant was
powerfully stimulated by the publication of the report of the
Mount Whitney expedition by Langley in 1884. As Forbes and
Radau had stated, so Langley emphasized and acted upon the

B

fact that the formula A = Aqp'*^^ applies only to a homo-
genous bundle of rays in a pure atmosphere; and the intensity
of solar radiation outside the atmosphere can be exactly deter-
mined only when the atmospheric transmission coefficients of the
rays of all wave lengths, which go to make up the complex beam
of the sun, are separately determined and allowed for. Langley
was the first to determine and apply atmospheric transmission
coefficients for numerous rays of different wave lengths in the
solar spectrum. For this purpose he invented the bolometer, a
delicate electrical thermometer, and observed with it the varia-
tion of the intensity of each ray of the spectrum from low sun
to high. He found it impracticable to determine the transmis-
sion coefficients in the water vapor bands of the infra-red, but
assuming that there were no water vapor bands in the solar
spectrum outside our atmosphere, he avoided this difficulty by
smoothing the spectrum energj^ curve, which he computed from
his bolometric observations to represent the distribution of solar

98 abbot: solak constant of radiation

radiation outside the atmosphere, so as to leave no water vapor
bands in it at all. Had Langley stopped with these steps ac-
comphshed, he would have left us as the result of the Mount
Whitney expedition, 2.060 calories, the mean value as deter-
mined by high and low sun observations at Lone Pine, or 2.220
calories, the mean value similarly determined from observations
at Mountain Camp. But, by the train of reasoning given on
pages 142-144 of his report, he convinced himself that the expo-
nential formula does not hold for the earth's atmosphere, even for
a strictly homogeneous ray. He therefore altered his results by
two different procedures, one of which he states was of a kind to
give too low a value of the solar constant, and the other too
high. By this means he obtained the values 2.630 and 3.505.
The mean of these, 3.068, or in round numbers 3.0 calories per
square centimeter per minute he adopted as the solar constant.
But in fact, both procedures were calculated to give too high
results, and the most probable results of Langley's observations
lies below either of them, and is in fact 2.22, or 2.06 calories, ac-
cording as the work at Lone or Mountain Camp is regarded as
the better. Li order to recognize this, it is necessary to examine
the argument which led him to doubt the accuracy of the expo-
nential formula, as applied to the transmission of homogeneous
rays through the earth's atmosphere, but first let us consider
the basis of the formula.

We have seen that Bouguer's formula rests on the fundamental
assumption that the light is not changed in its nature in passing
from one layer to another, so that equal layers take out equal
fractions. This is not the case except for homogeneous rays.
It is therefore necessary to divide the beam up into parts, each
containing rays of approximately homogeneous transmissibility.
For this purpose it is necessary to observe the spectrum of the
sunlight by the aid of the bolometer or other satisfactory delicate
heat-measuring instrument. Even so, it is not possible to ob-
serve the transmission of the atmosphere at every wave length,
so as to determine the coefficients of transmission in the fine
lines of absorption by water vapor and oxygen which are in-
troduced by the earth's atmosphere. These lines are mainly

abbot: solar constant of radiation 90

grouped in the great bands made up of these fine Unes which
occur in the red and infra-red spectrum, and for them a special
procedure must be adopted, as was introduced by Langley. In
general, however, the bolometer suffices to give us atmospheric
transmission coefficients in sufficient number to deal with the
gradually changing transparency of the air for rays of nearly
adjacent wave-lengths. The proof of the formula for atmospheric
transm-ission for homogeneous rays follows. It will be seen that
the formula is one of extrapolation solely, and is not applicable
to computations of the transparency at different barometric
pressures, unless it be the fact (which is not usual) that the qual-
ity of the air from the different stations to the limit of the atmos-
phere is approximately identical. This indeed may be the case
at very high elevations of 4000 meters and over, but is not the
case for ordinary observing stations, so that in the use of the
formula of transmission it is generally erroneous to introduce
the barometric pressure in the exponent as was done by Pouillet.

Proof of formula for transmission. Imagine the atmosphere to
be made up of ?i concentric layers so chosen in thickness as to pro-
duce separately equal barometric pressures, and let the number
n be so great that the transparency of any single layer is sensibly
uniform, although the layers may differ from each other in trans-
parency by any gradual progression. The index of refraction of
air is so near unity that there will be no sensible regular reflec-
tion in passing from one layer to the next, and the transmission
of each layer may be expressed exponentially by Bouguer 's for-
mula, but with different coefficients of transmission for the several
layers.

Thus, suppose Eo to be the original intensity of a beam of
light incident upon the outermost layer at the angle whose se-
cant is m.

Then after passing successive layers the remaining intensities
become

E,=Eoar, E2 = Eoar-ao'"\ En^Eoa^ar- • • • • <"". (1)

The value of the secant of the angle of incidence will change
slightly in passing from layer to layer from two causes: First,

100 abbot: solar constant of radiation

the curvature of the earth; second, the refraction of the beam
in air. These causes produce opposite effects, the first tending
to increase the angle of incidence, the second tending to dimin-
ish it as the beam approaches the earth's surface. Their com-
bined effect is dependent on the height to which the temperature
exercises absorption and on the distribution of density with the
height. But it is generally supposed that the absorption of the
air above 40 miles from the earth's surface is negligible, and,
remembering that the atmospheric density diminishes with the
height, it appears that for zenith distances less than 70" the
effect of change of the secant of the angle of the incident beam
from the outermost to the innermost layer of the atmosphere
will not introduce error greater than 1 per cent. Accordingly for
zenith distances less than 70° we may write approximately

En = Eo{aia2 . . . . a„) « (2)

The symbols ay, ao .... an denote constants (providing
no change of transparency occurs during the interval of time
in question), and their values are slightly less than unity. We
may substitute for their product a single constant, a, itself a
proper fraction, and remembering that En is the intensity at the
earth's surface, above denoted simply by E, we have

E = Eoa-' (3)

Limitations of formula. No mention is made in this expres-
sion, of the barometric pressure, but it is easy to see that an
alteration of barometric pressure would signify, under the con-
ventions adopted in deriving the formula, a change in the number
of layers, n. This would cause an alteration of the quantity a,
which is the continued product of the transmission coefficients
of the layers, by introducing additional multipliers a^ + u a„+2

. ... or by the withdrawal of some a„_i, a„_2 Since

we have no means of determining the value of the terms so
introduced or taken away, there is no means of correcting for
change of barometer in the use of the expression (3) and it would,
for instance, be impossible to compute, from knowledge of the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 101

values of E, Eo, a, and m for one station, what would be the
value of E at some station of different barometric pressure. ^

From this we see that the unit of air mass to be taken for
each station is the air mass traversed by beams from zenith
celestial objects between the station itself and the outer limit of the
atmosphere, not from sea-level.

The determination of the solar constant of radiation, based
upon the demonstration which has just been given, depends upon
the following assumptions:

1. In a homogeneous medium, a homogeneous ray loses a
fixed proportion of its intensity in every equal length of its path.

2. The earth's atmosphere may be considered as made up of
a great number of layers concentric with the earth, each approxi-
mately homogeneous in itself over the area swept through by
the solar beam between zenith distances of 70° and 30° during
the time required for this sweep of the beam.

3. Surface reflection of the outer boundary of the atmosphere,
or the boundaries of its internal layers, is negligible.

4. Except in the known red and infra-red atmospheric bands,
the transparency varies gradually from wave length to waye
length, or if atmospheric absorption lines exist, the energy they
absorb is inconsiderable.

5. Atmospheric bands do not exist in the solar spectrum out-
side the atmosphere.

6. The quantity of solar energy beyond X = 0.3;u in the ultra-
violet and beyond X = 3.0^ in the infra-red is inconsiderable.

The soundness of these assumptions is best proved by the
results of a great number of observations made at sea-level and
at high altitudes during the last ten years by different observers,
but mainly by the staff of the Astrophysical Observatory of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Discussion of La7igley's solar constant value. We may now per-
ceive why the high solar constant value of Langley ought not to
be accepted. For, consider lines 26 to 43 of page 144 of the
Mount AYhitney report, which detail the precise method em-

^ This demonstration applies only to homogeneous rays.

102 abbot: solar constant of radiation

ployed in obtaining what Langley regarded as a minimum value,
namely 2,63 calories per square centimeter per minute:

We now proceed to determine from our bolometer observations,
a value which we may believe from considerations analogous to
those just presented, to be a minimum of the solar constant, and
one within the probable truth. All the evidence we possess shows, as
we have already stated, that the atmosphere grows more transmissible
as we ascend, or that for equal weights of air the transmissibility in-
creases (and probably continuously), as we go up higher. In finding
our minimum value we proceed as follows, still dealing with rays which
are as approximately homogeneous as we can experimentally obtain
them. Let us take one of these rays as an example, and let it be one
whose wave length is 0.6^1 and which caused a deflection at Lone Pine
of 201. The coefficient of transmission for this ray as determined by
high and low sun at Lone Pine and referred to the vertical air mass
between Lone Pine and Mountain Camp is 0.976. From the observa-
tions at Lone Pine then, the heat of this ray upon the mountain should
have been 201 X lOCO ^ 976 = 206.0, but the heat in this ray actually
observed on the mountain was 249.7, therefore multiplying the value
for the energy of this ray outside the atmosphere, calculated from
Mountain Camp high and low sun observations (275) by the ratio
Mtf^ we have 333.3, where .'33.3 represents the energy in this ray out-
side the atmosphere as determined by this second process. In like
manner we proceed to deal with the ravs already used, thus forming
column 8 in Talkie 120.

It is evident that the transmission coefficient determined for
the wave length 0.6/i by the aid of high and low sun observations
at Lone Pine, represented the mean transmission of a ray of this
wave length through a mass of air containing all the kinds of
strata between Lone Pine and the limit of the atmosphere. Such
a transmission coefficient would certainly be greater than that
which would have been found if the air had all been like that
between Lone Pine and Mountain Camp, because the lower lay-
ers are least transparent.^ Therefore the value 0.976 could be
known, a priori^ not to represent the transmission of the air be-
tween Lone Pine and Mountain Camp, but to be certainly greater
than the true transmission coefficient for the air between these
stations. Accordingly the discrepancy between the computed
and observed intensities at Mountain Camp is only what should
be expected, and implies no failure of the formula of Bouguer
at all; for that formula was used in the computation of the

< See Table 118 of the Mount Whitney report.

abbot: solar constant of radiation 103

intensity at JMountain Camp just quoted with a coefficient j)
which was certainly wrong. The argument on which Langley
acted may be stated in a plausible form as follows: If Bouguer's
exponential formula with the transmission coefficient obtained by
high and low sun observations at Lone Pine gives too low a value
of the intensity of homogeneous solar radiation for a station
within the atmosphere like Mountain Camp, as was shown by
actual observation, much more will it give too low a value out-
side the atmosphere. An equally plausible, and equally falla-
cious argument is the following : It is said that the density of
water decreases with increasing temperature at the mean rate
of about 0.00041 per degree from 0° to 100°, but observations
at 4° prove that water is actually denser at this temperature than
at 0°, therefore the supposed decreased density at 100° is a
delusion.

Solar constant work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-
tory. The earlier years of the work of the Astrophysical Obser-
vatory were devoted to the improvement of the bolometer and
the use of it for the determination of the positions of lines in the
infra-red solar spectrum. About 1902 attention began to be de-
voted to measurements of the solar constant of radiation. We
approached these measurements with a very much better instru-
mental equipment than that which had been Langley's in the
IVIount WTiitney expedition of 1881. Soon after the Astrophysi-
cal Observatory was founded, about the year 1890, Langley
introduced the automatic registration of the galvanometer in
connection with the spectro-bolometer, and in the subsequent
years the difficulties connected with the use of the recording
spectro-bolometer were so far overcome that the solar spectrum
could be observed from the extreme ultra-violet end of the spec-
trum at about 0.3^ to a wave length of about Sfx in the infra-red
with great ease and accuracy, in an interval of seven minutes of
time. Drift of the galvanometer, which in Langley's expedition
to ]\Iount Whitney he has told me often amounted to a meter
a minute on the scale, was now so far reduced that a centimeter
an hour would be unusual. In fact the bolometer, despite its
great sensitiveness, is about as easy to use for this work as an

104 abbot: solar constant of radiation

ordinary thermometer is for measuring the temperature of the
air.

Our first measurements of the sun's radiation as a whole were
made with the Crova alcohol actinometer, and in order to
standardize this instrument we constructed a modified Tyndall
pyrheliometer consisting of a copper box filled with mercury
and having a cylindric bulb thermometer inserted radially into
the box. Owing to the difficulty of keeping the small thread of
mercury at the proper point for reading purposes in the Crova
actinometer, we found it more desirable to develop the pyrheli-
ometer for our purpose. Soon a solid disk of copper with a radial
hole large enough to enclose the thermometer bulb was substi-
tuted for the box filled with mercury, the use of mercury being
limited to insuring a good heat connection between the bulb of
the thermometer and the copper of the disk. Some of these
copper disk pyrheliometers are still in use on Mount Wilson.
About 1909, however, the further improvement was introduced
of using silver in place of copper for the disk. A thin steel lin-
ing is provided for the hole where the thermometer is inserted,
so as to prevent the mercury from alloying with the silver. In
these silver disk instruments the thermometer stem, which is
introduced radially in the disk, is bent outside the chamber at
right angles so as to point towards the sun. The whole instru-
ment is mounted equatorially with a device for moving it by
hand to follow the sun from moment to moment. These disk
pyrheliometers, either of copper or silver, have now been in use
since 1906 with great satisfaction. Their constancy over long
periods of time leaves nothing to be desired, and the accuracy of
observation reaches a small fraction of 1 per cent.

As the disk pyrheliometer is a secondary instrument, it was
necessary to develop a standard primary instrument to compare
it with. As early as 1904 experiments were begun to produce a
pyrheliometer based upon the hollow chamber ''black body"
type, with a flowing liquid to carry off the heat produced by
the absorption of the solar rays within such a chamber. After
numerous experiments, and long trial, the water-flow standard
pyrheliometer was fully developed in 1910. Later stifl, another

abbot: solar constant of radiation 105

hollow-chamber instrument in which the chamber was bathed
with stirred water was employed to check the results of the
standard water-flow instruments. In each of these types of
standard instruments it is possible to introduce electrically known
quantities of heat for testing purposes, and in many experiments
it has been proved that the test quantities of heat thus intro-
duced may be recovered to within 1 per cent. Accordingly it is
believed that the standard scale of radiation has been thoroughly
established. The silver disk instruments are standardized by com-
paring them with such standard instruments, and the standard
scale of radiation so produced, which is believed to be accurate
to at least one-half of 1 per cent, has been diffused generally over
the world by the Smithsonian Institution. About twenty-five
copies of the silver disk pyrheliometer have been standardized
and sent out to Europe, North America, and South America for
this, purpose. The Smithsonian instruments read about 3.5 per

o

cent above those of Angstrom.

jNIeasurements of the solar constant of radiation were begun
in Washington in 1902 and have been continued at Washing-
ton or elsewhere in every succeeding year until the present
time. In 1903 it was noticed that the values of the solar radia-
tion outside the atmosphere obtained in Washington were vari-
able within the limits of about 10 per cent, and as some of the
changes appeared to occur between days which were of the high-
est order of excellence, it was thought possible that these changes
might occur in the sun, and not be caused by alterations of the'
transparency of the earth's atmosphere. To test this possibil-
ity, a station was established on ]\lount Wilson, California, in
1905 by invitation of Director Hale of the Mount Wilson Solar
Observatory. The station proved to be very favorable for the
work, and in 1908 a permanent structure of cement was built
there for the use of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.
In the years 1909 and 1910 spectro-bolometric observations for
the determination of the solar constant of radiation were also
made on the extreme summit of Mount Whitney in California
at an altitude of 4420 meters. At the same time observations
were being made at Mount Wilson at .an altitude of 1730 meters.

106 abbot: solar constant of radiation

The results from these two stations reduced to outside the atmos-
phere at mean solar distance, like those which had formerly been
obtained simultaneously at Washington and Mount Wilson, were
identical within the limit of the accuracy of the determinations.
The accuracy of the work at Mount Wilson and Mount Whitney
was so great that the average divergence between the observa-
tions of the same days was only 1 per cent. At Washington, the
sky conditions being less perfect, the average divergence from
simultaneous solar-constant results of Mount Wilson was about
3 per cent.

Evidences of solar variahility of short irregular periods. Numer-
ous observations of several years at Mount Wilson indicated a
fluctuation in the solar-constant values having a range of about
10 per cent. The fluctuations seemed to occur irregularly, some-
times running their course of 10 per cent or less within the period
of a week or ten days, and at other times keeping nearly constant.
It had been shown by the observations made simultaneously at
Mount Wilson and at Mount Whitney that the results, as re-
duced outside the atmosphere, appear to be independent of the
altitude of the observing station, on days when the sky conditions
appeared to the eye to be excellent. The march of the apparent
fluctuation of the solar constant values at Mount Wilson has not
been of a haphazard character. I mean by this that the values
progress in a definite direction, as for instance from a low value
to a high value by steps through several successive days, and
then as definitely progress in the opposite direction through other
successive days, and do not fluctuate widely from high values
to low, as would be the case if the irregularities were due merely
to instrumental error. Since, then, it appeared that the fluctua-
tions were neither of an accidental instrumental character, nor
of a character associated with the altitude of the observing sta-
tion, it appeared most reasonable to conclude that these fluctua-
tions were due to changes in the sun's emission.

To test this important conclusion it appeared necessary to
establish a second station, equally favorably situated with re-
gard to sky conditions as Mount Wilson, but so far remote from
Mount Wilson that local influences could not be expected to

abbot: solar constant of radiation 107

alter the results at both stations in the same direction on the
same day. Such a station was established at Bassour, Algeria,
in the years 1911 and 1912. Seventy-five days of simultaneous
measurement at Mount Wilson and at Bassour were obtained,
and of these days about fifty were so far free from the occurrence
of clouds, or other disturbing influences, at both stations, as to
be retained for purposes of comparison. The result of the com-
parison shows that when high values are obtained at Bassour,
high values are obtained also at Mount Wilson, and vice versa.
Thus the fluctuations which have been found, appear to be truly
existing in the solai- radiation outside the earth's atmosphere, for
the solar constant values obtained at two stations separated by
about one-third the circumference of the earth unite in showing
them.

Value of the solar constant. During the whole solar constant
campaign from 1902 to 1913, about 700 measurements of the solar
constant of radiation have been obtained, all but three of the
values ranging between 1.80 calories and 2.10 calories. The
range of these numbers is mainly attributable to the actual fluc-
tuation of the sun itself, though part, especially in W^ashington
work, is due to accidental errors of measurement. The mean
value from 690 measurements is 1.933 calories per square cen-
timeter per minute. It is believed that this number represents
the average value of the solar constant of radiation for the epoch
1902 to 1913 within 1 per cent. There is still the possibility,
however, that an appreciable quantity of solar radiation be-
yond the wave length of 0.3^ in the ultra-violet has been absorbed
by ozone in the higher atmosphere of the earth, and has been
impossible of determination at the stations employed. However,
from the consideration of the form of energy curve of the sun's
spectrum it is improbable that this lost ultra-violet radiation
can exceed 1 or 2 per cent.

Solar variability associated with sun-spots. Besides the short
irregular fluctuation of solar radiation above mentioned as having
been shown by the simultaneous measurements at Mount Wil-
son and Bassour, Algeria, it appears that a long period fluctua-
tion is associated with the sun-spot numbers. This connection

108 abbot: solar constant of radiation

is brought out by taking the mean monthly values of the solar
constant measurements at Mount Wilson from the year 1906
on, and comparing them with the mean monthly sun-spot num-
bers of Wolfer for the same period. From such a comparison
it appears that the greater the number of sun-spots the higher
will be the solar constant of radiation, and that an increase of a
hundred sun-spot numbers corresponds to an increase of about
0.07 calories per square centimeter per minute in the solar radi-
ation outside the earth's atmosphere. This is a very curious
circumstance, when it is recalled that the temperature of the
earth is generally lower at sun-spot maximum than at sun-spot
minimum, notwithstanding that, if the above result be true, the
solar radiation is more intense at sun-spot maximum than at
sun-spot minimum. On the other hand, the result is in line with
the irregular variability of the Myra type of variable stars.

Atmospheric transjiiission. In connection with the measure-
ments which have been made of the solar constant of radiation,
there have been some interesting by-products. Among these we
may mention first the determination of the transmission coeffi-
cients of the earth's atmosphere for light of all wave-lengths, in-
cluding the ultra-violet and the infra-red spectrum, and ranging
from wave-length 0.3m in the ultra-violet to wave length 2.5m in
the infra-red. These transmission coefficients have been ob-
tained by the Smithsonian observers at Washington, Mount Wil-
son, Mount Whitney, and Bassour. It is very interesting to com-
pare them with the transmission of the atmosphere as computed
according to the theoretical considerations of Rayleigh on the
cause of the hght of the sky. It is found that by means of these
transmission coefficients the value of the number of molecules in
the atmosphere may be obtained almost as accurately as by the
use of the more common laboratory methods for determining
the number of molecules per cubic centimeter of a gas of known
density. It is found that the theory of Rayleigh connecting the
change of transmission with the wave-length is closely confirmed
by the observations at Bassour, Mount Wilson, and Mount Whit-
ney. Similar measurements of atmospheric transmission for more
limited regions of the spectrum have been made by other ob-

abbot: solar constant of radiation 109

servers at high altitudes, and these also are found to agree closely
with the theory of Rayleigh, and with our own observations.

Not less interesting is the determination of the distribution of
energy in the sun's spectrum, and thereby of the probable tem-
peratures existing in the sun. The solar temperatures may be in-
ferred also from the value of the solar constant of radiation itself,
and the two methods agree substantially in giving the probable
solar temperatures as between 6000° and 7000° absolute Centi-
grade.

Recent halloon experiments. Notwithstanding the satisfactory
state of the theory of solar constant measurements by the meth-
od of Langley, depending upon spectro-bolometric observations
at high and low sun combined with measurements by the pyr-
heliometer, and notwithstanding the close agreement between
results obtained by this method for many years at stations of
differing altitude from sea-level to 4420 meters elevation, there
still exists the possibility that if we could, indeed, go outside the
atmosphere altogether, we should obtain values differing mate-
rially from those above given. So long as we observe at the
earth's surface, no matter how high the mountain top on which
we stand, the atmosphere remains above us, and some estimate
must be made of its transmission before the solar constant can be
determined. Different persons will differ in the degree of con-
fidence which they will ascribe to measurements of the atmos-
pheric transmission such as have been considered, and there are
still some who totally disbelieve in the accuracy of the results
thus far obtained, even though they be confirmed by observa-
tions at such differing altitudes. Accordingly it has seemed
highly desirable to check the results by a method of direct ob-
servation by the pyrheliometer, attaching the instrument for
this purpose to a balloon and sending it to the very highest pos-
sible altitudes. By a cooperation between the Smithsonian In-
stitution and the United States Weather Bureau, experiments for
this purpose were made in July and August of the year 1913.

The instruments employed were modified in form from the
silver disk pyrheliometer, which has been described above. As
the apparatus could not be pointed at the sun, the disk was

110 abbot: solar constant of radiation

placed horizontally, and the thermometer was contrived to re-
cord its temperature by photography upon a moving drum.
The receiving disk was alternately exposed to the sun and shaded
by the intervention of a shutter, operated intermittently by the
clock work which rotated the drum under the stem of the ther-
mometer. Five instruments of this kind were sent up on suc-
cessive days. While it was well known that the temperature of
the higher air would go as low as — 55°C., it was believed that
a blackened disk, exposed half the time to the direct sun rays,
would certainly remain above the temperature of —40°, which
is the freezing point of mercury. This expectation was disap-
pointed. Accordingly, owing to the freezing of the mercury in
the thermometer, the highest solar radiation records obtained
during the expedition were at the altitude of 13,000 meters,
although the balloons in some instances reached the altitude of
33,000 meters.

The results obtained, while they have not the same degree of
accuracy as those obtained by direct reading of the silver disk
pyrheliometer, are yet of considerable weight. All the measure-
ments unite in indicating values of the solar radiation at alti-
tudes of 10,000 meters and higher, which fall below the value of
the solar constant of radiation as obtained by other methods,
and above the value of the radiation at the summit of Mount
Whitney as obtained by different observers with pyrheliometers.
It is expected in the coming year to repeat the observations with
balloons under much improved circumstances. By aid of elec-
trical heating apparatus it is expected to keep the surroundings
of the disks at approximately the freezing temperature, even
though exposed to the air at temperatures as low as — 55°C.
In this way it is hoped to obtain good pyrheliometer measure-
ments as high as it is possible for sounding balloons to go, and
possibly to an altitude of 40,000 meters. As the atmospheric
pressure at such altitudes is less than 1 per cent of that prevailing
at sea-level, the experiments, if successful, may be expected to
remove reasonable doubt of the value of the solar constant of
radiation.

avherry: compositions of minerals 111

MINERALOGY. — Variations in the compositions of minerals.
Edgar T. Wherry, U. S. National Museum. ^ Communi-
cated by Waldemar T. Schaller.

"With the advance of scientific knowledge it becomes necessary
from time to time to revise some of our most fundamental con-
ceptions and definitions. In chemistry, for instance, the old
view is being abandoned that mixtures differ from compounds
in that the former can be separated into their constituents by
^'mechanical means" while the latter cannot. -

Most of our text-books of mineralogy are largely based on
Dana's System of 1892, and ignore the important advances which
have taken place since that time. In particular, the writer be-
lieves that the conception of mineral species which permeates
them is in need of revision, for, in the light of recent work, vari-
ability of composition must apparently be recognized as a funda-
mental principle of mineralogical chemistry. It is therefore pro-
posed that a species be defined as a natural inorganic substance
whose che7nical and physical properties are constant only within
certain limits, these limits varying widely from one case to an-
other. The possible ways in which variations in the chemical
composition of minerals can occur are through adsorption, iso-
morphous replacement, and solid solution.

Adsorption. While most minerals exemplify the crj^stalloidal
state of matter, colloids are also not infrequently represented.
As has been pointed out by several writers,* all minerals appear-
ing wax- or gum-like, or with botryoidal, dendritic, globular,
mammillary, nodular, reniform, or stalactitic structures, and at
the same time showing an amorphous character under the mi-
croscope, are to be regarded as gels, or solid colloids.

' Read at the Rochester meeting of the American Chemical Society, September,
1913.

2 W. Lash Miller, Science, 34: 257 1911.

3 F. Cornu, Centr. Min. Geol., 1909: 324; R. Marc. Fortschritte Min. Kryst.
Petr., 3: 11; A. Himmelbauer, ibid., 3: 32 (including a G-page bibliography),
1913.

M}' excuse for treating this subject so fully at this place is that American
mineralogists appear to have underestimated the importance of these contribu-
tions: in six recent text-books 1 have been unable to find the word colloid.

112 wherry: compositions of minerals

One of the most striking features possessed by gels is their
power of adsorbing foreign substances. For instance, the abihty
of the sesquioxides, when precipitated with ammonia, to take up
considerable amounts of phosphoric acid, boric acid, etc., has
long been recognized, and analytical methods modified in the
presence of these substances. The amounts so adsorbed bear in
general no relation to the molecular weights of the substances
concerned — that is, the law of definite proportions is not obeyed
— except that ''the composition of many [natural] gels agrees
frequently quite exactly with the corresponding formulas of crys-
tallized minerals."*

The extent to which adsorption causes variations in the com-
positions of colloid minerals becomes evident when the analyses
of bauxite, psilomelane, wad, the clays, chrysocolla, etc., are
inspected. It is not so certain, however, which constituents
should be regarded as united and which as adsorbed in these
minerals. Is an amorphous clay containing silica, alumina and
water to be regarded as an adsorption product of Si02 gel, AI2O3
gel, and water, or as kaolinite gel (H4Al2Si209) containing an
excess of one or the other constituents adsorbed? It will be nec-
essary to develop methods for the proximate analysis of colloidal
minerals — staining, fractional solution, plotting dehydration
curves, etc. — before such questions can be settled, a problem that
will keep mineralogical chemists busy for some time to come.
But meanwhile we should face the issue squarely, and in stating
the composition of such minerals admit their variable character
instead of attempting to assign them definite formulas, as is
done in text-books.

Then there is a whole series of minerals whose superficial ap-
pearance is that of colloids, but whose fibrous or foliated internal
structure betrays their crystallinity, such as chalcedony, limon-
ite, malachite, serpentine, dufrenite, etc. As there appears to
be no single descriptive term'^ in use for these, the word meta-
colloid is here proposed. A meta-colloid is to be defined as a
substance which, though originally colloidal in character, has he-

* Cornu, op. cit., p. 336.

^ Himnielbauer, op. cit., p. 39, calls them "gealterte Gelen."

wherry: compositions of minerals 113

come more or less crystalline, for this has evidently been the his-
tory of most of this class of minerals.

If the original colloids have compositions approaching those of
definite crystallizable compounds, then the change to a meta-
colloid may be regarded as a simple molecular rearrangement.
But if adsorbed constituents are present in excess over the
requirements for such compounds, what becomes of them? Ob-
servations bearing directly on this point are lacking, but some
analyses of meta-colloid minerals are certainly on record in which
the presence of foreign material is shown. It is only necessary
to turn to garnierite (Dana, System, p. 677), chloropal (ibid., p.
701) and dufrenite (ibid., p. 797), all of which often look crystal-
line (cryptocrystalline) and homogeneous under the microscope,
to find examples of this. It would therefore seem that in some
cases, at least, adsorption may occur even in meta-colloids, so
that it can not be regarded as safe to consider crystallinity alone of
minerals, whose features are those of meta-colloids, as a certain
proof of their definiteness of composition.

Solid solution. Especially in substances appearing in distinct
crystals it is quite generally assumed that, except for isomorphous
replacement,^ the composition is fixed, constant, and definite.
Yet even here there is evidence that some variation may occur.
Two cases have recently been discussed elaborately: nephelite,
which often contains 2 per cent more SiOo than is required by its
simple formula without evident effect on its crystallographic
constants, optical properties, or any other features;^ and pyrrho-
tite, in which the amount of sulphur can vary from 36.3 per cent
corresponding to FeS, to over 40 per cent, with only slight changes
in axial ratio and specific gravity, and without loss of crystallinity
or characteristic properties.^

But other well crystallized minerals have yielded analytical
results exhibiting even greater variability in the amounts of con-

^ The subject of isomorphous replacement is fully treated in the text-books,
and need not be discussed here. In one sense it is, of course, only a special case
of solid solution, but this term is here used only for non-isomorphous combina-
tions.

^ Foote and Bradley, Amer. Jour. Sci., 31: 25, 1911; 33: 439, 1912.

* Allen, Crenshaw, Johnston and Larsen, Amer. Jour. Sci., 33: 169, 1912.

114 COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID

stituents, especially the columbates, tantalates and titanates,
but also some sulfo-salts (binnite, tetrahedrite), halides (fluo-
cerite, yttrocerite), oxides (striiverite, uraninite), silicates (some
pyroxenes and amphiboles, to account for the composition of
which the conception of isomorphous replacement has to be
made unreasonably broad), etc.

It is customary at the present time to consider this variability
as due to " solid solution." Of course, the mere giving a phenome-
non a name does not explain it, but whatever may be its signifi-
cance its existence cannot be denied and should not be over-
looked. Consequently, even crystallinity cannot fairly he regarded
as a certain criterion of the absence of ^^ solid solution'^ or accord-
ingly of the definite chemical composition of a inineral.^

In conclusion, it may be urged that in future text-books and
writings dealing with the establishment of mineral species, notice
be taken of these relations, and that there be included along
with the simple, essential formula of each mineral, in so far as
one can be recognized, a statement of the extent to which vari-
ations in its composition occur.

BOTANY. — A hybrid between Tripsacum and Euchlaena. G. N.
Collins and J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry. -

In connection with studies in the heredity of maize and re ated
plants a fertile hybrid has been secured between Tripsacum dac-
tyloides L. and Euchlaena mexicana Schrad.

Euchlaena mexicana or teosinte is an annual grass, native in
Mexico, often grown for forage. The variety grown in the United
States requires a long season to mature and the only place where
seed is produced is in southern Florida. Tripsacum dactyloides
is a perennial grass, native in many parts of eastern United
States. The plant is of no economic importance.

The genera Euchlaena and Tripsacum are placed in separate
groups of the tribe Maydeae and the plants are so different that

^ This is in no way intended as a denial of the definite molecular structure of
crystals; and that it is quite possible to reconcile the latter conception with the
existence of solid solution will be shown in a later paper.

' Presented before the Botanical Society of Washington, February 3, 1914,

COLLINS AND KEMPTONI A NEW HYBRID

115

it is difficult even to contrast the characters. The following is
an attempt to formulate the more conspicuous differences:

Tripsacum

Plants perennial.

i\Iale and female flowers in the same
inflorescence.

Lateral inflorescences not enclosed in
bracts.

Fruit trapezoidal.

Order of flowering of pistillate flowers
from above downward.

Staminate spikelets in pairs, both ses-
sile.

Leaves averaging about 50 times as
long as wide.

Euchlaena

Plants annual.

Male and female flowers in different
inflorescences.

Lateral inflorescences enclosed in
bracts.

Fruit nearly triangular.

Order of flowering of pistillate flowers
from near the bottom upward.

Staminate spikelets in pairs, one ses-
sile, the other pediceled

Leaves averaging about 10 times as
long as wide.

Euchlaena and Tripsacum are the only American genera as-
sociated with Zea in the tribe Maydeae. Euchlaena and Zea
cross readily and a complete series of intermediates is known. ^

Although the possibility of securing a hybrid between such
diverse plants seemed verj^ remote, the paucity of wild relatives
encouraged us in repeated attempts to secure hybrids between
Tripsacum and Zea or Euchlaena. Until the present instance
these attempts have always given negative results.-*

The pollen parent of the present hj^brid belonged to a Mexican
variet}^ of Euchlaena, the seed of which was received from Mr.
H. A'. Jackson of Durango, Mexico. This variety is earlier
than the Florida teosinte and many of the plants show indica-
tions of contamination with maize. Among the most common
maize-like characters occurring in the teosinte from this region
are the development of a central spike in the staminate inflor-
escence, the greater prominence of the primary culm, and the
formation of a rudimentary cob in the pistillate inflorescence.

^ For a discussion of the characters of Euchlaena and Zea, see Collins, G.X.,
The origin of maize, Journ. AVash. Acad. Sci. 2: 520-530, 1912.

■• In view of the great disparitj' in the length of the stigmas, there may be
a mechanical difficulty in making the reciprocal cross, using Tripsacum as the
pollen parent.

The maximum elongation of the pollen tube in fertilizing Tripsacum flowers
would never exceed 2 cm., while the fertilization of an ovule of Zea or Euchlaena
could not be accomplished without an elongation of at least 10 cm.

116 COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID

Owing to the fact that the plant which supphed pollen for the
hybrid was grown in the greenhouse where all teosinte plants
behave abnormally, it was impossible to determine whether this
particular plant would have possessed many or few of these maize-
like characters had it grown normally in the open. As it de-
veloped in the greenhouse it was much reduced in stature, being
only about 2 feet high. A number of pistillate flowers were pro-
duced in the terminal inflorescence, the branches of which were
much reduced. But there was no tendency to form either a
cob or a central spike in the terminal inflorescence.

The plant of Tripsacum used as female parent of the hybrid
was an offshoot from a plant grown at Lanham, Maryland. In
February, 1913, a number of offshoots were removed from the
plant at Lanham and planted in the greenhouse at Washington.
Probably as a result of being grown in the greenhouse the stami-
nate portion of the first inflorescences that appeared were aborted.
The female flowers of one of these aborted inflorescences were
pollinated by Euchlaena, producing the hybrid under discussion.
As soon as pollinated the inflorescence was enclosed in a paper
bag. This was an unnecessary precaution, for the stigmas were
dry before any Tripsacum pollen was produced and there were
no other flowering plants of Tripsacum in the greenhouse at that
time. As a result of this pollination four seeds were secured.

The four hybrid seeds were planted on April 8, 1913, but only
one germinated. As soon as the seedling appeared above the
ground the soil was removed so as to expose the seed, allowing
us to make sure that the plant was growing from the Tripsacum
seed and not from the seed of some other grass accidentally oc-
curring in the soil.

All possibility that the plant was other than a true hybrid
was removed at an early date. As soon as the nature of the seed-
ling could be determined it was found to resemble the male
parent Euchlaena in all discernible characters. This resem-
blance continued throughout the life of the plant.

The abnormal characters of the particular plants used as par-
ents, induced by the greenhouse conditions, made impossible any
accurate comparisons of the hybrid with its individual parents,

COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID 117

but it can be said that the hybrid plant more nearly resembled
normal teosinte grown in the open than did any of the green-
house grown teosinte plants themselves. With respect to all
the differences listed above, the hybrid resembled Euchlaena.
The only suggestion of a Tripsacum character was that the main
stalk matured some days in advance of the branches or suckers.
This might be taken as a shght indication of a tendency toward
perennial habit. On the other hand this tendency may exist in
Euchlaena, which has not been carefully examined with this
character in mind. Seed was produced in abundance and was
indistinguishable from that of pure teosinte. Some of this first
generation hybrid seed has been planted and a number have
germinated showing the hybrid to be fertile.

The chief points of interest in this hybrid may be summarized
as follows:

1. The hybrid is bigeneric, and the parent types differ in pro-
found morphological characters.

2. One of the parents is strictly annual, the otlier perennial,
requiring several years to mature.

3. None of the characters of the female parent appeared in
the first generation; that is, the hybrid is completely patroclinous.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

BOTANY. — Mexican g7'asses in the United States National Herhariuni.
A. S. Hitchcock. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17: 181-389. 1913.

This paper includes a list of 615 species of Mexican grasses, 23 of
which are described as new, represented by specimens in the U. S.
National Herbarium. There is a key to the genera, and, preceding
each genus, a key to the species. Under each species are given the
more important synonyms, the type locality, the range, and an enu-
meration of the specimens from Mexico arranged by states. One new
genus, Triniochloa, is described. This includes three species, one,
from Chihuahua, collected by the author, being new, the others trans-
ferred from Avena. One of the latter, the type species, T. stipoides,
was first described as Podosaemum and later transferred to Muhlen-
bergia and to Avena.

The more important collections available in the present study are
those of Palmer, Pringle and the author, who have explored botanically
nearly all the states of Mexico. There are cited also many duplicates
of the early collectors, such as Bourgeau, Liebmann, Schaffner, Botteri
and Muller. A. S. H.

PHARMACOLOGY. — Individual variation in the alkaloidal content of
belladonna plants. A. F. Sievers. Journal of Agricultm-al Re-
search 1 : 129-146. 1913.
In a systematic study of the alkaloidal content of the leaves of a
large number of belladonna plants, some important facts have been
established. The leaves were assayed at five distinct stages of growth
from early in May to late in October and the results indicate that the
flowering stage is the most advantageous time to pick the leaves. A
higher percentage of alkaloids is found later in the season but the leaves

118

abstracts: phytopathology 119

are tlien too small and sparse for profitable harvesting. The physical
characteristics of the plant have thus far shown no relationship to the
alkaloidal content of the leaves. Luxuriant groAx^th is no criterion of
the medicinal value of the plant.

The individual plants show a remarkable variation in the alkaloidal
content. It is found that man}^ plants rich in alkaloids throughout the
season are equally rich in following seasons. The same is true of plants
that are unusually poor in alkaloids. This incHcates that the relative
production of alkaloids in these plants is largely due to the inherent
characteristic of the individual and not entirely to the varying external
influences. A. F. S.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — Environmental influences on the physical
and chemical characteristics of wheat. J. A. LeClerc and P. A.
YoDER. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 275-291. 1914.
Previous work (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 128) showed that the
composition of wheat and its physical characteristics, such as the weight
per thousand, weight per bushel, and flintiness are not to any great ex-
tent herecUtary; that both the chemical composition and the physical
characteristics above enumerated are dependent upon the environ-
ment (climate and soil) in which the wheat grew. In the present paper
the authors describe investigations carried on in Maryland, Kansas,
and California in which small plots of soil from each of three localities
were interchanged. This experiment was continued during 1909-10-
11-12. Each year the crop from each plot was harvested and analyzed
for the usual chemical constituents and physical properties. From
these results it is seen that the wheat grown in any one locality is very
uniform in composition and in appearance, but quite different from the
same wheat grown on the same soils in the other two localities, sho^\'ing
that the climatic conditions prevailing during the period of growth
exerts the major influence in affecting both the chemical 'composition
and the physical characteristics of wheat. The wheat gro-^ii on the
check plot in each locality was identical, physically and chemically,
to that grown on the imported soils. J. A. LeC.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A hacterium causing the disease of sugar-beet
and nasturtium leaves. Nellie A. Brown and Clara O. Jamie-
son. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 189-210. 1913.
The paper deals with an organism causing a spot-disease on leaves
of nasturtium and sugar-beet. The spotting Avas noticed on these

120 abstracts: phytopathology

plants in the same year, occurring in widely separated areas — the nas-
turtium leaf-spot in Virginia, and the sugar-beet leaf-spot in Utah.

The cause of the disease, a bacterium, was isolated from each host,
and the organism isolated was proved up in each case by means of in-
oculations. As it was supposed that two distinct diseases were being
dealt with, work was carried on independently for two years, when,
through comparison of cultural and morphological tests and by cross-
inoculations, it was proved that the organisms causing the leaf-spot
disease on both hosts were identical. The same organism also pro-
duces spots on bean leaves and pods, also on leaves of lettuce, pepper,
and eggplant.

The organism is called Bacterium aptatum. It belongs to the green
fluorescent group of bacteria, and has been shown to be different from
Bacterium xanthochlorum , an organism in this group pathogenic
to potato ; and from Pseudomonas tenuis, which has been given the
same group number in the descriptive chart of the Society of American
Bacteriologists. It is also different from Bacterium phaseoU, although
both organisms produce the spotting of bean leaves and pods.

N. A. B.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— T'/ie/oo^-ro^ of the sweet potato. L. L. Harter.
Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 251-273. 1913.
The foot-rot, a new disease of the sweet potato, is caused by the fungus
Plenodomus destruens. It was found in Mrginia for the first time during
the summer of 1912 and caused extensive damage that season and in
1913. In some fields as much as 95 per cent of the plants were killed.
The organism kills the plants primarily by. the destruction of the cor-
tex of the stem, although occasionally it may be found on the vines
several feet from the hill. Numerous inoculations have proven the
parasitism of this fungus. Experiments have shown that it will grow
from diseased roots into the slips produced therefrom; also from dis-
eased slips into the roots. The fungus lives over the winter on dead
vines in the field and probably on the roots used for seed. The disease
occurs in the hot bed, so that it is likely that the sale or exchange of
slips and seed potatoes is largely responsible for its distribution. Sani-
tary methods and careful selection of only sound healthy potatoes for
seed are recommended as means of control. L. L. H.

abstracts: phytopathology 121

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— nc anthracnose of the mango in Florida.
S. M. McMuRRAisr. U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 52,
pp. 15. 1914.

An investigation of the mango anthracnose or blight was conducted
in Florida during the seasons of 1912 and 1913 ^\^th a view to deter-
mining (1) the cause of the disease, (2) the control of the disease, and
(3) the broader question of the suitability of the southeast coast of
Florida for the production of the mango on a commercial scale.

Infection experiments by the \M'iter and others have shown that the
blighting of the mango blossoms, the tear staining and scabbing of the
fruit, and the spotting of the leaves is due to Colletotrichum gloeospor-
ioides Penz.

The experiments on the control of the disease indicate that the blos-
som bhght form of the disease cannot be controlled by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture during seasons which are rainy at blooming time,
but that the fruit may be protected from fungus invasions and carried
through to maturity in a clean and disease-free condition b}^ spraying.

In regard to the third proposition, observations in Florida indicate
that a set of fruit cannot be expected unless the weather is dry at bloom-
ing time. This coincides entirely with the opinions expressed by writ-
ers on the mango from Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Hawaii, and forces
the conclusion that the main limiting factor of the mango is the condi-
tion of the weather at blooming time. Given clear, dry weather, a
good crop of fruit may be expected. Given, on the other hand, rainy
weather at blooming time, i.e., suitable conditions for fungus infection,
a failure is practically certain.

The main bloom of the mango occurs in March. The weather rec-
ords for Miami show that the months of March in 1912 and 1913 were
unusually rainy, but that the mean mrniber of rainy days for March
based on a record of 16 years is only 4.56 days, and that in 8 years out
of the 16 the number of rainy daj's fell below this mean. From this
it would appear that the chances for success are quite good, the hazard
being probably no greater than in most of the peach growing sections
of the Xorth.^. S. M. M.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — Polyporus dryadeus, a root parasite on the oak.

W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 239-250. 1913.

A brief history is given of this fungus since Bulliard first described

it in 1789 as Boletus pseudo-igniarius. Attention is called to Hartig's

122 ABSTEACTS: PHYTOPATHOLOGY

error in assigning to Polyporus dryadeus, the rot produced by P. dryophi-
lus. Several synonyms for P. dryophilus are also given and the rot
produced by it compared to the rot produced by P. dryadeus. The
disease was found in the forests of Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, Mary-
land, and Virginia. The first evidence of the disease is a reddish brown
discoloration of the inner bark and cambium; in the final stage of the
rot the color becomes white or creamy white. In all the uprooted
trees examined, the disease began in the lower portion of the roots and
spread upward toward the stool of the tree. The rot was found in the
roots of Quercus texana, Q. nigra, Q. alba, Q. velutina, Q. minor, Q.
rubra, and Q. prinus. The following conclusions are presented : .

1. Polyporus dryadeus is a root parasite of the oak producing a white
sap rot and heart rot in the roots.

2. In all the trees examined this rot did not extend upward into the
tree as a true heart or sap rot of the trunk, but was limited to the under-
ground parts of the tree.

3. The rot and sporophore described and figured by Robert Hartig
do not belong to Polyporus dryadeus but to P. dryophilus.

4. In the majority of cases only old or much suppressed trees or
trees growing under very unfavorable conditions are attacked by this
disease.

5. The disease does not seem to spread readily to adjacent trees.

6. The disease is widely distributed Ijoth in America and Europe
and is probably found in these countries throughout the range of the
oak. W. H. L.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A71 underscribed species of Gymnosporangimn
from Japan. W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research
1: 853-356. 1914.

Attention is called to the introduction into this country of a new
species of Gymnosporangium on Juniperus chinensis from Japan. The
three types of teliospores in the genus Gymnosporangium which have
characters of specific value are described.

Taxonomic descriptions are given of three species, Gymnosporangium
chinense, G. japonicum and G. haraeanum, all from Japan and on the
same host, Juniperus chinensis. The value of taking into considera-
tion at least two of the types of teliospores, the thin and thick-walled
ones found in each species of Gymnosporangium, is shown. W. H. L.

abstracts: pathology 123

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— n;-ee undescribed heart-rots of hardivood trees,
especially of oak. W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research
1: 109-128. 1913.

Of the twenty heart-rotting fungi found in oak only the following
seven were present to any extent in the trunks and tops of the trees:
Hijdnum erinaceus, Polyporus sulphureus, P. dryophilus, P. berkeleyi,
P. frondosus, P. pilotae, and Fames lobatus.

Of the 2100 felled oak trees studied in the Ozark National Forest
64. S per cent were affected with butt rots. Tables are given for the
follo^\^ng fungi : Hydnimi erinaceus, Polyporus pilotae, Polyporus sul-
phureus, Polyporus berkeleyi, and Polyporus frondosus, showing the vari-
ous heights of rot produced by each in the trees.

Polyporus pilotae was found in the following species of trees : Quercus
alba, Q. velutina, Q. texana, Q. coccinea, Castanea pumila, and C. dentata.
The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of this rot for each host
are given. It is a delignifying rot in which long white strands of cellu-
lose are usually the most prominent feature.

A string and ray rot of oaks caused by Polyporus berkeleyi is a rot in
which the wood fibers are first delignified and then absorbed, leaving
more or less intact the medullary rays and the vessels. In a later
stage all the elements are gradually destroyed until only a brown mass
of very rotten wood and fungus hyphae is left in the stool of the tree.

Polyporus frondosus is also a delignifying fungus. It was found in
only 12 trees out of 1968 white oaks examined. It has been found on
various species of oak and also on chestnut throughout the United
States and Canada, and also in Europe. W. H. L.

PATHOLOGY. — Cysticercus ovis, the cause of tapeworm cysts in mutton .
B. H. Ransom. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 15-58. 1913.
The discovery by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry that
sheep slaughtered under Federal supervision were not infrequently in-
fested with cysticerci located in the musculature, led to an investiga-
tion as to their identity. They were evidently the same parasite as
that named Cysticercus ovis by Cobbold in 1869, which has generally
been considered identical with Cysticercus cellulosae, the pork-measle
parasite, the intermediate stage of Taenia solium of man. Some au-
thors, however, have looked upon it as an aberrant form of Cysticercus
tenuicollis, the intermediate stage of Taenia hydatigena (also known as
T. marginata), a dog tapeworm. By means of feeding experiments it

124 abstracts: pathology

was definitely proved that Cysticercus ovis is neither Cysticercus cellu-
losae nor C. tenuicolUs. Like the latter it is the intermediate stage of
a dog tapeworm, but of a species heretofore unrecognized in its adult
stage. The name of this species is Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869). Dogs
become infested as a result of devouring measly mutton, and sheep as
a result of swallowing the eggs of the tapeworm in food or water con-
taminated by the feces of infested dogs. There is no reason to suppose
that the parasite is transmissible to man; in fact no tapeworm infesta-
tion occurred in a human subject (the writer) after the ingestion of
live cysticerci. Cysticercus ovis may attain its full development in
sheep in less than three months after infection and in the dog the tape-
worm may reach egg-producing maturity in seven weeks after the in-
gestion of the Cysticercus. C. ovis is practically limited to the inter-
muscular connective tissue, and thus differs from C. tenuicolUs which
occurs in more or less intimate relation with serous membranes. Un-
like the latter it apparently does not pass through the liver in its migra-
tions from the alimentary tract to its final location.

Cysticercus ovis has been found occasionally in England, France,
Germany, Algeria, German South West Africa, and New Zealand. Its
presence has been determined in seven of the western United States.
As yet no infestation has been found in sheep from the eastern United
States. Wolves, probably, as well as dogs, may serve as hosts of the
adult tapeworm. The Cysticercus may occur in goats.

Over 17,000 of the sheep slaughtered under Federal supervision during
the year 1912, prior to December 1, were found to be infested with
Cysticercus ovis. So far as the sheep in the western United States are
concerned the number actually infested probably exceeds 2 per cent.

A full discussion of Cysticercus ovis is given under the headings of
historical summary, life-history investigation, zoological description,
remarks on morphologj'" and comparison with other species, macroscopic
appearance, distribution in body, degeneration, diagnosis, geographic
distribution, prevalence, age of infested sheep, economic importance,
significance in meat inspection, survival after death of host, and pro-
phylaxis. B. H. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 94th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington
was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, February
3, 1914. Messrs. Raymond B. Wilcox, Arno Viehoever, and Henry
Pittier were elected to membership.

The scientific program was as follows :

Brief notes and reviews of literature. Dr. David Griffiths reviewed
a prospectus of a stock company which has been organized in Australia
for the purpose of eradicating the cactus, which is there considered a
serious pest. Mr. S. C. Stuntz called attention to the return from
Brazil of Mr. A. D. Shamel, who has been there with Messrs. Dorsett
and Poponoe, who are studying methods of tropical fruit culture and
introducing the varieties that maj^ be of value in this country. Mr.
Shamel brought back over 1100 photographs which have thus far been
taken by them, and prints of these ^vill soon be available for study at
the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction for those who are
interested.

Dr. R. H. True: A report on the Atlanta meeting of the Botanical
Society of America. Dr. True gave a report on the attendance at the
meetings and number and character of the papers read before the
different sections, with special notes regarding those of a botanical
character.

Dr. H. Hasselbring: The relation between transpiration and the
absorption of inorganic constituents by plants. (Published in Bot. Gaz.
57: 72-73. January, 1914.)

Mr. G. N. Collins: A hybrid between Tripsacum and Euchlaena
(uith lantern). (See this Journal, p. 114.)

Dr. Walter H. Evans: An attempt at revegetation on Kodiak Island,
Alaska. The conditions on Kodiak Island following the eruption of
IVIount Katmai in May, 1912, were described and an account was given
of experiments in restoring the meadows and pastures of the experiment
station on that island.

The level land was covered ^vith the ash, or, more correctly, the
debris from the explosion, to a depth of 12 to 14 inches, and practically
all vegetation was destroyed. The only natural revegetation was where
hummocks of earth brought the original soil nearer the surface or where
plants came through cracks that formed in the deposit during the sum-
mer season. In these places fireweed, Epilobium anguslifolium, and

125

126 proceedings: philosophical society

Alaskan redtop, Calamagrostis langsdorfii, have come up abundantly.
In some instances where the deposit fell in the edge of marshes it sunk
in such a way that the grass came through and is growing luxuriantly.
On the hills and steeper slopes the rains have washed the ash to- the
bottoms along the creeks or into the sea.

At the experiment station, in order to furnish pasture and forage for
the live stock, experiments in revegetating the more level tracts have
been begun. Soon after the eruption had ceased manure was spread
on the land, which was then disked and seeded to rye. This gave some
winter pasture and a light crop the following year. In the spring of
1913 experiments were undertaken on an extensive scale. Land was
manured and commercial fertilizers were applied and a large amount
of grass and leguminous seed was sown with oats as a nurse crop. Wher-
ever nitrogen either in manure or as nitrate of lime was applied, good
growth was secured. Less growth followed where only Phosphoric
Acid and Potash were used and where no fertilizer was applied the
seed germinated, grew slowly, and finally died unless the roots were
able to penetrate the layer of ash and reach the soil below.

In gardens and wherever an especial effort was made to mix the
deposit with the underlying soil, better growth was reported than nor-
mal, the ash appearing to have been of benefit, probably by reason of
the improved physical condition of the soil.

P. L. RiCKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

The 730th meeting was held on November 22, 1913, at the Cosmos
Club, Vice President Fischer in the chair; 55 persons present. The
minutes of the 729th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. W. W. CoBLENTZ made an Exhibition of extrerne forms of ther-
mopiles, showing four forms. They are of bismuth-silver giving an
e.m.f. of 80 microvolts per degree and of bismuth-bismuth tin alloy
having a thermal e.m.f. of 127 microvolts. The novelty in these ther-
mopiles is the receiver, which is a completely opaque curtain which can
be adapted to many forms. The forms shown were: point receiver or
stellar thermopile, surface receiver to be used in place of the single

o ^ ...

thermal element in an Angstrom pyrheliometer, receivers m series
parallel reducing resistance one fourth, and the receivers in a U-shaped
trough for physiological work.

Mr. L. A. Bauer then spoke on Results of a first analysis of the Sun's
general magnetic field. The chief results are: (1) The magnetic axis
determined from the published data between parallells 60° N. and 60° S.
January, 1912, to February, 1913, is found to be inclined for the sun, 9°
to 12° to the axis of rotation, practically the same as that of the Earth;
(2) the Sun's magnetic field is asymmetrical about the equator in much
the same manner and direction as is that of the Earth; (3) the analysis
determined four instants distributed over a year w^hen north end of
Sun's magnetic axis was on the central meridian; since a whole number

proceedings: philosophical society 127

of rotations must have occurred during the intervals, it was possible to
determine a period of rotation appljdng, perhaps, to the Sun as a whole,
the preliminary synodic period thus found was nearly 33 days; (4) the
solar magnetic field is as complex as that of the Earth and the distorting
systems which are superposed upon a primary, simple magnetic field
follow laws very similar to those disclosed in the study of the Earth's
field. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Mr. Burgess dis-
cussed the question of magnetic state under high temperature and pres-
sure; Messrs. Swann and White also discussed the paper.

]\Ir. W. F. G. Swann then gave an illustrated paper on The atmospheric
potential gradient and a theory as to its connection with other phenomena
in atmospheric electricity. The application of the ordinary theory of
conduction of electricity in gases to the atmosphere shows the mere
existence of an atmospheric potential gradient of the kind found carries
with it the following requirements: (1) the ratio of number of positive
ions per cc. at the Earth's surface to the number of negative ions shall
be greater than unity; (2) the above ratio shall increase with potential
gradient ; (3) neither the number of positive ions per cc. nor the number
of negative ions per cc. at the Earth's surface are the same thing as the
numljers which would, if the atmospheric field were absent, exist in ordei
to result in a balance between recoml)ination and formation; (4) the
atmospheric potential gradient, in a homogeneous atmosphere, shall
decrease with the height in the neighborhood of the Earth's surface ; (5)
there should be an apparent, but not necessarily true, increase of the
rate of ionization with the height. The problem of the conduction of
electricity between parallel plates immersed in a gas shows that the usual
solution is quite inapplicable when the rate of formation of ions is small
and the plates are a finite distance apart; accordingh% a new calculation
is given. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bauer, Marvin, Sosman,
and Humphreys, particularly in reference to the present rather primitive
state of the science of atmospheric electricity.

The 731st meeting was held on December 4, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,
being a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences.
President Tittmann, of the Academy, in the chair; about 150 persons
present.

Professor Jean Perrin, of the University of Paris, spoke on Brownian^
movement and molecidar reality. The paper gave a brief review of the
history of the subject and of the author's work, and was illustrated by
cinematographic photographs showing three experiments to illustrate
the BroA\'nian movement.

The chair called for a rising vote of thanks to the speaker for his very
interesting and instructive address.

The 732d meeting, 43d annual meeting, was held on December 20,
1913, at the Cosmos Club, President Abbot in the chair; 28 persons
present. The minutes of the 42d annual meeting were read. The
report of the Secretaries was read by IMr. Humphreys, showing an active

128 proceedings: philosophical society

membership of 146, a net gain of 8 over last year. Fifteen regular meet-
ings have been held. The report was ordered accepted and placed on
file. The Treasurer's report, dated December 16, 1913, was read by
Mr. Sosman, showing total receipts of $983.44 for the year; total expendi-
tures of $1677.49, including cost of additional investment for $1000
registered bond of the Cleveland Illuminating Company; total invest-
ments $11,000; cash in hand $527.15. The report was ordered accepted
and placed on file. The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting
of Messrs. Paul, White, and Whitten, was read by Mr. Paul. This
report showed statements in Treasurer's report were correct and that
the arrears in dues are $57.00. The report was ordered accepted and
placed on file. The reading of the names of members entitled to vote
was omitted by unanimous consent. Messrs. Hersey and Paris were ap-
pointed tellers.

The following officers were duly elected for the ensuing year: Presi-
dent, L. A. Fischer; Vice Presidents, W. S. Eichelberger, Wm. Bowie,
G. K. Burgess, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman; Secre-
taries, J. A. Fleming, P. G. Agnew; General Committee, L. J. Briggs,
E. G. Fischer, N. E. Dorsey, R. L. Faris, R. A, Harris, F. A. Wolff,
E. Buckingham, D. L. Hazard and M. D. Hersey.

During the election the question of more suitable quarters for meetings
was informally discussed. A rising vote of thanks for his long, faithful
and cheerful service was extended the retiring Secretary, Mr. Hum-
phreys, The Secretary was instructed to determine as to whether the
present is the forty-second or forty-third annual meeting and to correct
minutes, if necessary. The rough minutes of the meeting were read,
corrected and approved. After adjournment a buffet luncheon was
served.

The 733d meeting was held on January 3, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
Vice President Eichelberger in the chair; 46 persons present.

The evening was devoted to the address of the retiring President, Mr.
C. G. Abbot, on The solar constant of radiation (see this Journal, p.
89).

The chair expressed to the speaker the thanks of the Society members
and friends for the interesting and illuminating paper.
• J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MARCH 19, 1914 No. 6

PHYSICS. — The brightness of optical images. P. G. Nutting,
Eastman Kodak Research Laboratory.

The relative brightness of an object and its image formed by a
lens may be calculated by certain well known formulae when the
relative aperture of the lens is small and the object distance great.
Experimental determinations of relative brightness have been
made but not with sufficient precision to permit of a satisfactory
deduction of the light lost during transmission through the lens.

In this article are given first an extension of the theory to
lenses of all apertures and focal lengths and to all object distances.
A method is described of measuring relative illumination with a
precision as high as that reached in the best ordinary photometry.
Both investigations were initiated and carried out at the research
laboratory of the Eastman Company. The unabridged paper
(to appear elsewhere) contains the complete mathematical theory
and experimental data.

The theoretical investigation leads to an expression for the
flux density I of radiant power, in watts per unit area, entering
the image, relative to that (7o) leaving the object. This expres-
sion is in terms of radius of effective aperture R of the lens, dis-
tance of object u and image v measured from the nodal point of
the lens. The formula is simplified if we substitute magnification
m for the ratio v/u of image distance to object distance, and in-
troduce the symbol a = R/F, the* ratio of the radius of effective
aperture to equivalent focal length F. The complete formula is

129

130

nutting: brightness of optical images

in which M =

f.i

VI

r.

~ = xM\m log
^o L

1

T

1 + ^

I + T 1 + T
a2

1 -m2

(1 + ?«)-

and T = m'^s

^

4

^

^

\ \

\\

^

^

T/D

Fig. 1

X.e

SV

/fa

In tlie special case of a very distant object, this expression
simplifies to ■k log (1 H-a^) or for narrow apertures to the ordinary
formula / ^I^Tra-. When image and object are at equal distances

(m = l),

/ 1 „ 8 + a2

— = -TV a- —

/o 2 (4 + a'Y

The relative brightness of image and object, computed by the
above formulae for any lens aperture F /D and any magnifica-
tion m =vju is given in the following table:

nutting: brightness of optical images

131

APER-
TURE

1

2

10

•20

oO

100

w = 0

.704

.1902

.0312

.00785

.00196

.000314

.000878

?n = .1

. 580

. 1580

.0255

.00()25

.00102

.000259

.000065

.521

.1321

,0219

.00553

.00134

.000210

.000051

m = .5

.333

.0864

.01290

.00349

.000878

.000135

.000044

m = 1

m = 2

.179

.4091

.00785

.00197

.000490

.000078

.000019

.0775

.0210

.00347

.000870

.000217

.0000346

.0000086

J3Cf

l_

I.
.0O3

y

\

\

^

\,

\

\

\

X

'^^

^

"~-

^

--.^

.s

m

10

Fig. 2

1.S

Figure 1 shows relative brightness plotted against relative
apertures, both on logarithmic scales. The curves are sensibly
straight lines.

Figure 2 shows the variation of relative brightness with rela-
tive distance of image and object, v/u. Relative brightness
decreases rapidl}^ at first, then slowly and steadily to zero for
great magnifications.

In measuring relative illuminations the arrangement finally
adopted was that shown in figure 3. The test object was a sheet

132

nutting: brightness of optical images

of opal glass >S, 14 inches square, forming the front face of a cubic-
al box containing a tungsten lamp of 1500 candle power. Op-
posite the source, 5 meters distant, was a white magnesia block

&-•-■::-'

□

Fig. 3

/ /

K/

//

/ /

/

/ /

/

//
/ /

/

//

'

/

'/y

/

.

//.I

/

/

(/,

/

/

/

/

f/.

/

/

//

<^;

//«-

M5

/

'^

/

/<

/'■

/

/■

i-

/

0'

//.

^/

/

//.■

/// '

/^

7/

/.'

///

V

A
//

'/

A

'' /€''

A

V

/

.90S

Fig. 4

o:s

M upon which an image of the source could be thrown by the
lens L under test. The brightness of this image was compared
with that of the same spot with the lens removed by means of a
modified Beckstein illuminometer.

nutting: brightness of optical images

133

The relative brightness of block (without lens) and source /i:7o
is the area of the source divided by the square of the distance to
the edge (not center) of the source to within 0.1 per cent error.
Relative brightness of image and block without lens is the meas-
ured ratio Ii.Ii, hence the desired relative illumination of image
and object I^'-Iq is obtained by multiplication. Since the com-
parison screen of the photometer is illuminated directly by the
source, there is no curve due to fluctuations in the source by mat-
black walls, and the remainder is measured and corrected for.

The results obtained on the different lenses are tabulated below.
For each test are given the numerical aperture at which the text
was made, the relative brightness 7i//o of source and receiving
block, relative distance m of image and object, observed relative
brightness /2//0, the same quantity computed — neglecting losses
b}^ reflection and absorption {B) — and finally the ratio of observed
to computed brightness T which is the percentage transmission
of the lens.

LENS

NO.

SERIES

EFL

AP.

/i:/o

m ' h:h B

T

Cooke Process

32051

V

IS"

F/8

.00475

.0865 .00820

.01058

.78

Cooke Process

31796

V

11"

8

.00475

.0675 .00841

.01085

.78

Cooke Process

33991

V

lY

8

.00475

.0417 .00870

.01136

.77

B. & L.-Z. Tessar.

1320682

IC

6"

4.74

.00494

.0309

.0249

.0328

.76

Cooke

40399

IC

.8"

4.72

.00499

.046

.0237

.0321

.74

Fuess Tel. Objec-

•

tive

95933

IC

6"
40 mm.

5.3
4.94

.00494

0.33

.0257
.0172

.0278
.0322

.92

B. & L.-Z. Tessar .

.54

Cooke Cine

•2"

3.67

.0393

.0585

.67

Zeiss-Krauss Tes-

sar

75 mm.

3.69

.0330

.0579

.57

Zeiss-Krauss Tes-

sar

150 mm.

4.71

.0234

.0355

.66

If there be no absorption of light within a lens, a transmission
of .76 corresponds, for 6 air glass surfaces, to a mean refractive
index of about 1.55; hence the higher observed transmissions are
quite up to theoretical possibility.

The first five lenses in the above list were used at various meas-
ured apertures. Data are given in the following tables, and
in the curves of figure 4.

134

gray: temperature uniformity

18 INXH COOKE SER. V

11 INXH COOKE SER. V

7| IXCH COOKE SER. V

STOP

Obs.

Comp.

Trans.

Obs.

Comp.

Trans.

Obs.

Comp.

Trans.

F/8

.00820

.01058

.774

.00841

.01085

.776

.00870

.01136

.766

11

.00374

.00459

.816

.00441

.00570

.774

.00463

.00600

.770

16

.00206

.00264

.783

.00210

.00270

.779

.00202 .00283

.714

22

.00108

.00140

.773

.00116

.00143

.781

.00115 .00150

.766

32

.00524

.000661

.792

.00051

,00067

.762

.00050 .00071

.72

45

268

336

.796

64

156

166

.94

90

100

083

.83

1

The Tessar and Cooke F/4.5 lenses gave results as follows:

B.-

L.-Z. TESSAR

Ic.

8 INCH COOKE SERIES II

STOP

STOP

Obs.

Comp.

Trans.

Obs.

Comp.

Trans.

F/4.74

.0249

.0328

.758

F/4 .72

.0237

.0321

.739

5.66

.0184

.0238

.724

5.68

.0172

.0232

.744

8

.00890

.0115

.766

8

.00836

.0112

.749

11

.00476

.00610

.765

11

.00425

.00595

.715

16

.00231

.00288

.804

16

.00210

.00282

.664

22

.00115

.00152

.765

22

.00117

.00149

.800

32

.00054

.00072

.750

These tables show a fair constancy of transmission T as the
stop is varied. It may be noted further that the departure of
actual from indicated aperture ratio is the same'in the high speed
lenses of different makes.

PHYSICS. — The production of temperature uniformity in an elec-
tric furnace. Arthur W. Gray. To appear in full in the
Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards,

In the present paper certain improvements of the electric
furnace described several years ago by the writer^ are presented;
experimental evidence shows that it is possible in the new furnace
to heat a region of considerable length to any desired temperature
up to about 700° C. so uniformly that irregularities in the tem-
perature distribution will be less than the effect of heterogeneity

» Joura. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2: 250. 1912.

gray: temperature uniformity 135

in thermoelements of the best quaUty, and probably less than
the uncertainties at present existing in our knowledge of the
temperature scale itself. The method has been applied to a
furnace designed to heat uniformly bars under measurement for
thermal expansivity; but the application of it clearly is not lim-
ited to problems of this general character.

The iron tube of the trial furnace,- together with its contents,
is retained without essential alteration. The principal change
consists in removing the heating coil from the tube upon which
it had formerly been wound and substituting two independent
concentric heaters to supply heat uniformly for the entire length
of the interior. In the experiments so far made air has formed
the insulation, filling the small annular space separating the orig-
inal tube from the first heater, and also the larger space between
the heaters, except for some layers of mica and of asbestos cloth,
in all about 4 mm. thick, wrapped tightly around the ribbon of
the inner heater. The outer one is covered in the same way,
and the space between this and the casing of the whole furnace
is filled with asbestos-magnesia compound. The end plugs con-
sisting of two thick blocks of a good heat conductor separated
by a thick layer of a poor conductor are attached to large insu-
lating heads filling the entire cross-section of the casing. In most
of the experiments heat was supplied to the plugs by means of
coils filling the grooves turned in the outer conducting blocks,
just as in the former furnace; but recently considerable improve-
ment was effected by cutting these coils out of action, and sub-
stituting flat coils of the same diameter as the outer heater,
against the ends of which they bear.

The concentric heaters are of nichrome ribbon wound longitu-
dinally, instead of helically, upon iron pipes. A flat mat is made
of the resistor ribbon and strips of micabeston^ woven together
in basket fashion. This is wrapped about the heater tube
(previously covered with a layer of micabeston), and the oppos-
ing ends of each insulating strip are lapped for a short distance

2 For an illustrated description see the communication cited above.
^ An insulating preparation of mica flakes and a resinous cement pressed into
large, thin, flexible sheets.

136 gray: temperature uniformity

and tucked under alternate lengths of the ribbon. Then follows
another layer of micabeston and, finally, a wrapping of asbestos
cloth. As each layer is applied it is drawn down firmly by a
tight helical bandage of cotton tape, which is removed as soon as
the layer has been cemented in place by warming and then cool-
ing the tube. The final wrapping of asbestos cloth is secured
by a bandage of nichrome ribbon. The lengths of ribbon bound-
ing each edge of the mat and the two on either side of the middle
are left long enough at one end to serve as electrical terminals.
When the heater is wound, these terminals come out at opposite
ends of a diameter at one extremity of the tube, and they con-
nect the two halves of the winding in parallel.

This method of winding possesses the following advantages:
(1) Any irregularities in the resistance of the heating ribbon are
distributed in such a way as to produce a minimum effect upon the
longitudinal distribution of temperature. (2) The winding is non-
inductive. (3) The maximum difference in electrical potential
that can occur between adjacent portions of the winding is lim-
ited to the drop in a length of ribbon twdce as long as the furnace.
This makes the danger of arcing by accidental contact consider-
ably less than in the ordinary form of inductive winding. (4)
If adjacent windings should accidentally touch, only a short
length of ribbon could be short-circuited. (5) Spaces for the side
openings down which the length-defining wires are suspended
can be provided without affecting the heat supplied per unit
length of the furnace tubes. (6) The location of the terminals
combines both convenience and safety.

A furnace of the type here described requires considerable
time to attain thermal equilibrium. The lag, however, causes
no great inconvenience, because in any precise expansion deter-
minations sufficient time should be allowed for the specimen to
reach mechanical equilibrium, that is to say, for all unbalanced
internal stresses to disappear. The gain in temperature uni-
formity and constancy more than counterbalances any time lost
from avoidable lag. Nevertheless, it seems likely that a furnace
amply sufficient for most purposes could be made with consid-
erably less lag. In this connection it might be mentioned that

gray: temperature uniformity 137

the principal use of the inner concentric heater is to hasten the
attainment of approximate thermal equilibrium. Experience has
shown that when the proper adjustment has been secured, the
steadying action of the insulation within the outer heater is
sufficient to wipe out fluctuations in both losses and supply of
heat.^

The temperatures and temperature distributions were deter-
mined by two thoroughly protected Pt-Pt Rh thermoelements of
the best quality in connection with a Diesselhorst potentiometer.
The sensitivity was such that one millimeter change in the gal-
vanometer deflection indicated a change in temperature of be-
tween 0.058° and 0.086°, depending on the temperature.

Even before the flat end-heating coils were substituted for the
coils in the outer conducting blocks of the plugs, fair uniformity
throughout the central 30 cm. for which the furnace was designed
could be easily obtained by proper adjustment of the heating
currents. Good performance was not limited to some particular
temperature, as is the case with furnaces in which adjustment
of the distribution is attempted by the ordinary cut-and-try
method of crowding the windings near the ends. For example,
at 667° C. the mean temperature throughout the full 30 cm. was
0.37° lower than the temperature at the center, with a maximum
drop of one degree at the extreme" ends of the interval; at 145°
the mean temperature over the same region was 0.08° lower than
at the center, with a maximum drop of 0.25° at the extreme ends.

As an indication of the constancy attainable, it might be men-
tioned that during the twenty minutes that passed while the
observations at 667° were being made the temperature at the
center rose 0.067°, or at the rate of 0.2° per hour. During this
period no attention whatever was paid to regulation of the heat-
ing currents.

'' The use of two concentric heaters bears some resemblance to the cascade fur-
nace described by Harker (Proc. Roy. Soc. A 76: 237. 1905), for reaching a temper-
ature of about 2000°C in a heater-tube made of the same material as Nernst lamp
glowers. To avoid the necessity of having contacts on this tube capable of carrying
relatively large currents, and the consequent severe stress on the parts, it was sur-
rounded by a coil of nickel wire heated bj^ an independent circuit to about 1000°,
and insulated from the inner tube by a layer of zirconia. No precaution seems to
have been taken to secure uniformity of temperature within.

138

gray: temperature uniformity

Greater uniformity of temperature in the central region than
had been secured by other experimenters after repeated attempts
to adjust properly the crowding of windings was regularly ob-
tained at widely differing temperatures even when heat losses
through the ends were reduced merely by the action of the double
plugs without supplying any heating current whatever to the
coils in the end blocks. Adjustment of the temperature gradient
was considerably facilitated by the installation of the flat coils
covering the ends of the outer heater tube described above.
This change also made it rather easy to produce fair uniformity
for the entire length of the heater tubes — 32 cm. longer than the
bars the furnace was designed to heat.

That no unusual effort is required to obtain moderate uni-
formity of temperature is shown by the table below, which rep-
resents sixteen consecutive runs made while determining the
expansivity of a bar of invar. Alongside the temperature ob-
served at the center is recorded

Temperature Distribution in Consecutive Trials of an Electric

Furnace

TEMPERATURE

CORRECTION

TEMPERATURE

CORRECTION

390°

-0.16°

233°

-0.10°

393

-0.13 •

214

-0.05

278

-0.03

344

-0.05

271

+0 .03

314

-0.10

242

+0.13

445

-0.25

170

-0.04

294

-0.05

188

+0.04

262

+0.03

207

-0.10

175

+0.15

the correction that must be added to obtain the mean temperature
throughout the 30 cm. occupied by the bar. In many of the runs
the heating currents required to maintain the desired tempera-
ture were estimated and switched on late in the afternoon. The
furnace was then left to itself over night. The temperature
distribution found the following morning was explored and used.
Reference to the table shows that in only one case (and that
under known unfavorable conditions) did the mean temperature
differ by more than 0.16° from that at the center.

CLARK : NOCTURNAL ANIMALS 139

ZOOLOGY. — Nocturnal animals. Austin H. Clark, National
Museum.

Ill the discussion of zoogeographical problems, and especially
in the reconstruction of hypothetical land bridges over which ani-
imals are assumed to have migrated from one region into another,
comparatively little attention has been paid to analyzing the
data upon which sweeping generalizations are based.

We are tempted to consider as a homogeneous unit all of the
animals collectively occurring in any one locality, speaking of
this unit as the ''fauna" of this locality, and forgetting that in
reality it is a heterogeneous collection of animal forms derived
from all of the more adaptable and virile types in all the faunal
complexes which from the distant past to the present day have
swept over the region.

Since in reality the terrestrial animals of any given locality
collectively form a heterogeneous faunal complex, instead of a
homogeneous entity, it becomes essential that we should endeavor
to find some criterion by which this complex may be separated
into its original constituents, or at least whereby a beginning may
be made in this direction.

On land, abundance of light alternates with a more or less com-
plete absence of light, and we therefore find many animal types
which are strictly diurnal, like most birds, many which are
strictly nocturnal, like the bats, and many which are indiffer-
ently one or the other, like most insects.

Nocturnal animals, properly speaking, are animals which,
while capable of performing all their normal functions in the day
time, and not dependent upon other nocturnal animals, are ac-
tive only at night.

Thus none of the amphibians come within the category of
nocturnal animals, for the amphibians are active whenever the
humiditj^ is high enough so that they are in no danger of dermal
desiccation, whether at night or during rains; similarly, though
active chiefly or entirely at night, none of the terrestrial Crus-
tacea or molluscs are properly nocturnal.

]Many of the herbivorous mammals are most active at night, at
which time they often make long journeys for water; this is done

140 CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS

to avoid overheating and loss of too much water from the body,
and, in many places, to avoid certain insects, such as the species
of Simulium, Glossina, the Tabanidae, etc., which, larger and
more dangerous than any nocturnal insects, always breed in or
near water and bite only in the daytime.

The predacious mammals and birds are active chiefly (though
not by any means entirely) at night for the reason that, following
the path of least resistance, they always conform to the habit
of taking their prey when it is least able to defend itself, and
therefore they must be considered as fortuitously, not as truly,
nocturnal.

The day is physiologically the most favorable time for the per-
formance of the normal functions of animals, and at the same time
it is the period of greatest meteorological and thermal diversity.
Therefore it would seem that new types of animals would always
first arise as diurnal species.

If a new animal type arose as a diurnal form, and proved
virile and adaptable, it would soon populate all available situa-
tions, and would increase so that there would be no room for
further additions to its numbers.

But a type sufficiently virile and adaptable to attain such a
condition would most assuredly give rise to crepuscular, and
finally to nocturnal, forms. It is at this developmental stage
that we find, for example, the rodents and the lepidoptera of
the present day.

A new type of subsequent origin, of the same habits but eco-
nomically more efficient, would follow the same course, and there-
fore would extirpate the diurnal species of the preceding less
efficient type long before it had any effect upon the nocturnal
species, so that, when the second type had become fully estab-
lished, we would find it consisting of diurnal and crepuscular
species, while the older type would consist of strictly nocturnal
species, hiding by day and encroaching upon their more eflScient
rivals' food suppl}^ at night.

This is exactly the process by which the deep sea fauna has
been formed from the littoral fauna.

CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS 141

The strictly nocturnal mammals are the elephants, the hippo-
potamus, the tapirs, the rhinoceros, the sloths, Galeopterus
(Cynocephalus), the anteaters, the aard-varks, the armadillos, the
pangolins, the bats, the opossums, the solenodons, the lemurs
(except in Madagascar), and the monotremes (except the
aquatic species); among the birds the kiwis and the owl-parrots
(Stringops) are nocturnal, and among the reptiles the geckos;
among the invertebrates the most striking and isolated nocturnal
types are the onychophores and the millipeds.

A glance at this list of strictly nocturnal types brings out many
points of interest.

Among the birds and mammals the average size is much greater
than that of the diurnal types.

oVIost of the nocturnal mammals have long palaeontological
records, and, collectively, the included groups are considered as
much more ancient, primitive and aberrant than the diurnal
types.

Taken as a whole the nocturnal animals of the globe indicate
zoogeographic affinities very different from those indicated by
the diurnal animals; for instance, the nocturnal fauna of America
shows a close affinity to that of Africa, and also an affinity with
that of Australia, while the occurrence of tapirs, otherwise con-
fined to the Malayan region, is of interest; but the affinity indi-
cated by overwhelmingly the greater part of the diurnal fauna
of America is with eastern Asia.

The two fundamental differences in the conditions under which
the nocturnal animals live as contrasted with the diurnal are (1)
the much lower and more uniform temperature, and (2) the
more or less complete absence of light.

It is precisely these two differences which delimit the condi-
tions under which the abyssal marine animals live as contrasted
with the httoral marine animals, and we are therefore not sur-
prised to find that the nocturnal fauna of the land corresponds
in its relation to the diurnal fauna exactl}^ to the abyssal fauna
of the oceans in its relation to the littoral fauna.

This comparison enables us to understand how a given type
(as for example the bats), exclusively nocturnal in the tropics.

142 CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS

may become more or less diurnal in the cold northern regions,
just as an organism confined exclusively to the abysses in the
tropics may become sublittoral, or even littoral, in the antarctic
or in the arctic; for the coeflficient of virility and adaptability
necessary to enable an animal type to thrive under nocturnal
conditions in the tropics, or in the deep sea, is equivalent to
that necessary to enable it to exist in unnaturally cold surround-
ings, or in unnaturally great diurnal temperature variations.

In this short paper no attention has been paid to the innumer-
able intergrades between the intertidal fauna, and the faunas of
the land and of fresh water, or to the singularly instructive faunas
of deserts, wet belts, saline lakes, caves, or of abnormal situa-
tions in general, nor to isolated island faunas, nor to the charac-
ters presented by burrowing animals collectively considered ; nor
has attention been given to the singular fact that, parallel to the
abstract similarity between the nocturnal terrestrial fauna and
the abyssal fauna of the oceans, the fresh water fauna is actually
more closely allied to that of the deep sea than either is to the
littoral fauna from which both have been derived, but in which
the ancestral types have been supplanted by more efficient types
of subsequent origin which as yet have not intruded either into
the fresh water or into the deep sea; though these points, and
many others, have a very intimate bearing upon the problem
of the nocturnal terrestrial fauna.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMmTRY .—Selective adsorption by soils. E.
G. Parker. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 179-188. 1913.

Soils not onh^ have the power of adsorbing dissolved salts from solu-
tions but also of adsorbing one ion at a greater rate than another.

The presence of bases of the soil (Ca, Mg, etc.) in solution after
shaking certain salt solutions with or percolating them through a soil
is probably not due to a direct chemical reaction of the salt in solution
^vith the silicates of the soil, but to a reaction of free acid, resulting
from a selective adsorption of the cation, with the mineral components
of the soil. The rate of adsorption of chlorin ions from a solution of
potassium chlorid by soils is much less than of potassium ions. The
selective adsorption of potassium from a potassium-chlorid solution
by a soil increases in amount with the concentration up to a certain
point and then remains practically constant. In general, the smaller
the soil particles the greater the selective adsorption of potassium from
a potassium-chlorid solution. The presence of sodium nitrate decreases
the adsorption of potassium from a solution of potassium chlorid by a
soil up to a concentration of about 37.5 grams of potassium chlorid per
liter and then increases it. The presence of monobasic calcium phos-
phate does not change appreciably the adsorption of potassium from a
potassium-chlorid solution.

Finally, if a mineral fertilizer be applied to a soil and exposed to the
rain and thus dissolved and carried through the soil in solution, these
substances will be adsorbed (an entirely physical phenomenon) either
as a whole or selectively from the solution by the vast surface of the
soil particles and will be held there by this same physical force until
the plant or subsequent leaching removes it.

143

144 abstracts: entomology

The presence of other mineral substances added to the soil may or
maj' not increase or decrease the rate at which this adsorptive phenom-
enon takes place. E. G. P.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The Calliephialtes parasite of the codling moth. R.
A. CusHMAN. Journal of Agricultural Research 1 : 211-237. 1913.

This parasite was introduced into California from Europe in 1904.
The start on the work discussed was made with specimens secured from
the California State Insectary.

The adult female is about half an inch long, exclusive of the oviposi-
tor, which about equals the body in length. It is long and slender,
black with red legs. The male is somewhat shorter and more slender
than the female. There is considerable variation in size depending on
the larval food supply.

The codling moth is attacked in the larval stage after it has spun
its cocoon, the parasite first killing the host by stinging and then depos-
iting a single egg within the cocoon. The egg is white and smooth, 1.5
mm_. long and about one-fifth as wide at the widest part, rounded at
the cephalic end and tapering toward the caudal end. The incubation
period was found to average slightly over two days.

The newly hatched larva is yellowish in color with the head large
and distinct. After the first molt the form changes to the normal
larval habitus of insects of this class. It feeds externally on the host,
entirely consuming the fluid contents. This requires on the average
about 7 days, after which the larva spins its cocoon. About 10 days
later for females and 7.5 days for males, pupation takes place. The
act of pupation requires about 15 minutes for males and 35 to 41 min-
utes for females, the difference being due to the fact that after exuvia-
tion the ovipositor increases greatly in length. The average pupal
period for females was about 1 1 days and for males about 9 days. The
average time spent in the cocoon by females was 21.5 days and by males
17.7 days.

Transformation to the adult took place about a day before the emer-
gence from the cocoon. The average total developmental period for
females was about 30 days and for males about 25 days.

There were found to be two complete and a partial third generation
during the breeding season, a part of the third and all of the fourth
constituting the hibernating brood. Hibernation takes place in the
full-grown larval stage. The males appear in the spring about 10
days ahead of the females. R. A. C.

abstracts: entomology 145

ENTOMOLOGY. — The Occurrence of a cotton boll weevil in Arizona.
W. DwiGHT Pierce. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 89-96,
figs. 1-9. 1913.

A new variety of the cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grayidis thur-
beriae, has been found to occur in a state of nature on the co-called Ari-
zona wild cotton, Thiirberia thespesioides, in mountain canyons of the
Santa Catalina, and Santa Rita ^Mountains of Arizona.

The weevil breeds in the buds and bolls of this plant at altitudes of
4000 to 5000 feet. It can hardly have more than two full generations
a year because of the late blooming season of the plant. The species
hibernates as an adult in the bolls, remaining in the pupal cell often
until September 1, although the majority probably emerge in August.

Attack on the buds begins about August 15. The egg is usuall}-
inserted in the lower part of the bud, and this soon drops to the ground.
The larva develops and pupates in the fallen bud and emerges in a few
weeks. The second generation is probably almost entirely on the
bolls.

At Victoria, Texas it has been found that the Arizona variety can
breed in cotton and that it can interbreed with the genuine cotton boll
weevil.

The greatest significance of the discovery of this weevil lies in the
fact that the westward extension of cotton culture has brought cotton
production to within twenty miles of one of the canyons where the wee-
vil was actually found.

The apparently greater adaptability of the Arizona form to extremes
of climate may also indicate the possibility that this form could success-
fully endure the severe climate of the western Texas cotton areas where
the boll weevil has never succeeded in establishing itself. W. D. P.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of twenty-three new genera and thirty-
one new species of Ichneumon-flies. Henry L. Viereck. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 359-386. December
31, 1913.
Describes the new genera Eristernaulax, Macroneuroides, Tracha-
gathis and Zadiolcogaster in the Braconidae, and in the Ichneumonidae
the following as new: Aglaojoppidea, Cryptanuridimorpha, Crypto-
phion, Cryptopterigimorpha, Digonocryptus, Epiopelmidea, Joppo-
cryptus, Lamprocryptidea, Monogonocryptus, Phaenolabrorychus,
Photocryptus, Polyaenidea, Polyc\Ttidea, Polycj^timorpha, Thymari-

146 abstracts: entomology

morpha, Zaglyptomorpha and Zamastrus from South America, and
Diaglyptidea and Photoptera from Java. The new species described are
mostly from South America. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Miscellaneous contributions to the knowledge of the

weevils of the families Attelahidae and Brachyrhinidae. W. D wight

Pierce. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 365-426.

May 23, 1913.

In the portion of this paper deahng with the family Attelahidae the

author treats only of the subfamily Rhynchitinae which he divides into

two new tribes, giving a key to the species of the genus Eugnamptus, to

which most of the North American species belong. In the family

Brachyrhinidae the author proposes a new classification in which he

describes five new subfamilies, twenty-six new tribes, the new genera

Amydrogmus, Hadromeropsis, Bradyrhynchoicles, and Glaphyrometopus,

and the new subgenera Panscopidius 2,nd Neopanscopus, together with

twenty-four new species and nine new varieties. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — New potato weevils from Andean South America.
W. DwiGHT Pierce. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 347-
351, figs. 1-3, pis. 39-41. January 10, 1914.

During 1913, shipments of potatoes for propagation by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture from various points on the western slope of South
America were found infested by live weevils when received at Washing-
ton, D. C.

Three species of weevils were found in these various shipments.
Their manner of attack was such that it was extremely difficult to detect
infestation in lightly infested potatoes. The larval feeding cell is not
usually very large and is entirely within the tuber, although near the
surface. Advices from Peru indicate that infested potatoes are not un-
commonly served at the table, because of the difficulty of detecting the
injury externally.

The species Rhigopsidius tucumanus Heller occurs in Argentina, Peru,
Bolivia, and Chile.

The other species, both representing new genera are found in Peru.
These species are described as Premnotrypes solani, n. sp. and Trypo-
premnon latithora, n. sp. W. D. P.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style ussd below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journ.vl.

PALEONTOLOGY

KxowLTox. F. H. Results of a paleobotanical study of the coalbearijig rocks of the

Raton Mesa region of Colorado and New Mexico. American Journal of Science,

IV. 36: 526-530. May, 1913.
KxowLTON, F. H. The fossil forests of Arizona. American Forestry 19: 207-

218. April, 1912.
White, D. The fossil flora of West Virginia. West Virginia Geological Survey

5 (A) : 390-453, 488-491. 1913.
White, D. A new fossil plant from the state of Bahia, Brazil, .\merican Journal

of Science, IV. 35: 633-636, f. 1-3. June 1913. (Descvihes Alethopteris Bran-

neri, sp. nov. — W.R.M.).

EVOLUTION

CoLLixs, G. N. and Kemptox, J. H. Inheritance of waxy endosperm in hybrids of
Chinese maize. IV^ Conference Internationale Genetique, Pari,s, 1911: 347-
357. 1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. and Kemptox, J. H. Inheritance of ica.xy endosperm in hybrids
with sweet corn. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 120 : 21-27, f . 1. April 5,
1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. Mosaic coherence of characters in seeds of maize. Bureau of Plant
Industry Circular 132: 19-21. June 19, 1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. Mendelian factors. Science 38: 88, 89. July 18, 1913.

Swingle, W. T. Variation in first generation hijbrids {imperfect dominance); its
possible explanation through zygotaxis. IV^ Conference Internationale Gene-
tique, Paris, 1911: 581-594, f. 1-10. 1913.

BOTANY

Bartlett, H. H. Systematic studies on Oenothera, — //. The delimitation of
Oenothera biennis L. Rhodora 15: 48-53, pi. 102, 103. April 12, 1913.

Brittox, N. L. and Rose, J. N. Studies in Cactaceae. — /. Contributions from
the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 239-242, pi. 66^73. April 10, 1913. (In-
cludes descriptions of 7 new species in Echinocactus, Epiphyllum, Hylocereus,
Nyctocereus, Opuntia, and Wittia.— W. R. M.)

Collins, G. N. A variety of maize with silks maturing before the tassels. Bureau
of Plant Industry Circular 107: 3-11, f. 1-3. February 7, 1913.

Cook, O. F. The abortion of fruiting branches in cotton. Bureau of Plant Industry
Circular 118: 11-16. -March 22. 1913.

147

148 references: botany

Davis, B. M. A catalogue of the marine flora of Woods Hole and vicinity. Bureau
of Fisheries Bulletin 31 : 795-833. 1913.

Davis, B. M. General characteristics of the algal vegetation of Buzzards Bay and
Vineyard Sound in the vicinity of Woods Hole. Bureau of Fisheries Bulletin
31 : 443-544, charts 228-274. 1913.

Dewey, L. H. A purple-leaved mutation in hemp. -Bureau of Plant Industry
Circular 113: 23-24. February 15, 1913.

Eggleston, W. W. a trip across Vermont by Luigi Castigilioni, an Italian noble-
man, in August, 1785. Bulletin of the Vermont Botanical Club 8: 21, 22.
April, 1913.

Fairohild, D. and Simmonds, E. The grafted papaya as an annual fruit tree.
Bureau of ^lant Industry Circular 119: 3-13, f. 1-4. March 29, 1913.

Fairchild, D. Some Asiatic Actinidias. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular
110: 7-12, pi. 1, 2+f. 1, 2. January 18, 1913.

Greene, E. L. The two Howells, botanists. American Midland Naturalist 3:
30-32. January, 1913.

Hitchcock, A. S. Mexican grasses in the United States National Herbarium.
Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 17: 181-389. July 15, 1913.

Kempton. J. H. Floral abnormalities in maize. Bureau of Plant Industry Bul-
letin 278, 5-18, pi. 1, 2+f. 1, 2. April 2, 1913.

McKee, R. and Ricker, P. L. Nonperennial Medicagos: the agronomic value and
botanical relationship of the species. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 267:
5-38, pi. 1-13. February 21, 1913.

Maxon, W. R. Saffordia, a new genus of ferns from, Peru. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections 61^: 1-5, pi. 1, 2+f. 1. May 26, 1913. (Describes Saffordia
induta, a new genus and species allied to Trachypteris. — W. R. M.)

Meade, R. M. Supernumerary carpels in cotton bolls. Bureau of Plant Industrj'
Circular 111 : 25-28, f. 1, 2. February 1, 1913.

Meade, R. M. Methods of securing self-pollination in cotton. Bureau of Plant
Industry Circular 121: 29, 30, f. 1. April 12, 1913.

Oakley, R. A. and Garver, S. Two types of proliferation in alfalfa. Bureau of
Plant Industry Circular 115: 3-13, f. 1-8. March 1, 1913.

Piper, C. V. On the identity of Poa crocata Michx. Torreya 13: 35. February,
1913.

Piper, C. V. The wild prototype of the cowpea. Bureau of Plant Industry Circu-
lar 124: 29-32. May 3, 1913.

Ricker, P. L. Directions for collecting plants. Bureau of Plant Industry Cir-
cular 126: 27-35, f. 1-5. May 10, 1913.

Smith, J. D. and Rose, J. N. A monograph of the Hauyeae and Gongylocarpeae,
tribes of the Onagraceae. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium
16: 287-298, f. 45-.54. August 23, 1913. (Includes descriptions of Hauya Rus-
byi, sp. nov., and of the new genera Burragea and Xylonagra. — W. R. M.)

Spaulding, P. A^o^es o?i Cronartium Comptoniae. Phytopathology 3 : 62. Feb-
ruary, 1913.

Standley, p. C. Five new plants from New Mexico. Proceedings of the Biolog-
ical Society of Washington 26: 115-120. May 21, 1913. (Describes Nuttallia
Springeri, Amelanchier australis, Amsonia arenaria, A. hirtella, and Chrys-
othamnus elatior, spp. nov. — W. R. M.)

references: phytopathology 149

Steele, E. S. Four new species of goldenrod from the eastern United States.
Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 221-224. February
12, 1913. (Four new species of Solidago are here described. — W. R. M.)

Steele, E. S. An invesliyalion of "Lacimaria scariosa." Torreya 13: 78, 79.
April 6, 1913.

SuDWORTH, G. B. Forest Alius. Geographic distribution of North American
trees. Part I — Pines. Maps 1-36, 1913. (U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service Publication.)

Swingle, W. T. 2'ype of species in botanical laxonouiy. Science 37: 864-867.
June 6, 1913.

TiDESTROM, I. Novitales florae uiahensis. Proceedings of the Biological So-
ciety of Washington 26 : 121, 122. May 21, 1913. (Describes Delphinium pine-
torum, Eriogonum Kearneyi, Oreocarya Shantzii, and Merlensia Sampsonii,
spp. nov.— W. R. M.)

Wight, W. F. North American species of the genus Amygdalus. Dudley Memo-
rial Volume (Stanford Univer.sity Publication), 130-137. 1913. (Includes
description of Amygdalns Havardii, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

PHYTOPATHOLOGY

BuNZEL, H. H. A biochemical study of the curly-top of sugar beets. Bureau of

Plant Industry Bulletin 277: 5-28. March 13, 1913.
Cook, O. F. Leaf-cut, or ioinosis, a disorder of cotton seedlings. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 120: 29-34, f. 1. April 5, 1913.
Fairchild, D. The discovery of the chestnut bark disease in China. Science 38:

297-299. August 29, 1913.
Field, E. C. Fungous diseases liable to be disseminated in shipmeni.s of sugar cane.

Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 126: 3-13, f. 1-7. May 10, 1913.
Hawkins, L. A. Experiments in the control of grape anthracnose. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 105: 3-8, pi. 1, 2. February 10, 1913.
Hedgecock, G. G. Notes on some western Uredineae which attack forest trees. II.

Phytopathology 3 : 15-17. February, 1913.
Orton, W. a. International phytopathology and quarantine legislation. Phyto-
pathology 3 : 144-151. August 14, 1913.
Orton, W. A. Powdery dry-rot of the potato. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular

110: 13-15. January 18, 1913.
Pool, V. W., and McKay, M. B. The control of the sugar-beet leaf-spot. Bureau

of Plant Industry Circular 121: 13-17. April 12, 1913.
Roberts, J. W. The ''rough bark" disease of the yellow Newton apple. Bureau

of Plant Industry Bulletin 280:5-16, f. 1, 2, pi. 1-3. April 12, 1913. (This

disease is caused by Phomopsis mali. — W. R. M.).
Spaulding, p. The present status of the white pine blister rust. Bureau of Plant

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January 25, 1913.
Shear, C. L. and Stevens, N. E. Cidtural characters of the chestnut blight and

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1.50 references: entomology

Shear, C. L. and Stevens, N. E. The chestnut-hlight parasite (Endothia para-

sitica) from China. Science 38: 295-297. August 29, 1913.
Shear, C. L. The lijpe of Sphaeria radicalis Schw. Phytopathology 3: 191,

192. August 14, 1913.
Shear, C. L. Soitie obscrraiions on phy to pat holoy tea I pruhleiUfi in Europe and

America. Pliytopathology 3: 77-87. April,' 1913.
Shear, C L. Endothia radicalis {Schw.). Phytopathology 3: 61. February,

1913.
Wollenweber, H. W. Studies on the Fusarinni problem. Phytopathology 3:

24-50, pi. 5, f. 1. February, 1913. (Includes descriptions of Fnsarium redo-

lens, F. conglutinans, and F. Sclerotium, spp. nov. — W. R. M.)

ENTOMOLOGY

Alexander, C. P. A revision of the South American dipterous insects of the
family Plychopteridae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 331-
335. February 20, 1913. (Includes description of a second South American
species, Tanyderus patagonicus. — J. C. C.)

Alexander, C. P. A synopsis of part of the neotropical craneflies of the sub-
family Limnobinae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 481-549,
pis. 65-68. April 30, 1913. (Treats of the tribes Eriopterini and Limnophilini
and describes thirty-seven new species and three new subspecies. The
author gives keys to the genera and species included. — J. C. C.)

Bruner, L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthopterq {Acri-
diidae-short-liorned locusts. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44:
177-187. February 11, 1913. (Two new genera, Cumainocloidus and Uru-
bamba, are described, together with six new species and one new variety. —
J. C. C.)

Bruner, L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthoptera (Ad-
denda to the Acridiidae-short-horned locusts). Proceedings of the U. S.
National Museum 46 : 585-586. June 11, 1913. (One new species is described.
— J. C. C).

Caudell, a. N. Notes on nearctic orthopterous insects. I. Nonsaltatorial forms.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 595-614. April 18, 1913. (De-
scribes one new species and gives keys to the genera and species of various
groups. — J. C. C.)

Caudell, A. N. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthoptera
{exclusive of Acridiidae). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44:
347-357. February 20, 1913. (Describes nine new species in several genera.
—J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoplera, — No. 7. Proceedings of the
U. S. National Museum 45: 309-317. Text fig. 1. May 22, 1913. (Describes
Pareniaca and eleven new species in the superfamily Chalcidoidea and three
new species in the Cynipoidea, mainly from North America. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoplera, — No. 6. Proceedings of the
U. S. National Museum 45 : 241-260. Text figs. 1-2. May 22, 1913. (Deseribes
the new genera Bruchocida. Coccidoxenus, Zacalochlora, Trichomalopsis,
Aplastomorpha, Cassidocida, and Thriposoma in the Chalcidoidea, together
with twenty-six new species mostly in the same superfamily. — J. C. C.)

references: entomology 151

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoptera, — No. S. Proceedings of the
U. S. National Museum 46: 343-352. December 23, 1913. (Describes Peri-
lampidea, Xenomymar and Neoymar (new genera) and ten new species,
mostly from Trinidad, in the Chalcidoidea and three new species in the
Serphidoidea. — -J. C. C.)

CocKERELL, T. D. A. N'ew parasitic Hymenoptera of the genus Eiphosoma. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 61-64. August 23, 1913. (De-
scribes four new species and gives a table to the species occurring in North
and Central America. — ^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Descriptions of neiv species of Saturnian moths in the collection
of the United States National Museum. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 44: 121-134. February 20, 1913. (Deals with the genus Hylesia,
gives a key to the species, and describes thirtj^ new species mostly from
South America. — ^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Lcpidoptera. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 627-649. July 22, 1913. (De-
scribes forty new species, two new subspecies and the new genus Altimaenas
(family Arctiidae). In all 242 species are listed. — J. C. C.)

Dy.\r, H. G. Descriptions of new Lepidoptera, chiefly from Mexico. Proceedings
of the U. S. National Museum 44: 279-324. February 11, 1913. (Describes
the following new genera: Epimolis in the Arctiidae; Hypenopsis in the
Noctuidae; Calomathetes in the Notodontidae; Edia, Paranatula and Bal-
lovia in the Pyralidae. A total of 117 new species and one new subspecies in
several families are described. — J. C. C.)

Gahan, a. B. New Hymenoptera from North America. Proceedings of the U. S.
National Museum 46 : 431-443, pi. 39. December 30, 1913. (Includes descrip-
tions of Euphoriana and Eumicrosoma, new genera of the families Braconidae
and Scelionidae respectively, and of 13 new species, mostly of the superfamilv
Chalcidoidea.— J. C. C.)

Girault, a. a. a systematic monograph of the chalcidoid Hymenoptera of the sub-
family Signiphorinae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 : 189-233.
May 22, 1913. (Describes fourteen new species in the single genus recognized
in the subfamily. — J. C. C.)

Kennedy, C. H. Notes on the Odonala, or dragonflies, of Bumping Lake, Wash-
ington. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 111-126. September
30, 1913.

Knab, F. Gad-flies {Tabanidae) of the genus Stibasoma. Proceedings of the U.
S. National Museum 46 : 407-412. December 23, 1913. (Includes a key to the
American members of this genus and descriptions of one new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. N ew moth-flies (Psychodidae) bred froyn Bromcliaceae and other plants.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 103-106. August 23, 1913.
(Describes four new species of the genus Psychoda, bred from water found
at the bases of the leaves of Bromeliaceae and in flower bracts of Calathea.
—J. C. C.)

M.\LLOCii, J. R. The genera of flies in the subfamily Botanobiinae ivith hind tibial
spur. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 2.39-266, pis. 23-24.
December 6, 1913. (Gives keys to the four genera included and to the species
of the genus Hippelates, ten of which are new; includes also descriptions of
the new genera Prohippelates and Pseudohippelates. — J. C. C.)

152 references: entomology

Malloch, J. R. A STjnopsis of the genera of Agromyzidae, loith descriptions of
new genera and ftpccies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 127-
154, pis. 4-6. December 6, 1913. (Gives keys to the subfamilies, tribes, genera
and to the American species of some of the genera; describes Paraleucopis,
Paramilichia and Euchlorops, new genera; proposes Paramadiza, new name
for Madiza of authors, not of Fallen; describes eleven new species. — J. C C.)

Malloch, J. R. Azotes on some American Diptera of the genus Fannia, with descrip-
tions of new species. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 621-631,
pi. 77. April 30, 1913. (Describes five new species and gives a key to the
species of one group of the genus. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Descriptions of new species of American flies of the family Bor-
boridae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 361-372. February
20, 1913. (Describes ten new species in several genera. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Two new species of diptera in the United Slates National Museum
collection. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 461-463. February
20, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. Three new species of Anthomyidae (Diptera) in the United States
National Museum collection. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45:
603-607. June 11, 1913.

Morgan, A. C. New genera and species of Thysanoptera, with notes ondislrihution
and food plants. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 1-55. August
23; 1913. (Describes the new genera Rhipiphorothrips, Microthrips, and
Horistothrips, nineteen new species, and one new variety, mostly from North
America. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. a. a synopsis and descriptions of the ncarctic species of sawjlies
of the genus Xyela, with descriptions of other new species of sawflies. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 265-281, text fig. 1. May 22, 1913.
(Describes the new genus Allantopsis in the family Tenthredinidae and
twenty-one new species in various genera. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. A. New parasitic Hymenoptera belonging to the tribe Xoridini. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 : 353-361. May 22, 1913. (Describes
eleven new species. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. A. Descriptions of thirteen new species of parasitic Hymenoptera and
a table to certain species of the genus Ecphylus. Proceedings of the U. S. Na-
tional Museum 45 : 533-540. June 4, 1913.

Rohwer, S. A. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera,
superfamilies Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 44: 439-454. February 20, 1913. (Describes fourteen new species.
—J. C. C.)

Viereck, H. L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera-
Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 469-470.
February 20, 1913. (Describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Viereck, H. L. Descriptioris of six new genera and twelvencw species of Ichneumon-
flies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 639-648. April IS, 1913.
(Describes the new genera Amyosoma, Arichelonus, Diachasmimorpha, and
Shirakia in the family Braconidae, and Eripternimorpha and Zaparaphylax
in the family Ichneumonidae. — J. C. C.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV APRIL 4, 1914 No. 7

MINERALOGY. — Supplementary note on the crystal form of
hodgkinsonite.^ C. Palache, Harvard University. Com-
municated by W. T. Schaller.

Through the kindness of Mr. McGovern of Frankhn Furnace
the writer has been supphed with specimens of a second occurrence
of the new mineral hodgkinsonite. These are in the form of veins
from 3 to 7 cm. in width consisting of a granular mixture of
hodgkinsonite and willemite ; the veins cut the normal f ranklinite
ore with well defined boundaries.

The material of the veins is in large part compact but at quite
irregular intervals there occur tiny cavities upon whose waUs are
implanted excellent crystals of hodgkinsonite. The crystals do
not exceed 2 mm. in length but they are clear and brilliant and
give measurements so much better than any obtained on the first-
found specimens that the elements have been recalculated and a
new table of angles is here presented containing the new data.
It will be seen that the forms include the better ones of the first
list together with several new ones; the habit is however entirely
similar to that first described, the acute pyramids formed by
combination of two prisms and two pyramid faces, m and r,
having their summits more or less modified by the other planes.
The forms previously described as etch forms have not been found
on these crystals and they may well be dropped from the form
series of the mineral. Nine crystals were measured and gave a

1 Hodgkinsonite, a New Mineral from Franklin Furnace, N. J. C. Palache and
W. T. Schaller, this Journal, 3: 474. 1913.

153

154

gilbert: transportation of debris

very consistent set of observations which together with the calcu-
lated angles and new elements are shown below.

HODGKINSONITE

po = 0.7201 go = 1.1025 /i=84°35' a:6:c = 1.538: 1: 1.1075 ^ = 84^35'

CALCULATED

MEASURED

LIMITS

NO. OF

<P

p

<P

P

V

p

FACES

c

(001)

90° 00'

5° 25'

90° 00'

5° 27'

•

5' 18'- 5° 36'

8

m

(110)

33° 09'

90° 00'

33° 09'

90° 00'

33° 05'-33° 13'

19

I

(210)

52° 33'

90° 00'

52° 33'

90° 00'

1

s

(Oil)

4^54'

48° 01'

4° 54'

48° 01'

4° 43'- 5° 04'

47' 58'-48" 03'

16

0

(021)

2° 27'

65° 44'

2° 30'

65° 42'

2° 27'- 2° 37'

65° 38'-«5° 45'

12

V

(403)

-90° 00'

4r 01'

-90° 00'

40° 50'

40° 43'-40° 57'

2

w

f201)

-90° 00'

53° 30'

-90° 00'

53^ 28'

53° 20'-53° 37'

8

t

(401)

-90° 00'

70° 20'

-90° 00'

70° 20'

70° 14'-70° 25'

4

V

(111)

36° 27'

54° 00'

36° 35'

54° 04'

1

r

(221)

34° 50'

69° 40'

34° 49'

69° 41'

34° 47'-34° 51'

69° 37'-69° 47'

12

n

(311)

-61° 55'

66° 58'

-62° 00'

67° 00'

61° 58'-62° 03'

2

GEOLOGY. — The transportation of debris by running water. ^
G. K. Gilbert, based on experiments made with the assist-
ance of Edward Charles Murphy.

Scope. The finer debris transported by a stream is borne in
suspension. The coarser is swept along the channel bed. The
suspended load is readily sampled and estimated, and much is
known as to its quantity. The bed load is inaccessible and we
are without definite information as to its amount. The primary
purpose of the investigation was to learn the laws which control
the movement of bed load, and especially to determine how the
quantity of load is related to the stream's slope and discharge
and to the degree of comminution of the debris.

Method. To this end a laboratory was equipped at Berkeley,
Cal., and experiments were performed in which each of the three
conditions mentioned was separately varied and the resulting
variations of load were observed and measured. Sand and
gravel were sorted by sieves into grades of uniform size. Deter-
minate discharges were used. In each experiment a specific

^ Abstract of U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 86. (In press.)

gilbert: transportation of debris 155

load was fed to a stream of specific width and discharge, and
measurement was made of the slope to which the stream auto-
matically adjusted its bed so as to enable the current to transport
the load.

The slope factor. For each combination of discharge, width,
and grade of debris there is a slope, called competent slope,
which limits transportation. With lower slopes there is no
load, or the stream has no capacity- for load. With higher
slopes capacity exists; and increase of slope gives increase of
capacity. The value of capacity is approximately proportional
to a power of the excess of slope above competent slope. If
S equal the stream's slope and a equal competent slope, then the
stream's capacity varies as {S — a)". This is not a deductive,
but an empiric law. The exponent n has not a fixed value, but
an indefinite series of values depending on conditions. Its range
of values in the experience of the laboratory is from 0.93 to 2.37,
the values being greater as the discharges are smaller or the
debris is coarser.

The discharge factor. For each combination of width, slope,
and grade of debris there is a competent discharge, k. Calling
the stream's discharge Q, the stream's capacity varies as (Q — r/c)°.
The observed range of values for o is from 0.81 to 1.24, the values
being greater as the slopes are smaller or the debris is coarser.
Under like conditions o is less than n; or, in other words, ca-
pacity is less sensitive to changes of discharge than to changes of
slope.

The fineness factor. For each combination of width, slope,
and discharge there is a limiting fineness of debris below which
no transportation takes place. Calling fineness (or degree of
comminution) F and competent fineness 0, the stream's capacity
varies with (F — 0)^'. The observed range of values for p is
from 0.50 to 0.62, the values being greater as slopes and dis-
charges are smaller. Capacity is less sensitive to changes in
fineness of debris than to changes in discharge or slope.

The form factor. Most of the experiments were with straight
channels. A few with crooked channels yielded nearly the same

^ Capacity is defined for the purposes of this paper as the maximum load of a
given kind of debris which a given stream can transport.

156 gilbert: transportation of debris

estimates of capacity. The ratio of depth to width is a more
important factor. For any combination of slope, discharge,
and fineness it is possible to reduce capacity to zero by making
the stream very wide and shallow or very narrow and deep.
Between these extremes is a particular ratio of depth to width,
p, corresponding to a maximum capacity. The values of p
range, under laboratory conditions, from 0.5 to 0.04, being greater
as slope, discharge, and fineness are less.

Velocity. The velocity which determines capacity for bed
load is that near the stream's bed, but attempts to measure bed
velocity were not successful. Mean velocity was measured
instead. To make a definite comparison between capacity and
mean velocity it is necessary to postulate constancy in some
accessory condition. If slope be the constant, in which case
velocity changes with discharge, capacity varies on the average
with the 3.2 power of velocity. If discharge be the constant, in
which case velocity changes with slope, capacity varies on the
average with the 4.0 power of velocity. If depth be the constant,
in which case velocity changes with simultaneous changes of
slope and discharge, capacity varies on the average with the 3.7
power of velocity. The power expressing the sensitiveness of
capacity to changes of mean velocHy has in each case a wide
range of values, being greater as slope, discharge, and fineness
are less.

Mixtures. In general, debris composed of particles of a single
size is moved less freely than debris containing particles of many
sizes. If fine material be added to coarse, not only is the total
load increased but a greater quantity of the coarse material is
carried.

Modes of transportation; movement of particles. Some par-
ticles of the bed load slide; many roll; the multitude make short
skips or leaps, the process being called saltation. Saltation
grades into suspension. When particles of many sizes are moved
together the larger ones are rolled.

Modes of transportation; collective 7novem.ent. When the condi-
tions are such that the bed load is small, the bed is molded into hills,
called dunes, which travel downstream. Their mode of advance

gilbert: transportation of debris 157

is like that of eolian dunes, the current eroding their upstream
faces and depositing the eroded material on the downstream
faces. With any progressive change of conditions tending to
increase the load, the dunes eventually disappear and the debris
surface becomes smooth. The smooth phase is in turn succeeded
by a second rhythmic phase, in which a system of hills travel
upstream. These are called antidunes, and their movement is
accomplished by erosion on the downstream face and deposition
on the upstream face. Both rhythms of debris movement are
initiated by rhythms of water movement.

Application of formulas. While the principles discovered in
the laboratory are necessarily involved in the work of rivers,
the laboratory formulas are not immediately available for the
discussion of river problems. Being both empiric and complex,
they will not bear extensive extrapolation. Under some circum-
stances they may be used to compare the work of one stream
with that of another stream of the same type, but they do not
permit an estimate of a river's capacity to be based on the deter-
mined capacities of laboratory streams. The investigation
made an advance in the direction of its primary goal, but the
goal was not reached.

Load versus energy. The energy of a stream is measured by
the product of its discharge (mass per unit time), its slope, and
the acceleration of gravity. In a stream without load the
energy is expended in flow resistances, which are greater as
velocity and \dscosity are greater. Load, including that carried
in suspension and that dragged along the bed, affects the energy
in three ways. (1) It adds its mass to the mass of the water
and increases the stock of energy pro rata. (2) Its transporta-
tion involves mechanical work, and that work is at the expense
of the stream's energy. (3) Its presence restricts the mobihty
of the water, in effect increasing its viscosity, and thus consumes
energy. For the finest elements of load the third factor is more
important than the second; for coarser elements the second is the
more important. For each element the second and third together
exceed the first, so that the net result is a tax on the stream's
energy. Each element of load, by drawing on the supply of

158 gilbert: transportation of debris

energy, reduces velocity and thus reduces capacity for all parts
of the load. This principle affords a condition by which total
capacity is limited. Subject to this condition a stream's load
at any time is determined by the supply of debris and the fineness
of the available kinds.

Flume transportation. In the experiments described above —
experiments illustrating stream transportation — the load trav-
ersed a plastic bed composed of its own material. Other
experiments were arranged in which the load traversed a rigid
bed, the bottom of a flume. Capacities are notably larger for
flume transportation than for stream transportation, and their
laws of variation are different. Rolling is an important mode
of progression. For rolled particles the capacity increases with
coarseness, for leaping particles with fineness. Capacity in-
creases with slope and usually with discharge also, but the rates
of increase are less than in stream transportation. Capacity is
reduced by roughness of bed.

Vertical velocity curve. The vertical distribution of velocities
in a current is controlled by conditions. The level of maximum
velocity may have any position in the upper three-fourths of the
current. In loaded streams its position is higher as the load is
greater. In unloaded streams its position is higher as the slope
is steeper, as the discharge is greater, and as the bed is rougher.

Pilot tube. The constant of the Pitot velocity gage — the
ratio between the head realized and the theoretic velocity head —
is not the same in all parts of a conduit, being less near the water
surface and greater near the bottom or side of the conduit.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

ASTROPHYSICS. — The non-selective transmissibility of radiation
through dry and moist air. F. E. Fowle, Astrophysical Journal
38:392. 1913.
The change in the transmissibihty of radiation associated with atmos-
pheric water-vapor between the wave-lengths 0.371/x and 1.74/z was
first determined; this rendered possible the evaluation of the trans-
missibility of radiation by dry air vertically above Mount Wilson (1730
meters). In the following table are given, for a few selected wave-
lengths, the coefficients of transmission for dry air, aa\, the factor for
the change produced by atmospheric water-vapor when the amount
of precipitable water is 1 cm., a^\, and the theoretical values for dry
air computed from the theory of molecular scattering.

TTAVE-LEXOTH

0 370 ; 0.400 I 0.430 \ 0.460 i 0.500 0.600 ; 0.750 1.000 i 1.500

a^x I 0.957 0.962' 0.967; 0.9710.976 10.977 | 0.988 0.990 0.988

ttax (observed) 0.683 0.757 0.808 0.85l|o. 885* 0.916* 0.977 0.98?' 0.990

aa\ (computed) 0.680 0.755 0.808 0.8500.890*10.946* 0.977 0.987^ 0.986

; , I '\ j '

* Places of selective transmission.

The corresponding values of a^ for air containing w cm. of precipitable
water-vapor would be a^x ' «ax-

The transmission coefficient for dry air was then used for the deter-
mination of the number of molecules, A'^o, per cc. of a gas at 760 mm.
pressure and at 0°C. The result was

No = 25.6 X 1018,

found to correspond very closely with the present best value from
other methods, 27 billion billion ( Alillikan) . This mode of analysis shows
that for dry air, except where selective absorption accurs, the deple-
tion of the beam from the sun or other celestial body, as observed in

159

160 abstracts: physics

1910 and 1911 at Mount Wilson was caused almost wholly by molecular
scattering. From 0.36/z to 0.50^ the depletion is practically wholly
of this nature. Then come the great selective absorption l^ands, which
except near the D lines, have been eliminated from this discussion.
Even in the infra-red between these water-vapor bands, molecular
scattering accounts for the observed depletion of radiation bj^ the
atmosphere.

The same analysis applied to atmospheric aqueous vapor shows
that the observed absorption is very much too great to be accounted
for by the number of water molecules present. The transmission
coefficients found by various observers for liquid water, however (0.2 1/x
to 0.50m), are such as would be expected from this amount of water
in vapor form. This leads to the inference that its absorption in liquid
form in this region results from molecular scattering. The number
of molecules, No, computed from the transmission coefficients of liquid
water is about

A^o = 28 X 10^^

The increased absorption connected with atmospheric water-vapor
and the departure of the transmission coefficients from strict propor-
tionality to the inverse fourth power of the wave-length in the sense
that the coefficients for smaller wave-lengths are too high, leads to the
inference that the vapor is loaded with something greater in size than
molecules. This loading could be due to dust or iron, although there is
not definite evidence why these should be proportional to the amount of
water-vapor present. The presence of nuclei, formed by the action
of the ultra-violet light of the sun on the moisture present in the air,
seems perhaps the most satisfactory explanation.

In the above study the amount of water-vapor present in the air was
measured by the depths of three calibrated selective absorption lines
in the infra-red. The effect of scattering, which varies slowly and
continuously with the wave-length, was eliminated. It has been shown
in an earlier paper {Astrophysical Journal, 37: 359. 1913) that the mean
results of such determinations of the amount of aqueous vapor in the
atmosphere agree with the mean results of estimates of it from obser-
vations with kites and balloons. F. E. F.

PHYSICS. — Standard density and volumetric tables, 4th edition. Bureau
of Standards Circular No. 19. (In press.)
In this circular the following tables are included : Table 1 gives the den-
sity of water (according to P. Chappuis) at every tenth of a degree from 0°

abstracts: geology 161

to 40°C. Tables 2 to 8, inclusive, are standard density and specific grav-
ity tables for ethyl alcohol. They are based on work done at this Bureau
and published in Vol. 9, No. 3, of the Bulletin of the Bureau of Stand-
ards (Reprint No. 197). Tables 9 to 11, are similar tables for methyl
alcohol. They are based on the work of Doroshevskii and Rozhdest-
venskii. Tables 12 and 13 are density tables for sugar solutions.
Tables 14 and 15 are density tables for sulphuric acid solutions. Tables
16 to 19 give the relation between specific gravity and degrees Baum^,
in use in the United States. Table 20 is for changing the density basis
of hydrometers and picnometers. Table 21 gives the weight of a liter
of air at various pressures and temperatures. Table 22 gives the
difference between the weight of 1 cc. of water in vacuo and in air at
various pressures and temperatures. Table 23 gives the apparent weight
of various volumes of water at various temperatures when weighed
against brass weights in air. Table 24 gives the temperature correction
for glass volumetric apparatus. Tables 25 to 37 give the corrections
to be applied to the weight of water, in air, to give the capacity of glass
volumetric apparatus. Table 38 gives the density of water (according
to Thiesen) at temperatures from 0° to 102°C. Tables 39 and 40 are
master scales for the graduation of hydrometers to indicate percentages
of ethyl alcohol by weight and by volume and percentages of "Proof
Spirit." G. K. B.

GEOLOGY. — The Noatak-Kobuk region, Alaska. Philip S. Smith.
U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 536. Pp. 160, with maps and
illustrations. 1913.
Practically all of the Noatak-Kobuk region lies north of the Arctic
Circle, and as a whole is a mountainous region. The rocks from which
the geology of the region has been inferred have been separated into
two main divisions, namely, sedimentary and igneous. The sedimen-
tary rocks have been divided into thirteen groups as follows: Unconsoli-
dated deposits consisting of recent stream gravels; recent beach deposits;
beach and outwash deposits; Tertiary deposits; the Mesozoic rocks
separated into the Bergman, Koyukuk, and Anaktuvuk groups; the
Paleozoic rocks subdivided into the Lisburne limestone, Noatak sand-
stone, Devonian limestone, Silurian limestone, undifferentiated Paleo-
zoic limestones, and undifferentiated Paleozoic metamorphic schists.
The last two divisions of Paleozoic rocks may possibly include some
rocks of pre-Paleozoic age. The igneous rocks have been subdivided

162 abstracts: geology

into four main groups: Basaltic effusives, granitic intrusives, early
intrusives and effusives, and greenstones. P. S. S.

GEOLOGY. — Iron-ore deposits of the Eagle Mountams, California.
E. C. Harder. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 503. Pp. 81,
with maps, views and sections. 1913.

The Eagle Mountain iron ores are located in the northern part of
the Eagle Mountains, Riverside County, California. The broad
structural feature of the northern third of the Eagle Mountains —
that is, of the portion consisting of sediments and intrusive granite
and where the iron ores occur — ^is an oval dome, extending in a gen-
eral east-west direction across the range. The iron ores with associated
metamorphic minerals occur as replacements in dolomite. Locally,
as at the east end of the area, they have replaced the entire series of
dolomite lenses, leaving the associated quartzite but little altered.
Elsewhere they occur within the dolomite lenses or beds in bands or as
irregular masses roughly parallel to the bedding. The ore is predomi-
nantly hematite, but here and there consists of masses of magnetite.
Much of the hematite contains disseminated magnetite, making it
slightly magnetic, but probably less than 10 per cent of the entire quan-
tity of ore is magnetite.

The succession of geologic events in Eagle Mountain region is as
follows: (1) Deposition of sandstone, siliceous shale, and dolomite.
(2) Intrusion of porphyritic granite into the sediments. (3) Alteration
of granite porphyry to augen gneiss and the sediments to schists and
crystalline limestone. (4) Erosion interval followed by submergence
and deposition of a great thickness of quartz sandstone; then the depo-
sition of arkosic sandstone, followed by the formation of beds and lenses
of dolomite and quartz sandstone, and, lastly, of beds of sandstone and
conglomerate. (5) Intrusion of quartz monzonite in two main sills.
(6) The heat and pressure accompanjdng the intrusion recrystallized
and consolidated the sediments and perhaps locally developed meta-
morphic minerals. (7) During the latter part of the intrusion, or
shortly after it, iron ores and metamorphic minerals were introduced
by deep-seated solutions replacing the dolomite and to a slight extent
the quartzite. (8) Doming of the sediments and intrusives, accom-
panied by great faulting. (9) Erosion exposing all the rock formations,
accompanied by the sculpturing of mountains and followed by the de-
velopment of great outwash aprons around the mountains.

A. H. Brooks.

abstracts: geology 163

GEOLOGY.- — Geology and ore-deposits of the Phillipsburg quadrangle,
Montana. W. H. Emmons and F. C. Calkins. U. S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 78. Pp. 271, with maps, views, and
sections. 1913.

The consolidated sedimentary rocks range in age from Algonldan to
late Cretaceous. The Algonkian Belt series is represented by about
20,000 feet of shale, sandstone and impure limestone. It is overlain,
with an unconformity that is locally conspicuous, by the Flathead
quartzite of Cambrian age, which constitutes the base of a Palaeozoic
series about 4500 feet thick, which consists mainly of limestones, but
whose uppermost .strata, are quartzitic. These rocks were covered b}^
several thousand feet of Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstone and shale,
the latest that survive being of Colorado or Montana age. No struc-
tural unconformities are apparent in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic series,
but several epochs are unrepresented by deposits.

Intrusive igneous rocks occupy a large proportion of the surface. With
the exception of a few diabasic and dioritic sills, the important intrusive
masses are of irregular or dome-like form and are probably of early
Tertiary age. Most of them belong to the granite and diorite families.
The Phillipsburg batholith, one of the most important economically, is
petrographically similar to the Boulder batholith, but less alkalic. The
most unusual intrusives are pj^roxene aplites, associated with grano-
diorites or quartz monzonites, some of. which contain primary scapolite.

The rocks already described are overlain with marked unconformity
by Tertiary tuffs and lavas in small amount, and by stream and glacial
deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. There is clear evidence of
two widely separated glaciations. Remnants of Tertiary erosion sur-
faces of low relief are well preserved, and the glacial sculpture of the
high mountains is striking.

The structure of the pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks is highly com-
plex. The most remarkable structural features are overthrusts which
have pushed Algonkian rocks several miles eastward over rocks as late
as Jurassic and which have been folded. These overthrusts are thought
to have a close relation with the similar ones in the Rocky Mountains
further north and further south, described by Willis, Richards and others.
The igneous rocks and the Tertiary gravel deposits have suffered some
deformation, but much less than the older strata.

The ore deposits are classified accorcUng to mode of occurrence as
follows: A. Deposits filling fissures. (1) Silver-bearing veins in granite,
(2) Gold-bearing veins in granite, (3) Silver-bearing veins in quartzite,

164 abstracts: geology

(4) Gold-bearing veins and sheeted zones in quartzite. B. Replace-
ment deposits related to fissures or to bedding planes. (1) Silver-
bearing replacement veins in sedimentary rocks, (2) Silver deposits in
bedding-planes of calcareous rocks, (3) Gold-bearing replacements veins
in sedimentary rocks. C. Replacement deposits of contact meta-
morphic origin. (1) Gold-copper deposits, (2) Magnetite deposits.
D. Gold placers.

All the important deposits in place are in or near the intrusive bodies.
They were deposited by ascending solutions, and it is regarded as prob-
able that these solutions were given off from the intrusives now exposed
or from deeper ones that are still concealed. F. C. C.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Nome and Grand Central quadrangles,
Alaska. Fred H. Moffit. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 533.
Pp. 140, with maps and views. 1913.

The Nome and Grand Central quadrangles are situated in the south-
central part of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Along the southern border of the area is a narrow coastal plain,
sloping gently upward from Bering Sea to the foot of the hills a tew
miles inland while on the north side are the Kigluaik Mountains, whose
highest peaks within the quadrangle are about 3,000 feet. The rest of
the area is a dissected upland with hills reaching a maximum elevation
of about 2600 feet and shoA\ing smooth rounded contours.

The oldest rock formation is the Tigaraha schist, the topmost mem-
ber of the Kigluaik group, which consists of l)iotite gneisses, coarsely
crystalline limestone, biotite schist, and siliceous graphitic schist.
The Tigaraha schist is exposed in the most northern part of the area
and has a general southerly dip. It is intruded by dikes and sills of
granite, diorite and diabase. Overlying the Kigluaik group and occu-
pying nearly aU the remainder of the mapped area is the Nome group
of formations, made up chiefly of chloritic and feldspathic schists and
altered limestones Avith many greenstone and a few granite intrusives.
The a^e of the Kigluaik and the Nome groups is unknown. They
probably range from Paleozoic or pre-Paleozoic to middle Paleozoic.
The Quaternary unconsolidated deposits of the area include sands and
gravels of marine and of fluvial origin, glacial deposits, and the mantle of
unassorted debris due to weathering.

Within the coastal plain five or six of the old beaches have been dis-
covered and these give direct evidence of changes in the relative heights
of land and sea. They range in elevation from 34 feet below sea level

ABLTRACTS: GEOLOGY 165

to 70 or 79 feet above sea level, and except where removed or uncovered
by erosion are buried under later gravel deposits, having a maximum
thickness of 120 feet. F. H. M.

GEOLOGY. — Nitrate deposits. Hoyt S. Gale. U. S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 523. Pp. 36. 1912.
This paper consists of a short summary of the natural occurrences of
nitrate salts kno^\^l in the United States. The descriptions are chiefly
compiled from the references to such occurrences found scattered
throughout geologic and other literature, the use of such deposits as a
source of nitrate for the manufacture of powder during war time having
been a frequent source of comment. Some new descriptive data by the
author and analyses from materials collected in the field are also in-
cluded. The article contains a review chiefly by quotation, of the
theories concerning nitrification as bearing on the probable origin of
such deposits. H. S. G.

GEOLOGY. — The Jurassic flora of Cape Lisburne, Alaska. F. H-
Knowlton. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 85-D.
Pp. 55, with sections. 1914.
The Jurassic section of Cape Lisburne, to which the name Corwin
formation has been given, reaches the thickness of over 15,000 feet.
So far as at present known the fossil flora is uniformly cUstributed
throughout, and embraces 17 species, only one of which is described as
new. This flora is compared with known Jurassic floras of various
parts of the world, and the conclusion is reached that it is not only
•undoubtedly Jurassic in age — which had previously been questioned —
but belongs either in the upper part of the Middle Jurassic or Bro^vn
Jura, or the extreme lower part of the Upper Jurassic or White Jura —
that is to say it is probably not older than the Bathonian, and certainly
not younger than the Oxfordian. Several pages are devoted to a dis-
cussion of the geographic range of Jurassic floras in general, their means
and avenues of dispersal, and the probable climatic conditions that pre-
vailed in Alaska at the time this flora flourished there. F. H. K.

GEOLOGY. — The origin of colemanite deposits. Hoyt S. Gale
L^. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-A. Pp. 9, 1913.
Colemanite, the borate of lime from which practically all commercial
borax and boric acid is derived in this country at the present time, has
been discussed by various writers, but its origin has always been ascribed
to the dessication of saline or alkaline waters, usually as deposits of

166 ABSTpACTS: GEOLOGY

Tertiary lakes. A study of some of the characteristic colemanite de-
posits has suggested the probable vein origin of this mineral, without
necessary association with dessication deposits. The vein character is
indicated in the physical structure of the deposits, which also give evi-
dence of the formation of colemanite by replacement of limestone.
The boric acid is assumed to have been derived from volcanic sources,
since volcanic activity has characterized the region in which these de-
posits occur, and intrusive or flow rocks are generally found in intimate
association with the ore bodies. H. S. G.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho. J. B.
Umpleby. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 528. Pp. 182, with
maps, sections and views. 1913.

The rock formations of Lemhi County, Idaho, include: (1) a gneissoid
granite of Archean age, (2) a widespread series of Algonkian schists,
slates and quartzites, (3) about 6000 feet of Paleozoic strata which
include Cambrian quartzite, Ordovician, Silurian (?), and Devonian
dolomitic limestones, and Mississippian limestone, (4) large batho-
lithic masses of granite, and (5) Tertiary lavas and lake-beds.

The ore deposits may be grouped as gold placers and lodes, lead-silver
veins and tabular replacements, copper-bearing gold veins, cobalt-
nickel deposits, and tungsten-bearing veins. Two epochs of minerali-
zation are recognized, the older late Cretaceous or early Eocene and the
younger late Miocene or early Pliocene. All of the deposits, except a
small group of gold-silver veins, belong to the earlier epoch.

The gold-bearing veins are inclosed in many types of rock in Lemhi
County, but few of them are far distant from rocks of the granite rhyolite
family. Lead-silver deposits are recognized only in the southeastern
part of the county and at present are affording the principal production.
They are inclosed in Paleozoic formations and are thought to be geneti-
call}^ related to a quartz diorite facies of the granite intrusion. The
copper deposits have not proved of noteworthy commercial importance.
Cobalt-nickel deposits occur in only one of the nineteen mining districts
in the county. They occur as lens-like bodies and as bunches and
disseminations along fractured zones. Some of them are known to con-
tain about 2 per cent each of cobalt and nickel. Tungsten is mined in
one district where it is associated with zinc, copper, lead, molybdenum,
iron and silver minerals in lenticular quartz veins. J. B. U.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wasliington was
held February. 3, 1914, in the National Museum, the President, Mr.
Stetson, in the chair. About eighty persons were present.

Miss Frances Densmore, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, read a
paper on Sioiix War Songs, using the stereopticon, the phonograph, and
vocal selections in illustration of her theme. She first showed lantern
slides of the prairie, where the long war drama of the Sioux was enacted,
then portraits of some old Sioux warriors, and, last, a nmnber of native
drawdngs of war incidents. Many war customs were illustrated by the
details, as well as by the subjects, of these dra\\ings. One phonograph
record of a woman's voice was given in connection with the portrait of
a woman who sang a song in honor of a relative killed in war. The
remaining songs were given vocally, the melodies being those sung by
the Indians, but no effort being made to imitate the Indian manner of
singing. Each drawing had one or more songs which were either sung
at the time the incident occurred, or composed in honor of the event.
These songs were phonographically recorded by the men who made the
drawings, and were afterward transcribed in musical notation by the
writer.

It is said that the Sioux, among all the Indian tribes, were the best
as friends and the worst as enemies. They were indeed men to be
feared in the old days. One of their societies was well named the
"Strong Hearts." They were trained from childhood to have "strong
hearts," and thej^ held to a purpose when others failed. The warriors
of a certain society carried in war a lance to which was fastened the skin
of a crow. When that lance was planted in the ground they dared not
retreat from it. So in loyalty to a friend, or in hatred of an enemy,
they struck their lance into the ground and staid by it.

War among Indians had an aspect different from that which it has
among civilized nations. It was not an occasional calamity, it more
nearly resembled a steady occupation. To the individual it offered a
career. A man could best become rich and honored by going to war.
A man was rated according to his generosity, and having given away
his goods there must be some way of securing a new supply of wealth.
A war party afforded this opportunity. War was a means of revenge,
and Indian revenge was a terrible thing. War was for the defence of
the home, and the protection of the hunting ground which meant the
food supply. Indian warfare was, after all, the physical expression of

167

168 proceedings: chemical society

something which must always go on, only changing its form, as forces
do, and passing from physical to mental battle grounds.

There was much of interest on the warpath besides the killing of
enemies and the capture of horses. A war party traveled far and brought
back strange tales of distant lands. New customs were frequently in-
troduced into the tribe as a result of war expeditions or the taking of
captives.

Only a successful Avarrior could belong to the leading societies of the
tribe, with, their special tents for meeting, their feasts and their parades,
all of which were very attractive to the Indian. But the greatest re-
ward was the right to sing of one's valor, at the assemblages of the tribe.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 235th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 12,
1914. The following papers were read:

F. P. Dewev, of the Bureau of the Mint: Artificial sperrylite. Sperry-
lite, PtAs2, which is especially interesting as the only chemical compound
containing Pt found in nature, has been duplicated in a matte made in
the refinery of the San Francisco Mint. The product is beautifully crys-
tallized and closely resembles the original sperrylite found at Sudbur5^

P. H. Walker, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Note on a new extraction
apparatus. This apparatus, which is made of iron and copper tubing
and is free from rubber connections, was shown and briefly described.

Discussion: Chamberlaine spoke of the method of extraction by re-
peated washings without a condenser.

F. K. Cameron, of the Bureau of Soils: Potash from kelp. Four
principal sources of potash have been in view: (1) desert salt deposits,
(2) orthoclase, feldspar and leucite, (3) alunite, (4) the giant kelps of
the Pacific. Four types of kelp yield considerable amounts of potassium
chloride, which effloresces on the plant during drying. This salt can be
separated from the sodimn chloride without difficulty, but no method
has been worked out for separating the potash while leaving the large
amount of available nitrogen behind with the organic matter, thus giv-
ing the organic residue a value. It is estimated that the Pacific kelps
could supply six times the amount of potash now imported into the
United States. Lantern slides were sho\Am illustrating the beds of kelp
as they occur, from Southern California to Alaska, the appearance and
manner of growth of the different species, and the methods of harvest-
ing and loading now in commercial use in the South.

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Andrews, Bunzel, Seidell, Sos-
man, and Bassett, the following points were brought out: Very little
of the nitrogen is present as nitrate. The potash is not all removed by
a single extraction. Only one company is operating on any considerable
scale, although a number of companies have been floated; considerable
kelp is being cut on the Mexican coast, where it is easily air dried. Cap-
ital has held back from investment in kelp-cutting largely because no
monopoly rights or patents are connected with the industry. Data are

proceedings: geological society 169

lacldng for a comparison of the relation of iodide to chloride in sea water
with the same ratio in the plants. Houston discussed various points
brought out l\v the lecturer, and suggested that the bulkiness of the
kelp fertilizer is in some respects a desirable property; also that the
present state of the fertilizer industr}' is not such as to encourage invest-
ment in new fertilizer ventures, one principal trouble being overproduc-
tion of mineral fertilizers both in the United States and Germany.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 276th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 10, 1913.

Presidential address. The Tertiary orogeny of the N^orth American
Cordillera and its problem. Frederick L. Ransome. In extended
form this address will be published with other Silliman lectures for 1913
in a Dana memorial volume by Yale University.

The 21st Annual Meeting was then held at which the following officers
were elected to serve for the ensuing j'ear: President, Arthur Keith;
Vice-presidents, T. Wayland Vj^ughan, Arthur C. Spencer; Treas-
urer, Sidney Paige; Secretaries, Frank L. Hess, Clarence N. Fen-
ner; Members-at-large of the Council, Ernest F. Burchard, Charles
W. GiLMORE, D. F. Hewett, Esper S. Larsen, G. C. Martin. Vice- '
president, Washington Academy of Sciences, Frederick L. Ransome.

The 277th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Januarj' 14, 1914,
Under the head of "Informal Communications" E. G. Woodruff

described a well at DeBeque, Colorado, with periodic discharges of oil,

gas, and water.

Regular Program

Comparison of the geologic history of the Florida Reef tract with that of
other reef areas (illustrated) : T. Wayland Vaughan. The paper is
published in Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 4:26-34. 1914.

Some ellipsoidal lavas on Prince William Sound, Alaska (illustrated):
S. R. Capps. Near Ellamar, Alaska, there is a series of several thousand
feet of diabasic and basaltic lava flows interbedded at frequent intervals
with water-laid sediments. Many of the flows show ellipsoidal, spheroidal,
or pillow-shaped forms. It is believed that the alternation of marine
sediments with lava flows, all being structurally comformable, gives
strong evidence that the flows were poured out under water, and that
in this area the ellipsoidal forms of the lavas are due to sub-aqueous
cooling.

The original top of a flow, where overlain by sediments, is found to
have an uneven surface, the sediments filling in the irregularities.
The bottom of the sedimentary bed is thus uneven. The top of a sedi-
mentary bed has an even surface, and the lavas outpoured upon it have
themselves conformed to this surface, and the flow is therefore smooth
on the bottom. This distinction was of great value in deciphering the
structure in an area of considerable metamorphism and steeplj^ tilted
rocks.

170

proceedings: geological society

Review of papers by L. Keith Ward (a) The relationship between the
ore bodies and the igneous rocks of the Heemskirk-Comstock-Zeehan region,
Tasmania. (6) The origin of certain contact rocks high in lime and mag-
nesia. A. C. Spencer. No abstract.

The 278th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 28, 1914.
Under the head of "Informal Communications," J. M. Hill, described
a copper deposit in an apparent sink hole in northeastern Arizona.

Regular Program

Bituminous shale in northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah: E.
G. Woodruff and D. T. Day. In general this region is a moderately
dissected plateau containing many small badland areas. Both Creta-
ceous and Tertiary rocks outcrop, but the bituminous shale was found
only in the middle member of the Green River (Eocene) formation.
The formation as a whole is a little more than 2,000 feet thick in the
eastern part of the area but considerably less in the western part.
Bituminous shale was found in long lenticular beds ranging from a
fraction of an inch up to 80 feet in thickness. An exposure half a mile
long shows only a moderate variation in thickness but a study of a
township reveals great differences in thickness and continuity.

The shale is a brown tough rock with a light brown, waxy streak.
The amount of carbonaceous material present varies considerably.
The major bedding and a large part of the minor bedding is regular,
but in most of the rich shale there is an irregularity of lamination which
gives to it a peculiar curly structure.

Both field evidence and microscopic studies show that the movement
of oil in the shale has not been extensive nor even locally intensive.
Microscopic studies show also that the shale contains a considerable
amount of oil which can be liberated by leaching. Greater quantities
of oil, however, are obtained by ordinary distillation processes. The
results of distillation tests are shown by the following table :

NUMBER OP TEST

Conn Creek

Kimball Creek

Kimball Creek (second test)

Parachute Creek

4A Ranch

Temple Station

Ute Station

White River. Subsurface sample

White River. Near surface

Nine Mile Creek

Hill Creek....

PART OF SEC-
TION SAMPLED

Uft.

6 ft.

6 ft.
ft. 10 in.
ft. 10 in.

4
2

3 ft.

3 ft.

ft.
ft.
6 in.
6 in.

6 in.
9 in.

AMOUNT

AMOUNT

OP SHALE

OP OIL

USED

OBTAINED

Ihs.

gal.

100

3.06

150

2.375

156

2.03

150

1.5

150

0.78

120

2.711

120

0.96

150

2.5

135

2.4

105

2.05

135

1.27

GALLONS
OP OIL PER
SHORT TON

OF SHALE

61.2
31.6
26.2
20.0
10.4
45.2
16.0
33.3
35.5
39.0
16.0

proceedings: geological society 171

It is estimated that sufficient gas is generated during distillation to
carry on the operation without the addition of other fuels. Different
samples of the oil began to boil at from 70° to 80°. From 2 to 10 per
cent of the oil was distilled under 150°. From 33 to 55 per cent of the
oil volatized between 150° and 300°. The residues varied from 44 to 66
per cent. The amount of ammonia contained in the shale has not yet
been determined. These data indicate that the bituminous shale is a
valuable resource. The deposits are easily accessible by railroad, pipe
lines or tram tracks.

The conditions of "antiplanation^' in sub-Arctic regions (illustrated) :
H. M. Eakin. a widely distributed topographic feature in central
and western Alaska, the development of which is apparently peculiar
to those regions of the earth's surface that are exposed to the rigors of a
sub-Arctic climate was described as essentially flat-topped accumula-
tions of loose rock. They include flat-topped hills, ridges, passes and
terrace-like forms. The materials involved have migrated under the
thrust and heave of frost action in moisture saturated soil. They have
been moved at extremely slow rates and for very short distances.
Inequalities in the amount of soil mingled with the rock waste cause
different parts of the accumulating mass to move at different rates.
These irregularities are mutually cumulative and the slopes which they
affect become more and more irregular and finally exhibit the flats and
scarps here discussed. These phenomena indicate the action of a mor-
phologic process distinct from the processes of aqueous erosion, which
oppose its operation; distinct from equiplanation which, according to
Cairnes, is a process affecting more widespread, regional areas, and which
reduces relief by the migration of materials from hills to valleys; and
distinct from the general phenomena of solifluction in being localized
in its operation and in resulting in a special and distinct type of topo-
graphic featm-e. The process is termed antiplanation — a specific process
that is active in forming high level flats and plains of limited extent
wherever the essential conditions are met.

Problems of the glacial geologist: Frank Leverett. Certain prob-
lems, such as the cause of the glacial epoch, the alternation of glacial
and interglacial stages, the origin and relations of loess deposits, etc.,
are world-wide in bearing. Others, such as the localization of the ice
centers of North America and the lowan drift question are regional.
There are also collateral problems such as the effect of the ice load in
producing deformation of the earth's crust, the effect of climatic changes
of the ice age upon migration, extinction of species, and the develop-
ment of new species. To the glacialist also fall certain determinations
leading to a geologic time scale through combining data on cataract
recession, ice-border recession, uplift of shore lines of glacial lakes,
relative amounts of weathering, and erosion of the several drifts, etc.

The cause of the glacial epoch, which was thought by many, a generation
ago, to be solved by Croll, is generally regarded today as an unsolved or
but partially solved problem. Chamberlin and students under his
direction have in the past twenty years thoroughly considered many

172 proceedings: geological society

terrestrial factors affecting climate and the varying relations of the
ocean and the air under differing conditions of temperature as well as
reactions involved in exposure of fresh areas to oxidation and weather-
ing. The ingenious hypothesis of the cause of glaciation advanced by
Chamberlin as a result of these studies is full of suggestive ideas which
but few students have as yet had time adequately to consider.

As to the manner in which the ice sheet accumulated on the North
American continent very little has as yet been determined. Conditions
are much more complex here than in Europe and a solution seems likely
to require about as elaborate an investigation as is required to determine
the cause of the ice age. If, as seems likely, the Labrador center was fed
by moist air currents from the Gulf of Mexico, and the Keewatin by
those from the Pacific, it becomes a problem to* explain the recently
announced Patrician center north of Lake Superior. It is also difficult
to account for the development and great extent of the Keewatin center
under present conditions of altitude and slope. There are, however,
indications that in early Pleistocene time the coast ranges of Alaska
were much lower than now and they may have had less influence in
checking the winds from the Pacific and in causing precipitation to be
chiefly near the coast.

There is wide difference of opinion concerning the climatic conditions
at the time of loess deposition and it remains to be determined whether
the loess is interglacial or glacial. The opinion is almost unanimous
that it is chiefly of eolian deposition, water being influential merely in
distributing it down the great waterways and exposing it to the action
of the \vind. To what extent the loess is derived from the glacial ma-
terials and to what extent from the semi-arid western plains is unde-
termined.

The question of a stage of glaciation closely connected with the main
loess deposition is still open. It is here that the lowan glacial stage
was originally placed. Opinions on the lowan drift are-now quite di-
verse, its existence being questioned by some, its Illinoian age being
claimed by others, while a number of geologists still place it close to the
main loess deposition and claim for it a much later time that the Illinoian.

The 279th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 11, 1914.

Under the head of "Informal Communications," Dean Winchester
described the anticlines of eastern Montana, Wyoming and North
Dakota.

Regular Program

The Camwnball marine member of the Lance formation: E. R. Lloyd.
The Lance formation in parts of the Dakotas consists of two parts;
a lower part, approximately 400 feet thick, with predominant somber
colored shale and yellow sandstone, of continental origin; and an upper
part, about 300 feet thick of sandstone, shale, and limestone of marine
origin. To this upper part the name Cannonball marine member is
given. The lower sediments of continental origin contain a flora which

proceedings: geological society 173

according to Knowlton is indistinguishable from that of the Fort Union
and is distinctly a Tertiary flora. It also contains remains of turtles
and dinosaurs, particularly of the genus Triceratops which is diagnostic
of the Lance formation and which has, at least until recently, been con-
sidered by vertebrate paleontologists to be a distinctively Cretaceous
form. The Cannonball member contains an invertebrate and verte-
brate fauna of over fort}' species very closely related to the marine
cretaceous fauna of the Fox Hills sandstone.

The distinctively marine fossils of the Cannonball member were
found near Haley, N. D., by C. J. Hares, and on Cannonball River,
N. D., by E. R. Lloyd at about the same time in 1912. The member
is thicker and better exposed on Cannonball River and this was accord-
ingly selected as the type locality. The strata are practically flat lying,
but a comparison of altitudes instrumentally determined on lignite
beds in the Fort Union show a small but persistent dip to the north-
east and north. The Cannonball member has been traced and mapped
in a strip extending from near Mandan, North Dakota, to the eastern
part of Harding County, South Dakota, a distance of about 130 miles.
The marine fossils were found throughout the whole of this distance.

The mechanics of granite intrusion in the Black Hills, South Dakota.
Sidney Paige. In the Black Hills schists and quartzites form the mat-
rix for invading granite masses. The schists suffered marked deforma-
tion in the vicinity of the intrusive masses, being thro\^^l into closely
appressed recumbent folds and receiving a second schistose structure.
Parallel with this new structure there has been lit-par-lit injection. The
quartzite broke into blocks which became separated by the advancing
magma. These features suggest that the conditions under which the
intrusion occurred involved the lateral distension of the invaded rocks
though this distension took place under a great load. There is no
evidence that the magma was able to dissolve fragments of the schist
upon a large scale, and it seems that such assimilation as maj' have
occurred was merely incidental to physical or mechanical features, and
not a primary process inducing or permitting the advance of the magraa.
Through injection and impregnation the composition and specific
gravity of the schist approaches that of the granite. The prime cause
of the advance of deep seated mag-matic material is probably to be sought
in movements incidental to adjustments toward isostatic equilibrium.
As sea bottoms sink there is a landward transfer of material, and con-
tinents rise. Where there are weak spots strong warps develop, lateral
distension results, and the upward invasion of the magma is permitted.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

ANTHROPOLOGY

Babcock, W. H. Eskimo long-di$tance voyages. American Anthropologist, n. s.

15:138-141. January-March, 1913.
Babcock, W. H. Early Norse visits to North America. Smithsonian Miscellaneous

Collections 59'": 1-213, pis. 1-10. 1913.
Clark, V. S. The Filipinos in Hawaii. Rept. 31st Ann. Lake Mohonk .Conf.,

pp. 114-117. 1913.
Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Music, — II. Bulletin 53, Bur. of Amer Eth-
nology, pp. i-xxi, 1-341. 1913.
Fewkes, J. W. Casa Grande, Arizona. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur. vimer. Ethnology,

pp. 25-180, pis. 1-78 + figs. 1-54. 1912 [pub. 1913].
Fewkes, J. W. Antiquities of the upper Verde and Walnut Creek valleys, Arizona.

28th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 181-220, pis. 79-102 + figs. 56-68.

1912 [pub. 1913].
Fewkes, J. W. Great stone monuments in history and geography. Smithsonian

Miscellaneous Collections 61«: 1-50, figs. 1-36. 1913.
Fewkes, J. W. Porto Rican elbow-stones in the Heye Museum, with discussion

of similar objects elsewhere. Amer. Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 435-459, figs.

116-129. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].
Fletcher, Alice C. Brief history of the International Congress of Americanists.

Amer. Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 529-534. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].
Fletcher, R. Columns of infamy. American Anthropologist, n. s. 14:636-642.

October-December, 1912 [pub. 1913].
FoLKMAR, D. Mother tongue of the foreign white stock. Thirteenth Census of the

United States, 1910. [Reprint of Chap. IX, pp. 959-1015, of Volume I of the

Thirteenth Census Report. 1914.]
Frachtenberg, L. J. Coos texts. Columbia University Contributions to An-
thropology 1: 1-216. 1913.
Frachtenberg, L. J. Contribution to a Tutelo vocabulary. American Anthro-
pologist, n. s. 15:477-479. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].
Frachtenberg, L. J. Coos: An illustrative sketch. Bur. Amer. Ethnology,

Bull. 40, Pt. 2 (in part), pp. 295-429. 1914.
Hrdlicka, a. Anthropological work in Peru in 1913, with notes on the pathology

of the ancient Peruvians. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^^: 1-69,

pis. 1-26. 1914.

174

references: entomology , 175

Hrdlicka, a. The Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, 1914.
American Anthropologist n. s. 14:695, 696. October-December, 1912 [pub.
19131.

MicHELSON, T. Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algonquian
tribes. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 221-290b. 1912 [pub.
1913].

MiCHELSON, T. Vedic, Sanskrit, and Middle Indie. Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc.
33:145-149. 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. [Revieiv of] Ketkar's "History of caste in India." Current An-
thropological Lit. 2: 84, 85. 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. Note on the Fox negative particle of the conjunctive mode. Ameri-
can Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 364. April- June, 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. Contributions to Algonquian grammar. American Anthropolo-
gist, n. s. 15 : 470-476. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914] .

Parker, G. E. The Indian: personal vs. property. Rept. 31st Ann. Lake Mohonk
Conf., pp. 47-52., 1913.

SwANTON, J. R. A foreword on the social organization of the Creek Indians. Amer-
ican Anthropologist, n. s. 14:593-599. October-December, 1912 [pub. 1913].

SwANTON, J. R. Coonti. American Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 141, 142. January-
March, 1913.

ENTOMOLOGY

Alexander, C. P. The Tipulidae in Brunetti's ''Fauna of British India; Dip-
tera Nematocera." Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 118-120. September
15, 1913. (A critical review of this work, indicating the synonomy of various
genera and species. — J. C. C.)

Alexander, C. P. A new Geranomyia from the Philippine Islands {Diptera,
Tipulidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 137-139. November 29, 1913.

Banks, N. Eastern species of Rachicerus. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 15: 51. April 9, 1913. (Includes a key to the three
species occurring in eastern United States. — J. C. C.)

Banks, N. Asilids catching Hymenoptera. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 15: 51. April 9, 1913.

Banks, N. Notes on Diptera. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
Washington 15: 52. April 9, 1913.

Banks, N. New exotic neuropteroid insects. ' Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 15: 137-143. October 2, 1913. (Describes 12 new
species, mostly from South America and India. — J. C. C.)

Barber, H. S. Luminous Collembola. Proceedings of the Entomological So-
ciety of Washington 15 : 46-50. April 9, 1913. (Notes on the luminosity
of a species of the genus Anurida and of Neanura quadrioculata; also includes
a bibliography of articles on luminosity in this group. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. a new species of Rhodites from California (Hymenojitera,
Cynipidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 93, 94, pi. 2. August 23, 1913.
(Describes R. weldi, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. On Catocola denussa and C. herodias (Lepidoptera. Noclui-
dae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:97, 98. August 23, 1913. (Rede-
scribes C. denussa, giving reasons for its validity. — J. C. C.)

176 , references: entomology

Beutenmuller, W. a new species of Amphibolips. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 122, 123. October 30, 1913. (Describes A. montana, from North
Carolina.— J. C. C.)

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A uew Audricus from New Jersey (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 124, 125. October 30, 1913. (Describes
A.flavohirtus. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. Notes on Hepialus auratus Grote (Lepidoptera, Hepialidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 129, 130. October 30, 1913.

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A new empid from the Black Mountains, North Carolina
(Diptera, Empididae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 130. October 30,
1913. (Describes Rhamphomyia novecarolina. — J. C. C.)

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. Description of a new gallfly (Andricus decidua) ; {Hymenop-
tera, Cynipidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 131, 132. October 30,
1913.

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A ncw Nomaretus from Mount Mitchell, North Carolina
(Coleoptera, Carabidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 139, 140. Novem-
ber 29, 1913. (Describes N. Schwarzi, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Bird, H. On the larval habits of two species of Oligia (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 123, 124. October 30, 1913.

Busck, a. Notes on the genus Mieza Walker, with descriptions of three species
frotn Costa Rica (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae) . Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 70-73. June 30, 1913.

Busck, A. New Microlepidoptera from British Guiana. Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 1: 88-92. July 21, 1913. CDescribes eight new species in several
genera. — J. C. C.)

Busck, A. A new Acrolophus from British Guiana. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 117. September 15, 1913.

Busck, A. Two Microlepidoptera injurious to chestnut. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 102-104. October 2, 1913.

Busck, A. Seven new Microlepidoptera from Mexico. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 140-143. November 29, 1913.

Caudell, a. N. Notes on the yellow crane-fly, Tipul;, flavicans Fabr. Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 45, 46. April 9, 1913.

Caudell, A. N. A neio pseudophylliid from Jamaica (Orthoptera, Locustidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 57,58. May 31, 1913. (Gives a key to the
Jamaican species of the genus Jamaicana and describes one new species, /.
flava.—J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The spotted beet webworin. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin
127, Pt. 1, pp. 1-11, pis. 1-4. May 31, 1913. (A brief life-history of Hymenia
perspectalis in the District of Columbia, with an account of some allied species
and methods of control. — J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The abutilon moth. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 126:
lj-10, pis. 1-5. December 6, 1913. (A brief life-history of Cosmophila erosa
in Virginia. — J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The Florida fern caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulle-
tin 125 : 1-10. October 29, 1913. (A brief life-history of this species, Eriopus
floridensis, injuring ferns in greenhouses in the northern United States, with
methods of control. — J. C. C.)

references: entomology 177

Chittenden, F. H. The rose slug-caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin
124: 1-9. October 31, 1913. (A short life-history of Euclea indeiermina in
West Virginia and Maryland, with remedies. — J. C. C.)

CocKERELL, T. D. A. Pseudomasaris bred in California. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 107. October 2, 1913. (Describes
one new subspecies. — J. C. C.)

CusHMAN, R. A. The Calliephialtes parasite of the codling moth. Journal of
Agricultural Research 1: 211-235, figs. 1-15, pi. 20. December, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Notes on cotton moths. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 1-12.
January 27, 1913. CA key to the American species of the genera Cosmophila,
Gonitis, Aletia, Alabama, and Anomis, with descriptions of seven new species,
mostly in the last named genus. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The species of Sphida Grote (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 18, 19. February 20, 1913. (Gives a key to the North
American species of Sphida and describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larvae of Xanthopastis timais Cramer (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 20-22. February 20, 1913. (Describes one
new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A note on the Macrothecinae {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1:22, 23. February 20, 1913. (Describes three new
North American species. — J. C. C.).

Dyar, H. G. The species of Airida Moschler {Lepidoptera, Lithosiidae) . Insec-
utor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 26-33. March 29, 1913. (Gives a key to the
American species of Afrida and describes twelve new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Five new North American Pyralidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 34, 35. March 29, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. The American species of Dysodia {Lepidoptera, Thjjrididae) . In-
secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 37-45. April 30, 1913. (Gives a key to the
American species and describes twelve new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larva of Trichostibas parvula {Lepidoptera, Yponomentidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae ]\Ienstruus 1: 48, 49. April 30, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Another larva of Xanthopastis timais {Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 49, 50. April 30, 1913. (Gives a key to
distinguish the four known larval forms. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larva of Delias henningia Eschschollz {Lepidoptera, Pieridae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 58. May 31, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. A galleriine feeding in cacao pods {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). In-
secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 59. May 31, 1913. (Describes the new genus
Tineopsis, with a single species, T. theobromae, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Note on the systematic position of Pseudacontia rhizoleuca Brabant
{Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor Inscitiae 'Menstruus 1:59, 60. May
31, 1913. (Describes the new genus Brabantia, with a single species, B.
rhizoleuca, from South America. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A' note on Talara ruficoUis Schaus (Lepidoptera, Lithosiidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 75. June 30, 1913. (Describes Paraprepia
and Parillice, new genera, and one new species from Brazil. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The species of Calyptocome Warren {Lepidoptera, Geometridae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 79-87. July 21, 1913. (Gives a key to the
American species and describes thirteen new species. — J. C. C.)

178 references: entomology

Dyar, H. G. The separation of some species of Lineodus (Lepidopiera, Pyralidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 94-96. August 23, 1913. (Gives a key to
some of the American species and describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Descriptions of six new Pyralidae from British Guiana. Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 98-100. August 23, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. A note on Diathrausta nerinalis Walker {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 100-102. August 23, 1913. (Describes
four new forms of this species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Notice of volume II, no. 4, of Barnes and McDunnough's "Contri-
butions to the Natural History of the Lepidoptera of North America." Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 102-106. August 23, 1913. (Gives the synonomy
of many of the species described as new in this article and describes one new
species from Cuba.^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Note on the American silvery species of Argyria {Lepidoptera, Py-
ralidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 111-114. September 15, 1913.
(Gives a key to the American species which have silvery white ground color
and describes seven new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. An additional note on Calyptocome. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus
1: 120. September 15, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Notes on the species of Galasa Walker {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 125-129. October 30, 1913. (Gives a key
to the American species and describes five as new. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A new pyralid from Newfoundland {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). In-
secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 139. November 29, 1913. (Describes Py-
rausta Bedded, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G., and Knab, F. Three new neoptropical mosquitoes. Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 76-78. June 30, 1913.

Ely, C. R. Notes on the cocoons of some of the species of the genus Acrobasis, and
descriptions of three new species, from East River, Connecticut. Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 51-57. May 31, 1913.

Ely, C. R. The food plant of Cleonus calandroides Rand. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 104, 105. October 2, 1913. (This
species lives in the roots of Cakile endetula. — J. C. C.)

FoLSOM, J. W. North American spring-tails of the subfamily Tomocerinae. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46:451-472, pis. 40-41. December
30, 1913. (Includes descriptions of one new species of Tritomurus and of
one new species and one new variety of Tomocerus. — J. C. C.)

Forbes, W. T. M. Trichoclea ruisa, new species; A structurally aberrant noctuid
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:74, 75. June
30, 1913.

Foster, S. W. The cherry fruit sawfly. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 116,
Pt. 3, pp. 73-79, pis. 9, 10. January 31, 1913. (A brief seasonal history of this
species, Hoplocampa Cookei, in California. — J. C. C.)

Gahan, a. B. Identity of Scotioneurus stenostigma Prov. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15:38-40. April 9, 1913. (Species
redescribed from tvpe specimens and transferred to genus Aspilota. — J.
C. C.)

Gahan, A. B. Sotne notes on the palpi of Aphidiinae. Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15: 86, 87. June 10, 1913. (The maxillary

references: entomology 179

palpi of Diaerelus rapae are almost as frequently three-segmented as four-
segmented; examination of large series of specimens of other species of the
subfamily showed no variation. — J. C. C.)

Gill, J. B. The fruit-tree leaf-roller. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 116,
Pt. 5, pp. 91-110, pis. 12-16. March 12, 1913. (Discusses the life-history and
habits of Archips argyrospila, with notes on natural enemies and method of
control.— J. C. C.)

GiRAULT, A. A. A netv scelionid from Queensland, Australia, parasitic on acridiid
eggs, with diagnosis of Australian species. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 15:4-8. April 9, 1913. (Contains also a key to the
Australian species of the genus Scelio. — J. C. C.)

GiRATjLT, A. A. Critical notes on sotne species of Mymaridae from the Sandwich
(Hawaiian) Islands, with comparative notes on Australian, North Arnerican,
and European forms. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washing-
ton 15: 9-20. April 9, 1914. ("Describes one new species and one new variety
of the genus Polynema. — J. C. C.)

Heideman, O. Description of two new species of North American Tingitidae.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 1-4. April 9,
1913.

Hood, J. D. Two new Thysanoptera from Porto Rico. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 1: 65-70, pi. 1. June 30, 1913. (Includes description of the new genus
Podothrips.— J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. On a collection of Thysanoptera from Porto Rico. .Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 1: 149-154, pi. 5. December 31, 1913. (Describes the new genus
Dinurothrips, founded upon D. Hookeri, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

JoxES, P. R., AND Davidson, W. M. Ldfe history of the codling moth in the Santa
Clara valley of California. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 115, Pt. 3, pp.
113-181. January 18, 1913. (Methods of control also are treated. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Some nectropical Syrphidae (Diptera). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus
1: 13-15. February 20, 1913. (Describes Quichuana, new genus, with two
new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Na7nes and synonomy in Anopheles {Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 15-17. February 20, 1913.

Knab, F. Some earlier observations on the habits of Aphiochaeta juli (Brues).
{Diptera, Phoridae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:24. February 20,
1913.

Knab, F. A new bromelicolous Megarhinus {Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 35, 36. March 29, 1913.

Knab, F. Changes in the mosquito-fauna of Panama. Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15: 40-42. April 9, 1913. (Changes of the
physical features of Panama, due to the canal construction and the conse-
quent formation of Gatun Lake, have brought about a great increase in the
numbers of certain species of mosquitoes previously found to occur in very
small numbers. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. A new Heterostylum from Mexico {Diptera, Bombyliidae) . Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 110, 111. September 15, 1913.

Knab, F. The contentions regarding "Forest malaria." Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 110-114. October 2, 1913. (A

180 KEFERENCES: ENTOMOLOGY

reply to an article by Dr. Lutz reiterating a belief that the epidemics of
malaria in question were caused by other than bromelicolous Anopheles. —
J.C.C.)

Knab, F. a new Cuban Chaoborus (Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 1: 121, 122. October 30, 1913.

Knab, F. a new American Phlebotomus {Diptera, Psychodidae) . Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 135-137, fig. 1. November 29, 1913. (Describes a
new species, P. airoclavatus, from Trinidad. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. A note on some American Simuliidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus
1 : 154^156. December 31, 1913. (The new name Simulium Lutzi is proposed
for S. exiguum Lutz, not of Roubaud. — J. C. C.)

Lutz, A. The insect host of forest malaria. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 15: 108, 109. October 2, 1913. {Cellia argyrotarsis is
said to be much more responsible for the spreading of malaria in Brazil than
C. albimana. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. A new genus and tioo new species of Chloropidae (Diptera). In-
secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 46^8. April 30, 1913. (Includes description
of Eugaurax, a new genus based upon E. floridensis, n. sp., from Florida.^
J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Four new species of North American Chloropidae (Diptera).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:60-64. May 31, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. A new species of Agromyzidae (Diptera). Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 1: 109, 110. September 15, 1913. ("Describes Milichia orientalis
from the Island of Guam. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. A neiv species of Simulium from Texas. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 133, 134. October 2, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. Two new species of Borboridae from Texas. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 135-137. October 2, 1913.

Marsh, H. O. The horse-radish webworm. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 109,
Pt. 7, pp. 71-76. January 30, 1913. (A short life-history of this species,
Plutella armor acia, occurring in Colorado. — J. C. C.)

Marsh, H. O. The striped beet caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 127,
Pt. 2, pp. 13-18, pi. 5. May 19, 1913. (A short account of the life-history of
Mamestra trifolii in Colorado and Kansas, with a list of its natural enemies
and recommendations for control. — J. C. C.)

Morgan, A. C. An enemy of the cigarette beetle. Proceedings of the Entomologi-
cal Society of Washington 15: 89. June 10, 1913. (Larvae and adults of the
Clerid beetle, Thaneroclerus girodi, are predaceous, feeding on the cigarette
beetle, in the larval, pupal, and adult stages. — J. C. C.)

Parker, W. B. The hop aphis in the Pacific region. Bureau of Entomology
Bulletin 111 : 1-43, pis. 1-10. May 6, 1913. (The life-history, habits, dam-
age, natural enemies and control of this species, Phorodon humuli, are given
at length.— J. C. C.)

Parker, W. B. The red spider on hops in the Sacramento valley of California.
Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 117: 1-41, pis. 1-6. May 3, 1913. (Dis-
cusses the life-history and habits of Tetranychus biniaculatus, with methods of
control.— J. C. C.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV APRIL 19, 1914 No. 8

MUS^ERALOGY .—Cnjstallized chrysocolla from Mackay, Idaho.
Joseph B. Umpleby, Geological Siu'vey.

Crystallized chrysocolla has been found only in a few places,
and descriptions of its optical properties do not agree. ^ It seems
worth while, therefore, to describe briefly some exceptionally good
material from the Empire copper mine, situated three and one-
half miles southwest of Mackay, Idaho. The specimen analyzed
was picked from the ore bins of the Copper Bullion tunnel during
an examination of the deposits by the writer in 1912. Copper
silicate ore has afforded most of the production from these de-
posits, but very little of the material is crystallized.

The chrysocolla is characteristically brown in color and con-
tains much iron, but locally it is bluish green and free from iron.
The latter variety only is described in this paper.

The crystalUzed chrysocolla at Mackay occurs as mammillary
crusts, as small masses of irregular shape, and as acicular crystals
imbedded in other copper minerals. The acicular crystals are
microscopic in size and in the thin section appear both as radi-
ating groups and narrow bands of closely packed individuals
oriented normal to the sides of the bands. The massive variety
offered the best material for analysis, but even with it consider-
able difficulty was experienced in separating a sufficient amount
for chemical examination. Within distances of a few millimeters

1 A description of chrysocolla from the Belgian Congo, by H. Buttgenbach
(Ann. Soc. geol. publ. Congo Beige, p. 31-70, 1913) gives the following optical
properties: fibres, uniaxial + , mean index of refraction 1.39 (average of 6 readings
from 1.33 to 1.48); mostly second order colors. Lindgren (Prof. Paper 43, U. S.
Geol. Survey, p. 113, 1904) states that chrysocolla from Clifton-Morenci, Arizona,
is negative with double refraction about like augite.

181

182

umpleby: crystallized chrysocolla

the pure material grades into ferruginous chrysocolla and copper
pitch ore, and traversing it are ill-defined layers of malachite;
films of kaolin occur along minute fractures. The physical prop-
erties of this massive form are: hardness, about 3; density, 2.4
(Jolly balance determination not satisfactory, because of many
minute fractures) ; luster, somewhat waxy ; color, beryl green
(Ridgway's color scale); streak, white; tenacity, brittle.

Examined microscopically both in refractive index solutions
and in thin section the mineral is seen to have one distinct cleav-
age normal to the elongation and possibly one parallel to it, al-
though what appears to be cleavage in the latter direction may
be merely an overlapping of fibers. It is uniaxial, optically
positive, has positive elongation, and is highly birefringent.
The indices of refraction are W, 1.46 and E, 1.57 ±, a small varia-
tion in the values from different grains making it impossible to
place a satisfactory value in the third decimal place. Thick
grains show pleochrbism in colorless (W) and pale bluish green
(E) tones. The mineral belongs to the hexagonal or to the tet-
ragonal system of crystallization.

Partial Analysis of Chrysocolla, E,. C. Wells, Analyst.

RATIOS

APPROXIMATE MINERAL
COMPOSITION

PER CENT

SiOs . .

39.3
32.0

18.7
2.4

1.7
3.6
tr.

0 65
0.40
1.05
0.02

0.03

0.05

Chrysocolla
CuO, Si02, 2H2O

Kaolinite 2Si02,

AI2O3, 2H2O
Opal

Si02, n H2O

CuO

87.3

H2O

AI2O3 (etc.)

FejOa

4.5

FeO

CaO

8.2

ZnO

MgO

97.7

A partial analysis of the massive material, carefully selected
with a hand lens, was made in the chemical laboratory of the
United States Geological Survey in order to make certain that
the material was chrysocolla. Although the analysis is unsatis-
factory in that it only totals 97.7 per cent, it is beheved that the
results prove that the crystalline substance is chrysocolla.

safford: pan-pipes of peru 183

Prior to recasting the analysis into mineralogical composition
portions of the pulp analyzed were examined in index solutions,
in order to determine what compounds other than copper sili-
cate should be recognized. Kaolinite is present along numerous
cracks in the specimen, but it was impossible to estimate its
relative amount. There is present, however, a considerable
amount of amorphous material which breaks as does the chrys-
ocolla and which has a refractive index lower than 1.45. It
was identified as opal. One hundred grains were examined in
each of ten portions of the pulp analyzed with the result that
on the average 9 out of each 100 were opal, the maximum range
being 5 to 14 with most of the counts approximating the average
value. Many of the grains were in part amorphous and in part
crystallized, so that the average value is based on numerous esti-
mates in addition to the actual count. The. percentage of opal
in the material as thus determined corresponds well with that
calculated from the analysis and serves as a check on the cal-
culation. In the recasting of the analysis alumina was assumed
to determine the amount of kaolinite; copper, zinc and calcium
oxides to determine the amount of chrysocolla; and the balance
was considered as opal. This gives an opal with 3.85 per cent
of water, a reasonable amount.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— Pan-pipes of Peru. William Edwin
Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.^

In 1887, while on a cruise in the South Pacific, the writer found
in a prehistoric grave at Arica, on the coast of Chile near the
Peruvian boundary, a pair of pan-pipes made of several graduated
reeds, very similar in form to the syrinx, or fistula, of the ancient
Greeks and Romans. This discovery inspired him with a desire
to learn what he could regarding the occurrence of similar instru-
ments in America and their possible connection wdth the classic
instruments of the old world. Afterwards, while acting as com-
missioner to Peru and Bolivia, for the World's Columbian Expo-
sition, the writer encountered at Puno, on the Peruvian shore of

' Read before the Anthropological Society of Washington at the meeting of
March 3, 1914.

184

safford: pan-pipes of peru

Fig. 1. Syrinx {Huayra puhura) from Peru. Photographed from a specimen
in the U. S. National Museum (no. 95,908). About five-sixths natural size.

safford: pan-pipes of peru 185

Lake Titicaca, an orchestra composed entirely of pan-pipes of
various sizes, some of the instruments producing shrill notes like
those of a piccolo, others flute-like notes, and the largest, tones
like those of an organ or calliope.

It was observed that the instruments were always grouped in
pairs. No single instrument was capable of producing all the
notes of the scale, but only alternate notes, separated by intervals
of a third, the intervening notes being played by a second player
upon an instrument which was the mate or complement of the
first. Nearly all the instruments consisted of 16 reeds arranged
in 2 rows of 8 graduated reeds, those of the inner row closed at
the bottom by a joint of the reed, while those of the outer row
were open both at the top and bottom. The reeds were secured
side by side, not by wax as in the Grecian syrinx, but by a splint
of cane wrapped about them, the upper ends forming a horizontal
line, the lower ends a series of steps, with the longest reeds on the
right of the player when in use (fig. 1). The performers, who
were full-blooded Quichua Indians, sounded the pipes by blowing
across the opening of the inner or closed reeds, the corresponding
outer open reeds apparently serving the purpose only of giving
volume or quality to the note sounded. Some of the smaller in-
struments were composed only of 14, or 7 pairs, of reeds, but in
other respects resembled the rest (fig. 2).

The lowermost instrument of each pair sounded the notes mi,
sol, si, re, fa, la, do, mi; while its slightly smaller mate supplied
the intervening notes /a, la, do, mi, sol, si, re, fa. The theme of
one of the tunes played by the Titicaca Indians was the following:

This was repeated again and again. The time was quick and the
Indians trotted along the street while playing, with short shuffling
steps, keeping time to the music. When they arrived at a cross
street and before the church they followed one another in ring,
very much like the players represented on funeral vases from
prehistoric graves. They wore close-fitting, pointed caps knit

186 safford: pan-pipes of peru

partly of vicuna and partly of sheep's wool, some of them prettily
figured with geometrical designs or conventionalized figures of
viscacachas or llamas, but all of them more or less greasy. Over
the caps they wore broad-brimmed gray felt hats wreathed with
flamingo feathers of a pretty rose color or with feathers of other
birds artificially dyed in bright shades of magenta, yellow, or
purple. Over coarse white shirts they wore ponchos and over
loose white drawers tightly fitting trousers slit from the lower
margin of each leg to the knee and displaying the white drawers
beneath. Some of them wore sandals of rawhide, but the major-
ity were barefooted. On reaching the residence of the prefect
they entered the court and stood in a ring while they played the
national air of Peru in a creditable manner. The writer was
informed by the prefect, Don Jose de la Torre, that these Indians
came every year during the national festivities from their home
on an island in Lake Titicaca, to pay him a formal visit. When
they finished playing, he applauded them and cried "sumahh,"
the Quichua word for good, or bravo! Then each player came
before him and, bending one knee, bowed almost to the ground.
The prefect patted each one on the head in succession, and then
told them all to begone. Having regaled themselves with gen-
erous draughts of pisco they filed out of the patio and continued
their procession through the streets of the town.

The instruments composing the orchestra were fairly well at-
tuned. The middle pair, corresponding in pitch to the key of c,
was composed of reeds varying in length from nearly 26 cm.,
producing the note e, to about 6.5 cm., producing a note exactly
two octaves higher. The dimensions of the lower-toned pair were
twice those of the middle pair, the pipes, ranging from approxi-
mately 52 cm. to 14 cm. in length (inside measurements), produc-
ing notes one octave lower. The smallest pair should have been
one-half the size of the middle pair, but as a matter of fact, the
component reeds were slightly short, and the resulting notes
were consequently sharp. The effect of the whole orchestra,
however, was not unpleasing to a musical layman.

On measuring the reeds composing the various sets of pan-
pipes their lengths were found to correspond almost exactly with

safford: pan-pipes of peru

187

the theoretical lengths of pipes producing corresponding notes
of the diatonic scale. If the length of the c pipe be indicated by
L, the c' pipe, an octave higher, measures one-half this length,
or ^ L, while the lower C pipe measures twice its length, or 2 L.
The upper g, or sol pipe, which produces the fifth, or dominant,
measures f L, while the lower G pipe is twice as long as the
latter, or t L. The length of the upper / pipe, which produces
the fourth, or subdominant, is f L, while the lower F pipe is
twice as long, or f L. In the same way, we have the length of
the upper e, or mi pipe, producing the major third 1^ L; the
lower E pipe I L; the upper a, or la pipe, f L; the lower A, i L;
the upper h, or si pipe, tV L; the lower B pipe, if L; that is, tV
longer than the c pipe.

The pipes were not all cut with equal accuracy: sometimes a
reed was a little too long or too short, consequently producing
a flat or a sharp tone.

The following table shows the actual measurements in milli-
meters of the reeds composing the smallest pair of syrinxes in
the United States National Museum. (No. 210,439).

INSTRUMENT NO. 1 (8 BEEDS)

INSTRUMENT NO. 2 (7 REEDS)

Notes

Propor-
tional
length

Theoret- Actual
ical length ; length

Notes

^t'Xr Theoret- Actual
Kh ical length j length

1

2
3
4

5
6

7
8

e (mi)
' g (sol)
b (si)
d (re)
.r (fa)
a' (la)
c' (do)
e" (mi)

mm.

130
108
86
72
61
48
41
33

mm.

130
110

87

70

62

49 1

42

33

1

2
3
4

6

7

/(fa)
a (la)
c (do)
e' (mi)
g' (sol)
6' (si)
d' (re)

L

mm.
122

97

81

65

54 .

43

36

mm,.
122
97
81
65
55
44
35

It could hardly be expected that in making instruments so
crude as these pipes, fashioned from simple reeds, the Indians
should have an established standard pitch. Slight variations
were found in different sets of instruments in the same orchestra,
although an attempt had undoubtedly been made to attune them
perfectly. An odd Peruvin syrinx in the collection of the United

188 safford: pan-pipes of peru

States National Museum (no. 95,908, shown in fig. 1) has pipes
producing alternate notes of the scale as above described, but
they are in lengths which produce a scale in the key of/. The
reed producing the tonic, or do tone (/) is 120 mm. long (inside
measurement) . The fa and la {B\> and D) pipes below, theoreti-
cally f and I the length of the do pipe, are actually 180 mm. and
144 mm. long; the sol (c) pipe above theoretically f the length
of the do pipe, is actually 80 mm., and consequently sounds
true; but the upper re and /a {g' and h'\?) pipes at the extreme left
of the instrument are too long, and consequently almost a half-
tone flat. It is probable that this irregularity was not intentional
on the part of the instrument maker, especially if he gauged the
length of the pipes by his ear alone rather than by definite meas-
urements. Writers on musical instruments often show a tend-
ency to give too great importance to accidental irregularities
of this kind and to regard them as intentional. As a matter of
fact, to correct a pipe for flatness the Titicaca Indians pour either
water or a little pisco (grape brandy) into it, thus shortening
the vibrating column of air to the required length. Specimens
of flukes made of single reeds with holes for the fingers and thumb
are sometimes dug up from prehistoric graves in Peru with the
original holes plugged and replaced by new holes slightly above
or below the original ones, showing that the first holes had been
made by guess work and the resulting tones were too sharp or
too flat for the ear of the player, who, finding his instrument to
be "out of tune," felt obliged to correct it. In the same way,
when the players of pan-pipes come together to form an orchestra,
it is often necessary for some of them to tune their instruments
to accord with the others. This is easily done by raising the pitch
of the flat-toned instruments, as described above.

That pan-pipes are not an intrusion from Spain is proved con-
clusively by their occurrence in prehistoric graves. That the
ancient Peruvians played them in mated pairs producing alternat-
ing notes in the scale is equally certain from the fact that on vases
interred with mummies, players of pan-pipes are represented in
pairs, sometimes with the two instruments on which they are per-
forming connected loosely by a long string.

safford: pan-pipes of peru

189

So far as the writer knows, this is the first account of the
methods used by the Peruvians in attuning and playing their pan-
pipes. The instrument is often represented in collections by a
single specimen, and the alternating notes produced by it have
caused no little wonder to observers unaware that they repre-
sented not a scale but only half the notes of a scale, requiring a
second complementary instrument to make it complete.

Ml DO LA FA RE SI SOL Ml

RE 51 SOL Ml DO LA FA

Fig. 2. A pair of syrinxes from Lake Titicaca. The two instruments are
complementary. Both are necessary for producing the notes of the scale. Other
instruments, also in pairs, are twice and four times the length of these. From
specimens in the U. S. National Museum (no. 210,439) collected at Puno by W. E.
Safford. About five-twelfths natural size.

Usually each instrument is played by a separate person; but
the writer saw one expert performer who, to show his skill, played
on two instruments at the same time, one superimposed upon the
other, a feat evidently regarded by his companions with admira-
tion. No melody can be played by a single instrument: a pair of
instruments must always be used. What the original scale of the
ancient Peruvians was is not definitely known, but this can be
ascertained by measuring the lengths of the component reeds,
even if they have been crushed and are incapable of yielding
sounds. Undoubtedly they produced octaves, from the fact that
there are always pipes one-half the length of larger pipes, and some

190

safford: pan-pipes of peru

of these must have sounded the key-note or tonic chord. The
Peruvians also recognized, in all probability, the notes of the
major or minor third and the fifth, corresponding to the dominant
drone of the bagpipe. This would be suggested by a natural
harmonic or node in a single pipe, formed after the manner of the
harmonic tones of a bugle. Whatever may have been their scale
it is certain that they did use instruments in pairs to produce
notes necessary for producing a melody; and the variation in
size of their instruments point to their playing in symphonious
chords. The alternating notes may be compared to those of a
mouth-organ or accordion; but in the latter instruments the
consecutive notes of the scale are produced by alternately blowing
and inhaling the air. It would require too much breath to blow
continuously across the open tubes of a syrinx: the resulting
music would have a "wheezy" or gasping effect. But when the
scale is produced by two players, it is pleasantly legato, each
player having an opportunity of catching his breath while his
mate is piping a note. Thus:

Instrument,
No. I.

Instrument,
No. 2.

-<9-

■(9-

-«>-

1 1 1 1 1 rG> T-\

mi fa sol la si do re mi fa sol la si do re mi

lE:

-n-

The pan-pipe may be regarded literally as the prototype of the
organ, the graduated pipes of which suggest a giant inverted
syrinx blown from below. In Peru the orginal Quichua name of
the pan-pipe is huayra puhura, or "air-pipes;" but it is now usually
designated as zampotla, a Spanish word corresponding to the
Italian zampogna. This name is used ordinarily in Spain and
Italy to designate bag-pipes, but is likewise applied to pastoral
wind instruments of various kinds, just as in English we use the
name "pipes." On the shore of Lake Titicaca the pipers held the
pipe in the left hand, beating time with a stick, held by the right

safford: pax-pipes of peru 191

hand on a drum suspended from the left arm. On some of the
ancient Peruvian burial vases, instead of a drum, a hollow gourd
is represented as the instrument for marking the rhythm.

The question as to whether the syrinx was invented independ-
ently by the aborigines of South America or whether it was
brought to the western hemisphere from elsewhere is an interest-
ing one. Certainly the instrument was wide-spread before the
dawn of history. Syrinxes are found not only in Europe and on
the southern shore of the IVIediterranean but also in Java, on
many islands of the Pacific Ocean, among certain tribes of North
American Indians, as well as in northern South America, Brazil,
Peru, and Bolivia. Whether their occurrence bears upon the
problem of the origin of the x4merican Indians is a question. The
greatest caution should be exercised by the student of ethnology
in tracing the origin of tribes by means of any one instrument or
any single art. Often very similar arts are the result of similar
conditions of climate and resulting raw materials. The art of
weaving among the ancient Peruvians is very similar to that of
the aborigines of Asia and Europe, yet it does not follow that this
art was brought to Peru in prehistoric times. Llamas, alpacas,
and vicunas, are endemic in South America: why should not the
art of weaving the wool obtained from these animals be equally
of South American origin? It is a remarkable fact that the pan-
pipes which are most closely similar in construction to those
played by the Indians of Peru and Bolivia are found among the
Solomon Islanders, especially those inhabiting the Florida Group
— black-skinned, woolly-haired cannibals, in no way allied to the
Indians of South America. Just as the orchestras of the Quichuas
and Aymaras are composed of instruments of several definite sizes,
so those of the Florida Islanders are similarly grouped; the shrill
treble pipes being called galevu-soniruka; those of medium tone,
half their size, galevu-kahauinamu; and the deeper, baritone
instruments twice the size of the latter by the suggestive name
galevu-ngungu. The instruments themselves, like those described
above, consist of a double row of graduated pipes the reeds of
one row being closed at the bottom by a natural joint, those of
the other row being open.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEODESY. — I nter'pr elation of anomalies of gravity. Grove Karl
Gilbert. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-C. Pp.
37. 1913.
Hayford and Bowie, in discussing the deflections of the plumb line
and the variations of gravity determined by the geodetic work of the
U. S. Coast Survey, have introduced the following hypothesis: At a
certain depth below the earth's surface, called the depth of compensa-
tion, stresses are uniform. Each vertical element above that level has
the same mass, its density (assumed uniform) being low in proportion
as its length is great. Under this hypothesis they find the most prob-
able depth of the level of compensation to be 122 kilometers. The
hypothesis approximately satisfies the requirements of gravity determi-
nations for the United States but leaves certain residuals called anom-
alies of gravity. These have been ascribed to imperfection in the com-
pensation. It is now pointed out that this explanation does not accord
well with geologic data as to loading and unloading. Two alternative
explanations are suggested, and computations indicate that each is
quantitatively adequate: (1) The anomalies may be occasioned by
inequalities in the vertical distribution of density above the level of
compensation; (2) some of them may be occasioned by local inequalities
of density within a rigid nucleus assumed to exist below the region in
which mobility permits isostatic adjustment. These suggestions are
in accord with a speculation as to the general structure of the earth, —
that it includes a zone or layer of relative mobility, separating a super-
ficial zone of less mobility from a highly immobile nucleus. The zone
of relative mobility is the site of volcanic initiative, and is an important
factor in those transgressions by which superficial tracts are tangentially
shortened, as in the Appalachians, or tangentially extended, as in the
Basin ranges. G. K. G.

192

abstracts: geology 193

GEOLOGY. — Coastal glaciers of Prince William Sound and Kenai
Peninsula, Alaska. U. S. Grant and D. F. Higgins. U. S.
Geological Survej' Bulletin 526. Pp. 75, vAth. maps, views, and
sections. 1913.
The history of the glaciation of the coastal region of Prince William
Sound and Kenai Peninsula includes the formation of an extensive
Pleistocene ice sheet, which extended to the sea and reached upward
to the mountains. Since this period of maximum glaciation there has
been a marked decrease in the extent of the ice-covered areas, until
now only valley glaciers reach the sea. This withdrawal of the ice was
probably punctuated by temporary advances, and the present is only
an epoch in the long history since the maximum Pleistocene glaciation.
Earth movements have also played a part, as yet little known, in this
history; changes on Prince William Sound are still taking place, and
since the maximum period of glaciation there has been a considerable
sinking of the coast Hne in much of the area and between Resurrection
and Nuka bays there are nmnerous drowned cirques. The glaciers
here studied do not give uniform evidence as to a general retreat or a
general advance \vithin the last half century; some are evidently in a
period of retreat and others in a period of advance, and the general
balance between retreat and advance can not be accurately determined
by data now at hand. A. H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits near Lake City, Colorado. John
DuER Irving and Rowland Bancroft. U. S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 478. Pp. 128, with maps, views, and sections. 1911.

Lake City is in southwestern Colorado and in the heart of the San
Juan Mountains. These consist chiefly of volcanic rocks, with intru-
sive igneous masses, which now cover an irregular area of more than
3000 square miles. The eruptions occurred during Tertiary time, when
many kinds of lavas were poured out, building up a huge volcanic pla-
teau. There were also long intervals of quiet, during which erosion
changed the topography of the volcanic pile.

In general the Lake City lodes may be regarded mineralogically as
the outer or northeasterly edge of the heavily mineralized area of the
San Juan. The lodes occur at a slightly older geologic horizon than in
the adjacent districts and are definitely characterized by formation at
moderate depths. They are fissure veins, formed partty through the
replacement of shattered and sheeted zones in the country rock and
mainly through the filling of open spaces. They average between 500

194 abstracts: geology

and 1000 feet in length, have a similar vertical range, and an average
width of 10 inches to 5 feet. They show a wide range of strike and dip
at steep angles. They comprise three closely related mineralogic types.
The first contains pyrite, galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite with sub-
ordinate tetrahedrite, in a quartz gangue with some barite and rhodo-
chrosite, and yields silver and lead with subordinate copper and little
gold. The second contains galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite, with
subordinate chalcopyrite and pyrite, in a gangue of quartz, barite, and
rhodochrosite, and yields chiefly silver and lead. The third contains
petzite, tetrahedrite, and minor quantities of other sulphides, in a
gangue of fine-grained quartz carrying in places some hinsdalite, a new
mineral; this type yields silver and gold in proportion by value of 1:1
and is characterized by high tenor in both metals. The first two groups
include most of the Lake City lodes, as there is but one productive
telluride vein. The lodes are of late Miocene or early Pliocene age.
Their materials are believed to have been emitted from a magma of
monzonite whose apophyses as intrusions are scattered through this
general region in considerable numbers. Alfred H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Some ore deposits in noTthivestern Custer County, Idaho.
J. B. Umpleby. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 539. Pp. 104,
with maps, figures and views. 1913.

The rock formations exposed in this area are schists, slates, and
quartzites of Algonkian age. Unconformably on these rocks in parts
of the area lies a great series, at least 9000 feet thick, of Paleozoic quartz-
ites, slates, and dolomitic limestones. During the late or early Creta-
ceous Eocene epoch these rocks were invaded by granite, quartz diorite,
and diorite, which are probably outliers of the great central Idaho bath-
olith. Dikes of granite, granite porphyry, and diorite porphyry, closely
related in age to the granite rocks, are locally abundant in the western
part of the area. In the central portion and along the eastern margin
occur vast accumulations of Miocene lava and tuff, which occupy old
erosion valleys. Morainic material covers much of the highlands.

The ore deposits comprise gold placers, and lodes carrying gold-silver,
gold-copper, silver-copper, and lead-silver ores. The first three types
of lodes are typically fissure fillings, but the fourth might equally well
be considered of replacement origin. The gold-silver deposits are char-
acterized by a highly siliceous gangue; the others by a siderite gangue.

Two distinct periods of mineralization are recognized in the area,
the deposits of each being distinct in character and their age relations

abstracts: geology 195

clearly determinable. They are grouped as pre-Oligocene and post-
Oligocene deposits. The latter are invariably inclosed in the Miocene
eruptive rocks; the former in all the other rock formations. J. B. U.

GEOLOGY. — The San Franciscan volcanic field, Arizona. Henry
HoLLisTER Robinson. U. S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 76. Pp. 213, with maps, views, and sections. 1913.

The San Franciscan volcanic field, which takes its name from San
Francisco Mountain, the largest volcano of the group, covers about 3000'
square miles in the north central part of Arizona. The conspicuous
features of the topography are the many volcanic cones rising to vari-
able heights up to a maximum of 12,700 feet from a northward sloping
plain 6000 to 7000 feet in altitude.

The oldest rocks of the region are the pure limestone of the Redwall
formation, of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age. The red sand-
stone of the Supai ("Lower Aubrey") formation, the crossbedded
Coconino ("Upper Aubrey") sandstone, and the cherty Kaibab ("Upper
Aubrey") limestone succeed one another in the order given and belong
to the Pennsylvanian series. These four formations furnish a record
of continuous marine sedimentation in shallow waters.

The Moencopie formation (Permian?), consisting of red sandstones
and shales of fluviatile or shallow water origin, rests unconformably on
the Kaibab limestone and in turn is separated by a slight unconformity
from an overlying continental deposit of Triassic sandstone, shales, and
marls. These Triassic rocks furnish the last record of sedimentation
in this region, but a study of the surrounding country shows that deposi-
tion continued much longer and that Jurassic, Cretaceous, and possibly
Eocene strata once covered the area.

Near the close of the Eocene epoch there was a period of folding and
flexing, during the Miocene one of erosion and faulting, and in early
Pliocene one of peneplanation. Extending from the late Pliocene to
late Quaternary time there were three general periods of volcanic
activity separated bj^ intervals of quiescence, marked by faulting,
uplift, and extensive erosion. The phenomena of the first volcanic
period were of a simple nature and consisted of widespread eruptions
of basalt from small cones. During the second period various lavas,
ranging from andesites to rhyolites, were erupted and built up a few
large cones. These cones, their history, their volume, together with
the volume of the individual lavas, and the amount of erosion since the
cessation of volcanic activity are described in detail. This period was

196 abstracts: hydrology

further marked by laecolithic and semilaccolithic intrusions contem-
poraneous with the volcanic extrusions. The third period closely re-
sembled the first in that it witnessed the eruption of a single lava — -a
basalt — but it was characterized by the formation of a larger number
of cones and a less widespread distribution of the lava.

The occurrence, megascopic and microscopic character, crystallinity,
together with the chemical and mineral composition of 23 types of
rocks ranging from a biotite rhyolite to an augite basalt are described
in detail and compared to certain "Reference types" established by
averaging the analyses of certain subrangs of the quantitative system
of classification. The average lavas of the composite cones are found
to have practically the same composition as the average lava of the
second period of eruption; it is thought that differentiation occurred in
a deep-seated zone and that the original composition of the magma was
probably basaltic; and it is concluded that the lavas may be considered
as representing all possible members of the igneous series which could
form under the magmatic conditions existing in the San Franciscan
region. Finally these lavas form a genetically related series of pro-
nounced continuity and are the differentiation products of an originally
homogeneous magma. These lavas were derived from the original
magma, or originated according to the laws of chemical solution.

J. F. Hunter.

HYDROLOGY. — Underground water resources of Iowa. W. H. Nor-
ton, W. S. Hendrixon, H. E. Simpson, O. E. Meinzer, and
others. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 293.
Pp. 994, with maps, section, and other illustrations. 1912. (Also
published as a report of the Iowa Geological Survey.)
This paper is a comprehensive and detailed treatise on the under-
ground waters of Iowa. Its chief contribution to geology consists of
numerous carefully interpreted sections of deep wells and their corre-
lation by the senior author. In the introductory chapter are outlined
methods of collecting and studying sample drillings and of interpreting
and correlating well sections. Paleozoic formations that outcrop in
the northeastern part of the State are traced by means of well sections
to the western part, where they are deeply buried under younger Paleo-
zoic, Cretaceous, and Pleistocene deposits. A contour map of the
upper surface of the St. Peter sandstone, one of the principal artesian
aquifers, shows this formation to be about 1000 feet below sea level at
Des Moines, and proba])ly 2000 feet below at its lowest point, a short
distance east of the southwestern corner of the State, toward which

abstracts: hydrology 197

point the Paleozoic formations seem to dip from the east, north, and
west. According to the interpretations that are made, the Pennsyl-
vanian series is 1400 feet thick in the southwestern part of the State and
extends more than 300 feet below sea level.

The underground waters in the northeastern part of the State, where
older Paleozoic formations outcrop, have low mineralization, the total
solids generally being less than 500 parts per miflion, whereas in the
other parts of the State, where Pennsylvanian and Upper Cretaceous
rocks occur, the underground waters are generally highly mineralized.

0. E. M.

HYDROLOGY. — Geology and water resources of Sulphur Spring Valley,
Arizona. 0. E. Meinzer and F. C. Kelton. With a section
on agriculture by R. H. Forbes. U. S. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper No. 320. Pp. 231, with maps, views, and other
illustrations. 1913. (Also pubHshed as a bulletin of the Arizona
Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Sulphur Spring Valley is bordered by ranges in which are found pre-
Cambrian schist Paleozoic quartzites and limestones, Cretaceous sedi-
mentary rocks, and large masses of igneous and pyrociastic rocks,
chiefly acidic lavas of Tertiary age. The valley is underlain by Quater-
nary sediments correlated with the Gila conglomerate and shown by
well sections to be more than 1000 feet thick. Interbedded with the
Quaternary stream deposits is a clay bed at least 200 feet thick, cor-
related with similar stratified beds in other valleys of southeastern
Arizona, indicating a lake stage or general submergence probably early
in the Pleistocene epoch. Later in the Pleistocene the valley contained
a lake of 120 square miles, as is shown by 33 miles of well-developed
beach ridges. Beds of basalt interbedded with stream deposits indicate
two epochs of volcanic eruption during the Pleistocene.

The valley sediments contain a main body of ground water and
smaller bodies of perched water. The ground water is derived from the
drainage of adjacent mountains and is returned to the atmosphere
through capillary rise over extensive alkali flats.

As shown by maps with lines of equal minerahzation, the mineral
content of the ground water is related to the character of the rocks in
the adjacent mountains. Sodium carbonate waters having less than 200
parts per milHon of total solids are found adjacent to mountains com-
posed of igneous rocks. The soluble salts tend to become concentrated
near the surface by capillary rise and evaporation, but salt accumu-
lations have in some places been buried under clastic sediments.

198 abstracts: hydrology

The valley is divided into six zones of native vegetation, the pro-
nounced segregation of the dominant plant forms being due to radical
differences in the geographic controls, chiefly soil, temperature, and
water supply. O. E. M.

HYDROLOGY. — Water resources of Antelo'pe Valley, California.
Harry R. Johnson. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper No. 278. Pp. 89, with maps and other illustrations. 1911.
Antelope Valley, which lies in the southwestern part of the Mohave
Desert, is enclosed by several mountain ranges in which are found
metamorphic and granitic rocks, sandstones, shales, lavas, and tuff.
The relief was produced chiefly by block faulting, but some of the sedi-
mentary formations are much folded. The valley is underlain by
gravels, sands, and clay derived through the erosion of the rocks in the
mountains. In some places the valley deposits have been faulted and
folded by recent earth movements, forming a well-defined ridge. They
are waterbearing and give rise to flowing wells over an area of several
townships. The artesian waters are derived from the floods discharged
from mountain-sides bordering the valley and not from Owens Lake
or other distant source, as is popularly Ijelieved. Alkaline clays and silt
underlie the playas, where the ground water stands near the surface.

0. E. Meinzer.

HYDROLOGY. — An intensive study of the water resources of a part of
Owens Valley, California. Charles H. Lee. U. S. Geological
Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 294. Pp. 135, with maps, diagrams,
and other illustrations. 1912.
The porous fill of Owens Valley occupies an impervious undrained rock
basin, and the void spaces of the fill constitute an immense underground
storage reservoir. The principal source of supply of this reservoir is
percolation from precipitation in the valley and upon the tributary
mountain areas. The principal discharge occurs through the flow of
springs, the transpiration of plants, and the evaporation in low areas
where the ground water is raised to the surface by capillarity. The
accretions to and discharge from the underground reservoir were studied
quantitatively in the Independence district of Owens Valley. The
quantities discharged through evaporation and transpiration were de-
termined for different depths to the water level by a series of tank
experiments. For the district investigated it was found that loss by
evaporation and transpiration occurs wherever the ground water stands
within about 8 feet of the surface and that the amount varies inversely
with the depth, being 50 or 60 inches a year where the ground water is

abstracts: paleontology 199

at the surface and zero where it is as much as 8 feet below the surface.
The average discharge of ground water in the district was determined
to be approximately 155 second-feet, of which 93 to 114 second-feet is
contributed by soil evaporation and transpiration from grass and alkali
lands. The available data indicate that this discharge is about equal to
the accretions of ground water, as determined by observations on the per-
colation from streams and other sources of supply. 0. E. Meinzer.

HYDROLOGY. — Ground water in Boxelder and Tooele Counties, Utah.
Everett Carpenter. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper No. 333. Pp. 90, with maps and other illustrations. 1913.

The mountains under discussion, which were produced chiefly by
block faulting, contain Paleozoic rocks ranging in age from Cambrian
to Carboniferous, inclusive; also pre-Cambrian and Tertiarj^ rocks.
The intervening alluvial slopes and desert flats are underlain by uncon-
solidated sediments, chiefly Pleistocene. Lake Bonneville covered most
of the area in the Pleistocene epoch.

The indurated rocks are not important as waterbearing formations
but form huge reservoirs which contain unconsolidated sediments hold-
ing large quantities of water. Contributions to the underground supply
are made by floods discharged over the alluvial slopes, and withdrawals
occur on the valley flats and low deserts through the discharge of springs
and through capillary rise. Where alkali flats occur ground water will
be found near the surf ace. 0. E. Meinzer. .

PALEONTOLOGY — Recurrent Tropidoleptus zones of the Upper Devo-
nian in New York. Henry S. Williams. U. S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 79. Pp. 103, with 6 plates. 1913.
The area covered by this investigation is included almost wholly
in the Watkins Glen and Catatonk quadrangles, lying in south-central
New York. In this investigation 1411 separate faunules were collected
arid examined from the Watkins Glen and Catatonk quadrangles and
103 more from the adjoining Cortland quadrangle. All the faunules
which contained either Tropidoleptus carinatus, Rhipidomella vanuxemi
or closely allied forms, or Spirifer marcyi, Cypricardella bellistriata,
Delthyris mesicostalis, Phacops rana, and other species either recorded
in the Hamilton faunas or closely allied to them were critically examined.
Most of them are located in one or other of three definite zones in their
respective sections. The author shows (1) that none of the species
occur stratigraphically far above or below the immediate zones in which
they are found, often in abundance, and (2) that several of them are
habitually associated together. The faunules in each section contain-

200 abstracts: entomology

ing any of these species are grouped together as recurrent Tropidoleptus
zones, considering Tropidoleptus to be the most characteristic form.

The importance of the investigation lies chiefly in its disclosures in
regard to the ancient geography of the region. Both the departure
and the return of the fauna must have been due to diastrophic changes
that at one time brought about conditions unfavorable to the continued
existence of the fauna and at another time not only restored favorable
conditions but also provided means for the remigration of the fauna
into the region. Such changes may have resulted (1) from the alter-
nate closing and reopening of an actual passageway which alternately
prevented and permitted the access of the fauna and of waters favorable
to them, or (2) from changes that affected the direction, character, or
volume of existing ocean currents. David White.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Observations on the life history of Micromalthus

debilis Lee. H. S. Barber. Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15: 31-38, pis. 2 and 3. April 9, 1913.

The few records and captures of this supposedly rare beetle from the

original capture of adult and larva in 1874 are given, together with a

preliminary account of the author's attempts to breed adults from larvae

found in the vicinity of Washington. These attempts demonstrate 'an

involved paedogenetic reproduction (the first case known among the

beetles) through three types of larvae, but the development of the sexed

adults is still unknown to the writer. Comparison is made with other

examples of unusual reproduction. The systematic position of the species

is considered doubtful. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The dispersion of the gypsy moth. A. F. Burgess.
Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 119:1-62, pis. 1-16. 1913.
The present paper is an extended account of the spread of this species,
Porthetria dispar, as observed principally in Massachusetts. The char-
acter of its spread is divided into two groups, local and long-distance
spread; the former due to the transportation of caterpillars or egg clus-
ters on carriages or wagons moving a short distance, or of egg clusters on
driftwood; the latter due to shipment of egg clusters on lumber products,
nursery stock, or boxes from the infested territory to outside points.
Caterpillars may also be carried long distances on automobiles or trolley
cars, and colonies have actually been established at a great distance
from the mother colony by such means. The greatest factor in ready
dispersion is that the first stage caterpillars are carried by winds. Ex-
tensive experiments were carried on to prove this, traps being moored
in ponds or lakes, or put on tops of towers of various sorts in order to

abstracts: anthropology 201

catch against their surfaces caterpillars driven by winds. The larvae
possess hairs, called aerostatic hairs, Avith a small globular swelling near
the base, which are supposed to aid in bouyancy. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY.— ne Argentine ant. Wilmon Newell and T. C.
Barber. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 122: 1-98, pis. 1-13.
June 26, 1913.
A detailed account of the life-history and habits of Iridomyrnex
humilis. This introduced species, found thus far in Louisiana, Mis-
sissippi, Alabama, and California, is extremely destructive to foods in
houses and stores and also to crops, owing to its habit of protecting
injurious insects which feed upon the sugar cane and corn. Its presence
in orange groves is followed by rapid increase of destructive scale-in-
sects on the trees, causing severe injury. In cotton fields where the
boll weevil is present it is indirectlj^ the cause of damage by annihilat-
ing native ants which destroy many of the immature stages of the boll
weevil. It may also be found presently to be an important agent in the
spread of disease, since individuals congregate in great numbers around
garbage pails, etc., and are frequently hard to keep out of sick rooms.
Methods *of natural control and of repression, including the use of re-
pellents and insecticides, are discussed. J. C. Crawford,

ANTHROPOLOGY.^ — Preliminary report on the linguistic classifica-
tion of Algonquian tribes. T. Michelson. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur,
Amer. Ethnology, pp. 221-290b. 1912 [pub. 1913].
Algonquian tribes linguistically fall into four major divisions—
Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Eastern-Central. The Eastern-
Central major division is divisible into two subtypes. Central and
Eastern. The Central subtype has, furthermore, groupings within
itself: Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, and Shaw-
nee; Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Algonkin, and Peoria, together with
Miami, etc.; Delaware and Munsee; and Natick. The Eastern sub-
type may be divided into two groups — Micmac, on the one hand, and the
other extant dialects (Abnaki, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Malecite),
which collectively may be designated Abnaki, on the other. The inti-
mate connection of Eastern Algonquian with Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, as
well as with Shawnee, should be emphasized. The above classifica-
tion is based on a study of the consonantic clusters of the various dia-
lects, the pronouns of the present independent and subjunctive modes,
together with certain phonetic and other considerations. The map
shoAving the distriljution and interrelation of the Algonquian dialects
was prepared "wnth the collaboration of Dr. John R. Swanton. T. M

202 abstracts: electrical engineering

ANTHROPOLOGY.— Coos texts. L. J. Frachtenberg. Columbia
University Contributions to Anthropology 1 : 1-216. 1913.
These texts represent the Coos myths obtained in 1909 and those
obtained by H. H. St. Clair, 2d, in 1903. The latter are normalized
by Frachtenberg in his own phonetic scheme, save such words as are
problematic. In these cases the correct form is given usually in foot-
notes. Interlinear translations accompany the first two myths, and
these, as well as the vocabulary at the end, the list of suffixes, and the
references to Frachtenberg's sketch of Coos grammar (Handbook of
American Indian Languages, Bulletin 40, part 2, Bur. Amer. Ethnology,
pp. 297^29) make it easy to follow the native text. L. J. F.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.— ^//ec^roZys/s from electric railway
currents and its prevention. An experimental test on a system of
insulated return feeders in St. Louis. E. B. Rosa, B. McCollitm
and K. H. Logan. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper
No. 32. (In press.)
The paper describes a comparative test on electrolysis conditions,
first under a system of uninsulated return feeders, and then under an
insulated feeder system, the same amount of copper being used in each
test. Rail gradients were taken on a measured length of four feet of
rail on all rails on both sides of each feeder tap. The average rail
gradient with uninsulated feeders was 0.91 volts for the twenty-four
hour period, and for the insulated feeders, 0.47 volts. Potential wires
were placed 4 feet apart on 14 water and 7 gas pipes at points where the
current on the pipes would probably be the largest. The average
Current flow on the pipes when the uninsulated feeder system was in
operation was 5.7 times greater than under the insulated feeder system,
there being no metallic connections between pipes and rails in either
case. Potential differences between water pipes and rails observed at a
large number of points, show a marked improvement under the insulated
system. Twenty-two over-all potentials were measured between the
tracks at the substation and the most distant feeding points. The
average of those values was 10.4 volts with uninsulated and 2.6 volts
with insulated feeders. The corresponding gradients in volts per thous-
and feet were 2.6 and 0.35 volts respectively. There is comparatively
little difference in net cost of the two systems, while a summary of the
test data shows that electrolysis conditions are very much better under
the insulated return feeder system than under the uninsulated system.

G. K. Burgess.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 519th meetmg was held at the Cosmos Club, January 10, 1914,
with President Paul Bartsch in the chair. Five new members were
elected.

The discussion of the previous meeting on Parallel Development was
continued. L. Stejneger spoke of Parallelism as exhibited in reptiles,
while Barton W. Evermann and Theodore Gill discussed it as re-
lated to fishes. Messrs. Eastman, Bartsch, A. D. Hopkins, and WilUam
Palmer also took part in the discussion.

The 520th meeting was held January 24, 1914, with President Bartsch
in the chair. Five persons were elected to membership.
The program consisted of three communications:
Wi72ter hird-life in the swamps of Alabama: E. G. Holt.
Pollen protection in thefloivers of Acacia and Annona: W. E. Safford.
The problem of the gliding gull: William Palmer.

The 521st meeting was held February 7, 1914, President Bartsch in
the chair. One new member was elected. Two communicat'onswere
presented :

Notes on the fossil mammals of the Fort Union: J. W. Gidley.

Certain seeds used for ornamental purposes in the West Indies: J. N.
Rose.

The 522d meeting was held February 21, 1914, Vice-President J. N.
Rose in the chair. The program consisted of three communications:

Seasonal movements of fishes at Lake Maxinkii kee: Barton W.
Evermann.

An American Swastika: Henry Talbott.

Surface temperature in the Humboldt current and its coastal eddies:

R. E. COKER.

The 523d meeting was held March 7, 1914, with Vice-President A. D.
Hopkins in the chair. Three persons were elected to membership.
The program consisted of two communications:

Remains of a prehistoric feast: William Palmer.

Further evidence of mutation in Oenothera (illustrated with lantern
slides) : H. H. Bartlett.

203

204 proceedings: philosophical society

The 524th meeting was held March 21, 1914, with President Bartsch
in the chair. Two new members were elected. Two communications
were presented:

Arabic interpretations of the songs of birds: Paul B. Popenoe.

Bird migration in the Mackenzie Valley (illustrated with lantern slides) :
Wells W. Cooke.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 734th meeting was held on January 17, 1914, at the Cosmos
C ub, President Fischer in the chair; 29 persons present. The minutes
of the 730th, 731st, and 733d meetings Avere read and approved.

Mr. H. E. Merwin presented a paper on A formula for calculaimg
solubility, vapor pressure, and optical dispersion. An equation of the

type — ^ = '^ ^ + C(x2 — Xi) can be written in the form of an

yz-Vi y3-yi

equilateral hyperbola which does not pass through the origin. If x
and y represent temperature and pressure, or temperature and solu-
bility, or other sets of quantities that are used in graphs on rectangular
coordinates, interpolations may be made. Or x and y may represent two
temperatures at which pressures or solubilities, etc., of two substances
are equal, thus expressing the relation of two similar curves, and making
accurate interpolations possible for curves which are not readily repre-
sentable by equations. The form of the curve of the equation is readily
altered by putting C{y2 — yi) in place of C{x2 — .ti), or by writing for

Xz — Xi /X2j-j:i\

the right hand member . C ^^t-xJ . Two standard solubility

curves were described, and it was shown that many solubility curves
are rectangular hyperbolas.

Mr. G. W. ViNAL presented a paper, illustrated by lantern slides,
On certain electrochemical problerns: (a) Reversibility of voltameter
reactions, (b) Purity of silver deposits, (c) Ratio of silver to iodine, {d)
Value of the Farady. Since the complexion theory has been disproved
by recent work at the Bureau of Standards, the question of reversibility
was again investigated. Quantitatively the results show substantial
agreement in loss at anode and gain at cathode. When a striated
anode was used no such equivalence was found. Previous work on the
inclusions of foreign material in the deposited silver was reviewed and
the contradictory nature of the results pointed out. No conclusion
can be drawn as to nature or amount of inclusions, but it is believed that
they are very small in deposits made from the purest electrolyte. In
striated deposits some evidence of included water was found. Compara-
tive experiments in which the iodine voltameter (used by Dr. S. J.
Bates) and the silver voltameter (porous cup and Smith forms) were
compared afforded a new electrolytic method of determining the ratio
of silver to iodine. The value 0.85017 was found, which is 22 parts
in 100,000 higher than the ratio of the present international atomic

proceedings: philosophical society 205

weights. The value for the electrochemical equivalent of iodine was
determined to be 1.31052 mg. per coulomb. The value of the Farady
(I = 126.92) is found to be 96,515. Value calculated from silver
(Ag = 107.88) is 96,494, whence, for general use, round number 96,500
is recommended. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hersey and
Sosman.

The 735th meeting was held on January 31, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
Vice-President Eichelberger in the chair; 31 persons present. The
minutes of the 734th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. W. P. White presented a paper on Thermostats oj relativehj high
precision. By the aid of a few simplifying assumptions, it is possible
to give a very simple mathematical treatment of the ordinary mercury
contact thermostat. The results showed that, in general, an increase
in the precision of such a thermostat demands both an increase in the
temperature sensitiveness and a decrease in the temperature lag. Since
it is rather difficult to increase the sensitiveness and at the same time
diminish the lag, it will be desirable to reduce as much as possible the
heating rate, since this diminution diminishes the temperature lag.
In many cases, a rather elaborate procedure in this direction may be
the simplest way of increasing the precision. Some special devices
which tend to obviate the difficulties encountered in the ordinary type
of thermostat were mentioned. The paper was discussed by Messrs
Miller and Gray.

Mr. F. E. Wright presented a paper on The measurement of crystallo-
graphic and optical properties at high temperatures, illustrated by an ex-
hibition of instruments. The basis of crystallography is the law, dis-
covered in 1669 by Steno, of constancy of angle between crystal faces.
The methods developed arose from consideration of possible changes
in crystal angles with temperature changes. The furnace used for
heating crystals and appurtenances were described. The cleavage
angle of calcite changes one degree between 0° and 575°, the change being
practically linear. Quartz shows much less change, about 11' in the
same temperature range; above 575° rate of change is rather less. Opti-
cal properties were also examined at different temperatures. Furnace
attachment to regular microscope was described and exhibited. The
paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Bowie, Priest, Burgess, Briggs,
Agnew, Miller, Coblentz, and Fenner.

The 736th meeting was held on February 14, 1914, at the Cosmos
Club, Vice-President Eichelberger in the chair; 25 persons present.
The minutes of the 735th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. H. H. Kimball presented an illustrated paper on The relation
between the solar radiation intensities and the air temperatures for the
northern hemisphere. The speaker discussed the marked diminution in
the intensity of direct solar radiation following the eruption of Katmai
Volcano in June, 1912. There was an increase in the quantity of heat
received diffusely from the sky, but the net result was a decrease in the

206 proceedings: philosophical society

amount of heat energy received at the surface of the earth. The dim-
inution in insolation has had a coohng effect on the temperature of
the northern hemisphere as a whole, but in regions where storms are
frequent and atmospheric circulation vigorous, this circulation has de-
termined the character of the local temperature and, in some cases, has
brought it above the normal rather than below. The paper was dis-
cussed by Messrs. Abbot and Bowie.

Mr. F. E. FowLE then presented an illustrated paper on Atmospheric
transparency for radiation. The transparency of the atmosphere on
clear days is dependent on scattering due to three obstructions: the
molecules of the air itself (dry air), the hindrances associated with water
vapor (wet haze), and ordinary dust (dry haze). It is due to the change
in these last two factors with the altitude that the quality of the trans-
parency of the air, even with homogeneous rays, changes and that
Bouguer's formula for atmospheric transmission may not be used in
passing from one altitude to another. Above an altitude of 1000 meters
on clear days the dry haze may become a negligible factor and the for-
mula developed by the speaker can be used to compute the transparency
to within 1 per cent. Above Mount Whitney (4420 meters) the wet
haze on clear days may also become negligible. The paper was dis-
cussed by Mr. Abbot.

Mr. W. W. CoBLENTZ then presented a paper on The exudition of ice
from plants. Lantern slides were shoAvn illustrating some beautiful
forms. Messrs. Abbot, Wright, and Waite discussed the paper, partic-
ularly as regards' the cause of the phenomenon noted.

J. A. Fleiviing, Secretary.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

PALEONTOLOGY

GiDLEY, J. W. Notice of the occurrence of a Pleistocene camel north of the Artcic
Circle. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections QO-^: 1, 2. March 21, 1913.
(Discusses the finding of one of the phalanges of a camel among fossil remains
of Elephas primigenius, Equus, and Bison in Yukon Territory. — W. R. M.)

GiDLEY, J. W. An extinct American eland. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions 60-": 1-3, pi. 1. 1913. (Describes Taurotragus americayius, sp. nov.,
from Pleistocene cave deposits near Cumberland, Maryland. — W. R. M.)

GiLMORE, C. W. ^4 new dinosaur from the lance formation of Wyoming. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^: 1-5, text figs. 1-5. May 24, 1913. (A
preliminary paper describing Thescelosaurus neglectus, a new genus and
species from Wyoming; referred provisionally to the family Camptosauridae.
— W. R. M.)

Hay, O. p. Descriptions of two new species of ruminants from the Pleistocene of
Iowa. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26 : 5-8. January
18, 1913. (Describes Cervalces Roosevelti, sp. nov.; also the new genus Afto-
nius, with a single member, .4. Calvini, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

H.\y, O. p. Description of the skull of an extinct horse found in central Alaska.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^: 1-18, pis. 1, 2. June 4, 1913.
(Includes description of Equus niohrarensis alaskae, subsp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Jordan, D. S. Ellima, a genus of fossil herrings. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26 : 79. March 22, 1913. (The name Ellipes of Jordan,
1912, being preoccupied by Ellipes of Scudder, 1902, for a genus of crickets,
the new name Ellima is proposed for the former genus of extinct clupeoid
fishes.— W. R. M.)

BOTANY

Bartlett, H. H. Inheritance of sex forms in Plantago lanceolata. Rhodora
15: 173-178. October 17, 1913.

CocKERELL, T. D. A. Somc plants from New Mexico. Proceedings of the Biologi-
cal Society of Washington 26: 203, 204. October 23, 1913. (Includes de-
scription of Oenothera Hookeri Hewetti, subsp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Collins, G. N. A drought-resisting adaptation in seedlings of Hopi maize. Journal
of Agricultural Research 1: 293-301, figs. 1 and 2, pis. 29-32. January, 1914.

207

208 references: botany

Cook, O. F. A new ornamental palmetto in southern Texas. Bureau of Plant
Industry Circular 113: 11-14. February 15, 1913. (Describes Inodes exul
Cook.— W. R. M.)

Cook, O. F., and Doyle, C. B. Three new genera of stilt palms {Iriarteaceae) from
Colombia, with a sijnoptical review of the family. Contributions from the
U. S. National Herbarium 16: 225-238, text fig. 41, pis. 54-65. February 21,
1913. (Includes descriptions ' of the new genera Acrostigma, Catostigma,
and Catoblastus, each founded upon a single new species. — W. R. M.)

Cook, O. F. Wild ivheat iii Palestine. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 274:
5-56, pis. 1-15, figs. 1-11. April 3, 1913.

Cook, O. F. Relationships of the false date-palm of the Florida Keys, with a synop-
tical key to the families of American palms. Contributions from the U. S.
National Herbarium 16: 243-254, pis. 74-77. May 14, 1913. (The new fami-
lies Pseudophoenicaceae, Geonomaceae, Malortieaceae, Chamaedoraceae,
Iriarteaceae, Synechanthaceae, and Acristaceae are here established. —
\V. R. M.)

Griffiths, D. Einige neue Opuntioideen. Monats. Kakteenkunde 23: 130-140.
September 15, 1913. dlncludes descriptions of seven new species of Opuntia
and one of Nopalea. — W. R. M.)

Hasse, H. E. The lichen flora of southern California. Contributions from the
U. S. National Herbarium 17: 1-132. June 9, 1913.

Holm, T. Phryma leptostachya L., a morphological study. Botanical Gazette
56: 306-318, pis. 8-10. October 15, 1913.

Kearney, T. H., Briggs, L. J., Shantz, H. L., McLane, J. W., Piemeisel, R. L.
Indicator significance of vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah. Journal of Agri-
cultural Research 1: 365-417, figs. 1-13, pis. 42-48. February 16, 1914.

Krause, K. a new shrub of the genus Esenbeckia from Colombia. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 61^*: 1. September 29, 1913. (Describes E.
Pittieri, sp. nov., allied to E. leiocarpa and E. cornuta. — -W. R. M.)

McAtee, W. L. a list of plants collected on St. Vincent Island, Florida. Pro-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 39-52. March 22, 1913.

McAtee, W. L. Some local names of plants. Torreya 13: 225-236. October 14,
1913.

Mason, S. C. The pubescent-fruited species of Prunus of the southwestern states.
Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 147-177, figs. 1-8, pis. 9-16. November,
1913.

Maxon, W. R. Studies of tropical American ferns — no. 5. Contributions from
the U. S. National Herbarium 17: 391-425, pis. 11-23, text figs. 8-10. Janu-
ary 21, 1914. (Includes a revision of the American species of Oleandra, 6
out of the 11 recognized being described as new; extended notes upon Poly-
podium duale and related species; descriptions of 6 new species of Polypodium,
5 of these related to P. trichomanoides; descriptions of new species in several
other genera; and a revision of the North American species of Hemitelia,
section Euhemitelia. — W. R. M.)

Montgomery, E. G. Experiments in wheat breeding: experimental error in the
nursery and variation in nitrogen and yield. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulle-
tin 269: 5-61, pis. 1-4, figs. 1-22. April 24, 1913.

references: phytopathology 209

Piper, C. ^'. Supplementary nolca on American species of Festuca. Contributions
from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 197-199. February 11, 1913. (In-
cludes description of Festuca sororia, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Piper, -C. V. Delphinium simplex and its immediate allies. Contributions from
the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 201-203. February 11, 1913. (Includes
description of D. cyanoreios, sp. nov., from Idaho and Oregon. — W. R. M.)

Piper, C. V. The identity of Heuchera cylindrica. Contributions from the
U. S. National Herbarium 16: 205, 206. February 11, 1913. (Includes descrip-
tion of Heuchera chlorantha, sp. nov. — W, R. M.)

Piper, C. V. New or noteworthy species of Pacific coast plants. Contributions
from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 207-210. February 11, 1913. (Seven
new species are described in the genera Alsine, Pentstemon, Oreobroma,
Aster, and Arabis.— W. R. M.)

Radlkofer, L. New Sapindaceae froin Panama and Costa Rica. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 61-^: 1-8. February 9, 1914. (Describes 4 new-
species in Serjania, Paullinia, and Talisia; also the new genus Dipterodendron,
with two species, one of which, D. costaricense, is new. — W. R. M.)

Rose, J. N., and Standley, P. C. The American species of Meibomia of the section
Nephromeria. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 211-
216, pi. 51. February 11, 1913. {Meibomia Painteri, M. metallica, and M.
angustata, are described as new. — W. R. M.)

Safford, W. E. Raimondia, a new genus of Annonaceae from Colombia. Con-
tributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 217-219, pis. 52, 53. Feb-
ruary 11, 1913. (Describes Raimondia monoica, a new genus and species. —
W. R. M.)

SiEVERS, A. F. Individual variation in the alkaloidal content of belladonna plants.
Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 129-146, fig. 1. November, 1913.

Standley, P. C. A new Dodecatheon from Neiv Mexico. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 195, 196. October 23, 1913. (Describes
Dodecatheon EUisiae, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Swingle, W. T. Citrus ichangensis, a promising, hardy new species from south-
western China and Assam. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 1-14, figs.
1-7, pi. 1. October, 1913.

Swingle, W. T., and Kellerman, Maude. Citropsis, a new tropical African
ge7ius allied to Citrus. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 419-436, figs. 1-7,
pi. 49. February, 1914.

Tidestrom, I. A neiv Salicornia. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 13, 14. January 18, 1913. (Describes 5. utahensis, sp. nov.,
from Utah.— W. R. M.)

WooTON, E. O., and Standley, P. C. Descriptions of new plants preliminary
to a report upon the flora of New Mexico. Contributions from the U. S. Na-
tional Herbarium 16: 109-196, pis. 48-50. February 12, 1913.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY

Brooks, C. Quince blotch and apple fruit spot. Phytopathology 3: 249, 250.

August, 1913.
Brown, Nellie A., and Jamieson, Clara O. A bacterium causing a disease of

sugar-beet and nasturtium leaves. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 189-

210, figs. 1-5, pis. 17-19. December, 1913.

210 " references: entomology

Harter, L. L. Fool-rot, a neiv disease uf the sweet potato. Phytopathology 3:
243-245, figs. 1, 2. August, 1913. (Describes Plenodomus destruens, sp.
nov.', on stems of Ipomoea Batatas. — W. R. M.)

Harter, L. L. The foot-rot of the sweet potato. Journal of Agricultural Research
1: 251-273, fig. 1, pis. 23-28. December, 1913.

Hartley, C. Twig canker on black birch. Phytopathology 3: 248,249. August,
1913.

Hartley, C. Bark rusts of Juniperus virginiana. Phytopathology 3: 249.
August, 1913.

Hedgcock, G. G., and Long, W. H. Notes on cultures of three species of Peri-
dermium. Phytopathology 3: 250, 251. August, 1913.

Hedgcock, G. G., and Long, W. H. An undescribed species of Peridermiimi from
Colorado. Phytopathology 3: 251, 252. August, 1913. (Describes Peri-
dermium Betheli , sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Ingram, Della E. A twig blight of Quercus prinus and related species. Journal
of Agricultural Research 1: 339-346, figs. 1-7, pi. 38. January, 1914.

Long, W. H. Three undescribed heart-rots of hardwood trees, especially of oak.
-• Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 109-127, pis. 7 and 8. November, 1913.

Long, W. H. Polyporus dryadeus, a root parasite on the oak. Journal of Agri-
cultural Research 1: 239-248, pis. 21 and 22. December, 1913.

Long, W. H. An undescribed species of Gymnosporangiuni from Japan. Journal
of Agricultural Research 1: 353-356. January, 1914.

Metcalf, H. The chestnut bark disease. Yearbook of the Department of Agri-
culture 1912: 361-372, pis. 34-37. 1913.

Rand, F. V. Some diseases of pecans. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 303-
337, figs. 1-8, pis. 33-37. January, 1914.

Taubenhaus, J. J. The black rots of the sweet potato. Phytopathology 3: 159-
166, pis. 14-16. August 1, 1913. (Includes description of Sclerotium batati-
cola, sp. nov. — W. R. W.)

ENTOMOLOGY

Hood, J. D. Nine new Thysanoptera from the United States. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 161-166. June 30, 1913.

Hopkins, A. D. Discontinuous geographical distribution. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 118-121. October 2, 1913. (The
occurrence of closely related species in widely separated localities is credited
to parallel evolution under long-continued similar environments from a
common primitive ancestral base. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. a new bot-fly from reindeer. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 155,156. June 30, 1913. (Descvihe?, Oedenagena terraenovae,
from Newfoundland. — J. C. C.)

Paine, J. H. A new genus of Mallophaga from African Guinea fowl in the United
States National Museum. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^^: 1-4,
text fig. 1. January 31, 1914. (Describes Somaphontus lusius, new genus
and species, upon specimens taken from Numida ptilorhyncha. — W. R. M.)

Parker, W. B. A sealed paper carton to protect cereals from insect attack. Bulle-
tin, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 15. Pp. 1-8. October 16,
1913. (Discusses briefly the advisability of using a sealed paper carton,
showingits efficiency and the non-efficiency of the unsealed packages. — J.C.C.)

references: entomology 211

Pierce, \V. D. The occurrence of a cotton boll weevil in Arizona. Journal of
Agricultural Research 1:89-96, figs. 1-9, pi. 6. November, 1913.

Pierce, W. D. New potato weevils from Andean South America. Journal of
Agricultural Research 1:347-351, figs. 1-3, 39-41. January, 1914.

Quaintance, a. L. Remarks on some of the injurious insects of other countries.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 54-83. June
10, 1913. (For the economic entomologists the author has brought together
notes on the important injurious insects of all orders, giving the type of in-
jury of the various species. — J. C. C.)

Quaintance, A. L., and Baker, A. C. Classification of the Aleyrodidae — Pt. I.
Bureau of Entomology, Technical Series, No. 27, Pt. 1, pp. 1-93, pis. 1-34.
March 6, 1913. (In this paper, which treats of the species of the whole world,
one new subfamily, the two new genera Leonardius and Neomaskellia, the two
new subgenera Lecanoideus and Metaleurodicus, and eight new species are
described. — J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A, A new braconid from South America. Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15 : 144. October 2, 1913.

RoHWER, S. A. VI. Chalcidids injurious to forest-tree seeds. Bureau of Ento-
mology, Technical Series, No. 20, Pt. 6, pp. 157-163. February 10, 1913.
(Contains notes on the habits of the species of the genus Alegastigmus and
Syntomaspis druparum. — J. C. C.)

Russell, H. M. Observations on the egg parasites of Datana integerrima Walk.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15:91-97. June
10, 1913. (Four species are recorded, three of these being chalcids. — -J. C. C.)

Sasscer, E. R. An index to catalogues of recently described Coccidae included
in Technical Sei-ies Nos. 12 and 16. Bureau of Entomology, Technical Series,
No. 16, Pt. 7, pp. 99-116. January 23, 1913.

Sasscer, E. R., and Pierce, W. D. Preliminary report of the finding of a new
weevil enemy of the potato tuber. Proceedings of the Entomological Society
of Washington 15 : 143, 144, pis. 4, 5. October 2, 1913. (Records the finding of
Rhigopsidius tiicumanus in potato from Peru, Bolivia and Chile, and states
that the injury is not noticeable externally, so that there is danger of the
importation of this injurious insect. — J. C. C.)

ScHAUs, W. Twj new noctuids from French Guiana {Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).
Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 25, 26. March 29, 1913. (Describes Celip-
tera therides and Sofia olearos. — J. C. C.)

Scott, E. W., and Siegler, E. H. Lime-sulphur as a stomach poison for insects.
Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. 4, pp. 81-90, pi. 11. January 17,
1913. (The experiments were conducted at Benton Harbor, Mich.— J. C. C.)

Snyder, T. E. Record of the rearing of Cupes concolor Westw. Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 30, 31, pi. 1. April 9, 1913.

Snyder, T. E. The ovipositor of Parandra brunnea Fab. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15:131,13.3. October 2, 1913. (A
discussion of the anatomy of the ovipositor. — J. C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. a new genus of Streblidae. Proceedings of the Entomologi-
cal Society of Washington 15:98,99. June 10, 1913. (Describes the new-
genus Synthesiostrebla, with one new species, from Peru. — J.C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. Preliminary characterization of the vector of verruga, Phlebot-
omus verrucarium, sp. tiov. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 107-109, pi.

212 references: entomology

3. September 15, 1913. (In describing this new species the author states
that "although the transmission of verruga by means of the species . . . .
has not yet been accomplished, it is now practically certain from the ento-
mological standpoint, considered in connection with the very peculiar con-
ditions of the verruga zones, that it is the vector, if not the true intermediary
host, of the causative organism of the disease." — J. C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. Criticism and muscoid taxonomy. Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 1: 115-117. September 15, 1913. (A reply to certain criticisms
of articles by the author, with mention of material and data regarded as
essential to a proper classification of the muscoid flies. — J. C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. New muscoid flies, mainly Hystriciidae and Pyrrhosiinae
from the Andean Montanya. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 144-148.
November 29, 1913. (To be continued; this part contains a general intro-
duction, with description of the region and notes on tribal characters. — J.
C. C.)

ViERECK, H. L. Descriptions of ten new genera and twenty-three new species of
Ichiteumon-flies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 555-568.
April 18, 1913. (Describes the new genera Coelinidea and Ericoelinius in the
family Alysiidae; Atanycolimorpha, Coeloidimorpha, and Hysterobolus in
the Braconidae; Chroistlimorpha, Diapetimorpha, Ethaemorpha, Mesosteni-
morpha, and Orthocryptus in the Ichneumonidae. — J. C. C.)

Walton, W. R. Efficiency of a tachnid parasite on the last instar of Laphygma.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 128-131. Octo-
ber 2, 1913. (A study of the effectiveness of parasitism by Tachinidae, the
maximum number of adult Tachinids to issue from one individual host, and
the effect, if any, of the deposition of supernumerary eggs on the development
of the resulting adult flies. — J. C. C.)

Walton, W. R. The variation of structural characters used in the classification
of some muscoidean flies. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
Washington 15: 21-28. April 9, 1913. (Gives examples of the variation of
chaetophorous characters in various species. — J. C. C.)

Webster, F. M. The Southern corn rootworni, or hudworm. Bulletin of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, No. 5, pp. 1-11. September 27, 1913. (An
account of food-plants of the larvae, the amount of damage to corn, seasonal
history of the insect, natural enemies, and suggestions for remedial and
preventative measures. — J. C. C.)

Webster, F. M., and Parks, T. H. The serpentine leaf-miner. Journal of
Agricultural Research 1: 59-87, fig. 1-17, pi. 5. October, 1913.

Weld, L. H. A new oak gall from Mexico {Hymenoptera, Cynipidae). Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 1:132-134, pi. 4. October 30, 1913. (^Describes the gall,
its market, and a new species of inquiline. — J. C. C.)

WoGLUM, R. S. Report of a trip to India and the Orient in search of the natural
enemies of the Citrus white fly. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 120: 1-58,
pis. 1-12. February 28, 1913. (An internal parasite of the white fly, Aley-
rodes citri, was discovered in India; but, since specimens shipped to the United
States arrived during the winter months and thus could not be established,
the possibility of their being able to survive in this climate and their subse-
quent efficiency are problematical. — J. C. C.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MAY 4, 1914 No. 9

Geology. — Origin and mode of formation of magmatic gases. ^
Stanislas Meunier, Professor of Geology at the National
]\Iuseum of Natural History, Paris. Communicated by
Arthur L. Day.

The presence of gases, intimately associated with the products
ejected by volcanoes, namely, lavas, ashes, and fumarole deposits,
represents one of the most important problems in general geology,
for it leads to a recognition of the preponderant part played by a
long series of gasiform substances, deep down in the earth's crust.
This consideration has evidently been overlooked by all those
authors who have cherished the hope of accomplishing the ex-
perimental synthesis of crystalline rocks by processes of simple
fusion. Their results, typically illustrated by the work of Fouque
and ]\Iichel Levy, bear only a partial resemblance to the natural
products, the origin of which they do not fully explain.

On the other hand, volcanic action has been so steadily at
work from the remotest geologic periods, and it still bears so large
a share in the evolution of the earth's surface, that any view regard-
ing it which is not in perfect harmony with the understanding
of all the other telluric functions can not be considered trust-
worthy. It would in fact be easy to show that, in order to reach
the conclusion which to us seems the right one, nothing more is
needed than to enumerate the successive conditions through which
the deeper parts of the earth's crust have passed.

1 Translation of French manuscript.

213

214 meunier: formation of magmatic gases

One of the principal effects of the recently formed crust has
been to imprison the entire nuclear region of the earth, and thus
to isolate it. The progressive thickening of the crust has pro-
duced a growing difference of temperature between its external
or epidermic region and its internal parts, which have only recently
passed into the solid state. Aqueous infiltrations from the surface
penetrated into the thickening external zone, while at the same
time the successive seas piled up layer upon layer of sediments,
which, at first saturated with water, came in time to contain
nothing more than "rock water."

From this first remark it follows that the earth's crust is divided
into two concentric zones, passing gradually one into the other,
the deeper zone being as yet very hot, even incandescent at certain
points, while in the superposed zone the solid mineral elements
are associated with considerable amounts of substances volatili-
zable at relatively low temperatures, such as water and the
innumerable series of compounds which may so readily be extrac-
ted from fossiliferous and other strata, by subjecting them to
simple distillation.

In the second place, the progressive cooling of the earth, the
very cause of planetary evolution, has constantly tended to dis-
turb the original condition of equilibrium established in the
solid crust forming the surface of the liquid nucleus. The proc-
ess bears a striking resemblance to that on which liquid ther-
mometers are based. These thermometers indicate the tempera-
ture because the volume of the liquid and the volume of the solid
container do not vary at the same rate. The earth may be re-
garded as a liquid thermometer, say a mercurial thermometer, con-
sisting merely of the bulb, which is exactly filled at the moment
of observation. The spontaneous cooling causes a contraction
both in the crust, corresponding to the bulb, and in the nuclear
mass, corresponding to the mercury. Owing to the difference in
physical condition, the nucleus contracts more rapidly than the
crust, whereupon the latter, being no longer supported by the
nucleus at every point, is subjected to a set of stresses, the result-
ant of which tends to be tangential and to produce horizontal
thrusts, which are by common accord regarded as the origin and

meunier: formation of magmatic gases 215

mechanism of the ''irregularities" of the earth's surface. Thus
arise the alternate syncHnal and anticHnal folds, with all their
variants; thus are formed the faults, which in all mountain chains,
wherever their cross section is exposed, are found in such vast
numbers as to constitute an essential element in orogeny; thus
are started the fissure eruptions the study of which has already
been so fruitful of results.

Having recalled these two points, we have now to inquire
what will be the necessary consequences of their coexistence.
The zone of maximum contraction is evidently situated at a
depth which, though not yet accurately measured, is nevertheless
indicated by the location of earthquakes. From that zone as a
focus starts the impulse which gives rise to the subterranean
phenomena. Along the plane of contact, of any given extent,
between the internal incandescent zone and the superposed zone
impregnated with volatiUzable material, what will happen when a
part of the latter zone is covered by the rocks intruded from
below? It will form a wedge, as it were, clamped between two
very hot bodies : beneath it, the rocks remaining in their previous
relative positions, and above it, the rocks that have been intruded
along the plane of injection. Its temperature will necessarily
rise. To understand the resulting effects, we may well turn for
information to the celebrated experiments by Senarmont.

Suppose that mineral matter is subjected to heat in an elastic
atmosphere consisting of those vapors very appropriately called
mineralizers, chiefl}" superheated water. A relatively moderate
temperature — of a few hundred degrees — will then suffice, without
any necessary change in composition, to produce the long series
of crystallized substances characteristic of volcanic rocks. On
this point the laboratory results, conclusive in themselves, may
be further supplemented with the informaton furnished by
certain natural localities, where human action has caused synthe-
ses of the same kind to assume geologic proportions. Fire started
as a result of mining operations in certain deposits of combustible
material, that is, in coal mines, causes the metamorphosis of clays
into crystalline agregates of minerals identical with those of the
lavas, such as ferro-magnesian silicates (pyroxene) and aluminium

'216 meunier: formation of magmatic gases

silicates (anorthite and other feldspars). It is to be noted that
the formation of these products, while sufficient to elucidate the
origin of volcanic minerals, and often carried out at the expense
of sedimentary strata which have undergone the orogenic over-
blanketing by an intruded sheet, as described above, is neverthe-
less incomplete from our point of view, because of the free com-
munication of the subterranean laboratory with the atmosphere.
That communication is in fact incompatible with the retention
of those gaseous substances that represent the generative force,
and henoe incompatible with the conditions that enable the erup-
tion to take place. That situation, however, will vanish of itself,
if in place of the burning coal mine we consider the case of a
natural over-blanketing with its accompanying conditions.

Among the results of the heating of sedimentary layers impreg-
nated with the products that would escape from them if subjected
to distillation, two require special mention: (1) The mobility
imparted to the molecules, enabling them to enter the crystal-
line state through a veritable refusion which we may call aqueous;
(2) the incorporation, by occlusion, of these vapors themselves
within the liquid produced. The resulting substance is a com-
pound which, despite the enormous difference in composition
and surroundings, suggests a comparison with aqueous liquids at
ordinary temperature in which soluble gases have been impris-
oned by pressure. The typical case is that of Seltzer water (soda-
water), that is to say, the solution, under the necessary pressure,
of carbonic acid gas in water, which constitutes a sort of aqueous
magma.

The characteristic property of this magma is its tension; it
persists without change of constitution so long as the surrounding
pressure does not diminish ; but if by any process the reservoir con-
taining this magma is put in communication with a region of
less pressure, the equilibrium which tends to establish itself
between the two regions causes the disengagement of all or part
of the dissolved gas. Thus by merely pressing on the lever of a
soda water siphon, a veritable eruption may be produced. The
dissolved gas, tending to reach a state of equilibrium with the
adjoining atmosphere, separates from its solvent, but carries that

meunier: formation of magmatic gases 217

solvent along with it and causes it to be spurted out to a greater or
less distance. That ejection might even take on all the leading
characters of a volcanic eruption, if the ordinary stopcock, which
curves downward, were replaced by a straight tube pointing
upward. In that case a veritable spray of water would be seen
spurting forth, just as a veritable spray of lava spurts forth from
a crater. This spray of lava, called ashes because of its color,
occurs when the projected liquid is solidified so rapidly that the
rock has not time to crystallize but assumes the vitreous state
and reproduces the phenomena of Prince Rupert drops when
suddenly broken.

If we suppose our soda-water spray to be produced in a space
with sufficiently low temperature, it will fall in the shape of
extremely fine ice-dust, which would correspond to the volcanic
ashes. If, howevea', the siphon be left open, it can not keep up
the ejection of this spray indefinitely. Soon the gas escaping
from occlusion, issuing with less violence, will carry the liquid
with it more sluggishly, till finally it merely drivels over the mouth
of the bottle and runs over the table along the slope presented by
the latter. In that condition it represents the lava flow issuing
from the volcano. In both cases it will be found that the emis-
sion of gases does not stop at once. If you hold your nose close
to the liquid bubbling out of the bottle, you will feel the prickling
characteristic of carbonic acid. Similarly, the coulee of Vesuvius
or Etna will continue for some time to emit jets of vapor, which,
by reason of their complexity, in contrast with the simplicy of
the carbonic acid, have deposited all the characteristic coatings
of fumaroles.

Carrying the comparison still further, we may subject a soda-
water siphon to cooling till the liquid therein is reduced to a lump
of ice. It will then be noticed that cavities are formed, especially
in the upper part of the lump of ice, which represent the casts, as
it were, of the bubbles of gas relinquished by the solvent and re-
tained by its solidification. An important fact will then be ob-
served, namely, that the siphon may be opened with impunity;
no ''eruption" takes place. This is strictly analogous to the
history of the volcano. Our lump of ice resembles in many

218 meunier: formation of magmatic gases

respects, the laccolites, those products of aborted eruptions,
aborted because the siphon was not opened in time; that is to say,
no fissure was formed between the subterranean reservoir of
tensioned matter and the atmosphere, before sohdification.

Thus, in order that a volcanic eruption prepared in the deeper
regions may reach the surface it is necessary that the lava capable
of gushing out shall find a passage from the subterranean labora-
tory to the surface. This passage "may be formed either by corro-
sion from below upward, or (more frequently) by the cracking of
the crust, for example, as the result of a seismic shock.

It is hardly necessary to point out to what degree the preceding
observations explain the variants presented by the different volca-
noes as regards the composition of their magmatic gases. Some
rocks will furnish to the subterranean distillation nothing but
water, accompanied by a greater or less quantity of various second-
ary products; others, such as coal beds or carbonaceous schists,
will yield hydrocarbons or related compounds; others, containing
deposits of sea salt or various chlorides, will furnish hydrochloric
acid or its compounds; others, containing layers of gypsum or
similar deposits of sulphates and sulphides, will yield sulphuric
acid or sulphurous acid or sulphohydric acid. Elsewhere,
fossiliferous layers, filled, say, with animal remains, such as the
sapropelites of the oldest terranes, will yield ammonia and nitrog-
enous compounds. It is easy to imagine the infinity of cases
that may occur either separately or in association.

In a word, the preceding theory seems adequate to explain the
different circumstances of the geographic distribution at each
epoch, the geologic position, and the chemical behavior of vol-
canoes. It recommends itself by its intimate connection with
all the other characteristics of planetary physiology, of which it
appears to be an inevitable consequence.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and mineral resources of the Peoria quadrangle,
Illinois. J. A. Udden. U. S. Geological Survej^ Bulletin 506. Pp.
103, wdth maps, views, and sections. 1912.^

The surface of most of the Peoria quadrangle is formed by the upland
divided by the allu\'ial-filled valley of the Illinois River. The major
part of this upland consists of flat interstream areas which mark a plain
in most cases dipping gently to the south. Numerous water courses
have dissected the upland, especially in that part l>ing northwest of
the Illinois River. Some of these valley cuttings have reached bed
rock, which is of Pennsylvanian age. In this series two conformable for-
mations are recognized, a lower consisting of shales, sandstones, and coal
beds, and an upper made up chiefly of limestone. These are the only
hard rock formations exposed in the quadrangle, but well borings have
penetrated older strata to a depth of 1.300 feet. By these borings the
presence of Ordo\'ician, Silurian, Devonian, and Mississippian formations
have been revealed. The oldest formation penetrated is the St. Peter
sandstone (Ordovician) .

During the greater part of the Tertiary period the Peoria quadrangle
was probably a land area. Some gravel which overlies bedrock under
the glacial drift at one locality may represent a residuum of surficial de-
posits of early Pleistocene or late Tertiary time, preceding the glacial
epoch.

Erosion in preglacial time had produced a land surface which cUffered
considerably from the present topography. Since that time the land
has been rebuilt by glaciation, the general effect of which has been to
reduce the relief. The old land surface has undergone some changes by
postglacial agencies, but these are small.

» See also, this Journal, 2 : 440. 1912.

219

220 abstracts: geology

The Pleistocene deposits consist of remnants of a probably early drift
of unknown age, lUinoian drift, Wisconsin drift, loess, and postglacial
alluvium. At several localities dark bowlder clay was noted, which re-
sembles in some respects an old till occurring under the Illinoian and the
Kansan drift sheets in Iowa. This bowlder clay contains a smaller
percentage of dolomitic limestone pebbles among the smaller sizes than
is normally present in the Illinoian drift, and it is associated with silt
that commonly occurs in association with the older drift in Iowa. The
till itself contains large pockets of yellow sand, such as are common in
the old tills west of the Mississippi. The till in these places is of un-
kno-wTi age, but it differs considerably from the local Illinoian till in its
general appearance and probably represents an earlier invasion of the
ice.

The till resulting from the Illinoian ice invasion was no doubt origi-
nally laid down over the entire area of this quadrangle. In the eastern
part it is overlain by drift of Wisconsin age wherever the latter was not
removed by interglacial erosion or worked into the later till. The thick-
ness of the Illinoian till varies from about 20 to nearly 80 feet. On its
surface is a soil formed in interglacial time and kno^vn as the Sangamon
soil. Outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift the weathered and eroded
surface of the Illinoian till is covered by loess. In places also similar
loess is exposed intercalated between the weathered Illinoian till and the
overlying Wisconsin till showing that a part at least of the super-Illinoian
loess is of pre- Wisconsin age.

The Wisconsin drift is limited to the eastern and northeastern half
of the quadrangle. Its margin is traceable through the central part of
the region, though the terminal moraine is not strongly marked.

In places remnants of two former flood plains border the present
bottom lands of the streams. Both of these date from late stages of the
Wisconsin ice invasion. The older terrace has an average elevation of
520 feet above sea level. The surface of this terrace has been consider-
ably modified by erosion. The later Wisconsin terrace has an average
elevation of 476 feet above sea level and forms a narrow strip bordering
the older terrace.

Loess, a dusty yellow material, generally not calcareous in this area,
covers all of the upland, overlying both the Illinoian and Wisconsin
drift sheets. Its upper part is dark from decayed vegetation, forming
the upland soil. Directly under the soil the loess in many places is im-
pregnated with ferruginous material, which gives it a reddish-brown
color in various shades. In other places, especially where the ground

abstracts: geology 221

has been poorlj' drained, the iron stain immediately under the bhxck soil
has been leached away and the deposit has an ashen-gray, almost white
appearance.

The thickness of the loess is fairly constant for each drift sheet on
which it rests. On the upland of the Illinoian till it ranges from 20 to
30 feet and averages 24 feet. In two localities this older and thicker
loess was seen to contain fossil land snails. In each of these places the
loess is slightly calcareous. On the Wisconsin drift the loess averages 7
feet thick, but it varies considerably. On the older Wisconsin terrace
much of the surface is covered 3 or 4 feet deep by material which in every
way resembles the loess, except that in places it contains a small percent-
age of fine sand.

The greater part of the loess outside the limit of the Wisconsin drift
must be older than the Wisconsin till, since a considerable thickness also
underhes the later till. It is a suggestive fact that the buried loess is
nowhere known to reach a thickness which when added to the average
depth of the loess on the Wisconsin till would exceed the average depth
of the deposit on the Illinoian till. W. C. Alden.

GEOLOGY.^ — The mud lumps at the mouths of the Mississippi . Eugene
Wesley Shaw. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-B.
Pp. 27, views and sections. 1913.

The territory wdthin a mile or two of each of the mouths of the
Mississippi is characterized by large swellings or upheavals of tough blu-
ish-gray clay, called "mud lumps." Many of these rise just offshore and
form islands an acre or more in extent and 5 or 10 feet high, but some do
not reach the water surface. They rise and subside at irregular rates,
some of them suddenly.

Certain features of the Delta suggest that it is affected by a process
which heretofore seems not to have been suspected, namely, a bodily
flowage toward the sea. The surface receives a new layer of sediment at
each flood, but its altitude above sea does not seem to show a correspond-
ing increase. The sinking is due in part, no doubt, or perhaps entirely, to
the compacting of the sediment. Whatever its exact nature, the facts
that the subsidence is greatest where the Delta is growing most rapidly,
and that because of the very watery condition of the material it is
presumably becoming more compact, make it seem probable that the
process is only in part, if at all, one of isostatic adjustment.

The hypothesis better favored by the data now in hand than any
other, is that the mud lumps are produced by a gentle seaward flow of

222 abstracts: geology

layers of semifluid clay under the land and the shallow water near the
ends of the passes, where this flow is opposed by the comparatively
resistant parts of the foreset beds. The tendency to flow is assumed to
be due to pressure developed by constant additions of sediment. The
mud lumps appear to be the product of flow, because in no other places
have such thick bodies of clay been found ; and the facts that they occur
almost exclusively near the ends of the passes — most commonly west of
them, where probably the principal part of the sediment is being de-
posited— and that they are most active during and after tunes of high
water seem to be in accord with the hypothesis here presented.

A. H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adja-
cent districts, Utah. B. S. Butler. U. S. Geological Survey Pro-
fessional Paper 80. Pp. 212, with map, sections, and illustrations.
1913.

The San Francisco and adjacent districts are located in Beaver
County, southwestern Utah, about 180 miles a little west of south of
Salt Lake City. The sedimentary rocks of the area range in age from
Ordovician to Triassic and in character from quartzites to limestone.
A total thickness of about 18,000 feet of sedimentary rocks is present.

In Tertiary time the area was buried beneath thick flows of lava, and
following the extrusion of the lavas large bodies of igneous material
were intruded into the sedimentary and extrusive rocks, forming the
quartz monzonite stocks of the region.

Accompanying and following the intrusion of the quartz monzonite
there was extensive alteration of the rocks and the deposition of ores.
The copper ores occur mainly as replacement deposits in the quartz
monzonite and as contact deposits. Lead-silver ores occur as replace-
ment veins in the sedimentary and extrusive rocks. These also con-
tain some copper and zinc.

All the ore deposits of the district are believed to have had a common
origin, namely, they were the result of the differentiation of the quartz
monzonite magma. Such an origin is indicated by the presence of orig-
inal sulphides in aplitic rocks and by the presence of coarse pegmatitic
quartz associated with the copper ores. The transition from contact
deposits to replacement deposits in the sediments is especially well
illustrated in the district.

Since the original ores were formed the deposits have been acted upon
by waters leaching downward from the surface, and in many instances

abstracts: geology 223

the different metals in the original ores have been concentrated in zones.
Thus, in the Horn Silver mine the surface zone is rich in lead and sil-
ver; beneath this is a zone rich in copper and zinc; and at still greater
depth is the original ore in which these metals are all present. This
rearrangement of the metal content has been an important factor in
determining the commercial value of the ore deposits. B. S. B.

GEOLOGY. — The Mount Lyell copper district of Tasmania. Chester
G. Gilbert and Joseph E. Pogue. Proceedings of the U. S.
National Museum 45: 609-625, pis. 48-51. July 22, 1913.
This paper is based upon microscopic and metallographic study of a
comprehensive collection of rocks and ores in the. National Museum.
The ore deposits include (1) a pyritic mass of remarkable size lying
wdthin deeply dipping sericite schists adjacent to a faulted conglomerate
contact and consisting of fine-grained, homogeneous pyrite bearing dis-
seminated chalcopyrite and localized areas of enargite and tetrahedrite;
and (2) lenticular masses of bornite carrying subordinate chalcocite and
some tetrahedrite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite, in sericitic and chloritic
schists. Microscopic study points unmistakably to the formation of the
ores through replacement of the minerals of the schists. The study leads
also to the conclusion that the ore deposition took place during a dis-
tinct mineralizing epoch marked by solutions progressively changing in
composition and depositing a series of sulphide minerals in sequential
and transitional stages. The order of deposition runs from pyrite
through chalcopyrite, bornite, and chalcocite, to the tetrahedrite-enar-
gite group (accompanied by chalcopyrite of a second generation) . This
succession is in exact harmony with the order of increasing copper con-
tent and with that of decreasing iron content. It is believed that the
ore-bearing solutions were a deep-seated development from a differ-
entiating mass of igneous rocks, and that these solutions rose along struc-
turally developed channels, changing gradually in composition from the
beginning to the end of the depositional epoch.

The paper gives a general account of the history and geology of the
district; a detailed description of the ore minerals, accompanied by two
photographs and eleven microphotographs of polished ore sections, two
showing a crystallographic intergrowth of bornite and chalcocite; a
brief discussion of the important analogous deposits of the world; and
closes with a bibliography. J. E. P.

224 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY.— r/ie geology of Long Island, New York. Myeon L.
Fuller. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 82. Pp. 231,
with maps, views, and sections. 1914.

Geologically Long Island belongs to the inner part of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain. The line of demarkation between the basal metamorphic
rocks and the younger sediments of the coastal plain crosses the extreme
western end of the island. There are a few occurrences of Cretaceous
clays in the western half of the island, and these make up the basal forma-
tion of the sedunentary series. No equivalents of the Tertiary deposits
of the mainland have been definitely recognized, although some loose
sands possibly of Tertiary age occur at one locality. The greater part of
both the surface and the undertying materials throughout the island are
Pleistocene morainal and outwash deposits associated with the conti-
nental glaciers. Two morainal ridges forming the backbone of the island
are the direct continuation of the series of moraines of Wisconsin age
that are traceable almost continuously from the Rocky Mountains to
New Jersey and thence through Long Island and the islands on the east
as far as Nantucket and Cape Cod. Beneath these ridges and above
the Cretaceous are various Pleistocene deposits of considerable thick-
ness, to be correlated with older drift sheets of the central United States
and with the Pleistocene formations of the New England Coast.

Eight stages have been recognized in the Pleistocene history of Long
Island, and some of these are divisible into substages. The oldest, the
Manetto stage, which was glacial, is recorded by gravel deposits, and
probably of pre-Kansan age. This was followed by Post-Mannetto
stage, an interglacial period of erosion and to be provisionally correlated
with the Aftonian. A second glacial epoch is represented by the Jameco
stage, represented by gravel deposits (Kansan?), and this succeeded by
the Gardiner clays, deposited during an interglacial epoch. A tran-
sitional epoch to another glacial epoch is recorded in the Jacob sands.
The next event is the Manhasset glacial stage, probably to be correlated
with the Illinoian. This event is represented by the deposition of a
lower gravel member (Herod), succeeded by a second period of ice
erosion, then by the deposition of an upper gravel member (Hempstead).
Erosion during an interglacial period followed the Manhasset stage,
accompanied by the deposition of the Vineyard formation, consisting
of marine deposits and peat. In early Wisconsin time glacial condi-
tions again prevailed, and this epoch is represented by the older Ronkon-
koma or outer moraine and the younger Harbor Hill or inner moraine,
both associated with till and outwash deposits.

ABSTEACTS: GEOLOGY 225

After the disappearance of the Wisconsin ice the land seems to have
stood somewhat higher than at present, as indicated by the buried and
submerged peats along the coast, the difference in level being perhaps 25
feet. This would indicate the elevation of 45 feet in late Wisconsin or
post-Wisconsin time. In recent years there has been depression esti-
mated at the rate of 6 inches to 2 feet in one hundred years. A sinking
of not more than 25 feet apparently has occurred since the beginning of
this movement. Alfred H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Resins in Paleozoic 'plants and in coals of high rank.
David White. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-E.
Pp. 97, with plates. 1914.

Lumps of resin of different kinds are present nearly everywhere in
coals of low rank, such as lignites and sub-bituminous coals, the resins
being very abundant and conspicuous in some beds. The amount of
microscopic resin probably far exceeds that visible to the naked eye.

The presence of resins in Paleozoic coals, which has been seriously
questioned, the available information being limited, is set at rest by the
observation of small lumps found in coals of a medium bituminous rank
in Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana. The examination of the woods and pet-
ioles, found under conditions favorable for examination in Paleozoic
coals, indicates that plants secreting resinous substances were not only
present but common in the Carboniferous flora. Therefore, absence of
resins is not distinctive of Paleozoic coals.

Observations in the Cretaceous and Tertiary coal fields indicate that,
in the processes of metamorphism which have converted lignites and
other low rank coals to coals of higher rank, the lump resins are de-
formed, discolored, and carbonized, with probable high losses of volatile
matter, as the coals are brought to a moderately high bituminous rank
corresponding to a percentage of about 65 per cent of fixed carbon in
pure coal, the megascopic resins being very rarely recognizable to the
unaided eye when the coal has reached the good cooking rank. It is
probable that the resins undergo minor chemical change soon after
deposition with the organic debris from which the coals are formed.

D. W.

226 abstracts: hydrology

HYDROLOGY. — Geology and water resources of a portion of south-
central Washi7igton. Gerald A. Waring. U. S. Geological Sur-
vey Water-Supply Paper No. 316. Pp. 46, 1 pi. 1913.

Two geologic formations are exposed in the region here discussed:
Yakima basalt, of Miocene age, and the Ellensburg Lake deposits, also
Miocene, which are deposited directly on the basalt. Over a consider-
able area these formations are obscured by wind-borne material. Glacial
erratics occur sparingly.

The main surface features conform to the structure, broad ridges
and wide plains and valleys being the dominant topographic forms.
The ridges resemble basin ranges but are unsymmetrical anticlines
rather than faulted blocks. Faulting has, however, produced the steeper
slopes.

Stream gorges that cut directly across ridges appear to have been
formed by the slow uplift of the ridges across the established stream
courses. 0. E. Meinzer.

HYDROLOGY. — The effects of ice on stream flow. William Glenn
HoYT. U. S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper No. 337.
Pp. 77, with plates and views. 1913.
The quantity and distribution of winter stream flow are the result
of the combination of factors that may be classified as climatic, geologic,
topographic and vegetational. The climatic factors are precipitation,
temperature, barometric pressure and winds; the geologic factors in-
clude surface and underground rock structure; the topographic factors
include relief and slope which determine the character and amount of
natural storage, the location, size and trend of the drainage basin, and
the character of the streams and their tributaries; the vegetational fac-
tors comprise not only forestation, but the effects of all plant growth
and cultivation. A fifth factor is the result of artificial control of the
streams for water supply or power.

The determination of stream flow during open water periods is based
upon a relation between stage and discharge which is determined by
measurements. During periods of low temperature, surface ice, frazil
and slush ice, and anchor ice, alone or in combination, will be formed.
The presence of ice in any of the above forms on the river tends to raise
the stage without a corresponding increase in flow. The presence of
ice is due primarily to low temperature, so that in order to determine
the stream flow during the winter it is necessary to make a study of
temperature, ice formation and gage height in connection with discharge
measurements. The temperature is also the largest factor in determin-

abstracts: hydrology 227

ing the amount of winter stream flow, so that it becomes necessary
to study temperature not only as a means of arriving at the true flow
but also in making comparisons between the low flow of other winter
periods. W. G. H.

HYDROLOGY.— r/ie Ohio Valley flood of March to April, 1913.
{Including comparisons with some earlier floods.) A. H. Horton
and H. J. Jackson. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
No. 334. Pp. 96, with maps, hydrographs, tables, and views. 1913.

The Ohio River has not failed to overflow its banks and flood large
areas of bottom land at some point along its course in every year since
1873 and, very probably, in every year previous to 1873. Since 1873
there have been three floods of special prominence — that of February,
1884, that of INIarch to April, 1907, and, last and greatest, that of March
to April, 1913.

Of the forty-six floods on record at Cincinnati, Ohio, above the
danger line, only three occurred outside of the four months, January,
February, March and April; namety, one in December, 1847, one in
May, 1865, and the third in August, 1875.

The flood of March to April, 1913, was caused by heavy precipitation
over the entire Ohio Basin. Over a large portion of northern Ohio the
total precipitation for the five-day period March 23-27, was over ten
inches. Floods were produced and practically all the tributaries, and
stages far above all previous floods were reached on the northern
Tributaries in Indiana and Ohio, causing inconceivable damage and
destruction in these two states and throughout the entire length of the
Ohio River. Previous record stages were exceeded on the Ohio from
St. Marys, West Virginia, to Maysville, Kentucky, at Madison and
Mt. Vernon, Indiana, and at Shawneetown and Cairo, Illinois.

The flood of March to April, 1907, was caused by heavy rains in
the northern part of the basin and over the headwaters above Pitts-
burgh. The melting of a hea-vy fall of snow on the tributaries above
Pittsburgh, in conjunction with rain, increased the runoff materially.
The stage at Pittsburgh exceeded all records.

The flood of February, 1884, was caused by a warm rain throughout
the basin, which fell on a heavy accumulation of snow resulting from a
winter of large snowfall and unusually low temperatures. Record
stages were reached at all points on the Ohio which have been exceeded
only by the 1913 flood, and at Pittsburgh by the 1907 flood.

To have kept the 1913 flood below the danger line at Wheeling,
West Virginia, storage would have to have been provided for 44,800

228 abstracts: botany

million cubic feet of water; at Cincinnati 190,000 million cubic feet;
at Evansville 322,000 million cubic feet. Preliminary investigation
during 1908 in the Kanawha River basin showed 17 reservoirs with a
total capacity of 280,000 million cubic feet, in that basin alone.

At the present time the two methods that are most advocated for
the control of floods are reservoirs and levees. Before any method can
be selected as the best, full information must be available in regard to
the quantity of water carried by the Ohio and larger tributaries and its
distribution as to drainage area and time. A. H. H.

BOTANY. — Indicator significance of vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah.

T. H. Kearney, L. J. Briggs, H. L. Shantz, J. W. McLane, and

R. L. PiEMEisEL. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 365^17,

figs. 1-13, pis. 42-48. February 16, 1914.

The types of vegetation in Tooele Valley were found to be so closely

correlated with the soil moisture and salinity conditions as to be useful

indicators of the crop producing capabilities of the corresponding types

of land. This suggests the practicability of classifying land in this

region upon the basis of the native vegetation.

The presence of the Sage Brush {Artemisia tridentata) Association
indicates that the soil is readily permeable and well drained and that its
salt content is very low. The soils occupied by the Kochia (Kochia
vestita) and Shadscale {Atriplex confertifolia) Associations are usually
less permeable than the Sage Brush soil and are relatively free from salts
to a depth of one or two feet, while the subsoil is usually very saline.
Where these three associations occur the moisture supply is not sufficient
to maintain the vegetation in an actively growing condition throughout
the summer. The Shadscale and Kochia lands, owing to their low ab-
sorption, offer in this respect less favorable conditions than the Sage
Brush land. The Greasewood — Shadscale (Sarcohatus verrniculatus and
Atriplex confertifolia) Association is found upon soils which are strongly
saline nearly or quite to the surface and are usually moist throughout
the summer at all depths below the first foot. The Salt Flat vegetation,
which comprises such extremely halophytic species as Allenrolfea occi-
dentalis, Salicornia utahensis, and S. rubra, occupies land which is strongly
saline and usually very moist throughout the summer from the surface
downward.

It remains to be determined whether these correlations hold good in
other portions of the Great Basin region. The evidence at hand indi-
cates that, with relatively little modification, they obtain throughout
much of the intermountain territory. T. H. K.

abstracts: bacteriology 229

BACTERIOLOGY. — The preparation of dried cidtures. L. A. Rogers.
Journal of Infectious Diseases 14: 100-123. January, 1914,
This paper discusses the preparation of dried cultures of bacteria
of various kinds by a method adapted from that first proposed by
Shackell. The method consists essentially in holding the previously
frozen culture over sulphuric acid in a container in which a vacuum
of a few hundredths of a millimeter is maintained. Cultures of Strep-
tococci, B. bidgaricus, and similar organisms, when dried by this method
are much more active than when dried by the usual methods in an air
blast. The length of time that the dried culture remains active is in a
general way inversely proportional to the amount of moisture present
and the temperature at which it is held. Cultures deteriorate much
more rapidly in air or oxygen than in an inert gas, such as hydrogen or
nitrogen. The best results were obtained with cultures held in a vacuum.
Dried cultures held in evacuated tubes at a temperature below freez-
ing deteriorated very slowly. L. A. R.

BACTERIOLOGY. — Bacteriology of cheese of the Emmenthal type.
E. E. Eldredge and L. A. Rogers. Centralblatt f . Bakteriologie
40-: 5-21. February 16, 1914.

The bacterial flora of domestic Emmental cheese consists for the most
part of bacilli which may be classed with the so-called Bacillus bidgari-
cus. Cocci were present in small numbers at one stage of the ripening.
There was a progressive change in the flora as the cheese ripened, in that
one morphological type which predominated in the beginning was gradu-
ally replaced by another. In one cheese the proprionic bacteria, which
according to Jensen supply gas for the eye formation by fermenting cal-
cium lactate, were found by special methods in comparatively small
numbers.

It has been shown in a previous investigation that the gas inflating
the eyes is carbon dioxide, and in this work it was found that certain
cultures were able to produce carbon dioxide from milk from which the
sugar had been removed by fermentation. Without inoculation of
some kind it is impossible to make normal Emmental cheese outside the
restricted area in which it has been made for years. This may be
accomplished by using a mixed culture obtained by adding a small
amount of good cheese to sterile whey. It has also been accomplished
in a few preliminary experiments with pure cultures isolated from good
cheese. L. A. R.

230 abstracts: zoology

ZOOLOGY.- — A list of the Rotatoria of Washington and vicinity, with de-
scriptions of a new genus and ten new species. Harry K. Harring.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 387-405, pis. 34-38.
1913.
As the local rotatorian fauna has not been recorded previously, a list
of 246 species is given. A new genus, Rousseletia, and ten new species
are described: Rousseletia corniculata, Encentrum aper, E. myriophylli,
E. ricciae, Lecane stichaea, Monostyla acus, M. crenata, M. sylvatica,
Trichotria brevidactyla and Asplanchnopus hyalinus. A redescription
of Sphyrias lofuana (Rousselet) and some notes on Notonimata pachyura
(Gosse) , Diglena clastopis Gosse, Diurella pr ocellus (Gosse) and Testudi-
nella parva (Ternetz) are added. H. K. H.

ZOOLOGY. — Synopsis of the Rotatoria. Harry K. Harring. Bulletin
81, U. S. National Museum. Pp. 1-226. June 28, 1913.
In this paper an attempt has been made to bring rotatorian nomen-
clature into agreement with the International Code of Zoological No-
menclature. As generally happens in similar cases, a number of generic
names become displaced by others. Thus Cephalosiphon, in the usually
accepted sense, has been replaced by Beauchampia, n. gen.; Anapus
Bergendal by Chromogaster Lauterborn; Diglena Ehrenberg partly by
Cephalodella Bory de St. Vincent, partly by Dicranophorus Nitzsch;
Floscularia Ehrenberg-Oken by Collotheca, n. gen. (Floscularia Cuvier
displacing Melicerta Schrank.). Encentrum Ehrenberg is substituted
for a group of species previously distributed among several genera;
Enter oplea Ehrenberg for Triphylus Hudson; Epiphanes Ehrenberg for
Hydatina Ehrenberg and Notops Hudson; Filinia Bory de St. Vincent
for Triarthra Ehrenberg; Keratella Bory de St. Vincent for Anuraea
Ehrenberg; Lecane Nitzsch for Cathy pda Gosse and Distyla Eckstein;
Lepadella Bory de St. Vincent for Metopidia Ehrenberg; Macrochaetus
Perty for Polychaetus Perty; Macrotrachela Milne for Callidina Ehren-
berg; Pedalia Barrois for Pedalion Hudson; Philodinavus, n. n., for
Microdina Murray; Ptygura Ehrenberg for Oecistes Ehrenberg; Rhino-
glena Ehrenberg for Rhinops Hudson; Rotaria Scopoli for Rotifer Cuvier-
Schrank; Sinantherina Bory de St. Vincent for Megalotrocha Ehrenberg-
Bory de St. Vincent; Squatinella Bory de St. Vincent for Stephanops
Ehrenberg; Testudinella Bory de St. Vincent for Pterodina Ehrenberg;
Trichocerca Lamarck for Rattulus Lamarck; Trichotria Bory de St.
Vincent for Dinocharis Ehrenberg; Zelinkiella, n. n., for Discopus
Zelinka.

abstracts: entomology 231

A bibliographic list of nearly 1500 books and memoirs dealing with the
Rotatoria is added. In nearly all cases this has been verified from the
originals and a reference given to the Washington hbrary in which the
publication may be found. H. K. H.

ZOOLOGY. — Crustacean parasites of West Indian fishes and land crabs,

with descriptions of new genera and species. Charles Branch

Wilson. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 189-

277, pis. 18-53. April 3, 1913.

The present paper consists of a general account of the parasites on

fish, crustaceans, and ascidians obtained during a three months stay at

the biological laboratory of Johns Hopkins University at Montego

Bay, Jamaica. The parasites comprise isopods, copepods and ostracods,

but only the last two groups are described in this paper. There are 52

species of copepods, of which 31 are new to science. These belong to

the genera Ergasilus, Bomolochus, Artacolax, Pseudoeucanthus, Taenia-

canthus, Caligus, Dentigiyps (new genus), Anuretes, Paralebion, Ler-

nanthropus, Sagum (new genus), Nemesis, Hatschekia, Lernaeolophus,

Thysanote, Clavella, Brachiella and Cancrincola (new genus).

The occurrence of an ostracod, Cypridina parasitica (new species),
on the gills of several kinds of fish is the first record of parasitism among
the ostracods.

The illustrations are from drawings of the living specimens.

Mary J. Rathbun.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The remarkable life-history of a new family (Micro-
malthidae) of beetles. H. S. Barber. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26 : 185-190, pi. 4. August 8, 1913.
Continuing work described in a preceding paper, the author records a
most remarkable life cycle for Micromalthus debilis — a cycle unparalleled
in our knowledge of insects and still incomplete in that the stages connect-
ing the adult to the paedogenetic form remain unknown. The observa-
tions have demonstrated (1) pluriviviparous and (2) unioviparous
paedogenetic reproduction and (3) the still unobserved normal, sexual
reproduction, all three types appearing in the progeny of single mother
of the first of these three types. Males develop from the single egg of
the second type of paedogenetic mother through three strange forms of
larvae (the second of these, or feeding stage, devouring the contents of
the abdomen of the mother through the vulva) ; females develop from
some of the progeny of the viviparous paedogenetic mother through the

232 abstracts: anthropology

same series of larval forms which usually again produce paedogenetic
individuals. In live material of the third stage larvae which are to
become viviparous paedogenetic individuals the ovaries can easily be
seen, but in the same stage individuals which are to be either the ovi-
parous paedogenetic form or the pupa the ovaries were not apparent.
Males and females of the same brood appear to issue at different times,
greatly reducing the chances of inbreeding. A diagram, graphically
illustrating the life cycles (sixteen forms — ^four of which are hypothetical,
being yet unknown to the author), is given and a new family is proposed
for the species. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The mosquitoes of North and Central America and the
West Indies. L. 0. Howard, H. G. Dyar, and F. Knab. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Publication no. 159, Vol. 1, pp. 1-520,
pis. 1-14. January 21, 1913. Vol. 2, pis. 1-150. February 24,
1913.
Volume 1 is devoted to a general consideration of mosquitoes and con-
tains chapters dealing in detail with the structure of the adult mosquito,
including its internal anatomy; the structure of the eggs, larvae, and
pupae; habits of adult mosquitoes and of the larvae; the natural enemies
of mosquitoes; methods of collecting, mounting, and rearing. There is
given also an extended account of the relation of mosquitoes to man,
dealing in detail with the diseases transmitted by mosquitoes and the
consequent economic loss, together with an account of protective and
remedial work against mosquitoes, the methods of carrying on such work,
and its efficiency, as illustrated by examples from various parts of the
world. A bibliography of thirty-eight pages is included.

Volume 2 includes only plates, together with explanatory legends of
the various species to be considered in the systematic volumes to follow.

J. C. Crawford,

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Chippewa jnusic, II. Frances Densmore. Bul-
letin 53, Bureau of American Ethnology. Pp. i-xxi, 1-341. 1913.
This book is a continuation of a work entitled "Chippewa Music"
published as Bulletin 45 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The
collection of 340 Chippewa songs comprised in these books includes
songs of native ceremonies, as well as of war, dances, and social life. The
tabulated analyses indicate a connection between the laws of sound and
the forms assumed by the melodies. The descriptive analyses show that
certain songs which have in common an underlying idea possess similar
melodic and rhythmic peculiarities. F. W. Hodge.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 236th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, March
12, 1914. Mr. Milton G. Wolf of the Bureau of Chemistry was elected
to associate membership. The following papers were presented by
members of the Bureau of Plant Industry:

R. H. True, of the Office of Plant Physiological and Fermentation
Investigations: Alcohol and agriculture in Germany. The manufacture
of agricultural alcohol has been more successful in Germany than else-
where, largely due to the practise of utilizing the sandy lands of the east-
ern provinces. Potatoes are grown in rotation with grains, clover, and
other pasture crops, together with a considerable development of the
dairA' industr3^ The best potatoes are usually sold for human con-
sumption, the culls and surplus being used to feed stock and in part for
the manufacture of alcohol. The distillery is valuable chiefly because
it enables the farmer to grow more potatoes which in turn makes it
possible to improve more land and results in the great increase of all
crops through the system of rotation and fertilization followed. It is
probable that few distilleries pay actual expenses from the sale of the
alcohol made, the profits coming rather from the enterprise as a whole
than from any one feature. Thus, alcohol distillation is thought to pay.
The legal relations have been determined by two objects, (1) to secure
revenue, (2) to discourage the distillation of alcohol for beverage pur-
poses and to increase its use for industrial purposes. The outlook for
industrial alcohol in the United States as a separate agricultural proposi-
tion is not encouraging. If it be combined with a proper agricultural
system and handled by a technically trained man, the outlook is much
better. (Author's abstract.)

Discussion. In reply to inquiries by Gore and I. K. Phelps, it was
stated that about 28 per cent of the potato crop of Germany is used for
food, about 5.8 for alcohol manufacture, and about 40 per cent for stock
feed. Sugar producing plants do not at present seem a promising source
of alcohol as compared with starch plants. W. B. Clark stated that the
cost of agricultural alcohol in Cuba is now very low.

W. W. Garner, C. W. Bacon, and C. L. Foubert, of the Office of
Tobacco and Plant Nutrition Investigations: Changes that take place in
the curing of cigar-leaf tobacco. Read by Mr. Bacon. The curing of
tobacco has been shown to be a life process, consisting essentially of the
phenomena known to the plant physiologist as respiration and transloca-
tion. Curing on the stalk and bj^ picking the leaves have been investi-

233

234 PROCEJEDINGS : CHEMICAL SOCIETY

gated, and the changes characteristic of each have been determined. In
the primed leaves there is a loss of 12 per cent to 15 per cent of dry mat-
ter, a complete removal of starch and sugar, a loss of from 50 per cent to
60 per cent of protein nitrogen and a decrease in malic acid, nicotine and
total nitrogen, while there have been increases in the amount of amid
and amino nitrogen and citric acid. In case of the stalk-curing method
the loss in dry matter is from 25 per cent to 30 per cent; the losses noted
by the priming method are also present here, but in addition the effect
of translocation comes into play, and we find a very large loss of amid and
amino nitrogen and a small loss of mineral matter, while there has been
an increase only in the citric acid. Special experiments have shown a
marked increase in diastase in the cured leaves. Finally, by curing
leaves at different temperatures it has been determined that the rate of
increase with the temperature is of the same order as the rate of increase
for ordinary chemical reactions. (Author's abstract.)

W. Blair Clark, of the Office of Sugar Plant Investigations: A
laboratory routine auxiliary to sugar beet breeding. This paper presented
in detail: (1) Laboratory equipment and arrangements suitable for
seed-beet testing; (2) data upon which to base calculations of the work
and time required for testing any given number of samples; and (3) data
from which it is possible to make a reasonable estimate of the labor cost
of such tests. It is believed that the data given will hold, up to 4000
tests per day. Above that point it should be possible to introduce
modifications productive of still greater economies.

Discussion. Jodidi discussed the paper, and asked several questions,
to which it was replied that the greatest difficulty is to cut a really
representative sample from each beet, since the percentage of sugar
varies greatly in different parts of the beet. Also that specific gravity
has been used only in preliminary selection, and that cold water extrac-
tion eliminates most of the non-sugar rotating substances.

H. Hasselbring, of the Office of Plant Physiological and Fermenta-
tion Investigations: Carbohydrate transformations in siveet potatoes dur-
ing storage. Cane sugar is not readily used up in respiration, but the
invert sugar is consumed, and also some of the starch. The starch
transforms to sugar at a higher temperature in the sweet potato than in
more northern plants.

Discussion. Yoder discussed the question of difference in varieties
in the North and South. Questions by Jodidi, Gore, and Berg brought
out the facts that each analysis is based on 10 kgms; the respiration rate
has not been determined ; water was determined by immersing in alcohol
and drying off at 78°.

A special meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Monday, March 16,
jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences. President Sullivan
of the Chemical Society presided. Dr. Wolfgang Ostwald lectured
on The chemistry of colloids. The lecture was illustrated with experi-
ments and lantern slides.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

proceedings: philosophical society 235

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 737th meeting was held on February 28, 1914, at the Cosmos
Club, President Fischer in the chair; 44 persons present. The minutes
of the 736th meeting were read and approved.

The evening was devoted to a symposium on allotropy. Mr. H. S.
Ra-Wt^on spoke on Allotropy in metals. Iron was selected as a type of
substances of this class and its behavior upon heating and cooling de-
scribed. The evidence for believing in any transformation other than
a — > (8 and /3 ^ 7 is too meager to be worthy of much consideration. The
results of the experimental work at the Bureau of Standards go to show
that the A2 or ;8-change takes place both on heating and coohng and
may be detected if the method used is refined enough. The work
answers the contention that the so-called |3-change is only the end of
the 7-change (A3) which has been depressed because of the impurities
which must necessarily be present. A2 does represent a phase change
and not merely a change in molecular equilibrium. The work has not
been carried far enough to offer a plausible and sufficient explanation
as to the real nature of the /3-phase. The paper was discussed by
Messrs. Silsbee and Humphreys.

Mr. C. N. Fenner presented a paper on Allotropy as illustrated by
the forms of silica. Silica is remarkable for the number of allotropic
modifications which it shows and the way in wh'ch the various forms
pass into each other throws some light on the molecular processes con-
cerned in transformations. The relations of the different phases to
each other were represented on a diagram in which the coordinates are
temperature and vapor pressure and attention directed to the peculiar
behavior of cristobalite at the a — > /3 inversion point. Smith's theory
that frequently two or several kinds of molecules are present in the same
crystal structure offers an explanation. His theory that every sub-
stance having an inversion point must consist of several kinds of mole-
cules is not so plausible. A crystal is a complex structure in which the
molecules are held together in a definite pattern. Under conditions of
stability there is an equilibrium of forces, but at an inversion point some
system of forces becomes unstable, so that molecules may either arrange
themselves differently in the crystal or change may involve the struc-
ture of the molecules themselves. This may possibly explain the two radi-
cally unlike types of inversion shown by different forms of silica. Paper
was discussed by Mr. White.

Mr. R. B. SosiviAN spoke on Allotropy from the physico-chemical stand-
point. Allotropy or polymorphism is only a special case of the general
phenomenon of isomerism, which includes all cases of substances having
the same chemical composition by weight but differing in properties. A
consideration of the various kinds of isomerism known shows that sharp
lines can not be dra^\Ti between the different types. The phenomenon
seems in all cases dependent upon differences in molecular weight or
molecular structure. Recent theories of the thermodynamic side of
the subject were discussed. Mr. C. A. Briggs made some remarks
upon the paper. J. k. Fleming, Secretary.

236 proceedings: geological society

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
The 280th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 25, 1914.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Some geologic features of the Eastport region, Maine (illustrated):
E. S. Bastin. No abstract. The paper was a part of the matter con-
tained in the United States Geological Survey's Eastport Folio, No.
192, now in press.

A hypothesis for the origin of the carnotite deposits of Utah and Colorado
(illustrated): Frank L. Hess. The great bulk of the carnotite de-
posits of Utah and Colorado lie between the Rocky Mountains, the San
Rafael Swell, the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad and the Arizona
line, and are in crossbedded sandstones, which mostly seem to be of
McElmo (Jurassic) age, though part of the deposits may be in similar
sandstones of La Plata (lower Jurassic) age.

The deposits contain besides carnotite, other oxidized vanadium
minerals, iron oxides, some copper carbonates and in places a chromium
mineral, and are invariably associated with fossil wood and reed-like
plants. The degree of decaj^ before fossilization seems to have had
much to do with the quantity of the minerals deposited and in places
logs are almost wholly replaced by carnotite and accompanying soft
minerals. On Red Creek in Brown's Park, Uinta County, Utah, carnotite
has formed in cracks adjacent to a copper bearing vein in Cambrian (?)
or pre-Cambrian (?) quartzite. At two other places veins carrying
smaller quantities of uranium and vanadium minerals have been found.
It is thought possible that the crossbedded sandstonesmay have been de-
posited in a very shallow inland sea with many islands and spits on which
lodged vegetable debris which had been washed from surrounding shores.
Also that sulphidic veins carrying uranium, vanadium, iron and chro-
mium minerals were eroded ; that sulphuric acid set free by the oxidation
of pyrite formed soluble sulphates of the other metals; that these were
carried into the sea and on coming into contact with the vegetation were,
in part at least, reduced to sulphides, though the uranium was possibly
reduced to an oxide, or to some combination with the vanadium. Upon
the raising, draining and oxidation of the rocks the minerals now found
were formed.

Owing to his illness, Willis T. Lee did not deliver his paper, Bearing
of stratigraphy on the physiographic conditions of the Rocky Mountain
region during upper Cretaceous time (illustrated).

The 281st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 11, 1914.

Under the head of Informal Communications F. C. Greene gave a
short discussion of the age of the loess of the Mississippi Valley, and
Frank L. Hess showed photographs of concretions in crossbedded La
Plata (?) sandstone on the northeast flank of the Henry Mountains, Utah.
The concretions follow both horizontal lines and the crossbedding

proceedings: geological society 237

planes. Their positions are believed to have been fixed by the ground
water level and the movement of water along the crossbedding planes.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Some fossil waters: Chase Palmer. No abstract. This paper is
to be published in Economic Geology.

The stratigraphic break below the Jurassic sandstone in southwestern
Colorado: Whitalin Cross and Esper S. Larsen. (Communicated
b}' Whit]vl\n Cross.) The representation of the Hayden geological
map of Colorado by which the Dakota sandstone (Cretaceous) is shown
to overlap Jurassic strata in Gunnison Canyon and extend for 35 miles
up the canyon to the vicintiy of the town of Gunnison in contact with
pre-Cambrian rocks has been found to be erroneous. Likewise, the
representation of the Hayden map that Colorado shales (Cretaceous)
rest on the pre-Caml)rian on either side of Tomichi Creek above Gunni-
son, is incorrect. The error as regards the Dakota sandstone is not
one of observation but is due to the fact that A. C. Peale, who mapped
the zone of the Gunnison Canyon, included in the Dakota 400-500 feet
of beds which are now knoA\ai to belong to the Jurassic and are assigned
to the Gunnison group, embracing the McElmo formation and the La
Plata sandstone.

The representation of an area of Colorado shales resting directly on
crystalline rocks is due to F. M. Endlich and was a result of incomplete
observations, for while some shales occur east of Cochetopa Creek, tihey
are underlain by the Dakota sandstone and the Gunnison sandstones
and shales in the full section normal for the region.

Between the Gunnison Canyon and the Uncompahgre Valley below
Oura}', the Jurassic strata must overlap in succession the Triassic and
all Paleozoic formations of the region, but there are no exposures to
illustrate this transgression in the branches of Cimarron Creek, north
of fncompahgre Peak, as indicated on the Haj'den map. The volcanic
rocks descend to the stream beds at the places where the uncomformity
is represented.

From Uncompahgre Valley around the w^estern slopes of the San
Juan Mountains and eastward on the south side to the ridge between
Pine and Piedra Rivers, the Jurassic La Plata sandstone rests on a
variable thickness of Triassic strata, of the Dolores formation. While
the relation of the two formations is in many localities that of apparent
physical conformity, actual erosional unconformity is shown in other
places, and there is clearly a constant hiatus below the La Plata, repre-
senting an unknowm amount of Triassic beds. These relations have
been fully described in the Ouray, Telluride, Rico, La Plata, and Engi-
neer Alountain folios of the Geological Survey.

In the valley of Piedra River we have found evidence that the La
Plata sandstone overlaps the entire section from the Triassic to the pre-
Cambrian. The actual angular unconformity is beautifully exposed
in the Piedra Canyon in the .stretch between two of its western tribu-

238 proceedings: geological society

taries, Weminuche Creek and First Fork, a distance of 7 miles. The
Hayden map represents the canyon as cut entirely in Upper Dakota.

The fall section of Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations known in the
San Juan region extends from the Animas Valley to the ridge east of
Pine River, but somewhere within a distance of 6 or 7 miles southwest
of Graham Peak (the point of elevation 12,336 on Hayden map) the
La Plata sandstone overlaps all formations from the Triassic to the
pre-Cambrian. This must be in the zone where the Hayden map
represents the ''Upper Carboniferous" in contact with the pre-Cambrian.
But inasmuch as a great fault-fold occurs about on the line where that
map represents "Upper Dakota" in contact with pre-Cambrian, west
of Weminuche Creek, it is possible that the unconformity below the
La Plata may not be exposed.

The Hayden geologists believed that a land area of pre-Cambrian
rocks existed in the San Juan region during Cretaceous time. The
observations here recorded, with others of recent years, show, rather,
that this land mass was produced during the pre-La Plata interval
of uplift and erosion and that sediments now supposed to be Jurassic
were probably deposited over the San Juan area and far to the north.
It seems to us not unlikely that the Morrison beds on the east were con-
nected originally with the Gunnison on the west.

Review of "Principles of Stratigraphy" by A. W. Grahau: G. S. Rogers.
No abstract.

Clarence N. Fenner,
Frank L. Hess,

Secretaries.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It Is requested that authors co6perate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style U39d below. These references are
not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

MAMMALOGY

Allen, G. M. A neiv bat from Tonkin. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 213, 214. December 20, 1913. (Description of Harpio-
cephalus rufulus, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Bailey, V. Ten new mammals from New Mexico. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26 : 129-134. May 21, 1913. (Describes 10 new species
and subspecies in 8 genera. — W. R. M.)

Bailey, V. Tivo new subspecies of North American beavers. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 191-193. October 23, 1913. (Descrip-
tions of Castor canadensis mexicanus and C. canadensis michiganensis . — W.
R. M.)

Cockerell, T. D. a., Miller, L. I., and Printz, M. The relative lengths of the
large and small intestines in rodents. Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington 26: 205-207. December 20, 1913.

Goldman, E. A. Descriptions of new mammals frotn Panama and Mexico. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections eO^^: 1-20. February 28, 1913. (Fourteen
new species and subspecies are described, 11 of these being from Panama. —
W. R. M.)

Goldman, E. A. A new generic name for the Asiatic tapir. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 65, 66. March 22, 1913. (The Asiatic
tapir is regarded as of equal rank with the American tapirs, Tapirus and
Tapirella, and is segregated as a new genus, Acrocodia, with a single species,
A. indica.—Vf. R. M.)

Heller, E. Four new subspecies of large mammals from equatorial Africa.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^^: 1-7. January 26, 1914. (De-
scribes one new subspecies each of Hippopotamus, Phacochoerus, Equus, and
Crocuta.— W. R. M.)

Heller, E. New races of antelopes from British East Africa. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 61^: 1-13. July 31, 1913. (Describes 9 new
subspecies in several genera. — W. R. M.)

Heller, E. New antelopes and carnivores from British East Africa. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections 6f : 1-15. September 16, 1913. (De-
scribes 1 new species and 13 new subspecies in 11 genera. — W. R. M.)

239

240 references: mammalogy

Heller, E. New races of ungulates and -primates from equatorial Africa. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections 61'^: 1-12. October 21, 1913. (Describes
12 new subspecies. — W. R. M.)

Heller, E. New races of carnivores and baboons from equatorial Africa and
Abyssinia. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^^: 1-12. November
8, 1913. (Describes 9 new subspecies of Aonyx, Felis, Acinonyx, and Papio.
— W. R. M.)

Heller, E. The white rhinocerous. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections
611; 1-77, pis. 1-31. 1913.

Henderson, J., and Cockerell, T. D. A. Notes on the pikas of Colorado. Pro-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 125-128. May 21, 1913.

Hollister, N. Two new polecats related to Mustela larvata. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington 26: 1^. January 18, 1913. (De-
scribes two new species, Mustela lineiventer and M. tiarata, from Siberia and
China, respectively. — W. R. M.)

Hollister, N. Description of a new gazelle from northwestern Mongolia. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections 60^": 1, 2. February 8, 1913. (Describes
Procapra altaica, allied to P. gxitturosa. — W. R. M.)

Hollister, N. Tivo neiv mammals from the Siberian Altai. Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections eO^'*: 1-3. March 13, 1913. (Describes Apodemus
nigritalus and Sorex roboraius, spp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Hollister, N. The type species of Cuniculus Brisson. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 79. March 22, 1913.

Hollister, N. Two new Philippine fruit bats. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26: HI, 112. May 3, 1913. (Describes two new spe-
cies: Pteropus balutus, from Balut Island, and P. Mearnsi, fromBasilan Island.
— W. R. M.)

Hollister, N. Two new bats of Ute genus 'Taphozoxis. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 157, 158. June 30, 1913. (Descriptions
of T. solifer and T. cavaticus, new species from China and West Sumatra,
respectively. — W. R., M.)

Hollister, N. Three new subspecies of grasshopper mice. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26 : 215, 216. December 20, 1913. (Three
new subspecies of Onychomys are described, one from California, Arizona,
and Oklahoma, each. — W. R. M.)

Howell, A. H. Description of a new weasel from Alabama. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 139, 140. May 21, 1913. (Describes
Mustela peninsulae olivacea, subsp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Jackson, H. H. T. Two new weasels from the United States. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 123, 124. May 21, 1913. (Two new
species are described: Mustela primulina, from Missouri, and M. campestris,
from Nebraska.— W. R. M.)

Lyon, M. W. Treeshrews: An account of the mammalian family Tupaiidae.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 1-188, pis. 1-11, text figs.
1-15. November 29, 1913.

Merriam, C. H. Six new ground squirrels of the Citellus mollis group from Idaho,
Oregon and Nevada. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington
26: 135-138. May 21, 1913.

references: mammalogy 241

]\IiLLER, G. S., JR. Fire new mammals from tropical America. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington 26 : 31-34. February 8, 1913. (Describes
5 new species: Marmosa pur id from Brazil, Glossophaga rostrata from Grenada,
Brachyphylla minor from Barbados, Ardops annectens from Guadeloupe, and
Promops pamana from Brazil. — ^W. R. M.)

■Miller, G. S., jr. A new pteropine bat from Luzon. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 73, 74. March 22, 1913. (Description of
Eonycteris robusta, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Some overlooked names of Sicilian mammals. Proceedings
of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 80,81. March 22, 1913. (In-
cludes publication of the new name Apodemus flavicollis rusiges. — "W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. A neio vole from eastern Mongolia. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections 6028: 1, 2, pi. 1. March 31, 1913. (Description oi Micro-
tus Wnrringtoni. — W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. A new shrew from Baltistan. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26: 113, 114. May 3, 1913. (Describes Crocidura
pergrisea, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. A new cacomistle from Nevada. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 159. June 30, 1913. (Description of
Bassariscus astutus nevadensis, subsp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Two new murine rodents from Baltistan. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 197, 198. October 23, 1913. (De-
scribes Alticola glacialis and Epimys rattiis shigarus. — W. R. M.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Fifty-one new Malayan mammals. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections 61^1: 1-30. 1913. (Descriptions of 51 new species
and subspecies in the genera Paradoxurus, Arctogalidia, Epimys, Sciurus,
Lariscus, Ratufa, Petaurista, and Presbytis.— W. R. M.)

Nelson, E. W. A new bat from the eastern United States. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 183, 184. August 8, 1913. (Describes
Myoiis winnemana, sp. nov., the type being from Plummers Island, Mary-
land.—W. R. M.)

Osgood, W. H. The nayne of the Rocky Mountain sheep. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 57-62. March 22, 1913.

Osgood, W. H. A new name for Ochotona minima. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 80. March 22, 1913. (Proposes the new
name Ochotona fenisex for the pika of southern British Columbia. — W. R. M.)

Osgood, W. H. Two new mouse opossu7ns from Yucatan. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 175, 176. August 8, 1913. (Two new
species are described: Marmosa Gaumeri and M. mayensis. — W. R. M.)

True, F. W. Diagnosis of a new beaked whale of the genus Mesoplodon from the
coast of North Carolina. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60": 1, 2.
March 14, 1913. (Describes Mesoplodon mirum, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

True, F. W. Description of Mesoplodon mirum, a beaked whale recently dis-
covered on the coast of North Carolina. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 45: 561-658, pis. 52-57, text fig. 1. November 29, 1913.

Warren, E. R. Additional notes on the distribution of Colorado mammals. Pro-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 9-12. Januar}^ 18,
1913.

242 references: ENTOMOLoar

Warren, E. R. Dichromatism in Neotoma mexicana fallax /rom Costilla County,
Colorado. Proceedings of the Biological Society 26: 35-38, pis. 1, 2. Feb-
ruary 8, 1913.

ENTOMOLOGY

Banks, N. A new mite from Thurheria. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 16: 44. March 23, 1914. (Describes Eriophyes
thurberiae, new species. — J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. Ttvo Microlepidoptera on Thurberia thespesioides. Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 30, 31. March 23, 1914. (De-
scribes Bucculatrix thurheriella, new spepies, from Arizona. — J. C. C.)

CoAD, B. R., and Pierce, W. D. Studies of the Arizona Thurberia iveevil on cotton
in Texas. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 23-
27. March 23, 1914. (Experimental cross breedings were made at Victoria,
Texas, between both sexes of the Arizona variety Anthonomus grandis thur-
beriae Pierce and the opposite sexes of the true Anthonomus grandis, bred
from cotton in Texas. Offspring were bred in each case, with very slight
differences in the length of the developmental period. There was a greater
variation in the rate of egg deposition per day. Typical thurberiae fed on
cotton squares oviposited only 0.2 eggs per day in May, but 4.5 eggs per day
in September; female thurberiae fertilized by male grandis laid 2.8 per day
in May, and 3.5 per day in September; female grandis fertilized by male
thurberiae laid 2.2 per day in May, and 1.9 per day in September. The off-
spring of the male grandis and female thurberiae rearings were interbred
and deposited 8.1 eggs per day; while the offspring of the male thurberiae
and male grandis rearings were interbred and deposited 3.5 eggs per day. —
W. D. P )

CocKERELL, T. D. A. Coleoptera at the British Museum, Bloomsbury. Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 8-10. March 23, 1914.
(Notes on the list of beetles found on the premises of the British Museum,
together with a few extracts from this list. — J. C. C.)

CocKERELL, T. D. A. Bees visiting Thurberia. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 16: 31, 32. March 23, 1914. (Describes from Ari-
zona Melissodes thurberiae and Perdita punctifera and records two other
species. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, D. L. A contribution toward a monograph of the homopterous in-
sects of the family Delphacidae of North and South America. Proceedings
of the U. S. National Museum 46: 557-640, pis. 44-49. March 4, 1914. (In-
cludes descriptions of the new genera Lepticus, Eucanyra, Liburniella, and
Bakerella, 35 new species, and 9 new varieties. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Two new parasitic Hymenoptcra from Arizona. Proceedings
of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 29. March 23, 1914.

Crawford, J. C. Three new Hymenoptera. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2:
36-38. March 30, 1914. (Describes three Chalcidoidea from the United
States.— J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. On the proper generic names for certain Thysanoptera of economic
importance. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16:
34-44. March 23, 1914. (Shows that the name Euthrips is a synonym of Thrips

references: entomology 243

and assigns to the correct genera the various American species which were
formerly included under the name Euthrips; proposes the name Frankliniella
tritici var. moultoni for Euthrips tritici californicus Molton, 1911, not E.
ulicis californicus Molton, 1907; includes a bibliography of the important
references to the species involved in the paper. — J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. Two Porto Rican Thysanoptera from sugar cane. Tnsecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 38-41. March 30, 1914. (Describes Haplothrips (?)
tibialis, new species. — J. C. C.)

Hutchison, R. H. The migratory habit of housefly larvae as indicating a favor-
able remedial measure. An account of progress. Bulletin of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, No. 14. Pp. 1-11. February 28, 1914. (In this
professional paper are given the results of experiments which show that the
migrator}^ habit of the larva is a response to various internal and external
stimuli, moisture being, perhaps, the most important of the latter. Since the
larvae migrate to the drier portions of the manure heaps to pupate, this
habit offers an important point of attacks in attempt to control this pest. —
J. C. C.)

Knab, F. On the genus Cryptochaetum. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2 : 33-36.
March 30, 1914. (Gives a table of certain species and describes C. curtipenne,
from Ceylon.— J. C. C.)

Pierce, W. D., and Morrill, A. W. N'otes on the entomology of the Arizona wild
cotton. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 14r-23.
^larch 23, 1914. (Describes some of the localities in which the Arizona wild
cotton, Thurberia thespesioides, was found and records the principal insects
attacking it, together with a list of the miscellaneous insects breeding on it
and a list of the miscellaneous visitors. The principal enemy is a variety
of the cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis var. thurberiae Pierce; other
important enemies are the leaf worm, Alabama argillacea, a boll worm, and a
blister mite of the genus Eriophyes. — J. C. C.)

ScHAus, W. New species of noctuid moths from tropical America. Proceedings
of the U. S. National Museum 46 : 485-549. January 29, 1914. (Describes
the new genera Chytonidia, Colodes, Encruphion, Anorena, Ateneria, Neop-
todes, Sinosia, Eromidia, and Polygnamptia, and 136 new species in the
family Noctuidae, all except three species having been taken by the author
and Mr. J. Barnes in British, Dutch and French Guiana. — J. C. C.)

ScHWARz, E. A., Heidemann, O., and Banks, Nathan. Life and writings of
Philip Reese Uhler. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washing-
ton 16: 1-7. March 23, 1914. (Contains a bibliography of the articles pub-
lished by Mr. Uhler, with portrait as a frontispiece. — J. C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. New muscoid flies, mainly Hysiriciidae and Pyrrhosiinae
from the Andean Montanya. (Continuation). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus
2: 42-48. March 30, 1914. (Describes 6 new species, 2 new subspecies, and
the new genera Trichethoropsis, Gabanimyia, Eubletharipeza and Neojurinia.
—J. C. C.)

Walton, W. R. A new tachnid parasite of Diabrotica vittata. Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 11-14, pi. 1. March 23, 1914.
(Describes Neocelatoria ferox, a new genus and species from Maryland, and
gives observations on the method of oviposition. — J. C. C.)

244 EEFERENCES: ICHTHYOLOGY

Webster, F. M. The Western corn rootworm. Bulletin of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, No. 8, pp. 1-8. September 27, 1913. (A short account of its
seasonal history and damage, with suggestion of crop-rotation as a preventa-
tive measure. — J. C. C.)

Wood, H. P. Experiments in the use of sheep in the eradication of the Rocky Moun-
tain spotted fever tick. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
No. 45, pp. 1-11. November 22, 1913.

ICHTHYOLOGY

CocKERELL, T. D. A. The scales of the simenchelyid, ophidiid, brotulid and
hregmacerotid fishes. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington
26: 75-78. March 22, 1913.

CocKERELL, T. D. A. The scales of the hlennioid fishes. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 89-92. May 3, 1913.

Gilbert, C. H. Descriptions of two new fishes of the genus Triglops from the
Atlantic coast of North America. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum
44: 465-468. April 30, 1913.

GuDGER, E. W. Natural history notes on some Beaufort, North Carolina fishes,
1912. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 97-110. May
3, 1913.

Jordan, D. S. Description of Anguilla manabei, a new eel from Japan. Pro-
ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 359, 360. April 3, 1913.

Jordan, D. S., and Snyder, J. O. Description of the Yachats "smelt," a new
species of atherinoid fish from Oregon. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 45: 575, 576, pi. 46. June 21, 1913. (Describes and figures Atheri-
nops oregonia, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

Nichols, J. T. On two new characins in the American Museum. Proceedings
of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 151, 152. June 30, 1913. (De-
scribes 2 new species, Coelurichthys lateralis and C. tenuis, their source not
known.— W. R. M.)

Radcliffe, L. Description of seven new genera and thirty-one new species of fishes
of the families Broiulidae and Carapidae from the Philippine Islands and the
Dutch East Indies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 135-176,
pis. 7-17. April 3, 1913.

Smith, H. M. The hemiscyllid sharks of the Philippine Archipelago, with de-
scriptioji of a new genus from the China Sea. Proceedings of the U. S. Na-
tional Museum 45: 567-569, pi. 45, text figs. 1-2. June 21, 1913. (Includes
description of Cirrhoscyllium expolitum, new genus and species, from the
China Sea.— W. R. M.)

Smith, H. M. Description of a new carcharioid shark from the Sulu Archipelago.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 599-601, pi. 47, text figs. 1-3.
June 21, 1913. (Describes Eridacnis Radcliffei, a new genus and species
secured near the island of Jolo.^W. R. M.)

Snyder, J. O. Notes on Ranzania makua Jenkins and other species of fishes of
rare occurrence on the California coast. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 44: 455-460. April 12, 1913.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MAY 19, 1914 No. 10

GEOPHYSICS. — Isostasy in India. ^ William Bowie, Coast and
Geodetic Survey.

The investigatiorivS carried on by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey m recent years have proved conclusively that
for the total area of this country isostasy is practically perfect.
The two reports on the gravity reductions show that areas in the
United States of much smaller extent than the whole are largely
compensated. This is clearly showTQ by the gravity anomaly
map in the last gravity report. ^ But the area of the United States
is a small percentage of the land surface of the earth and the
scientist may well reserve judgment as to whether complete
isostasy obtains generally until the theory has been tested in
other lands. It is the earnest hope of advocates of this theory,
and even of its opponents, that such tests may be undertaken in
the near future. The determination of the dimensions of the
mean figure of the earth (the ellipsoid) and the actual shape of
the earth's surface (the geoid) are problems which the truth or
falsity of the theory of isostasy will help the geodesist to solve.
The degree of rigidity and the strength of the earth's crust may
be more closely estimated or computed after knowing more about
isosta.sy, and this is a very important matter to the geologist, the

' Paper read in abstract before the Philosophical Society of Washington on
April 11, 1914.

- Illustration Xo. 2, Effect of Topography and Isostatic Compensation on the
Intensity of Gravit3\ Special Publication No. 12, U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey. I

245

246

BOWIE: ISOSTASY IN INDIA

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BOWIE: ISOSTASY IN INDIA 247

geophysicist, the seismologist, and the astronomer. There are
other branches of scientific research to which this question of
isostasy is also of interest and importance.

Gravity reductions made by the older methods, the Free Air,
which ignores topography, and the Bouguer, which postulates a
rigid earth with the topography as an added load, do not give any
definite idea as to the strength of the earth's crust. It is believed
that the new (Hayford) method does give valuable information
on this question.

In India and Italy gravity stations are being reduced by the
Hayford method and it is the work already done in the former
country that is the basis of this paper. In the Report of the Board
of Scientific Advice for India for 1912-13, there are given the
results of the reduction of fourteen gravity stations which throw
some light on the question of the degree of perfection of isostasy
in India. These stations are in approximately the same longi-
tude and extend from latitude 23° 16' to latitude 28° 19'. The
report gives the data for the fourteen stations listed in table 1.

The theoretical value of gravity, 70, shown in table 1, is ob-
tained from the Helmert formula of 1884, which is
70 = 978.00 (1 + 0.00531 sin^ 0)

The means of the anomalies of the several methods of reduction
without regard to sign are: Free Air, 0.031; Bouguer, 0.012;
Hayford, 0.035; The means with regard to sign are: Free Air,
+0.029; Bouguer, -0.008; Hayford, +0.035.

These values of the anomalies with regard to sign for the several
methods of reduction, and by the old Helmert formula, indicate
the presence of systematic errors in the reductions, though the
Bouguer method seems to be the one most nearly free from such
errors.

The constants in the new Helmert formula (1901) are derived
from many more gravity stations and much more accurate data.
This formula is

70 = 978.030 (1 + 0.005302 sin' 6 - 0.000007 sin^ 2 <f>)

When the 1901 formula is used to obtain the theoretical value
of gravity at sea level and at the latitude of the station the sea
level values and the anomalies are those shown in table 2.

248

BOWIE: ISOSTASY IN INDIA

TABLE 2

STATION

1. Bhopal. . .

2. Balianpur

3. Kina

4. Goona. . .

5. Lalitpur.

6. Sipri

7. Jhansi. . . ,

8. Gwalior. .

9. Dholpur.

10. Agra

11. Muttra..

12. Hathras. .

13. Aligarh..

14. Khurja. .

7o

978.835
978.892
978.896
978.928
978.931
978.983
978.984
979.039
979.073
979 . 107
979.128
979 . 139
979 . 160
979 . 186

Qo-yo
(Free Air)

+ 0.028

+ 0.049 ,

+ 0.025

+0.025

-0.005

+0.036

+0.006

-0.020

-0.020

-0.001

-0.004

-0.009

-0.028

-0.043

go"-yo

(Bouguer)

g -y

(Hayf ord )

0.029
-0.013
-0.022
-0.030
-0.047
-0.018
-0.024
-0.043
-0.040
-0.020
-0.024
-0.030
-0.049
-0.066

+0.021
+0.038
+0.025
+0.018
-0.002
+0.027
+0.013
-0.008
-0.005
+0.017
+0.015
+0.011
-0.007
-0.019

The means of the anomalies are as follows: Without regard to
sign: Free Air, 0.021; Bouguer, 0.032; Hayf ord, 0.016. With
regard to sign: Free Air, +0.003; Bouguer, -0.032; Hayf ord,
+0.010.

This formula makes the mean Hayford anomalies without
regard to sign smaller than the mean anomalies by the other
methods, but the mean with regard to sign is smaller for the Free
Air anomalies. The sign of the Free Air anomalies seems to
change with the change in elevation of the stations. All except
one of the anomalies at stations above 800 feet are positive,
while all stations with elevations less than 800 feet have nega-
tive anomalies. The Bouguer anomalies are all negative, and
the values are double the values of the Hayford anomalies on
an average.

With the 1901 Helmert formula applied the anomalies indicate
that the rigid crust postulated in the Bouguer method is far from
the truth.

The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey formula' for
theoretical gravity (Helmert's formula of 1901 with a new first

^ See p. 25, Effect of Topography and Isostatic Compensation upon the Inten-
sity of Gravity. Special Publication No. 12, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

BOWIE: ISOSTASY IN INDIA

249

TABLE 3

To

(lo-yo

(Free Air)

go"- lo
(Bouguer)

g -y

(Hay ford)

1. Bhopal...

2. Balianpur

3. Kina

4. Goona. . . .

5. Lalitpur. .

6. Sipri

7. Jhansi. . . .

8. Gwalior. .

9. Dholpur. .

10. Agra

11. Muttra...

12. Hathras..

13. Aligarh. . .

14. Khurja. . .

978.843
978.900
978.904
978.936
978.939
978.991
978.992
979.047
979.081
979.115
979.136
979.147
979.168
97^ . 194

+0.020
+0.041
+0.017
+0.017
-0.013
+0.028
-0.002
-0.028
-0.028
-0.009
-0.012
-0.017
-0.036
-0.051

-0.037
-0.021
-0.030
-0.038
-0.055
-0.026
-0.032
-0.051
-0.048
-0.028
-0.032
-0.038
-0.057
-0.074

+0.013
+0.030
+0.017
+0.010
-0.010
+0.019
+0.005
-0.016
-0.013
+0.009
+0.007
+0.003
-0.015
-0.027

term) as derived from gravity observations in the United States
is:

70 = 978.038 (1 +0.005302 sin^ 0 -0.000007 sin^ 2 «^)

If this formula is used for the India stations we have the results
listed in table 3.

Then the mean anomaly becomes: Without regard to sign:
Free Air, 0.023; Bouguer, 0.040; Hayford, 0.014. With regard
to sign: Free Air, -0.005; Bouguer, -0.040; Hayford, +0.002.

Here we have a mean Hayford anomaly with regard to sign of
almost zero which is an indication that the Coast and Geodetic
Survey formula more nearly meets the conditions in India, within
the small area under consideration, than either of the two Helmert
formulas.

The values at the different stations vary in size and sign and
therefore we seem to have local rather than regional departures
from the perfect isostatic state. The data, though small in
amount, indicate that isostasj^ may be nearly as perfect for large
areas in India as in the United States. We await with great
interest further reports on the important and valuable investi-
gations now being made in that country.

250 VAUGHAN AND COOKE: HAWTHORN FORMATION

GEOLOGY. — Correlation of the Hawthorn formation.'^ Thomas
Wayland Vaughan and Charles Wythe Cooke, Geologi-
cal Survey.

Dr. W. H. Dall in 1892 applied the name Hawthorn beds to
certain upper Oligocene deposits of clay and phosphatic sand-
stones which outcrop in northern Florida and are characterized
by silicified oyster shells and silicified corals. Among the locali-
ties mentioned are several near Hawthorn, Devils Mill Hopper
near Gainesville, the hilltops near Archer and Arredonda, Nigger
Sink and a well near Newnansville, Fort White, a sink 4 miles
north of Lake City, and White Springs on Suwannee River'.
In 1894. Doctor Dall published the statement that the Hawthorn
beds are to be correlated with the Chattahoochee series, as are
also the Orthaulax bed and Tampa limestone at Tampa and the
chert of Hillsboro River. This correlation was adopted by Clapp
and Matson.

Studies subsequent to those of Doctor Dall, published in 1894,
have all tended to confirm the essential correctness of his opinion
regarding the age relations of the Chattahoochee "series" and
the beds around Tampa mentioned by him; but additional
information obtained during the progress of field work in Florida
having led to doubts as to the correctness of the stratigraphic
reference of the Hawthorn beds, a special re-examination of all
important localities was made during the field season of 1913.
In this connection, in fairness to Doctor Dall, it should be stated
that his account of the Hawthorn "beds" was mostly based on
the field notes of others and that he did not personally examine
the critical exposures. An exposure at White Springs, Suwannee
River, Hamilton County, proved to be the key to the problem.
Following is the description of the section at this locality pub-
lished by Doctor Dall from notes supplied by Dr. J. C. O'Neal:

At White Springs on the Suwannee the following section was ob-
tained :

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

VAUGHAN AND COOKE: HAWTHORN FORMATION 251

feel

1. Gray soil, sand, and humus 2

2. White sand 4

3. Clay with silicified corals and oyster (Hawthorne beds) 6-8

4. Indurated clayey rock (Hawthorne beds?) 2

o. Clayey sand-rock, rather fine-grained and soft 4

6. The same, somewhat coarser and harder 8-10

7. Sand rock of coarser, sharp grains, coated and cemented together

with white, limy matter 4-6

8. Foraminiferal Eocene top-rock (Vicksburg) indefinitely below

The silicified corals of bed No. 3 are sometimes 20 to 60 pounds in
weight, and along the river when dislodged from the clay often wear
immense potholes in the softer lime rocks. Miocene sharks' teeth
and fragments of bone also occur in the clay. Under bed No. 8, when
it is tilted up, as occurs in various places along the river, is found the
older Orbitoides limestone of the Vicksburg group.

The following is a description of a section observed by us near
^\'^lite Springs:

Section, Rock Island and spring about 250 feet above it, left bank of Suivan-
nee River, about three-quarters of a mile in a straight line above the White
Springs wagori bridge.

THICKNESS

feet inches

10. Terrace material about 60 feet above water level in the
river. This represents the extensive, highest terrace
recognized along Suwanne River, — the sands grayish or

white 12

9. Yellowish sands, about 12

8. Grayish sand on surface, float of oyster shells, etc., about. . 13
7. Bed with gra}' concretions, immediately above which are
many silicified Ostrea mauricensis, Siderastrea sp., and

fossil bones, probably manatee 1

6. Greenish sands and clays 1

0. Calcareous quartz sands coated by calcium carbonate; nu-
merous phosphatic particles. Fossils: Orbitolites, Ostrea,

etc 4

4. Calcareous sands containing rotten shell fragments 1 2

3. Light colored, greenish-gray sandy marl containing many
fossil shells but fewer specimens of Pecten than the under-
lying bed 4 9

2. Base of spring section, light colored, greenish-gray sandy
marl; sand grains clear quartz, mostly rounded. Many
blackish phosphatic particles. Fossils numerous: Gonio-
pora sp., Pecten madisonius var. sayanus, Ostrea mauri-
censis. (The dip of this bed is about 2| feet in 50 feet;
direction S. 50° E., that is up stream. Between it and
the chert and limestone exposed at Rock Island it is
estimated that about 5 feet are concealed.) 2 6

252 VAUGHAN AND COOKE: HAWTHORN FORMATION

1. The material exposed at Rock Island outcrops about 150 feet down
stream from the spring exposure. The rock was originally a yel-
lowish granular limestone which has been largely silicified. The
silicification is frequently or usually as concentric shells. In some
instances silicified masses are surrounded by unchanged material.
The echinoid genus Cassidulus is common. A number of species of
fossil mollusks were collected. Worn specimens of Osirea mauricensia
and Siderasirea sp. were also seen on the surface, but these had evi-
dently washed out of overlying beds and had been brought second-
arily into the position where seen. (The geologic age of this bed
will be discussed in a future publication. It is probably not of
Vicksburg age, as stated by Professor O'Neal.) Down stream from
Rock Island the dip is again down stream and the marls overlying
the limestone and chert are again exposed. The exposure at Rock
Island is due to a small anticline lying across the river course.

The silicified corals, Siderastrea, and silicified specimens of
Ostrea mauricensis were seen at many places where they overlie
the fossiliferous marl bed which carries a fauna very similar to
that of the Chipola marl member and the Oak Grove sand
member of the Alum Bluff formation.-

In this locality the Hawthorn formation either overlies or is
a part of the Alum Blufi" formation. The lithology, greenish
gray sand and clay — the clay frequently resembling fuller's earth
— ^is that usual for the typical Alum Bluff. Ostrea inauricensis
is a common species in that formation; and as there is no strati-
graphic break in the deposition, the Hawthorn formation as here
exposed should in our opinion be considered as only a part of
the Alum Bluff formation.

Similar material, in places containing a larger proportion of
phosphatic sandstone, usually with silicified oysters and speci-
mens of Siderastrea, was found at all the localities cited by
Doctor Dall. At Alachua limesink the phosphatic sandstone is
interbedded with greenish clays. The material was traced as
far southward as Ocala where it immediately overlies the Ocala
limestone of the Vicksburg group.

It seems definitely established that the Hawthorn formation
does not represent any part of the Chattahoochee formation but

" The term Alum Bluff formation as used in this paper, in that it is made to
include the Chipola marl as a member, differs from the sense in which Doctor
Dall originally applied it.

merwin: azurite and alamosite 253

is the essential equiv^alent of the Alum Bluf!" formation, if the
basal fossiliferous marl exposed at White Springs be included
with the Hawthorn. In western Florida the formation rests
upon the Chattahoochee formation, while in central Florida,
from Gainesville and Alachua southward, it immediately overlies
the Ocala limestone.

Although the term "Hawthorn beds" was proposed in 1892
and Alum Bluff in 1894, it seems better to suppress Hawthorn
and adopt Alum Bluff, as the latter term has been extensively
applied in western Florida and the formation traced across
southern Georgia and thence northeastward to Savannah River.

MINERALOGY. — The optical properties of azurite and alamosite.
H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory.

Azurite. The chief optical properties of azurite, except the
refractive indices, were described by Des Cloizeaux.^ I have
measured microscopically the refractive indices and 2V of crys-
tals from Broken Hills, Australia, and from Butte, Montana.
The observed values for the two specimens do not differ more
than as -indicated. For Na-light a = 1.730 ±0.002, ^ = 1.758 ±
0.003, 7 = 1.838 ±0.003.

Very thin sections transmit sufficient Na-light to permit a
fairly satisfactory measurement of 2V by the method based
upon the curvature of a zero isogyre. Three measurements varied
between 62° and 70? The optic axis of each of these sections
could be located within 0.75? Such location was not measur-
ably different for the greenish-blue light transmitted by the sec-
tion in white light. From one thick section showing an optic
axis and the acute bisectrix an accurate measurement of 2V
gave the value 68? Very thin sections show slight horizontal
dispersion. With decreasing wave-length the refractive index
increases rapidly. The following values were observed: at 671 ^^
a = 1.719, at 589M/i « = 1.730, at 486mm « = 1.756.

Since 2V for yellow and blue are nearly equal, the observed
angle, 2E = 151°, obtained by Des Cloizeaux may be reduced to

1 Manuel de Mineralogie 2 : 194. 1874.

254 merwin: azurite and alamosite

2V by using /3 = 1.758. The resulting value is 2V = 67? Thus
the crystals from three localities are optically similar or quite
identical.

Alamosite, PbSiOs. In the original description of alamosite^
the only optical property definitely described was that the optic
plane is parallel to the plane of symmetry and the cleavage.
The results of a further microscopical study of a few fragments
of the original mineral are here presented.

a and 7 for Na-light were measured, with a probable error of
±0.001, in standard mixtures of piperine, and antimony and
arsenic iodides, and also in solutions of arsenic trisulphide in
methylene iodide. jS was computed a = 1.947, I3 = 1.961, y = 1.968.
A measurement of 7 — a on a cleavage fragment in Na-light gave
the value 0.023. Dispersion of the optic axes is very strong,
but the inclined dispersion of the bisectrices is too weak to be
measm-ed with the microscope. A few grains embedded in a
medium with refractive index near /3 were found suitable for
measuring the angle between the acute bisectrix and an optic
axis. By observing the direction of greater refraction in these
grains the negative optical character of the mineral, which had
not been satisfactorily determined on account of the strong
dispersion, was established. 2V for Li-Hght=58°; for Na-
light =65°; for blue light (X = 425mm) =78°— all" within ±5?

Two small pieces were fused on a strip of platinum, and the
refractive index of the glass found by the method used for the
crystals. Most of the fragments of the crushed glass from both
pieces were alike, n = 1.906. For a very few fragments n = 1.910
to 1.920. Possibly a few specks of cerrusite were adhering to the
crystal grains.

2 Palache and Merwin, Amer. Journ. Sci. IV. 27: 399. 1909.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEODESY. — Fourth general adjustment of the precise level net in the
United States and the resulting standard elevations. William
Bowie and H. G. Avers. Special Publication No. 18, U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey. Pp. 328, 4 pis., 1 map. 1914.

This publication contains the results of all precise leveling, done
in the United States before the year 1912, which formed closed loops.
Several spur lines were not included. The elevations are referred
to mean sea level as the datum. The mean level of the sea at all
points on the open coasts is supposed to define a level or equipotential
surface. Deviations from this condition, if they exist, are not great
enough to be detected by leveling of even the highest quality. When
the mean sea levels at two tidal stations are connected the discrepancy
is of such an order that it may be due to the accumulated errors of
leveling.

The great advantage of having mean sea level as the datum for
leveling is that the field work may start from many points; valuable
checks on the results are obtained; and the leveling of neighboring
countries may be joined to form a continuous net over a whole continent.
These conditions would not be possible if each country adopted an
arbitrary datum.

The lines of precise leveling are so interlaced that they form a com-
plicated network, and the elevation of an interior point can be ob-
tained by a number of different routes from the sea coast. The whole
net was made consistent by an adjustment by the method of least
squares, which furnished the most probable values for each of the
points common to two or more lines. The elevations of the interme-
diate bench marks were then made to agree with the adjusted values of
these junction points.

The present precise level net is considered to be of such strength and
extent that the elevations resulting from this fourth adjustment can

255

256 abstracts: geology

be held fixed for an indefinite time and they are, therefore, termed
''standard."

It was found to be necessary to apply a correction to the field levels
(the levels as actually run) to account for the non-parallelism of equi-
potential surfaces. In leveling the correction is an appreciable one
when the distance between the surfaces is large.

The elevations are given in both feet and meters. It was thought
best to abandon the custom previously followed (that is, to give the
elevations in meters only) , as all topographic maps in this country use
the foot as the unit of elevation in contouring. It is also true that
all railroads and other engineering organizations use feet entirely for
elevations.

In the future any new lines of precise leveling will be adjusted to
fit into the net without in any way disturbing previously adopted ele-
vations. As each new line added to the net may have some influence
on all or nearly all the elevations, adjustments will be made from time
to time which will give the theoretically best values of the junction
points of the net, which will be of great scientific interest and value,
but such adjustments will not interfere with the standard elevations.

W. B.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the pitchblende ores of Colorado. Edson S. Bas-
TiN. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 90-A. Pp. 5,
with 2 plates. 1914.

This account of the mode of occurrence of pitchblende at Quartz Hill
in Gilpin County, Colorado, is pubhshed in advance of a much larger
report on the same region in which many other types of ore deposits will
be considered. The prevailing rocks are pre-Cambrian igneous and
sedimentary rocks and tertiary intrusives mainly of monzonitic composi-
tion. The pitchblende occurs as a constituent of a number of sulphide
veins which traverse both the pre-Cambrian and the Tertiary rocks.

On the basis of mineral composition the sulphide veins of this region
may be divided into (1) the pyritic type and (2) the lead-zinc type.
The principal primary minerals of the pyritic type are pyrite and quartz ;
chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite are almost invariably present in subor-
dinate amounts, and enargite, fluorite, and rhodochrosite occur here and
there. The primary minerals commonly present in the veins of the lead-
zinc type are galena, sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, and calcite.
Some parts of the district are characterized solely by one or the other of
these t>T5es of mineralization, but in many of the veins both types are
present. In such veins it has been demonstrated by repeated exposures

ABSTRACTS : ENTOMOLOGY 257

that the lead-ziuc type is somewhat later than the pyritic type and that
the minerals of the former commonly line vugs or fractures in those of
the latter. It is believed, however, that the lead-zinc mineralization
followed close upon the heels of the pyritic mineralization, and that the
two types represent merely successive epochs in one great vein-forming
period. Although the mineral veins cut the monzonite porphyry dikes
and stocks, it is believed that both came from a common deep-seated
source, the ore-bearing solutions following the monzonite intrusion after
a short interval.

Microscopic studies of the pitchblende ores indicate that they repre-
sent a local and unusual variation in the sulphide mineralization of the
region. It is believed that the pitchblende was deposited during the
earlier or pyritic mineralization, that it was afterward fractured, and
that the fractures thus formed were filled by sulphides of the later or
lead-zinc mineralization. The general geologic relations and the ab-
sence of characteristic high-temperature minerals in the deposits of
Quartz Hill, as well as in those of Cornwall and the Erzgebirge, indicate
that the pitchblende was deposited under conditions of moderate temper-
ature and pressure. Unlike the European pitchblende, however, the
pitchblende of Quartz Hill is not associated with nickel and cobalt
minerals, which so far as known have never been found in that region
even in small quantities. The occurrence of pitchblende in pegmatite
as well as in mineral veins of the type here described shows that
the mineral may also form under conditions of high temperature and
pressure. E. S. B.

EXTOAIOLOGY. — On interspecific mating in Phengodes and inbreed-
ings in Eros. H. S. Barber. Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Washington 16: 32-34. March 23, 1914.

Females of a species of Phengodes easily distinguished from P.
laticollis in both sexes of adults and also in the larval stage were con-
fined with males of P. laticollis. In most cases the male did not recog-
nize the female; but some did, and in two instances there was mating
of a short duration. One female deposited three infertile eggs; the
other 48 fertile and infertile eggs. In the latter case some embryos
developed but did not issue; ten larvae issued, all but two deformed and
unable to feed; these two, which lived and fed for fifteen months,
showed the specific characteristics of the male.

It is pointed out that most groups of insects have some obstacle
tending to prevent inbreeding and that those which have no obstacle
are usually somewhat degraded and inclined to form numerous local

258 ABSTRA-CTS: ANTHROPOLOGY

races or color forms. Observations are cited showing Eros humeraUs
to be an example of this group. In Phengodes the obstacle appears
to be that the males develop after two years in the larval stage, while
the females must spend three or more years as larvae. In Micromal-
thus the adults appear to become sexually mature only after a migra-
tory flight. J- C. Crawford.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Antiquities of the upper Verde and Walnut Creek
Valleys, Arizona. J. W. Fewkes. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer.
Ethnology, pp. 181-220, pi. 79-102, figs. 56-68. 1912 [pub. 1913].
This is a report on a visit to the ruins of prehistoric remains of build-
ings in Arizona, made to determine the western limits of the agricultural
Indians called Pueblos. It describes and figures fifteen ruins hitherto
unknown, and points out their characteristic features. It states that
buildings of two types, forts crowning the eminences and wattle-walled
dwellings scattered along the river banks, coexist with cave dwellings,
and that no one of these ruins resembles the typical terraced community
houses commonly called pueblos. Architecturally these are more closeh^
related to those in southern Arizona than to the pueblos. The memoir
closes with a reference to the age of the ruins and an account of the prob-
able character and kinship of their former inhabitants. J. W. F.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— Casa Grande, Arizona. J. W. Fewkes. 28th
Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 25-179, pis. 1-78, figs. 1-54.
1912 [pub. 1913].
This is a final report on the excavation and repair of the famous ruin,
Casa Grande, undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution in 1906 and
1907-08. The memoir quotes at length from the various historical de-
scriptions of the ruin from its discovery, in the year 1694, to the present
time, supplementing these written accounts with legends gathered from
Piman and other Indians still living in the neighborhood. It likewise
contains a comprehensive description, copiously illustrated, of buildings,
encircling walls, and other characteristic architectural features revealed
by the excavations, and describes the methods of repair adopted for
their permanent preservation. Various objects (stone axes, pottery,
shell, wood, basketry, etc.) found in the course of the work are figured,
described, and, where possible, interpreted. The memoir closes with
general considerations of the age of Casa Grande, the kinship of the
makers, and probable manners and customs of the former inhabitants,
as affected by the climatic and other environmental conditions. The
author regards the prehistoric dwellings as different from pueblos, and
their inhabitants as culturally characteristic. J. W. F.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 87th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was
held at the Cosmos Club, Thursday evening, December 4, 1913. The
following were elected resident members of the Academy: John
F. Anderson, N. L. Bowen, R. H, Chapman, Harvey L. Curtis, Edwin
Clarence Eckel, Daniel Folkmar, Frederick E. Fowle, Hoyt S. Gale,
Donnel F. Hewett, Walter D. Hunter, J. F. Jameson, George W. Morey,
Eugene F. Mueller, S. N. D. North, W. J. Peters, E. D. Tillyer, Percv
H. Walker, Elmer G. Woodruff.

After the election of the new members the Academy, in joint ses-
sion with the Philosophical Society of Washington, listened to an
illustrated lecture on the Brownian movement and molecular reality by
Prof. Jean Perrin, of the University of Paris. It was explained that
the Brownian movement has furnished visible and experimental proof
of all the principal gas laws; that it has demonstrated the reality of the
molecular constitution of matter ; and that it has given four of the seven-
teen known independent methods of determining the number of gas
molecules per unit volume.

The 88th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint
meeting with twenty other societies, was held in the hall of the Car-
negie Institution of Washington, Friday evening, December 5, 1913, in
memory of the late Dr. W. J. McGee.

Mr. Frederick V. Coville presided and introduced the speakers, all
of whom had been intimately associated with Dr. McGee at some stage
of his career. Gifford Pinchot declared that much of the success
of forestry work was due to ideas advanced by Dr. McGee, and Dr.
Franz Boas, of Columbia University, read a paper analyzing the char-
acter and value of his work.

Other speakers included Dr. Milton Whitney, N. H. Darton,
Henry Gannett, Col. H. C. Rizer, F. W. Hodge, and J. A. Holmes.
The speeches, letters and papers read, with other material relating to
the life and work of Dr. McGee, will be printed in book form.

The societies, which took part, and their representatives were:
American Anthropological Association, F. W. Hodge; American Asso-
ciation of Museums, Frederick L. Lewton; American Civic Associa-
tion, H. K. Bush-Brown, and Richard B. Watrous; American For-
estry Association, P. S. Risdale ; American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers, J. H. Hanna and E. B. Rosa; American Society of Mechanical

259

260 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences

Engineers, Gen. William H. Bixby, Calvin W. Rice, and Joseph A.
Holmes; Anthropological Society of Washington, D. S. Lamb, Donnel

F. Hewett, and Daniel Folkmar; Archaeological Institute of Ameri-
ca, John W. Foster, Herbert Putnam, and Mitchell Carroll;
Biological Society of Washington, F. H. Knowlton; Chemical Society
of Washington, F. W, Clarke, William Blum, F. K. Cameron, and
W. F. Hillebrand; Colmnbia Historical Society, Theodore W. Noyes,
W. B. Bryan, and M. I. Weller; Explorers' Club, Rear Admiral
Robert E. Peary, D. L. Brainard, and Henry Brevoort Kane;
Lake to the Gulf Deep Waterways Association, W. K. Kavanaugh,

G. A. BuDER, Edwin S. Munroe, Major Wood, T. Edward Wilder,
E. S. Conway, William F. Bourland, William H. Russe, W. M.
Kavanaugh, George B. Logan, John F. Messmore, J. F. O. Reller,
Arthur Leach, E. H. Deffenbaugh, Lyman E. Cooley, H. H.
Walker, Alexander Y. Scott, James S. Warren, and H. F. Auton;
National Conservation Association, Herbert A. Smith, Philip P.
Wells, and H. A. Slatterly; National Conservation Congress,
Thomas R. Shipp; Philosophical Society of Washington, L. A. Bauer,
J. H. Gore, and C. K. Wead; Sequoia League, Alice C. Fletcher, F.
W. Hodge, C. Hart Merriam; State Historical Society of Iowa, The
Hon. H. M. Towner; Upper Mississippi River Improvement Associa-
tion, Thomas Wilkinson; National Rivers and Harbors Congress,
Col. S. A. Thompson.

The 89th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was
held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum, Thursday evening,
January 8, 1914. Prof. John C. Merriam, of the University of Cali-
fornia gave an illustrated lecture on the Fauna of the Pleistocene asphalt
at Rancho La Brea, California. It was explained that, when cool, tar
is so firm that animals can walk over it safely but that, on being warmed,
especially on summer days, it softens and entraps any animal that
attempts to cross it. Animals caught in this manner attract others,
and thus the asphalt deposit has become filled with the bones of thou-
sands of animals in which canid forms, such as the Great Wolf, largely
predominate. Many of the species preserved in this death trap of the
ages are extinct, while others, representing later catches, belong to the
present fauna.

The 90th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the
16th annual meeting, was held at the Cosmos Club, Thursday evening,
January 15, 1914, with President Tittmann in the chair. The fol-
lowing were elected officers for the ensuing year: President, David
White; Corres-poyiding Secretary, George K. Burgess; Recording
Secretary, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, E. W. Parker. Resident
Vice-Presidents from local societies: Anthropological, F. W. Hodge;
Archaeological, Mitchell Carroll; Biological, Paul Bartsch;
Botanical, F. L. Lewton; Chemical, M. X. Sullivan; Electrical
Engineers, E. B. Rosa; Engineers, G. W. Littlehales; Entomological,
A. L. Quaintance; Foresters, W. B. Greeley; Geological, F. L.

proceedings: botanical society 261

Ransome; Historical, J. D. Morgan; Philosophical, L. A. Fischer;
Non-resident Vice-Presidents: Ira Remsen and J. M. Coulter.
Managers, Class of 1917, A. H. Brooks and L. O. Howard.

The report of the Corresponding Secretary showed the total mem-
bership to be 369, an increase of 14 during the past year, and that the
Academy has lost by death the following: Dr. J. R. Eastman, the first
President of the Academy, Prof. Alexander Macfarlane, Dr. Robert
Fletcher, and Gen. C. W. Raymond.

The Treasurer's report showed the total receipts to be $4805.69,
disbursements $3657.82, cash on hand $1147.87, and investments
$12,090.

The report of the Auditing Committee was also received.

President-elect White then took the chair and President Tittmann
delivered an address on Our northern boundaries. (This Journal, 4: 37-
45. 1914.)

The following were elected to resident membership: W. N. Berg,
W. R. Blair, W. Blum, C. W. Burrows, Bert S. Butler, R. O. E.
Davis, L. H. Dewey, Paul J. Fox, H. C. Gore, Monroe Hopkins,
J. T. Kelley, Jr., Dr. Haven Metcalf, J. F. Mitchell, G. E. Pat-
rick, Dr. W. W. Randall, W. Salant, A. Seidell, W. W. Skinner,
Dr. Erwin F. Smith, Dr. W. W. Stockberger, Rene de M. Taveau,
W. H. Waggaman.

The 91st meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint
meeting with the Chemical Society, was held at the Cosmos Club,
Monday evening, March 16, 1914, with Dr. M. X. Sullivan, President
of the Chemical Society, in the chair.

Prof. Wolfgang Ostwald of the University of Leipzig gave a most
interesting address on The chemistry of colloidi.

The following were elected to resident membership in the Academy:
E. C. Crittenden, J. H. Dellinger, D. R. Harper, 3rd., J. T. Hed-
RiCK, A. S. Hitchcock, R. S. McBride, B. McCollum, Sidney Paige,
John Ryder Wellington, and Raphael Zon.

O^vdng to his absence from the city on official business at the times
of certain of these meetings, the Recording Secretary had to impose
upon the kindness of others, Mr. J. S. Diller and Dr. G. K. Burgess,
to whom he wishes to express his thanks, for much of the above in-
formation.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 95th regular meeting was held at the Play House on Tuesday
evening, March 3, 1914, at eight o'clock, at which the retiring President,
Dr. W. W. Stockberger, delivered an address on The social obligations
of the botanist (to be published in Science).

The 96th regular meeting of the society was held at the Cosmos
Club Tuesday, April 7, 1914, at eight o'clock. Messrs. Robert B.

262 proceedings: botanical society

Whitney and H. S. Westover were unanimously elected to membership
in this society.

The scientific program was as follows:

Prof. A. S. Hitchcock reviewed (a) A paper by Trabut in which he
states that the oat commonly cultivated in temperate regions descended
from Avcna fatua, the Algerian oat from A. sterilis, and A. strigosa
from A. harhata; (b) a paper by Schulz on the origin of wheat, in which
he states that Triticum monococcum descended from T. aegilopoides, T.
dicoccum. from T. dicoccoides, and T. speJta from an as yet undiscovered
wild form; that the naked wheats are derived from the spelt wheats,
T. turgidwn, T. durum, and T. poloniciwi from T. dicoccum, and T.
vulgare and T. compactum from T. spelta.

Dr. H. L. Shantz reviewed a paper by Sir Francis Darwin^ describ-
ing a method by which the influence of stomatal adjustment on the
rate of transpiration is eliminated. The stomata of the lower surface
of the leaf are locked with cocoa butter or petrolatum and incisions
made through the upper epidermis, thus connecting the intercellular
spaces with the outer air. By this method transpiration was found to
decrease proportionally as relative humidity increased. The straight
line relation led to the conclusion that a relative humidity of 105 would
be required to reduce transpiration to zero.

Mr. C. S. Scofield, Chinese loild rice, with lantern (to be published
later) .

Dr. p. Spalding, Present status of the white pine blister rust, with
lantern (to be published as a Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture).

Mr. R. Zon, Meteorological observations for purposes of botanical
geography, agricidture, and forestry, with lantern. The inadequacy
of the present climatic data for the purposes of botanists lies not so
much in the kind and character of observations that are being recorded
as in the manner of their classification, their grouping, and computing.
To properly understand plant life it is essential to group meteoro-
logical data by actual periods of growth and rest. During each of these
two periods plants react to temperature of the air in an altogether
different way. The temperature records of the temperate region
of the United States should be computed separately on the basis of
the normal monthly mean not reduced to sea level for the period of
rest or the period of growth, and in some localities also for a third
period, the hot period. The period of rest should include all months
having a normal mean temperature of 48°F. or less. In the period
of growth should be included all months having a normal monthly
temperature of from 50° to 72°F. The hot period in temperate
latitudes should embrace months with a normal average temperature
of more than 72°F.

A map showing localities with the same duration of the periods of
growth and rest has been tentatively prepared.

1 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B, vol. 87, February, 1914.

proceedings: chemical society 263

Aside from monthly mean temperatures the average temperatures
by periods of ten days (decades) are also desirable, and also the mean
temperatures for periods when the ground is covered with snow and
periods when the ground is bare; similarly, the mean temperature for
each period during which certain winds prevail.

Summation of temperatures as suggested by Bussengo and de Can-
doUe do not indicate the actual requirements of plants for heat, since
they overlook the existence of an optimum temperature for the develop-
ment of each plant.

Groups of days with a given temperature are considered preferable,
and the following classification is suggested :

/ . Freezing days, with a daily average of 32° or less. These are
further subdivided into: (a) freezing days without thawing; (b) freezing
days with thawing.

3. Cold days, with an average daily temperature ranging from 32°
to 40°F. This group should be further divided into: (a) days with
frost; (b) days without frost.

3. Cool days, with an average daily temperature from 40.1° to 50°F.
This group should be divided into: (a) days with frost; (b) days without
frost.

The paper discussed also the temperature of the soil, humidity of the
air, precipitation, snow cover, soil moisture, sunshine, and barometric
pressure.

P. L. RicKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 237th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday,
April 9, 1914. The following papers were read:

F. P. Dewey, of the Bureau of the Mint: The pyrometer in the assay
muffle. This paper is an emphatic protest against the practice of
stating specific temperatures for conducting assay work in the rnuffle.
The pyrometer is an excellent guide to temperature conditions in the
muffle^ but the success of the work depends upon the temperature of
the oxidizing lead button. This is entirely different from the pyrom-
eter reading and is vitally influenced by conditions which have little
or no effect on the pyrometer. (Author's abstract.)

Discussion: Walker inquired whether an optical pyrometer had ever
been used; Dr. Dewej^ replied that the surface exposed is too small for
any accurate measurement. A. N. Finn inquired about American
pyrometers.

H. S. Washington, of the Geophysical Laboratory: The distribution
of the chemical elements in the earth's crust. About 8500 rock analyses'
have been recently tabulated by the author. The distribution of chem-
ical elements as revealed by these analyses may be considered from two
viewpoints: (1) Their distribution in general over the earth's surface;
(2) their distribution with respect to each other. The earth's surface
is in a general way divisible into "petrographic provinces" distinguished

264 proceedings: chemical society

by their relatively higher or lower percentages of certain oxides. As
to relative distribution,, the following facts have been established:
Alumina and the alkalies usually accompany high silica while calcium
and iron go with low silica. Iron is accompanied by sodium, magne-
sium by potassium. Calcium accompanies aluminum predominantly.
Cerium and yttrium, the radioactive elements, lithium, and fluorine
all occur predominantly in the sodic rocks. The iron bearing rocks
are the usual habitat of nickel and vanadium. Magnesian rocks
hold the chromium and the platinum metals. Rocks high in potash
are relatively rare. There seem to be two kinds of association: (1)
Physico-chemical; (2) association in petrographic provinces. The
distribution of barium and scandium seems to be of the latter type.

Discussion: CUarke pointed out that many elements formerly con-
sidered rare are widely distributed and present in greater percentages
than are those elements usually considered common. Most of these
are elements of lower atomic weight than copper. In reply to questions
it was stated that titanium occurs usually either as a constituent of
pyroxenes or in ilmenite in ores. Beryllia is also more widely dis-
tributed than usually supposed, but its analytical separation from
alumina has never been well worked out.

W. 0. Emery and S. Palkin of the Bureau of Chemistry: The
estimation of antipyrin. Presented by Mr. Palkin. The methods
described depend upon the formation of an iodo-antipyrin and its
reduction by sulfur dioxide in alcoholic or acetic acid solution. The
widest variation by these methods is 0.8 per cent on 250 milligrams.

R. E. Lee, of the Corby Company: The GuiUaume apparatus for the
distillation and rectification of alcohol. The American apparatus for
alcohol production requires two stages of rectification, while the Euro-
pean Guillaume is continuous. The latter also yields 90 per cent as
against 60 to 65 for the American. The apparatus and process were
described in detail with the aid of diagrams.

Andrews, Tolman, and others asked questions, to which the speaker
replied that live and exhaust steam enter the beer column together and
are at nearly the same pressure ; also that the columns are not jacketed.

The 238th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Monday, April
20, 1914. Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees, Director of the Research Labora-
tory of the Eastman Kodak Company of Rochester, spoke on The phy-
sical chemistry of photography. He discussed the physico-chemical
principles of photographic development and the question of standard
light sources for photographic research, and described the lines of work
now being carried on at the Laboratory, illustrating his descriptions
with lantern slides.

In the discussion which followed, questions were asked by Sosman
and others about research on photographic papers. Dr. Mees replied
that the principal difficulty has been in the measurement of reflecting
power, for which he is now using the Bechstein illuminometer. The
question of production of spots in plates by bacteria was discussed by
Andrews, SuUivan and Dr. Mees.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

REFERENCES

Under thla heading It la proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, referencei to all
sclenttfio papers published In or emanating from Washington. It Is requested that authors coSperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere la this Journal.

ENTOMOLOGY

Banks, X. On a collection of neuropteroid insects from the Philippine Islands.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 170-180, pis.
8 and 9. January 22, 1914. (Describes two new species in each of the fami-
lies Psocidae, Perlidae, Myrmeleonidae, and Mantispidae, and three in the
family Chrysopidae ; also the new genera Tagalopsyche, Ecnopsyche, and
eight new species of Trichoptera. — J. C. C.)

Barber, H. S. Notes on a wood-boring syrphid. Proceedings of the Entomologi-
cal Society of Washington 15: 151, 152. January 22, 1914. {Temnostoma
hombylans was reared and comparison of the various larvae found show great
differences in the armature of the spiracle, from which it appears that about
four species are mixed under the single specific name. — J. C. C.)

Barber, H. S. Notes on Rhipidandri {Coleoptera). Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15 : 188-193. January 22, 1914. (Describes
a new species of the genus Eutomas from Panama and gives notes on the
other species in the collection of the National Museum. — J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. N'ote on a harkmining lepidopteron of the genus ^larmara Clemens.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 150. January
22, 1914. {Marmara fulgidella was reared from oak, the larvae exhibiting
the typical form for species of this genus.— J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. A new Gracilaria on Azalea. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 1, 2.
January 31, 1914. (Describes one new species which possibly may have been
imported from Europe. — J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. The chestnut bastminer. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 3, 4.
January 31, 1914. (Describes Ectoedemia phleophaga and gives notes on the
habits of the larva. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. A revision of the braconid genus Urosigalphus. Insecutor
Inscitiae Menstruus 2 : 22-27. February 28, 1914. (Gives a table of all the
known species and describes eight new species, all from the United States. —
J. C. C.)

CusHMAN, R. A. Biological notes on a few rare or little known parasitic Hymenop-
tera. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 153-160.
January 22, 1914. (Gives observations on Perilitus americanus, a parasite
of adult beetles; Paniscus geminatus from a lepidopteron; Polysphincta texana,
an external parasite of adult spiders; Sphaeropyx bicolor, a parasite of Apatela
clarescens. — J. C. C.)

265

266 references: entomology

Dyar, H. G. Tivo new Phycitinae from Montana. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus
2: 2. January 31, 1914.

Dyar, H. G. Four new Lepidoptera from British Guiana. Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 2: 4-6. January 31, 1914. (Describes three hesperiids and one
liparid.— J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A note on Phobolosia and Melanomma. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 2: 8-10. January 31, 1914. (Gives a table of the North American
species of the genus Phobolosia and describes one new species. — J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. Notes on the life history of Rhopalosoma poeyi Cresso7i. Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 145-147. January 22,
1914. (This species was found to be an external parasite of an adult jumping
tree cricket, Orocharis saltator Uhler; nothing was previously known of the
life-history of this anomalous genus. — J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. Notes on North American Thysanoptera, with descriptions of a new
family and two neiv species. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 17-22, pi. 1.
February 28, 1914. (Describes two new species and establishes the new family
Merothripidae, based on the anomalous species Merothrips morgani Hood. —
J. C. C.)

Hopkins, A. D. Parallelism in morphological characters and physiological char-
acteristics in scolytoid beetles. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 209-212. December 20, 1913.

Knab, F. a new Pantophthalmus. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 27-29.
February 28, 1914. (Describes P. fastuosus, the larvae of which bore in trunks
of trees in Trinidad. — J. C. C.)

LuTZ, A. Forest malaria. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Wash-
ington 15 : 169, 170. January 22, 1914. (A further statement of the author's
contention that malaria can be transmitted to man by anopheles which have
not previously been in contact with man. — J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A. Notes on the feeding habits of two adult sawflies. Proceedings
of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 148, 149. January 22, 1914.
(A female of Tenthredella lineata was seen eating an adult perlid, Alloperhi
signatu; Tcnthredo arcuatis was seen feeding on stamens of an umbelliferous
plant.— J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A. Two abnormally developed saioflies. Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15: 149, 150. January 22, 1914. (Records
an abnormal female of Xenapates terminalis and a male of a species of the
genus Tenthredella. — J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A. Descriptions of new parasitic Hymenoptera. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15: 180-188. January 22, 1914. (De-
scribes the new genera Stilbopoides and Helcostizidea from the United States
and five new species in the Ichneumonidae, also yo new species of Braconi-
dae.— J. C. C.)

Shannon, R. C. Epimecis wiltii Cresson and its host. Proceedings of the Ento-
mological Society of Washington 15: 162. January ^i, 1914. (The larva of
this species is an external parasite of spiders. — J. C. C.)

Shannon, R. C. Feeding habits of Phlebotomus vexator Coq. Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Washington 15 : 165, 166. January 22, 1914. (Ob-
servations tend to show that this species feeds normally upon reptiles rather
than upon warm-blooded animals. — J. C. C.)

references: ornithology 267

Snyder, T. E. Changes during quiescent stages in the ntetanwrphosis of termites.
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 162-165, pis.

6 and 7. January 22, 1914. (Observations of the molting soldier larvae of
Leucotcrnies jlavipes, L. virginicus and Tcrmopsis augusticollis show that
the differentiation of the soldier caste takes place during a quiescent stage
rather late in the life cycle, the larva being previously, to all external appear-
ances, undifferentiated. — J. C. C.)

TowNSEND, C. H. T. New 7nuscoid Hies, mainly Hyslriciid/te and Fyrrhosiinae
from the Andean Montanya. (Continuation.) Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 2: 10-16. January 31, 1914. (Describes, in the family Exoristidae,
the new genera Xeaphria, Xenoplagia and Gymnochaetopsis, and two new
species. — J. C. C.)

\\'kight, \V. S. Notes on certain Californian Lepidoptera. Insecutor Inscitiae
Menstruus 2: 6-8. January 31, 1914.

ORNITHOLOGY

Banus, O. The green heron of the Maldives. Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington 26: 93, 94. May 3, 1913. (Describes Bator ides albididus,
sp. nov.— W. R. IM.)

Bangs, O. A new warbler from western China. Proceedings of the Biological
Societj- of Washington 26: 95,96. May 3, 1913. {Reguloides pulcher vegetus,
subsp. nov., is described from western Szechwan. — W. R. M.)

Cooke, W. W. Bird migration in the District of Columbia. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 21-26. February 8, 1913.

Howell, A. H. Descriptions of two new birds from Alabama. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington 26: 189-202. October 23, 1913. (Corvus
brachyrhynchos paulus and Pipilo erythrophthalmus canaster, subspp. nov.,
are described. — W. R. M.)

Mearns, E. a. Description of a new African grass-warbler of the genus Cisticola.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60-°: 1, 2. February 14, 1913.

Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of three new African weaver-birds of the genera Estrilda
and Granatina. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61': 1-4. July 31,
1913.

Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of four new African thrushes of the genera Planesticus
and Geocichla. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 6V: 1-5. August
11, 1913.

Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of five new African weaver-birds of the genera Othy-
phantes, Hypargos, Aidemosyne, and Lagonosticta. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections QV*: 1-5. September 20, 1913.

Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of ten new African birds of the genera Pogonocichla,
Cossypha, Bradypterus, Sylvietta, Melaniparus, and Zosterops. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 612°: 1-8. November 29, 1913.

Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of eight new African bulbuls. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections 61": 1-6. February 16, 1914. (Describes 1 species and

7 subspecies in 4 genera, from British East Africa. — W. R. M.)

Nelson, E. W. Two new subspecies of birds from the slopes of Mount Pirri, east-
ern Panama. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60": 1, 2. February
26, 1913.

268 references: anthropology

Nelson, E. W. A new subspecies of nun bird from Panama. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 67, 68. March 22, 1913. (Describes
Monasa pallescens minor, from Marraganti, eastern Panama. — W. R. M.)

Phillips, J. C. Tivo new African birds. Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington 26: 167, 168. June 30, 1913. (Describes Caprimulgus elea-
norae, from the Blue Nile, and Passer domesticus Chephreni, from Egypt. —
W. R. M.)

Riley, J. H. ^4 new hummingbird of the genus Chlorostilbon from Brazil. Pro-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 63, 64. March 22, 1913.
/ (Describes Chlorostilbon puruensis, sp. nov. — \\ . R. M.)

Riley, J. H. The king rail of Ciiha. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 83-86. March 22, 1913. (The resident form of the king
rail in Cuba is described as a new subspecies, Rallus elegans Ramsdeni. —
W. R. M.)

Riley, J. H. The Bahama barn owl. Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington 26: 153,154. June 30, 1913. (Description of the Bahaman barn
owl as a new subspecies, Tyto perlahis lucayanus. — W. R. M.)

Todd, W. E. C. Preliminary diagnoses of apparently new birds from tropical
America. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 169-174.
August 8, 1913. (There are here described 33 new subspecies and species in
32 genera, including one new genus, Microstilbon, with a single known species,
.1/. insperatus, from Bolivia. — W. R. M.)

ANTHROPOLOGY

BusHNELL, D. I., JR. Archcologicol investigations in Ste. Genevieve County,

Missouri. Proceedings of the U. S. National Musuem 46: 641-668, text figs.

1-8, pis. 50-57. March 4, 1914.
Hough, W. Culture of the ancient pueblos of the upper Gila River region, New

Mexico and Arizona. {Second Museum-Gates Expedition). Bulletin 87, U. S.

National Museum, pp. 1-144, pis. 1-29, text figs. 1-348. March, 1914.
Hrdli6ka, A. Early man and his "Precursors" in South America. Anatom.

Anzeiger 43': 1-14. 1913.
Hrdlicka, a. a report on a collection of crania and bones from Sorrel Bayou.

Iberville Parish, Louisiana. Journ. Acad. Natural Sciences, Philadelphia

16: 95-99. 1913.
Hrdlicka, A. Artificial deformations of the human skull, with special reference to

America. Actas del XVII Congreso Internacional de Americanistas. Sesion

de Buenos Aires, 1912, pp. 147-149. Published August, 1913.
HrdliCka, a. Anthropological work in Peru in 1913, with notes on the pathology

of the Ancient Peruvians. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61'': 1-69,

figs. 1-3, pis. 1-26. 1914.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV JUNE 4, 1914 No. 11

PHYSICS. — The measurement of the refractive index of a drop of
liquid. Fred. Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

Of the many optical characteristics of a substance, the re-
fractive indices are the most important and fundamental, and
from them a number of the other optical constants can be de-
rived. In determinative work, moreover, substances are classi-
fied and distinguished within narrow limits by their refractive
indices. In modern petrographic microscope analysis great
emphasis is placed on this optical propert}^, and tables have
been prepared in which the minerals are arranged according to
the refractive indices. Simple methods are available by means
of which the refractive indices of an irregular mineral grain, 0.01
mm. in diameter, can be readily measured with an accuracy of
±0.001, a degree of precision which is sufficient for allpractical
pm'poses. In these methods, liquids of known refractive index
are used; finely powdered grains of the mineral are immersed
in a liquid and the refractive indices of the grains compared
with that of the liquid. For routine work, sets of such liquids
are usually prepared by mixing liquids of known refractive
index and then measuring the refractive index of the liquid
mixture, either on a total refractometer or a spectrometer.
In many instances, only a drop or two of the liquid is available,
and it is essential that its refractive index be measured accm'ately.
In this paper, the more important methods for this purpose
(except those based on the Abbe refractometer) are considered
with respect to their accuracy, and ease and range of application,

269

270 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

especially in petrographic microscope work. Several new meth-
ods are described; also certain details of manipulation of the
standard methods which the writer has found convenient and
satisfactory in practice.

Sources of light. For most refractive index work with min-
erals, the practice among mineralogists has been to use as mono-
chromatic light sources the salts of lithium (X = 671mm), sodium
(X = 589mm), and thallium (X = 535^^) in the Bunsen flame.
In addition to these the lines of a mercury lamp (X = 435.8,
491.6, 546.1, 576.9, 579 hij.) are convenient, especially if used in
conjunction with a carbon bisulfide prism or the Wratten ray
filters^ which isolate effectively the green line, 546.1 (mercury
green filter), and also the two yellow lines, 577 and 579 (Wratten
E filter No. 22). Other useful light sources are helium and
hydrogen tubes and cadmium and iron arcs, but ordinarily the
mercury light is a sufficient addition to the salts mentioned.

Uniform illumination from all these light sources can be readily
obtained by means of a finely ground glass plate (frosted glass),
placed between the source of light and the measuring instru-
ment. The glass plate enables the observer to overcome, without
further inconvenience, the ordinary troubles of a flickering flame,
which quickly tires the eyes. In this Laboratory, a ground glass
plate (25x35 cm.), mounted in a simple upright wood frame is
placed directly in front of' the Meker burners in which the salts
are volatilized. The salt is contained in a platinum crucible
into which a wick of fine platinum wires extends. This wick
carries the melted salt (kept melted by a Meker bm*ner) into
the hot flame of a second Meker burner. ^ A hood carries off
the vapors and thus shields the instruments from attack by the
salts. By this method an intense and lasting flame is produced
which burns for hours without further attention. In routine
work, too much stress cannot be placed on the satisfactory per-
formance of such details; the above light sources and glass diffus-
ing screen have been proved by long usage in this Laboratory
to be convenient and entirely satisfactory.

1 F. E. Wright, Am. J. Sci. (4), 27: 195. 1909; 31: 185. 1911; Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington, Pub. 158: 8S. 1911.

wriuht: measurement of refractive index

271

We may now consider the methods for the measurement of the
refractive index of a single drop of Hquid.

Method 1. A method based on a new type of hollow prism. (Accurate
to the fourth decimal place.) This prism (fig. 1) consists of two optic-
ally plane parallel glass plates (10 x 20 x 2 mm.) held in place against
a 30° glass prism (10 x 10 mm.) by means of a brass
clamp (fig. 1). The liquid is introduced between
the glass plates and is held in place by capillarity.
The semicircular notch in the glass plate (fig. 1)
prevents the liquid from creeping up along the
ridge formed by the glass plates, and thence into
the prism support. The dotted lines in figure 1
indicate the size of the prism of liquid obtainable
by this method. It measures over 5 mm. on a side.

With this prism the Abbe method of measurement
' is used. Autocollimation is obtained by the use of
a thin cover glass total reflecting prism^ in the rear ^ u- i
focal plane of the field lens of the telescope of a '^" '

spectrometer or goniometer. The path of the rays is indicated in figure
2. In order that the reflected rays be as intense as possible the two
plates of figure 1 are silvered on the back along a narrow strip 2 mm.
^vide as indicated by the shaded area on the front glass in figure 1.
The measurements are made, after proper adjustment of the prism,
b}^ setting first on the normals to the two plates and then on the re-
fracted and reflected beams (fig. 2). In the course of a complete rota-
tion of the prism two readings of the angles i and r (fig. 2) are made.

The refractive index is then computed directly from the usual equation
This method is accurate to the fourth decimal place, pro-

/( —

sm I
sin r'

vided a spectral line source, as mercury, helium or hydrogen light, is
used and the circle of the goniometer or spectrometer is accurately
divided. The values obtained by this method should be as accurate
as any measurements by the standard prism methods with larger
riuantities of liquid.

- F. E. Wright, J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 2.34. 1913.

272 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

Method 2. The thin plane parallel plates can also be used with a
small 60° glass prism (10 x 10 mm.) and the measurements made by
the minimum deviation method. In this case both a telescope and a
collimator are required. The liquid is held in place by capillarity
and prevented from running up along the ridge into the prism support
by a notch in the glass plate, as in figure 1. The glass plates are not,
however, silvered as in the first method. In this form the prism is
somewhat similar in form to the glass prism used first by H. G. Madan"*
for the measurement of the refractive indices of piperine. Madan
cemented two thin plane glass plates to the sides of a prism of dense
flint glass, allowing the glass plates to project above the top of the glass
prism. Into the angle between the glass plates he poured the melted
piperine and thus obtained the desired prism of piperine. The same
purpose was accomplished later by H. E. Merwin^ of this laboratory by
fusing together at one end two strips of cover glass or object glass under
an angle of about 60? Such strips are not perfectly flat and plane-
parallel and the degree of accuracy obtainable by their use is, of course, ■
less than it would be, were plates of better quality used. The cover glass
prisms are, however, sufficiently accurate for ordinary purposes and can
be prepared in a few minutes.

Method 3. By the use of a small accurately ground 60° glass prism,
5 mm. on a side and 10 mm. long, and three thin plane parallel glass
plates (5 X 20 X 2 mm.), a three sided liquid 60° prism can be obtained
and the measurements made by the very accurate method which
Gifford' employed so successfully with large glass prisms.

In the last three methods the regulation of the temperature is not
easy but the temperature at which the measurements are made should
be carefully noted as a rise of 2° or 3°C. produces an average decrease
of 0.001 in the refractive index of a liquid. The refractive index of
liquids changes, moreover, on an average 0.001 in refractive index for
a change of 6 to 12 fx/j, change in wave length. Measurements, there-
fore, even to the fourth decimal place have little significance imless
the temperature be accurately recorded and monochromatic spectral
line sources be employed.

Method 4. Measurements with the Abbe-Pulfrich crystal total-refrac-
tometer (accurate to one or two units in the fourth decimal place).
The methods for use with this refractometer are described at length
in the standard textbooks and need not be repeated here. Several
new details of manipulation, however, which have been found of value,
may be recorded briefly. The best readings are made when the light
enters at grazing incidence. In this case the field is divided into two
halves, the one light, the second dark; the boundary line between the
two is so sharp that accurate settings are easily made. With a single
drop of liquid, however, this method of grazing incidence has not been
applicable heretofore and recourse h&s been had to the method of total

3 Jour, of the Chem. Soc. Transactions, 79: 922-927. 1901.

* J. GeoL, 20: 495. 1912.

' Proc. Roy. Soc, 70: 329-340. 1902.

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

273

reflection whereby the field is divided into a brightly illuminated half
and one slightly less bright. In this case the boundary line is often
very difficult to see and accurate settings can rarely be made. If a
cover glass be used to cover the drop of liquid, interference bands appear
in the field and increase still further the difficulty of making satisfac-
tory settings. These interference bands can be eliminated by tilting
the cover glass slip or by grinding its surfaces to a matt velvet finish.

There is, however, a still better method, by means of which the
advantages of the method of grazing incidence can be had even on single
drop of liquid. To accomplish this a sheet of ordinary thin tin foil,
used for WTapping purposes, is first prepared by pressing it with a
rubber eraser against a finely ground glass plate. By this process the
surface of the tin foil is covered with fine pits, too fine to be distinguished
by the unaided eye but relatively' large when compared with the wave
length of light. If now a drop of liquid be placed on the plane surface
of the glass hemisphere of the refractometer and then covered by a
sheet (10 x 20 mm.) of the prepared tin foil and monochromatic light
be reflected into the hemisphere at an angle less than the critical angle
(fig. 3), then the irregular surface of the tin foils reflects and diffracts
the light rays back into the glass hemisphere at all possible angles
with the result that the effect is strictly that of grazing incidence
(light and dark field) and without disturbing interference bands. This
method has proved of the greatest assistance in this laboratorj^ in the
routine measurement of the refractive indices of liquids.

REFRACTIVE
LIQUID

■TIN FOIL

Fig. :i.

Fig 4.

New petrographic enteroscope stage refractometer s. In many instances
petrographers are unable to use the immersion methods for the measure-
ment of the refractive indices of mineral grains, because of the lack of
a suitable refractometer and, as a result, neglect such measurements
altogether, even though they recognize the importance of quantitative
optical work in petrography. In view of this situation, it has seemed
to me worth while to try to devise a simple method for use with the
petrographic microscope b}' means of which the refractive index of
any liquid can be measured with an accuracy of ±'0.001, which is
adequate for ordinarj^ determinative purposes. A number of such
methods are suggested below and with one or two exceptions, are based
on the fact that the petrographic microscope, equipped with the usual
Bertrand lens and a micrometer eye-piece, is a device for measuring
the angle of inclination of an incident ray (as in the measurement of
of the optic axial angle); and, furthermore, that its sensitiveness to

274

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

Fig. 5.

slight angular differences in inclination between incident rays increases
with the focal length of the objective used.

Method 5. For this method a plane-parallel plate of highly refract-
ing lead glass (?7,Na = 1.92) with one plane polished and one plane matt
finished edge inclined at an angle of 60° is required. This plate (20 x

20 X 4 mm.) after grinding is cut into two halves
at right angles to the beveled edge (fig. 4) . The
two halves are then placed in contact with the
polished edge of the one half above the matt
ground edge of the second half. A drop of
liquid between the two plates is held in place
by capillarity and its refractive index ascer-
tained by observing the position (16 mm. ob-
jective, Bertrand lens, positive eye-piece with
micrometer scale) of the limiting refracted ray
between the light and dark fields as indicated
in figure 5. This limit between the light and
dark halves of the field is sharply imaged in the
plane of the micrometer scale by means of which its position can be
read off directly.

The scale is calibrated empirically once for all by the use of substances
of known refractive index. Three substances, which can be had in
powder form and which melt at low temperatures, can be used for

calibration purposes because of con-
stancy of refractive index for sodium
light; they are "Kollolith, WNa =
1.5354; benzophenon, WNa = 1.598
and piperine, nNa = 1.682. Liquids
of known refractivity can also be
used but, unless controlled b}^ meas-
urements on a refractometer, the re-
fractive indices of commercial liquids
are not sufficiently uniform to serve
as calibration standards. After the
scale has been calibrated and the
points plotted, a curve can be passed
through the observed points, as indi-
cated in figure 6, which represents the
values actually observed by the writer
on liquids of known refractivit}^
The curve is a small part of a sim-
ple sine curve and is sufficiently ac-
curate for refractive index determina-
tions to the third decimal place. The measurements were made with
a 16 mm. Zeiss apochromat objective, Bertrand lens and 0.1 mm. coor-
dinate scale in the focal plane of a positive eye-piece. One-quarter of
a division of the scale could be easily read and was equivalent to 0.001
in refractive index. With a higher power eye-piece or a moving micro-
meter eye-piece still more accurate readings can be made and more

•40

\

^30

o

\

\

>20

Q

\

\

lO

liJ

\

s

\

^

IS)

\

\,

-io

\,

\

i-20
O

\

\,

\,

\

-Ant

\

1.50 1.60

REFRACTIVE INDEX

1.70

Fig. 6.

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

275

.DARK

Fig. 7.

LIGHT

DARK

precise refractive index determinations obtained, but for most purposes
the third decimal place is sufficiently exact. Still greater accuracy can.
be had by using plates of different refractive index, the beveled edges
of which are so cut as to give the greatest sensibility to slight differ-
ences in angular inclination. In this case a lower power objective can
be used and, if necessary, one or two units in the
fourth decimal place obtained. The phenomena of
total reflection take place at the surface of the upper
plate as illustrated in figure 5. It is not essential,
therefore, that the second glass plate be of the same
refractivity as the first. The disturbing interfer-
ence fringes, caused by internal reflection, are elimi-
nated either by making the slope of the beveled
edge of the lower plate different from that of the
upper or by grinding it to a matt finish. This method is simple in
principle, easy to apply and sufficiently accurate for most purposes.

Method 6. This method is a variation of method 5. A prism of
liquid is formed between a plane-parallel base plate and two small
prisms of lead glass cemented to a thin plane-parallel glass plate. The
path of the rays is shown in figure 7. The method of measurement is
identical with that of method 5 except that here
the distance between two boundary lines is taken
instead of the distance of one boundary line from
the center. The accuracy of this method is not ap-
preciably greater than that of method 5; it is, more-
over, less convenient to apph' and, to that extent,
less satisfactory.

Method 7. This method is similar in principle to
5 but instead of a prism of refractive index higher than that of the liq-
uid a prism of lower refractivity is used. A prism of fluorite (n = 1.4:34)>
or of silica glass (n = 1.459) is cut so that the inclined edge includes,
an angle of 65° with the horizontal face (fig. 8) . The prism is placed
on a small glass plate (plate glass) inside a small brass ring cemented
with shellac to the glass plate. This ring is then filled to the top
with a few drops of the liquid and covered with a thin
plane-parallel plate. The path of the rays is indicated ^^.hk ^ light
in figure 8. By the use of glass prisms of different re-
fractive indices and slopes, it is possible to obtain de-
terminations accurate to one or two units in the fourth
decimal place. Ordinarily, however, with a 65° prism
of fluorite it is possible to measure the refractive in-
dices of all liquids ranging in refractive index 1.45 to 1.80
with an accuracy of ±0.001. This method requires
more liquid than method 5 and is less convenient to use because of the
bother of cleaning the liquid from the prism and the brass ring.

Method 8. This method involves the use of the hollow prism of
method 2. Light is admitted as indicated in figure 9 and the inclina-
tion of the emergent ray is ascertained as in method 5. This method
is comparable in accuracy to 5 but it is not always easy to apply be-

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

276

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

cause of the wide angled prisms which are required (between 70 and
80°). It is, however, less convenient than method 5, especially as the
liquid in the flat lying prism tends to spread and to smear the glass
plates and prism as well. For a range of refractive indices 1.50 to
1.75 at least two such prisms are necessary unless the prism be momited
on another prism so that its lower surface is inclined at an angle with the
horizontal. Thus a 60° prism of liquid is obtained by grinding the
one face of the prism at an inclination of +22°, and the second face at
— 38° with the horizontal base. The inclination of the emergent ray
for a liquid of refractive index 1.50 is then +10° 06', while for a
liquid of refractive index 1.75 it is —10° 03'. Under these condi-
tions the accuracy is identical with that of method 5, namely ±0.001.
Although this method is less simple than method 5, it is theoretically
superior to it in one respect; namely, it is free from any error intro-
duced by the dispersion ot the glass prism; practically this is of no
significance because the refractive indices of the glass prism are definitely
knowni for the different wave lengths.

Method 9. The device on which this method is based is illus-
trated in figure 10. It consists of a thick glass plate with one "edge
beveled by two flat surfaces, the one inclined 25°, the second at 60° to
the horizontal base (fig. 11). A plane parallel glass plate (8x15x1 mm.)

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

is clamped to the 60° surface by a screw clamp; while on the 25° sur-
face a plane-parallel plate (6x8x1 mm. and silvered on the back) rests
with its edge in contact with the first plate (fig. 10). A drop of
liquid is held by capillarity in place as a liquid prism between the
two plates. The rays from a thin total-reflecting cover glass prism®
in the rear focal plane of a 16 mm. objective are reflected, after re-
fraction in the liquid, back into the objective where the illuminated
line image of the cover glass prism edge is viewed simultaneoush'
vnth the prism edge, through a Bertrand lens and positive eye piece
fitted with the micrometer scale as described in method 5. The
exact position of the bright line is read off directly on the microm-
eter scale and thus the refractive index of the liquid ascertained
for the particular wave length of light employed. As in the fore-

« J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 234. 191.3.

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

277

IMI

going methods the micrometer scale is first cahbrated by means of
liquids of known refractive indices. This method is slightly more
accurate than method 5 but it is less convenient and requires con-
siderabl}" more apparatus. It is, however, not encumbered with an
error, due to the dispersion of the glass.

I have also tried to apply the method of total reflection on a single
inclined edge of a plate of lead glass, in imitation of the method noted
in method 4 but the phenomena obtained were too faint and indistinct
to be of service and no satisfactory measurements were made.

Method 10. Methods of Clerici and Viola. ^ These are based on the
difference in refraction between a liquid and a small submerged glass
prism (fig. 12). They are noted here simply for the
sake of completeness and do not compare in accuracy
with the new methods 5 to 9 described above. I
have tested Clerici's methods and also Viola's modi-
fication of the same and verified Clerici's statement ^^' "

that his methods are accurate to ±0.005, while Viola's modification
is possibly slightlj^ more accurate, namely ±0.004. The methods are
simple and easy to appl3^ An improvement is to use a set of fluorite
or silica glass prisms (low dispersion), cut at such angles that a large
deviation is obtained for slight differences in refractive index, each
prism to be cemented above a 0.1 mm. scale.

Method 11. Method of Piltschikow.^ This method is based on
the focal length of a lens system, one of the com-
ponents of which is the liquid whose refractive index
is to be measured. The liquid is introduced into a
hollow piano convex lens and the focal length of
the combination measured. To increase the accuracy
of setting on the exact focus only the marginal zone
is used. This method requires monochromatic light
and under favorable conditions should be fairly ac-
curate. Modifications of this method Avere suggested
by Smith^ and Claj^'" The writer has not had op-
portunit}" personally to test the method of Piltschi-
kow but it is evidently less simple and accurate than
method 5 described above.

Method 12. Similar results can be obtained by the
use of two hollow prisms as indicated in figure 13 or
by means of a lead glass plate with two beveled
edges (fig. 14). An incident beam of parallel mono-
chromatic light and two narrow slits placed symmetrically with re-
spect to the two prisms are required. The focus is then the line of
intersection of the two refracted beams. The distance of this focus

Fig. 13.

^ E. Clerici, Atti della Reale Acadcmia del Lincei, Roma, 16: 1, 336-343.
1907; 18: 1, 351-355. 1909; C. Viola, Ibid., 19: 1, 192-197. 1910.
« J. Russ. Chem. Soc, 13: 393. 18S1.
^ Amer. Mon. Microsc. Jour., 6: 181-182. 1885.
10 Treatise on Practical Light. London, 143. 19n.

278 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

• from the prisms varies with the refractive index. Its

\i/ position can be fixed by means of a scale on the side of

the draw tube of the microscope. For two prisms of
angle 15° the variation in distance between the focal
points for liquid of refractive index 1.50 to one of index
1.75 is 25.0 mm. If it were possible to focus sharply to
^ 0.01 mm. on the indistinct bands of light, the probable
:^ error would be ±0.001 but this is not the case. The
bands of light are not sharp and the exact point of cen-
tral overlap is not easy to recognize. At best one might
obtain the second decimal place by this method which is
■p- j4 not satisfactory and neither the hollow prism nor the glass

plate method of this paragraph are to be recommended.

SUMMARY

The refractive index is the most important optical constant
with which the petrographer has to do, since its determination
oii a single mineral grain enables him practically to identify the
mineral within narrow limits. The determination of the re-
fractive indices of irregular mineral grains measm*ing 0.01 nrni.
in diameter is best accomplished by means of the immersion
method, in which the refractive indices of the mineral grain are
compared with that of the liquid in which it is immersed. In
the preceding pages the measurement of the refractive index
of a single drop of liquid is considered in some detail. The
accuracy of the standard methods (with the exception of the Abbe
refractometer methods) for this purpose is discussed and certain
new modifications are suggested which render the application
of such methods to a single drop of liquid possible. The use of
a diffusing screen in front of monochromatic light sources is
emphasized. A new type of hollow prism is suggested which has
proved satisfactory and convenient, and with which accurate
measurements (accurate to the fourth decimal place) can be
made either by a method of autocollimation or by the minimum
deviation method or by Gilford's method. The use of a cover of
specially prepared tin foil on a drop of liquid to be measured
on the Abbe-Pulfrich crystal total-refractometer is suggested as
a satisfactory method for obtaining the phenomena of grazing
incidence even on a thin film of liquid. Five new methods are
also described for measuring the refractive index of a drop of

BURGESS AND FOOTE : EMISSIVITY OF METALS 279

liquid with the petrographic microscope. Of these methods,
method 5 which requires solely a plane-parallel glass plate of
high refractive index, with one edge beveled at an angle of 60°,
is the simplest and most convenient. With it the refractive in-
dex of the liquid can be easily measured to the third decimal
place, an accuracy which is sufficient for all determinative pur-
poses. The other methods are interesting and of about the same
order of accuracy but they are less simple and therefore less use-
ful. The methods of Clerici, Viola, Piltschikow, Smith and
Clay are presented briefly but they are also without exception
less simple and less accurate than method 5, which is accordingly
the method recommended, especially as the cost of the glass plate
required is shght and the amount of liquid necessary for a meas-
urement is a very small drop. It is of the greatest importance
to the science of petrology that the materials, of which it treats,
be studied in a quantitative way; the refractive indices of the
rock making minerals, many of which are isomorphous mixtures,
are fundamental optical constants which should be measured
and included in every detailed description of a rock.

PHYSICS. — The emissivity of metals and oxides. I. Nickel
oxide (NiO) in the range 600 to 1300° C. G. K. Burgess
and P. D. Foote. (To appear in full in the Bulletin of the
Bureau of Standards.)

The object of the present investigation has been the deter-
mination of the monochromatic (E^) and total emissivity
(E) of nickel oxide (NiO) in the range 600 to 1300°G. This
oxide forms a tough, smooth layer on the surface of nickel
when subjected to high temperatures in air. Two methods were
employed for the determination of the emissivity for red light:
(a) that of microscopic melts, and (b) a direct comparison by a
spectrophotometer of the intensity of light emitted by the
glowing NiO and by a black body at the same temperature.

In the method of microscopic melts, minute specimens of
XaCl, Na2S04, and Au were placed on the oxide which was elec-
trically heated until these substances melted, as observed with
a microscope, and the "apparent" temperatures at the instant

280 ROSA AND CRITTENDEN: FLAME STANDARDS

of melting were observed with an optical pyrometer. Hence,
from the true and the apparent temperatures of the oxide, the
emissivity can be computed.

In the spectrophotometric method, a nickel strip was folded,
forming a wedge- or V-shaped cavity, and electrically heated
until a coat of the oxide was formed. It has been shown by
Mendenhall that the radiation from the interior of a V-shaped
cavity is '^black." The ratio of the intensities of the outside
and inside of the wedge, properly corrected for temperature
gradient through the walls, gives at once the emis^vity at any
particular wave length and temperature. Determinations by
this method agreed with those by the method of microscopic
melts. The monochromatic emissivity was found to increase
linearly with increasing wave length from X = 0.5 to 0.7^ and
decrease linearly with increasing temperature from 700 to
1300°C. For example, at 1160°C, Ex increases from 0.865
at 0.5m to 0.882 at 0.7)u; and for X = 0.65ju, Ex decreases from
0.958 at 800°C. to 0.845 at 1300°C.

The total radiation of NiO was investigated by means of
twelve radiation pyrometers of the Thwing and Fery types.
Slighted upon the electrically heated oxide. The apparent
temperature of the oxide for X = 0.65/i was measured by an
optical pyrometer and these values were corrected to true tem-
peratures by means of the determinations on the monochromatic
emissivity. E was found to increase with increasing tempera-
ture but the relation is not linear. Temperatures and E have
respectively values as follows: 600°, 0.54; 800°, 0.68; 1000°,
0.76; 1200°, 0.85; 1300°, 0.87. Correction tables are required
for reducing the apparent temperatures of NiO, observed with
an optical or radiation pyrometer, to true temperatures.

PHYSICS. — Flame standards in pliotometry. E. B. Rosa and
E. C. Crittenden. (To appear in full in the Bulletin of the
Bureau of Standards.)

Although an agreement has been reached regarding the
relative values of the units of light in use in different coun-
tries, no one primary photometric standard has been generally

ROSA AND CRITTENDEN: FLAME STANDARDS 281

adopted by the x'arious governments. In Germany preference
is given to the Hefner lamp, in England to the pentane lamp,
and in France to the Carcel lamp. Each of these serves in its
own country both as the primary standard and as a working
standard, but for the photometry of electric lamps and generally
in accm*ate photometric work standardized electric incandescent
lamps are used in all countries. In America a group of such lamps
kept at the Bureau of Standards is considered as provisional
primary standards serving to maintain the unit until a better
primary standard shall have been devised. It is believed that
the unit which has been agreed upon can be so maintained with
an accuracy considerably above that with which it can be re-
produced by reference to any of the so-called reproducible stand-
ards at present in use. In other words, the incandescent lamps
have really been employed as primary standards, and the flame
standards, which logically should play the part of primary stand-
ards, have been relegated to a subordinate position.

There is, however, a possibility of an appreciable drift in the
value of the unit if there is no photometric standard accurately
reproducible from its specifications which is capable of serving
as a reliable check upon the electric standards. It has therefore
appeared worth while to make a study of the best types of flame
lamps to see how closely they would reproduce, in the Bureau
laboratory, the A^alues adopted by international agreement and
also to find whether their reliability as primary standards could
be increased by any changes in construction or in operation.

The Carcel lamp is by far the least reliable of the three types,
and cannot be considered as a competitor for general accept-
ance. The Hefner and the pentane lamp as made at present
divide honors; the latter is markedly superior as a practical
standard, but individual pentane lamps do not agree, and until
lamps can be independently made which shall give the same
value the type can hardly be said to be reproducible. The
Hefner lamp is so simple in construction that reproduction
of lamps is relatively easy. Lamps now made show small
differences due to slight departures from mean dimensions,
but these differences can be made negligible by more careful

282 BURGESS AND SALE: PURITY OF PLATINUM WARE

construction. Great dijfficulty is experienced, however, in making
accurate comparisons of working standards against Hefner lamps
because of the very low intensity (0.9 candle) and the red color
of the flame.

It is believed to be possible to apply the principle of the
present pentane lamp in specially made, accurately specified
lamps with interchangeable parts, and thus to obtain a closer
agreement between lamps. Then by operating the lamps under
definite conditions one should be able to obtain sufficient pre-
cision with either the Hefner or the pentane lamp to give a
valuable check on the electric standards now in use.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— yl thermoelectric method for the
determination of the purity of platinum ware. G. K. Bur-
gess and P. D. Sale, Bureau of Standards.^

At the request of Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, Chairman of the
Committee on Quality of Platinum Utensils of the American
Chemical Society, experiments on the loss in weight due to
continued and repeated heating of platinum crucibles of vary-
ing degrees of purity have been undertaken, in continuation
of similar experiments carried out under the immediate super-
vision of members of the above-mentioned committee.

From some of these earlier experiments, and from the work
of other experimenters on the evaporation of metals of the
platinum group, it appears to have been hoped to be able to
classify platinum ware as to purity in terms of its evaporation
at a definite temperature, say 1200°C. This seemed plausible
in view of the fact that the usually predominant impurity,
iridium, is very much more volatile than platinum. Even if
this method, however, would give an indication of the platinum
purity, which appears doubtful in the light of some of our more
recent experiments, it is at best a s-bmewhat tedious and delicate
operation to carry out.

These experiments showed the desirability of having an ac-
curate and rapid method for deterixiining platinum purity and
one that could be applied to crucibles without defacing them.

' Presented at American Chemical Society, April 6, 1914.

BURGESS AND SALE: PURITY OF PLATINUM WARE

283

The most exact method for the determination of purity of
platinum appears to be by measurement of its temperature
coefficient of electrical resistance, which quantity has a mean
value of about 0.00391 per degree Centigrade for the interval
0° to 100°C. for the purest obtainable platinum, and decreases
with the addition of anything to the platinum. This measure-
ment can be made conveniently and exactly only with wires
and is therefore of little interest for the determination of the
pm-ity of platinum ware such as crucibles.

The thermoelectromotive force of plati-
num against many of its alloys has also
been determined with considerable exact-
ness.-

This property may evidently be made
use of, therefore, in devising a method for
the determination of platinum purity and
one that possesses, furthermore, the advan-
tages of accuracy, speed, convenience, and
preservation intact of the objects tested.

The method as developed for use with
crucibles is shown in figm'e 1. To the rim
of the crucible C are arc-soldered two pure
platinum wires, at e and /, of small dia-
meter (0.1 or 0.2 mm.); these wires are
connected to an ordinary pyrometer gal-
vanometer or millivoltmeter G; the junction e is heated by a
small oxy-gas or other blast flame from d and the junction /
is kept cool by an air blast c; a sheet of asbestos A, cut as shown,
serves to prevent radiation from the heated portion of the cru-
cible reaching the cold junction/.

Temperatures are measured by means of a 90 Pt — 10 Rh, Pt
thermocouple using the cold junction as above and a Pt - Rh wire
arc-soldered to the crucible near c, most conveniently adja-
cent to (0.5 to 1 mm. distance) but not touching the Pt wire
at e.

^ ^ LEGEND >l>

A- a.soestos a-icommulator a- ^33 tube
C-cruC(ble b-* po\es e-|t^errno€l€cInc
G - ^aJvdnoroeVc -itr ttte f-* lunctiona.

Fig. 1.

2 See in particular: W. Geibel, Zs. Anorg. Ch. 69: 38. 1910; 70: 240. 1911;
Burgess and LeChatelier, The Measurement of High Temperatures, 3d ed. 171,
1912.

284 BURGESS AND SALE: PURITY OF PLATINUM WARE

Quite satisfactory results may also be obtained by simply
touching the Pt wires to the crucibles at e and / without any
soldering. With the apparatus once set up, a test may then
be made in a few seconds and the crucible remains, of course,
absolutely intact. The homogeneity of the crucible may also
be determined by this method.

By means of a commutator at a b, measurements may be
made alternately of the temperature at e and of the EMF de-
veloped across the crucible when e is at this temperature. The
commutator may also be so designed as to reverse e and / if it
is desired to make/ the hot junction.

It is of course essential that the two platinum wires be made
of strictly pure platinum. For this purpose, use is made of
Heraeus normal thermoelement wire drawn down; this platinum
has shown itseK to be a standard, uniform product, which
is easily controlled by the electric resistance method above
mentioned.

The wires are attached at e and / by the well known arc-
soldering method, which consists in making the crucible one
terminal of an electric circuit of about 40 volts and a sharp-
ened graphite pencil the other, with a rheostat in series. The
operation of soldering consists in drawing a minute arc be-
tween pencil and crucible and at the same instant touching
the wire to the crucible at this point. The end of the wire is thus
fused to the crucibles. With a little practice this operation
may be made so that there is hardly any noticeable effect on the
appearance of the crucible after the wire is removed.

In the table are given the results of a series of measurements
at about 1050° of the EMF of pure platinum against "plati-
num" crucibles of various makes. In figure 2 are shown the
isothermal curves, at 900°, 1000° and 1100°C, for iridium con-
tent of platinum in terms of EMF against pure platinum. There
is also shown the iridium equivalent of the impurities in the
crucibles c, h and k of the table, in terms of their stated iridium
content.

It will be noted that all impurities are, for convenience, ex-
pressed in terms of iridium content. Of particular interest is

SirMMARV OF ThKKMOELECTRIC TeSTS OF PLATINUM CRUCIBLES

1

2

o

•J

4

a.

a
a t<

0. aj

s w
a ^

5

6

7

8

»

SOURCE OR
MAKER

2

a
f-

7.

0

a
<

EC

a

X

O
•A

1

«
o

aj

>

S5

EQUIVALENTir CON-
TENT

EMF FROM Pt-Ir

CURVE (SEE 2 AND

4)

EMF E.XCESS DUB
TO Ir OR IMPURI-
TIES

o

REMARKS

per cent

^OMrs

rfej. C.

Mv.

per cent

Mv. Mv.

f

0.0

17

1050

0.00

0 00

0.00 0,00

a

Normal thermo-

Heraeus <

element Pt

0.7

heated

1050

2.00

0.70

2.00

0.00

b

"Tiegel platin"

0.7

0

1050

2.60

0.90

2.00

0.60

c

"Tiegel platin"

■ 0.2

24

1050

0.63

0.19

0.10 0.53

d

"Tiegel platin"
Heraeus

0.2

16

1050

1.00

0.35

0,10 0,90

e

"Tiegel platin"

American

Heraeus

Platinum <

0.5

1.50 2.50

Works

to

to to

1.5

11

1075

6.60

2.55

4.10 5.10

f

Commercial

0.5tol.5

4

1085

6.40

2.50

1.50 4.90

g

Commercial

?

i

0.5

1100

3.50

1.19

; 3.50

h

Loaned by \y\iv-
chaser

9

10

1050

6.75

2.72

6.75

i

Commercial

•?

20

1050

6.95

2.78

6.95

.i

Commercial

! 2.37

0

1030

6.00

2.37

6.00 0.00

k

Special analyzed

Baker and

'

make

Company

1

0.70

12

1050

1.90

0.66

2.05 -0.15

1

Special analyzed
make

refined

0

1040

0.33

0.10

0.33

m

Specially refined

I

•?

3 yrs.

1100

3.00

1,01

3.00

m

Used 3 years in
laboratory.

Johnston
Mathey
and

Company J

i ?

67

1050

0.48

0,15

0.48

n

Best crucible ware

o

0

1070

0.68

0.23

0.68

o

Best crucible ware

•)

20

1050

0.63 1 0.22

0.63

P

Best crucible ware

•)

9 mo.*

1100

2.10 0.68

2.10

q

Loaned by pur-
chaser

J. Bishop \

' ?

0,5

1100

2.20 0.72

2.20

r

Loaned by pur-

chaser

I refined

31

1050

0.60 0,21

0.60

s

Specially refined

Quenessen

De Bel-
mont, \
Legendre |
et Cie. ..J

9

10

1050

2.79

0.98

2.79

t

1

0

1060

2.80

0.98

2.80

u

?

.4

1030

1.60

0.56

1.60

V

Used continuously nine months.

285

286

BURGESS AND SALE: PURITY OF PLATINUM WARE

the comparison of columns 2 and 6, the former giving the stated
iridium content (and often accompanied by the statement that
there are no other impurities) and the latter giving the iridium
content as determined thermoelectrically by experiment and use
of figure 2. In several instances, notably for the crucible of
normal thermoelement platinum (a) of Heraeus and for Baker's
crucible (k) of 2.37 per cent iridium, the stated and found irid-
ium contents agree exactly. On the other hand there is a wide
divergence from t,he supposed and actual iridium content for
several of the crucibles. For example, / of the American Plati-
num Works, supposed to contain not over 0.50 to 1.5 per cent irid-

1- '

^

Iioo

c^

^

"^$2

lOO.

k-

^

-^

A^

•

^

-^

JO.

i^

^

•1

^

^

^

-^

^

r^

b --

--■

---

--■

A.

■--

---

■--

^^

^

^

\^

"

f

^

>

^

1

ISOTHERMAL CURVES
TJiermoelectric-Fhr/fv- lest

h

^

^

"

a

1

-yj

^

-a"

On
_Ela.tinum.

Akre . __

/

0^

J^

Q>

jf,

0)

2

^ 1

1

J

^ridiurn Content in Percen t

"o i « ' ' l-O ' * ' 0 2d i « ' * Jo 2 ■* "^ 8 40 ^ ^

> A <

» 50

Fig. 2.

ium, actually contains an iridium equivalent of 2.50 per cent; and
even in the case of refined, specially refined and best crucible
ware, the equivalent iridium content is not inconsiderable.
Among the 23 crucibles examined there is but one, I of Baker
and Company, containing less iridium than stated.

In comparing the stated contents, column 2 of the Table, it
should be born in mind that some of these crucibles, excepting
perhaps those marked refined or specially refined, may contain
iridium which is put or left in the crucible material purposely,
usually for the pm*pose of stiffening, or in the case of commercial
ware, because such Pt always carries Ir. The method here

BURGESS AND SALE! PURITY OF PLATINUM WARE 287

described, however, provides a delicate means of determining
whether or not the desired Hmitation of impurity, expressed in
terms of iridium content, and as measured thermoelectrically,
has been met by the manufacturer. For the experimental ar-
rangement here given, the amount of impurity is readily deter-
mined to 0.01 per cent, and this accuracy could be improved
upon if necessary.

The method does not distinguish the various posgible impu-
rities from each other but is nevertheless a certain check on the
platinum purity.^ One of the most undesirable impurities often
found in commercial platinum ware is iron; this is readily de-
tected by ignition and subsequent washing with hot HCl and
applying the usual color test for Fe. Iron, if present in relatively
considerable quantity, will also discolor the crucible on ignition.

It would probably be advantageous to substitute rhodium for
iridium in platinum crucibles when stiffness is desu'ed and when
exact weighings have to be taken before and after ignition, for
the reason that rhodium is far less volatile than iridium, and
somewhat less so than platinum, although it appears not yet
to have been proven that the more volatile metals alloyed in
small amounts with platinum retain their volatilitj^ independ-
ently of the presence of the platinum.

The above described thermoelectric method alone will not
distinguish between small amounts of rhodium and iridium, but
a combination of the thermoelectric and loss of weight methods
might be devised that would be satisfactory. An electric dis-
charge method operated at high temperatures might possibly
be made sufficiently selective to differentiate between platinum
alloys of iridium and rhodium. There is evidently room for
much more work along these lines.

' All the metals found associated with platinum, such as palladium, iridium,
rhodium, etc., when alloyed with platinum (up to 90 per cent only of palladiumj
give, at high temperatures, an E. M. F. of the same sign against pure platinum.
Therefore there is no ambiguity or balancing one impurity against another.

28S darton: peculiar fault in new mexico

GEOLOGY. — A peculiar fault in southwestern New Mexico^
N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey.

In a detailed study of the geology of Luna County, New
jMexico, I have found a very remarkable overthrust fault which
causes a sliver of granite to penetrate a mass of Umestone. At
first sight the relations appeared to indicate an intrusion, but
closer inspection showed that the relation was caused by complex
faulting.

The region is one of scattered mountain ranges and buttes
rising out of wide desert plains or bolsons. Florida Mountain,
in which the fault occurs, lies southeast of Deming and is one of
the most prominent features in the area. This range consists of
pre-Cambrian granite overlain by a succession of sandstone and
limestones of Cambrian to late Carboniferous age, with a thick
mass of volcanic agglomerate at its northern end. The contact of
granite and basal Cambrian sandstone is exposed at various
places, showing unmistakable unconformity with well-marked
shore-line conditions. Much of the granite is very massive and
of coarse texture, similar to the greater part of the pre-Cambrian
granite of the Southwest. The range is traversed by numerous
faults, many of them of great throw and with planes at various
inclinations. The fault to which this paper relates is on the
southwestern slope of the range, 18 miles south-southeast of
Deming and nearly 2 miles due south of Gym Peak. The lime-
stone mass penetrated by the granite is one of three small wedges
overthrust onto granite and considerably isolated by erosion.
The limestone contains fossils of the Pennsylvanian series of
the Carboniferous. Underlying Silurian and Ordovician lime-
stones and Cambrian sandstone are believed to be faulted out,
for their presence a mile or so north apparently precludes the
chance of unconformable overlap. The relations at the over-
thrust are represented in the following sections which show that
there was a complex movement of such character that wedges
of limestone are partly included in the granite and that a sliver
of gi-anite projects through one of them, as shown on a larger
scale in the section B.

1 Published with permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey.

darton: peculiar fault in new mexico

289

Some of the details of the relations are obscured by talus, but
many of the features are clearly exposed, especially the contacts
of the included sliver of granite. The latter is red, coarse-
grained, and massive, of the sort which constitutes a large part
of the range, and while it is greatly broken and crushed it shows
no fining of grain such as occurs at igneous contacts. The lime-
stone near the contact is not in the least metamorphosed. It is
shattered and brecciated and for a foot or more includes small
angular fragments of granite of various sizes, mingled with broken
fragments of limestone as if the two materials had been rolled
together along many subordinate fault planes. The precise

Fig. 1. A, section showing relations
of granite to limestone at southeast end
of Florida Mountain, 2 miles south of
Gym Peak, southeast of Deming, New fj
Mexico, looking east; L, limestone; Gr,
granite. B, sliver of granite from same
(larger scale).

mechanism of the faulting of the included granite sliver cannot
be fully ascertained, for erosion has severed the connection on
the outcrop side and the mass extends into the ridge on the
other side. It is evident, however, that the granite is a wedge-
shaped mass between two principal fault planes with many
minor ones, along which it was carried forward into the lime-
stone. The latter is one of several large, wedge-shaped bodies
overthrust onto the gi'anite by fault planes of low inclination.
These faults are similar to one crossing the range a mile north
but with planes nearer the horizontal so that erosion has re-
moved much of the block, leaving only a few outlying masses
of limestone to indicate the nature of the overthrust.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

BACTERIOLOGY. — Pasteurization in bottles and the process of bottling
hot pasteurized milk. S. Henry Ayers and W. T. Johnson, Jr.
Journal of Infectious Diseases 14: 217-241. March, 1914.

The investigations show that very satisfactory bacterial reduc-
tions may be obtained by pasteurization in bottles for thirty minutes at
145°F. In order to obtain the best results the bottles should be
steamed for two minutes before filling with mill;. During heating the
temperature of the milk should be recorded by a thermometer the bulb
of which is one-half inch from the bottom of the bottle. When seal
caps are used care must be taken to use only bottles with perfect tops
for leaking caps might cause dangerous infections from polluted water.
A method is given for detecting leaking caps. The advantages and dis-
advantages of pasteurization in bottles is discussed.

Experiments were also made on a new process for pasteurization
which consists in bottling the pasteurized milk while hot in steamed
Ijottles. It is then proposed to cool the milk bj^ means of blasts of
cold air. Excellent bacteriological results were obtained by this
process. While the process of coohng by forced air draft was found
to be slow as compared with the ordinary methods of cooling, the bac-
terial content was not affected even when five hours were required to
cool the milk from 145° to 50°F.

The authors point out that this process is only in an experimental
state and that further experiments are to be made on a commercial
scale. L. A. Rogers.

ZOOLOGY. — A contribution to the study of the ophiurans of the United
States National Museum. Rene Koehler. Bulletin 84, LT. S.
National Museum. Pp. i-vh, 1-173, pis. 1-18. April 9, 1914.
The present work summarizes the results of a study of a large col-
lection of ophiurans chiefly from the West Indies and the southeastern

290

abstracts: zoology 291

United States, but including a few from other localities. The richness
of the material has enabled the author to describe twenty-four new
species and a new genus, Ophiomisidium, and to make critical studies
of several species which were imperfectly known up to this time.

To make the record complete for the West Indian ophiurans in the
National Museum, a list is appended of those species identified many
3'ears ago by the Hon. Theodore Lyman, with the localities for each.

Mary J. Rathbun.

ZOOLOGY. — Monograph of the shallow-water starfishes of the North
Pacific coast from the Arctic Ocean to California. Addison Emery
Verrill. Harriman Alaska Series, vol. XIV. Smithsonian In-
stitution, Publication 2140. City of Washington, April 30, 1914.
Part I: Text. Pp. i-xn, 1-408, text figures 1-16. Part II: Plates.
Pis. 1-110.
This, which is the first volume of the Harriman Alaska Series to be
published by the Smithsonian Institution, is based on collections from
the Harriman Expedition, the Canadian Geological Survey and various
museums and individuals. The introduction deals with the richness
of the fauna and the food, migrations, larval stages, senses and varia-
tions of starfishes. More than half of the systematic part is devoted
to the family Asteriidae, for which there is given an analytical table
of the genera and species, etc., occurring in the region. Discusses the
relations of this and other faunae and closes with a bibliography.

Seventeen new genera and many new species, subspecies and varieties
are described. Mary J. Rath bun.

ZOOLOGY. — Notes on some speciynens of a species of onychophore

(Oroperipatus corradoi) 7iew to the fauna of Panama. Austin

HoBART Clark. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 63^: 1, 2.

February 21, 1914.

Four specimens of Oroperipatus corradoi (Camerano), collected by Mr.

James Zetek at Ancon, Panama Canal Zone, are described in detail and

a list is given of all the species of onychophores which are known to

occur in the Canal Zone. * A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — A monograph of the foraminifera of the North Pacific

ocean: Part III, Lagenidae. Joseph A. Cushman. Bulletin 71,

U. S. National Museum. Pp. i-ix, 1-125, pis. 1-47. December

12, 1913.

The present volume, which is the third of a series dealing with the

foraminifera of the North Pacific ocean, relates wholly to members of

292 abstracts: anthropology

the family Lagenidae, distributed among 5 subfamilies and 12 genera,
all of these previously recognized. The method of treatment is uni-
form with that of the preceding parts. Comparatively few species are
described as new. W. R. M.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— Cw/^wre of the Ancient Pueblos of the Upper
Gila River region, New Mexico and Arizona. Second Museum-
Gates expedition. Walter Hough. Bulletin 87, U. S. National
Museum. Pp. i-xiv, 1-139; pis. 1-29; figs. 1-348. February 13,
1914.
This paper is a study of the material collected by the second Museum-
Gates expedition on the upper Blue, San Francisco, and Tularosa rivers,
New Mexico and Arizona.

The expedition was singularly fortunate in collecting a large series
of articles from a ceremonial cave on Blue River, Arizona, and from
a cave on Tularosa River which had been filled with debris from habi-
tations built across its opening. Excavations were made also in sev-
eral open air Pueblos, notably a large group at Blue P. 0., Arizona. In
this Vfixj a rather wide view of the culture of this region was obtained.
A great many articles relating to natural history were secured also, and
the discussion of these forms the first chapter of the book. Following
this the objects of stone, bone, and shell, of pottery, of wood, and of
textiles, and rehgious objects are described. The concluding section
describes a number of mummied human remains from the ruins.

The Pueblos in this region have evidently been extinct for many
centuries. Coronado traversed this region in 1540 and found no in-
habitants. The culture here was mainly homogeneous with the ancient
culture of other parts of the Pueblo region, some resemblances and
differences being noticeable. Perhaps the culture was little higher
than that of the northern area in certain respects.

Wherever it was possible in discussing religious objects these are
correlated with surviving customs among the modern tribes. This
branch of the work is necessarily very incomplete, since there is a de-
plorable lack of information with regard to the existing Pueblos. Never-
theless such comparisons as can be made show a surprising continuity
of religious customs and paraphernalia down to the present.

W. H.

REFERENCES

Under this lieading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style usr^d below. These references are
not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published t-lsewhere in this Jocrxai..

AGRICULTURAL CHEMLSTRY

Alwood, W. B. Crystallization of cream of tartar in the fruit of grapes. Journal

of Agricultural Research 1: 513, 514. March 25, 1914.
Chapix, R. M. The reduction of arsenic acid to ursenious acid by thiosulphuric

acid. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 515-517. March 25, 1914.
Cox, J. H. A special flask for the rapid determination of ivater in flour and meal.

Bulletin of the L^. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 56. Pp. 1-7. January

28, 1914.
Skixner, J. J., and Sullivax, ^NI. X. The action of manganese in soils. Bulle-
tin of the U. S. Depai;tment of Agriculture, Xo. 42. Pp. 1-32. April 3, 1914.
Parker. E. G. Selective adsorption by soils. Journal of Agricultural Research

1: 179-188, figs. 1, 2. December, 1913.
Shorey, E. C. The presence of some benzene derira'.ires in soils. Journal of

Agricultural Research 1: 357-363. February, 1914.
TuRRENTiXE, J. \V. The fish-scrap fertilizer iridustry of the Atlantic coas'.

Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Xo. 2. Pp. 1-50. December

27, 1913.

* BOTAXY

DoR.SETT, P. H. Experiments in bulb growing at the United Stales bulb garden at
Bellingham. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 28. Pp.
1-21. Xovember 11, 1913.

Fairchild, D. Experiments with udo, Ihe new Japanese vegetable. Bulletin of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Xo. 84. Pp. 1-15. April 16, 1914.

Griffiths, D. Behavior, under cultural conditions, of species of cacti known as
Opuntia. . Bulletin of the L^. S. Department of Agriculture, Xo. 31. Pp.
1-24. December 30, 1913.

Hexkel, Alice. American medicinal flowers, fruits and seeds. Bulletin of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Xo. 26. Pp. 1-16. December 18, 1913.

McAtee, W. L. Fire important wild duck foods. Bulletin of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Xo. 58. Pp. 1-19. February 7, 1914.

Maxx, a. Coloration of the seed coat of cowpeas. Journal of Agricultural Re-
search 2: 33-56, figs. 1, 2, pi. 6. April 15, 1914.

^Iarsh, C. D., and Clawsox', A. B. Cicuta, or water hemlock. Bulletin of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Xo. 69. Pp. 1-27. March 28, 1914. (A
review of the literature on the poisonous action of Cicuta vagans, and results
of tests of its poisonous effect on sheep and cattle. — C. S. S.)

293

294 references: forestry

Piper, C. V., and others. Alfalfa seed production; polUnaiion studies. Bulletin
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 75. Pp. 1-32. April 8, 1914.

Sampson, A. W. The reseeding of depleted grazing lands to cultivated forage plants.
Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 4. Pp. 1-34. October
27, 1913. (An account of experiments made in several National forests. —
C. S. S.)

Sampson, A. W. Range improvements by deferred and rotation grazing. Bulle-
tin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 34. Pp. 1-16. December
31, 1913.

Young, T. B., and True, R. H. American-grown paprika pepper. Bulletin of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 43. Pp. 1-24. December 16, 1913.

FORESTRY

Betts, N. deW., and Heim, A. L. Tests of rocky mountain woods for telephone

poles. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 67. Pp. 1-28.

March 17, 1914.
Frothingham, E. H. White pine under forest management. Bulletin of the
^ U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 13. Pp. 1-70. February 24, 1914.

Maxwell, H. .Uses of commercial woods of the United States. Bulletin of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 12. Pp. 1-56. October 11, 1913.

(Gives physical properties, sources of supply, and commercial uses of the

species of beech, birch, and maple. — C. S. S.)
Shinn, C. H. An economic study of acacias. Bulletin of the U. S. Department

of Agriculture, No. 9. Pp. 1-38. December 5, 1913. (Discusses uses of the

commercial products of Acacias and recommends species and methods of

planting, chiefly in California. — C. S. S.)
Sterrett, W. D. Forest management of loblolly pine in Delaware, Maryland,

and Virginia. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 11.

Pp. 1-59. January 23, 1914.
Williamson, A. W. Cottonwood in the Mississippi valley. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 24. Pp. 1-62. December 31, 1913. (Gives
■• methods of planting, rate of growth, and commercial uses of the cottonwood,

Populus deltoides. — C. S. S.)
ZoN, R. Balsam fir. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 55.

Pp. 1-68. March 25, 1914. (An account of the distribution of Abies bal-

samea, its economic importance, methods of lumbering, structure of the

wood and rate of growth, with data on yield, volume and weight of lumber

and wood.— C. S. S.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
The 282d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 25, 1914.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

Reactions of nickel arsenides with silver salts: Chase Palmer.

An occurrence of chrysotile asbestos at Ash Creek, 35 miles northeast
of Globe, Arizona: J. S. Diller.

Concave exfoliation: F. E. Matthes. Concave exfoliation in mas-
sive granite under the bed of Yosemite Creek, in the Sierra Nevada,
was described as an illustration of the diversity of form which shells
resulting from superficial exfoliation vas^y exhibit. Such shells, far
from being always spherical may be plane, or even concave, according
to the configuration of the surface upon which they develop.

Radial barite concretions from the Cretaceous of southeastern Montana:

C. A. BONINE.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Stratigraphy of the Red Beds in New Mexico (illustrated): N. H,
Darton. In this communication there was presented an outline of the
results of study of the central and western parts of the Red Beds area
in New Mexico during the past summer. The investigation was pri-
marily a search for evidence which might lead to the discovery of potash
deposits in the Red Beds, and this part of the work is not yet finished.
Close attention was given to the stratigraphy, especially as to relations
and succession of gypsum deposits and other desiccation products, with
a view to determining areas in which chemical deposition had continued
longest. Much new light was obtained on the relations and develop-
ment of a great series of alternating limestones and gypsum deposits,
the San Andreas limestone of Lee, which separates a thick lower forma-
tion of red beds from an upper formation of red beds in a wde area in
central New Mexico. Some attention was given to the separation of
the Triassic portion of the Red Beds in part of the area. Evidence was
obtained as to the possible extension of Jurassic rocks into the region,
and the probable Morrison formation was traced far to the south and
southwest in New Mexico.

Moraine Dome and the moraines of the Little Yosemite Valley (illus-
trated) : F. E. Matthes. Moraine Dome is a low granite dome on the
north side of the Little Yosemite Valley, in California, of interest chiefly
for the moraines and other glacial features associated with it. The
ice of the last glacial epoch, when at its highest, split upon the north-
east end of the dome and pushed a short lobe through the saddle to the
north, as is shown by the successive moraines doubling around the
eminence.

295

296 proceedings: geological society

The course of these moraines throughout exhibits an independence
of the trough edge, suggesting strongly that the formation of the trough
was not the work wholly of the ice invasion represented by the moraines
in question. The trough evidently existed previous to the advent of
the later ice and was onlj^ modified by the latter. In this regard, the
inchcations of the moraines of the Little Yosemite Valley are similar
to those in other localities in the Yosemite region. Accordingly valley
troughs hewn one within the other are not to be correlated with separate
ice invasions, but appear to have been traversed and enlarged by each
of these in succession.

Moraine Dome is of interest, further, in that it affords approximate
measures of the depth of denudation suffered by its mass since the
later as well as the earlier ice epochs. Old surface shells preserved
from disintegration by the uppermost moraine of the later ice, and re-
cently uncovered by rain wash, show that since the moraine was de-
posited a thickness of about 3 feet of granite has disappeared from the
surface of the dome.

On the crown of Moraine Dome a vertical dike of aplite has weath-
ered out in the form of a little wall, eight feet high. Several large
erratics near by, composed of a coarsely porphyritic granite from the
crestal portion of the Sierra Nevada, one of them mounted on a pedestal
about 4 feet high, show bej^ond doubt that the dome was overridden
by the earlier ice. It is clear, therefore, that the aplite dike has weath-
ered out since the retreat of the earlier ice, and that its height may be
taken as an approximate measure of the depth to which the dome has
been denuded since that date.

The occurrence of carnotite in eastern. Pennsylvania: Edgar T.
Wherry. Carnotite occurs near Mauch Chunk, Carbon County, Penn-
sylvania, as an impregnation in a conglomerate. Analysis shows it to be
high in potassium and low in calcium, the uranium and vanadium show-
ing the usual 1 :1 ratio. The features of the rock indicate that the last
two metals have accumulated by local concentration of minerals con-
taining them during sedimentation, rather than by precipitation from
solution, which has been thought to account best for the features of the
Colorado and Utah deposits. Investigation of the commercial value
of the deposit is now in progress.

The 283rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 8, 1914.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

Correlation of the Hawthorn formation: T. Wayland Vaughan and
C. Wythe Cooke, presented by Mr. Vaughan. (See this Journal, 4:
250. May 19, 1914.)

Occurrence of the mineral hisengerite in central Idaho: D. F. Hewett.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Petrographic evidence on the origin of the Catahoula sandstone: M. I.
Goldman. The object of the study was to find what lines of evidence
are available for throwing light on the origin of a quartz sandstone
with no striking peculiarities. Most of the determinations depended

proceedings: geological society 297

on the fact that the sandstone has an opaUne cement which could be
decomposed by boiUng with KOH.

The features observed and their interpretation were as follows:

1. Size: Although there is a marked predominance of 0.5 to 0.25 mm.
grains, it is not as pronounced as in tyjDical beach sand, resembling
rather wind bloA\ai sand such as seems to be produced b}- the strong winds
of the tropics.

2. Degree of rounding: Some grains show wonderfully perfect round-
ing, thus suggesting wind action.

3. Lower limit of rounding: This is the essential factor in rounding,
since it is in this that the action of wind and water are believed to differ.
The smallest well rounded grains found measure 0.035 mm. diam.
This corresponds to the lowest limit found bj' Fruh in some Pampas
soil and is therefore believed to indicate aeolian origin, though the
lowest limit for water rounding is not knctvai.

4. Proportion of rounded grains: This is low (28.7 per cent) and in
view of the perfect rounding of some of the grains is taken to indicate that
fresh angular material was constantly added, which would correspond
to the conditions in an arid region.

5. Weathering of the feldspars: Many of these seem remarkably
fresh, suggesting the mechanical disintegration of an arid region.

6. Proportion of weathered feldspars: About half are weathered,
which, according to Machie's studies, is too much for an arid region,
but this condition may have been produced after deposition.

7. Proportion of different species of feldspar: Orthoclase 85 per
cent, microcline 13 per cent, plagioclase 2 per cent. The low plagio-
clase suggests conditions of humid weathering which as stated under
(6) may have been subsequent to deposition.

8. Ratio of feldspar to quartz: Feldspar forms 39 per cent of the
mass, which is a high percentage for sandstones and like (4) suggests
constant addition of fresh material as under arid conditions. It also
is evidence against the production of the sizing by beach waves and in
favor of wind.

9. Proportion of heavy minerals: In the portion between .05 mm.
and 0.25 mm. diameter the heavy minerals amount to 1.1 per cent.
This is ver}^ low for aqueous deposition, high for a mature desert dune,
but might correspond to an arid region where the supply of fresh material
is kept up.

10. Species of heavy minerals: The dominant heavy minerals are
magnetite and zircon. Zircon is a mineral very resistant to alteration,
agencies, and magnetite may also be. Practical absence of epidote
and chlorite indicates arid conditions.

11. Ratios of heavy minerals to each other: The insignificant quan-
tity of fissile minerals like the micas and ferromagnesian minerals
strongly indicates arid conditions.

12. Bedding: Absence of thin bedding indicates rapid accumulation
by wind or water currents.

13. Arrangement of fossils: (a) Curled leaves and prints arranged
at random point to burial by wind, (b) bunches of leaves fairly flat and

298 proceedings: geological society

parallel Ijut not on one plane indicate quiet bodies of water into wliich
sand was blown.

14. Clay galls: Clay galls are a characteristic product of a sandy
region with temporary bodies of water.

15. Pore space, or packing: The Catahoula sandstone appears loosely
packed. The evidence is still very uncertain, but this seems to corre-
spond rather with beach and dune sands.

16. Fossil evidence: The plants which are (according to E. W. Berry)
nutmeg, date palm, and palm (unidentified) indicate a tropical coast.
Bones of camel and rhinoceros, found near by in the same formation,
also indicate a warm climate.

Conclusion: The weight of evidence is for an arid, tropical, sandy
region with permanent or temporary bodies of water.

The 'probable mode of origin of the Lewis overthrust: M. R. Campbell.
No abstract.

Auriferous pocket deposits of the Klamath Mountains, California:
H. G. Ferguson. No abstract.

The 284th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 22, 1914.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

Origin and mode of formation of magmatic gases: Stanislas Meunier,
read by C. N. Fenner. (See this Journal, 4: 213. May 4, 1914.)

So-called waterlaid loess of the central United States: E. W. Shaw.
Photographs and specimens of stratified loess from southwestern Ken-
tucky and Yazoo City and Edwards, Mississippi, were exhibited.
Much of the stratified loess which has been reported appears to be some
other material, though some of it has been derived by wash from nearby
outcrops of loess. For example, the stratified loess reported from south-
western Indiana appeared to the speaker to consist of a stream terrace
deposit, some windblown sand and some true unstratified loess. How-
ever, true loess is, in rare instances, really stratified. The stratifica-
tion is of a somewhat peculiar type, apparently not involving variations
in size of grain. The bedding planes are parallel to the top and base
of the deposits and are marked b}^ very thin dark bands which seem to
consist of carbonaceous material and are probably the remains of layers
of vegetable material, perhaps forest litter developed at times when loess
deposition was interrupted, or at least unusually slow. The facts
that the stratification does not involve sorting of the component grains,
and that it is not horizontal, but parallel to the present and pre-loess
'surfaces, seems to indicate that even where stratified the loess is not a
water-laid deposit. Indeed, it seems surprising that the loess, if wind
deposited, does not show more general stratification of this nature be-
cause of the annual fall of forest leaves, and other interruptions in
deposition.

regular PROGRAM

The characteristics of the Mississippi delta in the light of some obser-
vations on Old World deltas: E. W. Shaw. Certain phenomena, par-

proceedings: geological society 299

ticularly irregular subsidence on land and the upheavals off shore
known as mud lumps, suggest that the Mississippi delta is affected by
internal flowage, and in the hope of obtaining important side lights on
this and other problems a brief examination has recently been made of
many large and small deltas of Europe, northern Africa, and western
Asia. The progress made in understanding the Mississippi delta was,
however, through the observation of dissimilar, rather than similar
characters, for each delta seems to be built on individual specifications.
The Mississippi delta appears to be unique in the rapidity of its growth,
in the fineness and arrangement of the materials composing it, and in
other characters which seem related to these, such as the extreme de-
velopment of the bird foot form, the narrowness, depth, and stability
of its stream channels, and a condition of unstable equilibrium.

The stability of a delta appears to depend principally on its thickness,
the slope of its front, the proportion of sand in the river's sediment, the
extent to which this sediment is washed by the sea or lake, the rate of
growth, and the degree to which the fine watery sediment is separated
into layers of wide extent. In all characters favoring instability the
Mississippi delta seems to lead. The thickness is thousands of feet.
The front, though not steeper than that of many sand deltas, is very
steep for a mud delta, and might be steeper were it not for flowage.
The river delivers to the sea relatively little sand, and most of that is
brought at times of high water. The sea does not sort or carry away
much of the sediment, so that the delta grows rapidly and layers of
sandy silt corresponding to high stages of the river are separated by
layers consisting of soft flocculated clay and other fine watery material.
All these factors conduce to fluidity.

The fishes of the Lahontan drainage system of Nevada and their rela-
tion to the geology of the region: John Otterbein Snyder. A consider-
able part of Nevada and the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada of
California are drained bj^ rivers, the waters of which do not reach the
ocean but ultimately find their way into large lakes where the inflow is
balanced by evaporation. The waters of some of these lakes are so
charged with mineral salts as to be practically lifeless, while others,
Pyramid and Winnemucca lakes, for example, fairly teem with fishes.
The more recent geological history of this region has been worked out
and narrated in a masterly way by Israel Cook Russell.' His account
begins with the Quaternary times, when Lake Lahontan covered a large
area \vith a maxim.um depth of more than 880 feet, and continues
down to the present, when nothing is left of the ancient lake but its
dc-^iccated remains scattered here and there over a rock-bound waste of
desert sands. Two of Russell's conclusions are of particular interest
when viewed in connection with the results of an investigation of the
fish famia of the system: First, that the lake had no outlet; and. sec-

' Russell, Israel Cook. Geological History of Lake Lahontan, a Quaternary
Lake of Northwestern Nevada: U. S. Geol. Surv. Monograph No. 11, Washington.
188.5.

300 proceedings: geological society

ond, that its desiccation lately became complete and remained so to
within the last three hmidred years. Russell arrived at the first con-
clusion through a study of present conditions and a careful reconnaissance
of the rim of the basin. In this he is supported by the ichthyology of the
region, as nearly all of the species are indigenous, thus indicating long'
isolation. He was forced to adopt the second hypothesis to account for
the comparatively fresh condition of the waters of Pyramid Lake. In this
he receives no support from a study of the fishes, but on the contrary
the facts thus derived point distinctly to the presumption that the pres-
ent Pyramid and the ancient Lahontan lakes have been continuous
since Quaternary times and that their waters have been constantly
fresh enough to support animal and plant life.

The upper Cretaceous formations of western New Mexico and their
relations to the underhjing rocks: D. E. Winchester. In the area sur-
rounding the Zuni Mountains in western New Mexico, the Upper
Cretaceous is represented by the Mesaverde, Mancos, and Dakota
formations, with the latter resting unconformably on older strata.
In a section of these formations near the Tres Hermanos Buttes, south-
east of the Zuni Mountains, the Dakota is represented by a single
conglomeratic sandstone or quartzite bed, varjdng in thickness from 1
to 40 feet. The Mancos (1800 feet thick) is more than 60 per cent
sandstone and includes four massive, persistent sandstone beds which
stand out as prominent cliffs wherever exposed. In its type locality,
200 miles to the north, the Mancos is entirely shale. Between these
two localities near Gallup, New Mexico, there is a large amount of drab,
fissile shale, but the section is still predominantly sandy. The Mesa-
verde formation in the Tres Hermanos section contains no persistent
massive sandstone, as it does in its type locality 200 miles to the north.
In New Mexico both the Mancos and the Mesaverde formations are
coal-bearing, while in their type locality in southeastern Colorado,
only the Mesaverde contains coal. Lithologically, then, there is a
marked change especially in the Mancos between the area about the
Zuni Mountains and the type locality to the north, indicating, as has
been suggested by W. T. Lee, that the mountains furnishing the sedi-
ments were located to the south of both sections.

The unconformity between the Upper Cretaceous and underlying
sediments is very marked. At Zuni, on the west side of the Zuni
Mountains, the Dakota rests on top of 475 feet of Zuni sandstone,
while at Atarque, 23 miles south, there is only about 75 feet of Zuni
sandstone beneath the Dakota. On the east side of the mountains
conditions are similar, with about 450 feet of Zuni sandstone beneath
the Dakota at Acoma and the sandstone entirely absent near Tres
Hermanos Buttes, 22 miles south. If the Zuni sandstone is to be
correlated, as apparently it should be, with the La Plata sandstone
of southwestern Colorado, pre-Dakota erosion has also removed all,
or nearly all, of the McElmo formation (500 to 600 feet) in the area
surrounding the Zuni Mountains.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV JUNE 19, 1914 No. 12

PHYSICS.^ — The optical character of the faint interference figure
observed in high power objectives between crossed nicols. Fred.
Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

To the petrologist the appearance, under crossed nicols, of a
faint, apparently uniaxial interference figure in an objective
of short focal length is a matter of common observation. It was
at first considered to be the result of strain in the objective lenses
but Rinne^ in 1900 gave the correct explanation of the phenomenon
and ascribed it to the rotation of the vibration plane of the trans-
mitted plane-polarized waves at the steeply inclined lens surfaces.
Rotation of this kind was noted by FresneP who deduced, in 1822,
for plane-polarized waves transmitted through an isotropic plane
parallel plate, the equation

cot 5 = cos- (i-r) . cot A, (1)

in which the angle of rotation B is expressed as a function of (a)
the angle of incidence i, (b) the azimuth A of the plane of vibra-
tion of the incident plane-polarized light wave, and (c) the re^
fractive index of the glass plate (contained in the expression
i - r, r being the angle of refraction) . This equation has been
frequently verified by experiment and found to represent the
observational data satisfactorily.

From Fresnel's equation it is evident that: (1) in case the
vibration direction of the incident wave is parallel or normal to
the plane of incidence {A = 0° or 90°) the vibration plane of the

1 Centralblatt f. Miner. 1900, 88-89; see also C. Cesaro, Bull, de I'Acad. Proy.
de Belgique, CI. d. Sci. 1906, 459; and F. E. Wright, Amer. J. Sci. (4), 31: 187.
1911; Carnegie Inst, of Washington, Pub. 158: 74-76. 1911.

^Oeuvres, 1: 441-799.

301

302 WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES

incident wave is not rotated on transmission {B =0); (2) for a
given angle of incidence i the maximum rotation is obtained when
the wave front normal is included in the diagonal plane between
the principal planes of the crossed nicols (azimuth angle A = 45°) ;
(3) the angle of rotation increases with the angle of incidence i.

Now a spherical surface may be considered to consist of a
series of minute planes inclined at all angles with the vertical
and in all azimuths. The rotatory effect of such a surface on
transmitted plane-polarized light waves is, therefore, different in
different directions, the result being a distinct uniaxial cross
with quadrants whose intensity of illumination increases with the
distance from the center. This is, in brief, the explanation of the
faint uniaxial cross which appears in all high power objectives
between cross nicols. The plane polarized light waves whose
normals are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols suffer no
rotation, while all others are rotated to an increasing extent as
their azimuth A increases until the maximum rotation at 45° is
reached. The reasons why these phenomena are so much more
distinct in high power than in low power objectives are, (1) the
larger numerical aperture of high power objectives and (2) the
fact that in such objectives the front lens of the system is a small
uncorrected glass hemisphere at whose steeply inclined sides
the transmitted light waves are rotated through relatively large
angles.

If now a sensitive tint plate be inserted along the NW-SE
diagonal, between crossed nicols either below the condenser or
above the objective the quadrants of the faint interference cross,
observed in the upper focal plane of the objective, appear
differently colored, the northeast and southwest quadrants
being blue-green and the remaining two quadrants orange
yellow, or vice versa if the sensitive tint plate be inserted along
the NE - SW diagonal. The arms of the interference cross assume
the color of the sensitive tint plate irrespective of the direction
along which it is inserted. These interference colors appear
much more distinct when the sensitive tint plate is inserted so
that its vibration directions include only a small angle (1° to 10°
depending on the intensity of illumination) with the principal
nicol planes.

WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES 303

This distribution of colors in the interference figure on inser-
tion of the sensitive tint plate is precisely that observed on a
weakl}^ birefracting, optically positive, uniaxial mineral under
similar conditions and would lead one to infer that the objective
is uniaxial and optically positive in character. All high power
objectives show this behavior and it is of interest to inquire
into the cause of the conversion of an isotrophic substance, like
glass, into an apparently uniaxial, optically positive substance.
The problem can be solved both by experiment and by theoretical
computation.

Experiment 1. Remove from the petrographic microscope the
condenser, objective and eye piece and place a sensitive tint plate
between the crossed nicols so that one of its vibration directions in-
cludes only a small angle (+2°) with the principal plane of the polar-
izer. Turn the analyzer through a small angle (+4°) clockwise and
note that the interference color changes from the sensitive tint to a
greenish hue; if now the analyzer be rotated counterclockwise to
— 2° the hue changes from green through the sensitive purple tint
to a magenta. Further rotation of either the sensitive tint plate
or the analyzer through large angles increases the illumination of the
field to such an extent that the faint differences in color hue are prac-
tically masked and cannot be readily detected.

Experiment 2. Prepare fine glass beads, 0.1 to 0.5 mm. in diame-
ter, by fusing the end of a fine glass thread in a small Bunsen flame,
observe the beads under a low power objective between crossed nicols
and note that interference phenomena, similar to those recorded above
in the high power objective, appear when the sensitive tint plate is
inserted in the different positions, especially when its vibration direc-
tions include only a small angle with the principal nicol planes. The
same statement holds true for small air bubbles in Canada balsam or
glycerine.

Experiment 3. Observe that on the outer margins of the glass
beads of experiment 2 the color phenomena are reversed, a nar-
row blue-green fringe appears as a frame about the orange yellow
quadrants and an orange yellow line on the periphery of the blue
green quadrants. The same phenomena are clearly shown on the air
bubbles in Canada balsam, and glycerine. If the optical character
were judged by these outlying colors alone, it would be uniaxial negative.
The air bubbles and glass beads appear, in short, to be optically posi-
tive in the center and optically negative at the margins.

Experiment 4. Place small drops (0.5 to 1 mm. in diameter) of
mercury on an object glass under a low power objective. Raise the
condenser, so that steeply inclined rays are reflected from the equa-
torial zone of the upper half of the mercury drops. Observe that
only the outer margin of each drop is illuminated and that the in-

304

WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES

tensity of illumination is not uniform, the circular field being divided
into four quadrants, the dark dividing lines corresponding to the
zero isogyres of the interference figure. On insertion of the sensitive
tint plate these quadrants become brightly colored, two opposite quad-
rants in blue green tones and the other two in orange yellow tones.
The colors are remarkably brilliant and correspond in their distribu-
tion to that of a uniaxial optically negative mineral. If monochro-
matic light be used the angular rotation for each part of the field
can be determined by rotating the upper nicol and testing the position
of extinction by means of the bi-quartz-wedge plate and then, by use of
Fresnel's equation for the rotation of plane-polarized light waves on
reflection, the refractive index of the mercury can be computed for the
particular wave length of light employed.

Experiment 5. Cement to the two sides of a small 45° total re-
flecting prism two strips of plane-parallel glass (carefully selected
cover glass strips serve the purpose well) so that the ends of the glass

strips extend 6 or 8 mm. beyond
the edge of the prism. Drill a hole
transversely through a brass c^din-
der and insert a brass rod in the
same. Lacquer the inside of the
brass cjdinder with a matt black.
Cement the hypothenuse face of
the prism to this rod, so that the
prism edge is at right angles to the
axis of rotation of the rod (fig. 1).
If now the axis of rotation be
placed parallel with one of the
Fig. 1 principal nicol planes, the two glass

plates can be rotated and in every
position the angle of incidence i for both plates is the same while the
azimuth angles A are of opposite sign.

The effect of this arrangement is analogous to that of a half shade
apparatus, namely, that, if in the one quadrant the angle of rota-
tion of the transmitted plane-polarized waves is +A°, it is — A° in the
adjacent quadrant. If now the sensitive tint plate be placed be-
tween the crossed nicols, the color phenomena described in the pre-
ceding experiments appear clearly marked; by rotating the prism all
gradations between the undisturbed sensitive tint purple to bright
green in the first quadrant and yellow in the second can be obtained.
This experiment illustrates clearly the principle underlying the inter-
ference phenomena observed in the lenses of a high power objective.

Experiment 6. Since the amount of rotation of refracted or re-
flected light waves at inclined surfaces of an anisotropic substance
depends on the difference in refractive index between the substance
and the surromiding medium, it is proper to infer that, in case a glass
bead be immersed in a liquid of the same refractive index, no rotation
will occur and hence no color phenomena will be observed. This is
approximately correct, though in many instances the color phenomena

WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES 305

are far more distinct under such conditions than one might expect
and the question arises as to the refractive index of the surface film
of the glass bead. Such a film is under the influence of surface tension
forces and hence is exposed to a different set of mechanical forces
than that which obtains inside the bead. It is, therefore, natural
that its refractive index (expression of influence of original system of
forces on light wave system of forces) should be different. To test
this conclusion still further a mixture of alcohol and ether on the one
hand was prepared and a second mixture of water and glycerine. Now
these mixtures have the same refractive index for sodium light, the
same density and approximately the same dispersion. On shaking
the two together the alcohol and ether form small drops suspended in
the water-glycerine mixture and furnish, therefore, an excellent system
for testing the idea that the refractivity index of the surface film may be
different from that inside the drops. Although experiments along this
line are still in progress it may be stated that the evidence so far ob-
tained is not sufficiently definite to warrant definite statements.

The above experiments prove conclusively that the apparent op-
tically positive character for transmitted plane polarized light rays
and optically negative character for reflected rays when tested by
means of the sensitive tint plate, is due to rotation of the plane of
vibration at the steeply inclined surfaces of the isotropic substance.
In passing from one isotropic substance to a second the direction
of vibration remains, of course, in the same plane but the azimuth
of the plane of vibration changes (suffers rotation) because of the
change of direction of the ray (wave normal) on refraction.^

The phenomena exhibited by the objective on insertion of

the sensitive tint plate can also be deduced by computation

from the standard Fresnel formulas. The angle of rotation

of the plane of vibration for any plane-polarized wave entering

a plane surface of an isotropic substance of refractive index n

at an angle of incidence i and an azimuth angle E is given by the

equations . .

sin ^ = n sin r,

cot B = cos (i - r) . cot A,

For a ray transmitted through a plate, equation 1 is valid. But
ordinary white light consists of light of all wave lengths through-
out the visible spectrum and the angle of rotation varies slightly
with the change in wave length but it is so shght that for the pres-

' For a more complete discussion of these phenomena, see Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Pub. 158: 7.5-79. 1911.

306

WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES

ent purposes it may be neglected. Having given the angle of rota-
tion B of the plane of vibration the problem resolves itself prac-
tically into a determination of the intensity of illumination for
the different parts of the visible spectrum for different relative
positions of the sensitive tint plate and the analyzer, the resulting
color being the integral result of the distribution of color intensity
over the entire visible spectrum.

For this purpose the standard Fresnel intensity equation

d{y' - a')
X

/ = cos^ if -(- sin 2 ((/?-??) sin 2 ?? . sin- t

(2)

30

Z
UJ

U20

a:
u

Q.

10

>

(/)

z
111

I-
z

\

\

/

\

\,

,? >'

r

\

X

'y

X

>-

^<?°>

«

/

/

^v

^

0

/

\

'v

\°-

•^

)

=—

-=

=c

f (

=5f

.0

/

~^

^

j:

■si.

u

400 500

WAVE

600 700 800

LENGTH IN fJifJi

Fig. 2. The curves of this figure repre-
sent graphically the data of Table 1,
namely, the intensity of the light, in per
cent, for different wave lenths X after
transmission through the polarizer, sensi-
tive tint quartz plate (0.03 mm. thick cut
parallel to the optic axis which makes an
angle B with the vibration plane of the
polarizer) and the analyzer whose prin-
cipal plane includes an angle 4> with that
of the polarizer.

is applicable, in which 1 is the
percentage intensity of illumina-
tion, if, the angle included be-
tween thetwonicols, ??, the angle
which the vibration direction 7
of the sensitive tint plate in-
cludes with the principal plane
of the analyzer, d the thickness
of the sensitive quartz plate
used, 7'- a', the birefringence of
the quartz sensitive tint plate
for the particular wave length
X of light employed. The re-
sults of computation by this
equation of the intensity of the
transmitted light for different
angles ^and ??, and wave lengths
X for a quartz plate 0.03 mm.
thick (thickness for the sensitive
tint whereby the path difference
for X = 550mm is half a wave

length and sin'

dW - ol')

= 1)

X

cut parallel to the principal
axis are listed in Table 1 and
presented graphically in fig-
ure 2.

avright: interference figures in objectives 307

TABLE 1

X IN fxn

T'- a'

INTENSITY IN PER CENT
0= + 1°

INTENSITY IN PER CENT

d = +2"

<p = 86°

92°

98°

<p= 86°

94°

102°

0.00

400

954

8.56

0.48

14.23

13.70

1.91

28.71

450

936

10.06

0.18

12.14

17.29

0.70

22.80

500

925

10.75

0.04

11.17

18.95

0.15

20.07

550

917

10.93

0.00

10.93

19.37

0.00

19.37

600

909

10.81

0.03

11.10

19.08

0.10

19.86

650

902

10.52

0.08

11.50

18.39

0.33

20.99

700

898

10.17

0.15

11.99

19.55

0.58

22.37

750

894

9.79

0.23

12.51

16.65

0.92

23.85

800

892

9.63

0.30

13.02

15.79

1.21

25.27

Table showing 'percentage intensity of transmitted light for different wave lengths
X after passing through polarizer, sensitive tint quartz plate {0.03 mm. thick and
cut parallel to the principal axis, and including an angle d with the principal
plane of the polarizer) and the analyzer whose principal plane includes an angle
<p with that of the polarizer.

Extended comment on this table and figure is unnecessary.
From both it is evident that for d = +1°, the intensity of the
transmitted Ught is not the same throughout the visible spectrum
for a given angle cp between the nicols; thus for ?? = + 1° and
(p = 86°, the intensity of illumination is greatest in the middle
or green part of the spectrum about 550^^ and the resultant
color is of a greenish hue, while for ?? = + 1° and cp = 98°, the
intensity of illumination for the central part of the spectrum is
at a minimum and the resulting hue is of the nature of a minus
green which is magenta. Similar relations obtain for the angle
?? = +2°. For still larger angles ??, the intensity of illumina-
tion throughout the spectrum is so great that the slight differ-
ences in percentage intensity for different wave lengths are not
sufTicient to dominate the hue of the total light transmitted.
It is only when the average intensity of illumination throughout
the entire spectrum is so slight that it approaches the limit of
threshold vision and perception of color differences that the color
intensity differences are most marked.

308 WRIGHT: INTERFERENCE FIGURES IN OBJECTIVES

From equation 2 we find by forming the first and second
differential quotients after <p, that for a given § the intensity
of illumination is a minimum when ^ = 90° + §. This is also
evident from figure 1 in which the relations appear so clearly
marked that their application to the case of a system of the steeply
inclined lens surfaces in a high power objective involves no diffi-
culty except that of tedious computation in following each ray
through the lens system. Such a computation is, moreover,
unnecessary because we know the approximate inclinations of the
different lens surfaces for the different parts of the field, and
can estimate the approximate rotation of the plane of vibration
of the transmitted light wave, and can deduce therefrom the
resultant color. The results of such an estimation agree well
with those of observation. It seems, however, unnecessary to
present the details of this part of the solution of the problem as no
new principle is involved and the final result can be inferred at
once by analogy from the results already given.

From the foregoing it is evident that, in weakly birefracting
minerals, the color phenomena produced in the objective alone
on insertion of the sensitive tint plate tend to veil and to render
uncertain, to a greater or less extent, the interference colors due
to the mineral plate under observation; special care should be
taken in such instances to test by other methods any inference
regarding the optical character of the mineral under test.

It is also evident that the rotation, by the lens system, of the
plane of vibration of transmitted light waves has an effect on
the measurement of the optic axial angle of a crystal plate but
this effect is usually not sufficiently large to interfere seriously
with the accuracy of the results obtained, which at best are not of
a high order of precision because of a number of factors which enter
into the problem and over which the observer has little control.'*
These have been discussed elsewhere by the writer and need not be
repeated here. Suffice it to state that the weak uniaxial inter-
ference cross observed between crossed nicols in high power
objectives is inevitable and also the apparent optically positive

* Carnegie Inst, of Washington, Pub. 158: 147^200. 1911.

WRIGHT: A NEW HALF SHADE APPARATUS 309

character of the interference figure when tested in the usual man-
ner by the insertion of a sensitive tint plate either above the
objective or below the condenser.

«

PHYSICS. — A new half shade apparatus with variable sensibility.
Fred. Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

The importance of variable sensibility in half shade appara-
tus to meet best the different conditions of illumination and obser-
vation has been frequentl}^ emphasized in recent years and sev-
eral instruments have been constructed which serve the purpose
more or less satisfactorily. The device described in the following
paragraphs is a simple, inexpensive half shade apparatus which
accompUshes its object well and merits a brief word of descrip-
tion. It is essentially the instrument used in experiment 5 of the
preceding article in which the theory underlying its construction
is outlined briefly. The essential elements of this theory are:
(1) a plane-parallel glass plate of refractive index n (tilted so that
it makes an angle i with the line of propagation of an incident
plane-polarized light wave, and also so that the normal to the
plane of incidence includes an azimuth angle A with the line of
vibration of the light wave), rotates the plane of vibration of the
transmitted light wave through an angle B which can be computed
from the Fresnel equation, cot B = cos- (i-r) . cot A; both experi-
ment and theory prove that the angle of rotation increases with
the refractive index ?i of the substance and with the angle of
incidence i; also with the azimuth angle A up to 45°; when A =
0°, 90°, 180°, the rotation is nil. For a given angle i the rotation
angle is a maximum for A = 45°. If, therefore, a plane-parallel
glass plate be mounted so that it can be rotated about a hori-
zontal axis in the first (NE) quadrant midway between the
principal nicol planes, the azimuth angle A for incident waves
from the polarizer is 45° for all angles of incidence i and the
angle of rotation of the transmitted waves can be calculated from
the simpUfied Fresnel equation, cot B = cos^ (i-r). If now a
second glass plate be taken and rotated about an axis in the
second (iVTF) quadrant, the azimuth angle of the incident light
waves from the polarizer is -45° and the Fresnel equation re-

310

WRIGHT: A NEW HALF SHADE APPARATUS

Fig. 1

duces to cot B = — cos^ {% - r) . For a given angle of incidence the
angle of rotation produced by the glass plate in the second quad-
rant is accordingly equal in value to that in the first quadrant

but opposite in sign. Thus in a glass plate of re-
fractive index 1.615 the angle of rotation of the
plane of vibration of plane polarized waves in-
cident at 40° under an azmuth angle 45° is 1°57'
while the rotation angle in a second plate for
the same light wave incident at 40° under an
azimuth angle -45° is -1° 57' (fig. 1). If now
two glass plates be so mounted that they meet
in a fine line they form a half shade apparatus
of a definite angle of rotation. On varying the
angle of incidence i by rotating the system, we can change the
rotation angle B and thereby introduce the principle of variable
sensibility into our system.

Although there are a number of methods possible for rotating
the two glass plates simultaneously, the simplest method which has

occurred to the writer is illus-
trated by figure 2. Into a brass
cylinder (telescope or microscope
tube) a diametral hole is bored
transverse to the axis and into
this a rod is fitted so that it can
be rotated about its axis. Two
plane-parallel thin plates are
mounted on the sides of a small
right angled total-reflecting
prism so that their ends project
beyond the prism any desired amount depending on the size of
field to be covered. The edges of these plates are beveled at 45°
and the ridge is cemented with Canada balsam, thus producing a
fine division line between the two glass plates. In case plane-
parallel polished glass plates are not available thin cover glass
plates may be selected and serve the purpose satisfactorily. The
glass prism is then cemented to the rotating bar in the tube as

Fig. 2

WRIGHT: A NEW HALF SHADE APPARATUS

311

indicated in figure 2, care being taken to have the prism edge
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

The axis of rotation is placed inan E - W position parallel to
one of the principal nicol planes. In this position the glass
plates make equal and opposite angles with the N ~ S principal
nicol plane; the angles of rotation for the different angles of tilt-
ing are equal and of opposite sign and are listed in Table 1 (com-
puted by the Fresnel equation), and are represented graphically

in figure 3.

TABLE 1

Table showing angular rotalion of plane of vibration of light wave transmitted through
half shade apparatus for different angles of rotation about horizontal axis. The
values of the angular rotation are listed for the adjacent quadrants (glass plate
I and glass plate II, fig. 2) both for a single glass plate and also for two superim-
posed glass plates of refractive index n = 1.515 and n = 1.920.

o

n =

1.515

n =

1.920

o 2

SINGLE PLATE

TWO PLATES

SINGLE

PLATE

TWO PLATES

5

<

Quadrant

Quadrant
II

Quadrant

Quadrant
II

Quadrant
I

Quadrant
II

Quadrant

I

Quadrant
II

0°

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

0°00'

5

0 29

-0 29

1 00

-1 00

0 56

-0 56

2 03

-2 03

10

0 58

-0 58

2 01

-2 01

1 53

-1 53

4 07

-4 07

15

1 29

-1 29

3 05

-3 05

2 52

-2 52

6 12

-6 12

20

2 01

-2 01

4 11

-4 11

3 53

-3 53

8 21

-8 21

25

2 35

-2 35

5 22'

-5 22

4 57

-4 57

10 36 .

-10 36

30

3 12

-3 12

6 37

-6 37

6 02

-6 02

12 48

-12 48

35

3 53

-3 53

8 01

-8 01

7 17

-7 17

15 08

-15 08

40

4 39

-4 39

9 32

-9 32

8 35

-8 35

17 31

-17 31

45

5 40

-5 40

11 31

-11 31

10 03

-10 03

20 04

-20 04

50

6 30

-G 30

13 03

-13 03

11 33

-11 33

22 29

-22 29

55

7 37

-7 37

15 05

-15 05

13 14

-13 14

25 02

-25 02

60

8 54

-8 54

17 21

-17 21

15 06

-15 06

27 36

-27 36

65

10 22

-10 22

19 48

-19 48

17 08

-17 08

30 06

-30 06

70

12 03

-12 03

22 29

-22 29

19 18

-19 18

32 31

-32 31

75

13 58

-13 58

25 18

-25 18

21 41

-21 41

34 50

-34 50

80

16 03

-16 03

28 10

-28 10

22 09

-22 09

36 58

-36 58

85

18 40

-18 40

31 16

-31 16

26 58

-26 58

39 00

-39 00

The values given in Table 1 are the angles computed from
Fresnel' s equation above. The actual situation is a little more

312

WRIGHT: A NEW HALF SHADE APPARATUS

complex than one might infer from the equation alone, because of
internal reflections and surface film effects but the values listed
in Table 1 indicate the order of magnitude of the angular rotation
of the vibration plane of a plane-polarized light wave for different
angles of inclination of the half shade apparatus. Since the

effects of such fac-
tors, as internal
reflection and sur-
face films, affect
both glass plates
equally, they do not
appreciably disturb
the sensitiveness of
the apparatus.
The values are
listed for angles of
rotation of the ap-
paratus up to 85°;
in actual practice,
however, rotation
angles above 60°
are not used and
hence are not repre-
sented in figure 3.
Instead of rotat-
ing the apparatus
through large an-
gles, it is simpler
and better to
mount two superimposed plane-parallel glass plates to each side
of the right angled prism. The angles of rotation with this
arrangement are listed in Table 1.

With this apparatus, which is applicable both to white and to
monochromatic light, the half shade principle with variable sensi-
bility is attained. In petrographic microscope work extinction
angles can be measured by its use, when it is placed in the lower

15^

z
o

<

q:

mo'

>

O

u
z
<

_J

Q.

O

z
o

I-
<

I-
o

/

J

/

/

/

/

1

<r

^

■/

/

/

/

/

/

A<

/

/

/

f

/

/

/

^>

/

/

c. ^

^

/

cS

#

y

/

/^

>

^

o° io°

ANGULAR

20" 30"

ROTATION

40"

OF

50" 60^

PRISM

Fig. 3. Curves showing angular rotation of the plane
of vibration of a beam of plane-polarized light on pas-
sage through glass plates of half shade device for dif-
ferent angles of rotation of apparatus about horizontal
axis.

NUTTING AND JONES: PHOTOMETER FOR SMALL AREAS 313

focal plane of the positive eye piece, with an accuracy nearly
equal to that of the writer's bi-quartz wedge plate. ^

The bi-quartz wedge plate is, however, sniperior to the present
device because its action is independent of the direction of the
Une of junction between the two halves of the plate. The
adjustment of the tilting glass plates is, however, not difficult
between crossed nicols and this form of half shade apparatus
has the advantage of slight cost and easp of preparation, it being
possible to construct the complete apparatus in two or three
hours time. The differences in angle of rotation for different
wave lengths for a definite position of the apparatus are small
and practically negligible for most work, the result being, that
even for large angles of tilting of the apparatus, the field remains
uncolored and of a light gray hue. In this respect it differs
from the bi-quartz wedge plate and for certain purposes may be
superior to it.

PHYSICS.— A transmission and reflection photometer for small
areas. P. G. Nutting and L. A. Jones. (Communication
No. 15 from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman
Kodak Company.)

In many optical investigations it is desirable to measure the
brightness of small areas — 1 mm. square or less. The instru-
ment here described was devised to measure the brightness of
optical 'mages, the local densities in photographic negatives, and
the reflecting powers of different parts of photographic prints
and other pictures. It has proved exceedingly convenient and
precise, and so nearly all that may be hoped for in this type of
photometer that a description may be of general interest.

The chief advantages secured in our instrument are the
following :

1. The elimination of errors due to fluctuation in the comparison
source by using the same source for comparison light and for the source
of transmitted or reflected light.

1 F. E. Wright, Am. J. Sci. (4), 26: 377-378. 1908. Carnegie Inst, of Wash-
ington, Pub. 158: 139. 1911; see also M. Berek, Neues Jahrbuch f. Mineral., B. B.,
33: 583-661. 1912.

314 NUTTING AND JONES: PHOTOMETER FOR SMALL AREAS

2. The elimination of corrections for shift of zero by providing easy
means of balancing the two beams with an open sj^stem.

3. A direct view of the object sighted upon at all times dm-ing
measm-ement. This is obtained by focusing an image of that object
at the dividing line of the photometer cube.

4. An open linear scale, reading directly from zero to 100 per cent
provided by a rotating comparison beam and stationary sector. The
photometer head used is, in fact, that of the Bechstein illuminometer.
The ease and rapidity of setting provided by this means of varying the
(Comparison beam are known to all who have used it.

A plan of the optical parts of the photometer is shown in the
figure as used for determining transmissions.

f--i

.L,

R2

V

Fig. 1.

The source of light £' is a condensed filament, 100-watt tung-
sten lamp run on the lighting circuit. Light from this illumi-
nates the comparison screen c of thin, solid opal glass. This
screen is viewed through the ocular 0, the photometer cube P,
the rotating excentric lens L2, and stationary sector >S. Light
from E also passes to the photometer cube through the path
ER1R2P. Ri is a reflecting prism within a metal box mounted
on a stand. The front face of this box is a plate of flashed opal
glass D, serving as a secondary source by diffusing the ight.
>The plate whose transmission is to be determined is placed
directly in front of this diffusing screen, thus eliminating errors
due to diffusion in the transmission measured. An image of
the plate to be observed is thrown on the photometer cube P,
by means of the lens Li, and the reflecting prism R2. These

NUTTING AND JONES: PHOTOMETER FOR SMALL AREAS 315

latter pieces are mounted on an arm carried by the instrument
itself, the lens Lx being adjustable in position.

In use, the sector S is first set to read 100 and the source E
moved toward or away from C until a balance is secured with-
out the plate to be measured. The instrument will then read
percentage transmission from nothing to 100 per cent directly,
with but a very slight zero correction.

For determining reflecting powers, Ri and D are not used and
Ro is rotated to face downward (instead of horizontally, as shown) .
The surface upon which observations are to be taken s placed
directly under R^ on the table and the lens Li focussed upon the
surface which is illuminated directly by the source E at an angle
of about 45? Ordinarily, it is diffuse reflecting power that is
desired, and the surface is placed horizontal — -specularly reflected
light not entering the instrument.

The zero adjustments for measuring reflecting powers are sim-
ilar to those made in measuring transmissions. If only relative
values are desired, as in measuring up a photographic print,
clear paper is placed in the field, the sector set to read 100 per
cent and the som'ce E adjusted to give a match at the cube.
If actual reflecting powers are desired, a mat surface, say a
block of magnesium carbonate, whose reflecting power has been
determined on an absolute reflectometer,^ is placed in position,
the sector S to read its absolute reflecting power, and the source
E adjusted as before. The instrument will then give directly
the diffuse reflecting power of any other surface placed in the
field. If specular reflecting power is to be determined, total
reflecting power is measured on the absolute instrument and
diffuse reflecting power measured as just described.

The instrument, as a whole, is easily, quickly, and perma-
nently adjustable; readings may be taken with it as rapidly and
accurately as with any kind of visual photometer, and we have
not yet detected any systematic errors in its readings. For
months it has been in constant use by a mmaber of observers in
the sensitometry of photographic plates and papers. With a
magnifying ocular it has even been used as a microphotometer
of low power.

1 P. G. Nutting, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2: 505. December 19, 1912.

316 EDWARDS: AMMONIA IN ILLUMINATING GAS

CHEMISTRY. — The iodine number of linseed arid peproleum oils.^
W. H. Smith and J. B. Tuttle, Bureau of Standards.
Communicated by G. K. Burgess.

The iodine number of linseed and petroleum oils was determined
according to the Hanus method. Each of the three factors,
weight of sample, time of absorption, and amount of Hanus solu-
tion, was studied for a series of burnt linseed oils and petroleum
oils. ■ Variations of weight of the raw linseed oil shows that a
constant volume is obtained for weights of the oil up to 0.25 gram.
Beyond this value the iodine number decreases with increasing
weight. For burnt linseed oils the range of weight over which
the iodine value is constant decreases with increased burning of
the oil. Petroleum oils on the contrary approach a constant
value when 0.6 gram or more of the sample is taken. Varying
the time of absorption from five to sixty minutes shows that the
reaction approaches a maximum in about ten minutes. There-
after absorption is slow, and a few minutes one way or another
has little effect on the value obtained. When the amount of
Hanus solution is varied from 20 to 75 cc the results indicate that
the oil with the highest iodine number does not require the greatest
excess of iodine to reach maximum absorption value. The effect
of temperature on the value obtained is more marked for burnt
linseed oils than for boiled or raw oils. The results as a whole
indicate that concordance is obtained only when a prescribed
procedure is followed with exactness. To obtain comparable re-
sults a standard procedure should be followed in which the limits
are strictly defined. This is particularly true of burnt linseed oils.

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.— T/ie determination of ammonia
in illu7ninating gas.- J. D. Edwards, Bureau of Standards.
Communicated by G. K. Burgess.

The method generally used for the determination of ammonia
in purified illuminating gas depends upon the absorption of the
ammonia in a standard acid solution, the amount of ammonia ab-
sorbed from a measured volume of gas being determined either by

iTo appear in full as Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 37.
2 To appear in full as Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 34 (in
press)."

BATES AND PHELPS : TESTING OF SUGARS 317

titration of the acid remaining unneutralized or less frequently by-
allowing gas to pass until a change is shown by the indicator used.

The choice of the proper indicator to use for this determination
is of greater importance than the choice of apparatus. The indi-
cators which were found to be most suitable for the determination
of ammonia in gas were sodium alizarinsulphonate, cochineal, and
paranitrophenol. The presence of glass beads which are used in
some of the absorption apparatus may lead to erroneous results
for two reasons: First, the beads may yield alkali on contact
with the absorbing liquid; second, washing of the beads may be
incomplete. It is recommended that the operator test the solu-
bility of any beads he may use; the method of washing out the
apparatus should also be tested.

Five different forms of apparatus were tested: The Referees
apparatus, the Emmerling tower, the Lacy apparatus, the com-
mon form of gas wash bottle, and a modified form of the Gumming
gas bottle. The relative efficiency, and from this the probable
accuracy, of the different forms of apparatus was determined by
running them in parallel, using gas from a common supply. As
a result of this comparison it was found that the Emmerling tower
gave results which were somewhat higher than those obtained with
the other forms and that the wash bottle gave results consistently
lower. With careful operation any one of the five forms of appa-
ratus tested would ordinarily give results that are well within the
limits of accuracy required for this determination, either for
commercial control work or for the purpose of gas inspection.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/ie influence of atmospheric co7idi-
tions in the testing of sugars.'^ F. J. Bates and F. P. Phelps.
Communicated by G. K. Burgess.
A simplified form of Marvin's evaporation equation has been

applied to the evaporation of raw sugar solution during filtration.

Marvin's formula reduces to — rr = C (Pg — Pa) or Q = C

(Pg — Pa) T, which, it is shown, fits the observations satisfactorily.
Q = the change due to evaporation in the time T, Pg = the vapor
pressure of the sugar solution, Pa = the saturation vapor pressure
in the air at the temperature of the dew point.

^To appear in full as Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper 221 (in press).

318 BATES AND PHELPS : TESTING OF SUGARS

The constant, C, has been determined for a number of different
cases: (1) When the solution is poured back upon the filter after
all has run through; (2) when it is poured back after about one-
half hasrun through; (3) when it is not poured back at all. Ob-
servations were made by two methods: First, b}^ weighing the
solution at intervals during the filtration; second, by observing
the change in polarization. In the polarization method one tube
was filled, as a reference tube, with solution that had been covered
during filtration, since filtration could not be avoided. It is
shown, however, by weighing, that the evaporation in this case is
quite negligible. Other tubes were filled with solution which had
not been covered during filtration. The difference in polariza-
tion between these tubes and the reference tube is the change
due to evaporation. This was done under various atmospheric
conditions.

The observations were made in a thermostated room where the

amount of moisture present in the air, as well as the temperature,

could be varied at will, the range of adjustment being (Ps — -Pa)

= 4 mm. of Hg to (P., — Pa) = 41 mm. of Hg. In practice

Ps — Pa rarely exceeds 22 mm.

It was found that in the case where the solution was not poured
back upon the filter the change in polarization due to evaporation
is so small as to be quite negligible in ordinary sugar testing.
The change is represented by Q = 0.00017 (Ps - Pa) T. How-
ever, in case a portion of the solution is poured back, the change
due to evaporation is not negligible in ordinary testing but must
either be prevented, by covering the funnel, or corrected for by the
equation Q = 0.0006 {P, - Pa) T.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. — The crystallographic and optic prop-
erties of magnesium and manganese pyrophosphates. Olaf
Andersen, Geophysical Laboratory. Communicated by
Fred. E. Wright.

Crystals of magnesium and manganese pyrophosphates were
obtained by melting the substances^ and cooling the melts.

1 The pyrophosphates were produced by heating magnesium (or manganese)
ammonium orthophosphate. The thermal examination of these and other sub-
stances is dealt with in a different paper. Mg2P207 melts at 1383°C., Mn2P207
at 1196°C.

ANDERSEN; PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES 319

Complete crystallization always resulted, no matter how quickly
the cooling took place and from the cavities some measurable
crystals could be picked out.

MAGNESIUM PYROPHOSPHATE

The magnesium pyi-ophosphate (Mg2P207) forms tabular crys-
tals of variable size, the tables generally having an orientation
perpendicular to the surface of the melt and roughly parallel
to each other or radiating from a few centers near the sides of
the crucible. The measm'able crystals were of the average size
3x2x1 mm. They were, however, always formed by parallel
(or subparallel) intergrowths of a number of small individuals
and the signals reflected from the faces of such crystals were
multiple and indistinct. Fairly sharp signals could be obtained
by stopping off the light from all the subfaces except the two
joining in the little edge selected for measurement. In this way
one crystal often yielded a number of measurable edges between
the same two faces. The two circle goniometer (Goldschmidt's)
was accordingly used as a one circle instrument.

The crystals proved to be monochnic belonging to the pris-
matic class. From the average of the measurements the axial
ratios were calculated as follows: a ib : c = 0.7947 : 1 : 1.0880;
/3 = 75°49'. Referred to these axial ratios the following forms
were observed: c (001); 0 (110); r (lOl); a; (112).

The results of the measurements are listed in Table 1 contain-
ing the values obtained from 14 crystals, some of which gave
only one measm'able edge, while from others several' edges for
each pair of faces were obtained.

Figure 1 reproduces the general shape of a composite crystal.
The predominating forms are always c and z, the crystals being ■
tabular parallel to c or sometimes short prismatic along z,. while
the other two forms r and x only occur as narrow truncations of
the edges; r, however, is sometimes broad enough to give fairly
good signals. The prism z is not observed except as bright and
smooth cleavage faces. The other forms occur as natural crys-
tal faces always fairly bright and without striation.

The subindividuals of the larger crystals are arranged so as
to make the bases form steps descending in the direction of the

320

ANDERSEN: PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES

Fig. 1.

negative a-axis. By this arrangement the composite crystals
often approximate an orthorhombic shape. Sometimes the

crystals are grown together
in a way indicative of poly-
synthetic twinning. No defi-
nite twinning law however
could be inferred from these
intergrowths. The crystals
are colorless and of a glassj^
luster. The hardness is a
little less than 4. Cleavage
perfect after the faces of the
prism z and also good parallel
to c. Density determina-
tions with pycnometer gave G(/) = 3.058.-

Optical properties. Because of the good cleavages most of the
attempts to grind oriented sections of the small crystals failed.
Only one thick slice approximately parallel to (010) was ob-
tained. The optical properties have therefore been studied
chiefly on fine powder or small cleavage pieces under the micro-
scope. The results are accordingly incomplete and only of ap-
proximate accuracy.

The refractive indices were determined by the immersion
method in sodium hght with the following results :7Na = 1-615
± 0.003; /3n, = 1.604 ± 0.003; «n, = 1.602 ± 0.003.

According to these determinations the maximum birefringence
is: 7 - a = 0.013 ± 0.005 The optical character is positive.
The axial angle was determined under the microscope on small
gi-ains showing both axes near the center of the field. Average
*of 4 determination of reasonable sharpness gave 2V = 20^°
(2E =-33°). The optical orientation is the following: Bxa = 7
approximately parallel to a-axis. (8 parallel to 5-axis. Bxo = a
forming approximately 15° with c-axis in obtuse angle (i.e., being
nearly perpendicular to c (001).

2 G. W. Clarke (Amer. Journ. Sci. III. 14 : 281. 1877) gives G = 2.598 (22°) and
2.559 (18°). These values, however, can not refer to the crystallized substance,
but may represent the density of the amorphous powder.

ANDERSEN: PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES

321

TABLE 1
Angles Measured on Crystals of Magnesium Pyrophosphate

(001):(110)

(001):(110)

1

(001):(101)

t

(110):(nO)

(001):ai2)

77° 53'

78° 3'

64° 0'

75° 5'

1

45° 10'

78°. 8'

77° 56'

64° 21'

74° 59'

45° 22'

78° 4'

78° 3'

64° 14'
64° 7'
64° 21'
63° 56'
63° 45'
64° 7'
64° 3'

74° 56'
74° 59'
74° 50'
74° 59'

64° 6'

Mean

78°1'.5

78°0'.5

64° 6'

74° 58'

45° 16'

Average

*78

'1'

*64° 6'

*74°58'

Calculated

(001): (112) = 45° 21'

* Angles used in calculation of axial ratios.

The plane of symmetry (010) is accordingly the plane of the
optic axes. As the acute bisectrix 7 is nearly parallel to (001)
and the obtuse axial angle is very large, basal sections show no
axial interference figures when examined in convergent light.
Sections parallel to (010) extinguish nearly parallel to the cleav-
age lines of (001) and at an angle of about 15° with the c-axis
(i.e., cleavage lines of (110).

MANGANESE PYROPHOSPHATE

The manganese pyrophosphate (Mn2P207) forms small pris-
matic crystals composed of a great number of thin prisms in
parallel intergrowth. The crystals are monoclinic and, as far
as the measurements go, show very nearly the same crystallo-
graphic properties as the magnesium pyrophosphate. Only two
independent angles could be measured, however, and the com-
plete axial ratios could not be established. The following incom-
plete axial ratios were calculated: a -.b :c = 0.7834 : 1 :?; /3 = 74°9'.

The forms c (001); a (100), and z (110) were observed on 4
measured crystals. The angles are given in Table 2.

322

ANDERSEN: PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES

TABLE 2
Angles Measured on Crystals of Manganese Pyrophosphate

(001):{110)

(001):(irO)

(110):(110)

(10n):(110)

79° 49'
79° 58'
79° 56'
79° 50'

79° 49'
79° 52'
79° 48'
79° 53'

74° 2'
73° 59'

74° 2'

37° 16'
37° 12'
36° 50'

79° 53'

79°50'.5

37° 6'

Average

*79°

51'

*74° 1'

Calculated angle

(100): (110) = 37°0'.5

* Angles used in calculation of axial ratios.

Figure 2 shows the general appearance of a complex crystal.
The prism z is always the prevailing form. The
small faces of c terminate the narrow prisms.
The pinacoid a only occurs as very narrow
truncations of some of the edges z : z. The
faces were all bright, especially z, which was ob-
served both as crystal faces and cleavage faces
and gave good signals.

The color of the crystals is brownish pink;
the powder is light pink. The luster is glassy.
Hardness about 4. Cleavage perfect along the
prism z and poor parallel to c. The density de-
termined with pycnometer is 0(4) = 3.707.^

Optical properties. Cleavage pieces and fine
powder only were examined under the micro-
scope. No material for more elaborate examination was avail-
able. The refractive indices for sodium light were determined
by the immersion method TNa = 1-710 ± 0.003; ^Na = 1-704 ±
0.003; ttNa = 1-695 ± 0.003 from which the birefringence y - a
= 0.015 ± 0.005 is deduced.
The optical character is determined as positive.'^ The axial

3 G. W. Clarke (Amer. Journ. Sci. III. 14: 281. 1877) states G = 3.5847 (20°
and 3.5742 (26°). These low values may be due to impurities.

* From the determinations of the refractive indices giving y-fi<0-a a negative
optical character should be inferred. It is however plainly seen that a variation
of the indices within the limits of error may change their relation so as to make
the optical character positive.

Fig. 2.

ANDERSEN: PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES 323

angle is, however, so large that most of the grains observed under
the microscope allow no conclusion whatever as to the optical
character, the dark bar being apparently straight. Only a few
favorable grains rendered the determination certain, these gi'ains
showing a bar with a slight though distinct curvatm*e.

Attempts to determine the axial angle under the microscope
failed on account of the difficulty in finding grains with proper
orientation. Owing to the good cleavage most of the grains
were oriented along a cleavage face not showing any optic axis,
and in the few cases of an optic axis appearing in the field it was
in a position not favorable for satisfactory measurements (e.g.,
too near the center of the field). It may, however, be concluded
from the curvature of the dark bar that the axial angle is not
much less than 90? A probable estimation is 2V = about 80?
The optical orientation is as follows: Bxa = 7 forming approxi-
mately 20° with a-axis in obtuste angle ^; 13 parallel to 6-axis.
Bxo = a forming approximately 4° with c-axis in acute angle /3.
The plane of symmetry is thus the plane of optic axes and sec-
tions parallel to this plane have an extinction angle of about 4°
in acute angle i3 against cleavage lines.

Thick cleavage pieces show faint pleochroism: a light pink;
/3, 7 nearly colorless with a faint yellowish tinge.

A comparison of the properties of the two compounds described
in the preceding pages shows that they are isomorphous; a com-
parison with other crystals proves that they belong to a new
group of isomorphous substances not hitherto described.^ As
.to the crystallography of the other members of this group (prob-
ably the pyrophosphates of different bivalent metals) nothing is
known.

The isomorphism^ of the two compounds is here established
on the basis of similarity of chemical constitution, crystal form

* The only anhydrous pyrophosphate whose crystal lographic properties are
known, the Thallopyrophosphate TI4P2O7 has an entirely different axial ratio.
Lamy and Des Cloizeaux, Ann. Chim. Phys. (4) 17: 325. 1869. See Groth's
Chem. Cryst.

^ For an exhaustive discussion of the different meanings of the term isomor-
phism see Hlawatsch, Zs. Kryst. 51: 417. 1912.

324 ANDERSEN: PROPERTIES OF PYROPHOSPHATES

and structure as revealed by the chemical formula, the axial
ratios and the properties of cohesion (cleavage).

It is seen that the two compounds form monoclinic crystals
whose axial ratio a : b and angle 13 are very nearly of the same
magnitude. As to the ratio b : c nothing can be said owing to
the lack of a sufficient number of angles in the manganese pyro-
phosphate cry^als. The agreement in internal structure of the
crystals is evident from the presence of cleavage along the same
faces. Both kinds of crystals have a perfect cleavage along the
prisim z and in both there is a cleavage parallel to c though not
equally good in both. It may also be worth mentioning that
there is agreement in other physical properties. The hardness
is the same and the specific gravity of the same order of magni-
tude in the two substances: Altogether it seems on the basis
of the chemical composition and the crystallographic properties,
entirely justified to rank the two substances together as iso-
morphous.

Isomorphism is, however, sometimes defined so as to imply
miscibility in the solid state (solid solution, mix-crystals). In
order to examine whether the two phosphates here considered
were isomorphous also in this extended sense a few experiments
were carried out:

Three intermediate mixtures containing 76, 50 and 25 per cent
Mn2P207 (and a corresponding amount of jMg2P207) were pre-
pared. With these mixtures heating curves were run and the
substances were examined under the microscope. The results
are listed in Table 3, where also the melting points and refrac-,
tive indices of the pure compounds are given for comparison.

It is plainly seen that there is a gradual transition from one
component to the other, both in ''melting point"^ and mean
refractive index. The heating curves showed no breaks other
than those corresponding to the melting points and the micro-
scopic examination proved that only one solid phase was formed
by crystallization of the melts.

^ The breaks on the heating curves of the mixtures correspond to points be-
tween the liquidus and the solidus. In the present case these points probably
fall very near the liquidus. This may be inferred from the sharpness of the
breaks.

Andersen: properties of pyrophosphates

325

In the mixtures containing 50 and 75 per cent Mg2P207, some
of the crystals showed an undulatory extinction indicating zonal
structure. This is what should be expected of crystals formed
from melts where perfect equilibrium did not obtain through all
the period of crystallization. The lack of equilibrium was evi-
dent from the fact that the crystallization of these melts took
place with a considerable undercooling. At any rate, the in-
homogeneity of the mix-crystals due to zoning is not nearly
great enough to arouse suspicion of the separation of two dis-
tinct phases. The mixture containing 25 per cent Mg2P207 shows
perfectly homogeneous crystals and the undercooling of the melt
is insignificant.

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION

BREAKS ON HEATING
CURVE

(melting points)

MEAN REFRACTIVE

M1I2P2O7

Mg2P207

INDICES ^

deg. C.

. 100

0

1196

1.70

75

25

1242

1.67

50

50

1286

1.65

25

75

1340

1.63

0

100

1383

1.60

The optical character of all the mix-crystals is positive. The
axial angle varies according to composition. It is large in the
mix-crysta s containing 75 per cent Mn2P207; medium in the 50
per cent crystals and small in the 25 per cent crystals.

The facts stated prove conclusively that the two phosphates
are perfectly miscible in the solid state and that the system
Mg2P207:Mn2P207 belongs to Roozeboom's Type I, the type
without a maximum or minimum.

BOTANY. — The name of the wood-apple, Feronia Limonia. Wal-
ter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The wood-apple of India, Ceylon, and Farther India is a decidu-
ous tree with odd-pinnate leaves and globose fruits about the
size of an orange, with a hard, woody rind. It belongs to the
orange subfamily, Citratae, of the Rutaceae and is one of the

326 swingle: the wood-apple, feronia limonia

typical hard-shelled citrous fruits, a group including the genera
Feroniella, Aegle, Chaetospermum, Balsamocitrus, and Aeglop-
sis, with a range from Indo-Ohina and the Philippine Islands to
West Africa.

The wood-apple was first given a binomial name by Linnaeus
in 1753 as Schinus Limonia (Sp. PI. 1:389), with citation to a
rather full description drawn up by Linnaeus himself and pub-
lished, in 1747, in his account of Hermann's herbarium of Cey-
lonese plants (Fl. Zeyl., pp. 77, 78, No. 175). Hermann's herba-
rium, now in the Botanical Department of the British Museum,
shows that the specimens studied by Linnaeus and labeled by his
own hand consist of two sterile twigs of the wood-apple. In
addition to this material there are in Linnaeus' own herbarium
two twigs with flowers and loose leaves of this plant, labeled
''Limonia" in Linnaeus' handwriting. It is clear that Linnaeus
studied both flowers and foliage from his description in Flora
Zeylanica which he concludes as follows: "Ex flore & facie ad
hoc genus plantam retuli."

Now, Linnaeus attempted to collate in his Flora Zeylanica
what had been published previously on tropical and especially
East Indian botany and in this case added references to some
seven previously published descriptions which he considered to
be synonymous but which represent three or four distinct species
belonging to as many genera. Two plates are cited, one in
Rumphius (Herb. Ajuboin. 2: 134, pi. IfS) representing a branch
of the wood-apple with flowers and young fruit, and one in Rheede
(Hortus Malabaricus 4: 31, pi. 14-) representing a branch with
flowers and mature fruits (also a section of fruit and seeds) of
quite a different plant, Hesperethusa crenulata (Roxb.) Roemer,
commonly but erroneously called Limonia acidissima L.

The type of Schinus Limonia L. is certainly the plant described
by Linnaeus in his Flora Zeylanica, the wood-apple, notwithstand-
ing the citation of quite different species of previous authors as
synonyms. This is shown unmistakably not only by the type
specimens in the Hermann and Linnaean herbaria but also by
Linnaeus' description in Flora Zeylanica (p. 78) which says:
"foliola .... emarginata" which phrase cannot possibly

swingle: the wood-apple, feronia limonia 327

apply to any of the other plants of which descriptions are cited
by Linneaus in the synonomy. This fact was first pointed out by
Trimen/ in 1887, on the basis of the specimens preserved in
Hermann's herbarium. Apparently he did not know of the
existence of the flowering specimen in Linnaeus' own herbarium.

In 1762, Linnaeus, in the first volume of the second edition of
his Species Plantarum, abandons the name Schinus Limonia,
restricting the genus Schinus to the Peruvian pepper trees and
creating a new genus, Limonia, for the wood-apple which he
calls Limonia acidissima. He does not cite the Schinus Limonia
of the first edition of Species Plantarum as a synonym, but his
use of the former specific name as the generic name and the
reference to his previous description in Flora Zeylanica make it
clear that Limonia acidissi?na L. is merely another name for
Schinus Limonia L. The original specific name could not be
retained without forming a duplicate binomial, a barbarism which
Linnaeus never countenanced.

Four citations are given under Limonia acidissima. The first
is to Burman's Thesaurus Zeylanicus, p. 143, which includes two
or more species, one of them being very probably the common lime
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swing. The second citation is to
his own Flora Zeylanica, p. 77, 78, and certainly applies to the
wood-apple. The third citation is to Rumphius Herbarium
Amboinense, vol. 2, pi. J^3, which is also the wood-apple or a
closely allied species. The fourth citation is to Rheede, Hortus
Malabaricus, Pt. 4, pi. 14, and is Hesperethusa crenulata (Roxb.)
Roem.

Linnaeus thus confused several very distinct plants under his
Limonia acidissima. Unfortunately, practically all post-Lin-
naean authors apply this name to a small-fruited Indian tree,
Hesperethusa crenulata (Roxb.) Roem., while the wood-apple is
commonly called Feronia elephantum Correa.

Fortunately, the confusion that would be caused by changing
the current application of the name Limonia and applying it to the
wood-apple can be avoided, because the name Limonia proves to

^ Trimen, H. Hermann's Ceylon Herbarium and Linnaeus's "Flora Zeylanica,"
in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., 24: 142 (n. 160, 28 Nov. 1887).

328 swingle: the wood-apple, feronia limonl\

be invalid, being a mere variant of Limonium. Linnaeus in the
1754 edition of Genera Plantarum, (ed.5,p. 135) reduced the latter
name to a synonym of Statice, and consequently this name or any
variant of it cannot be revived for any plant not congeneric with
the type of the original Limonium."^ As a matter of fact, Limo-
nium has recently been resuscitated in its original sense and is
now so used by many taxonomists.

Even if we assume that Linnaeus with his well-known aversion
to barbarous names^ had latinized the name Limon, the usual pre-
Linnaean name of the lemon, we would still be forced to conclude
that he had brought it into a correct Latin form, just as he did in
changing Anona, derived from an aboriginal American name, to
Annona, a classical Latin word.^ This would mean that he had
transferred Pliny's Latin name Limonia'^ to a quite different plant,
the East Indian wood-apple, in accordance with a reprehensible
practice often followed by him. In this case, the Latin name
Limonia would still be a mere variant of Limonium, even though
derived indirectly from the barbarous word Limon.

Limonia then being invalid, the next oldest generic name must
be taken up. This is Feronia, published by Correa in 1800, the
name now commonly used.

Since the wood-apple was first published as Schinus Limonia
by Linnaeus in 1753, the oldest valid name of the wood-apple is
Feronia Limonia (L.) n. comb.

^ Cook, O. F. Nomenclature of the Sapote and the Sapodilla, in Contrib. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 16: 282 (no. 11, December 13, 1913).

' Linnaeus, C. Philosophia Botanica, p. 163, U 229, Stockholm., 1751.

^ Safford, W. E. The genus Annona: The derivation of its name and its taxo-
nomic subdivisions. This Journal 1: 118 (n. 4, September 19, 1911).

^ Limonia and Limonium were both used by Pliny as names of plants and were
derived from the Greek XeLfMoivla and \eiixuvLov, the feminine and neuter forms of
the adjective 'keificovios from "o 'Keiixdov a grassy plain, meadow, prairie. The Greeks
used both the feminine and the neuter forms as substantives, 'jj XeLfxuipla being a
kind of anemone, to XeinuvLov a Statice, both plants characteristic of meadows.
The feminine and neuter forms of the adjective were so differently accentuated
in Greek that there was no danger of confusing the two words when used as sub-
stantives. In Latin this difference in accent was lost and confusion rendered
possible. It is noteworthy that even in Greek only one of the similarly accented
masculine and neuter forms of the adjective (Xei^uwi'tos and XeL/xojvLov) was used as
a noun.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Mineral resources of southwestern Oregon. J. S. Diller.
U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 546. Pp. 147, 11 plates, 26
figures, maps, sections, and views. 1914.

The rocks of southwestern Oregon, the northern portion of the Kla-
math Mountains, with a northeast strike toward the Blue Mountains
are pre-Devonian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
Eocene to Pleistocene inclusive. Paleozoic and Mesozoic lavas and
intrusives, including greenstones, serpentines, granodiorites, and a
variet}' of dike rocks cut the crushed sediments. The fissuring was
general instead of being concentrated in narrow belts. The final veining
of the rocks and the accompanying ore deposition formed many small
though commonly rich ore bodies instead of a few large ones.

The deep weathering of the rocks durmg the late Mesozoic and Ter-
tiarj'- concentrated the heavier metals in the residual mantles that gave
much to the auriferous gravels of (1) the invadmg Cretaceous sea
(beaches) encircling the Klamath Mountains, (2) the enlivened streams
of the Klamath Peneplain, (3) streams of the Sherwood Peneplain, and
(4) streams of today. Under favoring conditions the deep weathering
of the later geologic periods ma}^ have contributed to the secondar}^
enrichment of the ''pockety deposits" for which southwestern Oregon
is well known.

The overturning of the folded strata and the overthrust of the Devo-
nian upon the Jurassic toward the sea on the northwest is apparently
a fundamental structural feature of the Klamath Mountains. J. S. D.

329

330 abstracts: mammalogy

PALEONTOLOGY. — The Upper Cretaceous and Eocene floras of South
Carolina and Georgia. Edward W. Berry. U. S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 84 Pp. 200, with maps, sections, a"nd
29 plates.. 1914.
Upper Cretaceous plants are found in the Middendorf arkose member
of the Black Creek formation in South Carolina. This member repre-
sents the initial phase of littoral and perhaps partly continental deposits
after the widespread interval that succeeded the Lower Cretaceous.
The flora contains 76 species in 49 genera, 36 families, and 26 orders and
is believed to indicate conditions comparable with those existing in the
warm temperate rain-forests of the present. The flora is part of an
association that extends from Texas throughout the Atlantic coastal
plain, reappearing in the Atane beds of western Greenland. It is shown
to have been contemporaneous with the deposition of the upper Tusca-
loosa formation of the eastern Gulf area and with the Magothy formation
of the northern Atlantic coastal plain and with a part of the Turonian
stage of European geology.

A somewhat similar but in part younger fossil flora is described from
the Eutaw and the basal beds of the Ripley formation in western Georgia.
The deposits range from littoral to marine and yield a total flora of 32
determinable species which indicate conditions essentially similar to
those mentioned for the Middendorf flora.

A small but highly interesting flora, is described from the Congaree
claj's of eastern Georgia. These are of middle Eocene age and are known
officially as the Congaree clay member of the McBean formation of
the Claiborne Group. The plants indicate that the deposits are to be
correlated with the Lutetian stage of the Paris basin. The flora contains
swamp ferns (Acrostichum) of tropical affinities and several types of
plants of modem mangrove associations, as well as palms and numerous
coastal types. It is fittingly compared with the existing costal floras of
southern peninsular Florida and Central America and furnishes exceed-
ingly important data for phylogenetic speculations, as well as for the
elucidation of the climatic and geologic history of the Mississippi embay-
ment area. E. W. B.

MAMMALOGY. — Treeshrews: An account of the inammalian family

Tupaiidae. Marcus Ward Lyon, jr. Proceedings of the U. S.

National Museum 45: 1-188, pis. 1-11, text figs. 1-15. November

29, 1913.

This extensive monograph of the insectivorous mammals included in

the family Tupaiidae is based on an examination of about 800 specimens.

abstracts: mammalogy 331

a great part of all the material preserved in the museums of the world.
The U. S. National Museum alone furnished 324 specimens, including
29 types, almost all of which were collected and presented by Dr. W.
L. Abbott.

The treeshrews are here divided into two subfamilies, one containing
the treeshrews proper, 5 genera, and the other only the aberrant pentail
(Ptilocercus), with two subspecies. The generic names Anathana for
the Indian species and Tana for the long-snouted Malay forms are new.
In the restricted typical genus Tupaia there are 48 forms, 5 of which are
new; in Anathana 3, 2 of which are new; in Tana 12, 6 new; and in the
Philippine Urogale only a single species. The remarkable pentail
shrew (Ptilocercus), though described in 1848, is still so rare in collections
that only twelve specimens are loio'^ni to the author.

In addition to the systematic account of the genera and species, the
paper includes a history of the animals, their discovery, systematic
history, geographical distribution, and habits. The osteology and
visceral anatomy are described at length. Details of the skull and teeth
of each genus are illustrated by text figures, and the external appearance,
the skeleton, and skulls of group's of species are shown on plates. The
geographical distribution of each form is shown by maps, and there are
extensive tables of measurements of specimens. N. Hollister.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 239th meeting was held jointly with the Baltimore Branch,
on May 2, 1914, at Johns Hopkins University. Dr. Penniman of the
Maryland Board of Health exhibited a vacuum regulator for distilla-
tion in vacuo. Discussed by Acree, Bunzel, Sosman, and others.

The following papers were read:

W. W. Randall, of the Maryland Board of Health: The determina-
tion of camphor m spirits of camphor. The method depends upon
the salting out of the camphor by concentrated solution of calcium
chloride, followed by its solution in a measured volume of gasoline,
and measurement of the volume of the resulting solution. The dissolv-
ing of camphor in gasoline is not accompanied by any change in total
volume. Discussed by Engelhard, Penniman, Caspari and Acree.

J. H. Shrader of the Gibbs Preserving Company: The reactions of
propyliodide with both the ions and the molecules of sodium phenolate.
Discussed by Bunzel, Acree, Sosman, Phelps.

F. M. BoYLES, Secretary Baltimore Branch.

The 240th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 14, 1914, at 8 :15
p.m. The follomng papers were read: R. C. Wells, of the Geological
Survey, The electromotive behavior of soluble sulfides. The speaker meas-
ured the potential of the sulfur ion in concentrations ranging from 10~^^
N to 0.09 N and worked out mathematical relationships correlating the
values obtained. The agreement between the calculated and observed
values for E is very good. The divalent sulfur ion is far more reducing
than even the iodine ion. The electromotive force measurements do not
show the existence of disulfides and trisulfides in polysulfides.

Discussion. Acree inquired about the constancy of the values obtain-
ed with the calomel electrode. It was stated that the experiments were
only made with an accuracy of 0.01 volt, so that the small fluctuation of
the calomel electrode could be overlooked. The calomel electrode is
rnuch more constant than the sulfur electrode.

S. F. Agree, of Johns Hopkins University: The reactions of both ions
and molecules of acids, bases and salts. The speaker studied about 30
reactions experimentally and as many more from the data of others, and
calculated separately the velocity constants of the reactions due to the
molecules and those due to the ions. This was done with widely varying
concentrations and at different temperatures. In all cases both ions
and molecules were sho\\Ti to enter into the reaction.

H. H. Bunzel, Acting Secretary.

332

proceedings: philosophical society 333

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 738th meeting was held on March 14, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
President Fischer in the chair; 60 persons present.

The evening was devoted to a symposium on photography. Mr.
E. D. TiLLYER spoke on Photographic lenses and plates. He discussed
the old and new types of glass used for lenses and described briefly the
methods of correcting for spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, curva-
ture of field, distorsion, and chromatic aberration. Various types and
combinations of photographic lenses were illustrated by lantern slides.
Requirements of plates for different purposes as regards emulsion, rapid-
it}'-, and grain were cUscussed. Paper was discussed by Mr. Humphreys.

Mr. K. Burns spoke on Astronomical photography and the Schumann
region. The Schumann region is so-called because before his investi-
gations observations could not be made in regions where wave lengths
are less than 1800 Angstrom units. For astronomical use plates must
usually be rapid at low intensities. The application of refractors and
reflectors to astronomical photography was discussed at length and
lantern slides shown of instruments and photographs of interesting
celestial regions. For wide fi«lds the refractor is limited by the coma.
The paper was chscussed by Messrs. Rines and Humphreys, particularly
as to photographs giving details of planetary surface markings.

Mr. F. E. Wright presented a paper on Color photography and illus-
trated his paper by some excellent specimens of this work. Color pho-
tography is based on Helmholz's trichromatic theory. Present practical
methods are three: By taking three exposures simultaneously through
three films, one red, one blue, and one green, and superimposing the three
negatives by use of prisms; by use of screen ruled alternately with red,
green, and blue lines about ^J-q inch apart; and Lumiere's method by use
of very small starch grains dyed red, green, and blue and mixed together
and mounted on back of sensitized plate, the back being placed next the
lens when photograph is taken. The slides exhibited were taken by the
second method. The paper was discussed b,y Messrs. Bauer, Priest,
TiLLYER, and Humphreys. At 10:05 the meeting adjourned.

The 739th meeting was held on March 28, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
President Fischer in the chair; 36 persons present.

Mr. R. Y. Ferner presented a paper on A reasonable performance of a
high grade watch . He outlined the methods of tests used in four prominent
foreign observatories and gave the criterions and tolerances by which the
performances of watches under test are judged. It was pointed out that
for the determination of the true quality of the position adjustment of a
watch it is desirable to eliminate, bj^ the method of test, the gradual
progressive change of rate which is evident in practicall}^ all watches.
Lantern slides giving curves of results of isochronism tests were shown,
and the desirability of this test pointed out. An outline of the test which
will be applied to watches at the Bureau of Standards was then shown,
together Avith the tolerances which have been adopted for the granting of

334 proceedings: philosophical society

certificates of the watches' performances. In conclusion, some results
of pocket tests of watches made by Mr. F. M. Bookwalter were shown
and the principal uses and value of a laboratory test in later use and care
of one's watch pointed out. The paper was discussed by Messrs.
Bowie, Fischer, and Wells.

Mr. W. P. White then spoke on Calorimeter jacket design The two
difficult features of calorimetric work are temperature measurement and
cooling rate determination. The more nearly the cooling rate is propor-
tional to change in temperature, the better is the result. The general
conclusion was reached that cooling rate has not so much to do mth
distance between two surfaces of calorimeter as with shape of cavity.
The paper was discussed by Mr. Dickinson.

Mr. W. Bowie communicated informally the initiation by the Cana-
dian government of an extended gravity survey of Canada. He also
stated that the Coast and Geodetic Survej^ has found that Western
Union noon time signals may be relied upon to 0!l ; this means that cost
of gravity work may be much reduced, there being no further need of
field time observations. At 10 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

The 740th meeting was held on April il, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
Vice-President Eichelberger in the chair; 42 persons present.

Mr. W. D. Lambert presented a paper entitled The motion of falling
bodies. The author discussed the effect of the Earth's rotation on the
motion of a body falhng from rest and particularly as regards the com-
ponent of the motion parallel to the plane of the meridian. The problem
was treated in two ways, first by considering the falling body as a satellite
of the Earth and, second, by the method of moving axes. The first method
is not limited to short intervals of time but neglects the effects of the
Earth's equatorial protuberance. If the displacement parallel to the
plane of the meridian be expanded in powers of time, t, and terms involv-
ing powers of co higher than ox^ be neglected, co being the angular velocity of
the Earth's rotation, then there is no term in the expansion with a
power of t lower than the sixth. The second method may be arranged
to take account of the Earth's ellipsoidal form, the changes in the direc-
tion of gravity being allowed for in successive approximations. The
second method verifies result of the first as to term in w and brings out a
very small southerly deviation (reckoned from the direction of gravity
at the starting point) due to the ellipsoidal form of the Earth. The result
may be analyzed in the following manner, speaking for the northern
hemisphere: The direction of gravity changes during the fall of the body,
first from the oliange in centrifugal force, which tends to give a northerly
deflection; second, from the change in attraction of the equatorial protu-
berance, which tends to give a southerly deflection. There is, however,
also a relatively large easte^'ly deflection, and the velocity with which
this takes place gives rise to an apparent force due to the Earth's rota-
tion and tending to swing the easterly deviation to the right (northward) ;
this is just sufficient to neutralize that arising from change in centrifugal
force and leaves outstanding that due to Earth's equatorial protuberance.

proceedings: philosophical society 335

The paper was discussed at some length by Mr. Woodward, particularly
as regards the surface of reference, and by Messrs. Bowie, Gray, and
Buckingham.

Mr. Bow^iE made a brief informal communication showing evidence
of nearly perfect isostasy in India from reductions at 14 gravity stations.

The usual hour of adjournment being at hand, it was moved and carried
to extend the time to permit the reading of the second paper of the
evening by Mr. W. J. Humphreys On thunder storms. The author
discussed the mechanism of storms and applied in this connection the
conclusion from W. Simpson's work in India that electricity with rain is
essentially positive. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides showing,
among other things, in particular the barometric conchtions accompany-
ing different types of storms. At 10 :50 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

The 741st meeting was held on May 9, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
President Fischer in the chair; 30 persons present.

Mr. L. W. Austin spoke on Recent experiments in the reception of radio-
telegraphic signals. The greatest obstacle not 3^et overcome in wireless
signaling is the presence of atmospheric disturbances which confuse and
often drown out signals being received; this difficulty is becoming greater
as the receiving apparatus is becoming more sensitive. The author
described methods to do away with this disturbance and in particular
recent experiments Avith tuning spark apparatus. The most recent and
interesting development is the improved oscillating audion and am-
pliphone of De Forest. The paper was discussed by Messrs. White,
Bowie, Bauer, Humphreys, Marvin and Bellinger as to automatic
receiving apparatus, greater facility of transmission for north-south than
east-west direction, latest ideas of causes of atmospheric chsturbances,
height of path, and amount of energy expended in sending, compared
with amount received. Mr. Austin stated there seemed to be no certain
e\'idence as to greater ease of transmission in any particular direction;
the disturbances are of local type and those at a distance, as discharges
between clouds ; there has been no close connection noted between weather
and receiving conditions.

Mr. R. A. Harris then spoke On periodic quantities, especially motions.
This communication was concerned with a series or aggregation of
periodic terms, or with several such series considered simultaneously.
A term of the form 06*'^"* + "^ is regarded as representing the simplest
kind of periodic function because as t increases uniformly the function of
t represented will describe a circle about its origin at a uniform rate.
When there are several such terms, additional concepts arise, as ampli-
tude ratios, speed differences, relative phases, and quantities in which
these concepts are involved. A series of terms having the imaginary
exponential form represents epicyclic motion. The simultaneous use
of two series of terms where both commensurable and incommensurable
speeds occur is exemplified in the new tide-predicting machine. Three
series of periodic terms are suitable for space in general. At 10:10 p.m.
the meeting adjourned.

336 proceedings: anthropological society

The 742d meeting was held on May 23, 1914, at the Cosmos Club, Vice-
President Burgess in the chair; 27 persons present.

Mr. E. Buckingham presented a paper on The iiiterpretation of experi-
jnents on models. The speaker began by deducing a general theorem
regarding the form which physical equations must have in order to
satisfy the requirement of dimensional homogeneity. The theorem may
])e stated as follows: If a relation subsists among a number of physical
quantities, and if we form all the possible independent dimensionless
products of powers of these quantities, any equation which describes
the relation is reducible to the statement that some unknown function
of these dimensionless products, taken as independent arguments, must
vanish. The method of determining the number and forms of these
products was explained. This theorem may be regarded as a convenient
general summary of the requirement of dimensional homogeneity. It
may be looked at from various standpoints and utilized for various
purposes. The speaker gave several illustrative examples to show the
practical operation of the theorem. The paper was discussed by Messrs.
Hersey, White, Burgess, and Humphreys.

Mr. G. K. Burgess spoke informally on The allotropy of iron, calling
attention to recent advances made with particular reference to jS-iron.
The communication was discussed by Mr. White.

Mr. W. J. Humphreys spoke informally on Is lightning discharge of
direct or oscillatory characterf The speaker concludes that it cannot be
oscillatory. The communication was discussed by Messrs. White,
Agnew, and C. A. Briggs. At 10 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 472d regular meeting of the Society held at the National
Museum, Tuesday, February 17, 1914, at 4:30 o'clock, Mr. J. N. B.
Hewitt gave an address entitled. The psychology of the myth. A myth is
the utterance of savage man; it is a naive creative concept. A myth
treats of one or more of the "elder people," the familiar "first people,"
whom men of later times call "the gods." The subject-matter of myths
is not human activity; for none relate to human beings, and none treat of
things done since the appearance of man on earth. A myth is fictitious
only in form and letter; but it is true in substance and spirit; truth is
eternal, universal.

In terms of human form, attribute and activity, myths explain from
the premises of their makers in just what manner the present order of
things arose from one or more antecedent orders of things, and just how
the present order is maintained.

The epos is the later dress or adornment of the mythos concept in
poetic form as legend, saga, or story.

The logos is the still later literary criticism — the analytic and synthetic
treatment — of the mj^thos and the epos; it is the intelhgent, interpreta-
tive analysis and exegesis of the concept expressed by the mythos; it is

PROCEEDIXGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 337

logical, scientific ; so mj-thology may be defined as the logic of the mythos.
The first men had only mj^ths; and whether as cosmogony or as religion
they were final, conclusive.

Hence, mythos and epos and logos, all translatable as word, represent
three well-defined stages of human tliought in the development of opin-
ions. Whatever, therefore, the ultimate terms or concepts may be in
which man may define his gods, the process of his reasoning is always
quite thesame; the "unknown" is defined, though perhaps, unconsciously,
in terms of the "knovsTi;" but the "known" quantity here is man, what-
ever this concept may signify at the time and place.

The phenomena, the bodies and the processes of nature are personified,
and so humanized — a process of thought which is called anthropomor-
phism. So that all powers and functions and attributes characteristic of
man — no matter whether good or evil — are ascribed to the gods in a
more or less idealized form. Not only this, but the arts of men and the
social and religious institutions of men are in like manner unconsciously
attributed to the gods ; and so the social and the religious institutions of the
gods are ever an exact reflex of the human society over which these self-
same gods preside.

By so doing, men give, in their myths and epics, though unconsciously
perhaps, a faithful picture of the early cufture and civilization of their
own ancestors. In this manner, in brief, the gods in later times become
the revealers of all history, the divine teachers of the arts and the crafts,
and the founders of the institutions — human and divine — of a people.
Here is found the true source of prophecy and inspiration; for these
divine beings are the offspring of the interaction of the powers and the
bodies and the phenomena of nature and the mind of man in its three-fold
activities — the conscious, the subconscious and the superconscious.
(Author's abstract.)

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was
held Tuesday, March 3, 1914, at 4.30 p.m., in the new National Museum
Building, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair; 37 persons present.

Mr. W. E. Safford, Economic Botanist of the Department of Agri-
culture, read a paper on The pan-pipes of ancient Ptru. Several speci-
mens and figures on vases were shown and compared with ancient
syrinxes, or fistulas, from Greece and Rome. (See this Journal, 4 : 183-
191. April 19, 1914.)

At a special meeting of the Society held March 4, 1914, at the National
Museum, Dr. A. B. Lewis gave an address on his Travels in the South
Seas and New Guijiea, illustrated with excellent lantern slides. The
four years of 1909-1913 were spent in the South Pacific in the interest
of the Field IMuseum of Natural History, Chicago, studjdng the natives
and collecting ethnological material. The region chiefl}- concerned was
in Melanesia, which includes the island groups extending northwest from
Fiji and New Caledonia through the New Hebrides and Solomon Islands
to New Guinea. Many of these islands are large and mountainous,

338 proceedings: anthropological society

covered with a dense tropical forest, and only partially explored. Though
all are claimed by different European powers, only the smaller islands
and the coasts of the larger are under control. The traveler is perfectly
safe, however, except in a few regions which are well known. Transpor-
tation is the great difficulty, and if one Avishes to get away from the few
settlements it must be by small launches or sailing craft belonging to the
scattered traders and planters, or by native canQes. In one of the last
the speaker traveled more than 100 miles, stopping at the native villages,
sleeping in the native huts, with only natives as attendants and guides.
The condition at present varies much in the different islands; Fiji is
the most civilized. The natives of Fiji are all professing Christians and
read and write their own language. Excepting the ordinary things of
everyday life, there is little of the old left. The native Fijian population
is about 90,000 and the European 3,500, while there are 40,000 to 50,000
Indian coolies on the sugar plantations. Industrially, Fiji is far in
advance of any of the other groups. New Caledonia was for years a
French penal colony, and the natives are reduced to about 30,000 living
on reservations, much as our American Indians. The New Hebrides are
under the joint rule of France and England, but some of the large islands
are still wild and unsafe. To the ethnologist, Malekula is the most
interesting. Over twenty languages are spoken on this one island, to say
nothing of dialects. The natives, houses, and dancing grounds, with
huge carved drums and wooden figures, were illustrated by views. The
Solomon Islands are mostly English, but two are under Germany.
Including missionaries, there are probably not over three hundred Euro-
peans in the group. Some of the islands still are unsafe, even to land on
the shore, except where there is a mission station or government post.
New Guinea is the largest and most interesting island of all. Except
Greenland, it is the largest in the world, and the least loiown; for while
even Greenland has been crossed several times. New Guinea has never
been crossed except near the ends, where quite narrow. More time was
spent on New Guinea than anywhere else. A considerable portion of the
coast was visited and short trips were made toward the interior. There
are but few Europeans in New Guinea, the greater number (about 1000)
being in the British portion of the island, known officially as Papua.
A considerable number of these are gold diggers. In German New
Guinea (Kaiser-Wilhelmsland) there are about 200 Europeans, and in
the Dutch portion not over 50. The old condition of warfare among the
natives has been stopped as far as the government can extend its
influence. The natives, as a rule, are friendly and hospitable. Many
weeks were spent alone with them in their villages, with only native
attendants. The habits, customs, and general appearance of the natives,
while similar in general aspects, vary greatly in detail. Views illustrating
the native villages, the people themselves with their characteristic dress
and ornaments, and phases of native life, were shown from a number of
different places, so that a general idea of their character and variety
could be obtained.

proceedings: anthropological society 339

At the 473d regular meeting of the Society, held March 17, at the
National Museum, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes delivered an address, illus-
trated with lantern slides, on his Egyptian experiences. He considered
especially the significance of certain parallelisms in cultural objects of
the Stone Age of Egj^pt and the Gila Valley, Arizona. These resem-
blances he ascribed in part to the influence of an artificial system of
irrigation in the evolution of an agricultural stage in development.

Dr. Fewkes began with an accomit of the unique shape and cultural
isolation of the Nile Valley in Neolithic times and showed how man was
isolated by deserts which protected him from outside marauders. His
social advancement at the dawn of history, mainly due to the influx of
foreign ideas from the East, can be traced to the cooperation between
clusters of villages or nomes, this union having been effected in order to
irrigate more effectually the narrow valley of the Nile. The cooperation
of the rulers of Neolithic Egypt led to a ruler over all, a Great House, or
Pharaoh, who later became King of Upper and Lower Egypt. To this
cooperation in constructing irrigation ditches may be traced a system of
enforced labor or corvee in which the Pharaoh not only acquired all
cultivated land, and the water which alone made agriculture possible,
but also controlled all labor of the inhabitants. To these rights acquired
from the rulers of the nomes in very early times may be traced the
powers exercised in constructing the magnificent monuments that
are the world's wonders.

In Neolithic Egypt, there was a succession of villages strung along the
river, each independent of the other, like a cluster of pueblos in Arizona.
The remains of architectural constructions at this early epoch still remain
and are sometimes, as at El Kab, well preserved. They are rectangular,
massive, walled forts with an encircling wall of clay not unlike the com-
pounds at Casa Grande and the Great Houses elsewhere on the Gila.
Within these enclosures in Egypt and Arizona were mud or clay built
temples, public buildings, and houses of priests, while around them were
clusters of rude hovels in which lived the people like the present
Egv'ptians.

The dead were buried in neighboring mounds, placed with the knees
drawn to the chin and surrounded by mortuary offerings. These graves
were rude excavations with floor of straw and roof of mud and boughs.
]\Iany resemblances between archaeological objects from the Stone Age
in Egypt and the Gila Valley were pointed out. Among these are wea-
pons, stone implements, pottery and its symbolic decorations, flat basket
trays, bone and other specimens.

Certain common conditions of environment and the necessity for
artificial irrigation had led the Stone Age people of different races without
connections, to develop a parallel culture.

At a special meeting of the Society held March 24 at the National
Museum, Dr. Albert Hale, of the Pan-American Union, addressed
the Society on Modern Argentina, illustrating his remarks with lantern
slides.

340 proceedings: anthropological society

After a description of the geographic relations of the Rio de la Plata
region, with an outline of its ethnical and anthropological conditions, the
speaker traced the history of Argentina only so far as it had an immediate
bearing upon material progress, and then gave a comprehensive survey
of the republic as at present, — its principal cities, its industries, its
products, and its activities. One of the interesting features about the
republic is that in it is repeated a development quite comparable to that
which has been so characteristic of the United States in North America.
In fact, this immense area in South America is the one most easily under-
stood by the Anglo-Saxon who looks back upon the history of material
progress and conquest in his own country.

The ethnical elements of the population may be studied in the immi-
gration statistics of Argentina more satisfactorily than in its census.
In fact, no census has been taken since 1895, when the total population
was 3,954,911. In 1911 it was estimated to be over 7,000,000. The
total number of immigrants arriving in the years 1857-1912 was 4,248,-
355. It is interesting to note that more than half this number, or 2,133,-
508, were Italians. The Spaniards were scarcely more than half as
numerous as the Italians, or 1,298,122. Other European races were repre-
sented by much smaller numbers than these. The French numbered
only 206,912 and the ''Russians" 136,659. Next to these came a race
from Western Asia, the Syrians, with a total of 109,234; then the " Aus-
trians" and "Germans" with 80,736 and 55,068, respectively. The
"Britons" numbered nearly as many as the "Germans," or 51,660.
The Swiss, Belgians, and Portuguese numbered about 20,000 or 30,000
each; the Danes and Dutch 7000 each; the "North Americans" 5500;
the Swedes 1700, and "others" 79,251.

The relative proportions of ItaHans and Spaniards arriving during
the last year of this period, 1912, were about the same as during the
entire period, or 165,662 of the former to 80,583 of the latter. It is
worthy of note that the "Russians" and Sjrrians rose to the next two
places in the list, with a total for the year of about 20,000 each. No
doubt the "Russians" and "Austrians" in Argentina, as in the United
States, are largely Poles and Slavs of other races than the true Russian,
together with a certain proportion of Hebrews. The ' ' North Americans' '
arriving during 1912 numbered about 500. The total immigration for
the year was 323,403.

A high tide of immigration reached Argentina at about the same
period as the United States, in the decade 1881-1890, when a grand total
of 846,568 immigrants arrived in Argentina. This number was, how-
ever, exceeded in the last half -decade, 1906-1910, when 1,238,073
arrived in Argentina, or a larger proportion than came to the United
States during that period.

At a special meeting of the Society, held April 7, at the National
Museum, Senor F. A. Pezet, Minister of Peru, read a paper on
Contrasts in the develo-pment of nationality in Latin and Anglo-America.
Each of these populations, he said, has its special traits of charac-

proceedings: anthropological society 341

ter, born with the individual or developed through the environment.
He first considered the relative conditions, at the time of the dis-
covery, of the territories now known as the United States and Latin
America; and, second, the type of the first settlers. The discoverers
found Latin-American territories organized into semi-civilized states but
Anglo-American territory occupied by savages. Two very different
types came to America. The Anglo-Americans were oppressed and
persecuted by religious intolerance; the Latin Americans were adven-
turous soldiers of fortune. The former came to build up new homes ; the
latter, to tear down, to destroy, and to carry away everything they
could lay their hands upon. The first Latin Americans were valiant,
but ignorant and unscrupulous, principally from a country where religious
bigotry was rampant. They were an admixture of virtues and vices
and in marked contrast to the men who came to the shores of Ncav
England. Whereas the Anglo-Americans acquired the land as settlers
and drove the natives westward, the Latin-American military forces
overthrew native governments and established themselves as the govern-
ing class, reducing the Indians often to slavery.

While the Anglo-American settlers brought their families, the Latin
Americans did not until many years after the Conquest, but took to
themselves Indian women. The offspring became the "mestizos," a
mixed race that the pure Castilians of Spain never countenanced.
Later the Creoles came into existence, the offspring of European parents
born in America. The mixing of races was finally encouraged by the
Spanish monarchy, the idea being to create a great middle class of uni-
form race. Soldiers were allowed a great amount of hberty. Before
1800 A.D. the mestizo population of Peru exceeded 25O,0OO. While
some mestizos received an education and were brought up with Creole
children, most were kept in ignorance. Wliile Anglo-Americans readily
acquired the art of self-government, the Latin-American peoples cUd not ;
they knew how to rule, not how to govern. So, for more than two
centuries, the Europeans and the Creoles ruled the mestizos and the
Indians. The mestizo is nearer the Caucasian than the Indian ; physi-
cally and moralh'^ he is superior to the Indian. Although of less active
intelligence than the European or the Creole, he is more strong-willed
and painstaking. In the early days the mestizo who had one parent of
rank was placed on an equal footing with the Creole; but as the mestizos
became more numerous, the Spaniards began to distrust them and pre-
vented them from obtaining certain social positions or much education.
All these years the Indians were oppressed, even by the mestizos. After
two hundred j^ears of hatred and distrust these elements eventually, out
of sheer exhaustion, became apparently reconciled to their respective
conditions. The colonial nationality, which was finally evolved, was
thus formed of Creoles and mestizos and might have been a beneficent
one if it had had time to develop. Ideas of republicanism were adopted
from the United States and from France without preparation for self-
government, such as the people of the United States had. In the later
nationality of the Latin-American countries there were, therefore, racial

342 proceedings: anthropological society

divisions: The Creoles and the Spaniards formed the governing class;
the mestizos strove to be on an equal footing with these; and, a long way
down in the social scale, came the Indians, considered inferior even to
the African slaves. The same laxity permitted the mixing of the African
with the other races. The Indian population, so long neglected, is now
a matter of deep concern in many of the Latin- American countries; for
example, in Peru, where there is a larger percentage of pure Indian and of
mestizo blood.

At a special meeting of the Society, held April 14 at the National
Museum, Mr. S. M. Gronberger read a paper on The origin of the
Goths. The ancient home of the Goths was undoubtedly situated, he
said, on both the northern and southern shores of the Baltic, and at the
beginning of the Christian era this people had settled chiefly along the
river Vistula in northeastern Germany. Previous to the Christian era,
another division of this race had immigrated into Scandinavia (about
200-300 B.C.) probably across the Danish isles. Somewhat later, at the
time of the earliest Gothic movement southward, about 215 A.D., the
migrants were probably joined by their Scandinavian brethren who emi-
grated from "Scandza" (mentioned by Jordanes, the Gothic historian),
and to this period the Gothic saga of Jordanes should be assigned.
This emigration of the Goths from Scandinavia was probably due to
some signal defeat in the savage warfare then carried on by them with
the Swedes or "Svear" of the Scandinavian peninsula. Names of
regions and localities in Scandinavia testify to their association with the
Goths, and the names of Ostrogoths, or East Goths, and Visigoths, or
West GothS, are recognized in the Sweden of today. Mediaeval Swed-
ish history tells of constant conflicts between the Swedes and Goths,
the latter of whom were the more ancient inhabitants. The two races
are now merged together and constitute the modern Swedish nation.
The Anglo-Saxon poem ''Beowulf," by an unknown author, furnishes
powerful testimony as to the early home of the Goths in the Scandina-
vian peninsula and the Danish islands. The Baltic island of Gotland
received its name from the Goths, and great numbers of Roman and
Byzantine coins and other objects which have been unearthed in that
island afford further proof of the Scandinavian migrations. In addition
to Jordanes, Cassiodorus, upon whose history that of the first named was
based, Tacitus, Procopius, and Paulus Diaconus, not to mention the
earhest though doubtful evidence of Pytheas of Massilia (now Marseille),
who had the advantage of having personally visited the regions he de-
scribed, testified to the Scandinavian or Baltic origin of the Goths.
The most ancient tradition relating to the Goths was that they had
come originally from Asia, the cradle of mankind, by way of south-
eastern Europe under the leadership of their legendary hero and deity,
Odin, or Wothan.

One of the most remarkable runic inscriptions in Scandinavia is that
of the so-called Rok stone, located in western Ostrogothia, Sweden,
which is of great importance in connection with the early history of the

proceedings: anthropological society 343

Goths. It contains an epitaph and dates back to 830-840 A.D., or the
time of the introduction of Christianity into Scandinavia by St. Ansgar.
The inscription contains an allusion to Theodoric the Great, who
ruled as Ostrogothic King of Italy. Another part of the inscription
refers to four kings of the Danish island of Zealand. The names of
these four, who were brothers, and their sons, can be identified with
names mentioned in Jordanes' saga. The Rok runic inscription affords
one of the most important fragments of historical evidence connecting
the Ostrogothic kindgom of Italy with the Goths of Scandinavia, and
contains more points of resemblance with Jordanes' saga than any
known historic source.

The evidence of relationship between the Gothic and Scandinavian
languages, found in the modern Germanic and Scandinavian tongues, is
also of great importance. The most essential point of resemblance
between these languages is the mutual retention in certain cases of "gg"
before "w" and "J" ("ggj"was changed into "ddj" in Gothic); as, forin-
stance, in the genitive plural Old Enghsh tweza (two), Danish twaeggie,
Gothic twaddje, modern Swedish twegge. Compare also the English true
with Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian trygg, Icelandic tryggr, Gothic
triggws.

At the adjourned •474th regular and 35th annual meeting of the Society
held at 4 o'clock. May 5, at the National Museum, Dr. Edgar J. Banks,
field director of an expedition to Babylonia in 1903-1905 under the
auspices of the Universit}^ of Chicago, read a paper, illustrated with
lantern slides, on Bismya; or, the Lost City of Adab. Bismya flourished
in central Babylonia throughout a period of two thousand years pre-
vious to 2000 B.C. The mounds extend a mile or more along the bed
of an ancient canal, about halfway between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers, and five days' journey south of Bagdad. The highest of the
mounds reach about fifty feet above the level of the desert. The surface
is covered with pottery fragments. The workmen employed were
Arabs of the hostile Bedier tribe. An agreement was entered into with
the chief of the tribe to emploj^ workmen only from him, and in return he
promised to protect the excavators from the depredations of surrounding
tribes. At the head of each gang was a piclonan who loosened the dirt
and searched through it for antiquities. With him were two scrapers
with triangular hoes with which they scraped the dirt into baskets.
The scrapers received sixteen cents a day and the basket men twelve, but
the pay of each man was doubled for the day on which he found an anti-
quity of value. Near the surface were found bricks of the temple wall
having on their under side the inscription of Dungi, King of Ur, of about
2200 B.C., and below them bricks bearing his father's name, Ur-Engur.
At a lower level was found a gold inscription of Naram-Sin and bricks of
his father Sargon, the first known Semitic kings, of about 2800 B.C.
Until recently the date of these kings was supposed to be about a
thousand years earlier.

344 proceedings: anthropological society

Beneath the ruins representing these Semitic kings were the traces of
the earher civihzation of the Sumerians, a cultured people who had
occupied Mesopotamia for several thousand years. From them the
wedge-shaped characters of the language and many of the Semitic reli-
gious forms were borrowed. An important discovery was a perfect,
large marble statue of a Sumerian king called Lugal Da-udu of about
four thousand years before the Christian era. Large numbers of stone
vase fragments were found; some were inscribed with the names of the
kings of the fifth millennium before Christ; others were engraved with
intricate designs; and a few of them were inlaid with ivory and bright
stones. One bore the picture of the temple power; one had the oldest
representation of a musical instrument known to exist. Far down the
shaft was discovered a long spike of pure copper terminating in a
crouching lion. Lowest down, on the undisturbed desert level, were
found large numbers of pottery fragments, showing that perhaps fifteen
thousand years ago a people with considerable civilization occupied that
spot. An ancient Sumerian crematory was found. It was a circular
chamber with an oval platform connected with a furnace. The ashes
of the dead were brushed into the pit beneath the platform. The
Semite dead were buried in small house-like tombs of sun-dried bricks.
In these were found the pottery to contain food and drink for the spirits
of the dead, the jewelry of the women, and the seal cylinders of the men.
Several palaces were found and in them small collections of clay tablets
containing the business documents of the people. In one large chamber
were about five thousand of the tablets in a heap. In the residential
portion of the city were found the very narrow winding streets lined with
houses of but a single room. Many of the houses were provided with
vertical drains reaching into the ground forty feet or more, and with
cisterns. Frequently there had survived the oven in which the bread
was baked, the mortar for pounding the grain, the images of the house-
hold gods which were supposed to drive away disease, the toys of the
children, the needles and knives of the women, and many other things
necessary to life in those days. A public bath was found in the residen-
tial section of the city, provided with a vertical drain beneath the floor of
bitumen, a furnace for heating the water, and a cistern high up in the
building. The people of Bismya were among the oldest who have left
us evidences of a highly developed civilization, and the first occupants
of the place, ten or fifteen thousand years ago, were as civilized as the
present occupants of the surrounding desert.

Mr. James Mooney was elected President of the Society for the ensuing
.year, and the following officers were re-elected: Vice-President, Dr.
John H. Swanton; Secretary, Dr. Daniel Folkmar; Treasurer, Mr. J. N.
B. Hewitt; Councilors: Mr. Fehx Neumann, Dr. I. M. Casanowicz,
and Mr. Francis LaFlesche.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV JULY 19, 1914 No. 13

METEOROLOGY. — American temperatures and European rain-
fall. W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau.

It appears to be very definitely established that the average
temperature over the entire earth varies from year to year, that
it tends to follow inversely the sun spot cycle — to be lowest at
spot maxima and highest at spot minima; that it is invariably
decreased by the presence of volcanic dust in the high atmos-
phere; and that actually it follows closely the resultant of these
two influences. 1 If then the average temperature over the earth
does vary, it would seem logically certain that many if not all
other meteorological elements, such as evaporation (increases
with temperature), total precipitation (equals total evaporation),
amount of cloudiness, thunderstorm frequency, barometric pres-
sure, total wind movement, and the like, together with all the
things that they in turn affect, must also vary according to the
same period. But in the case of natural phenomena it often
happens that, owing to unsuspected imperfections in the premises,
there are surprising differences between the '' logically certain"
and the ''statistically sure." Hence the above inter-relations,
however certain one may feel as to what they ''ought" to be, are
being examined statistically as rapidly as possible, and several
interesting results, all confirmatory of natural and simple deduc-
tions, have already been obtained, though the investigation as a
whole is scarcely more than begun.

' Abbot and Fowle. Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith-
sonian Institution, 3: 211. 1913. Humphreys, Journal Franklin Institute, 177:
131. 1913. Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, 6: 1. 1913.

345

346 HUMPHREYS: AMERICAN TEMPERATURES

One of the most interesting of the inter-relations between cli-
matological factors so far shown by this study is the close relation
between the annual average temperature of the eastern United
States and the total annual precipitation over a large portion of
northern Europe. Since the prevailing winds across the North
Atlantic are from America to Europe it would seem that when the
annual average temperature of the eastern United States is high
these winds should reach Europe relatively heavily laden with
moisture (evaporation increases rapidly with increase of tempera-
ture) and give to it a correspondingly large annual total precipi-
tation. On the other hand, when the annual average tempera-
ture of the eastern United States is below normal one might
reasonably expect the corresponding annual precipitation of
Europe also to be below its normal.

This argument is exactly the same as that which would lead
us to anticipate an increase of world-wide precipitation following
a universal, or practically universal, increase in the average
temperature; but as it applies to well known and restricted regions
it is far more easily tested statistically. To this end the averages
were taken for each year from 1874 to 1913, inclusive, of the
annual average temperatures of 30 rather evenly scattered United
States Weather Bureau stations east of the 90th meridian, and the
results compared with the average of the annual precipitations
at 21 stations widely scattered over Germany. The temperature
data were furnished by the Climatological Division of the U. S.
Weather Bureau, Mr. P. C. Day in charge; and the rainfall data
from 1874 to 1900, inclusive, were obtained from Hellmann's
Die Niederschlage in den Norddeutschen Stromgebieten, volume
1, pages 336 and 337. The subsequent precipitation data were
derived from official meteorological publications relative to the
same stations in the library of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Both
sets of data, the temperature and the rainfall, were ''smoothed"
according to the equation, commonly used for this purpose,

,, _ q + 26 + c
4

in which b' is the "smoothed" value for the year in question,

BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS

347

and a, b, and c the observed values, respectively, for the next
preceding, the actual and the next succeeding year.

—

14 JJ 78 JI M 7« IMO »l Kl M H U « «7 n » imi •■ *2 n M *S M M .M M inO l>l 08 Ul M <U Ot DT («■ W lOlO IJ 11 li

—

'li

1.

-J

-^

s

-^

St

/

/*

--

-~.

>

^

->

/

/

\

\

/

h

^..-''

(

-II

1

/

\\

1

K^

."^

-<,

■'

^^

^

/'

n

,

■'/

1

/

/

/

\

^

y

\

\

J

y

^^\

/'■

.-'

Ky

1

^/

:^^^

/'

\^

,

V-

J-

\

y

CUROPCAN RAIN TALL —

_

V

'

vJ

>^

, ^

'

'

'

Fig. 1.

The results of this study are represented graphically by the
two ''smoothed" curves of the accompanying illustration, the one
of American (eastern United States) temperatures, the other of
European (Gemian) rainfall, or, rather, water equivalent of the
total precipitation. Obviously, as the curves show, in this case
at least, the statistical results fully support and confirm the pre-
vious logical deduction, namely: That high annual average tem-
peratures in America must lead to correspondingly heavy precipi-
tation in Europe and, conversely, that persistently low average
American temperatures must be accompanied by more or less
correspondingly light European precipitation.

In addition to the rainfall of Germany that of the north slope
of the Alps, and also of Holland, were independently examined,
and, as might have been suspected, all three found to vary in
substantially the same manner.

As above implied, this result is only an earnest of the many
important meteorological inter-relations which the complete
investigation may reasonably be expected to reveal.

PHYSICS. — Physically similar
Bureau of Standards.

systems. E. Buckingham,

1. Let n physical quantities, Q, of n different kinds, be so
related that the value of any one is fixed by the values of the
others. If no further quantity is involved in the phenomenon
characterized by the relation, the relation is complete and may be
described by an equation of the form

(1)

y^MQ'",Q\- 0> = 0

348 BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS

in which the coefficients M are dimensionless or pure numbers.
No purely arithmetical operator, such as log or sin can be applied
to an operand which is not a pure number; and whenever functions
that are not expressible as sums of terms of the form (1) occur in
physical equations, their arguments are always dimensionless
numbers. The results of the indicated operations are therefore
also dimensionless numbers, and such functions, when they
appear, may be included in the dimensionless coefficients M.

2. Upon dividing equation (1) through by any term we have

i + X^QTQT • • • q:« = 0 (2)

All the terms of a physical equation must have the same dimen-
sions, and the A'''s are of zero dimensions; hence the exponents a,
of each term, must be such that a dimensional equation

[qT QT • ■ ■ QT] = [1] (3)

is satisfied.

Let TT represent any dimensionless product of the form defined

by equation (3). Then tt"^ is also dimensionless; and if tti, 7r2,

TT,- are all the independent dimensionless products which can be
made by combining powers of the Q's, equation (2) may still
satisfy the dimensional requirement by having the more general
form

1+ ^NtI'tI' • • • • T^' =0 (4)

Since the number of terms and the values of the A^'s and x's
are indeterminate, the S is merely some entirely unknown function

of the independent arguments iri, tto, ir^. Hence the most

general form that equation (1) can have, subject to the dimen-
sional conditions, is

^/ (tTi, tTs, • • • • TTi) = 0 (5)

3. Let k be the number of fundamental units needed in an abso-
lute system for measuring the n kinds of quantity: then among
the n units required, there is always at least one set of k which
are independent and not derivable from one another, and which
might therefore be used as fundamental units, the remaining

BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS 349

(n—k) being derived from them. Let [Qi],.---[Q/k] be such a set,
and let [QA.+i]v-[Qn] be denoted by [Pi],....[P„_J. Each unit
[P] is connected with or derivable from the [Q] 's by a dimensional
equation which may be written in the form

[Qrol ■■■■Qip] = m (6)

Since there are (n — k) of the P's, there are (n — k) independent
equations of this sort, and no more.

If in equation (6) we substitute for [P] and the [Q]'s their
dimensional equivalents in terms of any convenient fundamental
units — which will necessarily be k in number — the requirement
that the exponent of each fundamental unit shall vanish separately
furnishes k independent linear equations which suffice for the
determination of the exponents a, /S, etc. If, after determining
these exponents for any particular [P], we set

- = QrQf • • • q:p (7)

T satisfies the condition of being a dimensionless product of the
required form. There are (n — k) independent equations of the
form (6), one for each of the quantities P, and the same number of
independent tt's; hence i = n — k.

4. We have hitherto confined our attention to a relation among
quantities that are all of different kinds. If several quantities of
any one kind are involved in the relation to be described, they may
all be specified by the value of any one and the ratios r', r" , etc.,
of the others to that one. Dimensional considerations cannot
tell us anything about the manner in which these dimensionless
ratios r appear in the equation which describes the relation; but
their possible influence must be indicated, and this may be done
in an entirely general way by introducing them as additional
independent arguments of the unknown function ^. The limita-
tion imposed by the requirement of dimensional homogeneity
upon the possible forms of physical equations may therefore be
conveniently summarized in the following statement :

Any complete physical equation which describes a relation sub-
sisting among quantities of n different kinds, of which k kinds are

350 BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS

independent and not derivable from one another, is reducible to
the form

^ (tti, t2, ■ • ■ Tn-k, r', r", ■ ■ etc.) = 0 (8)

in which the r 's are all the independent ratios of quantities of the
same kind, and each ir is determinable from an equation of the
form

W] = [Q^Q'2 ■ ■ • -QlPJ-i-^] (9)

The independent arguments of ^ in equation (8), including
both the tt's and the r's, are all the independent dimensionless
products of powers of all the quantities involved in the relation,
whether of different kinds or not. If the whole number of quanti-
ties is h, the number of these independent arguments is (h — k).
Hence any complete physical equation is reducible to the form

^ (Zi, X„ X,_,) (10)

in which the X's are all the possible independent dimensionless
combinations of powers of all the quantities involved.

5. In practice, the r 's are evident upon inspection of the whole
list of quantities; there is therefore no occasion for finding them
from equations of the form (9) , and equation (8) is more conven-
ient than the symmetrical form (10), which does not distinguish
between the r's, which are pure ratios with absolute numerical
values, and the expressions r which, while dimensionless and inde-
pendent of the sizes of the fundamental units of our system, do
depend on the definitions according to which the derived and
fundamental units of the absolute system are connected.

It often happens that one or more of the tt's are also evident
upon inspection. In this event, only the remaining tt's need be
found by the routine process of solving equation (9) for the ex-
ponents.

When the solution of equation (9) results in a value of t which
is inconvenient to write, we are at liberty to replace the expression
found, by any function of itself: for this new expression will still
be dimensionless and independent of the other t 's. This remark
enables us to dispense with the fractional exponents which some-
times result from the solution of equation (9) .

BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS 351

6. If equation (8) is solved for any one of the tt's, e.g. tti it may
be written in the form

Pi = QIQ\ ■ ■ ■ Ql f (X2, 7r3, • • • 7r„_„ r', r", . . • ) (11)
in which

a = — ai, 6 = — /3i, etc.

If it is desired to obtain an equation of the form (11) with a par-
ticular quantity Pi appearing separately and in the first member
only, it is evident that this quantity must, from the start, be
excluded from the list of quantities to be used as the [Q]'s in
equation (9) . It will then act as a [P], will appear in only a single
X, and will be separable.

Equation (8) may also, of course, be solved for any one of the
r 's, such as r' , and put into the form

r' = ^ (xi, TTs, • • • Tn-k, r", r'", ■ ■ etc.) (12)

which is sometimes useful.

7. Since equation (11) contains an unknown function (p, the
form of which can not be found by dimensional reasoning, the
equation does not give us any definite information in the general
case when all the quantities involved in the second member vary
arbitrarily. If, however, all the r's are held constant; and if the
variations of the Q's and of Po,....Pn-k are not entirely arbitrary
but subjected to the (n—k — 1) conditions that 7r2,....x„_A; shall
remain constant; then we do have a definite statement of the
dependence of Pi on the Q's. For under these circumstances,
although its general form remains unknown, the function cp de-
generates into a dimensionless constant N, because its arguments
are all constant. Hence equation (11) assumes the definite form

Pi = NQl Ql ■ ■ ■ Ql (13)

A single measurement of simultaneous values of Pi and the Q's
suffices to determine the numerical value of N; and by equation
(13) with this value of N, the value of Pi may be computed for any
values of the Q's without further experiment.

352 BUCKINGHAM: PHYSICALLY SIMILAR SYSTEMS

The chief value of the principle of dimensional homogeneity-
is found in its application to problems in which it is possible to
arrange matters so that the r's and tt's of equation (11) shall
remain constant and the definite equation (13) therefore be
satisfied.

8. The quantities involved in a physical relation pertain to
some particular physical system which may usually be treated as
of very limited extent. Let S be such a system, and (11) the
equation which describes a relation subsisting among certain
quantities of the kinds Q and P which pertain to S, e.g. the sizes,
densities, thermal conductivities, etc. of its essential parts.

Let S' be a second system into which S would be transformed
if all quantities of each kind Q involved in equation (11), were
changed in some arbitrary ratio, so that the r 's for -all quantities
of these kinds remained constant, while the particular quantities
Qi, Q2,-"'Qk changed in k independent ratios. For example; if
Qi is a length, S and S' are to be geometrically similar in all their
essential parts, though other parts, of which the size and shape
have no influence on the relation under consideration, are not
subject to any geometrical conditions. The systems now ''corre-
spond" as regards their essential parts and may be said to be
similar as regards each of the kinds of quantity Q separately, so
far as such quantities are involved in equation (11).

In addition to the foregoing specifications, which relate to the
changes of the Q's during the transformation of S into S', let P2
and all quantities of that kind involved in the relation, change in
such a ratio, dependent on the arbitrary changes of the Q's, that
7r2 remains constant; and let similar conditions be imposed on
P3, Pi,....Pn-k, and all quantities of those kinds involved in the
relation. Two systems S and S' which are related in the manner
just described are similar as regards the physical relation in ques-
tion.

If two systems correspond in the manner described for the k
independent kinds of quantity Q, and if it is practicable to make
them similar by fulfilling the conditions which relate to the
quantities of the kinds P, equation (13) is satisfied by the quanti-
ties pertaining to either system, and the value of N determined by
experiment on one system may at once be used for the other.

(C

BURGESS, CROWE, RAWDON, WALTENBERGI RAILS 353

A particular form of this theorem, known as the principle of
dynamical similarity" is in familiar use for the interpretation
of experiments on mechanical models; but the theorem is equally
applicable to problems in heat and electromagnetics.

PHYSICAL METALLURGY.— O^serwiions on finishing temper-
ature and properties of rails.^ G. K. Burgess, J. J. Crowe,
H. S. Rawdon, and R. G. Waltenberg, Bureau of Standards.

Observations were taken with an optical pyrometer of ingot
and finishing temperatures of rails in four representative mills.
There is practical uniformity among the several mills for the
rolling temperatures of ingots for steel rails, the range being from
1080°C. (1975°F.) to 1140°C. (2085°F.). There is no very con-
siderable difference among the finishing temperatures of the rails
as observed at the hot saws for the several mills, the range being
about 880°C. (1615°F.) to 990°C. (1815°r.). Or, in other words,
the four mills all finished their rails to within 50°C. of 935°C.
(1715° F.) on the average. This temperature of 935°C. is 270°C.
(520°F.) above the mean value, 665°C. (1230°F.) of the critical
ranges of these rail steels. Concerning the distribution of temper-
ature within the head of a cooling rail, it is shown that the center
of the head is some 50°C. (120°F.) to 60°C. hotter than the optical
pyrometer reading at 935°C. ; therefore the center of the head is
finished, on the average, at about 325°C. (615°F.) above the critical
range for 100 lb. sections.

Chemical analyses and microphotographic examinations were
also made and the mechanical properties determined for a number
of samples of rail, the rolling of which had been observed. From
a comparison of these few observations there appears to be not a
sufficient degree of correlation to warrant associating very speci-

^ This is a summary of a paper to be published shortly in full as a Technologic
Paper of the Bureau of Standards with the following contents: 1. Introduction;
2. Importance of Limiting Temperatures of Rolling Rails; 3. Methods of Measur-
ing Rail Temperatures; 4. Wickhorst's Experiments; 5. Measurements of Ingot and
Finishing Temperatures; 6. The Samples and Chemical Analyses; 7. Mechanical
Properties of Rails; 8. Melting Temperatures of Rail Steels; 9. The Critical
Ranges of Rail Steels; 10. Observations on the Microstructure; 11. Temperature
Distribution in a Cooling Rail ; 12. The Expansion of Rail Steels ; 13. The " Shrink-
age Clause" in Rail Specifications; 14. Summary and Conclusions.

354 schaller: mineralogical notes

fically any of the characteristics defined by these three methods
of examination, either with the temperatures of rolhng here
observed or with each other.

The following thermal properties of these rail steels were de-
termined in the laboratory: The critical range on heating is
located (maximum) to within 7°C. of 732°C. (1350°F.) for the 10
samples of O.H. and Bessemer steels examined. On cooling,
the critical range lies between the limits 680°C. (1256°F.) and
650°C. (1202°F.). The melting or freezing range for rail steel
extends from about 1470°C. (2680°F.) to nearly the melting point
of iron, located at 1530°C. (2786°F.).

The expansion for O.H. and Bessemer steels is not the same.
Above 800°C. (1470°F.) the expansion for both increases linearly
with temperature, and the linear coefficient per degree centigrade
has the following mean values between 0° and 1000°C. :

(1) For Bessemer Steel (Carbon .40 to .50 per cent): a = 0.0000146

(2) For Open Hearth Steel (Carbon .65 to .70 per cent) : a = 0.0000156
to 0.0000161.

The average composition of the Bessemers was carbon = 0.40
to 0.50 and maganese = 0.76 to 0.93; of the Open Hearths, car-
bon = 0.65 to 0.70 and manganese = 0.66 to 0.72.

In 1909 the American Society for Testing Materials limited
the shrinkage allowance on 100 lb. sections to 6f inches in 33
feet, or to an equivalent of 1947°F. (1064°C.) for O.H. and
2055°F. (1124°C.) for Bessemer rails, a specification which is still
in force. Such a shrinkage clause, therefore, does not serve the
avowed purpose of limiting the finishing temperatures to a value
slightly above the critical range.

MINERALOGY. — Mineralogical notes, Series 3. Waldemar
T. Schaller, U. S. Geological Survey.

A bulletin with this title has been submitted for publication by
the U. S. Creological Survey. In order to secure priority, the
following very brief abstracts are given of the original papers :

Koechlinite {Bismuth Molybdate), A New Mineral from Schnee-
berg. Saxony, is named after Dr. Rudolf Koechlin of Vienna.
The orthorhombic (a : b : c = 0.9774 : 1 : 1.0026) crystals are

schaller: mineralogical notes 355

thin tabular parallel to a {100}. Formula: BioOs.MoOs. Inyoite
and Meyerhofferite, Two New Calcium Borates from Death Valley,
Inyo County, California, belong to the colemanite series. Inyoite
(named after the locality) occurs in rhombic-shaped monoclinic
crystals ia:b:c = 0.9408 : 1 : 0.'6665, ^ = 62°37'). The formula
is 2Ca0.3B203.13H20. The inyoite crystals alter to aggregates
of prismatic crystals of meyerhofferite (named after W. Meyer-
hoffer, who made the mineral artificially), which is triclinic
{a :b : c = 0.7923 : 1 : 0.7750, a = 89°32', /3 = 78°19', y =
86°52') and which has the formula 2CaO.3B2O3.7H2O. Lucinite
a New Mineral: A Dimorphous Form of Variscite, occurs with
variscite at Lucin, Utah, in minute octahedral orthorhombic
crystals.

Lucinite, a :b :c = 0.8729 : 1 : 0.9788
Variscite, a:b :c = 0.8944 : 1 : 1.0919
Analyses show the two minerals to have the same composition.
The Crystallography of Variscite includes a redetermination of the
axial ratio (just given) and an extension of the crystal forms.
Schneebergite: A study of original material from Schneeberg^
Austrian Tyrol, loaned by Dr. Koechlin of Vienna, has shown it
to have the formula 4CaO.Sb203.Sb205, the antimony being pres-
ent in two states of oxidation. Schneebergite is distinct from all
other calcium antimony compounds. Romeine from Italy has
the formula 5Ca0.3Sb205. The so-called atopite from Brazil
is not that mineral but romeine. The Natural Antimonites and
Antimonates are briefly classified. Velardehite, a New Mernber
of the Melilite Group, is tetragonal, and has the composition
2CaO.Al2O3.SiO2. The so-called gehlenite from Velardena„
Mexico, is velardenite. The Melilite Group of minerals can be-
interpreted as mixtures of velardeiiite, sarcolite (SCaO.ALOa^
3Si02), and ackermanite (4Mg0.8Ca0.9Si02). The Crystallog-
raphy of Thaumasite describes hexagonal crystals, c = 1.09. The
Chrysocolla Group discusses the minerals commonly called chryso-
colla which are shown to belong to several distinct crystallized
species. The Chemical Composition of Tremolite is considered
from the chemical side and the probable formula derived for the
mineral is H20.2Ca0.5Mg0.8Si02. The Probable Identity of Ma-
riposite and Alurgite is considered, and The Amblygonite Group

356 safford: myrmecophilous acacias

of Minerals : Fremontite = Natramblygonite withdraws the name
natramblygonite and substitutes for the mineral Na(A10H)P04
the name fre7nontite, after Fremont County, Colorado.

BOTANY. — Acacia cornigera and its allies. William Edwin
Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In the course of a recent study of the myrmecophilous Acacias
in the U. S. National Herbarium the author encountered a nimiber
of undescribed species, some of which differ fundamentally from
any hitherto known. Much confusion was found also in the
existing classification of these plants, due largely to the fact that,
in describing species, the early authors had failed to designate
definite types. Thus, under Acacia cornigera (Mimosa cornigera
L.) several distinct species were cited by Willdenow as possible
synonyms, a fact which was recognized by Schlechtendal and
Chamisso in their study of certain specimens collected in Mexico
by Schiede. But these authors in turn included under their
Acacia sphaerocephala two, if not three species, one of which has
recently been described by Dr. Heinrich Schenck, of Darmstadt,
under the name Acacia veracruzensis. To make the confusion
still greater, Bentham in his Revision of the Mimoseae,^ "rede-
scribed" Acacia sphaerocephala and A. spadicigera but applied
these names to species quite distinct from those so-called by
Schlechtendal and Chamisso, while he dropped Acacia cornigera,
a species distinct from both A . sphaerocephala and A . spadicigera,
based upon a plant growing in the garden of George Clifford,
a specimen of which exists in the Linnaean Herbarium (no. 4).
The synonyms cited by Bentham are even more heterogeneous
than those of Linnaeus.

The absence of flowers and fruits from the specimens of myr-
mecophilous Acacias described by the early botanists has been the
chief cause of the mistakes of later authors. Fortunately the
material in the U. S. National Herbarium includes specimens of
fruits as well as of flowers of nearly all the species. The present
writer recognized the fact that these fruits, which are of several
distinct forms, ofl"er a means of separating the species into a

^ Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 30. 1875.

safford: myrmecophilous acacias 357

number of well defined natural groups. When it came to his
notice that Dr. Schenck was also engaged in studying the myrme-
cophilous Acacias, the writer postponed the publication of his
paper in deference to Dr. Schenck, from whom he received a
most courteous acknowledgment. ^

Dr. Schenck based his classification principally upon the
venation of the leaflets and upon the general form of the inflores-
cence. In his material fruits of several species were lacking.
On the receipt of photographs of further specimens of his newly
established species, many of which included seed pods, Dr. Schenck
realized the importance of using the latter as a basis for natural
classification.^ As it has become necessary to defer the publica-
tion of the wTiter's monograph of the myrmecophilous Acacias, it
is thought advisable to offer the present preliminary paper, in
which a classification of the group is presented together with
descriptions of nine new species.

KEY TO THE GROUPS

Involucre situated near the base or at least below

the middle of the peduncle; interfloral

pedicelled bracteoles peltate; spines

glabrous

Pericarp indehiscent, inflated, terminating in

an acute spine-like beak I. Ceratophysae.

Pericarp dehisc6nt

Fruit a pod, opening b}-- a dorsal and a
ventral suture
Flowers in globose heads; pods some-
times very long and slender .. . II. Globuliferae.
Flowers in cjdindrical spikes; pods

short and relatively broad III. Leguminiferae.

Fruit a follicle, opening by a single suture. IV. Folliculares.
Involucre situated at or above the middle of the
peduncle, the latter pubescent or hirtel-
lous; interfloral pedicelled bracteoles not
peltate ; spines puberulent when young ... V. Hebacanthae.

-See H. Schenck, "Die myrmekophilen Acacia-Arten," Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50:
449-487. 1914.

' "Die BeschaffenheitderFriichtedlirftevielleicht zur endgiiltigen Unterscheid-
ung der Artengruppen der Ameisenakazien mindestens ebenso wichtige, vielleicht
noch bessere Anhaltspunkte geben wie die Form der Inflorescenzen." Bot.
Jahrb. Engler 50: 480. 1914.

358 safford: myrmecophilous acacias

GROUP I. CERATOPHYSAE^

Pericarp indehiscent, inflated, thin, fragile, terminating in a sharp
spine-like beak. Nectar glands of the petiole and often of the lower
rachis, elongated, crater-like, opening by a linear aperture with a
raised (marginal) rim.

Section 1. Spadicigerae Schenck

Flowers in spadix-Iike cylindrical spikes, densely crowded on a fusiform
receptacle; peduncles thickened, bearing a 4-parted calyx-like involucel
near the base; minute interfloral pedicelled bracteoles with peltate,
acuminate laminae, in form often resembling the leaf of an Arum.
Midrib and upcurved lateral nerves of the leaflets usually conspicuous
beneath.

1. Acacia spadicigera Schlecht. & Cham. Linnaea 5: 595. 1830; not
Acacia spadicigera Benth. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 30^: 514. 1875.

Type in the Halle Herbarium, collected near La Laguna Verde, State
of Veracruz, Mexico, in March, 1820, by Schiede (no. 685). Photo-
graph and fragments of type in the U. S. National Herbarium.

2. Acacia cubensis Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12: 360. 1913.-
Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50: 460. 1914.

Type in the West Indian Herbarium of Krug and Urban, Berlin,
collected in northern Cuba, April 21, 1863, by C. Wright (no. 2402);
specimens collected by C. Wright, bearing the same number, in the
Grisebach Herbarium, Gottingen, and in the Gray Herbarium.

3. Acacia Hemandezii sp. nov.^ Closely related to Acacia spadici-
gera Schlecht. & Cham, and A. nicoijensis Schenck, but readily distin-
guished from the former by the subsessile flower spikes, scabrous before
anthesis owing to the recurved points of the bracteoles; and from
the latter by the color of the spines and the fewer nectar glands. Large
spines of the vegetative branches resembling the horns of a bull, subterete,
widely spreading or incurved, sometimes fascicled and interlocking as in
A. spadicigera, but never polished, at first pale brown or olivaceous, in
age chestnut-colored or, when dead, grayish brown, the largest 8 to 10 cm.
long, 1.8 cm. broad at the base. Spikes borne on axillary flowering
branches like those of A. spadicigera, often subsessile, solitary or gemi-
nate, subtended by small leaves, these with subulate stipular spines;
peduncles puberulent, 2 to 5 mm. long, 3 mm. thick, with 4-toothed basal
involucel like that of A. spadicigera. Flowers before anthesis covered
by the laminae of the bracteoles, these lanceolate, very long-acuminate,
peltate, scabrous on the upper surface, the margin bearing a fringe of
minute straight hairs, the pedicels usually somewhat hirtellous with
fine white diaphanous hairs visible under the microscope; apices of the

* Acaciae americanae cornigerae siliquis in spinam abeuntibus. See Hermann,
Paul. Paradisi Batavi Prodromus, p. 303. 1689.

^ The Huitzmamaxalli (*• forked-thorn") of the Aztecs, described and figured in
1576 under the name Arbor cornigera by Francisco Herndndez.

safford: myrmecophilous acacias 359

bracteoles recurved. Calyx broadly tubular, resembling that of A.
spadicigera, ferruginous, the upper portion sparsely hirtellous; corolla
barely exceeding the calyx, the aperture splitting at anthesis into 5 or 6
divisions. Fruit inflated, indehiscent, terminating in a slender sharp
beak, narrowed at the base into a stipelike neck, glabrous, smooth,
olive green when young, at length bright wine-colored. Seeds 12, in 2
series, broadly ovoid, compressed, embedded in a mass of sweetish
pulp; testa hard, smooth, dark brown. Leaves closely resembling those
of A. spadicigera, those of the vegetative branches with 7 to 12 pairs of
pinnae; elongated nectar gland on the petiole crater-like, placed at the
base of the basal pair of pinnae, sometimes with a smaller raised cylin-
drical gland below it, and rarely with a second, somewhat elongated
gland at the base of the second pair of pinnae; leaflets 17 to 29 pairs,
linear-oblong, unequal at the base, the midrib and upcurving lateral
nerves conspicuous beneath, as in A. spadicigera. Leaves of the inflores-
cence smaller; pinnae 2 to 5 pairs, the petiole bearing 1 or 2 raised glands,
a gland often present also at the base of the second pair of pinnae.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 692170, collected in the
vicinity of Rascon, State of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, July 19 to 22, 1905,
bj^ Dr. Edward Palmer (no. 669).

4. Acacia furcella sp. nov. Related to Acacia spadicigera and A.
Hernandezii, but having polished black or dark browm, forklike spines
with subcuneiform base and erect, slightly diverging or subparallel
prongs, much abbreviated or suppressed flowering branch] ets, and spikes
crowded in clusters. Base of spines 12 to 16 mm. broad, the prongs
terete, 50 to 60 mm. long, long-acuminate at the apex. Flowers densely
crowded, resembling those oi A. spadicigera, but more densely hirtellous.
Spikes cylmdrical 30 to 40 mm. long; receptacle (axis of spike) fusiform,
6 to 8 mm. thick when mature; peduncles 10 to 14 mm. long, 2 to 4 mm.
thick; involucre basal, 4-toothed, similar to that of A. spadicigera.
Calyx ferruginous, 1.4 mm. long, 0.6 mm. broad at anthesis, thickly-
covered with minute short straight projecting hairs; corolla 4 to 6-lobed,
slightly longer than the calyx. Interfloral bracteoles brown, the laminae
ovate-acuminate, peltate, sagittate at the base, scabrous above, edged
with minute short straight marginal hairs. Fruit wanting. Leaves of
vegetative branches not observed; those of flowering branches with 3 to
5 pairs of pinnae; rachis puberulent, 4 to 6.5 cm. long; nectar glands
similar to those of A. Hernandezii; leaflets 13 to 24 pairs, 9 mm. long,
2 mm. broad, reddish brown when dry, the midrib and lateral nerves
prominent beneath as in ^. spadicigera. ^

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 692166, collected on the
shore of Lake Catemaco, southern Veracruz, Mexico, at an elevation
of 1000 feet, April 26, 1894, by E. W. Nelson (no. 427).

5. Acacia nicoyensis Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12: 360.
1913.— Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50: 463. 1914.

Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected on the shore of the Gulf of
Nicoya, Costa Rica, in February, 1900, by A. Tonduz (no. 13538) ;
duplicate of type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 577752.

360 safford: myrmecophilous acacias

Section 2. Dolichocephalae

{Sphaerocephalae Schenck, in part)

Flowers in spheroid or oblong heads having a thick peduncle and ovoid
or oblong receptacle; interfloral bracteoles with glabrous pedicels and
ovoid, obtuse, usually ciliate laminae. Leaflets usually with only the
midrib conspicuous beneath. Nectar glands of the petiole resembling
those of the Spadicigerae.

6. Acacia sphaerocephala Schlecht. & Cham. Linnaea 5: 594. 1830;
not Acacia sphaerocephala Benth. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 30^ : 514. 1875.

Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected at Actopan, State of Veracruz,
Mexico, in March, 1820, by Schiede (no. 684), with flowers and leaves;
photograph and fragments of the type in U. S. National Herbarium.

7. Acacia cornigera(L.) Willd. Sp.Pl. 4: 1080. 1806 (excl. synonyms)-
Type in the Liimaean Herbarium'' from a cultivated plant growing

in the garden of George Clifford, between Haarlem and Leyden, Holland,
collected by Linnaeus (no. 4) and bearing his label, "Mimusa cornigera."

8. Acacia veracruzensls Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12:362.
1913.— Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50: 477. 1914.

Type in Herb. Mex. Schenck, collected on sand dunes south of the city
of Veracruz, Mexico, October, 1908, by H. Schenck (no. 916); fragments
of the type in the U. S. National Herbarium.

GROUP IL GLOBULIFERAE

(Sphaerocephalae Schenck, in part)

Pericarp dehiscent, coriaceous or woody, more or less compressed,
sometimes very long and slender, opening by ventral and dorsal sutures.
Flowers in long-peduncled globose heads, with spheroid receptacle.

Section 3. Ramulosae

Flower heads borne in the axils of small subulate stipular spines on
special flowering branchlets.

9. Acacia globulifera sp. nov. Flowers in small globose heads not
exceeding 5 mm. in diameter at anthesis, clustered in 2's or 3's on solitary
axillary branchlets 4 to 6 cm. long; peduncles in each cluster graduated in
length, the longest at anthesis about twice as long as the diameter of
the head; receptacle spheroid or broadly ovoid, not sharply constricted

^The writer is indebted to Dr. Alfred Barton Rendle of the British Museum of
Natural History for a photograph of the type of Acacia cornigera (^L.) Willd. A
careful comparison of this with photographs and portions of the types of A.
spadicigera and A. sphaerocephala proves that Linnaeus's original plant is speci-
fically distinct from both. It resembles an Acacia collected on the shore north
of the city of Veracruz, January 24, 1906, by Dr. J. M. Greenman (no. 87), allied
to A. sphaerocephala Schlecht. and Cham., but differing from that species in its
extrafloral nectaries and in the shape of the flower heads.

safford: myrmecophilous acacias 361

at its union with the thickened upper extremity of the peduncle. Flowers
about 2.2 mm. long when mature, funnel-shaped, the calyx with usually

5 shallow^ rounded lobes, glabrous near the base, puberulous about the
margin; corolla about one-fourth longer than the calyx and distinctly
separate from it, usually acutely 6-lobed, coarsely puberulent outside.
Interfloral pedicelled bracteoles with orbicular peltate laminae. These
subentire or the margin shallowly and obtusely toothed. Fruit not
observed. Large spines ivory white or ecru, V-shaped or spreading
like the horns of an ox, terete, 4 to 5 cm. long, 7 mm. broad at the
base. Small spines of the flowering branchlets acicular or subulate,
7 mm. long. Vegetative leaves with 6 to 10 pairs of pinnae, the rachis

6 cm. long or less (in the type material), puberulent, bearing a row of 2
to 7 conoid nectar glands below the basal pair of pinnae, the glands
having a porelike openmg surromided by a smooth, whitish, circular or
elliptical, annular margin; pinnae 15 mm. long or less; leaflets of the
longer pinnae 18 to 26 pairs, 3.5 mm. long, 0.8 mm. broad, drying dark
green. Leaves of the flowering branchlets much smaller, with 2 to 4
porelike glands at the base of the rachis and occasionally a gland at
the apex; pinnae 2 to 5 pairs, consisting of 6 to 12 pairs of leaflets.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.
58707, collected at the port of Silam (Tsilam), north coast of Yucatan,
April, 1895, by Dr. G. F. Gaumer (no. 1909). A second specimen from
the same locality is m the same museum, no. 36458, collected by Gaumer
(no. 655), apparently at the same time and from the same plant. Pho-
tographs and fragments of the type are in the U. S. National Herbarium.

10. Acacia Donnelliana sp. nov. Closely related to the preceding,
but easil}' distinguished by its dark-colored polished spines and much
longer vegetative leaves. Flower heads globose, long-peduncled, borne
in clusters on special flowering branchlets very much as in A. globulifera,
but with relativeh' longer and more slender peduncles, the diameter of the
heads at anthesis 8 mm., length of longest peduncles 20 mm. Flowers
and interfloral bracteoles also much as in the latter species. Fruit not
observed. Large spines V-shaped, terete, 40 mm. long, sharply acumi-
nate, those of the type material blackish or dark mahogany-colored,
polished. Small spines subtendmg the flower clusters acicular, much like
those of A. globulifera, 5 to 7 mm. long. Vegetative leaves with 14 to
18 pairs of pinnae, these 42 to 52 mm. long, composed of 30 to 40 pairs of
approximate leaflets; leaflets linear-oblong, very unequal at the truncate
base, rounded or subacute at the apex, slightly curved, dark reddish or
bronze w^hen diy; leaf rachis 10 to 20 cm. long, puberulent, bearing
at its base 4 conoid nectar glands, each opening by a small elliptical pore
with a smooth reddish margin, and in addition to these a similar gland
at the base of each pair of pinnules. Leaves of flowering branches with
several pores at the base of the rachis and a pore at the base of each of
the 6 to 15 pairs of pinnae; these leaves sometimes rudimentary or even
lacking, in such cases the flower clusters subtended by a pair of small
V-shaped acicular spmes.

362 safford: myrmecophilous acacias

Type in the herbarium of Captain John Donnell Smith, collected at
San Pedro de Sula, Department of Santa Barbara, Honduras, alt. 600
feet, March, 1888, by Dr. Carl Thieme (no. 5216); photograph of type in
U. S. National Herbarium.

Section 4. Glomeratae

Flower heads crowded in clusters in the axils of large forked or horn-
like stipular spines. Basal nectar gland solitary, much elongate, sunk
in the grooved rachis.

11. Acacia Cookii Safford, Science, N. S. 31:677. 1910.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected at the Finca Trece
Aguas, near Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, March 8, 1907, by
G. P. Goll (no. 102), supplemented by specimens in alcohol from the same
region, collected by O. F. Cook.

12. Acacia bucerophoraB. L. Robinson, Proc. Am. Acad. 49: 502. 1913.
Type in the Gray Herbarium, collected in British Honduras, in 1907,

by Prof. Morton E. Peck (no. 632). Photograph and fragments of the
type are in the U. S. National Herbarium.

GROUP III. LEGUMINIFERAE

(Spicatae Schenck)

Pericarp dehiscent along both the ventral and the dorsal sutures,
coriaceous or woody, relatively short; seeds embedded in a mass of pulp-
like aril. Flowers crowded in long spikes on a linear axis, this thicker
than the peduncle. Extrafloral nectar glands beadlike, with a round
central pore, often present on the rachises of the terminal pinnae as well
as upon the petiole of the leaf, but not at the base of each pair of pinnae.

Section 5. Orthocarpae

Pods straight, abruptly pointed or obtuse, tumid or subterete; seeds
alternate in 2 rows. Spines usually slender, straight or curved, slightly
broadened and compressed at the base.

13. Acacia yucatanensis Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12:361.
1913.— Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50:468. 1914.

Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected in the forest near Chichen
Itza, Yucatan, in May, 1911, by Caec. and Ed. Seler (no. 5549 [470]).

14. Acacia Collinsii Safford, Science, N. S. 31:677. 1910.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 692159, collected between
Chicoasea and San Femandino, State of Chiapas, southern Mexico,
January 14, 1907, by G. N. Collins (no. 180).

Section 6. Acinaceae

Pods scimitar-shaped, or straight along the dorsal and curved along
the ventral suture, the apex more or less retrocurved, usually compressed

safford: myrmecophilous acacias 363

lateral!}''; seed? in a single row. Spines more or less flattened and
broadened at the base, lunate or broadly subdeltoid.

15. Acacia Nelsonii sp. nov. Plant with leaves much like those of
A. Colli nsii, but easily distinguished from that species by its light-
colored, broadly spreading, upcurved, more or less flattened stipular
spines, these about 4 cm. long, 10 mm. broad at base, sometimes lunate or
IjTe-shaped, smooth, pale olivaceous to tan-colored or buff, with reddish
browTi tips, becoming gray or whitish when dead. Small spines on
flowering branchlets 2 mm. long. Vegetative leaves with 4 to 8 pairs of
pinnae; rachis 7 to 12 cm. long, without interpinnal nectar glands but
with a row of 3 or 4 glands at the base; pinnae 4.5 to 5.5 cm. long, the
leaflets 14 to 19 pairs, uniformly brown when dry, linear-oblong, 8 to
10 mm. long, 2.8 mm. broad, those bearing apical bodies at length retuse
or truncate; rachis of pinnae sometimes with a minute solitary terminal
gland at the base of the uppermost pair of leaflets. Leaves of flowering
branchlets with 1 to 5 pairs of pinnae; rachis bearing at its base a row of
3 glands. Flower spikes 32 to 36 mm. long, including the peduncle, the
latter 11 to 13 mm. long, about equal in thickness to the axis of the
spike. Interfloral pedicelled bracteoles with orbicular peltate laminae,
these imbricated over the flowers before anthesis like the scales of a
fish, after anthesis their margins everted and concealed by the mass of
anthers. Flowers tubular-funnel form, obovoid, or broadly subcylin-
drical; calyx 1.2 to 1.3 mm. high, subentire or obtusely 4 or 5-lobed;
corolla one-fourth to one-third longer than the calyx, acutely 5 or 6-
lobed, the divisions sometimes irregularly cleft; stamens very numerous,
the filaments flesh-colored, the anthers straw-colored; style filiform.
Legumes small, 2-valved, at length dehiscent by ventral and dorsal
sutures, glabrous, dark bro-wn or blackish, compressed, nearly straight
along the dorsal suture, curved along the ventral suture, tapering at
the base and slightly retrocurved at the apex. Seeds ovoid or elliptical,
somewhat compressed but not flattened; testa hard, smooth, dark brown.

Tj^pe in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 399366, collected at Aca-
pulco. State of Guerrero, Mexico, April 30, 1903, by E. W. Nelson (no.
7024), with flowers and fruit. Cotype in the same herbarium, no.
692158, collected in the same locality, in 1895, by Dr. Edward Palmer
(no. 390a), without flowers and with a single legume.

16. Acacia costaricensis Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12: 36 1>
1913.— Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50:465. 1914.

Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected near Lepanto, Costa Rica, in
Januarj^, 1857, by Dr. Carl Hoffmann (no. 275), without fruit. Speci-
mens collected by C. Wright in Nicaragua (U. S. North Pacific Explor.
Exped. 1853-56), cited by Schenck as conspecific, are in the Grisebach
Herbarium at Gottirigen, the Gray Herbarium, and the U. S. National
Herbarium (no, 692165), the last with broad flat pods terminating in a
sharp retrocurved point.

17. Acacia penonomensis sp. nov. Closely related to Acacia costaric-
ensis, but with falcate pods, spikes of pale yellow flowers borne on very

364 saffokd: myrmecophilous acacias

slender pulverulent peduncles, and relatively broader and shorter leaflets
with minute marginal hairs. Spikes before anthesis covered with the
pale flesh-colored, scalelike, imbricated, suborbicular limbs of the pedi-
celled interfloral bracteoles, after anthesis bright lemon yellow from the
mass of stamens, 23 to 26 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. thick, the axis not exceed-
ing in thiclaiess the slender peduncle, this straight and rigid, about 8 mm.
long and 0.5 mm. thick, pale brownish, clothed with white puberulence,
and bearing a 4-toothed basal involucel , this puberulent outside. Flowers
crowded; calyx flesh-colored, broadly ovoid or ellipsoid, inflated, 1.25 mm.
high, 1 mm. broad, minutely puberulent about the margin, obscurely
6-lobed or subentire; corolla pale yellow, puberulent, 6-lobed, exceeding
the calyx by about one-fourth its length; filaments and anthers pale
yellow; style filiform. Legume 2-valved, dehiscent by both dorsal and
ventral sutures, curved, compressed, 4.5 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, tapering
at the base into a stipe like neck, terminating at the apex in a point.
Seeds about 12, in a single row, embedded in a sulphur-yellow pulpy
aril, broadly ovoid, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, somewhat compressed into
a thick oblique ovoid disk, the testa hard, smooth, glossy dark brown.
Large stipular spines reddish bro\\ai, becoming blackish, broadly
V-shaped or deltoid, 2.6 to 3.2 cm. long, 9 to 11 mm. broad at the base,
this inflated and usually compressed, the apex abruptly acuminate
and terminating in a very slender, fine point. Spines of the flowering
branchlets minute, subulate. Vegetative leaves not observed. Leaves
of the flowering branches sometimes rudimentary, the perfect ones com-
posed of 1 to 6 pairs of pinnae; rachis pubescent, 3 to 4.5 cm. long, without
interpinnal glands, but with 1 to 3 contiguous pubescent porelike basal
glands and usually a similar but smaller terminal gland on the pubescent
rachises of the pinnae just beneath the last pair of leaflets, very much as
in A. Collinsii. Leaflets oblong-obovate, fringed with short hairs.

Type in the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden; duplicate
in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 677927, collected in the vicinity of
Penonome, Panama, February 23 to March 22, 1908, by R. S. Williams
(no. 113).

GROUP IV. FOLLICULARES

Pericarp a follicle, dehiscing by a single suture; seeds in a single row.
Leaf rachis with a beadlike nectar gland at the base of each pair of
pinnae; nectar glands of the petiole 1 to several, or wanting.

Section 7. Bursariae Schenck

Large stipular spines of vegetative branches much flattened and very
broad, their bases connate and pocket-like, often resembling an inverted
bicome chapeau. Flowers distinct, not closely crowded, forming a lax
linear spike with a slender, often flexible rachis. Pods slender, falcate or
curved, compressed, the seeds approximate, inclosed in a thin, whitish
or brownish, feltlike aril.

safford: myrmecophilous acacias 365

18. Acacia Hindsii Benth. Lond. Joum. Bot. 1: 504. 1842.

Tj'pe in the Kew Herbarium, collected on the shore of ManzanilJo
Bay, State of Colima, Mexico, 1836-39, by Dr. Richard B. Hinds, Sur-
geon of H. M. S. Sidphw (no. 248).

19. Acacia bursaria Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12: 363. 1913.
—Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50: 485. 1914.

Tj'pe in the Berlin Herbarium, collected near San Felipe, Guatemala,
February, 1878, by I^emouilli and Carlo (no. 1129).

20. Acacia sinaloensis sp. nov. Closely related to A. Hindsii Benth.
and .4. bursaria Schenck, but distinguished by its lighter-colored, broadly
V-shaped or Y-shaped spines, these alternate, regularly disposed at
intervals of 3 or 4 cm. along the slender, straight, terete, glabrous, reddish
bro^^^l branches; length of spines 30 to 40 mm., breadth along the suture
formed by the connate flattened bases 12 to 14 mm.; extremities terete,
tapering into a very sharp point; color of spines usually olivaceous or
yellowish green, turning bro"\Aaiish or buff-colored when old and dead.
Vegetative leaves fernlike, elliptical or oblong in outline; main rachis
grooved above, sparsely pubescent (under the microscope), bearing a
raised porelike gland at the base of each pair of pinnae; base of the
rachis (petiole) with 1 to 3 similar glands; pirniae 12 to 18 pairs, linear,
approximate, their rachises 30 to 34 mm. long, sparsely pubescent;
leaflets 5.2 mm. long, 1.4 mm. broad, thin and membranaceous when
3'oung, at length subcoriaceous, manj- of them bearing caducous amber-
colored apical bodies, those without the latter acuminate at the apex,
the margins of the leaflets bearing very short fine hairs (under the
microscope) from the base to the apex, the base very obhque, the midrib
conspicuous beneath, the lateral nerves scarcely visible even with the
microscope. Leaves of the small axillary branchlets smaller, with fewer
pairs of pinnae, these composed of fewer, relatively broader, more rounded
leaflets, their rachises provided at the base with a pair of subulate
stipular spines, usually without a basal nectar gland, but with one of these
at the base of each pair of pimiae. Flowers wanting, but apparently
borne in a lax spike. Fruit a falcate or retrocurved follicle dehiscing
along the ventral suture, 11 mm. broad near the middle, acuminate at the
apex, tapering at the base; seeds 8 to 10, in a single row, embedded in a
yellowish white, thin aril, crowded and compressed, oblong or clavate,
8 or 9 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick, tapering toward the base into
a rounded point, the testa dark brown, hard and polished, with an
oblanceolate area enclosed by a raised line on each side.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 636818, collected in the
vicinity of Villa Union, State of Sinaloa, Mexico, growing about a pond,
April 2, 1910, by Rose, Standley, and Russell (no. 13972).

Section 8. Leiocerates

Large stipular spines of vegetative branches resembling polished
subterete spreading honis, somewhat compressed at the connate bases.
Smaller spines of the very short axillary branchlets subulate. Leaf

366 safford: myrmecophilous acacias

rachis pubescent, bearing a raised nectar gland at the base of each
pair of pinnae but (in the type) none on the petiole. Pods of the same
general form as in the preceding section but broader and thicker, the
seeds enveloped in a thicker aril.

21. Acacia tepicana sp. nov. General outline of the bipinate leaves
narrowl}^ oblanceolate or oblong, the pinnae short and the leaflets
closely crowded. Rachis 6 to 8 cm. long, reddish brown, pubescent,
bearing about 14 pairs of pinnae, with a pubescent beadlike or truncate
conoid gland at the base of each pair of pinnae, but none at the base of
the petiole; pinnae 10 to 18 mm. long, the shortest ones near the base;
leaflets 9 to 17 pairs, very small, 4.5 to 6 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad,
oblong, unequal and truncate at the base, acute or short-acuminate at
the apex, subcoriaceous, the midrib and lateral nerves inconspicuous, the
margins contiguous or overlapping and bearing minute short straight
hairs (as seen under the microscope); lowest leaflets much smaller,
sometimes rudimentary, bearing a long tapering amber-colored waxlike
apical body. Large connate stipular spines broadly V-shaped, subterete,
somewhat compressed and broadened at the base, 27 mm. long, 8 or 9 mm.
broad at the base, brown, the surface smooth and hornlike. Small spines
of the abbreviated rudimentary axillary branchlets subulate, reddish
brown. Spikes borne on very short axillary branchlets; peduncles (only
those of mature fruiting specimens observed) 8 mm. long, bearing a
])asal involucel; axis of spike not exceeding the peduncle in thickness.
Flowers not observed; interfloral bracteoles short-pedicelled, with a
circular disklike peltate limb 1.2 mm. in diameter. Pericarp coriaceous,
glabrous, without a definite dorsal suture but sometimes splitting down
the back, brown and glabrous outside, reddish and feltlike on the inner
surface, compressed, retrocurved, 13 mm. broad in the middle, narrowed
at the base into a stipelike neck, long-acuminate at the apex. Seeds 10
to 12, in a single row, ovoid, slightly compressed, about 5.2 mm. long,
4.2 mm. broad, and 4 mm. thick, approximate, embedded in a yellowish
white aril having the taste of dried apples; testa olivaceous, hard,
smooth and glossy, bearing a raised oval ridge on each side.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 637234, collected in the
vicinity of Acaponeta, Territory of Tepic, western Mexico, April 10,
1910, by Rose, Standley, and Russell (no. 14357).

GROUP V. HEBACANTHAE

Involucel borne at or above the middle of the peduncle. Large
spines puberulent when young, never becoming smooth or polished.
Interfloral pedicelled bracteoles not peltate, but with an ovate or fan-
shaped limb with a hairy margin.

Section 9. Clavigerae

Flowers crowded in club-shaped, cylindrical, or oblong spikes, covered
before anthesis with the imbricated ovoid limbs of the pedicefled brae-

SAFFORD : MYRMECOPHILOUS ACACIAS . 367

teoles. Peduncles long, straight, slender, puberulent or hirtellous, borne
upon axillary flowering branches, solitary or clustered. Large stipular
spines straight or nearly so, widespreading, at first puberulent, except at
the smooth glossy reddish pomt, sometimes glabrate in age, but the
surface dull and never polished.

22. Acacia Standleyi sp. nov. Flower spikes club-shaped, at anthesis,
thicker at the apex than at the base, 18 to 22 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. thick,
pubescent before anthesis; peduncles in clusters of 2 to 5, the longest
27 mm. long at anthesis, minutely pubescent below the involucel, the
latter 4-toothed, pubescent outside, situated at or above the middle of
the peduncle; axis of spike slightly thicker than the peduncle. Flowers
with pale yellowish brown or buff, broadly tubular, obtusely lobed calyx
and tan-colored, acutely 6-lobed corolla, the latter exceeding the calyx
by one-half its length; stamens very numerous, yellow; style filiform.
Large spines pubescent at first, with glabrous reddish points, at length
dull gray or blackish, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, 6 to 8 mm. broad at the base, very
widely divergent, the pair separated by a thickened ridge (the persistent
base of the petiole) adiiate to the branch. Vegetative leaves with about
25 pairs of pinnae; main rachis pubescent above, about 10 cm. long, with

1 to 3 conspicuous glands at the base and a gland just below each of the 2
or 3 terminal pairs of pinnae, these glands usually with a smooth, light
browTi, annular margin; piimae about 2.5 cm. long, those of a pair some-
times not quite opposite; rachis of pinnae pubescent above; leaflets about
30 pairs, approximate, relatively thick and coriaceous, scarcely showing
the venation even under the microscope, oblong-linear, 3.2 mm. long,
0.8 mm. broad, unequal at the base, rounded at the apex, sometimes
mucronulate or tipped with an apical body, the margin at first bearing a
frmge of minute hairs, at length glabrate. Leaves of the axillary flower-
mg branches with 4 to 8 pairs of pinnae composed of 12 to 16 pairs of
leaflets, these 2 mm. long, 0.6 mm. broad, when young fringed with
hairs, many of them tipped with apical bodies; main rachis bearing a
conspicuous annular nectar gland at the base of each pair of pinnae and
usually one on the petiole, just below the lowest of these; stipular spines
subulate, 4 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 637251, collected in the
vicinity of Acaponeta, Territory of Tepic, western Mexico, April 11,
1910, by Rose, Standley, and Russell (no. 14374).

23. Acacia hirtipes sp. nov. Flower spikes oblong or cylindrical, 11 to
15 mm. long, 6 mm. thick, covered before anthesis by the tomentulose
laminae of the bracteoles; peduncles densely hirtellous, in clusters of

2 or 3, 14 to 20 mm. long; mvolucel 4-toothed, hirtellous, situated above
the middle of the peduncle; axis scarcely thicker than the peduncle.
Flowers with reddish brown or tan-colored calyx resembling that of
A. Standleyi but narrower at the base and pubescent about the shallowly
lobed margui; corolla dark purple or blackish, exceeding the calyx by
one-half or three-fourths its length,, pubescent with whitish hairs around
the 5- or 6-lobed margin; filaments reddish browTi; anthers pale tan-

368 . SAFFORD : MYRMECOPHILOUS ACACIAS

colored; interfloral bracteoles tomentose on the upper surface. Fruit not
observed. Large stipular spines broadly V-shaped, cinereous, puberulent
except at the points, 3 to 4.2 cm. long, 10 mm. broad at the cuneate base,
the latter flattened but not adnate to the branch as in ^. Standleiji.
Spines of the flowering branches subulate, 3 to 6 mm. long, when young
strigose except at the polished red tips. Vegetative leaves not observed.
Leaves of the flowering branches with 5 to 12 pairs of pinnae composed of
9 to 18 pairs of leaflets, these 2.4 mm. long, 0.8 mm. broad, similar in
shape to those of A. Standleiji but with a persistent marginal fringe
of stiff short straight hairs; rachis persistently and densely hirtellous,
clothed with minute stiff whitish hairs; nectar glands dark purplish,
circular, bowl-shaped, with a thick annular magin, one in the smaller
leaves of the short branchlets one borne at the base of each pair of pinnae
and an additional one on the petiole; on the larger leaves of the longer
branches similar glands borne at the base of each pair of pinnae of the
upper half of the leaf, but none in the lower half except a solitary gland
on the petiole.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 694036, collected on
the Rio de las Canas, Department of Santa Rosa, Guatemala, altitude
3000 feet, April, 1892, by Heyde and Lux (no. 3299, in part; mixed with
specimens of A. hursaria) under the name of ''A. spadicigera."

Acacia hirtipes is a shrub with densely cmereous-hirtellous young
growth, closely related to A. Standleyi but easily distinguished by the
dark purplish corolla, the more densely hirtellous indument of the
pedmicles and leaf rachis, and the persistent marginal hairs of the leaflets.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Aroma of hops: A study of the
volatile oil with relation to the geographical sources of the hops. Frank
Rabak. Journal of Agricultural Research 2: 115-159. May 25,
1914.

The paper discusses the aroma of hops grown in various parts of the
United States and in Bohemia, the basis of comparison being the volatile
oil. Factors which influence the aroma of hops, such as climatic con-
ditions and soil, are discussed. Special attention is given to the esters
which are the principal odor bearers of the oil. In order that a logical
comparison of the various hops may be made, the volatile oils distilled
from the several hops are carefully compared as regards their physical
and chemical properties. This scheme of comparison is carried through
four successive seasons to ascertain whether any constant similarities
or differences exist in the oils, especially in the oils distilled from foreign
and domestic hops.

Comparisons are made of the yields of volatile oil from the various
hops; the physical properties, including color, odor, taste, specific
gravity, refraction, and solubility; and the acid, ester, and saponification
numbers of the oils. The oils are subsequently fractionated and the
properties of the fractions compared. Tables and curves showing the
differences in the oils are included.

A detailed chemical examination of a sample of the volatile oil of hops
is given and the approximate composition indicated. Important differ-
ences in the oils are apparent, not only durmg any particular season but
for several seasons. The curves show these constant differences in
properties most forcibly. The curves of ester content show remarkable
differences in the oils from the several geographical sources, the imported

369

370 abstracts: geology

oils being consistently lower from year to year in esters to which the
characteristic aroma is largely due. The geographical source of hops
seems to be indicated by the ester content of the oils. A review of the
chemical investigations of the aromatic constituents of hops by other
investigators completes the paper. F. R.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and geography of a portion of Lincoln County,
Wyoming. A. R. Schultz. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 543.
Pp. 141, with maps, sections, and views. 1914.

Geological formations that outcrop in this area range in age from the
Cambrian to the Quaternary. The beds are closely folded and in places
overturned. The beds that strike in a north-south direction are exposed
in parallel belts throughout the field. Three coal groups have been
recognized, ranging in age from Cretaceous to Eocene, and one phosphate
group of Carboniferous age.

Tht main disturbances giving rise to the structural features occurred
near the close of the Cretaceous, although minor movements have taken
place since the deposition of the Eocene beds. Besides the numerous
parallel folds and synclines that trend in a north-south direction, the beds
have been broken by two parallel thrust faults that lie from 6 to 15 miles
apart in an east-west direction and have been traced for a distance of
approximately 100 miles in the western part of Wyoming. Along these
faults the Carboniferous and Cambrian beds on the west come in con-
tact with beds of Colorado and Montana age on the east.

The economic deposits of greatest importance are the coals. They
occur in the Frontier, Adaville, and Evanston formations and belong to
beds that are of Colorado, Montana-Laramie, and Eocene age, respec-
tively. The Frontier coal, a high-grade bituminous coal that does not
slack on exposure to air, has a heat value of from 12,000 to 14,000 B.t.u.
The Adaville and Evanston coals are subbituminous and break down
readily on exposure to air. The heat value is considerably less than that
of the Frontier coal and ranges from 10,000 to 12,000 B.t.u. The phos-
phate deposits occur throughout the area near the top of the Carbon-
iferous beds. Gold placers have been worked along Snake River and its
tributaries, but on account of the fineness of the gold the placer workings
have not been very successful. It requires from 1,000 to 1,200 colors
to make a cent value. The richest pay streaks in the gold-bearing sand
and gravel lie near bedrock and run from 9 cents to $3.00 per cubic-
yard, while some of the material is comparatively barren.

A. R. S.

abstracts: paleontology 371

GEOLOGY. — Raritan, New Jersey, folio. W. S. Bayley, R. D. Salis-
bury, and H. B. Kummel. Geologic Atlas of the United States,
No. 191; U. S. Geological Survey. Pp. 32, with sections and 5
maps. 1914.

The area treated is in the center of the Highlands of New Jersey and
contains some of the most important magnetite mines of the State. The
out-cropping hard rocks embrace pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian, and Triassic sediments, pre-Cambrian and Triassic
igneous rocks, and metamorphic pre-Cambrian rocks of undetermined
origin. Above these are unconsolidated deposits of Quaternarj^ age.

The pre-Cambrian rocks lie in a series of northeast trending
ridges, between which are valleys underlain by Paleozoic beds. These
ridges and the intervening valleys constitute the Highlands. The north-
west corner of the quadrangle includes a small area of the Kittatinny
Valley which borders the Highlands on the north. This is underlain by
Cambrian and Ordovician rocks. On the south the Highlands are
bordered by the Piedmont plateau which in this area is underlain by
Triassic sedimentary formations and associated basalt flows and diabase
sheets and dikes.

The Quaternary deposits include glacial material of the Jerseyan and
Wisconsin stages, old and recent alluvium and deposits of the glacial
Lake Passaic. The terminal moraine of the Wisconsin stage crosses the
quadrangle in an east-west direction about six miles from its northside.

The principal economic resources of the quadrangle are magnetic
and limonitic iron ores, building stone, crushed rock, and lime rock. Of
less importance are claj^, sand, gravel, peat, and roofing slate. The
water resources are valuable as water supplies and for the development
of power. The magnetite, which is by far the most valuable economic
product, is regarded as of magmatic origin. The iron is believed to have
been contributed by the same magma that formed also the granitoid
gneisses and pegmatites that constitute the greater part of the pre-
Cambrian rocks. Brief descriptions of the principal mines in the area
illustrate the manner of occurrence of the ore. W. S. B.

PALEONTOLOGY.— Caw6nan Geology and Paleontology, II. No. 11.—
New Lower Cambrian suhfauna. Charles D. Walcott. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collestions ST^i : 309-326, pis. 50-54. July 21,
1913.
In this paper is described a hitherto unrecognized Lower Cambrian

subfauna. It occurs in the Mahto formation (upper portion of the

372 abstracts: paleontology

Lower Cambrian) in the Robson Peak district of the Canadian Rockies.
The majority of the species making up the fauna are new and are here
described. The new species are referable to the genera Mickwitzia,
Lingulella, Obolella, Holmia?, Wanneria, Callavia, and Olenellus.

Edwin Kirk.

PALEONTOLOGY.— Cam6 nan Geology and Paleontology, II. No. 12.—
Cambrian formations of the Robson Peak district, British Columbia
and Alberta, Canada. Charles D. Walcott. Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections 57^2. 327-343, pis. 55-59, figs. 11, 12. July
24, 1913.
The stratigraphic and structural features of the Robson Peak district
of the Canadian Rockies are described herein, particular attention being
paid to the Cambrian formations and their contained fossils. The
Cambrian section as shown in this area includes 12,200 feet of sediments,
representing Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian. Beneath these
beds lie 2,000+ feet of Algonkian sandstones and siliceous shales. The
section is capped by 3,000 feet of Ordovician.

Several changes are proposed in the geographic nomenclature of the
region, and a number of new names are applied to mountains, rivers,
and glaciers. Twelve new formation names are proposed for subdivi-
sions of the stratigraphic series. Faunal lists of the different formations
are given, and broad correlations are made with the Mount Bosworth
Cambrian section. The paper is illustrated with splendid photographs
of the Canadian Rockies. Edwin Kirk.

PALEONTOLOGY.— Cambnan Geology and Paleontology, II. No. 13.~
Dikelocephalus and other genera of the Dikelocephalinae. Charles
D. Walcott. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 57^^: 345-
412, pis. 60-70. April 4, 1914.
The trilobite genus Dikelocephalus which has been a catchall for
numerous Upper Cambrian species, is in this paper thoroughly revised;
foreign species are removed and referred to their proper genera; and
three new genera referable to the subfamily Dikelocephalinae are estab-
lished. Of the three genera originally referred by Beecher to the Dike-
locephalinae only one, Dikelocephalus, is retained. In the subfamily as
revised four additional genera are added, Conokephalina Brogger, and
three new genera, Saukia, Osceolia, and Calvinella.

In order to show the stratigraphic relationships of the trilobites a
provisional classification of the pre-Ordovician formations of the Upper

abstracts: bacteriology 373

Mississippi Valley is given. This includes two new formation names.
Eau Claire and Mt. Simon (Ulrich MSS., 1914). Numerous faunal lists
of these formations and of other Upper Cambrian formations in various
parts of the United States which carry Dikelocephalinae are given.

Several new species are described : three under Dikelocephalus, eight
under Saukia, and two under Calvinella. Dikelocephalus lodensis
Whitfield has been chosen as the genotype of Saukia; Dikelocephalus
osceola Hall, of Osceolia; and Dikelocephalus spiniger Hall, of Calvinella.
Another new genus, Hungaia, is also established (p. 351) with Dikelo-
cephalus magnificus as the genotype. This genus is not subsequently
defined and evidently is not referable to the Dikelocephalinae.

Edwin Kirk.

BACTERIOLOGY. — The colon group of bacteria. L. A. Rogers,
William M. Clark, and Brooke J. Davis. Journal of Infectious
Diseases 4: 411-475. May, 1914.
A collection of cultures of the colon type isolated from milk was
studied with special reference to the exact determination of the gases
formed and the application of these determinations to the classification
of the group. It was found that, when determined by exact methods
after uniform growth conditions, the volume and relative proportions
of the different gases were produced with great uniformity. This char-
acter divided the collection into two groups, one of which, characterized
by a low volume of gas composed of nearly equal parts of hydrogen and
carbon dioxide, corresponds to the B. coli communis and B. coli com-
munior type. The remaining cultures produce much greater volume of
gas and an increasing proportion of carbon dioxide. The increase in the
volume of gas was produced almost entirely by increasmg quantities of
carbon dioxide, while the volume of hydrogen remained nearly constant.
In many cultures the ratio of carbon dioxide to hydrogen was nearly or
quite 2:1. The variations from the type, as well as the variation in
duplicate determinations, were much greater in the latter group. The
gas ratio was closely correlated with other physiological reactions, espe-
cially the fermentation of carbohydrates and alcohols. The fermentative
ability was more pronounced in the high-ratio group, but some particular
substances were fermented by a large number of the low-ratio group but
by only a few of the high-ratio group. Two possible subdivisions, based
on fermentative reactions, could be made in the low-ratio group. It was
evident that the high-ratio group was made up of a number of types, but
sufficient data for their classification were not available.

L. A. R.

374 abstracts: mammalogy

MAMMALOGY. — The white rhinoceros. Edmund Heller. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^: 1-77, plates 1-29, text figs.
1-3, 2 maps. October, 1913.

The first portion of the present paper is devoted to the itinerary of the
Smithsonian African Expedition, mider the direction of Colonel Roose-
velt, and a general description of the Lado Enclave, where the white
rhinoceroses were secured, together with a short account of its chief
floral features. The systematic part which follows covers 30 pages, in
which are comprised : A discussion of the generic characters of the living
and extinct forms of rhinoceroses ana their probable derivation; dental
peculiarities of the white rhinoceros; subspecific characters of the Nile
race; and a description of its coloration, external form, size, geographical
range, and habits, as well as a history of its discovery. In the following
10 pages Colonel Roosevelt 's account of the shooting and field natural
history of the species is quoted. Several pages are then devoted to a
complete bibliography, followed by twenty pages of explanatory matter
referring to the plates of skulls. The numerous illustrations consist of
8 plates showing the country, natives, and floral features; 5 views of
white rhinoceroses in the flesh; 2 of live specimens taken on the shooting
grounds; and 2 of mounted specimens in the National Museum. The
20 plates of skulls consist of 99 separate figures illustrating all the speci-
mens collected by the expedition, besides specimens of related genera
in the British Museum, U. S. National Museum and other institutions.
Of the two maps one iflustrates the distribution of the species throughout
its whole African range, and the other the distribution of the Nile race
in the Lado Enclave of the Upper Nile region.

The white rhinoceros, because of its remarkably elongate skull and the
highly specialized structure of its cheek-teeth, is treated as a distinct
generic type and the sole representative of the genus Ceratotherium.
The Nile form, Cottoni, was originally described as a species, but a com-
parison of the large series of specimens now in the National Museum
with the South African specimens preserved in European museums has
shown it to be only a rather slight subspecies characterized chiefly by
the somewhat flatter dorsal outline of its skull, this notwithstanding
that the two forms are separated by 1000 miles of territory and have
doubtless been thus separated for a great length of time.

Zoologists have usually considered the white rhinoceros as a close blood
relative of the recently extinct woolly rhinoceros of northern Europe,
but a comparative study of the skulls of the two shows them to be f unda-

abstracts: entomology 375

mentally different and to resemble one another only superficially, in
the structure of the teeth. None of the known fossil forms of Eurasia
and America are considered as generically identical with the white rhi-
noceros, which is regarded by the author as a form of African derivation.

E. H.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Type species of the genera of ichneumon flies.

Henry L. Viereck. Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum,

No. 83. Pp. 1-186. January 31, 1914.
In the present work the author has listed the genera of the super-
family Ichneumonoidea and has given the original reference for each
genus, the number of species originally included, and the type of the
genus, or, if the genus was based on more than one species without
specifying a genotype, the reference to the work in which the type
was first fixed. Genera based on one species only are indicated as
monobasic ; wherever two or more were found to have the same species
as genotype the fact is indicated by the term isogenotypic. Manj^
genera, when originally described, had no species included, in which
case there is given the citation for the first species subsequently in-
cluded; or, if more than one were simultaneously included, the number
is given and the treatment is similar to that of the other genera.

In completing this work, it was found that certain generic names were
being used in a sense different from that of the original describer and
it thus became necessary to propose the following: Chorebidea for
Chorebus of authors, not of Haliday; Deuteroxorides for Xorides of
authors, not of Latreille; Diclosterocerus for Closterocerus Hartig,
not of Westwood; Helconidea for Helcon of authors, not of Nees;
Ischnopsidea for Ischnus of authors, not of Gravenhorst; Mesostenidea
for Mesostenus of authors, not of Gravenhorst; Myiarthridea for
Myiarthrus of authors, not of Foerster ; Pimplidea for Pimpla of authors,
not of Fabricius; Plectiscidea for Plectiscus of authors, not of Graven-
horst; Plesiophthalmidea for Plesiophthalmus Ashm., not of Foerster;
Porizonidea for Porizon of authors, not Fallen; Zavipio for Vipio of
authors, not of Latreille. J. C. Crawford.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers pubUshed in or emaiiating fron Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

OCEANOGRAPHY

Clark, A. H. The circulation of the abyssal waters of the oceans, as indicated by the
geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the recent crinoids. Bulletin de
rinstitut Oceanographique (Fondation Albert ler, Prince de Monaco), No.
285, pp. 1-27. February 25, 1914. (A preliminary presentation of the subject
matter of this paper has ali-eady appeared in this journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.
1-3.— A.H.C.)

CHEMISTRY

Chapin, R. M. Laboratory and field assay of arsenical dipping fluids. Bulletin
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 76. Pp. 1-17, April 29, 1914.
(Methods of analysis for determining the arsenical content of fluids used for
dipping cattle in the eradication of the Texas-fever tick. — C.S.S.)

Cook, F. C. Bouillon cubes; their contents and food value compared with meat
extracts and home-made preparations of meat. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, No. 27. Pp. 1-7. November 5, 1913.

Hawkins, L. A. The effect of certain chlorides singly and combined in pairs on the
activity of malt diastase. Botanical Gazette 55: 265-285. April 15, 1913.

AGRONOMY

Arnold, J. H. Crew ivork, costs, and returns in commercial orcharding in West
Virginia. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 29. Pp.
1-24. November 21, 1913.

Beckett, S. H. Progress report of cooperative irrigation experiments at Califor-
nia University Farm, Davis, Cal., 1909-1912. Bulletin of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, No. 10. Pp. 1-21. October 30, 1913. (Reports
results of using varying quantities of irrigation water on various farm crops.
— C. S. S.)

BuERiTT, M. C, and Barron, J. H. An example of successful farm manage-
ment in southern New York. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
No. 32. Pp. 1-24. November 22, 1913.

Cardon, p. V. Cereal investigations at the Nephi substation. Bulletin of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 30. Pp. 1-50. November 25, 1913.

Champlin, M. Experiments with wheat, oats, and barley in South Dakota. Bul-
letin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 39. Pp. 1-37. January
20, 1914.

Chubbtjck, L. Possible agricultural development in Alaska. Bulletin of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 50. Pp. 1-31. January 8, 1914.

376 *

references: bacteriology 377

Cook, O. F. The relation of cotion buying to cotton growing. Bulletin of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 60. Pp. 1-21. February 16, 1914.

CoviLLE, F. V. The agricultural utilization of acid lands by means of acid-tolerant
crops. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 6. Pp. 1-13.
September 19, 1913. (A discussion of the source and effect of soil acidity and
of crops and rotations suited to acid lands. — C. S. S.)

Hunter, B. Pasture and grain crops for hogs in the Pacific northwest. Bulletin
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 68. Pp. 1-27. February 25,
1914.

Kearney, T. H. Seed selection of Egyptian cotton. Bulletin of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, No. 38. Pp. 1-8. November 19, 1913.

Mathewson, E. H. The culture of flue-cured tobacco. Bulletin of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, No. 16. Pp. 1-36. October 22, 1913.

MowRY, H. H. A normal day's ivork for various farm operations. Bulletin of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 3. Pp. 1-44. September 23, 1913.
(Gives data compiled from reports secured by correspondence with farmers
in various sections of the United States. — C.S. S.)

Orton, W. a. Lessons for Artierican potato growers from German experiences.
Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 47. Pp. 1-12. Novem-
ber 25, 1913.

Sherman, W. A., and others. Studies of primary cotton market conditions in
Oklahoma. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 36. Pp.
1-36. November 15, 1913.

Thomson, E. H., and Di.xon, H. M. A farm-management survey of three repre-
sentative areas in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, No. 41. Pp. 1-^2. January 14, 1914.

Turrentine, J. W. Nitrogenous fertilizers obtainable in the United States.
Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 37. Pp. 1-12. Decem-
ber 8, 1913.

Waggaman, W. H. a report on the phosphate fields of South Carolina. Bulletin
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 18. Pp. 1-12. October 1, 1913.

BACTERIOLOGY

Ayres, S. H., and Johnson, W. T. Pasteurization in bottles and the process of

bottling hot pasteurized milk. Journal of Infectious Diseases 14 : 217-241.

March, 1914.
BowEN, J. T. The cost of pasteurizing milk and cream. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 85. Pp. 1-12. April 27, 1914.
CuRRiE, J. N. Flavor of roquefort cheese. Journal of Agricultural Research 2 :

1-14. April 15, 1914.
Kellerman, K. F. Soil bacteriology as a factor in crop production. Bureau of

Plant Industry Circular 113 : 3-10, fig. 1. February 15, 1913.
Kellerman, K. F. Testing cultures of nodule-forming bacteria. Bureau of

Plant Industry Circular 120 : 3-5, fig. 1. April 5, 1913.
Kellerman, K. F. The use of congo red in culture media. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 130 : 15-17. June 21, 1913.
Kellerman, K. F., and Leonard, L. T. The prevalence of Bacillus radicicola in

soil. Science II. 38 : 95-98. July 18, 1913.

378 references: zoology

Kelley, E. Medical milk commissions and certified milk. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 1. Pp. 1-38. September 17, 1913.
McBeth I. G., and Scales, F. M. The destruction of cellulose by bacteria and

filamentous fungi. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 266: 9-52, pis. 1-4.

February 21, 1913.
Rogers, L. A. and Dahlberg, A. O. The origin of some of the streptococci found

in milk. Journal of Agricultural Research 1 : 491-511, figs. 1-8. March 25,

1914.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY

Allard, H. a. The mosaic disease of tobacco. Bulletin of the U. S. Department

of Agriculture, No. 40. Pp. 1-33. January 15, 1914.
Hartley, C. The blights of coniferous nursery stock. Bulletin of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, No. 44. Pp. 1-21. December 12, 1913.
Johnson, E. C. A study of some imperfect fungi isolated from wheat, oat, and

barley plants. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 475-490, pis. 62, 63.

March 25, 1914.
McMuRRAN, S. M. The anthracnose of the mango in Florida. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 52. Pp. 1-15. January 24, 1914.
Melhus, I. E. Powdery scab (Spongospora subterranea) of potatoes. Bulletin of

the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 82. Pp. 1-16. April 6, 1914.
Orton, W. a. Potato wilt, leaf -roll, and related diseases. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 64. Pp. 1-48. February 10, 1914.
Orton, W. A. The potato quarantine and the American potato industry. Bulletin

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 81. Pp. 1-20. March 31, 1914.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Ballard, VV. S., and Volck, W. H. Winter spraying with solutions of nitrate of
soda. Journal of Agricultural Research 1 : 437-444, pis. 50, 51. February,
1914.

Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. The water requirements of plants. I. Investi-
gations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911. Bureau of Plant Industry Bul-
letin 284 : 5^9, pis. 1-11, figs. 1 and 2. October 16, 1913. //. A review of the
literature. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 285 : 5-96, figs. 1-6. October
6, 1913.

Garner, W. W., and others. Research studies on the curing of leaf tobacco. Bul-
letin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 79. Pp. 1-40. April 23,
1914.

LeClerc, J. A., and Yoder, P. A. Environmental influences on the physical and
chemical characteristics of wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research 1 : 275-
291. January, 1914.

Shantz, H. L. The effects of artificial shading on plant growth in Louisiana.
Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 279 : 5-31, pis. 1-6, figs. 1-11. April 16,
1913.

ZOOLOGY

Barbour, T. Reptiles and amphibians from eastern Sudan. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 26: 145-150. June 30, 1913. (Includes
description of one new reptile, Atractaspis Phillipsi. — ^W.R.M.)

references: zoology 379

BiGELOw, H. B. Medusae and Siphonophorae collected by the U. S. Fisheries
steamer "Albatross" in the northwestern Pacific, 1906. Proceedings of the
U. S. National Museum 44: 1-119, pis. 1-6. March 26, 1913.

CocKERELL, T. D. A. A pcripatus from Guatemala. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26: 87, 88. May 3, 1913. (Describes Peripatus
(Epiperipatus) Biolleyi Betheli, var. nov. — W.R.M.)

CusHMAN, J. A. A monograph of the Foraminifera of the north Pacific Ocean:
Part IV. ChilostomeUidae, Globigerinidae, Nummuliiidae. Bulletin 71, U. S.
National Museum. Pp. i-vi, 1^6, pis. 1-19. February 28, 1914. (Nearly
all of the species treated are elaborately figured; none is described as new. —
W.R.M.)

Fisher, W. K. Four new genera and fifty-eight new species of starfishes from the
Philippine Islands, Celebes, and the Moluccas. Proceedings of the U. S. Na-
tional Musemn 43 : 599-648. February 5, 1913. (The four new genera are :
Ctenopleura and Astromesites, of the family Astropectinidae; Perissogon-
aster and Astrothauma, of the family Goniasteridae. — W.R.M.)

FooTE, J. S. The comparative histology of the feynur. Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections Gl^ : 1-9, pis. 1-3. August 22, 1913.

Gerould, J. H. The sipunculids of the eastern coast of North America. Proceed-
ings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 373-437, pis. 58-62. April 12, 1913.

Harring, H. K. Synopsis of the Rotatoria. Bulletin 81, U. S. National Museum.
Pp. 1-226. June 28, 1913.

Linton, E. Notes on a viviparous distome. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 46: 551-555, pi. 43. February 24, 1914. {T)escxihGs Parorchis avitus,
sp. nov., obtained from a herring gull, Larus argentatus, in Massachusetts. —
W.R.M.)

M.\rsh, C. D. Report 07i fresh-water Copepoda from Panama, with descriptions of
new species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^: 1-31, pis. 1-5.
June 20, 1913. (Includes descriptions of 7 new species in Cyclops, Diaptomus,
and Pseudodiaptomus. — W.R.M.)

McjMurrich, J. P. Description of a new species of actinian of the genus Edward-
siella from southern California. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum
44: 551-553. April 18, 1913.

Rathbun, Mary J. Descriptions of new species of crabs of the families Grapsidae
and Ocypodidae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 353-358,
pis. 30-33. December 31, 1913. (Contains descriptions of 4 new species of
Indo-Pacific crabs. — M.J.R.).

Rathbun, Mary J. New species of crabs of the families Grapsidae and Ocy-
podidae. {Scientific results of the Philippine cruise of the Fisheries steamer
"Albatross," 1907-1910.— No. 31).- Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum
47: 69-85. May 7, 1914.

Rathbun, Mary J. New genera and species of American brachyrhynchous crabs.
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 47: 117-129, pis. 1-10. May 20,
1914. (Describes three new genera of Goneplacidae, six new species of Grap-
sidae, and two new species of Ocypodidae. — M.J.R)

Richardson, Harriet. The isopod genus Ichthyoxenus Herklots, with description
of a new species, from Japan. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 :
559-562, text figs. 1-6. June 4, 1913.

380 references: pathology

RuTHVEN, A. G. Description of a new Utafrom Nevada. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 26: 27-30, fig. 1. Feb. 8, 1913. (Describes Uta
Stansburiana nevadensis, subsp. nov. — W.R.M.)

Stejneger, L. a new lizard from Porto Rico. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 26: 69-72. March 22, 1913. (Describes Ameiva
Wetmorei, sp. nov. — ^W.R.M.)

Stejneger, L. Results of the Yale-Peruvian expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
reptiles. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 541-547. June 4,
1913. (Includes descriptions of three new amphibians and two new reptiles
from Peru.— W.R.M. ).

Thompson, Helen B. Description of a new subspecies of Rana pretiosa from
Nevada. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 26: 53-56,
fig. 2. March 22, 1913. (Describes Rana pretiosa luteiventris , subsp. nov.—
W.R.M.).

Wilson, C. B. Crustacean parasites of West Indian fishes and land crabs, with
descriptions of new genera and species. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 44: 189-277, pis. 18-53. April 3, 1913.

* ENTOMOLOGY

Johnson, F. The grape leafhopper in the Lake Erie valley. Bulletin of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 19. Pp. 1-47, pis. 1-3. January 24, 1914.

(A professional paper dealing with the life-history and habits of this species.

Typhlocyba comes Say, its parasites and predaceous enemies, natural checks,

and artificial methods of control; includes also a bibliography.— J.C.C.)
Morgan, A. C., and Crumb, S. E. The tobacco splittvorm. Bulletin of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, No. 59. Pp. 1-7. January 19, 1914. (A short

account of the immature stages, life-history and food-habits of Phthorimaea

operculella Zeller, with remedial measures. — J.C.C.)
TowNSEND, C. H. T. New muscoid flies, mainly Hystriciidae and Pyrrhosiinae

'from the Andean Montanaya, {continuation.) Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus

2 : 29-32. February 28, 1914. (Describes two new species and the new genera

Eurythiopsis and Corpulentosoma. — J.C.C.)

PATHOLOGY

MoHLER, J. R. Cerebrospinal meningitis {"forage poisoning"). Bulletin ot the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 65. Pp. 1-14. February 14, 1914.

MoHLER, J. R., and Eichhorn, A. Immunization tests with glanders vaccine.
Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 70. Pp. 1-13. April 15,
1914.

Mohler, J. R., Eichhorn, A., and Buck, J. M. The diagnosis of dourine by com-
plement fixation. Journal of Agricultural Research, 1 : 99-107. November,
1913.

Ransom, B. H. Cysticercus ovis, the cause of tapeworm cysts in mutton. Journal
of Agricultural Research 1 : 15-57, fig. 1-13, pi. 2-4. October, 1913.

references: technology 381

ANTHROPOLOGY

Hendersox, J., and Harrington, J. P. Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians.

Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 56. Pp. i-x, 1-76. 1914.
Holmes, W. H. Remarks [on the relation of archeology to ethnology]. Amer.

Anthropologist, n.s., 15: 566, 567. October-December, 1913 [pub. 1914].
MiCHELSON T. Notes on the social organization of the Fox Indians. Amer.

Anthropologist, n.s., 15: 691-693. October-December, 1913 [pub. 1914].
MiCHELSON, T. Notes on Algonquian grammar. Amer. Anthropologist, n.s.,

15: 693-695. October-December, 1913 [pub. 1914].
MiCHELSON, T. Notes on the Folklore and mythology of the Fox Indians. Amer.

Anthropologist, n.s., 15: 699, 700. October-December, 1913 [pub. 1914].
SwANTON, J. R. Results of some recent investigations regarding the southeastern

tribes of the United States. Amer. Anthropologist, n.s., 15: 690,691. October-
December, 1913 [pub. 1914].

TECHNOLOGY

Cobb, N. A. Tests of. the waste, tensile strength, and bleaching qualities of the

different grades of cotton as standardized by the United States Governmenf.

Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 62. Pp. 1-8. January

14, 1914.
DuvEL, J. W. T., and Duval, L. The shrinkage of shelled corn while in cars in

transit. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 48. Pp. 1-21.

December 19, 1913.
Newlin, J. A. Tests of wooden barrels. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, No. 86. Pp. 1-12. March 14, 1914.
Okey, C. W. The wet lands of southern Louisiana and their drainage. Bulletin

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 71. Pp. 1-82. April 30, 1914.
Pennington, Margaret E., and others. The Refrigeration of dressed poultry in

transit. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 17. Pp. 1-35.

November 5, 1913.
Stubenratjch, a. v., and Mann, C. W. Factors governing the successful storage

of California table grapes. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,

No. 35. Pp. 1-31. December 31, 1913.
Stubenrauch, a. v., and others. Factors governing the successful shipment of

oranges from Florida. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,

No. 63. Pp. 1-50. March 28, 1914.
Trullinger, R. W. Water supply, plumbing, and sewage disposal for country

homes. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 57. Pp. 1-46.

February 21, 1914.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
The 285th meetmg was held at the Cosmos Club, May 13, 1914.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

A harite deposit on Castle Island, Duncan Canal, Alaska: E. F.

BURCHARD.

Andradite and gedrite from a contact metamorphic zone in the Washing-
ton-Duquesne camp, Arizona: F. C. Schrader.

A microscopic method of measuring the refractive indices of liquids:
Fred. E. Wright ( See this Journal 4 : 269-279. June 4, 1914.)

REGULAR PROGRAM

The oxidized zinc ores of Leadville, Colorado: G. F. Loughlin. No
abstract. (This paper will form a chapter in a monograph on the Lead-
ville district to be published by the U. S. Geological Survey.)

So7ne geodetic evidence of isostasy: William Bowie. The speaker
gave a brief summary of the results of the investigations by the Coast
and Geodetic Survey during the last few years dealing with the figure of
the earth and with gravity reductions. He pointed out the great in-
crease in the accuracy of the results due to the introduction of the theory
of isostasy. By this means Hayford was able to determine the figure of
the earth with greater precision than had been obtained previously.

Especial attention was called to an illustration in Hayford 's second
report on investigations concerning the figure of the earth in which are
shown areas of excess and deficiency of mass, as indicated by the deflec-
tion anomalies. It was stated that a gravity station was placed in or
near 13 of the 16 areas indicated and, in each case, the gravity results
agreed with those of the deflections. The results of the recent gravity
investigations prove conclusively that there is no definite relation be-
tween the character of the topography and the sign and size of the gravity
anomalies if the reduction is made by the Hayford method. If the
Bouguer or rigid method of reduction is used there is a decided relation
between the topography and the size and sign of the anomahes.

The data at hand do not show whether regional or local distribution of
compensation is nearer the truth. The reduction by both methods of
the distribution has been made by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, but
the results are negative.

382

proceedings: geological society 383

A preliminary computation of the depth of compensation was made
in the Survey, using gravity observations alone. The results were not
entirely satisfactory, as the determination was weak. The speaker stated
that the geodetic evidence shows definitely that large areas, such as that
of the United States, are perfectly compensated on an average and that
areas very much smaller than the United States are also in a nearly
perfect state of isostasy. It will need further and extensive geodetic
observations to determine the minimum area which may be completely,
or in large part, in a state of isostasy.

Stratigraphy of the Montana group ( Upper Cretaceous) in northwestern
Montana and its relation to the Belly River beds and Judith River formation:
Eugene Stebinger. The section of the Montana group, in north-
western Montana, as exposed on Two Medicine River between its mouth
and Family post office, was found to differ considerably from the stand-
ard section of the Montana group for central Montana, which, as de-
scribed by Stanton and Hatcher in 1903, in connection with their strati-
graphic study of the Judith River formation, includes the Eagle, Claggett
Judith River, and Bearpaw formations. The section on Two Medicine
River was readily divided into four lithologic units, which from the base
upwards are as follows: (1) Virgelle sandstone, a coarse gray to buff
sandstone 220 feet thick, resting on Colorado shale; (2) Two Medicine
formation, a rudely bedded mass of light colored clays and sandstones,
chiefly fresh water in origin, 1950 feet thick; (3) Bearpaw shale, a dark
marine clay shale, 500 feet thick ; (4) Horsethief sandstone, a coarse gray
to buff sandstone 360 feet thick. These four stratigraphic units were
traced northward into the area in southern Alberta containmg the
Belly River beds as described by G. M. Dawson, of the Canadian Geo-
logical Survey. The Belly River beds were fomid to be equivalent to
all of the strata included in the Virgelle sandstone and Two Medicine
formation. On the other hand, by tracing the formations in the section
on Two Medicine River eastward to central Montana, the Virgelle sand-
stone was found to be equivalent to the massive sandstone member
forming the lower part of the Eagle sandstone, while the Bearpaw shale
appeared to be the same at each locality. It thus became apparent that
the marine shale of the Claggett formation thins out in going westward
from the central part of the State, so that the Two Medicine formation
is equivalent to all of the strata in central Montana included in the
Judith River, Claggett, and the upper part of the Eagle formations.
The Belly River beds of Dawson are therefore not identical and equiva-
lent to the Judith River formation, as has been stated by Stanton and
Hatcher, but are equivalent to all of the Eagle, Claggett, and Judith
River formations combined.

A diagram of the lithologic units of the Montana group in this region
was presented, outlinmg the sections described and also the section of the
Montana group from the Black Hills region, the rocks which are mainly
continental in origin being graphically indicated as distinct from those
that are chiefly marine. The interfingering of the sheets of the conti-
nental sediments from the west with the marine sediments from the east

384 proceedings: botanical society

during each of the major oscillations of the western shore line of the
Montana sea, together with the inference that the important sandstones
in the Montana group were laid down as near-shore or beach sands, and
only during recessions of the sea, was pointed out on the diagram.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The ninety-seventh regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Wash-
ington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Tuesday,
May 5, 1914, at 8 P.M. Messrs. P. V. Cardon, G. P. Van Eseltine, and
A. B. Clawson were elected to membership.

The scientific program was as follows:

Prof. Chas. 0. Appleman, The phijsiulogy of the rest period in the
potato tuber (with lantern). (To be published as a Maryland State
Experiment Station Bulletin.)

Dr. H. B. Humphrey, A recently discovered loose smut of rye (with
lantern). (To be pubhshed in Phytopathology.)

Mr. L. H. Dewey, The common names of plant fibers. Confusion in
the names of textile fibers of vegetable origin causes uncertainty, finan-
cial loss, and injury to the trade. The name '*hemp" and its forms in
other languages is the oldest name used to designate a plant fiber. This
name is now used in many languages as a specific term to designate the
true hemp, Cannabis sativa, to which in all instances it was first applied,
and also as a generic term to designate all long fibers. _ This double use
is confusing. The name sisal is also being used in a similar double sense.

The following suggestions are made regarding the choice of names of
fibers: (1) Names in most general use are to be preferred, providing
they are not misleading; (2) the same term should not be used to desig-
nate fibers from different kinds of plants; (3) one name should be used
to designate the fiber from one kind of plant, irrespective of the country
in which the plant is cultivated or the maimer in which the fiber is pre-
pared; (4) geographic names are objectionable in general terms; (5)
names that may be adopted directly in all languages are desirable; (6)
single words of not more than three syllables are best.

P. L. Ricker, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV AUGUST 19, 1914 No. 14

PHYSICS. — The axial chromatic aberration of the human eye.
P. G. Nutting, Eastman Research Laboratory, Rochester,
N. Y.

A bright object viewed directly by a normal human eye shows
no perceptible colored fringes. From this it has been assmiied by
some that the eye is fairly well corrected chromatically — at least
for the most luminous constituents of white Ught. On the other
hand, if the same object be viewed through a filter transmitting
only the extreme red and blue, it will appear with either a red or
blue fringe, showing that for these extreme rays the eye is not
corrected.

Helmholtz^ passed monochromatic light through a small hole
and found that when red light was used the hole appeared in best
focus when viewed from a distance of about 8 feet. With blue
illumination it appeared brightest at about 1^ feet, and with
extreme violet but a few inches (nur einige Zolle). With these
rough determinations of Helmholtz the question appears to have
rested.

With the aid of very simple apparatus it was found possible to
obtain rather precise determinations of axial focal length. The
test object used was the image of the slit of a monochromatic
illuminator (*S, fig. 1) formed by a movable lens L of about 20
cm. focal length. At a fixed distance (about 20 cm.) back of this
was the observer's eye, E. In order to fix the accommodation

iPhysiolog. Optik, 3rd edition, 1: 147. 1909.

385

386 nutting: chromatic aberration of human eye

there was placed immediately in front of the eye a plate of optical
glass, P, reflecting the image of a suitable object at the desired
distance.

Three eyes were tested at accommodations of 25 cm., 100 cm.,
and °° ; the remainder at °° only. The object serving to fix the
accommodation was so chosen that the slit image appeared against
a dark background, such as a distant tree trunk or a black printed
letter, so that a barely perceptible amount of white light was
mixed with that of the colored slit image. In making determi-
nations at wave lengths 406 and 436 a mercury arc was used as
source, at other wave lengths a Nernst lamp. A shift of the lens
1 cm, corresponded to 0.01 mm. shift in focal point at the retina,
the relation between the two being roughly linear. The uncer-

-<

Fig. 1

tainty on a group of five settings was not over 2 mm.; results
could be reproduced at different times to about 5 mm. on the
scale.

All the subjects chosen had good normal vision. Two, C. H. B.
and C. E. S., were women. Four, L. A. J., P. G. N., C. E. S.,
and M. B. H., were experienced in photometric observations; the
others, practically without experience in such work. L. E. J.
has marked natural ability and has had long experience in color
work.

The results obtained are given in the following table and in
figure 2. Data are given as relative focal differences, 5v/v.
From these, approximate distances in milhmeters of focal points
from the retina may be obtained by multiplying by 15.

All the eyes tested show more or less correction. For compari-
son, the axial error of an eye of pure water is given at the top of the
figure. In the most luminous part of the spectrum, from 520 to

nutting: chromatic aberration of human eye

387

660, all eyes show less variation in focal length than an equivalent
eye of pure water would have. In some eyes the correction in the
central region would compare favorably with that of a good photo-
graphic or telescopic objective.

TABLE 1
Accommodation co

SUBJECTS

WAVE LENGTH

L. A. J.

P. G. N.

L. E. J.

C. E. S.

C. H. B.

M. B. H.

J. D. H.

780

0.010

0.013

0.004

0.020

0.006

0.016

0.012

740

0.009

0.010

0.011

0.017

0.004

0.010

0.011

700

0.002

0.005

0.009

0.007

0.003

0.008

0.008

650

0.000

0.000

0 005

0.003

0.002

0.004

0.003

600

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.001

0.001

0.000

0.001

550

-0.003

0.000

-0.005

-0.001

-0.001

-0.004

-0 004

550

0.003

0.000

0.005

0.001

0.001

0.004

0.004

500

0.014

-0.006

0.012

0.005

0.005

0.014

0.011

465

0.025

0.020

0.022

0.024

0.012

0.022

0.024

436

0.036

0.039

0.033

0.031

0.022

0.031

0.032

406

0.051

0.064

0.050

0.042

0.038

0.043

0.052

L. A. J.

P. G. N.

J. D. H.

WAVE

LENGTH

CO

100

25 cm.

CO

100

25 cm.

CD

100

25 cm.

780

0 010

0.011

0.014

0.013

0.014

0.020

0.012

0.011

0.016

740

0.009

0.009

0.010

0.010

0.012

0.016

0.011

0.012

0.018

700

0.002

0.003

0.003

0.005

0.004

0.009

0.008

0,008

0.011

650

0.000

0.000

0.001

0.000

0.001

0.004

0.003

0.005

0.007

600

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.001

0.001

0.001

550

-0.003

-0.002

-0.004

0.000

0.002

-0.005

-0.004

-0 005

— 0.005

500

0.014

0.011

0.019

-0.006

0.005

0.011

0.011

0.013

465

0.025

0.023

0.020

0.012

0.024

0.022

436

0.036

0.038

0.039

0.032

0.032

0.033

406

0 051

0.049

0.064

0.054

0.052

0 054

Several types of correction are shown that are new to lens optics.
The high order central corrections of L. A. J. and P. G. N. are
accompanied by decreased violet but normal red correction.
L. E. J. shows no correction except in the extreme red and violet
where the correction is normal. M. B, H. is slightly corrected
except in the extreme regions. C. H. B. is fairly well corrected
over a wide region from 480 to 780.

388

nutting: chromatic aberration of human eye

Tests were made for residual chromatic spherical aberration
(departure from Gauss condition) by placing half of a half-tone
screen over the test slit. The writer could detect no residual in his
own eye in the region from 500 to 650. Beyond 700 in the red
and beyond 480 in the blue it is noticeable, while at 406 in the
violet it amounted to fully twenty times the normal diffusion.
L. A. J. agreed with the writer, but L. E. J. could detect little loss
of definition at 406.

+.025

0

-.025

-.050

-^ . — ■■! ■" ■■■■ ■ ' ■ —

WATER

L.A-J.

P.G-.N.

L.E,J.

M.B.H.

J.D.H.

C.H.B.

40

50

60
Fig. 2

70

80

I wish to record my indebtedness to Mr. Eastman and Dr.
Mees for apparatus and to those of my assistants who served as
subjects.

WRIGHT: DETERMINATION OF REFRINGENCE 389

PHYSICS. — The determination of the relative refringence of mineral
grains under the petrographic microscope. Fred. Eugene
Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

Two standard methods are in common use by microscopists for
the determination of the relative refractivity of two adjacent
mineral grains in the thin section, and also of a single grain and the
liquid in which it is immersed; the first method is based on the
phenomena produced by central illumination with a narrow pencil
of incident rays, while in the second the phenomena obtained by
oblique illumination are observed. Both methods are convenient
and entirely satisfactory for ordinary purposes. Their accuracy is
the same, differences of 0.001 in refractive indices being recogniz-
able under favorable conditions. But in many instances, espe-
cially in the measurement of the refractive indices of fine grains
immersed in refractive liquids, it is extremely difficult to detect
^the faint differences in light intensity which appear at the margins
of the grains and by means of which the differences in refractivity
are recognized. Under such conditions the eye of the observer is
subjected to severe strain and tires quickly. Fortunately, how-
ever, it is possible, by modifying the conditions of observation
slightly, to render the phenomena more easily visible and thus to
relieve the eye strain to a large extent and at the same time to
increase the accuracy of the determinations. These modifications
involve both the sources of light and a new method of two-fold
oblique illumination. They are not difficult to apply and may,
therefore, be described briefly.

Sources of light. In place of the sodium flame ordinarily used
as source of monochromatic light, the following light sources have
been substituted: Mercury light, helium light, and either a cal-
cium-flame or a molybdenum- or tin-spark. With this array of
lights set up side by side on the dark room table, and in conjunc-
tion with a monochromatic illuminator or a dispersion prism or
suitable ray filters (Wratten mercury-line filters), the following
spectral line sources are available: X = 546 . 1, 558 to 561 (average
about 560), 577 and 579, (average 578) and 588^^. With these
lights it is not difRcult to determine between which two of the

390 WRIGHT: DETERMINATION OF REPRINGENCE

four available lines (546, 560, 578, bSSfx/j.) the refractive indices of
mineral and liquid coincide, the liquid having the higher refractive
index for the shorter wave length, and the mineral the higher index
for the longer wave length. Now the refractive index of solids
increases about 0.001 for a decrease in wave length of 10 to 20mm,
while for liquids the change is approximately twice as great. If,
therefore, the refractive index of a mineral be accurately measured
for any wave length between 546 and 588, its index for the wave
length 589/xM (D line) can be estimated with an error not exceed-
ing ±0.001 and a liquid then prepared of exactly this index, where-
upon the estimated refractive index of the mineral grain can be
checked by immersion in the new liquid. By use of this arrange-
ment a considerable amount of time has been saved in the routine
measurement of the refractive indices of fine crystal grains.
Occasionally the monochromatic illuminator (Hilger type with
Nernst light filament and ground glass diffusing screen) has
been found useful for ascertaining approximately the wave *
length for which the refractive index of the grain coincides with
that of the enveloping liquid.

New method involving two-fold oblique illujnination. Oblique
illumination is obtained ordinarily by means of a shding stop
below the condenser of the microscope. ^ This stop is purposely
not sharply imaged in the object field but appears as a shadow
with a hazy edge which passes gradually into the brightly illumi-
nated part of the field. The mineral grains are placed in this
transition shadow edge between light and dark, and the illumina-
tion of their edges both in white and in monochromatic light is
observed. Because of the prismatic refraction of the inclined
edges of such grains the intensity of illumination of edges adjacent
to the shadow is different from that of the opposite edges, when
the refractive index of the grains is different from the refractive
index of the liquid in which they are immersed. These differences
become less distinct as the refractive index of the liquid ap-
proaches that of the mineral; and, if the refractive indices differ

1 The principles of oblique illumination are discussed yi detail in Am. J. Sci.
(4) 35: 63-82. 1913.

WRIGHT: DETERMINATION OF REFRINGENCE

391

LOW POWER objective:

LOWER STOP IMAGE

by only =1= 0.001, the intensity differences in illumination are diffi-
cult to see, because of the relatively large amount of light in the
field. To reduce the field illumination, and thus to increase the
differences in relative intensity of illumination and to render them
more clearly visible, a double stop device has been found useful.

This device consists
essentially of two safe-
ty razor blades mount-
ed in a horizontal po-
sition to a vertical
connecting bar which
in turn is attached to
the side of the stage
support of the micro-
scope. These blades
are so adjusted that as
the lower blade swings
into position below the
condenser, the upper
blade is brought to rest
in the conjugate image
plane above the con-
denser and between
the objective and slide.
The upper stop is so
adjusted that its knife
edge faces the knife
edge of the image of
the lower blade. Incase
these two edges just
meet, the entire field
of view appears very
weakly illuminated and is almost dark. The path of the rays is in-
dicated in figure 1 . The effect of the refracting mineral grain is to
disturb the path of .the transmitted rays so that instead of focus-
sing sharply in the image plane they are deflected (as indicated by
the two rays with arrows in figure 1 and are thus able to enter

Fig. 1

"392 Wright: determination of refringence

the low power objective (E. F. 16 mm.) and finally to reach the eye
of the observer. If a mineral grain immersed in a liquid of slightly
different refractive index be examined mider these conditions of
illumination, its edges appear in part brighter, and in part darker
than the field. The intensity of illumination of the field is so
weak that the illumination of the edges is clearly marked even for
differences in refractive index of only ±0.001, and the eye suffers
no appreciable strain in making the observation. If now the
upper blade be moved away from the edge of the image, a small
amount of direct light from the condenser enters the field, and the
phenomena produced by oblique illumination from the lower stop
are observed under reduced field illumination. As the upper
blade recedes, the field illumination increases until finally the
conditions of ordinary oblique illumination are reached. The
phenomena observed under the first set of conditions are, more-
over, the reverse of those produced on withdrawing the upper stop ;
the edges which appeared bright in the first case are dark in the
second, and vice versa. This reversal, caused by the shift of the
upper stop, is an additional factor which adds to the sensitiveness
of the method. The movable upper stop not only increases the
distinctness of the ordinary phenomena of oblique illumination by
reducing the field illumination, but it also enables the observer to
reverse the phenomena and to study the slight differences in
illumination against a dark field for which the eye is more sensi-
tive.

It is of interest to note that the principle on which the first
part of the new method is based is that first used by Foucault for
testing the chromatic and spherical aberrations of a telescope lens.
The method was later used by Topler for detecting small differ-
ences in the refractive index of a medium, especially inhomogeneity
in optical glass. Topler's method is still used for this purpose, and
for testing the homogeneity of solutions especially with respect
to concentration currents; it has also been employed by R.W.
Wood to obtain direct photographs of sound waves.

CAIN AND cleaves: CARBON IN STEEL

393

CHEMISTRY. — The determination of carbon in steels and irons
by direct combustion in oxygen at high temperatures. J. R.
Cain and H. E. Clea\^s, Bureau of Standards.

In determining carbon in steels by the method of direct com-
bustion in oxygen it has been the practice at the Bureau of Stand-
ards to pulverize and reburn the oxides — repeatedly, if necessary.
Although particles of metal are seldom found in the oxides, addi-
tional carbon is generally obtained by this method; in some
samples as much as 0.02 per cent. With the idea that such carbon

Fig.l. Details of Apparatus

Ci and C2, porcelain tubes filled with copper oxide and wound with nichrome
wire for heating; T, tower filled with stick KOH; F, gas furnace; A, tube for
air cooling; M, Meyer bulb ; S, soda lime guard tube.

was probably retained as difficultly oxidizable carbides, it was
thought that alloy steels contining such metals as chromium,
titanium, and tungsten, or high percentages of silicon, all capable
of yielding carbides very resistant to oxidation, would be especially
subject to this source of error. Additional weight was given to
this view by results reported from laboratories specializing in the
analysis of such alloys, and obtained by combustion at tempera-
tures higher than those usually recommended.

As combustions are ordinarily effected, the mass of oxides is
kept fused for only a very short time, if at all, after the metal
has ceased to burn, inasmuch as the temperature usually main-
tained in the furnace is 950° to 1100°, whereas the melting points
of the oxides obtained by us during combustion^ were near to

^ Determinations made at this Bureau indicate that the oxides, when melted in
oxj^gen, gradually absorb that gas with rise in melting point. This matter will
be discussed in the more extended paper to be published by us elsewhere.

394 CAIN AND cleaves: carbon in steel

1450°. It was therefore thought that more accurate results
niight be attained if, after combustion had ceased, the oxides
were maintained in a state of fusion for some minutes. The
present work was carried out in order to test these ideas, by burn-
ing Bureau of Standards analyzed steel and iron samples — par-
ticularly the alloy steel standards — at temperatures ordinarily
employed but finishing at temperatures above the fusion point of
the oxides. The gas furnace and other apparatus shown in
figures 1 and 2 were employed. The combustion tube was of
platinum, with provision for water and air cooling of the ends,
as shown. When the flame from the blow-pipe impinged directly
upon the platinum without a protecting tube the temperature
attained was about 1520°, as indicated by a platinum, platinum-
iridium thermoelement and millivoltmeter. In some of the work a
protecting alundumtube was used around the platinum tube. This
however, was found to reduce the temperature more than was de-
sirable, largely because of reduced combustion space in the already
too small combustion chamber of the furnace used. During com-
bustion the steel was supported directly on the platinum boat; by
careful regulation of the rate of admitting oxygen and of the temper-
ature of the furnace the steel particles were coated superficially with
oxide before there was any danger of serious injury to the plati-
num by alloying; as soon as this coating was formed the combustion
could be finished at a moderate rate without danger to the boat.
The use of the alundum generally recommended as a lining mate-
rial for boats during combustion was found objectionable in these
experiments, because when it was employed the entire contents
of the boat could not be kept fused (the melting point of alundum
being about 2000°) and there was also some indication that addi-
tional carbon, not oxidized by prolonged ignition in oxygen at
1500°, was ehminated from the alundum when in contact with
fused iron oxide. Similar difficulties were encountered with other
supporting materials that were tried. The catalyzer following
the furnace was found absolutely necessary, since otherwise very
irregular results, sometimes several hundredths per cent low, were
obtained; tests with palladium chloride solution showed the pres-
ence of carbon monoxide in considerable quantity, when the

CAIN AND cleaves: CARBON IN STEEL

395

catalyzer was omitted, and its absence when the catalyzer was
used. The barium carbonate titration method, ^ recently de-
scribed by one of us, was used for the determination of the carbon
dioxide.

The routine followed in making a determination consisted in
inserting into the combustion tube the boat containing the sample,
and connecting up the Meyer tube containing barium hydroxide
solution. While passing a slow current of oxygen the combustion

fel

c.

•m>.;'^»m^^-^^m:,i^

Fig. 2. Cross-section of Furnace

P, platinum tube; W , water cooled jacket ofi German silver; S, stopper, German
silver ; Ci, and C2, copper tubes soldered to the platinum tube.

tube was brought to about 700° or 800° and kept at that tempera-
ture until the superficial oxidation of the particles was effected;
this required a minute or two; then the temperature was raised
to about 1000° and the combustion completed. As soon as
absorption of oxygen had ceased the blow-pipe flame was turned
on full, this stage of the combustion being continued twenty-five
to thirty minutes to insure that the oxides had been kept fused a
sufficiently long time. The Meyer tube was disconnected and
the determination finished by filtering off and washing the precipi-

2 J. R. Cain. B. S. Tech. Paper No. 33; also J. Ind. and Eng. Chem. June,
1914.

396

CAIN AND cleaves: CARBON IN STEEL

TABLE 1

Results* Obtained by Combustion of B. S. Standard Steels and
Irons at High Temperature

ICATE
! FOR
, AVER-
r ALL
S

VALUES OBTAINED BY COM-
BUSTION AT HIGH TEMP.

B. S. NO. AND DESCRIPTION
OF SAMPLE

CEBTIF
V ALU 1
CARBON,
AGE 0\
METHOD

Cain

Cleaves

Average:

Cain and

Cleaves

DIFFERENCE

r

per cent

per cent

0.350

per cent

per cent

per cent

Vanadium steel B.S. No. 24. . ■

0.348t

0.350
0.354

0.351

+0.003

Chrome vanadium steel B.S. /

0.381

0.379

0.380

+0.007

No. 30 \

0.373

0.381

f

0.380

0.383

0.383

+0.011

Chrome-nickel steel B.S. No. J

0.372

0.383

0.380

32 ]

0.386

.1

0.383

0.278

0.282
0.280

Nickel steel B.S. No. 33 ■

0.289
0.285

0.285

+0.007

.

0.288

f

: 0.599

0.612

0.610

Chrome-tungsten steel B.S.J

0.609

0.608

No. 31 '

0.609

0.608
0.608

0.609

+0.010

>

0.805

0.800

0.804

Bessemer steelj 0.8 B.S. No.

0.806

0.804

0.805

0.000

23 '

«

0.805
0.805

0.809
0.805

>

0.371

Bessemer steel 0.4 Renewal

0.363§

0.370

0.372

+0.009

B.S. No. 10b '

0.374
0.374

•

f

2.726

2.74

Pig Iron C 2d Renewal No. 5b 1

2.75
2.74

2.743

+0.017

* This is a partial list of results for the steels reported ; the later publication
will contain more data for these steels.

t Certificate value omitting the results by the colorimetric method, which is not
considered applicable to this steel.

t This steel was used as a standard for checking up the apparatus, and usually
one or two determinations a day were made with it ; these numerous determinations,
with very few exceptions, were of the kind shown in the table.

§ Results given on the certificate as the average by analysts making one com-
bustion without reburning the oxides.

LARSEN AND HICKS: NOTE ON SEARLESITE 397

tated barium carbonate and titrating it against standard acid as
described in the paper above cited. The oxides were usually
found to be thoroughly fused and to have spread over the bottom
of the boat; in some cases they even crept over the sides of the
container. A second fusion of such oxides gave no further carbon
dioxide to a freshly filled and clear barium hydroxide tube.
Great care was taken at all stages of the work to eliminate extra-
neous carbon dioxide, so that the frequent blank determinations
made by passing oxygn at the rate used in a combustion for
twenty minutes to one-half hour gave no amounts of barium car-
bonate determinable by the method used.

The results of Table 1 show that some steels give higher results
by the new method than by the old and that others yield only
slightly higher figures, while with the iron the difference amounts
to nearly 0.02 per cent. The alloy steels thus far tested do not
seem to give higher results than are to be found among the plain
carbon steels. Whether greater differences in general may be
found with other products can be determined only after further
work.

The more extended paper on this subject to be published by us
elsewhere will contain results on the remaining standard analyzed
steel samples of the Bureau of Standards, as well as the description
of an electric furnace used for heating the porcelain and platinum
combustion tubes used.

MINERALOGY. — Preliminary note on searlesite, a new mineral.^
EsPER S. Larsen and W. B. Hicks, U. S. Geological Survey.

The mineral for which the name searlesite is proposed was found
in samples from the deep well in Searles Lake, San Bernardino
County, California. One sample, washed from the clay at a
depth of 540 feet, consists almost entirely of spherulites which
are made up largely of radiating fibers of searlesite with a con-
siderable amount of sand and calcite. In another specimen the
searlesite is associated with pirssonite, trona, halite, sand, etc.

^ To appear in full in the American Journal of Science.

398 standley: genus arthrocnemum

Searlesite is rather soft and is readily fusible. It is soluble in
hydrochloric acid with gelatinization and appreciably soluble in
water. The optical properties are :

<x = 1.520 2 E very large

7 = 1.528 Maxjmum extinction angle large

After correction for insoluble minerals and for calcite the
chemical analysis corresponds approximately to Na20,B203.
4Si02.2H20.

BOTANY. — The genus Arthrocnemum in North America. Paul
C. Standley, National Museum.^

Arthrocnemum is one of the smaller genera of the Chenopodi-
aceae, similar in general appearance to Salicornia, but distin-
guished by its glabrous seeds, with rather copious endosperm, and
by having distinct perianths, which are not immersed in the joints
<of the flowering spikes but project from them rather conspicu-
ously. In Salicornia the seeds are without endosperm and are
covered with numerous short hairs, while the flowers are coalescent
and immersed in the joints.

About eight species of Arthrocnemum are known, all natives of
the coasts of the warmer parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Aus-
tralia. No true representative of the genus has ever been reported
as such from North America, although Moquin^ referred Salicornia
amhigua Michx. to it with doubt. That species, however, is a
true Salicornia.

In 1898 Mr. S. B. Parish described a new Sahcornia from
southern California. His description alone would exclude the
plant from the genus, for he describes the seed as "smooth."
This character, however, would not seem remarkable to one who
had studied Sereno Watson's treatment of Salicornia,* for that wri-
ter says, under S. amhigua, "*S. fruticosa of the Old World difi"ers
in being erect, stouter and more branched, the seed larger and
smooth." The European plant to which Watson referred is

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Chenop. Enum. 112. 1840.
■^Proc. Am. Acad. 9: 123-125. 1874.

standley: genus arthrocnemum 399

properly known as Arthrocnemum glaucum (Delile) Ung. Sternb.,*
while the Linnaean Salicornia fruticosa is a true Salicornia, with
pubescent seeds. These two plants have been greatly confused
by Old World botanists.^

Salicornia subterminalis is undoubtedly a member of the genus
Arthrocnemum. While closely related to A . glaucum of the Medi-
terranean region it appears distinct in its much narrower, more
acute spikes, numerous slender, erect branches, and pale seeds.
The form of the inflorescence, too, is pecuhar. The flowering
spikes usually do not terminate the branches, but themselves
terminate in long sterile branches. The flowering joints may be
found almost anywhere along the young branches; sometimes
they are solitary, but more often there are 3 to 14 together.
The plant of the Pacific Coast may, therefore, be known as
below. The Mexican specmiens come from a locality far distant
from southern California. It is probable that, when the coastal
regions of Sonora and Lower California have been more
thoroughly explored, the plant will be found at intervening
stations.

Arthrocnemum subterminale (Parish) Standley.

1 Arthrocnemum fruticosum californicum Moq. in DC. Prodr. 13-: 151.
1849. — Type collected in California by Nuttall {'' Salicornia calif or-
nica Nutt.! in herb."). The description is very brief but seems to
indicate the present plant.
Salicornia ambigua S. Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. 9: 125. 1874, in part; not
Michx.— The Wilkes specimen listed below was doubtless referred
here by Watson, who cites Wilkes among the collectors. The
Wilkes Expedition, however, collected specimens of *S. ambigua,
also.
Salicornia subterminalis Parish, Er^-thea 6: 87. 1898. — Tjv^ from

San Jacinto Plains, California, S. B. & W. F. Parish 1520.
Specimens have been examined from the following localities :
California: San Francisco Bay, Wilkes Expl. Exped. 1204. Near
Bakersfield, Coville & Funston 1234. Menifee, Parish 4463. San Jacinto
Plains, ;S. B. & W. F. Parish 1520. Ballona marshes, near Mesmer,
Abrams 2565. San Diego, Wooton; K. Brandegee. Vicinity of Monument
258, Pacific coast, Mearns 3930. Avalon, Santa Catalina Island, Trask.
Mexico: Topolobampo, Sinaloa, Rose, Standley, & Russell 13286.

*See Asch. & Graebn. Sjti. F1. Mitt. Eur. 5: 190. 1913.

^ See C. E. Moss. Some species of Salicornia, Journ. Bot. Brit. & For. 49: 177-
185. 1911.

400 KELLERMAN AND SMITH! CALCIUM CARBONATE

BACTERIOLOGY. — Bacterial precipitation of calcium carbonate.
Karl F. Kellerman and N. R. Smith, Bureau of Plant
Industry.

In 1914 the late George H. Drew^ called attention to the prob-
able importance of bacteria in the formation of marine deposits
of calcium carbonate. He isolated and designated as Bacterium
colds an organism which, cultivated in the laboratory, precipi-
tated calcium carbonate from synthetic cultural media. At the'
suggestion of Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, in charge of Coastal
Plain Investigations, U. S. Geological Survey, we have under-
taken a bacteriological study of samples of water and oolitic sand
from the Great Salt Lake and from the Atlantic Ocean near the
Bahamas and the Florida Keys. The samples of water and
bottom mud which served as a basis for these experiments were
obtained through the courtesy of Dr. Vaughan.

The progress of this study has been necessarily slow, since the
elaboration of new technique is required in dealing with such
unusual conditions. At the present time, however, it is believed
that some important fa'cts have been established. We have
found it possible in the laboratory to form precipitates of calcium
carbonate by three types of biological processes. These are
briefly outlined below in the probable order of their importance.

1. The associative action of mixed cultures of bacteria, one
species which forms traces of carbon dioxide and one which
forms ammonia either by decomposing some proteid or by redu-
cing nitrates to nitrites and to ammonia, gives rise to ammonium
carbonate. This ammonium carbonate reacts with any calcium
sulphate which may be in solution according to the formula:

CaS04 + (NH4)2 CO3 = CaCOs + (NH4)2S04
It is obvious that the carbon dioxide necessary for this reaction
may be produced by plant or animal catabolism as well as by
bacterial fermentation.

^ Drew, George Harold. On the Precipitation of Calcium Carbonate in the
Sea by Marine Bacteria, and on the Action of Denitrifying Bacteria in Tropical
and Temperate Seas. Publ. No. 182, Carnegie Institution of Washington, p. 7-
45. 1914.

KELLERMAN AND SMITH! CALCIUM CARBONATE 401

2. Calcium carbonate may be precipitated from water laden
with calcimn bicarbonate by bacterial production of ammonia
according to the formula:

Ca(HC03)2 + 2NH4OH = CaC03 + (NH4)2C03 + AO

3. Calcium carbonate may be precipitated as a result of the
bacterial decomposition of calcium salts of organic acids such as
calcium succinate, calcium acetate, or calcium malate. The
denitrification of nitrates also takes place in these cultures and
perhaps is essential to the formation of calcium carbonate. The
formulae for this reaction have not yet been determined.

From our experimental work it seems probable that the precip-
itation of calcium carbonate described by Drew as occurring in
solutions supplied with organic compounds of calcium is due to
the calcium liberated from the decomposing molecule of the
organic calcium salt. We have produced rather large crystals of
calcium carbonate by the growth of certain bacteria in media
which contained no calcium whatever except in the form of organic
salts. In this connection it should be noted that denitrification
of nitrate will not in all cases produce the ammonia necessary for
some of the reactions referred to above. Where a culture medium
remains alkaline during the production of nitrite further produc-
tion and accumulation of ammonia is possible. Where the culture
medium is faintly acid, however, in the first stage of the fermen-
tation, the nitrite is produced, and with the production of even
minute traces of ammonia a decomposition of the resulting am-
monium nitrite takes place with the liberation of free nitrogen,
according to the formula: j

NH4NO2 = N2 + 2H2O

A study of Drew's original description of Bacterium calcis, as
well as careful study and staining of similar organisms isolated
from samples of water collected near the Florida Keys, shows
beyond doubt that the proper genus for this organism is Pseudo-
monas. New data for identification are given in the following
description :

402 michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany

Pseudomonas calcis (Drew) n. comb.

Bacterium calcis Drew, Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 184, p. 26. 1914.

An actively motile organism, 1.1m by 1.5 to 3m, bearing a single flagel-

lum (see Fig. 1). Sometimes forms long threads. Grows best in media

containing three per cent, sodium chloride or in sea water containing

pepton and nitrate, but is quickly killed by stronger solutions of sodium

chloride. Grows weakly in
r\^ r>v three per cent, salt pepton

' ' ^ ' broth, forming neither nitrites

nor ammonia. Grows luxuri-
antly in three per cent, salt
pepton broth containing two-
tenths per cent, nitrate, form-
Q ( ing nitrite in twenty-four

^ hours, ammonia in forty-eight

Fig. 1. Pseudomonas calcis; showing the hours. In synthetic broth
terminal flagellum, stained by a modification composed of sea water 1,000
of Williams' method. Drawn, greatly enlarg- grams, sodium phosphate 0.25
ed, from a photomicrograph. grams, potassmm nitrate 2

grams, together with 5 grams
of either calcium malate, calcium succinate, or calcium acetate, nitrites
are formed in forty-eight hours to six days. Ammonia is formed in four
days in the medium containing calcium malate. Only traces of ammonia,
within the limits of experimental error, in media containing calcium
succinate or calcium acetate. The addition of a small quantity of pep-
ton to any of these media stimulates luxuriant growth and rapid pro-
duction of both nitrite and ammonia.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Algonquian linguistic miscellany. Tru-
man Michelson, Bureau of American Ethnology.

The Fox citations in this paper are either from Dr. Jones' Fox
Texts (by page and line) or from the present writer's texts,
unless the contrary is explicitly stated. The author's texts were
collected in the current syllabary, being written out by various
informants. The citations from these have been restored according
to the phonetic scheme of Dr. Jones, though this is not to be
considered as altogether satisfactory. The numerals within the
brackets all refer to sections of the Algonquian sketch in Part
1 of the Handbook of American Indian Languages.

These notes are assembled here in the belief that they will be
of value to future investigators of Algonquian languages and that
a more accurate and complete linguistic classification of Algon-

michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany 403

quian tribes will be possible when more data of this nature are
available.

PHONETIC CHANGES

1. n to c. In my Contributions to Algonquian Grammar^ I have
shown that in both Fox and Potawatomi n changes to c before an i
which is either a new morphological element or the initial sound of such
an element. I also raised the question as to whether this change might
not occur in other dialects. That it likewise is found in Ojibwa is shown
by micin give (thou) me as contrasted with klgammin i will give
THEE, both of which are quoted from Dr. Jones' unpublished texts. The
last example also shows that the change does not occur before Ojibwa i
when this corresponds to Fox e (Fox kimineiffM.., i will give thee).
From my Shawnee notes of 1911 it appears that the same or a like phe-
nomenon occurs in that language. Thus kaldsiW speak to me (the-
oretically kAnocin^ in Fox, supported by kAUOc^ tell it [an.] in Jones'
Texts at 298.26; -i/i" [31]; see my 'Contributions,' 1. c); kitesi you told
me (theoretically Fox ketec\ ke — * [28]; stem te, -c- as above; supported
by Fox kimlc' at J. 240.14 i wish you would give me, ki — ^ [28] as
contrasted with kitele i told you (corresponds to Fox ketene, J. 110.5,
116.14). It is likely that in both cases the s is a mishearing for c;
observe that in Shawnee d corresponds to Fox s, e.g., dogi- bind =
Fox sdgi~.

2. s to c. That s changes to c in Ojibwa under the same conditions
as in Fox {Am. Anthropologist, 1. c, p. 471) is clear from wlniciyan thou
WILT KILL me as Compared with kiwlnism i will kill thee, and
kdnisadwd thou who didst kill them. The citations are both from
Jones, 1. c. The change does not take place before Ojibwa i (t) when
this corresponds to Fox e, which shows this last is the more original,
for which see also the discussion of the change of n to c.

3. my to m in Ojibwa. In Jones' texts I findnmaa/a'a" i feel sad
AT HEART. Contrast this with Fox dmydcitdhdtc^ (in my unpublished
texts) HE HAD DOLEFUL FEELINGS IN HIS HEART. The Ojibwa example
may furthermore be used to illustrate the change of n to c in that lan-
guage: See American Anthropologist, 1. c, p. 471.

4. Interchange of Fox o and aiv. In paragraph 34 of the Algonquian
sketch in the Handbook of American Indian Languages I pointed out

lAm. Anthropologist, N. S., XV, p. 470 S.

404 michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany

that in the case of double objects the pronominal form of the third
person object, singular or plural, animate or inanimate, is -Amo- (-Amu-)
before consonants, -Atnaw- before vowels. On further investigation it
appears that the interchange of o and aw is not restricted to these cases
but is universal in Fox. Examples showing this are d'pyatoijdn^ (J.
322.7) I HAVE BROUGHT IT [d — ydn\ 29; 'to, 21, 37], kVpyd'tawipw"

(M.) YOU WILL BRING IT TO ME [kl — ipw", 28), d'pyd'tawutc* (M.) THEN

IT WAS BROUGHT TO HIM [d — utc^, 41], pyd'tawigwdhig^ (M.) they must
HAVE BROUGHT IT TO ME [-igwdMg^, See below p. 406]; neneskinawdw"
(J. 68.14) I LOATHE HIM [ne — dw", 28], dneskinondnl' (M.) because i
HATE THEE [d — ndw*, 29]; d'kAnonetd (J. 8.5) he was addressed, [d —
etc\ 41; -n-, 21, 37], kAnawin'' (J. 180.4) speak [-n", 31]; d'A'd'tondgio^
WHEN HE built THEM (iuau.) FOR YOU (J. 30.16) [d — ndgw% 29; -'to-,
21, 37], dcVtawiyAmetcin^ (J. 32.6) those (inan.) he made forus [change of
stem-vowel, 33 ; the table in 33 does not give the termination -iyAmetcin^
as it is not constructed in such a way as to take into consideration such
rare combinations], Aci'tawiyd'kAp" (M.) thou mightest make them
(inan.) for them (an.) [-iyd'kAp"^, 30].

the supposed fox STEMwmwi-

In section 16 of the Algonquian sketch in the Handbook of American
Indian Languages, a Fox stem uwlwi- to marry is assumed. This is
wrong; we evidently have the tj^pe of incorporation discussed in the Am.
Anthropologist, N. S., XV, p. 474 ff. as is shown by uwiwati^ (J. 146.3,
216.3 etc.) HIS WIFE [u — An\ 45], nlw" (J. 216.4) my wife [n — '', 45].
The word uwlw"-, cited in the sketch, is either a mistake for uwiwah*,
or more probably for umwiw" he marries. This last is reconstructed
by myself but is supported in formation by kihuwlw^ i would have you
TAKE HER TO WIFE, J. 82.2, etc. [kl-, 28; -h-, 8]; wihmvlhiw" he wants to
get himself a wife, J. 320.14 does also [m — w^, 28; -h-, 8], though the
second h of this is obscure. Incidently it may be remarked that ownvA7i^
(J. 228.8; a variant of uwiwau^) is wrongly treated in section 8 of the
same sketch. The first w, not the second, is the glide as is shown by
WW" my wife: compare nVkdn" (J. 14.12, 26.17) my friend as contrasted
with uwVkdnAri^ (J. 314.14, 15) his friend; see section 45. The -i- of
the supposed stem is of course simply the copula.

michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany 405

THE SUPPOSED FOX WORD nepijdtcdnandWAg'

A supposed Fox word nepydtcdndndWAg^ i have come to take them
AWAY is cited in section 28 of the Algonquian sketch in the Handbook
of American Indian Languages. The analysis there given makes -a-
occur in the wrong position; and there can be no doubt the word is a
mistake for nepydtcitcdndndwAg^, J. 50.22, in which ted is an incorporated
particle; see pp. 472, 473 of the American Anthropologist, N. S., vol.
XV, and pyd- and nd- in section 16 of the sketch.

NOTE ON FOX nlhutugimdmipen°'

In m}' 'Contributions' cited above, I assumed that nihutugimdmipen'^
in Jones' texts at 8.6 (so, not 28.6) was an error for kl-. That this is not
an error is shown by the following klyavf'. The correct analysis is:
nl — pen" [28]; -/?-[8]; -M-[the possessive pronoun under discussion];:
-f-[8, 45]; -m-(second one) [45]; -i-[20]. It is evident that kl'u'tugimd-
mipen" in Jones' texts at 8.3 is a variant of kiutu'gimd'mipen'^ in-
section 13 of the Algonquian sketch in the Handbook of Ameri-
can Indian Languages [kl — ipen", 28]. The first accordingly should be^
translated we would have a chief, namely, thyself [see 46] ; and the;
second thou wilt be chief to us. The very great similarity of the
two words was the source of mistake.

incorporation of the nominal object

I have stated in my 'Contributions,' p. 473 that incorporation of the
nominal subject or object does not occur in transitive verbs. From
some recent work with Fox informants it appears that such incorporation
can occur optionally after the first initial stem, or the element -td-
('Contributions,' pp. 472, 473) if there is likewise another stem. A
sentence written out by one informant, the phonetics of which I have
restored according to Dr. Jones' scheme, stated to have been spoken by
an old woman is as follows: nepydtciketdnesawdpAmdpen°' we (excl.)
have come to see your daughter, the analysis of which is ne — dpen"
[28], pyd-[lQ], -tci- [see above], ketdnesa [ke — a, 45], wdpA-[lQ], -m-
[21,37]. It may be noted that the terminal vowel of ketdnes" your
DAUGHTER has beome full-sounding. Thus far I have not been able to
confirm this type or incorporation by examples from either the texts of
Dr. Jones or myself.

406.

michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany

o

t-f

<
o
o

«
m

o

K

o
>

t-*

o

1-5

o

• o

M

.s

1

-U9
• •-4

S

i

-(J

1

•^1 ^ ^ •& "-s

1 1 - 1 1 f 1

•f r ? f Y T

J3

s

1 =§ - =1 1
•g III 1. -g 1

1 1 i S, g 8 I
1 1 ? f ? ? 1

>>

1

1

■g
■g 1

i =§ 111

o

t

e

*<

1

•g -g 'S 1

III 1 1 1 §
1 1 1 1

1

•'^ 'S 'g 'S
=e =3 2 c»

1 1 1 1 1 1 i

o o 3 g

1— I

1 •§ 1
1 1 1 1 - 1 1

03

U

a
1— I

PI a

a -s

- ^ ^ a

a 3 3 "5 >, 4= .ti

michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany 407

NOTES ON THE FOX INTERROGATIVE MODE

The Fox interrogative mode is discussed in section 32 of the Algon-
quian sketch in the Handbook of American Indian Languages. A table
giving the terminations of the intransitive forms of the conjunctive will
be found there. However, as I have already pointed out, transitive
forms certainly exist, though not given in the table. Since then I have
been able to construct a practically complete series by having Fox
informants translate English sentences framed to bring out the desired
points. The informants wrote the words in the current syllabary, the
phonetics of which I subsequently restored according to Dr. Jones'
scheme. This was done because transitive forms necessarily are of
rare occurrence in texts containing myths or tales, owing to the nature of
the sentences involved. However, the forms seem to be sufficienth^
confirmed by those I have found in the texts of both Dr. Jones and myself
as to warrant publication, subject to future correction. The initial
d- or ivl- is omitted in the table herewith.

Examples from the texts of both Dr. Jones and the writer illustrating
the above follow.

Intransitive forms:

wihAnemime'tusaneniiviwaiiQ.n.^ (J. 380.12) as long into the future
AS I SHALL LIVE [IiAnejyii-, 16; me'tusdnenlwi- derived from the noun
me'tusdneniw'^ mortal by the addition of the copula -i-, 20, and stripping
the ending of animate nouns (-") from the word; see Am. Anthropologist,
N. S., XV, p. 475];

vnhicawi'wsiga.n^ (J. 364.20) what we (excl.) should do [-/»-, S;i-
cawi-, stem, 16];

vfhwd'piyemutvw A^sin'^ (J. 20.12) when we (incl.) shall begin
SHOOTING AT EACH OTHER [wdpi-, 16; pe7nw-, 16; -ti-, 38];

p?/dwAnan' (M.) at last thou hast come [pyd-, 16; see also 11 at
end];

dcamcam wagwan' (M.) how you have been doing [cawi-, 25;
cawi-, 16];

dcawi gwan' (J. 342.15) what has become of him (cawi-, 16];

wlhutciponesegnkwag' (J. 364.16) how there should be an end of
the killing of them [-h-, 8; utci-, 16; po- shortened from po7ii-, 16: see
12; ne- kill, initial stem; -s-, 21, 37 (not nes- as given in 16); -e-, 8;
-kwdhig'- for -givdh'ig\ 3; -gu-, 41);

atogwan' (M.) it must have been (here) [-td-, 20]

408 michelson: algonquian linguistic miscellany

Transitive forms:

wihicikAnonsiWAgan' (M.) how i should thus speak to him [-h-,8;
id-, 16; stem kAn- or kAno-, 16, and above page^ — ; -n-, 21, 37];

wiWAtcdhaw Agwajf (J. 234.22, cf. 260.15) that we can cook for him
[variant for -dwAgwdnf, subjunctive; hence final -% not -* as in table:
see 32; WAtcd-, 16; -h-, 21, 37];

aamiwagan' (J. 280.11) whatever you should tell us [dm-,
16];

lya^enawAtan' (J. 300.10) from what place you got it (an.) [wiite,
evidently related to watd as jyyate to pydtd: see 16 under pyd- and utd-,
also 11; -n-, 21, 37];

keke'kdnetAinow Allan' (J. 288.5) you knew about all it [ke-, 25;
ke'k-, 16; -dne-, 18; -t-, 21, 37];

winessiw Ata,n' (M.) how you will kill him [for analysis see above];

ddke'kdnemsiw Atan' (M.) how you will thus know him [-?w-,21,37;
d possibly for id: see 12, 16];

act'A-e'fcdneiAmowAnan' (M.) how you will accordingly know it;

ananamiwiigwan' (J. 356.6) that you will entertain of me in your
thoughts (-m-, 21, 37];

wTi'dmenwinawdha.'wsigwa.n'^ (J. 366.6) how you shall pacify him
[id-, 16; menwi-, 16; -h-, 21, 37];

ana^Amowagwan' (M.) how you may see them (inan.) [stem nd-,
wrongly given as ndw- in 16: w; is an instrumental, 21, 37; -t-, 21, 37];

wlhind'penAnaigwa,n^ (J. 278.6) how he would do with them [-n-
(next to last one), 21, 37];

ivTi'dke'kdnetAmogwsin' (M.) how he will thus know it;

pyd'tawigwahig' (M.) they must have brought it to me [pyd-, 16;
'taw- for -'to-, 21, 37: see above, p. 403].

Furthermore it seems clear that there exists a participial of the interrog-
ative mode as well as the conjunctive and subjunctive as shown by
ivdwlgwdn'' (J. 216.13) he who happens to marry [see the note on the
supposed Fox stem uwiwi-; for the change in the vowel compare wdgwi-
dt" (J. 170.19) SHE who was mother to the sons, wdwVkdnetltdg^
(J. 136.2) THEY who were friends together, wdndpdmit°' (J. 138
title) she who had a husband as contrasted with d'ugwidwdtc"- (M.)
THEN they had A SON, dhuwVkdnetlwdtc^ (J. 150.12) they were friends
TOGETHER, undpdmin" (J. 70.3) take to yourself a husband: see
11, 33], me'tusdneniwigwdn" (M.) who ever shall live as mortal,

lotka: objective standard of value 409

mkaskimagwan"' (J. 370.14) he that might entice him [wl- used as in
the conjunctive; kAski-, 16; -m-, 21, 37], dmikAskindwaswigwdn°' he who
shall contrive to outrun me (obtained in the translation of an EngHsh
sentence), md'kwdnetAmogivdn'^ (M.) he who shall remember it
[change of stem-vowel, 3S;7ne'kw-, 16; -d7ie-, 18; -t-, 21, 37], wVpwdwinah-
imAmdtutAmogwdn" (M.) he who shall not know how to worship
them (inan.) [wl- and pwdwi-a,s in the conjunctive; nahi-, 16; via, 25;
mdtu-, 16; -t-, 21, 37], vn'o'kumese'iwAgdn'^ (M.) whoever we (incl.)
SHALL HAVE FOR OUR (incl.) GRANDMOTHER [for incorporations of this
type, see Michelson, Am. Anthropologist, N. S., XV, p. 474 ff.; o-, 45 at
end; -i-, 20; m- as above]. Evidently the endings of the interrogative
participial bear a relation to those of the interrogative conjunctive
similar to that which the terminations of the ordinar}^ participial [33]
do to those of the ordinary conjunctive [29], as is shown by the terminal "
of the former as compared with the terminal ^ of the latter. The parti-
cipial character of the forms under discussion is furthermore guaranteed
by the occurrence of the characteristic change in the stem-vowel. Un-
fortunately it has not been possible thus far to obtain a complete series
either from texts or by direct questions.

ECONOMICS. — An objective standard of value derived from the
principle of evolution, — I. Alfred J. Lotka. Communi-
cated by G. K. Burgess.

Value primarily subjective and personal; definition. Any pos-
sessable quantity which has properties rendering it desirable to an
individual A is said to have value for that individual. Value has
thus primarily a subjective and personal connotation.

Elimination of the personal element. As members of one bio-
logical species all men resemble each other more or less closely in
their tastes. Hence, a commodity which has value for one
individual has, as a rule, a somewhat similar value for other
individuals also. In a community in which a variety of goods
are offered for sale, the price obtainable on the open market
depends not upon the value set upon them by any one individual,
but by a group of individuals, the potential purchasers. Value in
such case, while still subjective, is no longer a purely personal
matter.

410 lotka: objective standakd of value

Objective basis of subjective value. But we may go a step further.
While value is primarily a subjective attribute attached to certain
things by an individual, or by a group of individuals, we may
naturally expect that it should have an objective basis, just as the
subjective sensation "red," for example, has an objective basis in
light of a wavelength of about 6.6 to 0.10~* mm.

Indeed, this is not merely a matter of conjecture, but follows as
an inevitable consequence of natural law. This is very clearly
brought out in a passage in Spencer's The Data of Ethics (section
34), which at the same time exposes the nature of the objective
basis of value. .For, remembering that a thing "valued" is by
our definition a thing desired, i.e., a thing whose possession gives
pleasure or allays pain, we can apply directly to value the argu-
ment of Spencer with regard to pleasure and pain :

. . . . necessarily, throughout the animate world at large, pains
are the correlatives of actions injurious to the organism, while pleasures
are the correlatives of actions conducive to its welfare, since it is an
inevitable deduction from the hypothesis of evolution, that races of
sentient creatures could have come into existence under no other
conditions.

If we substitute for the word Pleasure the equivalent phrase — a feel-
ing which we seek to bring into consciousness and retain there, and if we
substitute for the word Pain the equivalent phrase — a feeling which we
seek to get out of consciousness and to keep out : we see at once that if
the states of consciousness which a creature endeavors to maintain are
the correlatives of injurious actions, and if the states of consciousness
which it endeavors to expel are the correlatives of beneficial actions, it
must quickly disappear through persistence in the injurious and avoid-
ance of the beneficial. In other words, those races of beings only can
have survived, in which, on the average, agreeable or desired feelings
went along with activities conducive to the maintenance of life, while
disagreeable and habitually avoided feelings went along with activities
directly or indirectly destructive of life; and there must ever have been,
other things equal, the most numerous and long-continued survivals
among races in which these adjustments of feelings to actions were the
best, tending ever to bring about perfect adjustment.^

1 The same thought is expressed by Frederic Lyman Wells (Journ. Abnormal
Psychology, October-November, 224, 1913): "Organisms tend, in the most multi-
form ways, to all sorts of activities that result in pleasure. These activities
usually, but not necessarily, run parallel to those resulting in the objective ad-
vancement of the organism or its species; .... We do not clearly know the

lotka: objective standard of value 411

We see, then, that, as a general rule, things (inchiding actions)
valued must be things beneficial to the individual and the race.
The modification as a general rule is necessary, owing to the fact
that the perfect adjustment of the individual to his environment
has not yet been brought about.

These reflections give us the key to a quantitative and objective
measure of value: Relative to a given coinmunity, let us call
those the true or objective values Vi V2 . . . of commodities
A1A2 . . . , the adoption of which by the community would
make the adjustment of feelings to actions perfect, and would
therefore, in Spencer's words, make ''survivals most numerous."
Let us see just what this implies.

Distribution of labor in several activities. In the mathematical
development of the concept of objective value defined above, I
will take for my basis a modification of the treatment applied by
W. Stanley Jevons- to the discussion of the distribution of labor
in the production of several commodities. Following, then, in
the main, the line of argument given by Jevons, w^e consider a
representative individual, who has the choice of distributing his
energies as follows :

Let labor Li per unit of time be spent in the production of mass
Wi per unit of time of a commodity Ai, with a marginal pro-

ductivity— r- =Pi, and with a concomitant production of fatigue
dLi

/i per unit of time with a marginal productivity—^ =p'i' Simi-

dLi

larly, let labor Lo per unit of time be spent in the production of
mass nio per unit of time of a commodity Ai, etc.

The individual considered, whom we suppose to reap the bene-
fits of his activity by consuming the products thereof,^ seeks to
make the total pleasure of his activities a maximum. If oiidvii

role of the hedonic factor in determining the reaction, but natural selection would,
of course, tend to the survival of those organisms in which the hedonic and bene-
ficial factors were best combined."

2 W. S. Jevons, The Theory of Political Economy, 183. 1911.

^ This supposition is tacitly implied, though not explicitly stated, in the devel-
opment given by Jevons, loc. cit.

412 lotka: objective standard of value

is the additional pleasure^ derived from the consumption per
unit of time of a small increment drrii of the commodity Ai, and
if co'i dfi is the additional pleasure (negative in this case, i.e.,
pain) derived from the concomitant production per unit of time
of a small increment dji of fatigue per unit of time incurred in the
corresponding increment dL-, of labor per unit of time, then the
total additional pleasure d 9, derived from the production and
consumption per unit of time of the increments dmi, dm 2 .... of
commodities Ai, A2 . . . is given by

d Q = CO 1 dm 1 + CO 2 dvi 2 + . . .

+ Co'id/i + C0'2d/2 + . . . (1)

Case 1 . We shall consider first the simple case in which coi is a
function of rrii only, C02 of m^ only, etc.; i.e. the pleasure of pro-
duction and consumption of any one commodity depends only
on the amount of that particular commodity produced and con-
sumed per unit of time, and is independent of the production and
consumption of other commodities. In that case we can write^

CO, = CO2

dwi dm2

, dfi , dfi

CO 1 = CO 2

(2)

and

d/, d/2

do. = ~ pi dLi-\- p-, dL-i-\-

'drrii dmo

■ dfi , ,^ , dfi / 77- ,
d/, d/2

(3)

The condition for a maximum of the total pleasure fi is evi-
dently that the right hand member of (3) shall vanish for all
arbitrary values of dLi, dL^ . . . . , or

* wi is the marginal ophelimity of commodity Aj. (Pareto, Manuel d'Economie
Politique, 556. 1909.)

' The function fi defined by equations (2) and (3) measures total ophelimity.
(Pareto, loc. cit.)

lotka: objective standard of value 413

■Vi + -T- P^ ^ ^ — Vi + ^irV-i =....= 0 (4)

The unit of labor per upit of time has so far been left undefined.
Condition (4) assumes a particularly simple form, if we agree to
measure labor (per unit of time) by the degree of discomfort which
it causes.^ In that case

Pi = ^ • -^^ = - 1 (5)

for all subscripts i, so that condition (4) here resolves itself into
a set of equations

512 512

z~ Pi = :^P2 = . . . .
o?ni orrii

512 , 512 , ,

\ (G)

5/i 5/. " J

The ophelimities I2i, 122 • • • are not capable of direct measure-
ment. However, in the case of open competition (entire absence
of monopolies), which is the only case to which Jevons' treat-
ment and that here given applies, the ophelimities can be measured
indirectly, since they are here proportional to the "values in
exchange " ?;i, ^^2 .... of commodities A i, A 2 .... , i.e.,

512 512

brrii 5m2
or

Vi:v2 : . . . (7)

v, = k~ V2 = k^ etc. (8)

5mi 5m2

Introducing (8) into (6), we have

Vi pi ^ V2 P2 = . . . (9)

8 In Jevons' treatment this assumption is implied in the words: (the) "amount
of feeling dLi, the increment of labor . . . . " loc. cit., 185.

414 lotka: objective standard of value

or, since the price P of a commodity is proportional to its ''value
in exchange/'^

PiPi - P2P2 = ... (10)

Equations (6) and (9) or (10) are those derived by Jevons by a
somewhat different process. This set of equations determines a
certain definite distribution of labor when the values of co, co' and
p and p' are given for each commodity and form of fatjgue — and
this is as far as Jevons carries the discussion of the problem.

For our present purposes the equations thus arrived at serve
merely as a starting point on which to base our investigation.
Jevons assumes certain characteristics co, co', p, p', of the repre-
sentative individual as given, and determines the distribution of
labor which follows from such a set of characteristics. We,
discussing the case from the point of view of evolution, are inter-
ested in the effect produced by variations in these characteristics.

Let us examine, from this standpoint, the basic equations (3)
and (4). These equations clearly bring out the fact that the dis-
tribution of labor in several pursuits depends, for a given type of
individual, on two kinds of factors:

1. On the productivity of labor in different pursuits, or, as we
may express it in closer harmony with our present point of view,
on the productive "efficiency" of the representative individual in
different kinds of labor. Thus, in particular, it is obvious that
if, other things remaining equal, all the efficiencies p are increased,
the total amount of commodities produced and thus rendered
available for consumption will be increased. Normally this will
bring with it a rise in the rate of increase of the community or
race, i.e. a better adaptation of the race to its environment, or
greater "fitness."

2. On the other hand, given a certain set of values of the pro-
ductivities or efficiencies p, the distribution of labor will depend
on the values which the individual sets upon the several commodi-

' Loc. cit. pp. 184, 186, 187. In place of the prices P1P2 • ■ Jevons introduces
into equation (10) the quantities Qii Qi of the several commodities interchange-
able on the market. These quantities Q are of course inversely proj^ortional to
the prices P.

lotka: objective standard of value 415

ties, i.e., it will depend on the co and co'. There is evidently some
particular set of co, J which will give the best reslilt, or the opti-
mum adaptation, and any departure therefrom represents an
''error in the judgment of values" on the part of the individual
characterized by the ''faulty" set of w, co'. Thus, for example,
the drunkard sets an exaggerated value coa upon alcohol, and
allows too great a proportion of his labor (earnings) to be spent
upon this item. The lazy man has an exaggerated sense of the
(negative) value of fatigue co' in various pursuits, and does not
accomplish as much as would be most advantageous for his wel-
fare. On the other hand, there are over-energetic persons, who
attach too small a (negative) value to fatigue, and who, disregard-
ing the warnings of nature, continue to work when the benefits
reaped are eclipsed by the physical injury incurred. And yet
again there are ill-balanced enthusiasts, for whom the mere
activity in certain pursuits has such attraction (co' being in this
case positive even for considerable values of/), that they have not
the requisite time and energy left to provide adequately for the
necessities of life. Our sense of fatigue is given us in order that
we may strike the proper balance in these things, and evidently
there is some set of co, co', which would give the best results, steer-
ing a median course between indolence on the one hand, and ex-
cessive, injurious application on the other.

To recapitulate, we note that the "fitness" of a species, i.e.,
its adaptation to existing conditions^ depends, other things being
equal, upon the manner in which it distributes its labor, its
efforts, among its different activities. There is evidently, in
general, some particular distribution which results in an optimum
benefit, which represents an optimum adaptation. That opti-
mum will be reached only when the "sense of value" of the indi-
viduals is perfect, or, as we may express it, when they value things
(and actions) at their "^rwe" or "objective" value. Conversely,
we may turn the argument around, and draw from it the definition
of the "true" or "objective" value of a commodity: We thus
arrive at the following, which is a slightly modified statement of
the definition provisionally laid down on p. 411:

416 lotka: objective standard of value

Definition. Relative to a given species, those are the true or
objective values Vi, V2 . . .of commodities Ai A2 . . . , the
adoption of which by the species would make the adjustment of
feelings to actions perfect, or, in other words, would make the rate
of increase of the species, under existing conditions, a maximum.

This definition now enables us to obtain directly a mathematical
expression for the '' objective values" of a set of commodities.
For if, as before, the representative individual has the choice of
distributing his energies in the production of commodities A,, A2
. . . , and if r is the rate of increase per head and per unit of
time, of the species, the distribution of labor leading to a maximum
rate of increase of the species is given by

^^ + ^_<'/LldL.+ j^*5L+^i4|dL,+ . . . .=0(11)'
dwi] dL, d/i dLj ) i dm2 dLo d/2 dLo)

for all arbitrary values of dLi dLz ....
But if we denote by

Vi = /cooi = /v .,Yo=ko)2 = k -, . . . . (12)

^m^ bnii

the true values in exchange of commodities Ai, A2 . . . , that is
to say, those which would prevail if the individuals had a perfect
sense of values; and if we similarly denote by

y\=kZ:\ = k~,Y".=k^'2 = k^, .... (13)

the true values (in exchange) of fatigue Ji, fi . . . , then by our
definition of "true value," the same distribution as defined by
(11) must also be given by

^'l""+^-<^:^i|rfi,+ |-^*^ + AS * bL.,+ . . .=dQ = U(14)
dm, dLy dfi dL^ J ( dm^ dLz d/2 dL^ )

for all arbitrary values of dLi, dL^, etc., equation (14) being
simply a special case of equations (3) and (4) .

dr . dr .

^ It is here assumed that ^;— is a function of mi only, c — a function of mz

Onii Oniz

only, etc. The more general case where this is not the case will be considered later.

lotka: objective standard of value

417

Now equations (11) and (14) are satisfied by the same values
of TTii, 7712, . . . , /i, /2, . . . , provided that

dr

drill

Pi

dr
dm2

Pi

dr , dr ,

P 1 = — P 2 =

F&)^p.
orrii

F (n) ^ p.

= -F(n)^p\=-F(Q)^p', = . . .

5/l C)/2

where F (fi) is an arbitrary function of 12.

We may conveniently select for the function F the form

(15)

(16)

F (fi) = constant
Then we have by (12), (13), (15), (16)

dr dr

1

(17)

Vi : Vo : . . . : V ] V 2

drrii drrii

dr

dr

(18)

or

1 r dr 1 , dr

Vi = k ; — , V2 = k

drrii

dnii

v\ = k

, dr

(19)

where A;' is an arbitrary constant which appears wherever we are
dealing with values in exchange, and the signification of which is
that the choice of one commodity as standard of reference always
remains arbitrary. In the present case it will be most convenient
to fix the value of the constant k' arbitrarily by putting

k' = 1

(20)

The value of the constant k which appears in equations (12)
and (13) depends on the units employed in measuring marginal
ophelimities. It will be simplest to measure these directly by
the corresponding values in exchange, in which case we have

k = 1

(21)

We have then for the "true" values in exchange and for the
corresponding "ideal" ophelimities (i.e. those attached to the

418 lotka: objective standard of value

several commodities by an individual with a perfect sense of
values) the simple relation

V- = . = ojj = ■ , V J = = w J = {ZZ)

dnii dm; d/j d/j

for all values of j and J.

Thus our problem is solved for the special case here considered :
We have found a mathematical expression for the numerical
measure of the ''true" or "objective" values of a set of commodi-
ties. The "true" value (per unit of mass) of a given commodity
A], when the rate of consumption is nij units of mass per head per

unit of time, is the partial differential coefficient r — of the rate of

orrii

increase r per head of the species, taken with regard to mj.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflScial publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEOCHEMISTRY.—rAe composition of crinoid skeletons. F, W.
Clarke and W. C. Wheeler. U. S. Geological Survey Profes-
sional Paper 90-D. Pp. 5. 1914.

This investigation relates to the formation of marine sediments and,
therefore, of sedimentary rocks. A single group of existing organisms
was studied, namely the crinoids, and their contribution to the sedi-
ments was established. The material was furnished by Mr. Austin H.
Clark, of the U. S. National Museum, and consisted of 24 specimens rep-
resenting 21 distinct genera, with a range of habitat from northern Japan
to the shores of the Antarctic Continent. All of the crinoid skeletons
consisted of calcium and magnesium carbonates, with minor impurities,
and the proportion of MgCOs ranged from 7.28 to 12.69 per cent. The
crinoids, therefore, contribute notable quantities of magnesia to the
marine sediments. The proportion of magnesia, however, varied re-
markably with temperature. The crinoids from high latitudes ran lowest
in MgCOs; those from warm regions ran highest; the variation being
curiously regular. So far as the authors are aware, a regularity of
this order, which they do not attempt to explain, has never been
observed before.

Ten fossil crinoids, ranging from the Ordovician to the Eocene were
also analyzed. These showed no regularities whatever, for they had
evidently been much altered by leaching, and by the infiltration of
foreign material. F. W. C.

GEOLOGY. — Reconnaissance of the Grandfield district, Oklahoma. M. J.

MuNN. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 547. Pp. 83, with maps,

views and sections. 1914.

The Grandfield district embraces about 360 square miles in southern

Oklahoma, including the southeastern part of Tillman County and the

419

420 abstracts: geology

southwestern part of Cotton County, and is drained by Red River. The
interstream areas are a smooth, shghtly undulating, treeless prairie,
into which the smaller streams have cut very slightly except near their
mouths. The notable features of the topography are (1) the broad,
smooth surfaces, (2) a few low, round, isolated hills adjacent to the di-
vides, preserved by a capping of more resistant rocks, and (3) the many
large "breaks" or washes similar in character to the well-known bad-
lands of other portions of the West.

The lowest outcropping rocks in the Grandfield district are "Red Beds"
of Permian age. There are relatively few data about the underlying
rocks in this district, and these come from several deep oil and gas well
records. The facts indicate that the upper portion of unexposed beds
is of Permian age and that this series is underlain by older Carboniferous
beds of the Pennsylvanian series.

In most of the Grandfield district the hard rocks are hidden beneath
a surficial mantle of loose, unconsolidated material consisting of: (1)
Dune sand, spread over a broad belt adjacent to Red River; (2) a dark
or reddish sandy to clay soil, largely wind-blown, covering most of the
smooth slopes of the interstream areas; and (3) a red clay-silt alluvium
found in the broad, flat valleys of Deep Red Run and its tributaries.
Beneath this thin veneer of Quaternary beds, exposed in many places
in breaks and along the valley sides, lies a thin bed of coarse, hard quartz-
lime conglomerate (here named the Grandfield congloiiierate) , very
persistent and rarely exceeding five feet in thickness, which has been
variously classified as of Quaternary or of late Tertiary age. It is under-
lain unconformably by "Red Beds" of Permian age which are correlated
with the Wichita formation of northern Texas.

The most important structural feature recognized in the district is a
low anticline that crosses it in a sinuous line trending generally east-
southeast and west-northwest. Along the axis of this anticline lie a
number of small elongated domes that are separated by low structural
saddles. The rocks over the entire district generally dip eastward, and
the dip is shown in the height of this anticline. The axis of this fold
dips from an elevation of about 1,160 feet at the western side of the dis-
trict to about 1,040 feet at its eastern edge, a distance of about 24 miles.

Another important structural feature of this district is a broad flat
syncline or structural trough which lies north of and roughly parallel
to the anticline. The axis of this fold pitches slightly toward the east,
but is somewhat modified by one or two shallow basins.

abstracts: geology 421

In the location of oil pools from geologic examinations of the surface,
structure is the one factor, of the several controlling the accumulation
of oil, which can be determined. Other important factors are: (1) The
thickness, number, and positions of beds which contain or have contained
the organic material from which the oil and gas were derived; (2) the
stratigraphic relation of beds carrying salt water to those in which the
oil and gas originated; (3) the thickness, variability, and stratigraphic
positions of porous lenses, or irregular beds of sand, that may serve as
reservoirs; and (4) the structural changes through which these beds
have passed since they were deposited. The effectiveness of the combi-
nation of these various factors in the production of oil pools in any given
localitj^ can be determined only by the drill, but drilling is to be under-
taken only in localities at which the structure is favorable.

The old anticlinal theory based on the idea that oil and gas accumu-
lations are due to differences in the specific gravity of gas, oil, and salt
water, seems inadequate to explain the facts as observed. It is believed
by the author that the accumulation of oil and gas in pools is due to the
action of large bodies of water moving under both hydrostatic and cap-
illary pressure. C. H. Wegemann.

GEOLOGY. — Erosion and sedimentation in Chesapeake Bay around the
mouth of Choptank River. J. Fred. Hunter. U. S. Geological Sur-
vey Professional Paper 9Q-B. Pp. 7-15, with map and figure.
May 23, 1914.
This work is a result of a comparison of a small portion of two separate
topographic and hydrographic surveys of the Chesapeake Bay made by
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, one in 1847-48, and a
second, over a half century later, in 1900-01. A third supplementary
topographic survey of a part of the area studied was made in 1910 by the
author and C. C. Yates. It is demonstrated that very significant
changes, both in the topography and in the hydrography of the region,
have taken place, and quantitative data on the amount and rate of ero-
sion and sedimentation in a representative area of the bay are presented.
The three islands at the mouth of Choptank River are being rapidly
cut away and Sharps Island, whose north end has suffered a loss of 1 10 feet
per year during the last ten years, will probably be entirely effaced before
1950. Practically all the erosion has been on the west and north sides
of the islands; that is, on the shores which are most open to the attack
of the southerly bay currents and the westerly winds and their waves.

422 abstracts: geology

In general, the cutting has been greatest along the shores having low
scarps made up of the clays and marls of the Talbot formation, and
least along those of the low-lying tidal marshes.

A study of the submarine changes shows rather extensive scouring
along the eastern shore of the bay and less extensive, though equally
intensive, shoaling at places within the river mouth. A further and
more extensive study involving the entire bay and its tributary basins
is suggested. J. F. H.

GEOLOGY. — Dike rocks of the Apishapa quadrangle, Colorado. Whit-
man Cross. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 90-C.
Shorter contributions to general geology, 1914. C. Pp. 17-31,
4 plates. 1914.

The Apishapa quadrangle is situated on the plains south of Arkansas
River, in Colorado, about twenty-four miles east of the mountain front.
The geological map of this area in the Apishapa folio, by G. W. Stose,
shows forty-three dikes which trend nearly west. These are a part of a
great system of radial dikes, with associated sills, which surround the
Spanish Peaks, an eruptive center situated twenty-five miles southwest
of the border of the quadrangle.

The rocks of Apishapa quadrangle are all lamprophyric in character
and are described under the names minette, augite minette, olivine-
bearing augite vogesite, hornblende-augite vogesite, olivine-plagioclase
basalt, and sodic diabase. The series to which they belong has a much
greater range than this. Chemical analyses are given of four of the prin-
cipal types, and photomicrographs illustrate the textures of three of
the analyzed rocks.

These dike rocks are of types which are not commom in Colorado nor,
indeed, in any part of the world. The full significance of their interest-
ing characters can not be determined until the great series of dikes about
the Spanish Peaks has been more thoroughly studied.

The analyzed rocks of the Apishapa quadrangle illustrate very forcibly
the fact that magmas of the same chemical composition may produce
rocks of notably different mineral composition under the influence of
different conditions of consolidation. This is brought out by tables of
analyses and norms. The vogesites (orthoclase rocks) are nearly identical
chemically with rocks which have been called feldspar basalt, essexite,
nephelite basanite, trachydolerite, etc. The incongruities of a purely
mineralogical classification of such rocks are discussed. W. C.

abstracts: paleontology 423

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Standing Rock and Cheyenne River Indian
reservation, North and South Dakota. W. R. Calvert, A. L.
Beekly, W. H. Barnett, and Max A. Pishel. U. S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 575. Pp. 49, with maps, sections, and illustra-
tions. 1914.
Aside from the surficial deposits the geologic formations which
outcrop in the Standing Rock and Cheyenne River Indian reservations
are the Pierre shale and the Fox Hills, of Upper Cretaceous age, the
Lance, probably of lower Tertiary age, and the Fort Union formation,
definite^ assigned to the last-named epoch. The Fox Hills rest con-
formably on the Pierre and no definite line can be drawn between the
two formations. There is in most places, however, an abrupt litho-
logic change from the Fox Hills to the Lance formation, and locally
the contact between the two is marked by a decided unconformity; but
it is still an open question whether or not this unconformity represents
a long-time break. The surficial deposits consist of scattered striated
boulders and small patches of glacial gravel, of early Pleistocene age,
and terrace gravel and alluvial valley filling, which were deposited later.
The Cretaceous and Tertiary strata dip gently in a northwesterly
direction at about 5 feet per mile. M. A. P.

«

PALEONTOLOGY.— Cam6na7i Geology and Paleontology, III, No. l.~-
The Cambrian faunas of Eastern Asia. Charles D. Walcott.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 64^: 1-75, pis. 1-3. April
22, 1914.

This paper is essentially a resume of the publications of the Carnegie
Institution dealing with the Cambrian formations of Eastern Asia. In
condensed and easily accessible form are placed the essential facts in
regard to the stratigraphy and paleontology of the Cambrian in this area.

A historical review of the work on Cambrian geology in Eastern
Asia is given. The account of the collections made by the Carnegie
Expedition and by Professor Iddings is very full. Numerous sections,
faunal lists, and correlation tables are furnished, and the various pre-
Cambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician formations are briefly described.
Of special interest is the discussion as to the possible continental origin
of the pre-Cambrian sediments, and of the relation of the Cambrian to
the Ordovician. A general review of the Lower, Middle, and Upper
Cambrian faunas is given, and broad correlations with extra-Asiatic
faunas are made.

A new trilobite genus, Tsinania, is described, having as its genotj-pe
Illaenurus canens Walcott. • Edwin Kirk.

424 abstracts: botany

BOTANY. — Classification of the genus Annona with descriptions of new
and imperfectly kiiown species. W. E. Safford. Contributions
from the U. S. National Herbarium 18: 1-68, pis. 1-41, text figs.
1-75. June 17, 1914.

This paper presents a synoptical view of the genus Annona by natural
groups and sections, together with descriptions of two closely allied
genera, Fusaea and Geanthemum, and critical notes upon Rollinia,
Duguetia, and Raimondia.

Four groups of Annona are proposed: (1) the Guanabani, or sour-
sops, including the sections Euannona, typified by Annona muricata
L.; Psammogenia, typified by A. salzmanni A. DC.; Ulocarpus, typified
by A. purpurea Moc. & Sesse; (2) the Pilaeflorae, or silky Annonas,
including the sections Helogenia, typified by Annona paludosa Aubl. ;
Pilannona, typified by A. sericea Dunal; Gamopetalum, typified by
A. cornifolia St. Hil.; (3) the Acutiflorae, or sharp-petaled Annonas,
including Phelloxylon, typified by Annona glabra L.; Atractanthus,
typified by A. acutiflora Mart.; (4) the Attae, the custard-apples, com-
posed of the sections Chelonocarpus, typified by Annona scleroderma Saf-
ford; Atta, typified by A. squamosa L.; llama, typified by A. diversifolia
Safford; and Saxigena, typified by A. hullata A. Rich.; (5) the Annonel-
lae, or dwarf Annonas, including the sections Annonula, typified by
Annona cascarilloides Wright, of Cuba; and Annonella, typified by A.
glohiflora Schlecht., of Mexico. In these sections the relationship
between the species is shown in some cases by peculiarities of leaf struc-
ture, in others by the structure of the stamens or form of the flower, and
in still others by pecuHarities of the fruit and seed. Some of the sections
are more sharply defined than others.

The following new species are described: Annona jahni, A. lutescens,
A. palmeri, A. crassivenia, A. sclerophylla, A. rosei. Detailed figures are
given oi A. montana Macf., A. sphaerocarpa Splitg., A. marcgravii Mart.,
A. salzmanni A. DC, A. purpurea Moc. & Sesse, (including A. manirote
H.B.K.) A. involucrata Baill., A. paludosa Aubl., A. cornifolia St. Hil.,
A. nutans R. E. Fries, A. acutiflora Mart., A. longiflora S. Wats., A.
macroprophyllata Donn. Sm., A. hullata A. Rich., A. cascarilloides
Wright, A. glohiflora Schlect., and A. bicolor Urban, many of these having
never before been figured.

Under the heading "Plants originally described under Annona but
generically distmct" the author describes the genera Rollinia, Duguetia
and Raimondia, already established, and proposes Fusaea and Geanthe-

abstracts: botany 425

mum as new genera. Under Duguetia he points out the differences
which separate this genus from Aberemoa of Aublet, which has been
treated by R. E. Fries as a synonym, but which has pedicelled carpels
more nearly like those of the genus Guatteria than like the crowded, angu-
lar, sessile carpels of Duguetia.

In the preparation of this paper the author has been fortunate in
securing the loan of abundant material from the Berlin Herbarium and
the De Candolle Herbarium, including several types of Humboldt,
Bonpland and Kunth, and of Ruiz and Pavon. A critical study of these
has shown that Annona conica Ruiz & Pavon is identical with A. quindu-
ensis H.B.K., and that these plants must be placed in the recenth^
established South American genus Raimondia, under the name R.
quinduensis; and that A. rhomhipetala Ruiz & Pavon is very closely allied
if not identical with A. longifolia Aubl., which becomes the type of the
new genus Fusaea. This plant was already set apart as a distinct sec-
tion by Baillon, who placed it in the genus Duguetia, with which it has
little real affinity. The present author therefore does not hesitate to
raise Baillon 's section Fusaea to generic rank. For similar reasons he
establishes also the new genus Geanthemum (based upon R. E. Fries 's
section of that name) with two South American species and points out
the close affinity of these to Uvaria sessilis Velloso, which Martius errone-
ously regarded as identical with Duguetia hradeosa Mart. W. E. S.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

GEODESY

Bowie, W., and Avers, H. G. Fourth general adjustment of the precise level net in
the United States, and the resulting standard elevations. Coast and Geodetic
Survey Special Publication No. 18. Pp. 328, 4 plates, 1 map. 1914.

Faris, R. L. Results of magnetic observations made by Coast and Geodetic Survey,
July 1, lOll-December 31, 1912. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publica-
tion No. 15. Pp. 102. 1913.

MoiTRHESS, C. A. Triangulation on coast of Texas, from Sabine Pass to Corpus
Christi Bay. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 17. Pp. 89,
1 plate, 18 maps. 1913.

SwicK, C. H. Triajigulation along icest coast of Florida. Coast and Geodetic
Survey Special Publication No. 16. Pp. 147, 1 plate, 28 maps. 1913.

PALEONTOLOGY

Berry, E. W. A fossil floiver from the Eocene. Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum 45: 261-263, pi. 21, text fig. 1. June 13, 1913. (Describes the new
genus Combretanthites, with a single member, C. eocenica, sp. nov. — W. R.
M.)

Knowlton, F. H. Description of a new fossil fern of the genus Gleicheniafrom the
Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 :
555-558. June 21, 1913. (Describes Gleichenia pulchella, sp. nov.— W. R. M.)

Shufeldt, R. W. Extinct ostrich birds of the United States. Aquila 20: 411-422,
pis. 1-5. 1913.

Shufeldt, R. W. Review of the fossil fauna of the desert region of Oregon, with a
description of additional material collected there. Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History 32 : 123-178, pis. 9-43. July 9, 1913.

MAMMALOGY

Goldman, E. A. Descriptions of five new mammals from Panama. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 63^:1-7. March 14, 1914. (Describes one new
species each of Chironectes, Felis, Lonchophylla, Lutra, and Aotus. — N. H.)

Goldman, E. A. A new bat of the genus Mimon from Mexico. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 27: 75, 76. May 11, 1914. (Describes M^■mon
cozumelae, sp. nov., from Cozumel Island, Yucatan. — N. H.)

Goldman, E. A — The status of Cebus imitator Thomas. Proceedings of the Biolog-
ical Society of Washington 27: 99. May 11, 1914. (Two forms of Cebus are
recognized in Panama. The western form takes the name Cebus capucinus
imitator. — N. H.)

426

references: mammalogy 427

Goldman, E. A. The status of certain American species of Myotis. Proceedings
of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 102. May 11, 1914. (Myotis
volans H. Allen is recognized as a valid species, with Myotis capitaneus Nelson
and Goldman as a synonym. — N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. A review of the Philippine land mammals in the United States
National Musexim. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 299-341,
pis. 27-29. December 31, 1913. (Lists the 1,454 specimens of Philippine
mammals in the U. S. National Museum collection, with critical notes, and
describes eighteen new species from the archipelago. — N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. A new name for the narmot of the Canadian Rockies. Science, n.
s., 39: 251. February 13, 1914. (Proposes the name Mar mo ta oxytona, to
replace M. sibila, preoccupied. — N. H.)

HoLLisTER, N. Four new neotropical rodents. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 27 : 57-60. March 20, 1914. (Describes new forms of
Proechimys, Myocastor, Lagostoraus, and Hydrochoerus. — N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. Four 7iew mammals from tropical America. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 27: 103-106. May 11, 1914. (Describes
new forms of Philander, Nectomys, and Cebus. — N. H.)

Howell, A. H. Ten new marmots from North Ainerica. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 27: 13-18. February 2, 1914. (New subspe-
cies oi Marmota ynonax, M. flaviventer, and A'^. caligata are described. — N. H.)

Howell, A. H. Notes on the skunks of Indiana, with a correction. Proceedings
of the Biological Society of Washington 27 : 100. May 11, 1914. (All records of
Mephitis mesomelas avia from Indiana, except one from near the Hlinois
boundary, prove to refer to M. mephitis putida. — N. H.)

Jackson, H. H. T. New moles of the genus Scalopus. Proceedings of the Bio-
logical Society of Washington 27: 19-22. February 2, 1914. (Describes a
new species from Mexi(?D, and four new subspecies from the United States. —
N. H.)

Jackson, H. H. T. New moles of the genus Scapanus. Proceedings of the Biolog-
ical Society of Washington 27: 55, 56. March 20,1914. (Describes two new
subspecies: Scapanus latimanus sericatus and S. latimanus grinnelli, both
from California. — N. H.)

Mearns, E. a. Descriptions of three new raccoons from the Mexican boundary
region. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27:63-68. March
. 20, 1914. {Procyon lotor fuscipes, P. lotor ochraceus, and P. lotor californicus
are described as new. — ^N. H.)

Mearns, E. A. The earliest systematic name for the iuoza, or Georgia pocket gopher.
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 102. May 11, 1914.
(Mus tuza dates from Barton, 1806, not from Ord, 1815. — N. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Notes on the bats of the genus Molossus. Proceedings of the
U. S. National Museum 46: 85-92. August 23, 1913. (A synopsis of the
forms of this genus, with descriptions of two new species, Molossus fortis and
M. debilis.—:^. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Revision, of the bats of the genus Glossophaga. Proceedings of
the U. S. National Museum 46: 413-429. December 31, 1913. (A monograph
of this genus, with descriptions of two new forms, Glossophaga soricina mi-
crotis, from Paraguay, and G. soricina valens, from Peru. — N. H.)

428 references: mammalogy

Miller, G. S., jr. Elliot's Review of the Primates. Science, n. s., 39: 28-31.
January 2, 1914. (A critical review of D. G. Elliot's "A Review of the Pri-
mates," 1913.— N. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Two new murine rodents from Eastern Asia. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington 27 : 89-91. May 11, 1914. (Describes
Apodemus praetor from Manchuria and Epimys norvegicus socer, from Kansu. —
N.H.

Nelson, E. W. Description of a new subspecies of moose from Wyoming' Proceed-
ings of the Biological Society of Washington 27 : 71-74. April 25, 1914. (De-
scribes Alces americanus shirasi from Snake River. — N. H.)

Osgood, W. H. Dates for Ovis canadensis, Ovis cervina, and Ovis montana. Pro-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 1-4. February 2, 1914.
(Ovis canadensis is shown to have about one month priority. — N. H.)

Osgood, W. H. Note on Eptesicus propinquus. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 27: 101. May 11, 1914. {Shows Eptesicus propinquus
Peters to be an independent species, with E. gaumeri as a synonym. — N. H.)

Roosevelt, T., and Heller, E. Life-histories of African game animals. Vol.
1, pp. i-xxix, 1^20; vol. 2, pp. i-x, 421-798; numerous illustrations and
faunal maps. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. April, 1914. (A general
account of the larger mammals of eastern equatorial Africa, based primarily
on material collected upon the Smithsonian African Expedition of 1910-11.
— N. H.)

ORNITHOLOGY

Clark, A. H. A new race of the inandarin duck from southern Japan. Proceed-
ings of the Biological Society of Washington 27 : 87. May 11, 1914. (Describes
Aix galericulata brunnescens, subsp. nov. — C. W. R.)

Mearns, E. a. Description of six new African birds. Smithsonian Collections
61^1 : 1-5. August 30, 1913. (Describes 6 new subspecies, 5 of them belong-
ing to the genus Cisticola. — W. R. M.)

Oberholser, H. C. Four neto birds from Neufoundland. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 27 : 43-54. March 20, 1914. (New subspecies
are described as Dryobates pubescens microleucus, Bubo virginianus neochorus,
Periscreus canadensis sanfordi, and Pinicola enucleator eschatosus. — C. W. R.)

Oberholser, H. C. A monograph of the genus Chordeiles Swainson, type of a new
family of goatsuckers. Bulletin 86, U. S. National Museum. Pp. i-vii, 1-123,
pis. 1-5. April 6, 1914.

Oberholser, H. C. Pooecetes gramineus confinis ui Loms?a?ifl. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington 27 : 101. May 11, 1914.

Richmond, C. W. Appendix [to check list of birds of the lower Yangtse valley from
Hankoiv to the Sea, by L. I. Moffett and N. Gist Gee]. Journal of the North
China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 44: 143a-143f. 1913. (Gives cor-
rected nomenclature of the species mentioned in Moffett and Gee's list. —
C. W. R.)

Ridgway, R. The birds of North and Middle America (etc.) . Bulletin 50, Part VI,
U. S. National Museum. Pp. i-xx, 1-882, pis. 1-36. April 8, 1914.

Riley, J. H. Note on Anas cristata Gmelin. Proceedings of the Biological So-
ciety of Washington 27: 100. May 11. 1914. (Lophonetta is a new genus for
this species. — C. W. R.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV SEPTEMBER 19, 1914 No. 16

GEOPHYSICS. — Note on mean density of fractured rocks. George
F. Becker, Geological Survey.

In connection with the theory of isostasy changes in the mean
density of rocks deserve study. Charles Babbage long since
called attention to the effects of temperature in this regard.
Another source of change in density is rupture; for since there is
every reason to believe that the elasticity of volume for crystal-
line solids is perfect, fissures in rocks represent voids, and dimin-
ish density so long as they remain unfilled by secondary dep-
osition.

It is a familiar fact that orogenic movements are accompanied
by extensive and minute fissuring as well as by folding and dis-
tortion; and it is well known also that in many instances what
at first sight resembles plastic folding or contortion turns out
on close inspection to have resulted from the crushing of a bed
or layer under ' confinement. Many years ago I came to the
conclusion that the residual, unfissured fragments in the Coast
Ranges of California do not average larger than a hen's egg.
Such crushing must of course convert a vast amount of energy
into heat, and in my opinion Mallet's theories on this subject
have not received the attention they deserve. Thermal effects,
however, will not be discussed here, but only mechanical ones.

A rude approxunation to what happens when a brittle bed
under confinement is bent may be imagined. The first step will
be the formation of not more than four systems of fissures divid-

429

430 BECKER: MEAN DENSITY OF FRACTURED ROCKS

ing the mass into polyhedral fragments tightly pressed together.
As flexure proceeds fragments will grind against one another,
edges and corners being comminuted. It would seem prob-
able that the original fragments would thus be more or less
rounded, the interspaces becoming packed with attrition prod-
ucts. In this condition the mass would somewhat resemble a
pile of cannon balls in close order filled in say with buckshot.
Now the interstitial space in closely piled spheres of the same
radius is 0.2595 and if this space be filled with relatively very
small spheres the voids would be reduced to the square of the
fraction just stated or to between 6 and 7 per cent. If the buck-
shot were mingled with fine birdshot the voids would be still
further reduced.

But the amount of voids can be found much more satisfactorily
by experiment. If a tube of soft metal is filled with sulphur,
run in in a liquid state, the pipe can be bent cold without collaps-
ing, while, since sulphur is very brittle, the filling of the tube must
be reduced to powder, with an accompanying diminution of
density. At my request Mr. A. F. Melcher has made some trials
by this method which will be described in the next note. The
results show that the voids increase with the flexure up to a
limit very nearly corresponding to the forecast which appar-
ently represents a maximum reduction of density through rupture.

Imagine a tabular mass of rock exposing a plane surface at
sea level as wide and as long as' a mountain range and extending
to a depth of 120 km. Suppose it either to be unf ssured or that
any fissures once intersecting it had been solidly filled with vein
minerals. Then suppose that by lateral horizontal forces the
mass be crushed as the Coast Ranges and other ranges have been.
There would be a tendency to diminish the cross sectional area,
but it may be imagined that the reduced width is compensated
by increased horizontal length. The result of the formation of
voids through fracture must be upheaval and, if the voids amount
throughout to 5 per cent, the elevation produced by these alone
will average 6 kms. or say 20,000 feet.

It is thus evident that the diminution of density due to crush-
ing is of the order of magnitude requisite to account for the

melcher: change of density of sulphur 431

variations of topography in a sense compatible with isostasy.
If too the forces to which crushing is due do not vary with depth
and if the rocks are equally brittle, the compensation will also
be uniformly distributed, except perhaps very close to the surface.

If a mountain range were to form as here suggested, infiltra-
tion would begin at once and the range would grow heavier
unless erosion at least counterbalanced infiltration. A very an-
cient range might be peneplained without disturbance of iso-
static equilibrium; if erosion were to proceed pari passu with
infiltration, but that being vastly improbable either a positive
or a negative anomaly might be induced.

Far be it from me to assert that the formation of voids explains
orogeny; but it appears to be a vera causa giving results of the
order of magnitude demanded and to be worthy of consideration
in tectonic theory.

GEOPHYSICS. — Note on the change of density of sulphur with
ruptured A. F. Melcher, Geological Survey. Communi-
cated by George F. Becker.

A.t the suggestion of Dr. G. F. Becker a few determinations
have been made on the change, through rupture, of the density
of sulphur. Six trial specimens were prepared, brass tubes of
two different lengths and three different diameters being filled
with sulphur. After the density of the samples had been deter-
mined, they were bent as nearly into the form of a complete circle
as could conveniently be done and then the density was deter-
mined a second time. The second determination of density
compared with the initial determination gave the change in
density due to the rupture of the sulphur in bending.

The preparation and filling of the tubes with sulphur were not
as easy as at first it would seem. Three of the tubes were 9
inches long with an internal diameter of 0.6 inches. The other
three tubes were 12 inches long and of two different diam-
eters, two of the tubes having an internal diameter of 0.4 inches
and the remaining tube an internal diameter of about 0.5 inches.
The tubes were first annealed to insure easy bending without

' Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

432

melcher: change of density of sulphur

breaking. In one end of the tube a closely fitting brass plug
about 0.4 inches long was soldered. Through this plug and the
tube a pin was soldered, in order that the plug might withstand
the pressure of the sulphur under rupture.

The tube and plug were then weighed and placed in an electric
furnace and nearly filled with powdered sulphur. After the
sulphur had melted it was stirred to eliminate air bubbles. The
circuit was then broken and the sulphur allowed to crystallize.
In the center of the column of sulphur was found a depression
due to the fact that the density of sulphur increases on solidi-
fying and that it crystallizes fi"»'st on the sides of the tube. By
again melting the sulphur at the top or by adding more sulphur
and melting it, this depression was largely, if not wholly, elimi-
nated. Sometimes this process had to be repeated, working
gradually towards the top of the tube.

TABLE 1

II

III

IV

VI

Weight of sulphur, grams

Vol. of sulphur, cc. (Density
= 1.9)

Decrease in weight due to
bending

Temperatures centigrade

Density of water at above
temperatures

Volume increase

Vol. of sulphur after bending

Density after bending

Diminution in density -j- ini-
tial density

62.0683

32.67

1.6311
23.4°

0.99747+
1.6352
34.3052
1.809

0.048

62.7628

33.03

1.6884
23.4°

0.99747+
1.6927
34.7227
1.807

0.049

64.8365

34.12

1.9286
23 4°

42.3654

22.30

1.2434
27.3°

0.99747+ , 0.99646

1.9335 1.2478

36.0535 23.5478

1.798 1.799

0.054

0.053

44.8448

23.60

1.7017
28 1°

0.99624
1.7081
25.3081

1.772

0.067

64.9445

34.18

1.9532
27.3°

0.99646
1.9601
36.1401
1.797

0.054

After the sulphur column had been planed off the sample was
again weighed, in order to get the weight of sulphur. Another
closely fitting plug about 0.9 inches in length was then driven
down in the open end of the tube against the surface of the
sulphur and fastened by a pin and solder as in the previous case.
It might be mentioned that some difficulty was encountered in
soldering the plug and pin, due to the fact that sulphur melts
at about 114°C. and solder at about 300°C. This difficulty was
eliminated by using a large soldering iron and immersing the tube
in water close up to the place of soldering.

melcher: change of density of sulphur 433

The density was then determined by the loss of weight in water
before and after bending the sample, with the following results:

The density of the sulphur, 1.9, was computed directly from
the measurements of the tubes. This value is probably a little
low as the diameter of the plug was taken for the diameter of
the tube. However, a difference of 0.1 in density only gives a
difference of about 0.002 in the diminution in density divided by
the initial density. Other errors in the experiment may have
arisen from wrinkles which sometimes form in the process of
bending of the specimen, and to the plugs which may slightly
protrude outside the tube unless the pin^and plug are closely
fitted and well soldered. The specimens were again weighed in
air after the experiment, to see whether there was any change
in weight due to leakage.

Specunens III and VI were bent a second time with a change
in the percentage decrease of density from 5.4 to 5.65 and 5.4
to 5.47 respectively. The above data seem to indicate that as
the deformation approaches a complete circle the change in the
percentage decrease of density becomes less for equal increments
of strain, as specimens III and VI were bent about the same
amount, but VI was more nearly a complete circle than III before
the second bending took place.

The percentage-decrease in density of specimen V is higher
than the others. The high value of V is probably due to better
mechanical construction and better filling of the tube than for
the other specimens and is perhaps more significant since none
of the tubes can have been absolutely free from air bubbles.
This specimen was bent very nearly into the form of a com-
plete circle and no wrinkles or protrusion of the plugs could
be detected. Upon opening the tube the filling was found to
be apparently complete throughout with no noticeable central
void or depression.

The data obtained are not of the utmost precision, but are
close enough to show that there is a decrease in density due
to rupture and that the decrease in density approaches a
value which is of the order of magnitude of 0.0673. This is
the square of 0.2595 or of the interstitial space in closely piled
spheres of equal radius. The approximation is apparently due

434 DICKINSON: combustion calorimetry

to the rounding off of the edges and corners of the fragments
formed at the inception of bending. Evidently different values
depending upon the amount of the strain and the nature of the
substance strained might be obtained, but the present experi-
ments indicate that 6.73 per cent is the limitirg value for sulphur
subjected to shear under ordinary hydrostatic pressure. Were
the bending to be carried further, or to be repeated, it seems
possible that a diminution of interstitial space would result.

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr.
C. E. Van Orstrand for helpful suggestions made during the
progress of the experiments.

PHYSICS. — Combustion calorimetry and the heats of combustion
of cane sugar, benzoic acid, and naphthalene.'^ Hobart C.
Dickinson, Bureau of Standards.

The uniform standardization of combustion calorimeters of the
Berthelot bomb type can best be accomplished by the combustion
of substances having a known heat of combustion. A critical
study of the stirred water calorimeter as used for bomb combus-
tion shows that the sources of error are mainly of four kinds,
viz., (1) temperature measurement, (2) evaporation, (3) lag effect,
i.e., failure of some parts of the system to reach a steady con-
dition with sufficient speed, and (4) uncertainties as to the
boundaries of the calorimeter, i.e., as to what portions should
be included in its heat capacity. It is shown that most of the
errors may be avoided by the use of resistance thermometers
and by the proper construction of the calorimeter and its jacket.
The cooling corrections for a calorimeter designed in accordance
with the conclusions reached can be made by a very simple pro-
cedure and with an accuracy corresponding to perhaps 1 part in
10,000 of the total amount of heat measured.

A method of electrical calibration was used, which enables the
results of combustion observations to be expressed directly in
calories almost independently of the electric units, or, if the heat
capacity of the electric heating element used in the calibration

1 The complete paper under the above title will be published in the Bulletin of
the Bureau of Standards.

DICKINSON: COMBUSTION CALORIMETRY 435

is known, to be used to check serious errors in either the calori-
metric system or the electrical calibrating system.

Observations have been made with two different calorimeters
built especially for the purpose and each calibrated by the above
method several times independently. Both calibrations and com-
bustions cover a period of more than three years during which
time hundreds of observations have been made with different
electrical equipment, and samples of material obtained from dif-
ferent sources and purified at different times and in different ways.

Determinations of the heat of combustion of napthalene gave
9622 =*= 2 (20°) calories per gram weighed in air, with a maxi-
mum deviation from the mean of about 5 in 10,000 for groups of
observations upon the same samples and about the same maxi-
mum deviation of different groups of observations from the mean
of all, regardless of the sample.

Determinations of the heat of combustion of benzoic acid
gave 6329 ± 1 (20°) calories per gram weighed in air, with a
maxmimn deviation of about 1 in 1000 for the earlier experi-
ments and 5 in 10,000 for the later ones. Observations taken
on samples, some by no means pure, from different sources,
show a maximum deviation of 15 in 10,000 and a mean deviation
of 7 in 10,000.

Determinations of the heat of combustion of sucrose, fewer in
number, gave 3949 ± 2 (20°) calories per gram weighed in air.
The later observations show a maximum deviation of a little less
than 1 in 1000 and a mean deviation of about 3 in 10,000, though
the earlier ones show a maximum deviation of 15 in 10,000.

It appears that, of the three materials included in this investi-
gation, benzoic acid is the most desirable as a combustion stand-
ard, as indicated by the agreement between the results of different
observers. Napthalene has been found very reliable and con-
venient, although it requires care in handlirg, since a gram
bricquet will lose more than 1 mgm per hour by sublimation..
An accuracy of 3 parts in 10,000 is attainable. Sucrose seems
not to be so well adapted for use as a combustion standard as
is benzoic acid, because of its lower heat of combustion, its fre-
quent failure to ignite, and the lower precision of the results,
obtained.

436 BURGESS AND KELLBERG : CRITICAL RANGES OF IRON

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY — The electrical resistance and criti-
cal ranges of pure iron. G. K. Burgess and I. N. Kell-
BERG, Bureau of Standards.

The exact location and description of the critical ranges A2
and A3 of pure iron, determined by heating and cooling curves,
has recently been published by the Bureau of Standards. ^ Dr.
Benedicks of Stockhohn has since carried out dilatation measure-
ments- which show that A 2 is accompanied by an expansion
change, hitherto undetected. Messrs. Honda and Ogura,^
following a number of other experimenters,'' have plotted the
magnetic and resistance-temperature curves for pure iron over
the range 0° to 1000°C. Although their observations appear
to give the general trend of the resistance-temperature curve
of pure iron, they do not give an exact representation of the
Tesistance changes taking place at A^ and A?., mainly for lack
of sensitiveness.

In view of the importance of the subject and as providing a
part of an adequate experimental basis for the elucidation of
the question of the allotropy of iron, it was thought worth while
to make as exact a determination of the resistance-temperature
relation of pure iron as the experimental means at our command
permitted, paying particular attention to the form of. the curve
over the A2 and A3 critical ranges.

The experiments here described were begun in the suinmer
of 1912 and several preliminary methods of experimentation
were tried out before satisfactory sensitiveness, accuracy, speed
in manipulation, and closeness of observations to each other
were obtained. In some of the earlier work the method was
tried of bringing the heating bath or furnace to a definite tempera-

^ G. K. Burgess and J. J. Crowe: Critical ranges A^ and A3 of pure iron,
Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 213. 1914. Also Bull. Am. Inst. Mining
Tj]ngineers. October and December. 1913.

2 Carl Benedicks: Experiments on allotropy of iron: behavior of ferro-mag-
sietic mixtures; dilatation of pure iron. Jl. Iron and Steel Institute. May, 1914.

' K. Honda and Y. Ogura: tJber die Beziehung zwischen den Anderungen der
Magnetisierung und des elektrischen Widerstandes im Eisen, Stahl und Nickel
fcei hohen Temperaturen. Science Reports, University Sendai, 3: 113. 1914.

* See Bureau of Standards Reprint No. 213, above cited.

BURGESS AND KELLBERG : CRITICAL RANGES OF IRON 437

ture and waiting for equilibrium to be established. It soon
became evident that, although great sensitiveness and accuracy
could be obtained, nevertheless it would take an infinite time
to plot an entire resistance-temperature curve satisfactorily.
The method adopted in the final series, and which satisfies all the
above requirements, depends on the use of the cooling curve
apparatus described in Bureau Reprint 213 (loc. cit.), together
with a very sensitive, quickly manipulated and accurate Wheat-
stone bridge, by means of which the resistances of an iron wire
and one of platinum wound on the same support and enclosed in
vacuo in quartz glass may be exactly compared every few seconds
by the intermediary of a drmn-chronograph recording the times
at which the resistances are measured. In other words, we have
used an electrical resistance cooling curve outfit of the highest
attainable accuracy and sensitiveness. The temperatures are

Fig. 1. Construction of platinum and iron thermometers.

given in tei'ms of the resistance of the platinum wire which
serves as a thermometer integrating the temperature of the iron
wire exactly.

The construction of the combined platinum and iron thermometers
is shown in figure 1. The platinum and iron wires of 0.2 mm. and 0.24
mm. diameter, respectively, are wound on thin walled, unglazed hard
porcelain insulators 6 cm. in length and separated by a strip of mica.
The thermometers are of the compensated three-lead type with one
common lead and a common battery lead, all four leads being of plati-
num and provided with porcelain insulators. After winding the coils
and before sealing off, the quartz containing tube was evacuated and,
with the coils, heated to a bright red, thus partly annealing the wires
and expelling gases. After sealing, the thermometers were again
annealed to about 1000°C. in the electric furnace. Several platinum
and iron thermometers were made in this way, the values of the resist-
ances at 0°C. usually being about 1.5 ohms for the platinum and 1
ohm for the. iron. The length of the thermometer was about one-tenth
that of the specially wound platinum resistance furnace used in takirg
the resistance observations. The iron was from samples of the purest

438 BURGESS AND KELLBERGI CRITICAL RANGES OF IRON

described in Reprint 213 (99.98 per cent iron). The design of the fur-
nace and heating circuits were such that the rate of heating could be
exactly controlled and the temperature of the iron was constant over
its length at any instant. The Wheatstore bridge with which the
best series was taken is one designed by E. F. Mueller of this Bureau,
it being a modification of the one described in B. S. Reprint 124, in which
are also described the methods of use of the resistance pyrometer.
The precision of the resistance measurements was better than 0.00001
ohm and of the time 0.1 sees., or equivalent to 0.005°C. in tempera-
ture differences and to 1 in 1,000,000 of the iron resistance at 800°C.
This is some 1000 times the precision of Honda and Ogura.

Pure Xron
Pes/'stance us Temfierafure
o o o Heating
*■ ♦ + Coo/inq

soA/ao

"r Temp. ^rCent ^f

• 750^ aoo'

Fig. 2. Resistance vs. temperature curves of pure iron.

In all, six iron thermometers were used from three samples
and all gave the same characteristics for pure iron. In figure 2
are shown the observations of the second heating and cooling
curves taken with thermometer F-6, which are typical of the
behavior of iron, and in figure 3 the temperature-coefficient of
electrical resistance of pure iron, or more exactly the ratio of
change of resistance of iron to that of platinum with temperature.^

. f Tables are given in the complete paper to be published by the Bureau of
Standards of the actual observations from which these curves are drawn.

BURGESS AND KELLBERG: CRITICAL RANGES OF IRON 439

In figure 2, the observations on heating are represented by-
circles and on cooling by crosses. The shift of the heating curve
with respect to the cooling curve appears to be real as shown,
since the iron returns exactly to the same resistance at 0°C. after
heating. This non-coincidence of heating and cooling curves is
probably caused by the different rates of heating and cooling,
the former being about 0.10 deg. / sec. and the latter 0.06 deg. /
sec. at 900°C.

It is seen from figures 2 and 3 that the resistance of iron in-
creases from 0°C. without any anomalies — except possibly a
minute one at 730°C., due to less than 0.01 per cent of carbon —

Te/njberafure Co^ficisnt
of Xmn.

JT.

ZOO'

Jl»*

WX)'

sotr

Temperature Centiyrode

Fig. 3. Temperature coefficient of pure iron.

with a gradually increasing temperature coefficient to above
650° or until the neighborhood of A^ is reached. As At is ap-
proached the resistance rises rapidly, and at Ai there is an in-
flexion in the resistance-temperature curve shown as a cusp
at 757°C. in the temperature-coefficient curve. At Ac,, the resist-
ance of iron falls abruptly by some 0.005 of its value, which is
recovered within a 25° interval, and above Ac^ increases gradually
again. On cooling the reverse phenomenon is observed at
Ar3, which is accompanied by a slight increase in resistance with
falling temperature, preceded by an interval of relatively slight
changes in resistance. These effects are shown best in the
open scale plot in figure 2 of the A3 region and in figure 3.

440 WRIGHT: A NEW DIP CHART

As closely as can be measured, the transformations Acs and
Avs begin at the same temperature, 894°C. (see line^i^ of fig. 2);
and as given by the resistance measurements, Acs and Avs each
extend over the considerable temperature interval of 25°C.

These resistance measurements therefore show that A2 is a,
strictly reversible transformation and that ^3 is a transformation
taking place at a higher temperature on heating than on cooling.
Evidently, the two types of transformation are fundamentally
different.

The experiments here described are in agreement with the
thermal observations previously recorded (see Reprint 213),
although the position of maximum absorption or evolution of
heat does not appear to coincide exactly with the temperatures
at which the electrical resistance is changing most rapidly either
Sit A 2 or A3. The type of phenomenon is however the same as
given by either method for A2 and A3 respectively.

Whether or not either or both of these critical ranges, A 2
and A3, is to be considered an "allotropic point" will depend on
the definition of allotropy, about which there does not yet appear
to be agreement. The reversible thermal and electrical behavior
at A2 appears to be somewhat similar to that of a pure substance
at its melting point, while at A3 there is a progressive change
with temperature of the electrical and thermal properties which
are not reversible, the reaction taking place at a higher tempera-
ture on heating than on cooling. The A3 change is certainly
associated with recrystallization while no crystallographic change
has as yet been found at A2 which is also the temperature associa-
ted with the abrupt, reversible change of iron from the ferro-
magnetic to the para-magnetic states.

GEOLOGY. — A new dip chart. Fred Eugene Wright, Geo-
physical Laboratory.
In both structural and mining geology the problem frequently
arises to determine the direction, on a given vertical section, of
the trace of a bed or plane of known dip and strike. This direc-
tion is the apparent dip of the stratum or vein as seen in the
vertical section. This problem can be solved either by a purely

WRIGHT: A NEW DIP CHART

441

graphical method of projection* or by use of the standard pro-
jection-equation

tan C = sin B .tan A (1)

in which A is the true angular dip of the bed; B, the angle included
between its line of strike and the vertical section; C, the desired
angle of apparent dip as shown in the vertical section.

A chart for the graphical solution of this equation was first
proposed by D. F. Hewett;- and more recently the same chart
(with a few additional curves and on a reduced scale) has been
published by H. Bancroft.^ On this chart the abscissae are
the azimuth angles B; the ordinates, the true angular dips, A;
and the curves, the angles C. For the C-curves below 80° the

C <4 5°

C > 4 5

Fig. 1. Diagram to illustrate the relations underlying the construction of
the dip-chart (fig. 2). The sides are considered to be of unit length. The sine
values from 0 to 1 (angles from 0° to 90°) are plotted directly as abscissae; tangent
values from 0 to 1 (angles from 0° to 45°), as ordinates. The third variable is
represented by radial lines which pass through the origin and the tangent divi-
sions on the unit ordinate.

interval is 5°; from 80° to 90° it is 2°. Under favorable con-
ditions {B > 20°, C < 60°) the angle C can be read off directly
with an error of about 0.5°; for dips greater than 60° the error
may exceed 1°. This degree of accuracy is sufficient for most
purposes.

It is possible, however, to obtain more accurate results (cor-
rect to 0.1° under favorable conditions) by use of a diagram
(fig. 2) similar to that which was described sometime ago by the
writer in a paper on ''Graphical Methods in Microscopical Petro-

1 Economic Geology, 9: 55. 1914.

2 Economic Geology, 7: 190. 1912.

' Bull. Am. Inst. Mg. Eng., p. 1769. July.

1914.

442

WRIGHT: A NEW DIP CHART

7 o" e<fo9

'J

1

■- ^

C <4 5'

C > 45

Fig. 2. Dip-chart. Graphical solution of the equation tan C = sin 5 tan A,
in which A = true dip of bed, B = angle between line of strike of bed and ver-
tical section, C = inclination, from the horizontal, of trace of bed on vertical
section (apparent dip of bed in vertical section). For values of C < 45° use
diagram a] for C > 45° use diagram b. In these diagrams the arrows indicate
the proper lines to follow in solving the equation for given values of A and B.

WRIGHT: A NEW DIP CHART 443

graphy."* In this paper the general principles underlying the
construction of graphical plots for the solution of equations are
discussed in some detail; of these principles the most important
are: (1) Uniformity in relative accuracy over the entire plot, and
comparable to that which obtains in nature (distortion as slight
as possible); (2) the use of straight lines rather than curves,
wherever possible. In the present instance such uniformity is
best obtained by plotting the sine and tangent functions directly
rather than the angles themselves. The diagram is then a straight
line diagram throughout and the distortion present corresponds
to that of the equation itself.^ In the new chart all variables are
represented in 1° intervals. The relations underlying the con-
struction of this chart are shown in figures la and lb in which
the sides of the square (MO) are equal to unity. The triangles
KOL and MON are similar and the proportion obtains

KL :K0 = MN : MO = MN.

In figure la we have by construction

KO = sin B, KL = tan C, and MN = tan A.

On substituting these values in the above proportion we obtain
equation (1) above. Similarly in figure lb (C < 45°, tan C < 1)
we get on substitution

tan (90 - ^) : sin 5 = tan (90 - C)

an equation identical with (1).

Compared with the Hewett chart the present chart has the
advantage of greater precision but it is, in one respect, appar-
ently less satisfactory, namely, that when the angle C < 45°,

' Am. J. Sci. (4), 36: 509-539. Plate VIII. 1913.

5 From the standpoint of the graphical representation of an equation, we
may consider the above equation to be an expression of direct relations be-
tween the functions themselves rather than between the variables under the
functions. Fundamentally, of course, the equation expresses relations between
the variables, and the increments are so taken. The procedure here adopted
amounts practically to the representation of each function by a scale so chosen
that the resulting curves are straight lines. The same principle underlies the
construction of the slide rule and other calculating devices; also the use of
logarithmic paper.

444 Wright: a new dip chart

diagram a (fig. 2) must be used, while for C > 45° diagram b
(fig. 2) must be employed, and also the angles indicated in
parenthesis (complements of the first) . This change results from
the fact that the tangent values range from zero to infinity,
whereas the chart extends only to unity and reciprocal values
have to be taken for values above unity. Thus for the first
case (C < 45°, tan C < 1) the equation employed is

tan C tan A

— — — = — ; — or tan C = sin 5. tan A

sm B 1

while in the second case (C > 45°, tan C > 1) the equation is
transformed to read

tan C tan A tan (90 - C) tan (90 - A)

= or = — -

1 sin 5 1 sin B

The subtraction indicated in the last equation is accomplished
by reading the numbers in parenthesis on the chart.

Two examples will suffice to indicate the method of using the
chart :

(1) Find the apparent dip of a stratum, striking N 43.3° E
and dipping 22.2°SE, on a vertical A^-S section. In this case
B = 43.3°, A = 22.2°. C, which is always less than A, is accord-
ingly < 45° and diagram a (fig. 2) is the correct one to use.
From the chart we read off directly C = 15.6.°

(2) A vein striking A^ 23° W and dipping 63° NE is crosscut
on a vertical E-W section. Find the inchnation, from the hori-
zontal, of the its trace on this section. In this instance B = 67°,
A =63°; from the chart we find by use of diagram b (fig. 2)
C = 61°.

The chart has been found satisfactory and of great value in
the graphical solution of transformation equations for projec-
tion work in optical crystallography. It is here presented in
the hope that it may prove of equal service in the solution of the
problem to find, on a given vertical section, the apparent dip
of a bed or vein.

blackwelder: post-cretaceous history 445

GEOLOGY. — Post-Cretaceous history of the mountains of central
western Wyoming.^ Eliot Blackwelder, University of
Wisconsin.

The field includes the Teton, Gros Ventre and Wind River
Ranges with their environs. A continuous plain of aggradation
about the close of the Cretaceous period was deformed by fold-
ing and overthrusting. Orogenic activity then ceased and the
corrugated surface was sculptured into hills, mountains, and
plains. The Wasatch and later Eocene and Oligocene conti-
nental deposits were then strewn by rivers and allied agencies
upon the denuded outcrops of weak strata rather than in struc-
tural basins. Meanwhile, especially late in this sedimentary
epoch, explosive volcanic eruptions added thick deposits of ash
and breccia.

At a later time, probably in the jNIiocene, very gentle folding
and normal faulting terminated the sedimentation and left new
relief features, such as the great scarp of the Tetons, which were
not accordant with those made at the close of the Cretaceous.

The subsequent erosion of the district produced a peneplain
on even the hardest rocks. This plain was probably the char-
acteristic feature of the Pliocene, but it is now represented only
by high-level remnants in the Wind River and perhaps other
ranges.

During the Quaternary, wide-spread elevatory movements with-
out notable warping or faulting but perhaps with climatic changes
induced the dissection of the peneplain by streams, wind and
glaciers — in the order of their quantitative importance. The
land forms, thus left, were controlled by the structure and rela-
tive resistance of the rocks below. Thus, while broad plains
were excavated in the Tertiary clays, only narrow canyons were
carved in the Pre-Cambrian gneiss.

Four distinct cycles of erosion later than the peneplain are
distinguished and with them are associated three stages of Alpine
glaciation. The oldest glacial deposits are the most widespread
but have lost nearly all traces of glacial topography. The two

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. (To be
printed in full in the Journal of Geology.)

446 BLEININGER AND BROWN! VERITOS FIRING RINGS

younger sets of moraines are similar to each other, in forms and
relations, but show important differences in the effects of subse-
quent erosion and weathering. The probable relations of the
glacial stages to the erosional cycles are discussed. The activity
of the wind in sculpture and deposition has been important.
Interesting phenomena of gravity work, in the form of land-slides,
earth-flows, and talus-glaciers receive brief mention.

TECHNOLOGY. — The veritos firing rings. A. V. Bleininger
and G, H. Brown, ^ Bureau of Standards. Communicated
by S. W. Stratton.

In the pottery and other clay industries the heat effect due
to the increasing kiln temperature is frequently determined from
the shrinkage of unburned clay rings, of uniform composition
and size, which are placed in different parts of the kiln. The
shrinkage is measured by means of a simple calipering device
which permits the reading of small differences in diameter. The
object of the present work was the correlation of the arbitrary
shrinkage number of the gauge with temperature as measured
by means of standardized thermo-couples, so that the devices
might be coordinated with pyrometer practice.

The work consisted in firing a number of these rings under
conditions of constant temperature increase per unit time. Four
firings were made with increases in temperature of 50, 25, 16.66
, and 12.5°C. per hour. At frequent intervals rings were with-
drawn from the kiln and their diameters measured after cooling.
The temperatures at which equal contraction takes place are
higher the more rapid the firing. The differences diminish as
the temperature rises. The shrinkages for the two lower firing
rates tend to coincide as the heat absorption becomes constant.
Porosity determinations were made in connection with the shrink-
age measurements; these resulted in curves practically parallel
to the linear contraction. The firing rings were found to answer
the purposes for which they are intended satisfactorily. A new
series of rings, intended for lower temperatures, was found to
be unsatisfactory, owing to irregularities in shrinkage.

• To appear as Technologic Paper No. 40 of the Bureau of Standards.

lotka: objective standard of value 447

ECONOMICS.— A7i objective standard of value derived frdm the
principle of evolution, — //. Alfred J. Lotka. Communi-
cated by G. K. Burgess.^

The question naturally arises, whether it is in any way possible
to obtain a numerical estimate of the order of magnitude of the

quantity ^, and thus to establish a connection between our

theoretical considerations and practical, concrete economic data.
The most obvious way to seek an answer to this question would,

of course, be actually to determine ~— for at least one commodity.

Unfortunately the difficulties in the way of carrying out this plan
are equally obvious. We are therefore forced to have recourse to
indirect methods. This is not without its compensations. For,
quite apart from its bearing upon the theory of value, the physical

dr
quantity r-— is of considerable interest, and, since we can enter-

tain but little hope of effecting its direct measurement in the near
future, the discovery of any method, however rough, for gauging
indirectly at least its order of magnitude, represents a distinct
gain.

The basis for such an indirect determination is furnished us by
the fact that, by definition, an individual with a perfect sense of
values would gauge all commodities at their "true" values — or,
as expressed by equations (12), (13), (18), (19)

^ = v, (23)

Had we such an individual at our disposal, we could, by simply
questioning him, obtain through (22) a measure of the "true"
values in exchange of all commodities, and thus, all but for a

constant factor, a measure of ;^ — for all commodities.

om

In actual fact we cannot do this, but we can question an actual

representative individual, or, what amounts to the same thing,

we can ascertain the prices of goods upon the actual market, and

iPart I of this paper appeared in the August issue cf this Journal, pp. 409-418.

448 lotka: objective standard of value

thus determine, not the 'Hrue" or "objective" values in exchange ■
V, but the subjective values in exchange

^j - Vj + e = :^ + 6 (24)

where e may be regarded as a measure of the ''error" of the sense
of values of the representative individual in determining the value
(per unit mass) of the commodity A-,.

If we now make the assumption that e is as a rule a small
quantity, so that for purposes of rough estimation we may neglect
it, and write

- — =Vj=?jj (2o)

our problem is solved, all but for the determination of a constant
factor; the uncertainty which thus remains is due to the fact that
our representative individual is able to indicate only the ratio v-, :

Vj and hence :r— : :r — for any two commodities Aj and Aj, but

0?7Zj OTTlj

is unable to give us any information regarding the absolute value

of c — for any commodity.

We can, however, remove also this last remaining uncertainty:
From (22) we see that in the objective system a conmiodity has
unit value per unit quantity if

-^^ = 1 (26)

dg

On the other hand, according to our agreement regarding the
measurement of labor per unit of time (see page 413 and equa-
tion 5), we see that the unit of labor per unit of time has unit
negative value, since by (5) and (22)

^^ ^^ = _ 1 =v, (27)

dL dL

This completely determines the unit of value if the unit of
labor per unit of time is given, or vice versa. We are at liberty

lotka: objective standard of value 449

to fix one of these units arbitrarily — but then the other is fixed,
in the objective system.

Let us, then, arbitrarily fix the unit rate of labor (per unit of
time) at one (average) man-day (as actually practised at the
present time) per man per day. The value of this, in objective
units of value, is in the system here discussed -1 ; this means that
doing one such unit of labor per day represents a loss of one unit
of value per day. If the wages received just compensate for this
loss (as would be the case with entirely open competition and
absence of all monopoly — one of our fundamental assumptions),
then the value of the average daily wage received (under actually
existing conditions) would be + 1 objective unit of value. But
the average daily wage actually received under existing conditions
is, in dollars, + 2 units, say. Hence one objective unit of value,
as defined above, is (to the degree of approximation attainable by
our rough method of estimation) equal to 2 dollars, or 1 dollar is
equal to 0.5 objective units of value.

Now if the rate of doing labor is measured in objective units, we
have

-^ = - 1 (27)

If, on the other hand, it is measured in dollars per day, then,
since 2 dollars per day is equal to 1 objective unit per day, we
shall have

-^ = -0.5 (28)

dL

Let us consider by the aid of a numerical example what this
means. With the same assumptions as before, and an average
daily wage of 2 dollars per day for one man-day per day of labor,
let us suppose that the rate of labor were increased until it cor-
responded to a fair wage of 2.01 dollars per day; that is to say, we
are supposing that the rate of doing labor is increased by 0.005
objective units of value.

Then we should have

6Zr = ^ dL = -1 X 0.005 = -0.005 (29)

450 lotka: objective standard of value

This means that the direct effect of such increase in the rate of
doing labor, considered alone and apart from any accompanying
or compensating influences (such as the additional wages received
or their equivalent in product acquired) would be to decrease the
natural rate of increase per head of the species (i.e., the excess of
births over deaths) by 0.005. Thus, if before the change in the
rate of doing labor, the rate of increase per head of the species
had been 0.01, after the change it would be 0.005.

This result may at first sight appear greatly at variance with
observed facts. In construing it, however, and making com-
parisons with actual observations, we have to bear in mind a
number of points.

In the first place it has been assumed above that the dollar is a
definite and stable unit of value. If this condition is not satisfied
(and in practice it is not) then evidently large changes in the
average daily wage may take place without necessarily any change
at all in the average rate of doing labor, and hence without nec-
essarily any change in the natural rate of increase r. In other
words, equations (27), (28), (29) apply of course only if a constant
and consistent unit of value is employed.

Furthermore, we have proceeded on the assumption that there
is absolutely open competition, no sort of monopoly, in the com-
munity under consideration, so that every person either consumes
directly the products of his own labor, or receives a "fair" wage,
i.e., the exact equivalent of the pains of his labor. The effect of
monopolies would in general be to lower wages, since the employer
is thereby placed in a position to dictate terms. This implies

that the estimate of -^ obtained above would be too great (in

absolute amount — it is of course a negative quantity) . A similar
effect would result from the influence of capital, which we have
left out of account.

Again, our assumption above, that e is a small quantity requires
a little more careful examination than we have so far given it.
This assumption is probably justified for most of the common
commodities of life, viewed generally. But if we single out some
one commodity, we have no guarantee that it may not, through

lotka: objective standard of value 451

some circumstance peculiar to its case, form an exception, and
have a large error e. Now this will not seriously affect our argu-
ment, provided only that such peculiar exception does not occur
in the case of the one commodity which enters as a standard into
our system — namely labor. Now it is quite possible that labor
does constitute such an exceptional case: the sense of fatigue is
given us to warn us of possible harm which may be incurred if
labor is persisted in after it has become irksome beyond a certain
point. It is well known that in many other instances nature pro-
vides for emergencies by allowing a large "factor of safety," and
we may well expect that such a factor should enter as a correction
in equation (27) : The individual will not wait until that equation
is satisfied, but will cease to labor as soon as

Sxf^=-1 (30)

where iS is a factor of safety, and, as such, greater than unity.

The neglect of this factor of safety in our estimate of ^~^ above

would produce an error in the same direction as the neglect of the
effect of monopolies and capital. The corrections to be applied
would therefore all work in the same direction and tend to bring

the value of -j: thus obtained into seemingly better harmony

with the expectations which we are naturally led to entertain on
the basis of observation.

Lastly, we have made the assumption that wi = coi (mi), i.e.,
the marginal ophelimity of conmiodity Ai depends only on the
quantity of Ai consumed per unit of time, and is independent of
the rate of consumption of other commodities. This assumption
is not strictly true in any case, and may be quite far from the
truth in some cases. This assumption does not, however, mate-
rially affect our arguments and conclusions, and was made here
only for the sake of simplicity. The consideration of the more
general case, in which this assumption is discarded, is passed over
here, and will be found at the end of this paper.

452 lotka: objective standard of value

There are certain apparent objections which naturally present
themselves upon a first consideration of the measure of value here
proposed. The first of these relates to the question of currency.
The common standard of currency in most civilized countries is
gold. Now it may be urged that to measure the value of an ounce

of gold by its ^— would be absurd. It is true that a certain

limited quantity of gold is in use in the industries, where a definite

^-- may properly be assigned to it. But the great bulk of gold

circulates as currency, and such gold would be absolutely useless
to a person isolated from commerce. It will rightly be urged that

here ^^ — is practically zero, yet the gold has a very definite and

high value in exchange.

The fact is that currency is a ''value" in a class by itself: it is
strictly speaking not a value at all, but merely a certificate of
ownership in values not specified in kind. The theory of currency
therefore must be developed along special lines. There is no need
to enter here into this aspect of our subject, as it is dealt with
satisfactorily in the standard works on economics and currency,
as for instance, in Irving Fisher's The Purchasing Power of Money.

Another set of values to which it may appear at first sight as if
the standard of measurement here developed could not be applied
is that of certain luxuries, such as gold ornaments, diamonds, and
jewelry generally. The possession of these obviously can exert
little or no direct influence upon the owner in such a way as to
cause an increase (or decrease) in r. But it must be understood

that in forming the differential coefficient ^r — not only the direct

but also the indirect effects must be taken into account. And
the indirect effect of luxuries in economics may be of the highest
importance: The desire for their possession acts as an incentive
to further effort to those who have already attained the bare
necessities of life — often the very persons who by their superior
ability are particularly qualified to render valuable services to
the community by their activities. Such luxuries may be likened

lotka: objective standard of value 453

to the spices added to food : they have not themselves any appre-
ciable food- value; nevertheless they fulfill an important function
in stimulating the appetite. And though the prime motive of the
man who labors in order to secure for himself luxuries, while others
are in actual want of necessities, may not be altruistic, neverthe-
less, in all but exceptional cases his activity will on the whole
contribute to the total assets of the community, whereas, as an
idle non-producer he would still consume values without produc-
ing any — in other words, much as the ''idle rich" may resent the
statement, he would in point of fact be living at the expense of the
community, just like his despised brother in the poorhouse.

This must not be taken to imply that the taste for luxuries is
absolutely essential in an ideally constituted community: If all
men were willing, after they have satisfied all their own wants, to
continue laboring from purely philanthropic motives for the good
of others, the useful function of luxuries, such as indicated above,
would be eliminated. Just in the same way an individual with a
thoroughly healthy and well-regulated appetite has no need of
spices in his food, or of other stimulants. But in the existing
order of things, which principally concerns the economist, luxuries
do exert the beneficial influence indicated above, and therefore
have a value, which is properly gauged, like that of any other

commodity, by the differential coefficient ^r^ , formed with due

regard to all the circumstances bearing upon the case.

Somewhat similar is the answer with which the writer would
forestall certain other objections which will no doubt be raised by
some against the application of the standard of value here pro-
posed : These persons will point out, perhaps with some feeling,
that some of the greatest values of all, ethical and esthetic values,
utterly fail to be justly gauged by their quantitative effect upon
the rate of growth of the species.

To this it is answered that ethical values, at any rate, have in
the great majority of cases a very obviously beneficial effect upon
the growth of the species. There is of course such a thing as
misplaced charity, and "favoring the survival of the unfit" —
things which have been made the subject of considerable discussion

454 lotka: objective standard of value

of late; but such modes of action, which from the point of view
here developed must be considered to have a low or even a nega-
tive value, will be admitted to be undesirable also from the point
of view of ethics.

Somewhat similar remarks apply in the case of esthetic values.
There can be little doubt that our esthetic instinct fulfills some
useful function, though it maj^ not always be very apparent how.
In many cases artistic feeling and expression is closely bound up
with the manifestation of the mating instinct, and thus with the
propagation and increase of the species. In other cases art is
associated with the devotional phase of religion, an adjunct, and
no doubt an effective auxiliary, to its ethical phase. That art
in such connection as this serves a "useful" purpose, i.e., tends to
increase r, and has therefore, according to our system, a positive
value, needs no further demonstration, after what has been said
above with regard to ethical values.

"But," perhaps some will say, "Art and Ethical Conduct have
a value quite apart from any benefits which they bring to the
community." With these there can be no arguing — they are
merely expressing a personal conviction, voicing their own sub-
jective sense of values. That this subjective sense of values is
more or less at variance with the "true" or objective values of
things is admitted; were this not so, the whole of the present
investigation would be unnecessary. And if any person finds it
utterly impossible to harmonize on some particular point his sub-
jective sense of values with a proposed system of objective values,
it is at least equally probable, a 'priori, that his sense of values is at
fault, as that the proposed system of objective values is defective.

Again, some may urge that it is absurd to measure the benefit
of any given thing to the species by its influence upon the "mere"
number of individuals. To the consideration of those who would
condemn this point of view as crassly material, we would respect-
fully submit the fact that the number of "souls" is of necessity
equal to the number of "bodies" in a community, and that if
such a despicable thing as mere bread is necessary to increase and
sustain the number of bodies of the community, it is quite equally
essential to the increase (if not the sustenance) of the number of
souls of that community.

lotka: objective standard of value 455

Again, it may be objected, that in judging of the value of a given
thing we cannot be guided by its influence on the mere number of
individuals to which it contributes, but it is at least as important
to take into account any effect which it may have upon the quality
or character of such individuals.

This is not disputed, but we have here specifically restricted
our attentions to the consideration of one given type or species,
the'character of which is supposed to be given as one of the funda-
mental data of our problem. In this case, the character of the
species being constant, the value of a given object or circumstance
to the species must necessarily find expression entirely in its effect
on the number of individuals. Value is an essentially relative
concept, and as such inust be defined relatively to some one par-
ticular type. To speak of the value of a pound of butter, or a bale
of hay, or a dozen worms, is meaningless: to complete the state-
ment we must speak of the value of a pound of butter to man, for
example, of a bale of hay to a horse, or of a dozen worms to a star-
ling. Hence in measuring the value of a given thing to a stated
type of organism, we must consider this type as a given and fixed
standard of reference, and then it follows, as indicated above,
that the value of a given thing finds expression entirely in its effect
upon the number of individuals.

Extension of the concept of value by a generalization of the equation
for the distribution of labor in different pursuits. In the preceding
paragraphs we have dealt explicitly with the value of "material"
commodities, which we have supposed to be measured, as regards
quantity, in units of mass; and with the value of labor, which we
have found it most convenient to suppose measured by the
''fatigue" or discomfort incurred in such labor. Implicitly we
have repeatedly had occasion to refer to other ''things" or circum-
stances which may possess the attribute of value. It is desirable
to give some consideration to the exact treatment of this phase of
our subject.

Quite generally labor L (or its equivalent, such as certain
amounts of "money" or "currency") may be spent, not only in
the production of masses mi, m2 . . . per unit of time of various
material commodities ^i, Az, but also in maintaining certain param-
eters Xi, X2 . . . at certain values 0*1, 0:2 . . . Thus, every

456 lotka: objective standard of value

civilized community spends a certain amount of labor and money
on sanitary measures, the function of which is to keep the param-
eters Xi, Xj . . . , say the death rates from diseases Si, Si, at
certain values Xj, Xj . . . Equation (3) for the distribution of
labor in different pursuits is in point of fact incomplete in that it
takes account only of labor spent in the production of material
commodities measurable in units of mass. To complete it we
must add to the right hand member a number of terms of the form

Equation (3) thus amplified by (31) is now in a form which
covers in general all activities of a given species. For this reason
it is of value in the treatment of the general theory of the struggle
for survival, or in other words, the ''evolution" in a system com-
prising a number of different species of organisms. It is not pro-
posed to enter here into detail as regards this phase of the subject.

Case II. Lastly it remains for us to consider the general case,
when coi is not a function of 77ii alone, as we assumed above, but
when

0)1 = coi {nil, W22 . . .), C02 = 0)2 {nil, mi . . .), (32)

In other words, we now regard the marginal ophelimity of com-
modity Ai as depending not only on the rate of consumption of
A\, but also on that of the remaining commodities. In this case
the total pleasure derived from the production and consumption of
the increments dnii, dmi ... of commodities ^i, ^2 ... in
general depends, not only on mi, m2 . . . , but also on the "path, "
i.e. on the order in which the several commodities are produced
and consumed.

We can here still write

dfi = (o)i pi + oj'i p'l ) dLi + . . .

but we cannot simply put, as before.

In fact, the value of the partial differential coefficient is in

dm,

lotka: objective standard of value 457

this case indeterminate, unless the " path " of the change is defined.
On the other hand, as soon as the path is defined, say by the condi-
tion that certain parameters P are to be kept constant in forming

the partial derivative , which latter we may accordingly write

( ), then the value of

CO: =

becomes definite, and we have a definite value for

Vdmi I V

With a path thus prescribed we can apply exactly the same
reasoning as before, and we shall have a precisely analogous
set of equations, with only this difference, that everywhere for

-^ we must write ( ), ( ), and similarly, tor ,

dWi d/i \b7nj p \ dfi / p dWi

br 4. -i. / br \ /dr\
— we must write ( , ( — )

Thus, for a given prescribed path (order) or production and con-
sumption we obtain a perfectly definite set of "true" or objective
values: Both subjective and objective values are in this case
dependent on the "path" of production and consumption.

Finally, it may be remarked that in general, among the various
possible paths there is one which makes the rate of increase r of
the species an absolute maximum.- In a specially restricted
sense we might speak of the objective values corresponding to
this path as the "true" values of the several conamodities pro-
duced and consumed. But the more general interpretation pre-
viously indicated will probably be found more serviceable for the
purposes for which the development here given has been worked
out — that is to say, for the treatment of certain problems in the
theory of evolution, as indicated by the writer elsewhere.^

2 Compare Pareto, Manuel d'economie politique, 1909, 547.

3 Jl. Washington Acad. Sci., 2: 2. 49. 66. 1912; Ann. Naturphil. 1911, 59;
Phys. Review, 1912, 235; Am. Jl.Sci., 24: 199.375. 1907.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publi-^ations should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

CHEMISTRY, — Radioactivity of mineral waters. R. B. Dole. U. S.

Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1913,

Part II. Pages 433^40. 1914.
The radioactivities of several well-known spring waters in Europe
and in the United States are given with a brief discussion casting some
doubt on the therapeutic value of natural radioactive waters. A select
bibliography is appended. R. B.

GEOLOGY.- — Geology and ground waters of Florida. George C. Mat-
son and Samuel Sanford. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper No. 319. Pp. 445, with maps, sections, and views. (Prepared
in cooperation between the U. S. Geological Survey and the Flor-
ida Geological Survey, under the direction of Thomas Wayland
Vaughan.)
Through a region of low relief the topography of Florida is sufficiently
diversified to be interesting. The important topographic features are
consequent, superimposed, and extended rivers; lakes occupying basins
due to irregularities of deposition or to solution of limestones; a shore line
with forms determined by both constructive and destructive agencies.
Among the most important and interesting of the shore features are the
living and fossil coral reefs bordering the southern end of the Floridian
peninsula, and the numerous bars, capes, and sounds produced by wave
action along the shore. Pleistocene terraces are extensively developed
and occupy a very large percentage of the surface in the state.

Florida contains the most complete section of upper Tertiary deposits
in the eastern part of the United States. Exposures of these formations
are limited and consequently can be traced only short distances. This

458

abstracts: geology 459

has probably led to the introduction of a number of names for deposits
which upon further study can be placed in a single formation. An ex-
ample of this is the Vicksburg group, consisting of limestones of lower
Oligocene age, which is divided into three formations identical in litho-
logic character but having shghtly different geographic distributions.
The upper Oligocene contains sands, clays, fuller's earth, marls, and lime-
stones. It is known as the Apalachicola group and comprises several
formations that may eventually be reduced in number.

The Miocene is well represented in western and central Florida by
fossiliferous marl, and along the east coast by siUceous limestone. The
Pliocene beds are of varying types, from the marine Caloosahatchie marl
to the nonmarine vertebrate-bearing beds of the Alachua clay. Lime-
stones including oolites and reef rock, partly coraliferous, of Pleistocene
age, underhe most of the southern part of the state. Other Pleistocene
beds comprise shell marl, coquina, and siliceous sand.

The underground waters of Florida constitute a most important
natural resource. The waters are generally hard from the abundance
of limy material in the containing beds and in places are decidedly saline,
but they are used as sources of supply for domestic and manufacturing
purposes in many cities and villages. The conditions determining the
occurrence of flowing wells, the distribution of flowing well areas, and
the artesian prospects in each county are discussed in detail.

G. C. M.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
■cientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts pubhshed elsewhere in thii Journal.

CHEMISTRY

Bailey, L. H. The non-uniformity of drying oven temperatures. J. Ind. Eng.

Chem., 6:585. 1914.
Bates, S. J., and Vinal, G. W. Comparison of the silver and iodine conionietem

and the determination of the value of the farady. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 916-

937. 1914.
BuNZEL, H. H., and Hasselbring, H. A theryno-regulator for electrically regulated

constant temperature chambers. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 949-951. 1914.
Burgess, G. K., and Sale, P. D. Thermoelectric method for the determination of

the purity of platinum ware. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 452-454. 1914.
Cain, J. R. Determination of carbon in steel and iron by the barium carbonate

titration method. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 465-468. 1914.
Cook, F. C. Partition of the nitrogen of plant, yeast and meat extracts. J. Am.

Chem. Soc, 36: 1551-1556. 1914.
CuLLEN, J. A. The availability of nitrogen in kelp. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 581-

582. 1914.
Dewey, F. P. The pyrometer in the assay muffle. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 405-

406. 1914.
Edwards, J. D. Determination of ammonia in illuminating gas. J. Ind. Eng.

Chem., 6: 468-469. 1914.
Fletcher, C. C. A shaker for the mechanical analysis of soils. J. Ind. Eng.

Chem., 6: 517-518. 1914.
Gardner, R. F. Note on the utilization of muds and scums from sugar refineries.

J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 480. 1914.
HosTETTER, J. C. Method for the determination of magnesium in calcium salts.

J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 392-396. 1914.
Hudson, C. S. The inversion of sucrose by invertase. VIII. An improved method

for preparing strong invertase solutions from top or bottom yeast. J. Am.

Chem. Soc, 36: 1566-1571. 1914.
Hudson, C. S., and Paine, H. S. The inversion of sucrose by invertase. IX. Is

the reaction reversible? J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 1571-1581. 1914.
Johnston, J. Utilization of diffusion processes in the preparation of pure sub-
stances. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 16-19. 1914.
Kerr, R. H. Note on the detection, of nickel in fats. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 207.

1914.

460

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV OCTOBER 4, 1914 No. 16

ASTRONOMY. — Condensation of the tables of the azimuth of
celestial bodies. G. W. Littlehales, Hydrographic Office.

If finding the azimuth be viewed as a terrestrial measurement
in connection with which the observed celestial body is considered
to be projected vertically downward on the surface of the earth^
that is to say, if the azimuth-angle be regarded as the angle whose
apex is formed at the geographical position of the observer
between his meridian and the great-circle arc passing through
his geographical position and the geographical position of the ,
observed celestial body, then it will become commonplace to
regard any value of the azimuth as applying not only to the
position of the particular celestial body observed but as apply-
ing besides to all geographical positions of which the great-circle
passing through the geographical position of the observer and
the geographical position of the observed celestial body is the
locus; and, since every great-circle of the earth, except the equator
itself, crosses the equator, there is always a point on the equator
whose azimuth or true bearing from the observer is the same as
the azimuth of the observed celestial body. The fact that this
relation exists gives rise to the suggestion that the tables of the
azimuths of celestial bodies at present in use, giving values for
each latitude of the observer throughout a wide range of de-
clination of the observed body, could be reduced in volume to
the extent of omitting all except what relates to 0° of declination,
provided only that convenient means be supplied for finding
the difference of longitude or hour-angle between the meridian

461

462

LITTLEHALES: AZIMUTH OF CELESTIAL BODIES

Hour
Angle
h. m.

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o»ot)< eocjiH

oooooo
OtO'«i< eoNiH

Oooooo
o lOTji eoc^iH

oooooo

0 10 Tjl CO <N T-l

oooooo
0 U3 •^jH CO oq 1-1

oooooo
0 ioth eo eq "

1— 1
>

;>

>

1— 1

1— 1

t— 1

KH

0

o o> cc t^t^t^

"• C5 cc ^ lo eo >— 1

00 o CO ^^ eo o

10-* (MOlO-*

O CM CD ■* lO --t

eo csi T-H 1— 1 ,— 1 c^i

•-I CD 0 00 r^ t^

CO TjHOCO r-l 0

0 CO CM 0 to CO
0 CM 0 0 CI CM

0 to -^ CM 0 CD
0 CM •"* 0 ^ CI

to

1-4

. O O ^ -H (M CO
° O 02 CI 05 O Oi

eo -^lo CO cot^
oooooo

oo o o i-H c^i eo

OOOOOO

^ kO t^ 00 0 C^l

0 0 0 0 r-l ^

■^ 0 0 CI 10 0

^H T-H ,-H CM CI CM

-^ 0 to CO T-H 0

CO eo ■* to CO I--.

0

O to CO 03 5^ -^J*

^ O CO r-1 ■<1< C^ O

CO CM CM CO CD ^H

lO ■* eo eo c^i eo

CD t^ iCO '^ 00
eo^ OCOO TjH

■^ CD to t^ t^ 0

■* to ca ^ eo eo

to 0 to i^ r^ 0

0 eo to CI 0 ^

T-l

° a>o o 05 C2 a>

CO •* lO lO CD 1--.

oooooo

t^ 00 o o — 1 c-1
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eo "* Ot^oo
00000^

CI -^ t^ 0 CO t^
^ T— I i-H CI CM CI

T-H T-H T-H-T-H T-H T-H

CI r^ CO " 0 0
eo eo rt^ to CO CO

T-H T-H T-H l~-i T-H T-H

0

O ■* 00 Cfl CD (M
^ OfO O '*'-H lO

i^ CO '— 1 o o >— 1

iM O -* (M IC*<

■* o i> 00 >— 1 o

CM O iC ■* ■^ CO

^ t^ ^ rt 0 t^

Tfi ■* 0 CM ■* C'l

t^cM looeoo
T-H CM -5^ CO ■* eo

T-H 10 to 0 to ^H

0 CM to-* '^^ 0

eo

r, O O ^ T-l <M (M
° O C3 05 C» C5 05

eo ■* •* lO lO CO
oooooo

t^ 00 00 o o ^

OOOOOO

1-H T-H

C^lCO 10 CO t-- 0

oooooo

^ CO to 00 T-H to

T-H rt r-^ ^ CM CM
^H T-H T-H T-H ^H T-H

0 to T-H 0 000

00 CO •* '^ to 0

o

O --^ CO •* CO O)

~- o 00 o CO o CO

^^ iQ o lo cq 1— 1
>-i Tf< (M lo eo "-H

1— 1 CO t^ ■* Tt* t^

no 00 1— 1 o >o •*

10 t^ >0 0 CM ■*

-^ -^ iQ 1— 1 eo 0

00 COCM O't' ■*
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00 0 CM 0 0 00
Tti " ■* eo ^ 0

1-1

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° 05 C5 C5 05001

eoeo -* ■* lOCD
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or^ 00 o o o
oooooo

i-i CM CO lO 0 00

oooooo

0 T-H TfH cooeo

T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T^

t^ eo 0 t^ t^ CO
CM eo CO -t- to CO

0

O CI t^ O CD iC
- O (M lO <M lO IM

cor^ 00 ■— 1 lo o
lO CM lO eo o ■*

!>• cor^ o CO lO

1— 1 lO CO CM O lO

00 CO 0 00 »o 0

■^ ■* ■* lO '-I •*

t^ 00 to ^ 0 ^H

T-H 0 1-H Tt* Tt< T-H

t- eo CO -^ CI t^

CM -^ T-H CM CI 0

1-1

° OCiCSOiCSOS

^ eo CO ■* "0 lo

o o o o o o

CD CD t^ 00 O O

oooooo

0 '—1 CM CO lO CO

oooooo

T-H T-H *— 1 T-H T-H T-H

CO 0 CM •* !>. T-H

0 T-H T-H T-H 1-H CM

T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

to 0 1^ 10 to t^

CM CO CO "* toco

T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

o

O COC^ O lO (N

^ O IM lO T— ( -rj^ T— 1

o 00 1^ t^ 00 o
•* o eo o CO >-<

Tti O CO CD t— CO
•* 1-H lO CO <— 1 o

■— 1 -* CM 10 CD lO
iC -* -^ "* >o •— 1

to t^ to 't 0 ^
■* CM CM ■* CO to

t^ ■* -^ 0 CO CO

to 0 CO to T-H to

s

° OJ Oi 05 C5 Ol Ol

CM coco ■* Tt*io
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lO CD CO t^ GO O

oooooo

0 0 >— 1 C<i eo "O
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T-H 1-H T-H 1-H T— t

CD 00 0 CM to 00

0 0 T-H T-H T-H T-H

CI 00 Tf< CI CO to
CM CM CO ^ to CO

■ 0

o CO t^ ^ lO oi

^ O (M -^ rt CO lO

•* O CO CM o o

C^l -^ 1— 1 Tt< 1— 1 CO

OC5 lO — 1 O o
.— 1 -rt^ t-iio CM O

CO '-I -Jt^ ^ CD 00

to •* CO 00 CO ■*

0 "* CO CI CD 00

T-H TjH CO ■* T-H CI

t^ eo^io 10 t^>t

T-H T-H CO 10 t* CM

a>

„ O O O ■— 1 1— ( .— 1

° 05 05 Oi 05 C3 02

CM C^l CO CO -^ -^

oooooo

LO lo o o r- CO
o o o o o o

00 0 0 ^ Ol CO

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^^ 1—1 y-~l ^^

to CD 00 0 CO CD

0 0 0 T-H T-H T-H
T-H I^H T-H T-H T-H T-H

0 to T-H 0 0 ^

CM CM eo CO to 0

T-H T-H ^H ^H T-H T-H

0

O ^ <M CO Tf CO
- O <M '^ O iM rt<

00 --I ■»*< 00 eo o
OCOiO ^ -^o

CO Tin T*< CD O CD

eo oeoo Tt^ --H

10 00 »0 t:^ lO 0

10 CO CM T-H ,-H CI

CO 00 t^ ■* to 0
CO to eo CO to ^

0 GO r^ to ^ to
CM 0 T-H eo to CO

00

O O O >— 1 r- 1 .— 1

O Oi O C5 o o^

c^i c^i CM eo eo "*
oooooo

^LO lOcDcor-
o o o o o o

t^ 00 0 0 -^ CI
oooooo

T-H 1-H ^H

eo ^ CDGO 0 CO

0 0 0 0 T-H T-H

T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

r^ CI 00 CO t^ CI

T-H CM CI CO rt< CO

T-H T-H ^H T-H T-H T-H

~bQ~o 0 00'" 0 t-'-""
c5 ■* CO "* CI T-H

o

o 00 1^ lO ■* CO

~ O r-l CO IC '-I CO

CM CM CM rr lO 00
iC 1— 1 CO lO '-I CO

CM CD eo ^ o CO

O CMiOCM iC CM

t^ iC CO ^ C-1 0

ic CO ^ 0 to ko

to T-H 0 -* CI 00

to T-H eo CM CO 0

t-

° Ci C5 O O Ci 03

^ c^i c^i c^i CO eo
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rt< ■* -^ lO >0 O

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CO r- 00000
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T-H

" eo -* 0 00 T-H
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^h t-h t-h t-h t-h t-h

Tt^ 00 •* CI -* 0
^ ^ CI eo ^ 0

r-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

o

o CD ^ r^ CO o
~ o r-H CO •* o ca

CO CO i-H o t^ r^
CO lo --1 c<i ^ o

t^ O 1— 1 lO T-H 00
CM -"ti 1— 1 CO O CM

OOOCO tOOO
to CO 0 •* CN T-H

0 " 00 0 T-H T-H

^ CMCOOOCM

0 eo 0 t^ to 0

T-H ,-H ^ CI 0 CI

CO

° 050200030

1— 1 ^ c^i c^i c-1 eo

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CO CO '1^ '* lO "^

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to ot-r^ooo

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0 -H CI -* 0 00

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T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

T-H to 0 CO 0 t^

T-H rt CI C) -t< to

T-H T-H T-H ^H ^H T-H

O CO CD O CO CO
^ O ^ (M CO »o o

O-^O TfHO lO

CMeo-*o CMco

CO ^ o o --I ^
lO 1— 1 CO lo ^ eo

0 COCOOCDOO
to C<HO CM 0 •*

too to CM t- t-

eoCOCOtOCM CM

0 t- 00 0 CO CO

0 CM T-H CO to cq

to

o OOOOO rH

O O O O o o

^ ^ ^ (M CM CM

o o o o o o

c^i eo eo CO ■* ti
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•^ to to CO I^ t^

0^ 0> 0:1 Oi 0:^ Oi

000 0 -Hco >o
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^H T-H T-H T-H

00 " coco TjHco
0 " ^ CI eo to

T-H ^H T-H ^H T-H T-H

0

O O --^ Ol C^ CO
^ O —1 C-1 CO ■* iQ

•^ O t^ O C^l lO
O --H C^l CO lO o

oo CO 00 -n* ^ o
--< CO ^ o c-1 Tt<

0 T-H to CI T-H lo
to CM ■* ^ -^ T-H

CO 00 0 CI CI 00
to eo CO CO to CM

to 0 to CD CO GO
CO CM CO to 00 to

■*

o oooooo
oooooo

1— 1 »— » f— 1 T— 1 1— I CM

oooooo

CM CM C^l CO CO CO

o o o o o o

eo ■* ■* to to 0
1^ Oi Oi a Oi 0^

CD t^ 00 0 0 CM

oooooo

^H T-H

rj< t^ T-H t^ CO t^
0 0 " ^ CI rJ^

T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H T-H

^cM"i>rcrcreoo^

0 ^ CO -^ to ^

o

OGOO^ (N O
^ O O —1 (M CO '^

00 I^ iQ lO ■* '+1

•<*i lo o ^ CM eo

■>* lO O ^ CO ^

0 CO '^ Tt< 0 CI
0 T-H eo 10 T-H Tfl

T-H -^ -fi " CM to

^ TtH CI T-H T-H CI

eo

o OOOOOO

oooooo

O O '— ' ^^ '— ' T-H

oooooo

-^ -—I CM CI 0-1 C^l

oooooo

CO eo CO CO -^ ■*

Oi Oi Oi 0:i Oi Oi

to to CO i~-. 00 0
oooooo

T-H CO CD T-H 0 0

000 -H CM -*i

r-H T-H T-H y—f t-H t-H

^ Oiooco^r^

^ O O --I 1— 1 (M <M

CM 00 ■* O coco

coco "# '^ ic o

O CO -^ CM ^ o

o ^ CM eo •* lO

Ot-ICO CO" 00

0 ^ CI eo to 0

00 0 CD 0 0 0

CI to ^ -^ CI T-H

to t^ CM 'H to 00
CM to T-H to -^ CO

C4

„ oooooo
° oooooo

OOO O O-H

oooooo

oooooo

CJ CI CM CI CI CO

oooooo

coco Tf< -* too
oooooo

1^ 00 " M< T-H GO
0 0 0 0 ^ CI

T-H T-H T-H T-H

O CO "O 00 1— 1 Tt^■
~- O O O O <-! .— 1

O O CM lO 00 ^H
— 1 ■-< CM C-l CM CO

lO 00 CM CO O LQ
CO CO •* -n^ IQ LO

0 "O ^ 000^

0 0 T-H rH CM CO

^ too to too

■* to 0 CM •* -H

•* ooeo tooo
•<i< CO CO CO " ^

iH

„ OOOOOO

° oooooo

OOOOOO
O^ O^ <^ O^ Oi O^i

OOOOOO

Oooooo

—•* ^ — 1 y~-( y — ^ T-H ^H

a Oi Cj Oi Cj 1^

T-H T-H CI CI cj eo

oooooo

CO -^ to t^ T-H "

0 0 0 0 0 T-H
y—< ^H

- OOOOOO

OOOOOO

oooooo

800080

88S880

oooooo
oooooo

"o"o"o"o'o o~
oooooo

o

. oooooo
° oooooo

OOOOOO

oooooo

OOOOOO

oooooo

oooooo
oooooo

oooooo
oooooo

oooooo
oooooo

Hour
Angle

- oooooo
o CO o CO o CO

OOOOOO

o CO o CO o CO

OOOOOO
0 CO 0 CO 0 eo

oooooo
0 coo coo eo

oooooo

0 CO 0 CO 0 CO

oooooo
0 coo cooco

o o t~ lo N o ^-

o> oc 00 00 00 t-'

kO CNO t- lO<N
t~ l> t- CD CO to

0 t- ITS CCI 0 t-
CO 10 kO 10 10 rll

10 (N 0 t- lO(N

^ ^ r^ CO CO CO

0 t~iO<N 0 t-

e^ e<j c<j CM (M i-«

locflo t-ioefl

tH iH »-t

LITTLEHALES: AZIMUTH OF CELESTIAL BODIES

463

^ 4> C

oo o ooo

o lo Tj< CO cq th

oooooo

O lO Tji CO N rH

oooooo
o lo Tji eo c<i 1-1

oooooo

O lO '<^ CO C4 tH

oooooo oooooo

O lO Tjt « Cfl tH O IO t}< CO (N rH

o

CO

Q

D

l-l

o

00

C4

Ci

o

CO

C4

o
C4

C4

eo

C4

04

o

ft

C4

o

C4

o»

00

o»c

o ^

o ^
as oi

0«D

!M CO

as as

!M a>

o —t

00 00

I^ GO

OS OS

a> iM

O -H

o o

O CO

CO Tf<

oo

CO O 00 05 o t^

O Tf< -H lO 'i* CO

CO t^ Ci O iM ■^
O O O >— I ■— I .— I

■«*< i^ l^ irj iM 00

coco rt< O coo

CO 00 o CO lo 00
T-H ,— I (M c^ 65 c^

O CO
CO CO

OIM
O !M

t^ o

CO -*

t^CO

CO t^

Ol >o -* iC

Tfi O CO ^

^ CO O lO
»0 iC CO CO

o o

OiO

OCO

o ^

O —I
OC5

coa>

(M CO

C^l CO

CO 00

lOO

^ CO

as a;

t^ 00

O OS

O !M

O —H

o o

lO o

o o

00 O lO ■* 00 !>•
CO --I 'T' C<I O lO

lO t^ OC O 'M CO

Ca CO »-i l>. (M CD

lO lO o "— I ■tti >— I

lO t^ O "M -^ t^
^ ^ "M (M C^l C-l

•-^ 00

O lO

O (M
CO CO

t^ 02
O (M

CO C2
CO CO

coco

Old

CO CO

-* CD-h"0
O C^ O lO

lO lO CO CO

CO "—I

CO t^

oo

O r-t

o^
as as

(M CO

(M CO

Oi OS

OS OS

O LO

t^ 00

(M O

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05 "—I

a. o

!M CO

o o

o a. (M as o t^

1— I CO •— I "<f CO >— I

O CO CO C5 --^ CO

o o oo ^ — '

as CO "* t- OCO

O O r-l C^ Id <M

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'-< ^ -H (M C^ (N

r^ CO

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1—1 CO

lo 00

CO CO

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t^ CO »0 OS t-- •— I
•-I ■* (M ^ C^ ■*

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no »0 lO O CO t~-

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CO lO

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1—1 lO
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t^ 00 CO O lO "-i
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CO iC t^ 05 <M ■*
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c-i '* CO 00 ^ CO

^H ,-< ,— I ,— ( (N (N

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c<i LO OS CO
CO coco •*

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03 03

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■^ lO

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■^ CO •* 00 CO o
to (M to (M O -^

C50(M lOlM O

1— 1 to •<ti 05 1— 1 o

o 00 o '-^ ■* r-

Tt< CO 05 Ol 1-H O

o O C^l ■^ CO 00 o

05 a>oo oo

1— 1

CO LO t^O ^ 't*

OO O O --H -H

CD t» i-H CO CO 00
1-H ^ iM !M (M C^l

o CO to 00 -H CO

COCOCOCOTf -*

COOO ^ ^ t-o
-* ■* to to to CD

01 to CO ^ •>* t-

CO o CO t- r— r-

o

OS

003 t^COCO«3
^ C O ^H (M CO •*

cot^oco t-co

lO O C^ CO ■* o

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(M CO to !M ^ O

" co^^t^ o~ tOCO^

coo CO -H rt< C^

O) ^ i^ CO o cc

O '^ <M ^ O "^i

00 O CO CO o to

CO CO 05 r-H rt O

o O !M -^ CO 00 O
1—t

(M lO t^ C5 ^ "#

O O O O -^ ^H

1-H r-< 1-H T— ( 1— ( 1—1

CO 00 O CO >0 00
— 1 .-< fM (M C^( "M

o CO tooo oco

CO CO CO CO -* 'tl

cooo^ ^ t-o

Tt< ^ to to to to

oi to 00 -H -^ f-
CO CD CD r— t— r-

o
00

O !>• lO (M O C3

^ o o ^H c<i CO CO

00 00 C5^ lOO

•^ »0 O C<1 CO ■*

lO CO (M CO CO 1-H
O (M'i^ O iMiO

00 1- 00 (M r- to

1-H •^ 1-H lO (N O

to t— Ol do CD CD
TTl 05 1-H UO ■* CO

00 1—1 to 1-H t— CO
05 05 ^ 1-H o O

0 O ^1 ^ CO 00 O
CI O O Ci o o

(M -^ l> O -H CO

O O O O '-H »— '

i-H 1-H »— i 1-H 1—1 1—1

CO 00 o co'io (^

1-H -H C^l (M M C-l

O C^l to !>. O CO
CO CO CO CO Tt< -^

1-H 1— 1 1-H 1-H 1—1 1-H

to 00 i-H CO CD o
Tt< ^ to lO to to

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H T-H

05 to 00 ^ -^ l>.
CD CO CO t^ I^ t-

1-H 1-H 1—1 1-H 1-H T— 1

57°

O CO <N 00 lO M
^ O O --H >— 1 (M CO

O OOO (M lO
^ ^ iOO<MCO

O t^ lO CD OO CO
to O (M •* O CO

o 00 o CO 00 1-
to <M to CO o '*

t- O to CO C5 -^
iM 1-H lO ■* CO 05

t- 05 CO to CO ^

1— 1 1-H O o o o

0 O iM '^ CO 00 O
O C5 O O C5 o

(M ^ CO O 1-1 CO
O O O O >— 1 >— 1

1—1 1—1 1—1 T— I 1—1 1— H

lO 00 O C^5 to t^
T-H ^ M C^) C^ C<I

1-H T— 1 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

o c^i -^ r- o iM

(M CO CO CO '^ -+I

1-H 1-H i-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

to 00 oco o o
-* '# to >o to to

01 to CO -H --fi t^
CD o CO t- t— r-

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

. o
lO

1— 1 Ci t^ t^ 00 >— 1

CO CO ■* lO O IM

to 1-H 00 00 C2 CO
CO to o c5 •* ^

oooococioo
-^oco"-! ■* M

ocoot-oo—i
o to CO 05 I-H i-H

t0 05 OO OOO
O O O to to to

o OfM'* COOOO

Ci C^ Ci Cs Gi O

<MTf< OOO^CO

oo oo^ ^

tOt^O<M Tt^^-
— 1 1-H (N (M iM (M

03 iM ■* r- O IM
(M CO CO CO CO •*

tOt^OCOCOO
■^ -^ lO to to to

05 tooo o coco

CO CO CD t- t- t-

C5 00 O (M O 00
1-H -^ 1-H lO C^l O

Tf CO 05 — 1 O to

CO'-H l-H fM n* t—

to to to to to to

o

oco CO c:co 00

- O O O O — < T-4

CO O CO lO -^ CO
iM (MCO -^lOO

OCOOO o t<

1-1 CO to o CO to

o O C^l "* CO 00 o
CI Ci Ci 05 Ol o

1-H

(N ^ cooooco
oo o o ^ ^

1—1 1—1 1 — ^ 1—1 1—1 1—1

to O. O <M '^JH CO

1-H rt 1-H C<l <M 0-1
1-H ^H 1-H 1-H ^H 1-H

O 1-H •* CO O C^l
CM CO CO CO CO -^

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

■* r- o CO o 00
■^ ■<*< to >o to to

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

T-H -^ r^ o CO CO

CO CO CO t- t^ I^

1-H 1-H ^H ^H ^H 1-H

o
lO

o -^ CO o t^ o

- O O O O O --H

^ C3 ti 'M O O
1— 1 1— 1 05 CO -* lO

(M O (M O O CO

O r-l CO to —1 CO

00 r- t^ ^ t- r-

to (M to CO O "*

CI ^05 COt-Ol

05 1-H O to ■* ■*

1-H 1-H CO to o to

^ ^ ^ ^ i_0 to

o O (M -t CO 00 O

o o o o o^ o

1—1

0-1 ■+ CO 00 O C~1
O O O O 1— 1 1— <

to !>■ O -H ^ CO
^ 1-H ^ C^ C^ CM

00 -H CO coo ^

(M CO CO CO CO -^

Tf< t- O Ol to 00
T»< TfH to to to to

-H Tt^ t-O CO CO

CO CO CO r- t^ t—

0

to

O O O O ^ 'M

^ oooooo

lO 00 CO 00 CO ^
O O --H --H (M CO

to 00 CO o o c^i

■^ to ^ CO to ^

r- -rt^ to o >o to
coo CO o -^iM

00 -^ CO to o t—

O to -^ CO CO 05

t— O CO CO to 05
Ol Ol CO CO Tti to

o O <M f CO GO O

o o o c^ c^ o

C-1 -:!' O 00 O C^
O O O O '-H ^
1— ( 1— I 1— ( 1— 1 1— 1 1— t

•^ OO— ICO o
^ 1-H ^ cq C^ !M

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

CO ^ CO CO 00 "-H
C^l CO CO CO CO -*i

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H I-H 1-H

"^^"cM^c^Jlo coco^

1-H TJH rt TjH (N O

Tti CD O 05 to CO
Tl '^ •^ to to to
1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

>— 1 "^i r- o CO CD

CO CO CO t- t- t-

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H T-H 1-H

o

to

O 00 I^ »0 lO lO
-. O no lO lO to lO

lO t^ o lo ^ 00

lO lO O O 1— 1 ^

OOOCOOOOO
(M CO to T-i <M to

CO CO CO CO CO 05
•^ CO 05 1-H 1-H 1-H

CO t- CO ^ o o
1-H 1-H 05 CO ■* to

o o >— 1 CO lO r^ o
o CI o ci C2 c;

-H CO --0 00 O !M
O O o o ^ ^

n:222?Jg5S

00 O CO to 00 -—I
<M CO CO CO CO Tt<

CO O O C^5 to 00
'i^ '^ rf to to to

^ -t t^ O CO CO

CO o CO r- r- t-

o

to

ot^co oooi^

^ O »0 lO iC -<ti ■*

CO CD I^ 1— 1 lO C<l
■* Tt< ^ lO lOO

o o"co"o K t-

1-H 00 00 (M o o
to ^ ':)< (M to CO

■* 1— 1 05 !>. •* lO^
C5 1-H o to to to

00 to CO CO to r- "

to O ^ 05 CO •*

0 O -H CO uo t^ C3
ClOO O O Ci

^^ CO lO t^ O "M

OOOOOO

1— ( 1—* 1— I 1-H 1-H 1-H

^ OXOCOiO

^H 1-H ^H fM (M C^l

r- o (M to t^ o

(M CO CO CO CO "*

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

CO OO-H ^ t-
•*■*■* to to to

1— 1 1-H 1-H 1— 1 1-H 1-H

o-^ t-o CO CO

CD CD CD t- t— t-

1-H l-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

o

O

lO

OiCO COC^ 00

^ o »o »o ■* "* CO

"TOTO^iO^cOOl^Tfi"

CO CO CO CO CO ^

(M 1-H CO t- ■* Tfl

to O >-i 0^ Tf< o

t- '^ •* t- Tf< to
IM to iM to CO ^H

OOOO CDiOOO

o ^ "^ CO CO CO

CO 05 05 to O ■*
"* toOi-H Ol-*

o O "-I CO iC t^ O

Oi ^ Oi Oi Oi Oi

O O O O O -H

CO O00O<M to
^ r-^ -H (M i?q M

t- C5 (M 'ti r- o

<M (M CO CO CO -^

CO to 00 ^ "<tn^

•^ ■* ■* to to to

O CO t- O CO CO
CD O CD r- t— t—

o

O CO t^ O lO O
^ O lO 'I' 't CO CO

O CO iM C^l CO t^
(M C^l C^5 'M (M -M

CO —1 -^ to —I o

CO -# "O O C<) Tt<

COOOOC^l o o
O (M to CO O to

lO"-^ r- -^ to o

CO 05 1—1 ^ 1-H 05

n>-"o6""^ CO CO 1-H ""

Ol CO to O 05 -*

0 O -H CO lO t^ Ci

05 O C5 O C3 Ci

1— 1 CO lO t^ Ci i— 1

OOOOOrl

ss^s^c?;

t-O-H ^ t-Ci
(M<NCOCO CO CO

1-H ^H 1-H ^H 1-H 1-H

05 to 00 — 1 'J* t-
Tf ■* 1* to to to

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

O CO CO O CO CO
CO CO CD t— t— t—

l-H 1-H 1-H 1—1 1-H 1-H

o

00

O iM CO >0 00 ^H
^ O O -* CO (M IM

CO—I 00 t^t-o
1-1 i-H o o o o

CO O O C<1 t^ to

1-H C^l !M -* ■* 1-H

t- CO (M to (M "Tti

CO O CO O ^ (M

Ol O -^ 05 ■* 1-H

O to to to to o

ococir-t-oo
T-i O) CO to T-i CO

o O >— ' CO lO t^ O

o c; Ci ci ci ci

1— 1 CO lO t^ O "— 1
OOOOO-H

1— H 1—1 1—1 1—1 1-H 1-H

CO to (^ o ^ -*

1-H 1-H 1— 1 1-H Cq CVI

CO O ^H it}. <o o
(M (MCOCOCOCO

05 ■* t-oco:^

■* ■* Th to to to

1-H 1-H 1-H T—l 1-H 1-H

O CO CO O CO CD

O CD CO CO t- r-

1-H 1-H T—l 1—1 T—1 1-H

o

O OOO^CO

^ O to -rlH CO !M ■— <

to O^ "^ 1-H O — ^
O lO lO lO lO lO

coot- 00 (MO

to to O 1-1 CO to

^ CD ■* 00 to t-
1-H CO O CO —< to

CO -ti o 00 CO — 1

Tf CO Ol Ol CO rt<

CO OOt-OOOiO
to O 05 ■* ^H CO

■*

o O ^^ CO lO t^ O
O O Ci CI CI C5

^ (M '^ CO 00 O
OOOOO— 1

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1— 1

(M Tti t— O -^ CO

1-H 1— 1 1-H -i-H C<I 05

coco— ' CO coco

IM 05 CO CO CO CO

1-H 1-H T-H ^H 1—1 1-H

^ ^ t- oco o

'JH -*l Tf< to to to
1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

O CO CO O CO CO

to CO CO o r- 1--

1-H 1-H 1-H T—1 1-H 1-H

0

- 8^?§^i;^S

lO l^ O O CO (M

lO ■* ■* CO CO CO

CO t- 'f ^ t- CO

CO CO-^ to O IM

■* 00 CDOCOOO
-*OCOO-*(M

2S§S2^

'^ OQ rt< 00 '^ 05
CO to --H CO O CO

o O ^^ CO lO t^ Ci
C3 O O C2 Ca Ci

O <M '^ O 00 o

OOOOOr-H

(M Tt< CO CO —1 CO

^ I-H 1-H ^ C^ <M

to 00 o CO to 00

(M M CO CO CO CO
T-H 1-H T-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

1-H --f t— O CO CD
Tt< 4i rr to to to

1-H 1-H 1-H T— 1 1-H T— 1

O 05 CO oco CD

lO o CO CD r- 1^

1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H 1-H

3 bi)

oooooo
^ o CO o CO o CO

oooooo
o CO o CO o CO

OOOOOO

O CO o CO o CO

ocooeooeo

oooooo
o coo cooco

oooooo

O CO O CO O CO

w^

0 o t-ioeq o t-
O) 00 00 00 00 c~

lO<N O C~lO C<l

o t-io c<>o t-

(O tOlOiO lO -^

to W O t- ION

^ ^ '^ CO CO CO

O t- to (N O t-

coco c« N e«iH

lO d o t- to OJ

r-l 1-1 iH

466 LITTLEHALES: AZIMUTH OF CELESTIAL BODIES

of the observer and the meridian of the point of intersection with
the equator of the great-circle arc passing through the geographical
position of the observer and the geographical position of the
observed celestial body. With this difference of hour-angle
together with the latitude of the observer, the abridged azimuth
tables, or the column of 0° of declination of the present solar
azimuth tables, may be entered in the usual columns of time and
latitude, and the required azimuth will thus be found.

The present great-circle sailing charts issued by the Hydro-
graphic Office are constructed upon the gonomonic projection,
and hence afford the means of accomplishing this purpose. The
procedure is simple. It consists of plotting the latitude of the
observer on any selected meridian and the observed celestial
body in a latitude equal to the declination on a meridian whose
difference of longitude from the meridian selected to represent
the meridian of the observer is equal to the hour-angle of the
observed celestial body, and, having drawn a straight Une through
the two positions thus plotted, noting the difference of longitude
between the intersection with the equator of the straight line so
drawn and the meridian selected to represent the meridian of the
observer. If the geographical position of the observed body
lies on the opposite side of the equator from the position of the
observer and beyond the limits of the chart, plot the latter point
as if it were on the same side of the equator and note on the equator
the longitudes of both points; then join these four points diagon-
ally by straight lines^ and the longitude of the intersection of the
diagonal lines will give the longitude of the required intersec-
tion with equator of the great-circle arc joining the geographical
positions of the observer and the observed celestial body.

When either the latitude of the observer or the declination
of the observed celestial body is higher than 60°, there will be
instances arising in which even the most ample of these charts
will not suffice to extend, to its intersection with the equator,
the required great-circle arc passing through the geographical
position of the observer and the geographical position of the
observed celestial body. In such cases resort may be made to a
gnomonic chart, known as Godfray's great-circle sailing chart,

merwin: equations with one unknown constant 467

in which the geographical pole has been chosen as the point of
tangency of the plane of projection. In this, however, since the
parallels of latitude are represented by a series of concentric
circumferences whose radii are equal to r x cotangent latitude,
where r is any convenient linear magnitude and represents the
radius of the earth, the equator can not be represented because
the cotangent of 0° of latitude is an infinity; and hence the
intersection of the straight line representing the great-circle
arc passing through the geographical position of the observer
and the geographical position of the observed celestial body
must be sought on some parallel of latitude near the equator,
such as the parallel of 20° of latitude which is made the boundary
circle in Godfray's chart. The required azimuth is then found in
the column of azimuths tabulated for that declination in the
solar azmiuth tables which is equal to the latitude of parallel
upon which the intersection is found, which, in the case of inter-
sections determined on the boundary circle of Godfray's chart,
would be the column of azimuths for 20° of declination.

The condensed tables as here presented may be arranged to
stand complete at one opening of a book of fair size; and
hence, in addition to being free of the usual interpolations for
declination, are rid of the disadvantage of turning from page to
page in interpolating for latitude.

MATHEMATICS. — Equations containing only one unknown
constant to represent the parabola, the rectangular hyperbola,
and certain exponential curves. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical
Laboratory.

By completing the following expression — — = — - —

y2-y 2/2-2/1
for three points in rectangular coordinates, equations can be
formed for the parabola, the rectangular hyperbola, and certain
exponential curves, each equation containing only one unknown
constant. In each case after solving for the unknown constant,
C, any point on the curve can be located by substituting its
known coordinate, Xs or j/3, for x or y of the equation. The
curves, represented by the equation, do not pass through the
origin.

468 merwin: equations with one unknown constant

Equations I and la represent the same rectangular hyperbola.^
If a definite value of x is given, equation I should be used, other-
wise la.

x^-x ^ ^^-Xi ^ ^ ^^_^^^ J

2/2-?/ ?/2-2/i

yizy^yi.zyi^C{y-y.) la

3/2 — X X2 — Xi

II and III are parabolas- with principal axes parallel to the
X- and y -Sixes respectively.

x^^ = ^^ + C {y-y,) II

2/2-2/ 2/2 - 2/1

yizy. = y^jzi} + c (x-x,) m

X2 — X X2 — Xi

Exponential forms^ are as follows:
2/2-2/ 2/2-2/1

2/2-2/ _Vi-yiQy-y. y

/v. /y* /y» 'V*

X2 — X X2 — .t 1

Equivalent to IV is

2/2-2/ _ 2/2-2/1 (^:.-xx lY2i

X2 — X X2 — ^1

Equivalent to V is

•^2 X X2 Xl ^y^y^ -y

2/2-2/ 2/2-2/1

1 On expansion equation I becomes A+ Bx — Cxy + Dy = 0, where

A = y^ (?i^=^ - Cxi") -X2, B = l + Cy2, D = Cn - ^^^^l^.
\y2 — yi / yi-yi

2 By expansion II becomes A -\- By — x + Cy^ = 0, where

A=x,- ?y.(^^^^ + Cy:), 5 = ^i^£i - C (y^- y.).
\2/2 - 2/1 / 2/2-2/1

3 IV may be written A + x+ B {D — y) C^-^i =0, where A = — Xi

X*} — Xl fl T

B = , D = yi. Or it may be written in the form y = ^7- + -^ + d.

2/2 - 2/1 C^ Cx

WENNER AND WEIBEL: TESTING OF POTENTIOMETERS 469

Proper choice should be
made between IV and IVa
or between V and Va so
that the logarithm of C will
be positive. The expo-
nential curves contain a
flexure. On one side of the
minimum (or maximum)
they extend out indefinitely y
from both axes; on the
other side they reflex ^nd
tend to become parallel to
one axis. The end without
the flexure is intermediate
in curvature between a
parabola and a rectangu-
lar hyperbola. Fig. 1 shows
the character of thse curves.
They can be made to pass
through any three given
points of which at least two must be on the non-reflex portion.

PHYSICS. — The testing of potentiometers. Frank Wenner
and Ernest Weibel, Bureau of Standards. ^

For precise measurements with a potentiometer the errors
in the adjustment of the resistance sections or coils in the appa-
ratus must be known. These errors can be determined by
measurements of the resistances of the various sections but,
without some systematic method of applying corrections, they
are not easily allowed for in the use of the potentiometer.

We have found that it is convenient to express the relation
between the known electromotive force, the unknown electro-
motive force, the readings and the corrections by the formula

E =f [(ei + Gi) + (62 + ao) + etc.] (l -^ b + c + d)

(1)

1 Presented at the Washington, 1914, meeting of the American Physical Society.

470 WENNER AND WEIBELI TESTING OF POTENTIOMETERS

where

E is the value of the unknown electromotive force

/ is the range readings

ei is the reading of the highest dial

62 is the reading of the next highest dial, etc.

s — 2
c = where s is the value of the known electromotive force

s

and s is the reading of the known electromotive force dial or dials,
and b, d, ai and ^2, etc., are small corrections due to errors in the
adjustment of the varioi5s resistance sections.

The correction ai depends only on the reading ei, a<> depends
only on the reading 62, etc., 6 depends only upon the reading
s, and d depends only upon /. A table can therefore be con-
structed for each dial giving the corrections corresponding to
each of its possible readings.

Let i?e be the resistance in the potentiometer between the
JS'-terminals and R^ that between the *S-terminals. Then if
the total current is independent of the settings of the various
switches or plugs,

E = .S R,/R, = f[{e, + a,) + {e, + a,) + etc.] {I + h + c + d) (2)
Thus if Re/Rs is determined for the various readings of /, of e
and of s the corrections h, d, ai, ^2, etc., can be determined.

In order to reduce the time required for making the measure-
ments and to obtain the data in such form that the corrections
can be more easily calculated, a special piece of apparatus was
constructed and has been in use during the past two years. This
apparatus which we shall call a ratio-set has been found to
furnish a rapid and direct means for calibrating all types of
potentiometers which have so far been submitted to the Bureau
of Standards for test. It is equivalent to 211,110 resistance
sections of 0.01 ohm each, connected in series and so arranged that
a branch connection (either to battery or galvanometer) can be
made between any two adjacent sections. Or it is equivalent
to a slide wire on which contact can be made at 211,110 points.
The apparatus is made of 100 resistance sections, 20 of each of
the following denominations; 100 ohm, 10 ohm, 1 ohm, 0.1 ohm,
and 0.01 ohm. Five dial switches serve to shift resistance sections

WENNER AND WEIBELI THE THOMSON BRIDGE 471

from one side to the other of the branch connection, or to cut out
sections on one side and insert corresponding sections into the
other side.

In use the ratio-set is connected in parallel with the potenti-
ometer to be tested in such a way as to form two arms of a bridge,
while the potentiometer forms the other two arms. This arrange-
ment constitutes a Matthiessen and Hockin bridge. The ratio-
set is adjusted so that a balance of the bridge is obtained for
each setting of the dials of the potentiometer for which correc-
tions are desired. The corresponding readings of the ratio-set
(when connected for known errors in its resistance sections)
give data from which the corrections b, e, ai, a2, etc., of equation
(1) can be calculated. Certain adjustments are made such that
the corrections are obtained almost directly from readings of
the potentiometer and ratio-set.

PHYSICS. — Adjustments of the Thomson bridge in the measure-
ment of very low resistances. F. Wenner and E. Weibel,^
Bureau of Standards.

The purpose of this paper is to describe two new procedures
for carrying out those adjustments which make the correction
terms of the Thomson bridge equation negligibly small.

Both procedures require the use of a variable double ratio-
set (so adjusted that, for any reading of the dial switches, the
lack of equality of the two ratios, a/ a, (fig. 1) is so small that no
appreciable error is introduced on this account) and variable
low resistance to be used in the connections, Xx and Xo, between
the terminals of the ratio-set and the potential terminals of the
four-terminal conductors under comparison.

(1) With the test current supplied through the terminals
b and b' , the bridge is balanced by an adjustment of the dial-
switches of the double ratio-set.

(2) With the test current supplied through the terminals
n and o, the bridge is balanced by an adjustment of the variable
low resistance fomiing a part of Xi.

1 Paper to be published in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

472

WENNER AND WEIBEL: THE THOMSON BRIDGE

(3) With the test current supphed through the terminals
n' and o', the bridge is balanced by an adjustment of the variable
low resistance forming a part of x-t.

(4) With the test current supplied through the terminals
h and 6', the bridge is balanced by an adjustment of the dial-
switches of the double ratio-set.

In the other procedure the test current is supplied through
the terminals h and h' only, but means are provided for connecting
the terminals n and o, and n' and o' by conductors of low resist-
ance. The adjustments are made in 4 steps, of which (1) and (4)
are the same as given above. In (2) the terminals n and o are

Fig. 1.

connected, while the bridge is balanced by an adjustment of Xi,
and in (3) the terminals n' and o' are connected while the bridge
is balanced by an adjustment of x^.

Either procedure gives very accurately

X = ay/b (1)

where x and y are the resistances of the four-terminal conductors
under comparison; and A and B are the resistances between n
and g, and g and o, when the final adjustment is made.

Both procedures differ from those previously used mainly in
that they do not require changing over to a simple bridge by
opening the low resistance connection between the resistances
under comparison. Where the resistances under comparison

LARSEN AND HUNTER: MELILITE 473

and the resistance of the connection between them are very low,
it is more or less impracticable to change over to a simple bridge
during the adjustments. In such cases these procedures have
been found more . satisfactory .

MINERALOGY. — Melilite and other minerals from Gunnison
County, Colorado. Esper S. Larsen and J. Fred Hunter,^
Geological Survey.

INTRODUCTION

The minerals described in this paper were collected by the
authors during the summers of 1912-13 in the course of the
geologic mapping of the Uncompahgre quadrangle, Colorado,
under the direction of Whitman Cross. All but the anatase
are from a small complex of peculiar igneous rocks near Iron
Hill on the east bank of Cebolla Creek opposite the Cebolla Hot
Springs, and a few miles southeast of Powderhorn post office,
Gunnison County, Colorado. ^

The rocks mapped in this area are, in the order of their age,
a coarse-grained rock made up largely of melilite for which the
name Uncompahgrite is proposed, a pyroxenite which locally
carries segregated bodies of titaniferous iron ore, a rock related
to ijolite, soda syenite, cancrinite syenite, and nepheline gabbro
(or essexite).

The anatase was found in veinlets along joint planes in a
dioritic dike which cuts the pre-Cambrian rocks in the gully
about half a mile northeast of the Lot Mine, a few miles east
of north of the mouth of Powderhorn Creek and Powderhorn
post office, and only a few miles north of the Iron Hill area.

melilite

Occurrence and association. Several bodies of rock made up
chiefly of melilite and for which the name Uncompahgrite is

^ Published with the permission of the Director of the United States Geological
Survey.

- All locations are given with reference to the United States Geological Survey
topographic map of the Uncompahgre quadrangle.

474 LARSEN AND HUNTER: MELILITE

proposed were found in the drainage of Beaver Creek, in all,
covering an area a little less than a square mile. The largest of
these is between the forks of Beaver Creek; others are south of
the main Beaver Creek, The rock of these bodies is about two-
thirds or more melilite with considerable pyroxene, magnetite,
perofskite, and apatite, and in places biotite, calcite, and other
minerals. It varies greatly in texture but is commonly coarse,
and cleavage pieces of melilite a foot across are not uncommon.
The finest grained rock is hypidiomorphic granular with crystals
averaging 1 mm. across. In the coarser rock the luster of the
giant melilite individuals is mottled by large included crystals
of the other constituents. The melilite is anhedral so far as
observed.

Physical properties. The mineral has a rather perfect basal
cleavage, which is better developed in some specimens than in
others. Its hardness is about 5. The specific gravity of the
analyzed specimen is 2.98.

Optical properties. The pyroxene and ore are somewhat irregu-
larly distributed in the large melilite crystals so that considerable
sized fragments of melilite can be obtained nearly free from
inclusions. The melilite is nearly colorless, to gray, and has a
noticeably greasy luster. Splinters are clear and transparent
but carry scattered, minute inclusions of opacite — probably mag-
netite. The gray color and lack of transparency of rather thick
masses are due to these inclusions. In thin sections the melilite
is colorless, and contains large crystals up to several centimeters
across of pyroxene, apatite, calcite, magnetite, and perofskite
in addition to the minute inclusions of opacite which are com-
monly collected in irregular areas or streaks. In the finer-grained
rocks, sections of melilite with the maximum birefringence show
a well-developed cleavage (001). Powdered fragments of the
mineral commonly lie on the basal cleavage and hence are nor-
mal to the optic axis. The mineral is uniaxial and negative.
The indices of refraction were measured on two polished plates
from the analyzed specimen and also on polished plates from
two other specimens from different outcrops. The following
values were found: Coarse,, analyzed material. coNa = 1.6319 and

LARSEN AND HUNTER: MELILITE 475

1.6326, av. 1.6323; e^, = 1.6254 and 1.6259, av. 1.6257;
-WNa — fxa = 0.0066; (w — e) measured = 0.007. In medium-
grained material from another locality, ws-a = 1.6327 and 1.6336,
av.J.6331; 6.,= 1.6270 and 1.6273, av. 1.6271; (co.. - e.va) = 0.0060.
In fine-grained material from a third locality, w.va = 1.6327;
exa = 1.6258; coxa — €Na = 0.0069. Repeated measurements on
a single plate checked to within 0.0002 so that the differences
shown above are due to an actual difference in the values for
different fragments.

In the greater part of the thin sections examined the melilite
shows normal grayish interference colors ahnost identical with
those of the associated apatite. In a few it shows abnormal
blue colors and has a birefringence considerably lower than that
of the associated apatite.

Resemblances. In the hand specimen the melilite closely re-
sembles nephelite and, indeed, it is not always possible to dis-
tinguish between the melilite of some of the melilite rocks and
the nepheline of some of the associated ijolites without the aid
of a microscope. It is also difficult to distinguish the melilite
rocks from some of the associated apatite-rich rocks, and chemi-
cal tests are necessary in some cases as the two minerals are
similar both megascopically and microscopically. The apatite
is whiter than the melilite and in thin sections it lacks cleavage
and is commonly clearer than the melilite; otherwise its optical
properties, when in granular aggregates, are almost identical
with those of melilite.

Chemical properties. Material for the chemical analysis was
carefully picked by hand from one of the coarse-grained speci-
mens collected from an outcrop about 100 yards northeast of
the point at which the mapped road up the south fork of Beaver
Creek crosses that creek and about a mile above the mouth of
North Beaver Creek. A careful microscopic examination of the
sample showed the presence of a small amount of calcite and
apatite, still less of pyroxene, and a very little opacite as small
inclusions in the melilite. The mineral gelatinizes readily when
treated with weak acids.

476

LARSEN AND HUNTER: ME LI LITE

The following analysis (1) was made by W. T. Schaller in
the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey. Analysis
(2), which is of melihte from Capo di Bove, Italy, is given for
comparison.

TABLE 1

Analyses and Ratios of

Melilite

1

la

RATIOS

2

Si02

42.07

10.30
0.50

. 0.20
2.18
0.16
4.15

35.41
3.24
tr.
0.82
0.90
0.47

44.13
10.80

2.04
0.16
4.35
34.63
3.40
tr

0.49

732 710
106 103

41.09

AI2O3

10.93

re203

- 3.40

Ti02

FeO

28"

2

108

618

55

• 787

MnO

MgO

5.87

CaO"

34.78

Na20

3.40

K2O

0.68

P2O6

CO2

H2O

0.24

100.40

100.00

100.39

1. Melilite from Beaver Creek, Gunnison County, Colorado. W. T. Schaller,
analyst.

la. Analysis computed free from apatite, calcite, magnetite, and perofskite.

2. Melilite from Capo di Bove, Italy. Bodlaender, analyst.

1 BaO and SrO were not determined. The melilite rock contains 0.28% BaO
and 0.35% SrO and this is believed to be in the melilite.

Alteration. Two types of alteration of the melilite have been
recognized, and both are beUeved to be due to contact meta-
morphism. In the more common type the melilite is altered to
a very fine aggregate of garnet, diopside, and vesuvianite, with
some calcite, zeolites, and several undetermined minerals. It
appears to be a recrystallization of the melilite, probably without
important additions or subtractions of chemical constituents.
In the less common type the melilite is altered to a fibrous aggre-
gate of a new mineral — cebollite, described in the following paper.
The alteration begins along the cleavages and seams in the meli-
lite, spreads out, and finally replaces all of that mineral. Melilite

LARSEN AND HUNTER." MELILITE 477

has been found in all stages of this alteration, which is no doubt
due to the action of water solutions, probably hot solutions from
the intruding pyroxenite magnia.

PEROFSKITE

The relatively rare mineral, perofskite, is an abundant con-
stituent of the melilite rock, the pyroxenite, and the ijolite. It
is one of the chief constituents of the magmatic segregations of
"iron ore" which are abundant in the pyroxenite. These segre-
gations are made up of about equal amounts of magnetite and
perofskite with varying amounts of apatite and biotite. So far
as observed there is no ilmenite present. Singlewald^ and Brun-
ton^ have not distinguished this type of iron ore from the more
common ilmenite-magnetite ore.

In the melilite rock the perofskite, which is commonly in grains
or octahedral crystals, forms several per cent of the rock, and
Ideally is next to melilite in abundance. The larger crystals are
several millimeters across.

The perofskite is iron black in color and has a sub-metallic
luster approaching adamantine. In appearance it differs from
magnetite, chiefly in luster, and the two minerals are difficult to
distinguish megascopically except by the lack of magnetism in
the perofskite. It is even more difficult to distinguish from some
of the titaniferous garnet.

In thin sections the perofskite is weakly birefracting and shows
a complex of polysynthetic twin lamellae resembling the grating
of microcline or less often the albite and pericline twins of plagio-
clase. It is translucent and, in transmitted light, is Saccardos
umber^ in color and is perceptibly pleochroic with the absorption

' Singlewald, J. T., The iron ore deposits of the CeboUa District, Gunnison
County, Colorado: Econ. Geol., 7: 560. 1912.

^ Brunton, S., Some notes on titaniferous magnetite. Econ. Geol., 8: 677.
1913. Iron stained plagioclase is mentioned as a constituent of the iron ore from
the Cebollite District. We have found no plagioclase in the ore but some of the
perofskite shows polysynthetic twinning somewhat resembling that ot plagio-
clase and might have been mistaken for an iron stained plagioclase.

* Color 17" k of Ridgway's "Color standards and nomenclature," 1912, Wash-
ington, D. C.

478 LARSEN AND HUNTER: MELILITE

Z > X, Its index of refraction is 2.34 and its birefringence,
about 0.002. In thin sections it is distinguished from the garnet,
which is also common in the rocks, by its sUghtly different color
and especially by its weak birefringence and twinning, which is
uniformly present except in a few of the very small crystals.

TITANIFEROUS ANDRADITE

Black andradite garnet is present in most of the igneous rocks
of the Iron Hill area but is especially abundant in the rock
related to ijolite and locally is an important constituent of the
soda syenite. Specimens of a soda syenite collected from near
the contact with the pyroxenite on the southeast slope of the
knob 9500' + north of North Beaver Creek are made up of micro-
perthite and somewhat less garnet which is interstitial to the
feldspar. The garnets are commonly about a millimeter across,
are anhedral, black, and of submetallic luster. In thin sections
they are dark reddish brown and are not very different from some
of the perofskite for which they were at first mistaken. Their
index of refraction was measured by the imbedding method and
found to be 1.907 ± 0.005. .

An approximate analysis of the garnets was made by W. T..
Schaller of the Geological Survey with the following results:

TABLE 2
Approximate Analysis of Titaniferous Andradite

SiOo

34.30

4.46

5.08

24.09

31.06

0.52

AI2O3

TiO.

(equals 4.57 TiaOj)
(total iron as FeaOa)

Fe.Os

CaO

MgO

99.51

The analysis shows that the garnet is an andradite rather
high in titanium. A similar garnet is an important constituent
of the ijolite and locally it is the chief dark mineral. Some parts
of the ijolite are made up of coarse anhedral garnet and nephe-

LARSEN AND HUNTER: MELILITE 479

line in about equal amounts with a little pyroxene, apatite,
perofskite, biotite, magnetite, etc. Grains of garnet several centi-
meters across are not uncommon.

BLUE ANATASE

Beautiful, dark blue crystals of anatase were found in narrow
veinlets and in the adjoining altered country rock about half a
mile north of the Lot Mine. The veinlets are only a few milli-
meters across although the rock on either side is altered for
several millimeters. These veinlets were found only in a single
dike of a dioritic rock a few hundred feet across, but in this
dike were observed in abundance for a distance of nearly a mile
and doubtless continued beyond the limits of observation. They
are commonly nearly parallel to the walls of the dike, but some
trend across the dike, thus forming a network; they probably
filled shrinkage joints in the diorite.

The anatase originally formed somew^hat less than half the
vein filling; the other minerals of the filling are altered to limonite
and no trace of their original character was found. In addition
to occurring in the vein anatase is present in disseminated crys-
tals in the adjoining altered country rock.*'

The anatase crystals are commonly well formed and are bound-
ed by a large number of faces. Their habit is pyramidal, tabu-
lar, or prismatic. In size they reach a centimeter in greatest
dimension. In color the mineral varies from deep blue to almost
black. The lighter colored crystals are translucent and some,
if of sufficient size, might make beautiful gem stones with their
deep blue color and highly adamantine luster. An approximate
chemical analysis showed that the blue mineral is essentially
TiOo. Optically it is uniaxial, negative, has a strong birefring-
ence and an index of refraction (w) of about 2.56.

^ Specimens shown us by Mr. Frank L. Hess, of the Geological Survey, from
near Hot Springs, Arkansas, show anatase and pyrite in veinlets and the accom-
panying altered countrj^ rock and somewhat resemble the material described in
this paper.

480 LARSEN AND SCHALLERI CEBOLLITE

MINERALOGY. — Cebollite, a new mineral. Esper S. Larsen
and W. T. Schaller/ Geological Survey.

At several places, notably six-tenths of a mile southwest of the
forks of Beaver Creek near Powderhorn, Gunnison County,
Colorado, some of the melilite of the occurrence described in
the preceding paper is altered to a dull, compact, white to green-
ish, fibrous aggregate, which on microscopical and chemical study
proved to be a new mineral, for which the name Cebollite- is here
proposed. In some specimens the melilite is replaced by a fibrous
aggregate of cebollite with little else while in others bodies of
the vesuvianite-garnet diopside type of alteration are scattered
through the cebollite. In general the two types of alteration
appear to be distinct. Thin sections show that the cebollite is
in microscopic fibers, commonly arranged normal to the original
cleavage of the melilite, or in fan-like or arborescent aggregates.

Physical properties. Cebollite has a hardness of about 5 and
a specific gravity of about 2.96. It fuses at about 5 to a clear
glass. On account of the small size of the fibers cleavage could
not be recognized.

Optical properties. The mineral is white to greenish gray.
The fibers are very minute and the optical properties could be
determined only approximately. The indices of refraction as
measured by the immersion method are: a = 1.595 ± 0.003;
^ = l.GO; 7 = 1.628 ± 0.005. The extinction is parallel and
the elongation is positive. The fibers are too minute to yield
a satisfactory interference figure but the mineral is biaxial and
positive. The axial angle could not be accurately measured but
2E is about 80 ± 10° and hence 2V is about 58°. The mineral
is probably orthorhombic. Cebollite may be identical with the
mineral described by Rosenbusch^ as an alteration product of
melilite and considered by him to be a zeolite.

^ Published with permission of the Director of the United States Geological
Survey.

2 Pronounced C6- voi- 'ite. From CeboUa Creek in whose- drainage the min-
eral was collected. As in the preceding paper, locations are with reference to
the topographic map of the Uncompahgre quadrangle, Colorado.

' Mikroskopische Physiographic der Mineralien und Gesteine, I : 2, 4te Aufi.,
p. 72.

LARSEN AND SCHALLER: CEBOLLITE

481

Chemical properties. The material selected for analysis repre-
sented the completely altered melilite and consisted mainly of
ceboUite but contained considerable garnet, diopside, and vesu-
vianite so intimately admixed that separation was found impossi-
ble. The analysis made by W. T. Schaller in the laboratory of
the U. S. Geological Survey is given below in Column 1. In-
Column 2 the analysis is computed free from the insoluble por-
tion which represents diopside, garnet, etc. In Column 3 the
analysis of the fresh melilite is given for comparison.

Analysis of Cebollite
By W. T. Schaller

1

2

RATIOS

3

Si02

27.06

11.49

2.81

0.17

3.84

2.10

tr.
29.27
none

5.13
18.05

33.02

14.02

3.43

0,21

4.69

2.57

tr.
35.72
none

6.26

0.550
O.I37I
0.021J
0.003"

0.117
0.041

0.638.

0.348

3.26
' 0.94

■ 4.74
2.06

3X 1.09
IX 0.94

5X0.95
2X 1.03

44 13

AI0O3

10.80

FcoOs

FeO

2.04

MnO

0.16

MgO

4.35

Na,0

3.40

KoO

tr.

CaO

34.63

H2O-

H2O+

Insol

0.49

99.92

99.92

100.00

1. Cebollite from 0.6 of a mile south of the forks of Beaver Creek, Gunnison
County, Colo.

2. Analysis computed free from insoluble portion, diopside, garnet, vesu-
vianite, etc.

3. Melilite from Beaver Creek, Gunnison County, Colo.

The formula derived from the analysis is 3SiO2.AloO3.5RO.
2H2O, in which R is chiefly Ca with smaller amounts of Mg,
Nao, and Fe. The ratio of NasO : MgO -|- FeO : Ca is about
1:3: 16. Cofisidering all the RO as CaO, the formula of cebol-
lite, H4 Al2Ca5Si30i6 may be written in two ways, as follows:

1 (Si04)3.Ca5.[Al(OH)2]2.

2 (8104)3. (GaOH)4.Ca.Al2.

482 • ransome: wurtzite at goldfield

The powdered mineral, treated with water, does not react
alkahne with phenolpthalein and adopting the suggestion of
Clarke that for silicates the presence of the (CaOH) group
is indicated by such a reaction, the second of the above
two formulas becomes untenable and the formula of cebollite,
(8104)3. Ca5[Al(OH)2]2, is written structurally.

/A1(0H)2

Ca<

>Si04 = Ca

Ca<^ ^Ca

Si04

\a1(0H)2

The mineral gelatinizes with acids and gives off water when
heated in a closed tube.

Cebollite does not appear to be closely related to any other
known minerals. It may belong to the zeolites although it con-
tains a larger amount of MgO than is common in minerals of
that group.

mmERALOGY. —Wurtzite at Goldfield, Nevada. F. L. Ran-
some, Geological Survey.

In a report^ on the geology and ore deposits of Goldfield,
Nevada, sphalerite was recorded as being present in small quan-
tity associated with some of the gold ore. Since that work was
published, the studies of Allen and his associates^ and of B. S.
Butler^ have given new significance to the occurrence of the
hexagonal sulphide of zinc, wurtzite, which has generally been
regarded as a rather rare mineral partly, no doubt, because it
has been frequently overlooked.

Allen and Crenshaw have shown that the presence of wurtzite

' Ransome, F. L., The geology and ore deposits of Goldfield, Nevada. U. S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 66, 1909.

2 Allen, E. T., Crenshaw, J. L., and Merwin, H. E., The sulphides of zinc,
cadmium, and mercury; their crystalline forms and genetic conditions. Am.
Jour. Sci. (4) 34: 341-396. 1912.

^ Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adjacent districts, Utah.
U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 80, pp. 93-95, 149-150, and 153-158. 1913.

ransome: wurtzite at goldfield 483

is to be expected where ore containing zinc sulphide has been
deposited by acid solution at temperatures below 300°C. The
Goldfield ores, containing alunite and marcasite, two minerals
formed in an acid environment, are believed to have been de-
posited comparatively near the surface by the mingling of de-
scending waters containing sulphuric acid with ascending ther-
mal waters containing hydrogen sulphide and probably alkali
sulphides. Under such conditions, at least a part of the zinc
sulphide present, as was orally suggested to me by my colleague
Dr. J. B. Umpleby, might crystallize as wurtzite.

To test this suggestion some of the material collected in 1908
from the workings of the Mushett lease on the Miss Jessie claim,
one of the few places in the district where zinc sulphide had been
found at that time, was reexamined. This ore was originally
described as follows:

The ore of the Mushett lease on the Miss Jessie claim northeast of
the Red Top mine is structurally and mineralogically one of the most
interesting in the district. The proportion of sulphides to gangue is
greater than in most of the mines. The metallic minerals noted are
pyrite, famatinite, bismuthinite, sphalerite, and a dark-gray mineral
identical in appearance with that analyzed and described on page 116,
and probably like it the new species goldfieldite. This material is
rich in gold, specimens which to the naked eye show not a particle of
the native metal yielding over $8000 a ton on assay. The crustifica-
tion in the Mushett ore is not very regular, but the minerals have formed
in the following general succession: (1) pyrite; (2) famatinite, bismuthi-
nite, goldfieldite; (3) sphalerite; and (4) pyrite. The sphalerite in
some places forms botryoidal crusts over the prisms of bismuthinite,
which attain a larger size in this ore body than in other known occur-
rences in the district.

The material forming the extreme outer crust of the nodular ores
of Goldfield or filling interstices between the altered and incrusted rock
fragments is in most places a soft mixture of alunite and pyrite.*

The so-called sphalerite is dark reddish brown, forms crusts
rarely over half an inch thick and in places it shows a rather
indistinct radial fibrous structure. Reexamination shows that
a little marcasite is present as minute botryoidal aggregates on
some of the pyrite but is less abundant than in certain other
rich Goldfield ores.

* Ransome, F. L., Op. cit., p. 165.

484 ransome: wurtzite at goldfield

In thin section under the microscope a considerable part of
the material, particularly that forming the inner portion of the
crust, may be seen to consist chiefly of radial aggregates of dis-
tinctly birefringent prisms with very indefinite individual out-
lines. These fibers, which are clearly wurtzite, show a tendency
to diverge from points on the inner surface of the crust, becoming
less distinct toward their free ends where the birefringent aggre-
gate grades into material that is chiefly sphalerite, containing
here and there little flecks of wurtzite. In some aggregates the
prisms have grown radially outward from small dark nuclei
which appear to consist chiefly of ferruginous zinc sulphide, in
part at least, wurtzite. As a rule the aggregates of wurtzite in
addition to their radially fibrous structure show a noticeable
although discontinuous concentric parting. In ordinary light
the wurtzite and sphalerite are practically indistinguishable ex-
cept in a few parts of the section where sphalerite may be recog-
nized by its dodecahedral cleavage; but generally both sphalerite
and wurtzite are traversed by a multitude of irregular cracks
which mask any cleavage that might otherwise be visible.

Wurtzite in very intimate association with sphalerite and visu-
ally distinguishable from that mineral only by its birefringence,
has been described from the Horn Silver mine, Utah, by B. S.
Butler.'^ Mr. Butler's conclusion, which is apparently well sup-
ported, is that the wurtzite is younger than the sphalerite and
was formed by the action of descending acid solutions, although,
as he states, there are some features of the association of the two
minerals that are difficult to account for through this explanation.

The Goldfield occurrence offers little in support of the view
that the wurtzite has resulted from an external attack on the
sphalerite by acid solutions. If both minerals originated by
deposition from solution, present relations would indicate the
sphalerite to be younger than at least a part of the wurtzite.
If, however, one mineral has undergone enantiotropic change to
the other, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine which
was the primary form, as such a change would not necessarily
begin at the surface of a crystal grain.

5 Op. cit., pp. 149-150. 1913.

ransome: wurtzite at goldfield 485

That sphalerite, under natural condition, may change by mo-
lecular rearrangement into wurtzite was suggested by Laspeyres^
and more definitely stated by Noetling,^ who concluded as the
result of his investigation that sphalerite is primary and wurtzite
secondary in origin.^

The conclusion that when sphalerite and wurtzite are asso-
ciated, the wurtzite is generally of secondary origin appears to
have considerable support from direct observations; but this
relation, if it is true, still lacks satisfactory explanation. If, for
example, the wurtzite has been deposited by descending acid
solutions, it is not clear why it should be so intimately asso-
ciated with or replace the less soluble sphalerite. On the other
hand if sphalerite, theoretically the more stable mineral at ordi-
nary temperatures, undergoes change to wurtzite, the cause of
this change is equally obscure. Although it is well known that
sphalerite may be changed to wurtzite by heating to about
1100°C.,^ this is probably not a common natural mode of for-
mation of the latter mineral. Whether the change of sphalerite
into wurtzite can be effected by treatment with acid solutions
at moderate temperatures has not been determined so far as I
am aware, but this question appears to be easily within the
range of experiment.

The rather inconclusive evidence as to the paragenetic rela-
tionship of the two zinc sulphides at Goldfield leaves the mode of
origin of the wurtzite in doubt. The suggestion is favored that
the wurtzite is later than the sphalerite and represents a mo-
lecular rearrangement of that mineral. But the explanation
originally offered for the deposition of the ores through a mingling
of alkaline and acid solutions is quite in harmony with the suppo-
sition that the sphalerite and wurtzite crj^stallized at approxi-
mately the same time.

^Laspeyres, H., Mineralogische Bemerkungen, Zeits. f. Krist., 9: 191. 1884.

^ Noelting, J., Ueber das Verhaltniss der sogenannten Schalenblende zur regu-
laren Blende und zum hexagonalen Wurtzit. Inaug. Diss., Kiel, p. 28. 1887.

* " Jedenfalls beweisen die Untersuchungen der Blenden von StoUberg, Schar-
ley, Bleischarley, Altenberg, Wiesloch und Miechowitz, dass die Blende primaren
und der Wurtzit secundiiren Ursprungs sein muss" (p. 29).

" Allen, Crenshaw and Merwin, op. cit., p. 344.

ABSTRACTS

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prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of ofl5cial publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

BACTERIOLOGY. — The characteristics of bacteria of the colon type
found ifi bovine feces. L. A. Rogers, William Mansfield Clark,
and Alice C. Evans, Journal of Infectious Diseases, 15: 100-123.
July, 1914.

Previous work on a collection of the colon type from milk demon-
strated that the gas ratio and volume are constant under uniform
conditions; that, on the basis of the gas ratio and volume, the cultures
may be divided into two distinct groups; and that the correlation of
the fermentative ability with the gas ratio makes this distinction sharply
defined.

This paper records the results of a similar study on 150 cultures
isolated from bovine feces. None of these cultures liquefied gelatin
and all but one formed indol from tryptophan. By the use of a simple
medium and exact methods of analysis, it was found that in 149 cultures
the CO2: H2 ratio varied only from 0.98 to 1.20. One culture only gave
a ratio identifying it with the high-ratio group, which made up 48 per
cent of the milk series.

The 149 low-ratio (0.98-1.20) cultures were readily divided into two
groups, one of which fermented dextrose, saccharose, lactose, raffinose,
mannite, glycerin and dulcite, but almost invariably failed to ferment
starch, inulin and adonite, while the second group fermented adonite
and dulcite and failed to ferment saccharose, raffinose, starch and inulin.

These groups agree almost perfectly with two groups which may be
formed from the low-ratio cultures isolated from milk. Special methods
failed to give evidence, with the exception of the single culture mentioned,
of the presence in bovine feces of the high-ratio group, which made up
about one-half of the milk collection. L. A. R.

486

abstracts: bacteriology 487

BACTERIOLOGY. — Bacteria concerned in the production of the char-
acteristic flavor in cheese of the Cheddar type. Alice C. Evans,
E. G. Hastings, and E. B. Hart. Journal of Agricultural Research
2: 167-192. June, 1914.
The organisms constantly found in Cheddar cheese in such numbers
as to indicate they must function in the ripening process may be divided
into four groups: First, the Bacterium lactis acidi; second, the Bac-
terium casei; third, Streptococcus; fourth. Micrococcus. Each of the
four groups may be divided into a number of varieties on the basis of
the fermentation powers.

The flora of raw milk cheese consists of all the varieties into which
the four groups were divided; but the flora of pasteurized milk cheese,
with the exception of the Bacterium casei group, is dependent upon the
flora of the starter.

No Cheddar flavor is obtained in pasteurized milk cheese when the
organisms of the Bacterium lactis acidi group alone are used as starters.
The quality of the cheese is improved when starters composed, of a
certain combination of Bacterium lactis acidi and Streptococcus are
added to pasteurized milk. A. C. E,

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers pubUshed in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are
not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

CHEMISTRY

Le Clerc, J. A., and Yoder. P. A. Environmental influences on physical and

chemical characteristics of wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research, 1: no.

4. January 10, 1914.
Merz, a. R. Composition of giant kelps. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 19-20. 1914.
Moore, R. B. Radioactivity of some type soils of the United States. J. Ind. Eng.

Chem., 6: 370-374.
MooRE, R. B., and Whittemore, C. F. The radio-activity of the waters of Saratoga

Springs, New York. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 552-553. 1914.
Morey, G. W. New crystalline silicates of potassiutn and sodium: their prepara-
tion and general properties. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 215-230. 1914.
Rosa, E. B., Vinal, G. W., and McDaniels, A. S. Silver voltameter: part S,

2nd series of quantitative experiyneiits, and preparation and testing of silver

nitrate. Bureau of Standards Bulletin, 9: no. 4. December 15, 1913.
Seidell, A. and Meserve, P. W. Determination of minute amounts of sulphur

dioxide in air. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 298-301. 1914.
Seidell, A. Improvements in the iodine pentoxide method for the determination

of carbon monoxide in air. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 321-323. 1914.
Steinkoenig^ L. a. Distribution of certain constituents in the separates of loam

soils. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6; 576-577. 1914.
Sullivan, M. X. Nitrates in Colorado soils. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 532-533.

1914.
Waggaman, W. H. The reserve supply of phosphate rock in the United States.

J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 464-465. 1914.
Walker, P. H., and Bailey, L. H. Simple extraction apparatus. J. Ind. Eng.

Chem., 6: 497-499. 1914.
Wesson, L. G. The combustion method for the direct determination of rubber.

J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 459-462. 1914.
Wright, C. L. Briquets — Fuel briquetting investigations July 1904-July 1912,

loith bibliographies. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 58. September, 1913.

PHYSIOLOGY

Hill, L., Martin, F., McIntosh, J., Rowlands, R. A., Walker, H. B. The in-
fluence of the atmosphere on our health and comfort in confined and crowded
places. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60-^: 1-96. July 15, 1913.

488

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV OCTOBER 19, 1914 No. 17

PHYSICS. — The specific heat of copper in the interval 0° to 50°C.,
with a note on vacuum- jacketed calorimeters.^ D. R. Harper
3d, Bureau of Standards.

The determinations in the temperature range 0 to 100° are inter-
preted to indicate that the specific heat of copper (hard-drawn
probably excepted) at 50° is between 0.0926 and 0.0931.

The specimen of copper was a long annealed wire (50 meters)
99.87 per cent pure, suspended in vacuo and connected as part
of an electric circuit. A measured quantity of heat could thus
be imparted to it electrically and the temperature rise found by
using the specimen itself as a resistance thermometer. The test
specimen was thus its own calorimeter, no other substance being
included in the ''water equivalent" with the single exception
of a few grams of mica necessary for electrical insulation. To
arrange a large enough amount of copper in a form suitable for
the electrical measurements, the wire was coiled into spirals
containing about 150 cm. each and 32 of these, superposed with
mica plates between, built up a cyhnder about 10 cm. by 10 cm.
containing over 2 kgm. of copper and possessing an electrical
resistance of about 0.2 ohm, sufficient to permit of making the
necessary measurements with requisite accuracy.

Potential leads tapped in at a distance from the ends of the
wire served to define a portion whose mass was that of copper
involved in the detemiination. The resistance of this portion

1 To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, 11, 1914.

489

490 harper: specific heat of copper

was that which was comprehended in the thermometric factor,
and the energy suppHed to it during the period of heating was
the product of the current in the coil by the potential drop
between these leads, integrated over the time the heating circuit
was closed. This potential drop was measured directly with a
potentiometer and the current was measured with the same
potentiometer balanced on the drop across a 0.1 ohm resistance
standard connected in the series in the circuit. The time factor
was obtained by automatic chronograph record of the instants
when the heating current was switched on and off.

The specimen was heated 4° to 5° in each experiment, the rise
in temperature being determined by the change of resistance of
the specimen relative to the resistance of a 0.1 ohm manganin
resistance standard immersed in an oil bath. The comparison
was effected by a potentiometer, sensitive to about one part in
five hundred thousand, and the current employed in making the
comparison was small enough (about 0.3 amp.) that its heating
effect on the specimen (about 0.001 per minute) could readily
be allowed for without appreciable error.

To obtain the factor for the reduction of the increase in re-
sistance to rise of temperature on the international hydrogen
scale, the copper thermometer was compared at several tempera-
tures with two standard platinum thermometers in a stirred
oil-bath comparator.

By suspending the specimen in vacuo, the uncertainties in the
cooling correction which occur at atmospheric pressure due to
convection were avoided, the magnitude of the correction was
increased, and uncertainty in the amount of air to be included
in the water-equivalent (a source of error barely appreciable)
was avoided. The efficacy of the vacuum jacket in reducing the
magnitude of the cooling correction was by no means what was
anticipated.

The results of 27 determinations at temperatures between 15°
and 50° possess an average deviation of one part in a thousand
millimeters from 0.3834 -|- 0.00020 (t-25) international joules per
gram degree; equivalent to 0.0917 + 0.000048 (t-25) calories2o
per gram degree, if 4.182 joules equal one (20°) calorie.

burrows: the koepsel permeameter 491

PHYSICS. — An experimental study of the Koepsel permeameter.
Charles W. Burrows. ^ Bureau of Standards.

A detailed experiinental study of the possibilities and limitations
of the Koepsel permeameter has led to the following conclusions
regarding the different factors which may affect the accuracy of
the readings :

1. Readings on the two sides of the zero of the instrument may differ
considerably but the mean of the two values thus obtained shows
satisfactory consistency on repetition.

2. Shearing curves for different grades of material show that the
correction to be applied to the observed magnetizing force is not con-
stant for a given induction, but depends upon the nature of the test
specimen. This correction is usually subtractive for points below the
Imee of the induction curve and additive for points above the knee.

3. An increase in the cross section of the test specimen tends to in-
crease the observed values of the magnetizing force for points below
the knee of the induction curve, and to decrease the observed values
for points above the knee.

4. The length of the specimen projecting bej'ond the j'okes produces
no noticeable effect for points below the knee of the induction curve.
For points above the Ivnee the projecting ends increase the observed
value of the magnetizing force.

5. If the bushings are not pushed all the way into their proper posi-
tion, a higher apparent value of the magnetizing force is observed due
to the mcreased length of the portion of the bar under test.

6. Hysteresis loops obtained by the Koepsel permeameter always
show a low observed residual induction and a high observed coercive
force.

7. A theoretical and experimental stucty of the distribution of the
magnetic fluxes through different parts of the magnetic circuit shows
that shearing curves of the form observed are to be expected.

Apparatus of this type if used without correction may yield
data greatly in error. The results of the present study show
that for small and moderate inductions the measured magnetiz-
ing force is usually in excess of its true value, sometimes by as
much as 100 per cent. At high inductions the measured magne-
tizing force is usually too low by an error which may be as great
as 25 per cent. With care, however, and the use of proper
correction curves, the apparatus is capable of yielding quanti-

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

492 Curtis: properties of solid dielectrics

tive normal induction data in which the error in the magnetizing
force is not greater than 5 per cent.

Uncorrected hysteresis data for hard steels show values of
the residual induction that are too small by an error which may
be as much as 10 per cent, while the coercive forces are too
large by an error which may be as much as 40 per cent.

The chief value of such an instrument is for comparative
work in which it is desired to determine the degree of uniformity
of material or the relative values of similar materials.

PHYSICS. — The insulating properties of solid dielectrics^ Har-
vey L. Curtis, Bureau of Standards.

Two properties of dielectrics are considered: (1) the volume
resistivity and (2) the surface resistivity. The volume resistiv-
ity of a material is the resistance in ohms between two opposite
faces of a centimeter cube. The surface resistivity is defined
as the resistance between two opposite edges of a centimeter
square of the surface film which is deposited upon the material.

In measuring the volume resistivity, mercury electrodes were
employed in order to make good contact, and a guard-ring was
used to prevent any errors on account of surface leakage. The
effects of the temperature of the specimen, of the humidity of
the smTounding air, and of the magnitude and length of appli-
cation of the applied voltage were studied. The only one of
these which, for ordinary laboratory conditions, affects the order
of magiiitude of the results is the length of application of the
voltage, and this is of importance only if the volume resistivity
is greater than 10^^. Values of the volume resistivity are given
in Table I.

Since the surface resistivity depends upon the surface film
any condition which will affect this film will affect the surface
resistivity. Upon the surface of all insulators except the waxy
materials a film of moisture collects from the surrounding air.
The thickness and conductivity of this film depends upon the
material of which the insulator is composed and upon the relative

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bureau of Standards Bulletin.

CURTIS: PROPERTIES OF SOLID DIELECTRICS 493

»

TABLE 1

Volume Resistivity of Solid Dielectrics
{Materials arranged in order of decreasing resistivity)

Material

Special Paraffin over

Ceresin over

Fused Quartz over

Hard Rubber

Clear Mica

♦Sulphur

*Ainberite

*Rosin

*Mica (India ruby slighth-
stained)

G. E. No. 55R

HallowaxNo. 5055 B

Mica (Brown African
clear)

Bakelite. L55S

♦Elect rose No. 8

*Parowax (paraffin)

Glyptol

♦Shellac

Kavalier Glass

♦Insulate No 2

♦Sealing Wax

♦Yellow Electrose

♦Duranoid.

♦Murdock No. 100

♦Yellow Beeswax

Khotinsky Cement

♦G. E. No. 40

♦G. E. No. o5A

^Moulded Mica

Resistivity
olims-cm.

5000 X lO''^

5000 X 1015

5000 X 1015

1000 X 1015

200 X 1015

100 X 1015

50 X 1015

50 X 1015

50 X 1015

40 X 1015

20 X 1015

20 X 1015

20 X 1015

20 X 1015

10 X 1015

10 X 1015

10 X 1015

8 X 1015

8 X 1015

8 X 1015

5 X 1015

3 X 1015

3 X 1015

2 X 1015

2 X 1015

1 X 1015

1 X 1015

1 X 1015

Unglazed Porcelain 300 X lOi^

Redmonite (157,4) 200 X lOi^

Black Electrose 100 X lOi^

Tetrachlornaphthalene. . . 50 X 10'-

Mica (India ruby stained) 50 X 10i==

German Glass 50 X lO'^

Material

Paraffined Mahogany ....

Stabalite

Plate Glass

Hallowax No. 1001

Dielectrite

Bakelite No. 5199 RGRB.

Bakelite No. 150

Gummon

Tegit

Opal glass

Resistivity
ohms-cm.

40 X 1012

30 X 1012

20 X 10"

20 X 1012

5 X 1012

5 X 1012

4 X 1012

3 X 1012

2 X 1012

1 X 1012

Paraffined Poplar 500

Bakelite No. G5200 RGR . . 400

Paraffined Maple 300

Bakelite No. 1 200

Bakelite No. 190 100

Italian Marble 100

Bakelite Micarta 50

Bakelite No. G 5074 40

Black Condensite 40

Yellow Condensite 40

Vulcabeston 20

White Celluloid 20

Hard fiber 20

Black Galalith 20

Lavite 20

White Galalith 10

Hemit 10

Red Fiber 5

Marble Pink Tenn 5

Marble Blue Vermont 1

X 10»
X 109
X 10'
X 10-'
X 10='
X 10«
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109
X 109

Ivory 200 X 10^

Slate 100 X 106

Bakelite Xo 140 20 X lO^

♦ Apparent resistivity taken after the voltage had been applied for fifteen
minutes.

494 merwin: thermal dehydration of stilbite

humidity of the surrounding air. For some materials the sur-
face resistance at 1 per cent humidity is lO^i times larger than
at 95 per cent humidity, though for the majority of materials
the surface resistance does not change by a factor of more than
10^ under these conditions. Since the change is not uniform it
has been found necessary to construct curves showing the change
of surface resistivity with humidity.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/ie thermal dehydration of stilhite,
thaumasite, and the hydrates of magnesium sulphate and of
copper sulphate. H. E. Merwin. Geophysical Laboratory.

The method of removing from substances the water which
comes off readily only at high temperatures, as outlined in the
study of metahewettite,^ is here applied to a part of the water
which is lost readily at ordinary temperatures. About 0.5
gram of material, powdered to pass 40-to-60 mesh, is held in a
thin layer between an outer 5-inch test tube and an inner,
inverted, 3-inch test tube, the bottom of the latter having been
drawn out and having a small opening. The combination is
immersed nearly to the top in an oil or nitrate bath, heated to
the temperature and for the time desired, and weighed. The
immediate object is to determine the rate of loss of water as the
temperature is gradually increased. Breaks in the rate should
represent definite hydrates if such exist, provided such hydrates
have sufficiently differing vapor pressures at the temperatures
considered. Some characteristic breaks are shown in figure 1.
Temperature is plotted in one direction and in the other either
the number of molecules of water to one molecule of anhydrous
salt or the percentage loss in weight. The circles or the shapes
of the closed areas represent the rate of dehydration. The
diameter of a circle is proportional to the amount of water lost
during the last heating divided by the time of heating. In
cases where the circles overlapped considerably they were re-
placed by two continuous lines through the ends of each diameter
normal to the curve. The periods of heating were 5 minutes.

' Hillebrand, Merwin and Wright, Am. Phil. Soc. Proc, 53: 45. 1914.

merwin: thermal dehydration of stilbite

495

50O"

400

CuSO^.SHoO (Fig. 1, B) loses 2 and 2 molecules of water readily
and then 1 molecule at a much higher temperature. At 25° the
vapor pressure at which both the 5- and the 3-hydrates can
exist is about 7 mm. of mercury; and the 3- and 1-hydrates, about
4.7 mm.; for the 1- and 0-hydrates, about 0.8 mm.^

Stilbite (fig.
I, A) loses wa-
ter continuous-
ly without the
least evidence
of a break.
Ten-minu t e
periods of heat-
ing gave a curve
of the same
general shape
slightly below
this one. The
total loss on ig-
nition was 17.6
per cent.
■ MgS04.7HoO
(fig. 1, D) shows
four distinct
periods of max-
imum evolution
of water ; the
last three repre-
sent one mole-
cule each. The
first one, during
which 4 mole-
cules of water were lost, may indicate the decomposition of the
7-hydrate direct to the 3-hydrate; or intermediate hydrates
which decompose immediately may be formed. Such inter-
mediate hydrates, all having about the same vapor pressure, are

300

200

lOO

Fig. 1

2 Foote, H. W., and Scholes, S. R., Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 33: 1324.

. 496 JACKSON: lead acetate, lead oxide, water

known at lower temperatures. ^ The 2- and the 3-hydrates have
not been known before, I beheve. The temperature intervals
were 4°, below 152°; 10°, between 152° and 212°; and 20°,
above 212°.

Thaumasite, CaS04.CaC03.CaSi0.3.15HoO (fig. 1, C). Four-
teen molecules of water are expelled much like the first 4 of
magnesium sulphate. The last one is much more firmly held.
The temperature intervals were 3°.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. —Equilibrium in the system: lead
acetate, lead oxide, water.- R. F. Jackson, Bm^eau of
Standards. Communicated by G. K. Burgess.

In order to obtain a firm basis for investigating the clarifi-
cation of raw sugar, a study has been made of the basic acetates
of lead from the standpoint of the Phase Rule. The analysis
of the basic lead acetates was performed by measuring the volume
of standard acid neutralized by the basic lead and the volume of
reagent required for the total precipitation of lead. For pre-
cipitating lead either sulphuric acid or sodium oxalate was used
in excess. In the former case the excess was measured by pre-
cipitation with barium chloride, in the latter by titration with
potassium permanganate.

The basic acetates were synthesized by the interaction of
neutral acetate and lead hydroxide. The reaction proceeded
very rapidly and produced some striking phenomena. In one
instance the reacting substances quickly formed a solution which
rapidly solidified to a relatively insoluble crystalline compound.
In another case the unmixed components had the appearance of
nearly dry solid material, but upon vigorous shaking formed a
mobile liquid. The explanation of this is in the formation of
a very soluble basic compound. The equilibria were established
by at least 48 hours' agitation at constant temperature. The
solid phases capable of existence are as follows:

Neutral lead acetate PbCCoHgOo)" . 3 H2O consists of brilliant
monoclinic prisms. It is stable in equilibrium with solutions of
itself and its solubility increases very rapidly in solutions of

1 See Foote and Scholps, loc. cit.

2 Detailed paper to be published in the Bureau of Standards Bulletin.

schaller: identity of empressite with muthmannite 497

increasing basicity. Its saturation curve is continuous with
that extending into acid sohitions. The solubility of the neutral
acetate in neutral solutions is 35.50 per cent. The extreme
basic solution in equilibrium with the neutral acetate contains
15.89 per cent PbO and 48.95 per cent Pb(C2H302)o.

The tetra-lead-monoxy-hexa-acetate 3 Pb(C2H302)2.Pb0.3H20
crystallizes in needles which are usually minute, but may attain
the length of half a centimeter. It is exceedingly soluble in
water and forms solutions of density 1.93 to 2.28. The solu-
tions contain at the extremes of the satm'ation curve 15.89 per
cent PbO, 48.95 per cent Pb(C2H302)2 and 24.74 per cent PbO,
49.21 per cent Pb(C2H302)2. The substance is unstable in con-
tact with solutions of itself, but for its existence in equilibrium
with a solution it depends upon an excess of dissolved basic lead.
On account of the small size and softness of the crystals and the
high density of the mother liquor it is practically impossible to
isolate the pure substance.

The tri-lead-dioxy-diacetate Pb(C2H302)2.2 PbO.4 HoO con-
sists of ill-formed needles which may be so small as to seem
amorphous. It is capable of existence in contact with solutions
of itself but under such conditions has a solubility of but 13.3 per
cent. Its saturation curve however possesses a very great length.
The extremes of solubility are 7.4 per cent PbO 4.8 per cent
Pb(CoH302)2 and 24.74 per cent PbO, 49.21 per cent Pb(C2H302)2.

Lead hydroxide is stable in equihbrium with solutions contain-
ing as much as 7.4 per cent PbO and 4.8 per cent Pb (€211302)2.

MINERALOGY. — The identity of empressite with mutlmmnnite.
^YALDEMAR T. ScHALLER, Geological Survey.

The name empressite has been given^ to a silver tellmide,
AgTe, from Colorado. A consideration of the data given does
not seem to justify its specific separation from the earlier described
muthmannite.-

'Bradley, W. M., Empressite, a new silver-tellurium mineral from Colorado.
Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 163. 1914.

^Zambonini, F., tJber den Muthmannit, ein neues Mineral, Zeitschr. Kryst.
Min., 49: 246. 1911.

498 schaller: identity of empressite with muthmannite

Empressite is "massive in structure, careful inquiries having
failed to locate any material showing crystal faces. The mineral
occurs in very fine granular and compact masses associated with
galena and native tellurium." Its properties could therefore be
only partly determined. The following compilation of the pub-
ished properties of empressite and muthmannite shows their
relationship.

EMPRESSITE

MUTHMANNITE

Structure.
Color

Streak. . . .
Cleavage. .
Hardness.
Solubility.

Formula. .

Massive

Pale bronze^

Grayish black to black
Not determined
3. - 3.5

Readily sol. in hot di-
lute HNO3
AgTe

Platy elongated crystals, not

measurable
Very light brass yellow- to

grayish white'
Iron gray.

Good, parallel elongation
2-2+
Decomposed by HNO3, gold

separating
(Ag, Au)Te

1. On fracture surfaces.

2. On the exposed surface.

3. On fresh cleavage surfaces.

All three analyses of muthmannite, as given by Zambonini,
show considerable gold, but in every one the silver predominates
molecularly. In Zambonini' s analysis, the ratio of gold to silver
is 116 to 244; the gold forms less than one-third of the bases.

The following are the published analyses of muthmannite, the
last three being quoted by Zambonini.

Analyses op Muthmannite

LOCALITY

"empressite"
colorado

NAGYAG ?

NAGYAG

NAGYAG

Analyst

Bradley

Zambonini

Schrauf

Scharizer

Ag

Au

45.17
0.22

0.39
54.75

26.36
22.90
trace
2.58
trace

46.44

21.0
31.0

48.0

19.44
34 97

Fe

Pb

Cu

Insol

Te

45 59

100.53

98.28

100.0

100.00

lotka: an objective standard of value

499

The analytical figures do not express the relationships as
clearly as the molecular ratios which are therefore reproduced
below :

Ratios of Muthmannite Analyses

BRADLEY

ZAMBONINI

SCHRACP

BCHARIZER

Te

1.00
0.97
0.00

1.00
0.67

0.32

1.00
0.52
0.42

1.00

As

0.50

Au

0.49

(Ag + Au)

0.97

1.02

0.94

0.99

1 Includes 0.03 Pb.

The ratio of Te to (Ag + Au) is 1 : 1 in all four analyses, and
the silver also predominates over the gold in all four analyses.
The mineral described as empressite is therefore a pure muth-
mannite, whereas the other three minerals analyzed are muth-
mannite with gold replacing part of the silver : they can be more
accurately described as auric muthmannite.

ECONOMICS. — An objective standard of value — Correction and
addendum.— AijFbbd J. Lotka. Communicated by G. K.
Burgess.

In the paper on this subject published in the issue of this
Journal dated August 19, 1914, the following changes should
be made:

Page 413, in the first line of the paragraph following equa-
tion (6), for ''The ophelimities ^1,^2..." read: "The mar-
ginal ophelimities coi, 0^2 . . ."

In the fourth Une of the same paragraph, for " the ophelimi-
ties" read: "the marginal opheHmities."

Page 416, equation (13), for v"2 read v'2.

Page 417, in the proportion (18), for v'l v'2 read v'i:v'2.

Page 417. The method by which • the proportion (18) is
derived from equations (11) and (14) is inadequate.

This proportion (18) follows by an application of the theory
of exchange, coupled with the principle introduced in this paper,
namely, that in a community in which the sense of value were

500

lotka: an objective standard of value

perfect, economic activities and transactions, such as exchange
upon the market, would be conducted in such manner as to
make the rate of increase per head, r, of the community a
maximum.

In these circumstances, if mi, m^, . . . fi, fi, . . . are the
quantities of the commodities ^i, A^, . . . Fi, F2, . . . con-
sumed by a representative individual per unit of time, we must
have

diUi + dmo +

drrii ' ' dm-z

for all values of dmi, dnh,
the equations of exchange

dnii = dix2 + djxz -f- . .
V2 dnii = — Vi djU2
V3 drrii - - Vi c?M3

v'l dfi = - Vi dipi
v'2 dfi = — Vi d<p'i

■ +^df, + ^df,+ . . . = 0 (I)
. . dfi, dfi, . . . compatible with

+ d,pi + d<p2 +

(ID

where dfxo is the quantity of Ai taken in exchange for A^
dixz is the quantity of Ai taken in exchange for As

dipi is the quantity of Ai taken in exchange for Fi
etc., etc.
By (I) and (II) we then have

dr
bnii

(dp2 + f/yUs + . . . + d<pi + d(p2 + . . .)

dr Vi , ^

bnii V2

dr Vi ,
Ofis — .

bms V3

dr Vi , dr Wi ,
dfi v'l d/2 v'2

= 0

(III)

This relation must hold for all arbitrary values of the infini-
tesimals C?/X2, C?M3, . . . dipi, d(p2, ...

It follows that

. br . dr dr ^ dr ^ ,

dm, dm2 dfi d/2

Vj : V2 : . . : v'l : v'o

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflScial publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

BOTANY. — Discussion of chemical analysis in distinguishing Jeffrey
pine. W. H. Lamb. Proceedings of the Society of American
Foresters, 9: 338-341. 1914.
This is a discussion in connection with a paper by C. Stowell Smith
on "Turpentine Possibihties on the Pacific Coast/' in which the occur-
rence of heptane or abietine in Jeffrey pine {Pinus jeffreyi), and turpene
in western yellow pine {Pinus ponderosa) is pointed out as a means of
distinguishing these two closely related trees, since heptane differs
materially in its properties from turpene, which is the principal con-
stituent of the more commonly known turpentine oils. Conescale and
leaf differences are discussed, illustrated, and correlated with chemical
evidences in establishing Jeffrey pine as a distinct species.

W. H. L.

FORESTRY. — Effect of varying certain cooking conditions in producing '
soda pulp from aspen. Heney E. Surface. Bulletin of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, 80: 1914. Pp. 63.
Experiments were made with aspen (Populus tremuloides) by the
soda process of paper manufacture to determine what effect the varying
of individual cooking conditions would have upon the yield and proper-
ties of the pulp and the consumption of cooking chemicals. The cook-
ing conditions investigated were: (1) amount of caustic soda per
pound of wood, (2) duration of cooking at maximum temperature,
(3) maximum temperature (pressure) of cooking, and (4) initial con-
centration of the cooking chemicals. In each of the four series of tests
all the conditions were held as nearly constant as possible except the
one under investigation, which was varied in successive tests or "cooks"
according to a definite plan.

oOl

502 abstracts: forestry

It was found that the four conditions of cooking named influenced
the yield and properties of the pulp by influencing the severity of the
cooking reactions. Severity of cooking is an effect mainly of the amount
of caustic soda consumed per unit of wood. Increasing the amount of
concentration of the chemical or the pressure of cooking produces a
quicker reaction and hence one more complete in a given length of time.
Increasing the duration results in a more complete reaction because
of the longer time allowed for the available caustic soda to be con-
sumed. Greater severity of cooking is accompanied by a decrease in
the yield of crude pulp, and usually of screened pulp unless screenings
are present in considerable quantity. The decreased yields obtained
on more severe cooking result in a greater cost of wood and soda ash
per ton of pulp. As a rule, the small cost of bleaching powder incident
to the more easily bleached pulp produced by thorough cooking only
partially off'sets the greater cost of soda ash and wood. While the amount
of bleach required decreases with an increase in the severity of cooking,
a point is soon reached where the decrease in bleach is not commensurate
with that in yield. Increasing the initial amount of digester liquid
increases the condensation and steam consumption (and hence the cost)
because of the greater volume to be heated ; increasing either the dura-
tion or pressure has a similar effect because of the greater losses of heat
by radiation. Yields (bone-dry basis) of well-separated, unbleached
pulps as high as 56 or 58 pounds per hundred pounds of wood can be
obtained from aspen if the wood is of the best quality. Yields of from
54 to 55 per cent were obtained which required only from 10 to 11 per
cent of bleach. Yields under different cooking conditions varied from
46 to 58 pounds per hundred pounds of wood, or about 26 per cent.
Aspen may be successfully cooked with total durations of from 3 to 4
hours, and with from 20 to 25 pounds of caustic soda charged per hundred
pounds of wood, provided the other cooking conditions are properly
maintained.

FiNDLEY Burns.

FORESTRY. — Suitability of longleaf pine for paper pulp. Henry
E. Surface and Robert E. Cooper. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 72: 1914. Pp. 26.
The recent development in Europe of the sulphate process of paper
making, and the superior quality of the product made from resinous
woods, has turned attention to longleaf and other Southern pines as a
possible source of pulp in this country. These pines have long, thick-
walled fibers, and also high specific gravities, implying large yields per

abstracts: forestry 503

cord. The principal product of tlie sulphate process is an undercooked,
non-bleaching brown pulp, known as "kraft" pulp, which produces a
remarkably strong paper, very resistant to wear. The waste wood from
the lumber industry in the South suggests a source of cheap raw material.

Tests were made, on longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). These tests
were of two kinds: (1) autoclave tests, comprising several series of
cooks made to determine the effects of varying the cooking conditions
in the sulphate process, and (2) semi-commercial tests, including cooks
made by both the sulphate and soda processes, in the first process
employing such cooking conditions as the autoclave tests indicated
would give good results, and in the second employing cooking conditions
that would give results comparable with those obtained from the sul-
phate cooks.

The experiments, while not complete, show conclusively (1) that
longleaf pine is well adapted for the manufacture of natural-color kraft
pulps and papers ; (2) that the sulphate process of paper making applied
to this wood affords products'of better quality and of higher yields than
does the soda process; (3) that kraft papers can be made from longleaf
pine equal or superior in quality to the imported and domestic kraft
papers now on the market; and (4) that the high specific gravity of
the wood and the resultant high yield of pulp per cord give longleaf
pine an advantage possessed by few, if any, other commercially important
woods suitable for pulp making. The autoclave tests indicate that
there should be a certain combination of values for the variable cooking
conditions which will result in the most economical method of operation.

FiNDLEY Burns.

FORESTRY.— BaZsam fir. Raphael Zon. Bulletin of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, 55: 1914. Pp. 68, with plates and

. text figures.

Balsam fir {Abies balsamea) has become commercially important
during the last 20 years through the enormous expansion of the pulp
industry and the increase in the price of spruce. It constitutes numeri-
cally about 20 per cent of the coniferous forests in northern New York
and Maine, and is abundant in many parts of New Hampshire, Vermont,
northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Wherever
it grows it is closely associated with spruce, the two species almost
constantly contesting for occupancy of the ground. Under present
methods of lumbering, however, balsam fir is increasing at the expense
of spruce in the second-growth throughout the entire range of the two
species. Balsam fir, while to some extent inferior to spruce as construe-

504 abstracts: bacteriology

tion material, has a definite place in the pulp and lumber industries.
The inferiority of pulp containing a large amount of balsam is probably
not altogether due to the inferiority of the balsam wood, but to deficient
knowledge of how properly to manufacture it into paper. The tree
grows much faster throughout its entire life than spruce, but is shorter
lived and reaches maturity long before the latter. Virgin balsam
should be cut at an age of from 100 to 125 years, while spruce, as it
grows at present in the wild woods, should be cut at an age of from 175
to 200 years. The best silvicultural system of cutting is that of selection
cutting in small groups. Under this system the natural reproduction
of both spruce and balsam fir is assured, with the possibility of increasing
the proportion of spruce in the new stand.

FiNDLEY Burns.

BACTERIOLOGY. — Ability of Streptococci to survive pasteurization.
S. Henry Ayers and W. T. Johnson, Jr. Journal of Agricultural
Research, 2: 321-,330. July 15, 1914.

The thermal death-points of 139 cultures of Streptococci isolated
from cow feces, from the udder and mouth of the cow, and from milk
and cream, showed a wide variation when heated in tubes of milk for
30 minutes.

At 60°C. (140°F.), the lowest pasteurizing temperature, 89 cultures
or 64.03 per cent survived; at 62.8°C. (145°F.), the usual pasteurizing
temperature, 46 or 33.07 per cent survived; and at 71.1°C. (160°F.) 2.58
per cent of the cultures survived; all were destroyed at 73.9°C. (165°F.).

The streptococci from the udder were, on the whole, less resistant
and those from milk and cream more resistant to heat than those from
the mouth of the cow and from cow feces.

Among the 139 cultures of Streptococci there were 22 that formed
long chains, which, for the purposes of the paper, were considered as
typical Streptococci. The others were considered atypical. The typical
Streptococci were much less resistant to heat than were the atypical.

This work indicates that two classes of Streptococci survive pasteuri-
zation: (a) Streptococci which have a low majority thermal death-
point, but among which a few cells are able to survive the pasteurizing
temperature; (b) Streptococci which have a high majority thermal
death-point. In the latter case the bacteria survive because the major-
ity thermal death-point is above the temperature used in pasteurization.
This ability to resist destruction by heating is a permanent characteristic
of certain strains of Streptococci.

S. H. A.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV NOVEMBER 4, 1914 No. 18

ASTRONOMY. — A special inethod of finding the Sumner line J
G. W. LiTTLEHALES, Hydrograpliic Office.

\Mienever the hour-angle of the observed celestial body is
within two minutes of being a multiple of ten minutes at the
time of observation, an easy solution presents itself of the prob-
lem of finding the azmiuth and altitude for the purpose of laying
down the Smnner line by the Saint Hilaire method. In such
a case, we may assume the position of the observer to be in a
latitude represented by the integral number of degrees of lati-
tude next to the latitude by dead reckoning and in a longitude
which will make the local hour-angle of the observed body an
exact multiple of ten minutes, and we may then, by availing
ourselves of smiple resources, find the azimuth and altitude
that the observed body would have to an observer situated in
the assum.ed geographical position.

Since the United States Hydrographic Office has completed
the publication of the azimuths or true bearings of celestial
bodes for all declinations up to 70°, north and south, at inter-
vals of ten minutes of hour-angle for the entire circuit of the
heavens, and for parallels of latitude of the observer extending
to 70° from the equator, the value of the azimuth, required in
the circumstances presented, may be taken out from these
tables without any interpolation, save alone between adjacent
columns for the declination. The parts of the astronomical tri-

'The Sumner line is a locus of the observer's geographical position comprising
so much of an arc of the circle of equal altitude as covers the limits of uncer-
tainty in reckoning.

505

506 LITTLEHALES: THE SUMNER LINE

angle, besides the co-latitude, thus becoming known are the
azimuth angle and its opposite side of polar distance and the
hour-angle, whose opposite side is the complement of the re-
quired altitude. The calculation of the required altitude is
therefore effected by the proportionality between the sines of
the sides of the spherical triangle and the sines of their opposite
angles, thus:

sin z: sin t: : sin p: sin Z (1)

in which z represents the zenith distance of the observed body,
t, the hour-angle; p, the polar distance; and Z, the azimuth.
Since z = 90° — h, the complement of the altitude, the formula
may also be written,

cos h = sin t. sin p. cosec Z (2)

or in logarithmic form as follows:

log cos h = log sin t + log sin p -\- log cosec Z (3)

So that the logarithmic cosine of the required altitude is found by
adding together three logarithms, and all the logarithms used
are taken from one table, which is No. 44 in the collection of
mathematical tables of the A^nerican Practical Navigator issued
by the Navy Department at Washington. But, if an occasion
should arise in which logarithmic tables were lacking, it would
not be laborious to solve this problem by means of natural func-
tions alone as indicated in the equations numbered 1 and 2.

The difference between the altitude, thus calculated as the al-
titude that the observed body would have if the observer stood in
the assumed geographical position, and the corrected altitude
measured in the actual position of the observer, gives the length
of the intercept, or altitude-difference, which, when laid off from
the assumed position, along the direction of the azimuth and
toward or away from the direction of the observed body ac-
cording as the observed altitude is higher or lower than the cal-
culated altitude, marks the point through which the line of po-
sition of the observer passes at right angles to the azimuth of the
observed celestial body. The first differential of h with respect
to Z, obtained by differentiating equation (2), gives the following
relation:

— = cot h cot Z

dZ

LITTLEHALES: THE SUMNER LINE 507

From which it appears that as long as the product of cot h cot Z
is a proper fraction, the uncertainty in the calculated value of h
will never exceed the uncertainty in the value of Z, that there
will be no uncertainty in the calculated value of h when the ob-
served body is on the prime vertical and also when it is in the
zenith, and that there will be a maxhnmn uncertainty when the
observed body is on the meridian.

The curve of maximmn numerical uncertainty in the cal-
culated value of h, derived from the second differential equa-
tion of h with respect to Z, may be drawn for any given lati-
tude, L, from the equation:

cos^ Z — cos^ h cos Z — sin h cos h tan L = 0

For purposes of illustration, the solution of the example, stated
as follows under Article 372 of the American Practical Navigator,
is given:

At sea May 18, 1915, A.M., in latitude 41° 33' N., longitude 33° 30'
W., by dead reckoning, the mean of a series of observed altitudes of
the sun's lower limb was 29° 41' 00"; the mean watch time, 7*^20™
45.3^*='=; C.C, + 4-59.2-- I.C., - 0' 30"; height of eye 23 feet;
C. — W., 2'> 17'° 06-". Required the Sumner line.
Mean W. T. 7'^20'M5.3^'* Eq. T. 3'M4.48^ Dec 19°22'27.9"N

+ 33.65"

H.D.
C - W +2 17 06 G.M.T.

-.07^

-2.;

Chro.T 9 37 51.3 corr.

+0.1

G.M.T
corr

C.C. +4 59.2 Eq.T. 3 - 44.6 Dec. 19-21 UN

G.M.T. 17^ 21 42 50.5 (Plus to mean time) p 70 38 49

Eq.T. +3 44.6
G.A.T. 21 46 35.1

Lon.by DR 33° 30' 2 14 00
L.A.T. 19 32 35.1

Under the principles laid down, it now becomes the object to
assume a geographical position in the nearest longitude to that
given by the dead reckoning which, when applied to the Green-

508 LITTLEHALES: THE SUMNER LINE

wich apparent time, will make the local apparent time or hour-
angle a multiple of ten minutes, and in a latitude represented
by the nearer whole-degree of latitude to the latitude given
by the dead reckoning. Accordingly, the longitude of the
assumed position would be 34° 08' 46.5" W., or 2M6™ 35.1«<'<=
W., which, applied to the Greenwich apparent time, gives the
local apparent time 19° BO""; and the latitude of the assumed
position should be 42° N.

From the Azimuth Tables (H. O. Pub. No. 71), for latitude 42°
N. and hour-angle 19'' 30-, i.e., L.A.T. ?'■ 30™ A.M., we obtain:

corresponding to Dec. 19° N., Azimuth N. 90°- 01 E.
corresponding to Dec. 20° N., Azimuth N. 89° - 06 E.

Therefore corresponding to Dec. 19°21'll"N.,AzimuthN.89°42E.
The altitude that a celestial body in this declination would
have, in this azimuth and hour-angle, to an observer in the as-
sumed geographical position in latitude 42° N. and longitude
34° 08' 46.5" W. is now calculated from equation 3 as follows:

t = 19'' 30"^ log sin = 9.96562
p = 70° 38' 49" log sin = 9.97474
Z = 89° 42' log cosec = 10.00001

Calculated h = 29° 20' 34" log cos = 9.94037
Corrected
7Tieasured b = 29 50 05

Mean of obs'd .'
I. C.

lit.

29° 41' 00
-30

Corr. Table 46

29 40 30
9 35

Corr. meas'd /*

29 50 05

A /) = 29' 31" toward

This intercept of 29|', being laid off from, the assumed geo-
graphical position along the bearing, N. 89° 42' E., of the observed
celestial body, gives the point through which the line of posi-
tion of the observer is to be drawn at right angles to the bearing.
Since the corrected measured altitude is higher than the cal-
culated altitude, the intercept is, in this case, laid off toward the
observed body, and gives a line of position agreeing with that
found by drawing a line through the geographical positions de-
duced in the solution of this problem under Article 372 of the
America?! Practical Navigator.

It will be useful to point out that, with azimuth tables in
which the interval between the hour-angles is only four minutes.

AGNEW: TESTING INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS 509

like those of Biirdwood and of Davis issued by the British Admir-
alty to the Royal Na\y, this simplified method of finding the
Simmer line is more generally applicable in the solution of obser-
vations upon celestial bodies situated within the limits of decli-
nation for which the tables are computed.

PHYSICS. — A watthour meter method of testing instrument
transformers.^ P. G. Agnew", Bm'eau of Standards.

Patio and phase-angle measurements of instrument trans-
formers can easily be made by the use of two precisely similar
watthour meters, which may be either of the portable type, or
of the house tj^De provided the disk has been graduated in 100
di\dsions. The meters should be adjusted to very nearly the
same rate.

The method depends upon the use of a standard transformer
whose ratio and phase angle have been determined in some
laboratory equipped for the pm*pose. The standard transformer
must have the same nominal range as the one under test.

For voltage transformers an auxiliary current is passed in
series through the cmTent coils of the two meters. The voltage
coil of each meter is connected to one of the transformers, and
readings are taken showing the difference in speeds of the meters.
The meters are then interchanged and readings again taken.
If the meters have been operating at, or very near unity power
factor, the ratio of the transformer under test is easily computed
in terms of the ratio of the standard. The formula is

Ri — R^ ^ [ax - Qi bi - 62 \

Ri \ a-i &2 /

w^here Ri, R2 = ratios of the transformers,

Qj, 02 = Number tm'ns of meter A when connected to

transformers 1 and 2, respectively.
61, 62 = same for meter B.
Similarly the difference in phase angles can be determined by
running the meters at low power factor, which may be conveni-
ently done by taking the auxiliary current from one of the other

1 Detailed paper co appear in the Bureau of Standards Bulletin.

510 AGNEW: TESTING INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

phases of a three-phase source. If the meters are working at the
power factor cos d, current lagging.

tan a2 = tan ai +

tan 6

«i — 02 61 — 62 , R2 — Rl

2ai 2bi Ri

where the a's are the phase angles of the transformers, counted
as positive for the reversed secondary voltage leading the primary-
voltage.

For current transformers the method of connecting the coils
is inverted compared with the case of the voltage transformer.
An auxiliary voltage is applied to the voltage coils of the meters
in parallel, the current coils being connected alternately to the
two transformers. Care should be taken not to open the second-
ary circuit of a current transformer while cm-rent is passing in
the primary. The formula for the difference in ratios is the same
as for the voltage transfonner. The formula for phase angle is
correct as given both for the voltage transformer with lagging
cmi'ent and for the current transformer with leading current.
If the conditions are vice versa the + sign before the bracketed
term should be changed to — .

It is, however, not necessar}^ to depend upon this equation
for determining which transformer has the greater phase angle.
The following facts can be used as criteria for experimentally
determining the question.

1. Adding a noninductive load to a voltage transformer al-
ways tends to lag the secondary voltage.

2. Increasing the resistance in the secondary of a current
transformer tends to advance the phase of the secondary current.

The experimental results show that by taking runs of approxi-
mately 100 turns each the method is capable of determining
ratio to 0.02 per cent or 0.03 per cent and phase angle to one,
or two minutes. In commercial work shorter runs would suffice.
Results as good as this were also obtained with the speed of the
meter doubled by shunting the magnets. Separate direct
experiments showed that the modern induction meter, even with
the drag magnets shunted so as to give double speed for normal
torque will repeat in consecutive runs under constant conditions
to a precision of about 0.01 per cent at full load.

COBLENTZ: MODIFICATIONS OF THERMOPILES 511

There are cases in which it may be convenient to determine a
him.]) correction for both ratio and phase angle instead of determ-
ining and correcting for them separately, for example, the case
of a watthom* meter and a cm-rent transformer metering the
power supplied to an inductive load. This may even be extended
to the case of the combination of a current and a voltage trans-
former.

Portable watthour meters are more convenient than the house
type with graduated disks as the trouble of counting is eliminated.
In testing current" transformers a five-ampere range is more eco-
nomical of time than a ten-ampere range. One-ampere or two-
ampere ranges should not be used with current transformers as
the impedance introduced into the secondary is too great.

It is important that the constants of the standard transformer
should have been tested under actual working conditions of
load, including the meter.

The acciu-acy of the method is ample for commercial require-
ments, the results are independent of ordinary line fluctuations,
and no special apparatus is required.

PHYSIC^. ^ — Various modifications of thermopiles having a con-
tinuous absorbing surface.^ W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of
Standards.

In a previous paper (Bull. Bur. Standards No. 188) an account
was given of the construction and the behavior of thermopiles
composed of bismuth and silver wires with rectangular absorb-
ing sm-faces of tin attached to the junctures of these two metals.
The novelty of the design consists in a series of overlapping
receivers, forming a continuous surface which has all the ad-
vantages of a good bolometer, with none of its disadvantages.
The present paper deals with the construction and the behavior
of various modifications of this type of thermoelement, adapted
to various problems in biology, physiology, psychology, physics,
and astronomy.

It was found that,, by joining the thermoelements^ — ^two in
series — parallel, the heat capacity of the corriposite receiver was

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bureau of Standards Bulletin.

512 COBLENTZ: MODIFICATIONS OF THERMOPILES

reduced and the time to attain temperature equilibrium., after
exposing the receiver to radiation, was shortened so that a
maximum galvanometer deflection is attained in three to live
seconds.

It is shown that the radiation sensitivity of a composite re-
ceiving surface is proportional to the square root of the area of
the exposed surface. However, this relation does not hold true
for the single receivers attached to the individual thermo-j unc-
tions. In the latter there is an optimum size of the receiver
required to compensate for the loss of heat by conduction along
the wires, and by radiation from the surface. Using thermo-
elements of bismuth wire 0.1 mm. in diameter, and silver wire
0.036 mm. in diameter, this optimum size of receiver is of the
order of 1.5 by 1.5 mm.

In the tests on the relation of external resistance to the internal
resistance of the gahanometer it is shown that there may be a
considerable departure from equality of the two resistances (the
galvonometer resistai.ce may be two to three times the internal
(thermopile) resistance) without seriously affecting the efficiency
of the galvanometer.

Tests on various samples of bismuth wdre, show that the
thermoelectric power, against silver, varies from 75 to 80 micro-
volts.

The construction and test of sensitivity of a thermopile of
bismuth alloy is given. The alloy was bismuth + 5 per cent tin.
Wires of alloy when joined with pure bismuth wire had a thermo-
electric power of 127 microvolts. In spite of this high intrinsic
thermoelectric power, the radiation sensitivity of the completed
thermopile was not any higher than that of the thermopiles
constructed of bismuth and silver, which elements have a 55
per cent lower therm.oelectric power. This is due to the high
resistance of the alloy.

A thermopile constructed of bismuth and iron, which, like
the above bismuth tin alloy has a higher thermoelectric power,
was no more sensitive than the thermopiles constructed of bis-
muth and silver. The conclusion arrived at is that the pro-
duction of a thermopile having a high radiation sensitivity is

COBLENTZ: MODIFICATIONS OF THERMOPILES 513

more dependent upon nicety of construction than upon the use
of materials having a high thermoelectric power.

The construction and tests of a radiometer attachment for
monochromatic illuminators is given. This device consists of
a linear thermopile, which moves in vertical ways in front of the
exit slit of a spectroscope. It is useful in measui-ing the energy
value (mechanical equivalent) comprised in the different wave
lengths of light used as stimuli, in biological, chemical, physical,
and physiological investigations.

The method of construction, and tests are given of a thermopile
to be used for absolute measurements of radiation. The device
consists of a linear thermopile of bismuth and silver, with a
continuous receiving surface, in front of which is situated a
strip of manganin or platinum, which is blackened electrolyti-
cally with platinum black. This strip of metal is exposed to
radiation and in turn radiates to the thermopile which causes a
galvanometer deflection. The strip of metal is then heated
electrically to cause a similar deflection of the galvanometer
needle; and the power expended gives a measure of the radiation
in absolute value. The instrument gives a value of the coefficient
of total radiation of a black body which is in excellent agreement
with values obtained by other methods.

Among the group of special designs, the stellar thermoele-
ments m.ay be mentioned. When used with a reflecting muTor,
92 cm. (26 inches) in diameter, and an ironclad Thomson gal-
vanometer of ordinary sensitivity, it was possible to make quanti-
tative measurements of the total radiation from stars -down to
the 5.3 magnitude, while high qualitative measurements were
made on stars down to the 7th magnitude. The application
of the thermoelement to solve astronomical problems appears
therefore to be feasible.

The design and tests are given of an absolute thermopile for the
measurement of nocturnal radiation; also of a thermopile to be
used as a photometer to measure the blackness of star images
on photographic plates. A novel design for a special biological
problem consisted in the construction and testing of a hnear
thermopile, in which the receiver was bent into a U-shaped

514 VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

trough. The test showed that if the object (say muscle, or nerve)
evolved heat at the rate of 1 X 10"^ g-cal. sec.-^ it can be detected.
The appendix consists of notes on (1) galvanometer mirrors,
(2) vacuum galvanometers, (3) the most efficient combination
of thermopile and galvanometer resistance, and (4) the m.ain-
tenance of high vacua by means of metallic calcium. The cal-
cimn is contained in a quartz glass tube which is attached to the
vacuum (stellar) thermopile. The thermopile container is ex-
hausted by means of an oil pump, and the stopcock is closed.
Thereafter the vapors given off are removed by heating the
metallic calcium with an alcohol lamp. The device is thoroughly
reliable, as evidenced by the fact that it was carried to the Lick
Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, California, and back, the vacuum
having been maintained for over two months with no signs of
failure of the calcium.

CHEMISTRY. — The calculation and comparison of mineral,
analyses. C. E. Van Orstrand, Geological Survey ^ and
Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

Two different methods have recently been suggested^ for
the calculation and comparison of mineral analyses and each
method is considered by its proposer to be the best method
available for the purpose. Now the term "best" depends on
the criteria which are used in comparing the different methods
and before proper decision can be made in such instances, it is
essential that the criteria themselves be examined in detail
and with particular reference to their competency and bearing
on the final result. The present problem has to do with data of
observation and is therefore subject to the criteria and. methods
in current use in the exact sciences for the discussion and compari-
son of such data.

It will be of interest in the following pages to treat the prob-
lem from this viewpoint and. to determine the exact relations

1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 W. T. Schaller, The calculation of mineral formulas. J. Wash. Acad. Sci.,
3: 97-98. 1913; R. C. Wells, The interpretation of mineral analyses. J. Wash.
Acad. Sci., 3:416-423. 1913.

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES 515

between the different methods which have been proposed and thus
to ascertain which method is the best. It may be stated in
anticipation of the final results that the methods of dealing di-
rectly with the data of observation are superior both from a
theoretical and a practical standpoint to the new m.ethods which
have been suggested. Too strong emphasis cannot be placed
on the importance of the direct comparison of the data of obser-
vation. Division or multiplication of the weight percentages
of the analysis by different numbers automatically assigns differ-
ent weights to these values; by this procedure a really large error
can be made to appear small and practically negligible and vice ,
versa, a small error relatively large and important. This fact
was emphasized by the writers in a recent article^ but a more de-
tailed discussion of certain phases of the subject seems now desir-
able in view of the statements in the paper by Wells cited above.

The chemical analysis of a mineral presents in quantitative
fonn the weight percentages of the various chemical elements
of which it has been found to consist. In mineral analytical
work chemists consider carefully a number of factors among
which the following are the more important: Purity of sub-
stance to be analyzed (to insure proper purity microscopic
examination and selection of the individual mineral grains is
often necessary); fineness of grinding of material; purity of
chemical reagents; precision of chemical balance and weights;
accuracy of atomic weights used; contamination from utensils
em.ployed; accuracy of the chemical methods for separating and
for detemiining the chemical elements present; personal skill
of the analyst. Most of these factors can be either eliminated
or their influence definitely determined and proper correction
made for them by the chemist. In addition to these and other
analytical factors the presence of foreign elements in solution
in the crystal state, is always to be considered in the final re-
sult; this may at times be so serious as to veil completely the
simple chemical formula of the mineral compound analyzed.

Systematic and accidental errors. In the chemical analysis
of a mineral the actual weight percentage relations between

' J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 223-231. 1913.

OIG VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

the various chemical elements are given as they have been
found to exist in that mineral. In the analysis the chemist
has eliminated, to the best of his ability, the systematic errors
in his observational data and the figures in his analysis are sub-
ject only to the errors of observation over which he has no con-
trol or to systematic errors of which he has no knowledge. It
is with such errors that the observer, who studies and compares
chemical analyses as given in final form by the analyst, has to
contend. It may be possible, as will be shown later, to detect
and to compute systematic errors of a certain kind in an analysis
but it is, of course, not possible, in general, to free a chemical
analysis of its systematic errors by any purely mathematical
procedure. Nor is it the purpose of the present paper to dis-
cuss such methods but rather the methods which have to do
with the accidental errors of observation. In all data of meas-
urement such errors creep in because no instrument or method
is absolutely accurate and because no observer is capable of
making perfect observations. In the discussion of such data the
method of least squares is universally adopted. It has for its
object the adjustment and comparison of observations in which
the errors are accidental. The term accidental is here used in a
technical sense to unply that positive and negative errors (de-
partures from the true value) of equal numerical magnitude are
equally probable. The principle of least squares is based on the
Gaussian law of distribution, a law which has been abundantly
verified experimentally not only in the theory of errors but also
in other fields of science and has led to results of the greatest
importance.

In the mathematical discussion below it is proved that all
the methods which have been suggested for the adjustment and
comparison of chemical analyses are least square methods and
differ chiefly in the manner of assigning weights to the observed
data. This fact enables us to fix definitely the significance of
each m.ethod and to ascertain its good and its weak features.

The adjustment of least squares. To show that the methods,
which have been proposed are special cases of the general least
square solution let us put

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

517

x = theoretical weight number
y = observed weight percentage
y' = computed weight percentage
1^ = y — y' = residual
p = weight of the observation.

The quantity p is an abstract, number indicating the relative
value or worth of an observation in comparison with other ob-
servations. The arithmetic mean of n observations, for ex-
ample, is supposed to be worth n times as much as a single ob-
servation; its weight would therefore be n times the weight of a
single observation.

Adopting first the observation equations

^^1 = y\ (weight pi)

mx2 = 2/2 (weight pa)

\

(1)

mx„ = ?/„ (weight p„) ^
we obtain the least square solution

Pl-'Cl?/! + P2^22/2 + • • • +VnXnyn

^i = 2 , 2 ,

in which the residuals (vi, V2, . .
dition

PlXi^l + P2X'22J2 + • •

Some special cases in which the weights are simple functions of
X are the following:

+ VnXn

(2)

t;,J are subject to the con-

+ VnXnK = 0. ... (3)

m =

m =

m =

m

y 1

• • •

Xi

. . (Pi = °° , /J2 = C2 .

. p,. = 0 .

(4)

Xi X2 ' ' '

yn

^^ (^ _ ^-2

Pn = ^;r') •

. (5)

n

• VPi — X ,

y\ + y2+ . .

Xi + X2+ . .

+ yn I _i

. • Vn = X-^).

. (6)

xiyi + 0:2^2 +

. . +x„2/.

. =p„=l).

. (7)

Xi -}- X2 -h

. . +4 • • -^^

518 VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

m =- 3 _|_ 3"T X^3 • • \V\-^\ • • Pn-^nJ- • {^J

Xi -\- X2 'T' • • • "t" ^^n

A more general solution is obtained by adopting the observa-
tion equations:

a + mxi = 2/1 (weight pi) ]
a + 771X2 = y\ ' (weight pa)

\ (9)

a + mXn = Vn (weight p„)

The least square solution of these equations gives the normal
equations :

(pi+ . . . +Pn)a+(pi.Ti+ . . . +2)„a;„)m = p,2/i+ . . +p„?/„ 1

r (10)

(PlXi-h . . . PnXn)a-\-(piXl+ . . . +PnXl)m = PiX:yi+ . . Pn^nyn i

from which the most probable values of a and m are readily-
determined. In this case the residuals satisfy the two equations

PlV + P2V2 . . + Pn'Vn = 0
PlXiVi + P2^2^2 + . . + Pn^nVn = 0

The condition that the computed values (y'l, y'2, • • • y'n)
satisfy the relation

y\ +y'2 + . . . + y'n = 100 .

can be imposed by writing in addition to the n observation
equations (9; the observation equation

na -h (x -{- X2 . . + xj m = ICO (weight 00) . . (11)

and then solving the system of n + 1 equations in the usual
manner; or we may substitute the value of a obtained from (11)
in (9) and then solve equation (2) for 7n. The general result of
the adjustment of the n + 1 equations (9) and (11), is repre-
sented graphically in figure 1.

The coordinates of the point P are

x = Xi + X2 + . . . + x,„ y = 100

and the assignment of different weights, in the least square so-
lution, to the points Pi, P2, . . . Pn has the effect of rotating
the line O'P through a small angle ± a about P as center. If the

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

519

weights are defined by some inverse power of Xi (equations 5
and 6) , points near the origin 0 will have weights approximately^
equal to infinity, and the line will tend to pass through these
points while the more distant points will have practically no
influence in fixing the final .position of the line. In other words,
the assignment of a large weight presupposes that the actual
error of the weighted quantity is very small and that the ad-
justed line should therefore pass nearer to these points than to
other points in the system having smaller weights. The reverse

Fig. 1

is true when the weights are proportional to some direct power
of X (e.g. equation 8) . These and other conclusions follow from
the law that weights are to each other as the inverse squares of
the corresponding probable errors.

Pl'P2-P

l.A.i

2 • 2 • 2

ri 7-2 r

(12)

Another method of adjustment on the basis of 100 in which
the constant ratio m is not taken into account consists in writing
the observation equations in the fonn:

(weight Pi) 1

zi = Vi

Z2 = Z/2

(weight P2)

i

(13)

Zn = y» (weight p„) J

520 VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

If now y\ = most probable value of the unknown quantity Zi
y'2 = most probable value of the unknown quantity Z2

y'n = most probable value of the unknown quantity Zy,
c? = 100 - (1/1 + 2/2+ . . . +2/J,
then we have from Gauss' method of correlatives

y'n = Vn + Vn «'„ = - '~-l

Vn d

\ (14)

Equations (1) to (14) express in concise mathematical form
the different least square equations for the adjustment of the
observational data given in a chemical analysis. They can be
applied directly to the discussion of a particular method of ad-
justment by a proper assignment of the weights involved. Let
us now examine the methods of Schaller and Wells in the light
of the above equations.

Schaller begins his computation by dividing the observed weight
percentages by the atomic weights. The weights of the mol
nmnbers thus obtained are therefore in accordance with (12)
proportional to the squares of the ratio of the atomic weights to
the probable errors:

Pi '■ P2'- • • • ' '• Pn = ^^ • ^ „2

'1 '2 'n

in which Ai, ^2, • • A „ are the atomic weights and ri, ra, . . . r^
the probable errors of the original analysis.

He then employs equation (5) with the computed mol num-
bers as the X values and the theoretical molecular ratios as the
y values thus adopting two systero.s of independent weights, a
procedure which is not necessarily justifiable. A third system of
weights is introduced in reducing these numbers to approximate

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES 521

multiples of unity. His final comparison on the basis of equal
weights is therefore theoretically incorrect.

The method of Van Horn and Cook^ which Schaller proposed
to improve can be obtained by substituting the appropriate
quantities in equation (3) but to assign arbitrarily the weight
infinity to a particular weight percentage is evidently contrary
to the analytical facts and the method is accordingly not rigorous.

Wells takes the observed weight percentages for the x values
and substitutes them in equations (14) with the weights pi =
•rr^ ih = .T2~S . . . Pn = -^n'^- This system of weights results
from the assumption that the difference between the observed
sum and 100 is a sum either of positive or of negative systematic
errors, each one of which is proportional to the corresponding
observed percentage number. He then finds the differences
between the new values and the theoretical weight percentages
derived from the chemical formula (''absolute discrepancies")
and finall}" divides each value thus obtained by its formula weight
percentage and finds its "relative discrepancy in per cent." In
other words he weights each "absolute discrepancy" and thus
introduces a new set of weights. The arithmetic mean of these
relative discrepancies "the mean relative discrepancy" taken
without regard to algebraic signs is considered by Wells to be the
best simple value which can be found to indicate the order of
agreement of a mineral analysis with the fonnula. It is evident
however that in each of his methods, Wells has practically re-
peated Schaller's errors in a slightly different form, and in addi-
tion, has adopted a final criterion which consists in taking the
average of quantities of unequal weight.

On page 417^ Wells objects to the use of equations (6) and
(7) on the basis that constant errors, and systematic errors,
proportional to the x values, are not taken into account. In
our first paper we used the term systematic error in a sense
different from that adopted by Wells. We referred to those
cases in which the method of analysis of any given component
gives results which are consistently too large or too small, but

* Am. J. Sci. (4), 31:518. 1911.
' hoc. cit.

522

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

are in no way related to the other errors of the system. Sys-
tematic errors of the kind Wells describes are readily detected
and easily separated from the random errors of the system by
an application of any of the equations (5) to (8) inclusive; but
preferably by means of equation (7) for the reason that it is more
easily interpreted, and that, except for certain special cases,
there is no adequate reason for assigning the weights imposed
by the remaining equations. Both constant and systematic
errors may be evaluated by means of equation (9), and, if it is
desired to impose the condition that the smn of the adjusted values
equals 100, we include equation (11) with equations (9) and solve
in the usual manner.

To illustrate the method, let us take the data used in the papers
referred to above. Substituting the values from columns (1) and
(2) in equations (10) and putting the weights equal to unitv, we find

a = 0.030 m = 0.04964G.

The theoretical value of w is

m =

100

2009.61

= 0.049761,

hence there are systematic errors proportional to the difference of these
two quantities. Multiplying the difference (w/ — m ^ 0.000115) by
the successive values of x, we obtam the values in column (5) which
represent the probable systematic errors of the system.

The probable constant error is a = 0.030. Referring to figure 1,
we see that a = 00' , and m is the tangent of the angle which the ad-
justed line makes with the x axis. Hence it follows that the ordi-

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT." MINERAL ANALYSES 523

nates of this line are each too long by the amount 0.03, and at the same
time, since m < m' , these ordinates are too short by the amounts
given in column (5). The random errors of the system are the residuals
tabulated in column (4). Again, let us apply the same method to the
adjustment of the values of column (6). Proceeding in the same
manner as before, we find the constants,

a = 0.128.
m = 0.049396,

and the computed weight percentages of colunni (7). By comparing
these values of a and m with the preceding values, it is easy to show
that a constant error, + 0.10 and a systematic error — 0.005 y has
been added to each of the values of column (2). A correct application
and interpretation of our equations thus leads to a complete solution
of the problem.

Wells objects to the use of formula (7) on the basis that the
computed sum does not equal 100 or the observed sum. This
objection is not necessarily valid for various reasons.

1. The observed weight percentages contain small errors,
consequently in accordance with the principles of probability, the
observed sum is likewise in error.

2. The composition of a mineral is unknowm. It is there-
fore more nearly representative of the observed facts to adjust
accurately such percentages as have been obtained, leaving the
remainder for future determinations. Adjustments of this kj.nd
are not on the same basis as the adjustments of the angles of a
triangle where it is known a priori that the sum of the angles is
equal to 180°.

3. Adjustment on the basis of 100 does not necessarily lead
to correct results. To illustrate, by an extreme example, let
it be assumed that As has not been determined in the above
analysis. The computed values of the remaining elements as
obtained from equation (7) are given in column (9). It will be
noted that the values are sufficiently accurate to enable us to
decide correctly in regard to the three elements involved, whereas
mere expansion to 100 would in this case lead to an absurd re-
sult. Any method of averages will at tunes lead to incorrect
results when one or more of the elem.ents are present in very
small quantities. An obvious remedy consists in assigning large
weights to these quantities.

524 VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT: MINERAL ANALYSES

4. Even though one might admit that adjustment on the
basis of 100 is legitunate, there is no vahd reason for assuming
that mere expansion or contraction to 100 on the basis of pro-
portionahty is necessarily a correct solution of the problem.
This solution is only one of m.any which can be obtained by the
substitution of different weights in equation (14); an entirely
different set of solutions can be obtained by substitution of the
weights in the group of equations (9), (10), and (11).

Colunm (12) gives the computed weight percentages when
the theoretical weight percentages are substituted in equation
(9) instead of the theoretical weight numbers. The method
is theoretically correct, but slightly less precise than the first
method, on account of using smaller coefficients. Tests for
systematic errors are readily made for the reason that the theo-
retical value of 771 is always equal to unity.

Conclusion. — In the adjustment of the data of a mineral
analysis it is always best to deal directly with the actual errors
of observation. Any method of adjustment which involves
division or multiplication of the actual errors amounts to the
adoption of a complicated system of weights; this is generally
unjustifiable, and always renders the final result more difficult
of correct interpretation.

By treating the problem from the standpoint of the least
square adjustment of an empirical formula, we not only adopt
a method in current use in the more exact sciences, but we obtain
thereby a generality which enables us to form a correct opinion
of the various methods of adjustment, and also to discover
the nature of the errors involved, and thus to obtain a complete
solution of the problem. In the present paper it has been shown
that all of the methods which have been proposed are least square
methods and differ chiefly in the m.anner of assigning weights to
the data of observation.

Rigorous methods of calculation are given above by means
of which weights may be properly taken into account. To
apply these methods of computation, the chemist may either
assign weights, using his own judgment as a guide, or he may
determine the probable error of each percentage involved and

VAN ORSTRAND AND WRIGHT! MINERAL ANALYSES 525

then compute the weights from formula (12). The latter is
the rigorous method of procedure and should be adopted when-
ever practicable.

In general, however, it is not essential that weights be assigned
to the observed values. It is generally sufficient to compare
the theoretical values directly with the abserved values, a method
which chemists adopted from the first and have used consistently
up to the present time. For the comparison of several analyses
of the same mineral the established method of direct comparison
of the weight percentages listed in the analyses is usually sufficient
and satisfactory.

In case it is desired to test for systematic errors, or to obtain
a more precise agreement between observation and theory,
equation (6) or (7) should be used. Equation (6) is the simplest
from the standpoint of computation, but necessitates the use of
weighted residuals. Equation (7) is a little more difficult to
compute but the difficulty of using weighted residuals is avoided.
Since there are not, in general, sufficient data available to enable
one to assign weights correctly, it follows that equation (7) most
nearly represents the facts. The values obtained from (6) differ
only slightly from those obtained from (7) and may be used as a
sufficient approximation. Equation (5) is enj;itled to considera-
tion for the reason that the sum of the percentage residuals
vanishes. (See equation 3.) It is defective in that a prepon-
derance of weight is given to points near the origin. The same
is true of (6), but to a much less degree. The application of the
remaining equations, of which there is an infinite number, in-
volves the use of weights for which no valid reason can be given
except for certain special cases.

Percentage errors are best computed from the differences be-
tween the theoretical weight percentages and the observed, or
the computed, weight percentages.

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Under this heading it is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all
scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate
with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style uS3d below. These references are
not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

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Weilenmann, a. Progress and present state of research on the evaporation of
moisture in the atmosphere. Monthly Weather Review 42: 158-164. 1914.
(Prepared in 1893: revised 1901; largely mathematical. — A'. J. H.)

Wolfer, a. The Wolf-Wolfer system of relative sun spot numbers, for the years
1901-1912. Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory 5: 365-368. 1913. (Gives
both the observed and the smoothed relative sun-spot numbers, monthly,
for the years 1901-1912.— W. J. H.)

ZoN, R. Meteorological observations in connection with botanical geography, agri-
culture, and forestry. Monthly Weather Review 42: 217-223. 1914. (A dis-
cussion of the kinds of meteorological data and their presentation of especial
value to the botanist. — W. J. H.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV NOVEMBER 19, 1914 No. 19

PHYSICS. — Avogadro's constant and atmospheric transparency.
F. E. FowLE, Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian
Institution. 1

In this communication are given coefficients for the trans-
missibility of radiation through the dry air vertically above
Mount Wilson together with factors and a formula for comput-
ing the transmissibility for moist air for other zenith distances
and altitudes above sea-level where dust has become a negli-
gable quantity (above 1000 meters). No account is, however,
taken in this formula of selective absorption.

Ey means of Eajdeigh's formula connecting the scattering of
light passing through a gas with the number of molecules, these
coefficients have been used to compute the number of molecules
under standard conditions. The merits of the present reductions
over those of an earlier paper by the author lie in using the index
of refraction proper to each wave-length in place of a mean value,
in better values for the transmission coefficients and in a more
accurate value for the barometric pressure, the value before
used being taken at an appreciable higher altitude on the moun-
tain than our observatory. The mean results give for Loschmidt's
number or the number of molecules in a cubic centimeter of a
gas at 0°C. and 76 cm. pressure

n, = (2.70 ± 0.02) X lO^^

^ This paper, read before the Philosophical Society, October 10, 1914, will
appear in full elsewhere, probably in the Astrophysical Journal.

529

530 merwin: measueement of refractive index

and for Avogadro's constant or the number of molecules per
gram molecule

N = (6.05 ± 0.04) X 1023.

The agreement of the above value for no with what is perhaps
the best value from other methods, (2.705 ± 0.005) X 10^^
(Millikan), must give weight to the accuracy of the estimation
of the atmospheric losses in the determinations of the solar
radiation by the Smithsonian Observatory. Some criticism is
made of the procedure of L. V. King who uses our observed
moist-air transmission coefficients for a similar purpose, mainly
in that he uses coefficients for wave-lengths where selective
absorption is present and for such losses Rayleigh's formula
does not hold.

A remnant of the volcanic dust from the eruption of Mount
Katmai, Alaska, in 1912, scattering somewhat less than 3 per
cent of the incident radiation, is indicated by the 1913 trans-
mission coefficients. It is perhaps worth noting that, fine as
this dust must be to have remained suspended in the upper air
over a year, its scattering of radiation scarcely varies with the
wave-length, at least between the limits 0.38/x and 0.81/x.

PHYSICS. — Measurement of the extraordinary refractive index of
a uniaxial crystal by observations in convergent light on a
plate normal to the optic axis. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical
Laboratory.

During an investigation of the optical properties of the tri-
oxides of arsenic and antimony, it was found that attempts to
crush the tabular, hexagonal crystals into grains which could
be suitably oriented for the determination of the extraordinary
refractive index, resulted in producing aggregates, probably due
to gliding. The possibility of measuring e by a study of the in-
terference rings on basal plates in convergent polarized light
was then considered.

The figure represents a vertical section through a basal plate
of an optically negative uniaxial crystal. The wave-normals
for the ordinary and the extraordinary wave originating from the
same incident wave are shown. They form with the optic axis

merwin: measurement of refractive index

531

the angles a and ai, within the crystal, and the angle /3 in the air
where they are parallel. The emergent waves are supposed to
totally interfere in one of the observed dark rings. In r and s,
between normals from the sur-
face, there are the same number
of waves, then the difference in
phase between the two waves en-
tering the microscope is expressed
0) m -, mi€i

by the equation

- /

X X

in which I is the number of wave-
lengths that the extraordinary
wave is in advance of the ordi-
nary wave as determined by the
serial number of the dark ring,
counted outward from the optic

axis; X is the wave-length in air; co the ordinary refractive index;
and ei the refractive index of the extraordinary wave whose
normal makes the angle ai with optic axis, e is the thickness of
the section.

sinjS

sin a =

, and 7?i =

u

cos a

Then 7n =

1-

sm^^

0)^

Now rtii = m cos (ai — a) = m (cos a • cos ai + sin a • sin aO

(1)

Then - — - I = dm (cos a ■ cos ai + sin a ■ sin ai) for a negative
X

crystal. For a positive crystal / is positive, therefore in the

general case, after substituting

. _ ei e (cos a ■ cos ai -|- sin a • sin ai) _

coe

XCOSa

tie , .

^— cos «! -f- sin «!

X cos a

sin- a

COS a

(2)

532 merwin: measurement of refractive index

sin2/3

■^

sin2/3

0)2

CO ^^ _ / 9 . sin'^ 13

= lj 6^ - sin^

sm^ /3

7\\2 . 2/X

e2 = co^ + ( — j + ^-- Vco' - sin2 ^ (3)

A simpler equation than (3), which for such angles as are
measurable by the microscope contains an entirely negligible
error not greater than 2 or 3 units in the 5th decimal place, is
derived as follows: assume that the cosine of the very small
angle (ai — a) equals 1, then in (1) m = mi, and in (2)

«e , eie ZXcosa ZX L sin^ iS .„ s
± I = — - — or ei = CO ± = ,0 ± — * 1 - ^i^i-^ (3a)

X cos a X cos a 6 e ^ (^^

Equation (3) gives exactly, and equation (3a) almost exactly
the refractive index of the extraordinary wave whose normal
makes with the optic axis the angle aj within the crystal, and the
angle j8 in the air.

From the general equation of the index ellipsoid

CO sin /3
CO sin ai Ci

I J" , 1 U2 / sin2/3

e =

(4)

Vco2 - ef + sin2 (3

Substituting! (3)

r, , ■ ■ \ " sin (8 ,„ >

ivSubstitutme (3a) we havee= — ,-^- 1^ • (oa;

I , / ^^ sin2^\2 , . ,,

This value of «, though not precisely correct, has no measurable error.

e =

MERAVI>7: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX 533

o) sin jS

(5)

(6)

co-
sin /3

^ V^ co2 eco/

This is a true equation for the extraordinary refractive index of a
uniaxial crystaL-

From measurements of 13 and I on two rings of the same sec-
tion, equations can be formed from (6) which when solved
simultaneously permit the elimination of one of the constants
0), e, X, e. However, the resulting equations have no practical
application, for verj^ slight errors in the observed values of ^
may make very large errors in the values calculated.

If CO, e and X are known e, the thickness of the plate, is readily
and accurately found thus:

By transposition (4) becomes ei = -J co^ + sin^ /3 ( 1 — — )
Then by substituting (3a)

l\ .

CO ± — -y 1 -

e ^

CO^ ' \
^ C02

_co2
e2

WlilUll v .

+ sin2 /3 ( 1 - ^) - '^

From the idea of the isochromatic surface several roughly
approximate formulas^ have been developed which contain a
term in which the double refraction appears. These assume

- This equation is identical with equation g (expressed in the form of equation
6) of the article by F. E. Wright in this issue; the present equation is derived,
however, by a different method.

» See Preston's The Theory of Light, pp. 393-345; and Duparc and Pearce's
Traite de Technique Alineralogique et Petrographique, pp. 312-313.

534 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

that the angle a within the crystal is known. This angle cannot
be obtained from microscopic measurements unless one of the
indices of refraction is known.

For measuring the dark rings a standardized microscope
with screw micrometer ocular is most satisfactory, but a cross-
grating ocular can be used effectively, especially if, when the
rings are closely spaced, the readings are made along the diago-
nals of the squares. The average of readings in the four quad-
rants should be taken. If this is done, errors due to distortion
by the tube nicol and to lack of precise perpendicularity of the
plate to the optic axis are largely compensated. If the plate
lacks 5° of being normal to the optic axis no appreciable error
will result.

As shown by measurements on several plates of arsenic tri io-
dide and calcite the angle (3 can be found within about 0.2°.
The corresponding calculated value of w — e is in error 2 per
cent when /S = 10°, 1 per cent when fS = 20°, and tV per cent
when /3 =35°.

PHYSICS. — Measurernents of refractive indices on the principal
optical sections of hirefracting minerals in convergent polarized
light. Fred. Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

The principal optical sections of birefracting minerals play
an important role in petrographic microscope work. They are
parallel to the planes of symmetry of the optic ellipsoid and
exhibit, in convergent polarized light, characteristic interference
figures. On any given principal optical section two of the three
principal refractive indices of the mineral can be measured
directly by the immersion method. The third principal re-
fractive index of the mineral can also be determined by use of
the phenomena observed on the same section in convergent
polarized light. The methods available for this determination
involve some computation and have not been used to any extent
by petrologists; but, in exceptional cases, especially on thin
tabular crystals, the usual methods may prove inadequate and
the methods outlined below may then be used to advantage to
obtain accurate results. The usefulness of such formulas has

avright: measurements of refractive indices 535

recently been shown by H. E. Merwin, of this Laboratory,
in the measurement of the refractive indices of minute uniaxial
crystal flakes of arsenic iodide; Dr. Merwin measured the angular
width of the concentric interference rings and from these computed
the refractive index € by means of a formula^ which he found to
furnish accurate results for uniaxial sections normal to the axis.

Derivation of formulae.- For
the particular case of principal
sections the accurate formulae
can be derived directly as fol-
lows: Let figure 1 represent a
principal section of a birefract-
ing plate. Let KC be the inci-
dent, plane-polarized beam of
light (in air); CA and CB, the
two refracted wave normals;
AD and BE the two parallel y\^. i

emergent beams (in air), which

enter the objective and are brought to focus in its upper focal
plane whence they pass through the analyzer to the eye of the
observer. For the incident and refracted wave normals the
general relations (invariants) obtain

no sin i = ; 1 sin ri = ^2 sin r2 (1)

in which i is the angle of incidence; ?'i, the angle of refraction of
the faster wave; ro, the angle of refraction of the slower wave;
no, the refractive index of air (for present purposes no may be
considered = 1); Ui, the refractive index of the faster wave;
7i2, the refractive index of the slower wave. The interference
phenomena are the result, primarily, of the difference in optical
path between the two refracted waves, starting at C and at-
taining again a common wave front at BF. This path-difference
is expressed by the equation:

^ = k-\ = n^-CA + 710- AF - nr CB

1 J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 532, equation (6a). 1914.

- The derivation of the formulae for the general case of any section of a bire-
fracting mineral is given in text books on crystal optics (Pockels, Lehrbuch der
Kristalloptik. Chaps. II, IV, IX, 1906).

536

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

or

fcX = 712-

d

+ no- d (tan n — tan r^) sin ^ — ?ir

d

..(2)

cosr-2 cosri

in which A is the path difference; X, the wave length of the inter-
fering bands; k, the number of wave lengths included in the
path-difference A. From (1) and (2) we obtain the relation:

A;-X

d

712 COS ro — Til cos fi ,

k-\

n2

CA

d

CB
d

■(3)
(3a)

an equation which in the form (3a) states that the path-differ-
ence for unit thickness of plate is equal to the difference between

ex

/3

Vs

/3

r

;3

\
h

^a

CK.

T

-/3

i

U)

t

UJ

t

'uU

Fig. 2

the reciprocals, referred to air, of the paths CA and CB of the
two refracted wave normals.

Values for the terms rii cos ri, and ^2 cos r2 in equation (3),
can be deduced from the general equation of the index surface
referred to the principal axes

vl

+

4

+

9

1

1

1

1

1

1

a2

n2

/3^

n^

Y~

n-

= 0

(4)

in which vi, V2, vs are the direction cosines of the refracted wave
normal, n, its refractive index and a, (S, y, the principal refractive
indices of the mineral.

\

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES 537

To apply these formulas to a particular case, let us consider
a plate to be cut normal to a and the plane of incidence to be the
a 7 plane (fig. 2a) . Under these conditions

nx = 13, 1\ = rp; v^ = cos i\, v-z = 0, p3 = sin 73;

and equation (4) becomes

cos- To sin- /'o _ f.

xn i _ 1 ~

a^ n^ 72 n2

from which we obtain on expansion

2 9 0/1 ni sin- rA ,/. sin- A „
ni cos2 ra = 7- 1 1 - -^ — - — - ) = 7- ( 1 ;— ) = y cos^ r«

if we consider r^ to be the angle of refraction of the wave which
satisfies the equation

sin ?' = a • sin /■„ (5)

Equation (3) can now be written

k-\ 1 1 sin2 i ^ . „.

-- =7^1- — ^ _ ^ eos r^ (6)

or

k' X

= 7 cos Ta — i3 COS r^ (6a)

d

For purposes of computation equations (5) and (6a) are more
convenient than (6).

The equations for the different cases indicated in figure 2^ are :

k-\

= 7 cos Vol — (3 cos 1'^ and sin i == «• sin r^ . . . .a (fig. 2)

k-\
— = id coSq, — 7 cos Ty and sin i = a- sin r« . . . . 6 (fig. 2)

d

k- \
— = a cos r^ - 7 COS r~, and sin i = 0- sin r^ . . . .c (fig. 2)

.•i

In each small figure of figure 2 the arrow represents the trace of the plane
of incidence on the horizontal plane.

538 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

-^^ = y COS rp — a cos r^ and sin i = ^- sin r^ . . . .d (fig. 2)
d

■ - = /3 cos ry - a COS r^ and sin z = 7- sin r^ . . . .e (fig. 2)

— '— = a cos Ty — /3 cos r^ and sin i = y sin r-y ... ./ (fig. 2)
d

For uniaxial minerals these equations reduce to the following,
in which the positive of the =t sign should be used for a positive
mineral, the negative sign for a negative mineral.
(1) Section normal to the principal axis

± — = 0) (cos r^ — cos rj and sin i = e- sin r^ g (fig, 2)

d

(2) Section parallel to the principal axis

± — ^ = (e - w) cos r^ h (fig. 2)

d

=1= = e COS fj — o) cos r^j and sin z = e sin r^ i (fig. 2)

It is of interest to note that in the case of normal incidence
{i ^ r = 0) all of the above equations reduce to the ordinary

k "X
expression for the birefringence — 1— = ^2 — ?ii (i.e., path-
difference varies with thickness of plate and with the birefringence.)
In the case of a section normal to a bisectrix the path-difference
for waves along an optic axis (binormal) is zero and the angle
of refraction is half the optic axial angle (r^ = V); thus from
equation a we find

0 = 7 cos a — j8 cos Va OY

cos Va = -■ COS r^ (7)

1^_ J.

from which the usual expression cos^ Y^ = — can be easily

Q,2 <y2

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES 539

derived. Equation (6) is a convenient form to use for comput-
ing the third refractive index, provided the optic axial angle and
two of the refractive indices are known.

Methods of measurement. The above equations express rela-
tions between certain quantities which can be measured as
follows:

d, thickness of plate, measured either by a micrometer or a spherom-
eter or by one of the standard microscope methods. On thin plates
(a few hmidredths of a millimeter thick) the error may amount to 10
per cent; on thicker plates the percentage error is correspondingly
less. On many sections the thickness is best found by computation
from the interference fringes. The exact path-difference, k\, is ascer-
tained by direct comit of the interference bands.

ni, n2, two of three principal refractive indices of the mineral measured
on the given plate either by the immersion method or other standard
method. Error should not exceed 0.001.

/, the angle of incidence for the interference line selected, is measured
by use of the petiographic microscope equipped with Bertrand lens
and either a screw-micrometer ocular or a graduated scale in the eye-
piece. On sections of minerals of strong birefringence or on thick
plates the interference bands are sharp and the errors of reading should
be considerably less than 1°. With thin plates and minerals of medium
or weak birefringence the accuracy of the readings is less because of
the wide interference lines, but in this case the need for greater accuracy
decreases so that on nearly all plates the measurements should furnish
refractive index values which are adequate for most purposes.

In certain cases the thickness is difficult to determine; also
the order, k, of the interference line may be uncertain, or only
one refractive may have been determined. These and other
problems can be solved by the measurement of several interfer-
ence lines. Thus in case the measurement of the thickness is
not feasible, we have on a section normal to a for two interference
bands, which can be measured, the equation

ki _ 7 cos «i — /3 cos r^i
k2 7 cos rQ,2 — iS cos r^2

(8)

in which cos r„i and cos r^2 are the unknowns, depending on ix
and io and a. This equation is most readily solved by assuming
a value approximately correct for a; for this value of a, cos r^i
is computed by means of equation (5). The value of cos r„2

540 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

is then derived from equation (8) and from it and 2q,2 a second
value for a obtained, which will probably be either higher or
lower than that originally assumed; a second value for a is ac-
cordingly chosen and the computation repeated; the new value
of a will probably also be too low or too high. If now the four
values thus obtained be plotted on ordinates to scale and a
straight line be drawn connecting the assumed values, and a
second line connecting the computed values, the intersection of
these two lines furnishes a value of a which is sufficiently exact
for most purposes. Analogous methods of procedure can be used
in solving for two unknown refractive indices, or for path-
differences, or for wave length of light employed.

In the special case of a section normal to one of the bisectrices
the optic axial angle can be computed with a fair degree of
accuracy from measurements on interferences fringes, even
though the actual optic axes are outside the field of view. For
this purpose, several interference lines are measured to obviate
the determination of 'the thickness of the plate. In case only
one interference band is visible the method is still applicable,
provided a plate of known path-difference (e.g. | X) be inserted
below the condenser and the path-difference of the interfering
waves be increased or decreased a definite fraction of a wave
length.

Measurements on crystal plates.

(1) Uniaxial. Plate normal to axis. (Equation g)

(a) Calcite plate (V. and H. collection No. 22). Optically negative;
d = 0.233 mm. (computed); X = 0.000589 mm.; co = 1.658; e = 1.486.

fcl 2345678

i 10?3 15?0 18?4 21?4 24?0 26?5 28?5 30?5
e 1.477 1.485 1.485 1.483 1.486 1.488 1.486 1.485
With the exception of the first value of e in this table (interference
band too wide for accurate readings) the computed values of e do not
vary greatly and the average value, e = 1.4854, is sufficiently accurate
for most purposes.

(b) Zircon plate (V. and H collection No. 26) optically positive;
d = 0.545 mm. (computed); X = 0.000589 mm.; w = 1.930; e = 1.983.

k I 2 3

i 26? 1 38?8 48?0

€ 1.984 1.984

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENTS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES 541

In this instance tiie refractive index was computed from equation
y for k = \ and k = 2 and from equation g for k = \ and k = 3.
Tlie agreement is satisfactory.

(2) Uniaxial. Plate parallel to axis. (Equation h)

Calcite plate (V. and H. collection No. 23.) Opticallv - ; rf = 0.082
mm.; X - 0.000589 mm.; oj = 1.658; e = 1.480.

k 24 23 22 21 20 19

i 0 16?5 23?5 29?8 33?2 37?5

6 1.486 1.487 1.487 1.485 1.487 1.486

Average e = 1.4863. On this section the path-difference in wave
lengths for the different interference lines was ascertamed by compu-
tation, the plate being too thick for the determmination of the path-
differences b}^ ordinary methods of compensation.

(3) Biaxial. Plate normal to a bisectrix. (Equations e, f)
Anhydrite. Plate approximately normal to the acute bisectrix

t; X = 0.000589 mm.; a = 1.570; ^ = 1.575; 7 = 1.613.

(a) Plane of incidence 7 a plane. (Equation /)

k 1 0 -1

i 17?0 35?3 43?5
7 = 1.615 (computed from equations for k = 1 and k = —1); 7 =
1.609 (computed from equation for k =0).

(b) Plane of incidence 7 (8 plane. (Equation e)

fc 2 3 4

i 25?4 39?3 48?5

7 = 1.608 (computed from equations for A; = 2 and A; = 3); 7 = 1.607,
(computed from equations ior k = 2 and k = A).

The values of 7 thus obtained vary within relatively large limits.
This may be due to the fact that the section was not exactly normal
to the bisectrix and also that the values of a and )3 are slightly in
error. In this instance 7 is considerably larger than a and /J and in
computing 7 a slight variation in either a or /3 produces a relatively
large variation in 7. The mean of the values listed above is 1.610
or 0.003 less than the refractive index 7 given for anhydrite.

(4) Biaxial. Plate perpendicular to the optic normal. (Equations c, d)
Selenite. Plate parallel* to cleavage plane (010). Normal to /S;

d = 0.700 mm. (measured by micrometer); X = 0.000589 mm.; a =
1.5204; /3 = 1.5227; 7 = 1.5296.

(a) Plane of incidence ^a plane. (Equation c)

k 11 12

i 27?4 57?2

/3 1.523 1.523

(b) Plane of incidence /S 7 plane. (Equation d)

fc = 10; i = 51?2; /3 = 1.522.
Average /3 = 1.5227
In this instance the path-difference, in terms of wave lengtli, for the
different interference lines was computed.

542 hersey: laws of lubrication

These examples suffice to show the order of accuracy of the
different methods and also to indicate the variety of problems
to which the formulae are applicable. At best, however, these
methods are of limited application, although in special cases
they render good service.

TECHNICAL PHYSICS.— T/ie laws of lubrication of hori-
zontal journal hearings. M. D. Hersey, Bureau of Stand-
ards. Communicated by E. Buckingham.

I. relation of laws of lubrication to bearing design

1. The two laws of lubrication needed in designing. In the
design of horizontal journal bearings, after all questions of
strength and rigidity have been disposed of, there usually re-
mains a question as to length and diameter, which must be settled
by reference to the laws of lubrication. Evidently too short a
bearing is in danger of abrasion, while too long a bearing entails
needless dissipation of power.

Let the '"coefficient of friction," /, be defined by the equation

/ = - (1)

in which F is the frictional resisting force and L the load on the
bearing perpendicular to its axis. Let the ''bearing pressure,"
p, be defined by the equation

in which I is the length of the bearing and D the diameter of the
journal. Let po denote the "carrying power" or greatest per-
missible bearing pressure. Then the shortest permissible length
of a bearing, ^o, may be calculated from the equation

'/o = ^.- (3)

D Po

while the power dissipated in this bearing at a speed of n revo-
lutions per imit time will be

P = T .Dn .L .f (4)

hersey: laws of lubrication 543

Equations (3) and (4) are purely formal and their practical
use demands a knowledge of some relation

f = iPi {p, n, D, I, etc) (5)

between the coefficient of friction and all the physical conditions
governing the action of lubrication; together with some relation

Po = di, {n, D, I, etc.) (6)

between carrying power and the various controlling factors.
Equations (5) and (6) symbohze the two laws of lubrication which
are needed in designing. They may be called the 'law of
friction" and the "law of carr>4ng power" respectively.

2. Assumptions relating to carrying power. In designing bear-
ings it is of the utmost importance to decide whether carrying
power and speed shall be assumed to vary in the same or in oppo-
site directions. The former assumption is the one commonly
given in text-books. But the latter assumption appears to
represent the practice of the General Electric Company/ and will
be shown in this paper^ to be directly deducible from physical
facts.

II. THE DYNAMICS OF LUBRICATION

3. Scope of the problem and method of attack. This paper is
limited to the consideration of horizontal journal bearings lubri-
cated with clean oil and running under steady conditions. We
exclude metallic contact (very heavy load with very low speed) ,
also the case of any appreciable thrust due to forced lubrication.
With these restrictions, our problem is to map out the laws of
lubrication as completely as can be done on the ground of com-
monly accepted physical principles. But it will appear that we
need not exclude oil-grooves, ring-oiling, eccentric load, worn
(i.e. non-circular) bearings, or any other purely geometrical
irregularities. Thus, we attack a more general case than could
be handled by mathematical reasoning alone. '

Under the above limitations we may regard the frictional
resistance of a bearing as due entirely to the force required to
shear the oil; while the tendency of a journal to center itself at
high speeds may be attributed to the wedging action of the oil

1 Alford, Bearings and their Lubrication (1911), p. 81.
- See equation (27).

544 hersey: laws of -lubrication

film as it is dragged under the journal at the point of nearest
approach. Let the film thickness at this point be x, while c

X

denotes the mean radial clearance. Call the ratio - the relative

c

film thickness. Then if it be granted that all bearings are equaUy

safe when running with the same relative film thickness, we may

conveniently define carrying power as that bearing pressure

which reduces the relative film thickness to some prescribed

value ( - ) ■ The determination of/ and po as indicated in equations

(5) and (6) therefore demands a physical analysis of the effect
of various conditions on F and x respectively.

4- Physical conditions governing the action of lubrication.
Temperature is evidently a governing factor, and will in turn de-
pend in some complicated way on the speed. But temperature
can influence friction and film thickness only indirectly, through
its effect on the clearance and on the viscositj^ of the oil. The
problem may therefore be simplified by treating the dynamics
of the case separately from heating effects.

The dynamical factors on which F and x may depend will

evidently include the size and shape of the journal and bearing,

/ c
which may be specified by D, — , — > and such other length-ratios

r' , r" , etc., as may be needed to fix the shape of the oiling ar-
rangements, deviation from circular section due to wear, etc.;
the load, -L, and its line of action, specified by length-ratios r'",,
etc. ; the speed of the journal specified by the number of revolutions
n, per unit time; the relative oil supply, specified by the ratio,
S, of the volume of oil in the bearing to the whole volume of the
clearance space; and the mechanical properties of the lubricant,
the viscosity ix being usually the only effective property. //
the foregoing list includes all the determining factors we may
write symbolically

F = ^2 (n, L, M, D, ^, ^, S, r j (7)

X = xPi (n, L, M, D, ^, -, S, rj (8)

hersey: laws of lubrication 545

in which r stands for all the length ratios /•', r" , r'", etc., and in
which (p2 and ^po are unknown functions.

While the list in question does include all the determining
factors met with in ordinary cases, it certainly does not include
all that might be encountered in extreme cases. For example,
with exceptionally high speeds and wide clearances the effects
of centrifugal force and of turbulent motion would begin to be
felt, thus involving the density of the oil in addition to its viscos-
ity. The question of just where the dividing line comes between
"ordinary" and "extreme" cases is an important one but must be
passed over in the present abridged report.

5. Derivation of general form of the laivs of lubrication by dimen-
sional reasoning. A straight forward application of the principle
of dimensional homogeneity^ to equations (7) and (8) throws
them at once into the form

F = L-„(>^,l,^,S,r) (9)

and

, = c-^,[^,^,i,S,r) (10)

Combining (9) and (10) with (1) and (2), then gives

and

or

c \ V D D I

^I^=e(^',l,S,r) (13).

fxn \c D D I

Now wjien ( — ) = ( — ),?? = Po by definition. Hence from (13),

calling ^0 the value of the function Q when (~ ) = (— ) '

Po = do' fin (14)

3 See for example, Buckingham, Windage Resistance of Steam Turbine Wheels,
Bull. Bureau of Standards, 10: 191-234, 1913; Physically Similar Systems, Phys.
Rev., 4: 345-376. 1914.

546 hersey: laws of lubrication

Equations (11) and (14) correspond to equations (5) and (6)

respectively, and contain the two laws of lubrication in their

most general form.

If two bearings are geometrically similar as regards their

c I
essential parts, the values of j:, j:, and the additional ratios r

needed for fixing the shape (including the roughness) are the
same for both: if the bearings are similarly loaded as regards
direction and point of application of the force, the remaining
ratios r of equation (11) are the same for both. If, finally, the
bearings have the same relative oil supply or are similarly lubri-
cated the value of S is the same for both. Under these con-
ditions equation (11) reduces to

/ = *(^) (Ua)

Hence equation (11) states that in geometrically similar bearings
which are similarly loaded and lubricated, the coefficient of friction

depends only on the single variable — . Equation (14) states

that the carrying power of any hearing is directly proportional
to the product of viscosity by revolutions per unit time: the constant
•of proportionality

en = e

(14a)

0

being the same for all geometrically similar bearings which are
similarly loaded and lubricated and which are similarly safe, i.e.

(

— I = constant.

6. Dynamically similar bearings. Any two geometrically sim-
lar bearings B and B' which are similarly loaded and lubricated
{S = S') and which are running at the "corresponding" speeds,
pressures and viscosities defined by the equation

M^ = ^LZL' (15)

P v'

must, by equations (11) and (12), have the same coefficient of
friction and the same relative film thickness. Such bearings may

hersey: laws of lubrication 547

be termed dynamically similar. The power dissipated in either
of them may be calculated from a test made on the others, for
by (4)

^=5..!L.^ (16)

P' D' n' L' ^ ^

Moreover by (13) and (15) it follows that ^o = ^o, hence by (14)

(17)

Po

_ M

.n

t

/

^, /

Vo

M

n

Thus if the safe load and therefore the carrying power of one
bearing has been established experimentally, the carrying power
of the other can at once be calculated.

7. Relation of friction to film thickness. This is as far as the
problem can be carried by the foregoing general type of reason-
ing. Further information must be obtained by experiment or
by making some assumption as to the geometrical form of the
oil film. In the particular limiting case of a perfectly cylindrical
bearing free from end-effects and cavitation (i.e., completely
lubricated) it is a simple matter to deduce the relation

D^fxn

T

/= ,' ' (18,

>/7(^-f)

Equation (18) merits careful scrutiny. It is an expression for
the coefficient of friction of a bearing constrained to run with a
given film thickness. While the coefficient of friction for any

u n
given value of — is excessively high at very small film thick-
nesses, it will have fallen to within 16 per cent of its minimum
value when the film thickness has become as large as half the
clearance. Hence the relation

/^ = /-:5.^ (19)

c p

to which (18) reduces when x = c, may conveniently be used as
an approximate expression for the coefficient of friction, /. In

548 hersey: laws of lubrication

order to learn just how large — must be in order to thicken up

the film to any given value we should need to know the complete
form of the function 4/ in equation (12); but for all thicknesses

c
greater than ^, the value of /c from (19) may be used for/ with an

error certainly less than 16 per cent.

III. AN APPROXIMATE TREATMENT OF THERMAL EFFECTS

8. Effect of thermal expansion. This can be shown to be
negligible compared with other outstanding uncertainties.

9. Effect of temperature on viscosity. The \dscosity-temperature
curves of most lubricating oils can be closely fitted by the empiri-
cal equation

M = ^^f' (20)

in which 7' denotes t— T,t being the temperature of the oil, and r
an empirical constant not greatly different from the solidifying
temperature. The subscript designates values at room temper-
ature; thus Ti = ti— T and ij. = ijh when t = ti.

10. Relation of temperature to speed. From (19) and (20)

Z^^^^^.^^.Ij (21)

c p 1

Assume Newton's law of cooling and let h be the heat carried
off in unit time b}^ the air, by the jacket water, or otherwise,
per unit temperature elevation above room temperature. Then
if J denote the mechanical equivalent of heat, equation (4)
leads to the condition for equilibrium

irDnLf

J

= h{t-t,) =h(T- T,) (22)

(xn

At high enough values of — that /^ may be written /, we may

p

solve (22) for the relative temperature T getting

T= -^{l + ^/l + kn') (23)

hersey: laws of lubrication 549

or for the actual permanent running temperature t getting

t = r-\-h{tx-r) (1 + VH- kn') (24)

in which the constant k is given by the relation

^-^'•|i'--0' (25)

t J/l l\ c

11. An approximate expression for the coefficient of friction.
From (23) and (21), writing / for /„ approximately

/=-^'---'^7 ^ .) (26)

c p [l-^Vl + hrJ ^ ^

The coefficient of friction therefore increases less rapidly than
the speed, this falling off being more pronounced the larger the
value of the heating constant k.

12. An approximate expression for carrying power. Similarly
substituting from (23) into (14)

Carrying power therefore increases less rapidly than speed, ap-
proaching asymptotically the limiting value

. X 2

(Po)ma^ = Wp'^^^^ C28)

IV. EXPERIMENTS

13. Purpose. The writer made a series of experiments on
friction and carrying power at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1909. Their purpose was to determine the
influence of viscosity, oil-supply, and other factors on friction,
and to test experimentally the notion that carrying power may
increase with speed.

14- Apparatus. The journal was of hardened steel running
in a brass bearing 3 inches long by 1 inch in diameter, the radial
clearance having been 0.002 inch when the bearing was new.
Film thickness variations were studied electrically by measuring

550

hersey: laws of lubrication

the resistance of the oil fihn. Four oils were used: sperm, lard,
ordinary mineral machine oil, and a heavy cylinder oil. The
chief source of uncertainty was in the determination of absolute
viscosities. The friction observations themselves were relatively
free from error. The machine was provided with an ordinary
complete bearing. The only feature which need be emphasized
is that the conditions of practice were thus more closely repro-
duced than could have been done on any machine with only a
half-bearing (as in the Tower type), or in which the two halves
of the bearing are both forced against the journal by external
pressure (as in the Thurston type).

15. Summary of qualitative results. The following results
were obtained :

WITH INCREASE OP :

OVER THE RANGE
FROM :

THE COEFFICIENT OF
FRICTION, / :

THE FILJH THICKNESS, X !

speed, n

300 to 1500 r.p.m.

increased ; / oc n,
nearly.

increased; at first

slowly, then rapid-
ly, then slowly,
approa ching
a limit.

bearing pressure, p.

40 to 250 lbs.
per sq. in.

1

decreased ; / oc —
P
nearly.

decreased; approach-
ing zero asymptot-
ically.

viscosity, /x

10-Uol4. 10-Mn.,
min., Ib.-wt.
units.

increased ;/oc fj,^
nearly.

increased.

oil feed

2 to 60 drops per
min.

decreased ; at first
rapidly, but
only slightly
after 10 drops
per min.

increased : at first

rapidly, then slow-
ly-

Any change in viscosity produced the same effect whether the
viscosity was altered by changing oils or by changing tempera-
tures. There was no indication of complete "film rupture,"
the film thickness decreasing continuously with increasing load
as far as the observations were carried. The above cited evi-
dence that film thickness increases with speed and viscosity

hersey: laws of lubrication 551

and decreases with increase in load, leads at once to the con-
clusion that carrying power increases when speed increases.

tin
16. Relation of friction to . The results of about 200 inde-

P

pendent determinations of the coefficient of friction of sperm,
lard, and machine oils at 10 or more drops per minute may be
represented by the equation: .

/= 0.002+ 6800^ (29)

P

for values of 10^ between 1 and 40. The average deviation

of the observed points from this straight line is about 15 per
cent. There is no systematic tendency for the points corre-
sponding to the respective oils to cluster together. Equation
(29), then, is a particular form of the general equation (11a)
for approximately complete lubrication. It would be applicable
to any completely lubricated bearing loaded in the ordinary
manner, which is geometrically similar to the experimental bear-
ing in every respect, including the effect of wear. Equation (29)
is cited primarily as an experimental verification of the conclusion
that in any given bearing with a given oil supply, the coefficient

of friction depends only on the single variable .

A shorter series of experiments with cyhnder oil over the inter-

ulTI

val from 10^ = 30 to 250 led, with the same degree of approxi-

P
mation, to the equation

/= 0.015+ 6800^ (30)

P

The difference in the constant terms of the two equations is
doubtless due to the fact that, with this very heavy oil, the bear-
ing did not completely fill itself. If this surmise is correct, we
have an illustration of the effect of S in equation (11).

552 fenner: babingtonite from passaic county

V. general inferences

17. Relating to the coordination of existing data. Since, by

equations (11) and (12), the laws of lubrication may involve, in

fin . . (^ I ,

addition to the variable — , any of the quantities -^, j:, S, and

the r's, in attempting to coordinate data obtained by different
observers we must consider the possible influence of all these
factors.

18. Relating to future experiments. (1) In formulating the
laws of lubrication it has been seen that fx, n, and p can occur

only \Yhen combined into the single variable ; hence the in-
fluence of all three of these quantities may be found by experi-
menting with any one of them. (2) It is legitimate to deter-
mine the dynamical and thermal properties of bearings by
separate experiments. For example, the laws of friction may be
studied under isothermal conditions; while thermal character-
istics, such as the constant k of equations (23) to (28), might be
determined with a perfectly stationary dummy bearing, in which
the heat is generated by a heating coil instead of by friction.
(3) The conception of dynamically similar bearings will make it
possible to evaluate the constants needed in design by the use
of models without waiting for the complete determination of the
laws of lubrication.

MINERALOGY. — Bahingtonite from Passaic County, New Jersey.
Clarence" N. Fenner, Geophysical Laboratory.

In the deposits of zeolitic minerals occurring in the Watchung
trap ridges of northern New Jersey certain cavities which are
found in abundance evidently testify to the former presence of
some mineral which has been removed in solution. These
cavities or casts are familiar to many mineralogists who have
visited the localities referred to and the nature of the mineral
which formerly filled them has been a matter of considerable
speculation, but no very satisfactory conclusion has been reached.

The casts are seen most frequently among masses of quartz,

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 553

prehnite, datolite, or pectolite. Among other minerals some
indication of their presence may at times be found, but often
they have been filled with later minerals and their outlines have
been more or less obliterated. The mineral which formerly
occupied the cavities evidently occurred most frequently in radi-
ating groups, sometimes extending from a centre in various
directions, sometimes assuming a rather flattened or fan-like
form. A length of 3 or 4 inches is not uncommon, "and in
one instance the impressions of a group of fan-like crystals w*as
observed, which measured S^ inches (21.5 cm.) in length and 7|
inches (19 cm.) in greatest breadth. Apparently a considerable
portion of the centre of the group had been broken away, so that
the original length was probably 3 or 4 inches greater. In cross-
section the casts of individual crystals are either lozenge-shaped
or nearly rectangular. Both forms are often associated in the
same hand-specimen.

In an article^ which the present writer published several years
ago it was shown that the various minerals which are found
in these deposits exhibit a well-defined sequence of deposition
and that during earlier periods in their history the assemblage
of minerals differed greatly from that now found. The earliest
period was characterized by the formation of large quantities
of quartz, albite, and the mineral represented by the casts, to-
gether with a small amount of garnet, hematite, and sulphides.
The question of the nature of the mineral which had been present
in such abundance and had been removed was considered most
interesting and considerable time was given to an attempt to
obtain a clue to its nature. In one of the microscopic sections
a few small crystals of some unrecognized mineral were found, and
in occasional hand-specimens out of several hundred which were
gone over some small and almost entirely decomposed remnants
of the same substance were discovered. A slight description of
the mineral was given and from its general characteristics it
was considered to be a rather abnormal amphibole, perhaps

' The Watchung Basalt aiul the Paragenseis of Its Zeolites and Other Secondary
Minerals; Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., XX, 2, Pt. IT, 93-187. 1910.

554 fenner: babingtonite from passaic county

arfvedsonite. Certain slight bits of evidence pointed to the Hkeh-
hood that this represented the mineral of the casts.

In subsequent visits to these localities a constant watch was
kept for further evidence on the matter, but it was not until
the past summer (July, 1914) that much of value was found.
At that time a visit to the Francisco quarry at Great Notch
resulted in the discovery of a larger quantity of the mineral
than had been seen at any previous time. The amount was
still very small, the largest mass having a greatest dimension of
only 20 mm., and the total weight collected was probably little
more than a gram. The relations were such, however, as to con-
nect the mineral quite definitely with the casts, and it was pos-
sible to make determinations which showed the mineral to be
the rare species, babingtonite (Ca, Fe, Mn) SiOs + Fcs (8103)3.

In several instances the small crystal-remnants found occupy
portions of the characteristic cavities of rectangular or lozenge-
shaped sections in quartz, or are intergrown in a blade-like form
with quartz-crystals. In almost all cases alteration has pro-
duced a decomposition-product on the crystal surfaces of a woolly
or asbestos-like material, nearly white in color, which obscures
the original crystal-faces. The same substance frequently
penetrates deeply within the crystals along cracks or cleavage
planes. This feature would render it very difficult to pick out
pure material from the small quantity of the mineral at hand in
sufficient amount for a satisafctory quantitative analysis, and
this was not attempted. It was necessary, therefore, to establish
its identity by other means. The unaltered material is nearly
black and opaque in mass, but translucent and brown or dark-
green in thin fragments. The lustre is shining or splendent —
nearly that of anthracite.

Through the kindness of Dr. E. T. Wherry of the National
Museum, several specimens of babingtonite were loaned from
their collection and it was thus made possible to make direct
comparisons with undoubted material.

In the determination of properties the material used was
either that from Great Notch or that in the microscopic section
prepared several years ago, which came from Paterson.

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 555

Chemical and physical properties. Qualitative tests on small
portions of the mineral gave strong reactions for iron, manganese,
lime, and silica. Tests for alumina, titanium oxide, magnesia,
and alkalies gave no indication of the presence of these.

Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses without difficulty to a
black, slightly magnetic globule. Babingtonite from Baveno,
Italy (Nat. Mus. No. 86,183) and from Norway (Nat. Mus. No.
78,559) gave the same test.

There is a very perfect, nearly scaly cleavage, which gives a
mirror-like surface. By comparison with the National Museum
crystals from Italy and Norway this is seen to be the cleavage
parallel to the basal pinacoid c, when the crystal is set up in the
position which Dauber has chosen.^

In the prism zone the cleavage is of columnar or fibrous
appearance.

In babingtonite crystals from Italy and Norway vertical

^ striation of faces in the prism zone is prominent. In a rough

crystal which was broken out of the aggregate in the New Jersey

specimen the same appearance was very evident. ^Moreover,

in the casts similar striations frequently appear.

A determination of specific gravity on apparently unaltered
fragments picked out under a binocular, using Rohrbach's solu-
tion according to Merwin's method,' gave a density of 3.398 at
21°.

The optical properties were found to be as follows: Greatest
index of refraction in sodium light (immersion method) = 1.74.
Birefringence, y — a = 0.032. Optical character biaxial and
positive. The axial angle, 2 V, is evidently large, the bar of
the interference figure being nearly straight. Hintze gives 2 y =
60°-65°. In the New Jersey mineral a rather larger angle is
suggested by the slight curvature of the bar, but babingtonite
from Buckland, ]\Iass. (Nat. Mus. No. 80,668), and from Norway

^ Crystallographers differ in their choice of positions for setting up the crystals.
The position chosen by Dana and Hintze brings out the crystallographic similarity
to the monoclinic pyroxenes, but the dominant habit of growth of the crystals
is prismatic in the direction of Dauber's prism zone. (See article by C. Palache
and F. R. Fraprie in Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., 38, 11 : 383-393. 1902). Dau-
ber's orientation is adopted in the present paper.

3 H. E. Merwin, Am. J. Sci., (4) 32: 425-428. 1911.

556

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county

(Nat. Mus. No. 78,559) gave the same figure. Dispersion is
very noticeable. Pleochroism is remarkably strong. .In thin
sections a = dark green, /3 = claret, 7 = pale brown. Absorp-
tion formula a > jS = 7. Extinction angles up to 43° between
7 and the basal cleavage were observed. Vogt (quoted by Hintze)
gives an angle of 44° for the extinction-direction on sections
parallel with 0 (Oil).

Palache and Fraprie, in the article cited, give for the angle
between b and g, two prominent faces in the prism zone, 64°39'.
In the lozenge-shaped casts from New Jersey the faces are usually

PROPERTIES OP BABINGTONITE AS
GIVEN BY VARIOUS AUTHORITIES

PROPERTIES OP BABINGTOOTTE
PROM NEW JERSEY

Composition. .
Color

(Ca, Fe, Mn) Sioa + Feo
(8103)3

Greenish- or brownish-
black

Qualitative reactions for

CaO, Fe, Mn, SiOa.
Greenish- or brownish-

black.

Lustre

Cleavage

Vitreous, splendent
Perfect on base, less so on

Vitreous, splendent.
Perfect on base, columnar

Fracture

prism 110

Imperfectly conchoidal

Easily fusible to a black,
magnetic globule

5.5-6

3.35-3.37

n = 1.72 (Winchell)

7 - a = 0.032

Biaxial, positive. 2 V =
60° - 65°

Strong

Intense

a = strong emerald green

0 = pale violet brown

y = deep-brown

64° 39' (Palache and Fra-
prie)

89° 18' (Palache and Fra-

'prie)
44° with basal cleavage

or fibrous on prism zone.
Imperfectly conchoidal.
Easily fusible to a black,

Fusibility

Hardness

magnetic globule.
About 6.

Density

3.40.

Index of refraction

Birefringence

7 = 1.74.

7 - a = 0.032.

Optical character

Dispersion

Biaxial, positive. 2 V

large.
Strong.

Pleochroism

Intense.

Crystal angle
010 and 2T0.

between

a = dark blue-green.
/3 = claret.
7 = pale brown.
Average of 35 measure-
ments of casts gives

Crystal angle
110 and 210.

between

64° 18'.
Casts nearly rectangular.

Extinction ang

le

43° with basal cleavage.

slightly irregular, but by making a large number of measure-
ments under the microscope, the average should give a close
approximation to the true value. Thirty-five measurements of
the acute angle were made, and the average was 64° 18'.

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 557

In Palache and Fraprie's measurements the angle between ij
and /i, the latter being a prismatic face of less prominent develop-
ment in their crystals, was measured as 89°18'. This probably
corresponds to the casts of nearly rectangular cross-section
which were often observed. No measurement of this angle
was attempted, as thin laminae of quartz frequently project
from the face corresponding to /?.

The results of various tests on the New Jersey mineral are tab-
ulated above in comparison with the properties of babingtonite.
From this table it is evident that the mineral under discussion
agrees perfectly in all important respects with babingtonite.

As a further confirmation etching-tests with hydrofluoric
acid were made upon cleavage-flakes (parallel with the base c)
of this mineral and of babingtonite from
Baveno, Italy (Nat. Mus. No. 86,183). r t> y,^/^

The two were placed together in a platinum ,) ^(j ^ ^ J '' i)

basket and suspended for five seconds in 0 ^ a ^ , (f ^S n
boiling commercial hydrofluoric acid. With ^ s \ ^ <3 ' fu a ^
both specimens the etch-pits were very . d ^ ^^ n ! ^ H
minute and required careful observation ^s ^ \ fj<^ C f'
with a high-power objective to be satis- H \ \ ^ /\ ^ "
factorily studied, but, so far as could be ^ a i ^^ ^ i\

determined, the shape and size were the Q c

same in the two instances. Figure 1 shows Fig. i. Etch-figures on

their character. babingtonite, produced by

Hintze and Dana cite but few locaUties ^ctionof hydrofluoric acid.

. T 1 . Magnification 2o0 X.

where babmgtomte has been found and it

may be classed among the rarer minerals. The crystals are
generally of minute size. Its usual occurrence appears to be in
granite, syenite, gneiss, etc., apparently not generally as an
original igneous constituent, but associated with such minerals
as epidote, garnet, alkali feldspars, and quartz, in cavities.
Palache and Fraprie^ describe its occurrence at Somerville,
Mass., where it is found ".in veins and pockets composed chiefly
of prehnite, which traverse a large dyke of diabase." Quartz,
epidote, feldspar, laumontite, stilbite, chabazite and other

•* C. Palache and F. R. Fraprie, loc. cit.

558 CLARK : GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES

minerals are associated with it. The general relations appear
quite similar to those in New Jersey.

It seems quite remarkable that in New Jersey it should have
been formed in such abundance and in crystals of such great
size, and that later it should have been almost totally removed.
Its disappearance cannot well be ascribed to weathering, for in
many instances the casts have been filled with minerals of an
early period of deposition. The formation and subsequent
removal of the mineral indicate that for it the conditions of
chemical stability were satisfied for a brief period only during
the processes of general mineral deposition.

ZOOLOGY. — The correlation between the hathymetrical and the
geographical range in the recent crinoids. Austin H. Clark,
National Museum.

In a paper published about a year ago^ I remarked that the
geographical range of a crinoid species, genus or higher group is
approximately proportionate to its bathymetric range, but at
that time I did not have the facts upon which I based the de-
duction in such form as to be able to present them in a convinc-
ing manner.

While the bathymetric range of any type can mean but one
thing — the number of fathoms (or meters) between the highest
and the lowest limit of the zone in which it occurs — the geo-
graphical range may be interpreted in two different ways: (1)
as the actual area, calculated as the sum of the geographical
units within which the type is actually known to occur, or (2)
as the area in which the type potentially occurs, that is, the area
over which physical conditions are such as to suggest .that, if
not found at all points within it now, it has or may have, occurred
at all points within it at some time in the not remote past.

According to the first method a count is made of the units of
area within which the type has actually been taken; the figures
are therefore of very varying value for different groups, for many
types, undoubtedly with an enormous geographical range, have
been taken at only a very few widely scattered localities, while

^ Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, Bd.
6, Heft 1, S. 29.

Clark: geographical range in recent crinoides 559

others, with a much more restricted geographical range, have
been reported from all points within a very large area.

The second method first of all calls for the determination of
some restricted region as the center of distribution, for^it makes
considerable difference in calculating the potential geographical
range of a group like the Thysanometrina?, occurring from
southern Japan southward to the Admiralty Islands, and again
in the Caribbean Sea, whether we assume the center of distri-
bution to be the Malayan region, and therefore that the con-
nection between the two localities is westw^ard from the line be-
tween southern Japan and the Admiralty Islands, or whether
we assume some othei' center of distribution, and a connection
eastward through Oceania and over Central America.

I have elsewhere- given my reasons for considering the Malayan
region as the center of distribution for the recent (and later
fossil) crinoids, explaining the similaritj^ between the fauna of
southern Japan and Hawaii and the Caribbean Islands as the
result of their present similar isolation from the Malayan region,
an isolation which has permitted the persistence on the periphery
of the area inhabited by the crinoids as a whole of types which
in all the intermediate regions have been extirpated by more
efficient competitors of subsequent origin.

If we divide the map of the world into areas measuring 15° on
each side, we find that the number of such divisions covering
the geographic ranges of each of the families of recent crinoids
is as follows:

Capillasteringe 42 Thysanometrinse 5

Comactiniinae 28 Zenometrinse 19

Comasterinse 30 Perometrinse -. 12

Zygometrida; 12 Heliometrinaj 68

Himerometrida? 22 Bathymetrina; 12

Stephanometrida^ 14 Pentametrocrinidae 13

Mariametridaj 30 Atelecrinida; 7

Colobometridaj 31 Pentacrinitida 20

Tropiometrida; 33 Apiocrinidse 2

Calometrida; 10 PhrjTiocrinida? 2

Ptilometrinse 10 Bourgueticrinida> 20

Thalassometrina; 36 Holopodida? 2

Charitometrida> 18 Plicatocrinidse 14

Antedonina; 43

2 Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, Bd. 6,
Heft 1, S. 24.

560 CLARK: GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES

Plotting these together with the maximum range for each family
(fig. 1), we notice very little similarity between the two lines.
It is interesting to observe, however, that in the left half of the
diagram,^ including all of the better known families, the agree-
ment between the geographical and the bathymetrical ranges

Fig. 1. Comparison between the maximum bathymetric range (....)
and the geographical range, expressed as the sum of the areas of 15° on each
side within which the families occur ( ).

is somewhat closer than in the right half, which includes the rarer
types.

There is a very grave source of error in comparing the geo-
graphical and the bathymetrical ranges of any animal group by
this method, and that is that single observations are always of far

CLARK: GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES 561

greater value from a bathymetric than from a geographic stand-
point, so that, broadly speaking, our knowledge in regard to the
bathymetric distribution of animal types is much more detailed
than our knowledge of the hmits of the geographical range of
the same types.

The bathymetric range is measured on a single line assumed to
extend perpendicularly downward from the surface to the deepest
part of the sea. But the points on this line are determined from
observations everj^^here. That is, the entire volume, or cubical
content, of the ocean basins furnishes data projected upon a
single line. For example, a certain type occurs in Alaska in 5
fathoms, in the Crozet Islands in 1600 fathoms, and off Green-
land in 300 fathoms; its bathymetric range is, therefore, from 5
to 1600, or 1595, fathoms.

Thus our knowledge of the bathymetric ranges of the larger
groups is reasonably complete, as a result of this method of
reducing to terms of a single dimension records which, strictb^
speaking, are taken in three dimensions.

With the geographical ranges calculated as the sum of all the
areas measuring 15° on each side within which a given type occurs
the case is very different. Investigation has largely been localized
within certain restricted areas which, for some reason or other,
have proved to be especially interesting, or where exceptional
opportunities for study have been presented. Within these
areas there are very numerous records all of which, though mark-
ing different steps in, and increasing our knowledge of, the bathy-
metic scale, fall in the same geographical unit, and hence are the
geographical equivalent of onl}^ a single record.

Intensive study of any one locality increases our knowledge of
the bathymetric distribution of all the endemic types, while
adding nothing to our knowledge of the geographical distribution
of the same types; similarly future investigations in many of the
now httle known regions of the world will greatly increase our
knowledge of the geographical range of many groups, at the same
time giving us nothing new in reference to their bathymetrical range.

Thus it is evident that the comparison of the bathymetric
ranges of the families of recent crinoids, which for the most

562 CLARK: GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES

part are known to within a comparatively small limit of error,
with the geographical ranges calculated as the sum of the units
measuring 15° on each side within which they occur, though
apparently perfectly logical, at the present state of our knowl-
edge is not practicable, and cannot give results of value.

If we assume that the Malayan region is the center of distribu-
tion of the recent crinoids, a very simple way of expressing the
comparative potential geographical range of the several crinoid
types becomes possible. If we multiply the number of units of
15° between the meridians bounding the region inhabited by each
type by the number of units of 15° between the parallels of
latitude bounding the same regions, always reckoning east and
west and north and south from the Malayan region, we will
obtain for all types (excepting only the Holopodida? which,
alone among the crinoid families, does not occur in the Malayan
region) strictly comparable areas expressed in units of 15° on
each side, that is, including 225 "square" degrees each.

The geographical ranges of the families of recent crinoids ex-
pressed in these units are:

Capillasterinee 30

Comactiniinse 30

Comasterinae 12

Zygometrida} 6

HimerometridiB 10

Stephanometridse 9

Mariametridae 12

Colobometridae 20

Tropiometridse 19

Calometridaj 5

Ptilometrinae 5

Thalassometrinse 24

Charitometridse 20

Antedonina; 18

X 6
X 6
X 6

X
X
X

5
5

4

X 6 =

X 6 =

X 6 =

X 6 =

X 5 =

X 8 =

X 6 =

X 6 =

180 Thysanometrina; 18 X 4 = 72

180 Zenometrina? 24 X 10 = 240

72 Perometrina; 17 X 4 = 68

30 Heliometrinse 24 X 12 = 288

50 Bathymetrina) 24 X 10 = 240

36 Pentametrocrinida? 16 X 10 = 160

72 Atelecrinida; 20 X 3 = 60

120 Pentacrinitida 20 X 6 = 120

114 Apiocrinida; IX 2= 2

30 Phrynocrinidaj 6X 2 = 12

25 Bourgueticrinidffi 16 X 10 = 160

192 Holopodida; 2X 2= 4

120 Plicatocrinida? 24 X 9 = 216

108

On the accompanying diagram (fig. 2) are shown the maximum
bathymetric range of each family of recent crinoids (in a dotted
line) and the geographical range calculated according to the
method just described (in ah unbroken line).

The correspondence between the bathymetric range and the
geographical range as thus calculated is very striking, bringing

CLARK: GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES 563

our very forcibly the fact that the potential geographical range
of a given group is proportionate to its bathymetrical range.

It will be noticed that, in the comparison between the bathy-
metrical and the geographical ranges as given on the diagram, 3000
fathoms in depth is the equivalent of 256 X 225, or 6400, square

Fig. 2. Comparison between the maximum bathymetric range ( )

and the geographical range expressed, in units of 15° square (225 square degrees),
as the product of the number of degrees on the equator between the meridians
passing through the limits of the distribution West and East of the Malayan
region, times the number of degrees between the Parallels of Latitude bounding
the area of occurrence of the Families of Recent Crinoids ( ).

degrees; therefore every fathom of increase in the bathymetric
range of a given type implies an increase of approximately 2.13
square degrees in the geographical range, and every increase of

564 CLARK : GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE IN RECENT CRINOIDES

100 fathoms in the bathymetric range is correlated with an in-
crease of 213.33 square degrees in the geographical range.

In the famihes confined to comparatively warm water the
geographical range is somewhat greater than the bathymetrical .
range, when 100 fathoms is considered as the equivalent of 213.33
square degrees, while in the families confined to cold water, and
the families represented in the polar regions, the reverse is the
case. This indicates that the curve representing the decrease
in area of the units measuring 15° on each side from the equator
to the poles is less marked than the curve representing the differ-
ence in the temperature between the surface water and that of
the abysses (which plays a very important part in the bathy-
metrical distribution of marine organisms) from the equator
to the poles.

This method of comparing the bathymetrical and the geographi-
cal range of marine organisms which at no time during their
developmental history are pelagic takes no account of the land
masses within the geographical areas as calculated. These land
masses appear to be negligible; in other words, we appear to be
justified in considering them as everywhere potentially habit-
able by the crinoids occurring along their shores as far as the
meridians of longitude and the parallels of latitude to which these
crinoids now extend.

The great tropical currents flowing northward, the Gulf Stream
and the Kuro-Siwo, do not act as distributors of crinoids as they
do of other types of organisms, for the reason that the littoral
forms which might be supposed to extend their range along the
shores washed by them, but which are confined within a very
limited range of temperature and of salinity, cannot survive
the conditions in the winter, when the currents in the northern-
most part of their course move southward and off shore, and
when further southward their inshore border is chilled and
freshened by drainage from the land.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV DECEMBER 4, 1914 No. 20

PHYSICS. — Measurements on standards of radiation in absolute
value. ^ W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of Standards.

One of the chief needs in the measurement of radiant energy
is a convenient standard against which the radiometer may be
cahbrated. The great utihty of a seasoned carbon incandescent
lamp as a photometric standard is well recognized, and such a
lamp has every desideratum of a standard of radiation, when
calibrated against a black body as the primary standard of radi-
ation. The object of the present investigation is to establish
and maintain a standard of radiation in the form of seasoned
incandescent lamps, and to issue to experimenters similar stand-
ards of radiation, whereby may be obtained an accurate cali-
bration of their radiometers in absolute value.

The incandescent lamps were standardized by two independent
methods which are in agreement within 0.5 per cent. The first
method consisted in comparing the radiation from a black body
with the radiation from the incandescent lamp, assuming a value
for the coefficient (the "Stefan-Boltzmann constant") of total
radiation of the black body. For this purpose a thermopile
was directed towards the black body, then towards the incan-
descent lamp. The second method consisted in a direct measure-
ment, in absolute value, of the energy of the incandescent lamp
with a modified form of Angstrom pyrheliometer. This p}T-
hehometer gave a value {a = 5.61 X 10" ^^ watt cm-^ deg-")

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

565

566 BURGESS AND WALTENBURG : EMISSIVITY OF METALS

for the coefficient of total radiation which is close to the value
of this constant as determined by various other methods differing
widely in character.

The standard of radiation, in terms of these incandescent
lamps, may therefore be considered fairly well established — at
least sufficiently to fulfill present requirements. In the lamps
issued to the public the intensity of the radiant energy per
mm.^ at a distance of 2 meters from the lamp is certified, when
the lamp is operated on a given current and voltage.

For rough calibrations of radiometers in absolute measure,
a sperm candle or a Hefner lamp may be used. For the sperm
candle, burning at a mean height, the intensity of the total
radiation at a distance of 1 meter from the flame may be
taken to be 29 X 10"^ g.-cal per cm^ per second. The in-
tensity of the total radiation at a distance of 1 meter from the
Hefner lamp without a diaphragm may be taken to be 26 X 10~i''
g-cal per cm"^ per second. The paper gives data also for the
radiation from the Hefner lamp with a diaphragm, having a
definite opening and situated at a definite distance in front of
the lamp. The flame standards are unsteady, and unsatisfactory
for use in refined radiation measurements.

PHYSICS. — The emissivity of metals and oxides, II: Measure-
ments with the micro pyrometer. G. K. Burgess and R. G.
Waltenburg, Bureau of Standards.'

The micropyrometer^ may be used conveniently for the approx-
imate determination of the monochromatic emissivities of metals,
oxides, etc., in microscopic quantities at high temperatures. It
is possible to determine to 1 per cent the emissivity of a mass
of 0.01 mgm. having an area of 0.25 mm.^ and a thickness of
0.005 mm. The determination of the temperature-coefficient of
emissivity is readily made, as well as the detection of variation
of emissivity with change of state, as at the melting point.

Assuming the emissivity for solid platinum to be 0.33 for red
light of wave length X = 0.65^ and 0.38 for X = 0.55m, the fol-

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

2 This Journal, 3: 7. 1912.

CURTIS: A VIBRATION ELECTROMETER

567

lowing among other results have been obtained as shown in the
table.

For none of the metals examined was there a marked tempera-
tm-e coefficient in the range 900 to 2000°C. and for the most of
them this coefficient is negligible, the monochromatic emissivity
usually agreeing also with the value at 20°C. For the white
metals the emissivity usually shows very slight or no change at
the melting point, but for gold, silver, copper, and uranium there
is a marked discontinuity with red light. For palladium, there
are anomalies in the behavior of the emissivity in the region "of
the melting point, in that the value of emissivity proper to the
liquid may persist after freezing, constituting an undercooling
radiation effect. For platinum the fact that there is a change
in emissivity, for X = 0.65/x, on melting would influence the
constancy of the Violle standard of light as usually defined in
terms of the luminous radiation from platinum at its melting
point.

Emissivities of Metals and Oxides with Micropyrometer

Metals

Cu

Ag

Au

Pd

Pt

Ir

Rh

Ni

Co

Fe

Mn

Ti

fsolid

ex = 0.65/1 jiiquid

P .. [--olid

'?X = 0.oo;.|,,quij

0.10
0.15
0.38
0.36

0.04
0.07
0.35
0.35

0.14
0.22
0.38
0.38

0.33
0.37
0.38

0.33
0.38
0.38

0.30 0.29
0.30

1

1

0.36
0.37
0.44
0.46

0.36
0.37

0.37 0.59
0.37 0.59

0.63
0.65
0.75
0.75

Zr

.Th

Y

Er

Be

Cb V

Cr

Mo

W

U

/solid

ex = 0 65M|^liquid

J solid

ex = 0.55 m \liquid

0.32
0.30

0.36
0.40
0.30

0.35
0.35

0.55
0 38

0.30

0.61
0.61
0.61
0.81

0.49
0.40
0.61

0.35
0.32
0.29

0.39
0.39
0.53

0.43
0.40

0.39

0.54
0.34
0.77

Oxides near F. P.s

NiO

CoO

Fe304

Mn304

TiOj

Th02

Y2O3

BeO

CbOx

ViOa

CraOs

UjOs

/solid

ex = 0.65m \iiquid

0.89
0.68

0.77
0.63

0.63
0.53

0.47

0.52
0.51

0.57
0.69

0.61

0.37

0.71

0.69

0.60

0.30
0.31

PHYSICS.— A vibration electrometer.^ Harvey L. Curtis,
Bureau of Standards.

Any alternating current measurement which makes use of a
null method requires an instrument which will detect small

1 To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

568 CURTIS: a vibration electrometer

alternating currents or voltages. One of the first instruments
used for this purpose was the telephone. This is very sensitive
between the frequencies of 500 and 3000 cycles per second, but
at frequencies below 500 cycles the sensitiveness decreases
rapidly with the frequency, so that it is very insensitive at fre-
quencies below 100 cycles. It also responds to the harmonics
of the current as readily as to the fundamental.

As a null instrument, a vibration galvanometer is often much
more satisfactory than a telephone. The moving system of a
vibrating galvanometer is adjusted to have the same period as
that of the current to be detected, so that any harmonics in the
current produce very little effect upon the deflection of the
instrument. Also most vibration galvanometers have their
maximum sensitiveness at low frequencies (50 to 200 cycles),
though at least one form may be had which will go to frequencies
as high as 3000 cycles. Since the impedance of these instru-
ments is relatively low, they require an appreciable current to
produce a deflection which can be observed. Hence in bridges
where the impedance of the arms is very high, they are not very
sensitive.

The vibration electrometer described in this paper was designed
as a vibrating instrument having an impedance much higher
than a telephone or vibration galvanometer. The need arose
in connection with the measurement of some very low capacities
at low frequencies. Its usefulness is limited to those cases where
it is desired to detect very small currents at low frequencies.
Its principal use is as a detecting instrument in a bridge having
very high impedances in the arms.

The instrument is a modification of a quadrant electrometer.
Instead of the quadrants there are four vertical plates, while a
thin vertical vane of twice the area of a single plate corresponds
to the needle of the electrometer. Two plates, separated by a
narrow vertical slit, are in one plane, while opposite them in a
parallel plane are the other plates. Midway between the planes
is the aluminum vane, which is suspended by a bifilar suspension.
This vane is maintained at constant potential by a battery,
while an alternating voltage having the same period as the natural
period of the vibrating system is applied to the plates. This

kolster: electromagnetic waves 569

causes mechanical forces to be applied to the vane due to electro-
static attractions and repulsions which will set the vane in vi-
bration. Since these forces are small, it is necessary that the
damping shall be small. In addition to so designing the suspen-
sion that there is very little loss of energy in it, it is necessary
to keep the instrument in a vacuum.

The form of the instrument is such that the capacities can be
approximately computed. Hence it is possible to develop the
mathematical theor}^ of its behavior. This has been done and
the conclusions reached have been checked by experiment.
The important conclusions are as follows:

1. The frequency at which maximum deflection is obtained
depends upon the potential of the vane. As the potential of
the vane is increased, the frequency at which maximum deflection
is obtained, is decreased.

2. The deflection for a given voltage is inversely proportional
to the damping.

3. As the damping is decreased, the tuning becomes sharper.

4. The power required to give unit deflection when the applied
emf is in resonance with the instrument decreases in the same
ratio as the damping.

Experimentally it has been found that the instrument will
detect a current as low as 10"^^ ampere.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A direct reading instrument for measur-
ing the logarithmic decrement and wave length of electromagnetic
waves.^ Frederick A. Kolster, Bureau of Standards. Com-
municated by E. B. Rosa.

The measurement of the logarithmic decrement at radio
stations is of particular importance, since the United States
laws governing radio communication specify, among other
things, that the logarithmic decrement per complete oscillation
in the wave train emitted by the transmitter shall not exceed
two-tenths. ^Yhen persistent oscillations of single frequency
are emitted from a radio transmitting station much more selective
receiving apparatus may be employed with advantage at re-

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

570 AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC TRANSMISSION

ceiving stations, permitting sharp tuning with consequent mini-
mizing of interference caused by stations other than those with
which communication is desired. It is desirable, therefore, that
the logarithmic decrement, which is a measure of the decay of
a train of waves, be as small as possible.

The instrument described operates in accordance with the
method of Bjerknes, but the task of making careful observations
and necessary calculations required by the Bjerknes formula is
eliminated. An important element of the instrument is a vari-
able condenser, the capacity of which varies in accordance with
the law of geometric progression.

The simplified Bjerknes formula may be written as

... Cr-C AC
01 ~r 09 = TT = 71 •

c c

where 6i is the decrement of the circuit to be measured and ^2 the
known decrement of the measuring instrument. Ci is the value of
capacity of the variable condenser at the point of resonance and C
is a slightly different capacity of such a value that the energy
in the instrument at resonance is reduced to one-half.

Since the variable condenser in the instrument varies in ac-
cordance with the law of geometric progression, then for any
given displacement of the condenser plates the percentage

AC
change of capacity -^ will be constant throughout the range

tof motion of the condenser. It is therefore possible to attach
to this condenser an accurately divided scale from which values
of 5i 4- 82 can be read directly. Several instruments have been
constructed for the Army and Navy and for the radio inspection
service of the Department of Commerce.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Quantitative experiments in radiotele-
graphic transmission.^ L. W. Austin, Naval Radio-
telegraphic Laboratory.

The quantitative study of long distance radiotelegraphic
transmission was begun by the Navy Department in 1909-10

1 Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC TRANSMISSION 571

and continued in 1912 in connection with the testing of the high
power radio station at .Aj'Ungton, Virginia. This station is
equipped with a 100 kw. Fessenden rotary gap sending set
which gives an antenna current of approximately 100 amperes
at a wave length of 3800 meters. The aerial is triangular in
shape and suspended between three steel towers, two of which are
450 feet in height while the third has a height of 600 feet. The
capacity of the antenna is 0.01 mf said the height to the center
of capacity 400 feet. Short range experiments showed that the
effective height of the .li'lington station was only about one-half
the height to the center of capacity of the antenna. This ap-
pears to be generally true of land stations and is probably due
to the fact that they are not erected on sufficiently good conducting
surfaces as assumed in the theory. The main scientific object
of the experiments was the determination of the correctness of
the Sommerfeld transmission formula

hi Jh L

■ 0.0019 (i

(1) /K = 120r'-^^^.e ^x

XdR

where hi is the effective height of the sending antenna, ho the
corresponding height of the receiving antenna, h the sending
antenna current, X the wave length, e the distance between the
two stations, and R the effective high frequency resistance of
the receiving antenna system.

The strength of the received signals was measured on the U.S.S.
Birmingham which made a voyage to Gibraltar and return for
the carrying out of the tests. The total height of the Birming-
ham's antenna w^as 130 feet and the height to the center of capac-
ity 114 feet. The effective high frequency resistance was 50
ohms at 8800 meters. Signals were received by means of an
electrolytic detector and their intensity was measured by the
shunted telephone method which was described in the paper
already cited. From the data thus obtained it was possible to
determine the received antenna current Jr.

The table shows the results. Column five gives the experi-
mental values as obtained from the smoothed curve of obser-
vations, and column three the values as calculated from the

572

AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC TRANSMISSION

Sommerfeld formula (1) . Column four gives the calculated values
as obtained from a semi-empirical formula (2) made up of the
first term of the theoretical formula but with the absorption
term replaced by the absorption term which was found to be
correct in the experiments made in 1910. The values in column
fom' are seen to be in very fair agreement with the observed
values.

(2)

In = 120 TV

hi hi Is
\dR

■ 0.0015 d

The Sommerfeld theory takes no account of energy which may
be brought to the receiving station by means of reflection or
refraction in the upper atmosphere, and it is thought probable
that it is this portion of the energy which produces the difference
between the observed and theoretical results.

Arlington Received on

THE "Salem,"

February-March, 1913

RESISTANCE

RECEIVED CURRENT 10"

3 AMP.

Miles

Km.

Calculated

Obs.

Eq. 1

Eq. 2

300

556

335.000

431.00

410.0

400

740

200.000

278.00

300.0

500

925

128.000

195.00

225.0

600

1110

85.200

140.00

160.0

800

1480

40.700

79.00

95.0

1000

1850

20.700

47.60

59.0

1200

2220

11.000

29.70

34.0

1500

2780

4.420

15.30

19.0

2000

3700

1.070

5.65

5.0

2500

4630

0.280

2.20

3000

5560

0.074

0.84

In connection with these experiments a comparison was also
made between the received singals from the Fessenden spark set
and those from a Poulsen arc temporarily installed at the Arling-
ton station. It was found that, for distances up to about 1000
miles, the received antenna currents were practically the same,
for the same sending antenna currents. At greater distances
the arc seemed to be superior, as measured on the Salem and
also at the U. S. Naval Radio Station at Colon, C. Z.

KLEIN AND PHILLIPS! HYDRATION OF CEMENT 573

PHYSICAL CHE:MISTRY.— r/ie hydration of Portland cement.'
A. A. Klein and A. J. Phillips. Bureau of Standards.
Communicated by the Bureau of Standards.

The study of the hydration of Portland cement follows as a
natural sequence to the study of its constitution. The latter
has been determined by the work of the Geophysical Laboratory
on the ternary system lime-silica-alumina, and for that portion
of the ternary -field in which Portland cement is situated, these
compounds have been verified by the Pittsburgh laboratory of
the Bureau of Standards.

In the present paper various hydration experiments were made
on mono-calcium aluminate (CaO.Al203), 5:3 calcium aluminate
(5Ca0.3Al203), tri-calcium aluminate (3CaO.Al203), mono-cal-
cium silicate (CaO.SiOo), beta-orthosilicate (2CaO.Si02), gamma-
orthosilicate (2CaO.Si02), tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.Si02), on
lime burned at different temperatures and ground to various
degrees of fineness, and on the following commercial cements,
a high silica, a low silica, a high iron, and a high magnesia cement.

The tests consisted of (1) hydration on microscopic slides with
water, without access of air, (2) hydration with superheated
steam in a cylinder, according to the method proposed by Bied,
(3) hydration in an autoclave, and (4) moulding with limited
quantities of water, approximating those used in normal con-
sistency mixes. Lime water and plaster of Paris solution were
also used as hydrating media. Petrographic microscope methods
were employed to determine the hydration processes and the
final products.

The only crystalline product observed in the hydration of the
aluminateswashydrated tri-calcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3.xH2O)
and this is only formed with a large excess of water. It crys-
taUizes in hexagonal needles, plates, and spheruhtes, and is uni-
axial positive. The refractive indices are e = 1.552 ± .003
and CO = 1.535 ± .003. The 5:3 calcium aluminate and mono-
calcium aluminate split off amorphous hydrated alumina and
form the crystalhne hydrated tri-calcium aluminate. The

^ Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

574 KLEIN AND PHILLIPS: HYDRATION OF CEMENT

hydration of the ahiminates commences quickly in all cases, but
with restricted amounts of water the unhydrated grains become
coated with the amorphous form and further hydration is more
or less retarded, the amorphous form slowly changing to the
crystalline form. With steam at atmospheric pressure the
weakly basic aluminates do not hydrate above 110°, but those
more basic absorb water up to 140°, tri-calcium aluminate con-
taining high burned free lime absorbing water even at 175°.

The hydration of the aluminates in lime water reveals no new
products, but in plaster solution, in addition to the same com-
pounds formed with water, there is a compound observed with
a formula, 3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.xH2O — tri-calcium sulpho-alumi-
nate, usually referred to as "sulpho-aluminate" in cement litera-
ture. This compound is identical for the three aluminates
and crystallizes in long prismatic needles. The double refraction
is low, the character of the principal zone negative, and the
extinction parallel. The indices of refraction are less than 1.48.
It is biaxial positive with a large optic axial angle. Its formation
is only incidental in the retardation of the initial set caused by
gypsum. In the autoclave, crystals of both the sulpho-alumi-
nate and gypsum are destroyed.

Burned lime hydrates with an excess of water develop either
the crystalline or amorphous form of lime hydrate. A pre-
ponderance of the former is produced where the lime is coarse
and high burned, while the formation of the amorphous form
is favored by fine grinding and low burning. Crystallized lime
hydrate occurs as flaky hexagonal crystals or as hexagonal prisms
with excellent cleavage parallel to (0001). It is uniaxial nega-
tive and the refractive indices are e = 1.581 =<= .002 and w = 1.559
± .002. In the autoclave amorphous lime hydrate does not
change to the crystalline form, but free lime may yield crystals
of hydrate whose size depends upon the length of time of reaction,
temperature and pressure.

The mono-calcium silicate and the gamma-orthosilicate do
not hydrate, while the beta form of the latter hydrates but slightly
with water after long periods. Lime water and plaster solution
do not materially increase the hydration, whereas a solution of
the calcium aluminate gives the maximum hydration and best

KLEIN AND PHILLIPS: HYDRATION OF CEMENT 575

appearing test pieces. The 28 day test pieces of beta-ortho-
silicate and the aluminates, while, exhibiting fairly good rigidity,
have by no means the strength of corresponding neat cement
briquettes. The aluminates are C9mpletely hydrated, but the
beta-orthosiUcate shows only a comparatively sHght hydration.
The hydration product of the sihcate is amorphous hydrated
orthosilicate, there being no lime hydrate split off and no
needles of hydrated mono-calcium sihcate formed, as noted by
others.

The tri-calcium sihcate hydrates readily and quickly with all
concentrations of water, the products of hydration being crystal-
lized hme and amorphous hydrated ortho-silicate. Moulded
specimens set hard in 5 hours and show no disintegration after
28 days in water. It has no favorable effect on the hydration
of beta-orthosilicate. Mixtures of it and the aluminates show
first the beginning of hydration of the aluminates, followed shortly
by the hydration of the silicate. MouMed specimens of these
are dense, hard, and strong, comparing very favorably with neat
cement briquettes.

On the hydration of cement, the first constituent to react is
the aluminate, with the formation of amorphous hydrated tri-cal-
cium aluminate; with or without amorphous hydrated aiumina.
The sulpho-aluminate crystals are also formed and the low
burned or finely ground lime hydrates. This occurs within a
few hours after the cement is gauged. The next compound
to hvdrate is the tri-calcium silicate. This commences within
24 hours and is generally completely hydrated within 7 days.
Between 7 and 28 days, the amorphous aluminate commences to
crystallize and the beta-orthosilicate, the least reactive compound,
begins to hydrate. The 24-hour strengths are due mainly to
the hydration of the aluminates and of any fine grained, low
burned lime present. The large increase in strength between
24 hours and 7 days is due mainly to the tri-calcium silicate hy-
dration. The increase between 7 and 28 days is due to the hydra-
tion of the beta-orthosilicate. Where there is a decrease in
strength during this period it is due to the hydration of very
high burned free hme as in very high burned, high limed cements,
or to the crystallization of the aluminates, as in high alumina

576 HESS AND schaller: pintadoite and uvanite

cements. The iron compounds in a cement are resistive to
hydration. Iron does not form crystalline hydration products,
but occurs as a rust-hke material.

The initial set of cement .is affected by the action of small
amounts of electrolytes in retarding coagulation of the aluminate
material. With a limited amount of water, such as used in
normal consistency mixes, the aluminates coagulate and separate
from supersaturated solutions as amorphous bodies, the rate of
coagulation being affected by such small quantities of electro-
lyte as to nullify the possibility of the reaction being solely a
chemical one.

Failure of cement in accelerated tests is due to the growth of
large lime hydrate crystals. The disrupting action results from
the pressure caused by growing crystals. Cements will fail in
the boiling test which contain lime sufficiently fine and high
burned, so that during boiling it hydrates and crystallizes. The
growth of crystals is siffficient to cause disintegration. When a
cement passes the boiling test but not the autoclave test, it
contains lime so coarse or high burned as not to hydrate in the
boiling test, but only in the autoclave, due to the high tempera-
ture and pressure employed. Some cements will pass either
test only after ageing. In this case aeration with insufficient
water to allow solution and crystallization causes the lime to
hydrate as amorphous hydrate, and in the accelerated tests
there is no crystallization and no disintegration.

The reactions when cement is subjected to the autoclave
test are not abnormal. The disintegration action attributed to
the crystallization of the sulpho-aluminate has been greatly
exaggerated.

MINERALOGY. — Pintadoite and uvanite, two new vanadium min-
erals from Utah: A preliminary note. Frank L. Hess and
Waldemar T. Schaller, Geological Survey.

During an investigation in the fall of 1913 by Frank L. Hess
and B. S. Butler of that part of the central plateau uranium-
vanadium field which lies in Utah, a number of uranium and
vanadium minerals hitherto undescribed or little known were

HESS AND schaller: pintadoite and uvanite 577

found. Some of the minerals are so mixed with impurities and
are in such fine particles that mechanical separation is practically-
impossible and their optical characteristics can be determined
only very imperfectly.

Fairly satisfactory determinations have been made of two of
these minerals which have proved to be new species and it is the
object of this paper to place them on recprd. Like most of the
uranium and vanadium minerals of this field, they are highly
oxidized and are hydrous. One, a green hydrous calcium vana-
date, has been called pintadoite (peen-ta '-do-ite) from Canyon
Pintado, in which it is found. The other, a hydrous uranium
vanadate has been named uvanite (yu'-van-ite) , a word derived
from the words ?/ranium and ?;anadium.

Pintadoite forms a thin green efflorescence upon the face of
cliffs of sandstone belonging to the McElmo. formation, which
are protected by overhanging ledges from the weather. It forms
circular or rounded patches like the lichens common on rocks,
and though in general of a rich dark green color, many patches
are in part lighter green and contain a little yellowish or salmon
colored material, which may be pascoite. The contrast with the
creamy or nearly white sandstones is striking and very pretty.
Being a thin efflorescence it is naturally mixed with gypsum,
quartz and other minerals of the sandstone. The specimen an-
alyzed is from the Frisco No. 2 claim, on the north side of Caiion
Pintado,^ San Juan County, about 15 miles by road, northeast of
Monticello, Utah, and is the dark green material. Pintadoite
has also been found at numerous other places in southeastern
Utah.

The mineral shows no crj^stal boundaries when examined
microscopically, is slightly pleochroic in yellow-green, and has a
moderate to high birefringence. It dissolves slowly in cold water
from which it recrystallizes in twinned, lath-shaped crystals.

The analysis, by W. T. Schaller, after deducting insoluble
gangue (sandstone), soluble gypsum, and reduction to 100 per
cent, is given below:

1 Locally known as East Canyon.

578

HESS AND schaller: pintadoite and uvanite

Analysis and ratios of pintadoite

ANALYSIS

RATIOS

CALCULATED

CaO

22.6
42.4 •
35.0

0.40 or 1.87 or 2 X 0.94
0.23 or 1.08 or 1 X 1.08
1.94 or 9.07 or 9 X 1.01

24.56

V2O5

39.91

H2O

35.53

100.0

100.0

The ratios of the analysis yield the formula 2CaO.V20^9H20.

Uvanite is a brownish-yellow hydrous uranium vanadate. Its
mode of occurrence is similar to that of carnotite which it re-
sembles in general appearance, but it has not such a clear bright
yellow color. It has been found only at, and in the vicinity of,
Temple Rock on the San Rafael Swell, Emery County, about 45
miles southwest of Greenriver, Utah. It occurs in rocks which
are probably the -equivalent of the upper part of the Dolores
formation. Some masses of the new mineral are a centimeter
thick, but these are rather rare. The mineral occurs in sufficient
quantity to be of economic importance.

Examined microscopically, uvanite is seen to consist of very
minute crystalline particles with a very high birefringence. The
mineral is not soluble in water but dissolves very quickly in a
solution of ammonium carbonate.

The analysis by W. T. Schaller is as follows:

Analysis and ratios of uvanite

ANALYSIS

RATIOS

Insoluble

1.24

39.60

1.73

0.30

0.04

37.70

0.06

0.05

18.28

UOs

0.139

CaO

0.031

K2O

0.003

MgO

V2O6

0.207

P2O6 ■

AS2O6 ....

> 0.001

H2O

1.106

99.00

In deducing a formula from the analysis, some uncertainty is
felt in regard to the lime and potash. If these be present as ad-

CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS

579

^

mixed tyuyamunite and carnotite, then there must be present
35 per cent of these two minerals. As, however, special tests
showed that both tyuyamunite and carnotite are insoluble in
ammonium carbonate solution whereas the material analyzed dis-
solves therein with great ease and readiness, the assumption that
the lime and potash present are due to these two minerals is
disproved. It is not known whether the lime and potash are
derived from the gangue or belong to the uvanite. The ratios
deduced on the basis of either assumption are the same.

Ratios of uvanite analysis

NEGLECTING CaO + K2O

UO3 0.139 or 1.91 or 2X0.96

V2O5 0.208 or 2.86 or 3X0.95

H2O 1.106 or 15.22 or 15 X 1.01

COMBINING CaO + K4O WITH UOl

UO3 0.150 or 2.05 or 2X1.03

V2O5 0.208 or 2.84 or 3X0.95

H2O 1.106 or 15.11 or 15 X 1.01

The formula derived for uvanite is 2UO3.3V2O5.I5H2O.

Analysis of another mineral from the south side of Temple
Rock, Emery County, Utah, which occurs in shaley sand-
stone as small greenish-yellow, glistening scales, has shown it to
be like uvanite, a hydrous uranium vanadate. Further investi-
gation is being made to determine whether it is a new species or
a variety of uvanite.

Pascoite- has been found in small quantity on the Crescent
No. 3 claim. Crescent Creek, Henry Mountains, and at a num-
ber of other places in southeastern Utah, as an efflorescence
(already mentioned) and in cavities in fossil wood.

ZOOLOGY. — The relation between recent crinoids and the tempera-
ture of their habitat. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

I have already discussed at considerable length^ the relation
between the recent crinoids and the temperature of the water in

1 Une etude philosophique de la relation entre les crinoides actuels ot la
temperature de leur habitat. Bulletin Xo. 294 de I'lnstitut Oc^anographique.
Monaco, 1914.

2 Hillebrand, W. F., Merwin, H. E., and Wright, t. E. Hewettite, metahew-
ettite and pascoite, hydrous calcium vanadates. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, 53: 31-
54. 1914.

580

CLARK : RECENT CRINOIDS

which they live; but there are one or two points upon which
further emphasis may well be placed by presentation in a some-
what different light.

Fig. 1. The frequency of the families of recent crinoids at different tempera-
tures.

The number of crinoid families occurring within the several
divisions of 2° F. (fig. 1) which collectively make up the entire
range of the class is as follows:

80° and over 4

78°-80° 6

76-78 6

74°-76° 9

72°-74° 9

70°-72° 14

68°-70° 13

66°-68° 13

64°-66° 14

62°-64° 16

60°-62° 17

58°-60° 16

56°-58° 16

54°-56° 15

52-54° 15

50°-52° 11

48°-50° 11

46°-48° 10

44°-46° 10

42°-44° 10

40°-42° 11

38°-40° 12

36°-38° 9

34°-36° 7

32°-34° 6

30°-32° 3

28°-30° 2

26°-28° 1

CLARK : RECENT CRINOIDS

581

According to the extent of their respective temperature
ranges (fig. 2) the famihes of recent crinoids group themselves
as follows: «

1°- 6° (including families with one record only) 4

6°-12° 1 24°-30° 4

12°-18° 2 30°-36° 7

18°-24° 3 36M2° 2

Fig. 2. Distribution of the families of recent crinoids according to their ther-
mal ranges.

In the comatulids (fig. 3), although the OHgophreata and the
Macrophreata are represented by the same number of families,
six, between 50° and 55°, the families of the JMacrophreata pre-
dominate at all temperatures below this, and the families of the
Oligophreata at all temperatures above; but the total number of
the families of the Macrophreata in excess of the total number of
the families of the Oligophreata occurring below 55° is only two,
while the total number of the families of the Oligophreata in
excess of the total number of the families of the Macrophreata
occurring above 55° is six. This indicates that the differentiation
of new crinoid tj^pes is chiefly, if not entirely, confined to the
warmer portions of the oceans.

There is a gradual increase in the number of the families of
the Oligophreata from 30°-35°, where one only is represented, to
60°-65°, where there are six, and then a more gradual decrease
as the temperature increases.

Among the families of the JNlacrophreata there is an increase,
at first more abrupt than in the case of the Oligophreata, from
25°-30°, where one family is represented, to 50°-65°, where there
are six, and then a decrease, at first much more abrupt than
among the families of the Oligophreata, as the temperature in-
creases. Thus in the Oligophreata we find the largest number of

582

CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS

si

h C fS ^ -H

4J -H T^ -rH *^
U C M M 0)

9)
T)

flj o

o o

a.

5J

a!

1> ^ ^ ^

^ c

o e^

o C o

■H> o C

•rt Tl a

«l *• >1

^ C J3

O < H

C -^ i-t -H ,

-^
o c
n

I.

CD

p. •< p.

c
>>

Moo

O O (-*

« W A.

Fig. 3. Thermal distribution of the families of recent crinoids; the zone of
maximum representation is between 55° and 65°, especially between 60° and 65°;
it is probably within these temperatures that the very rich post-palaeozoic fauna
was developed.

families between 60°-65°, in the Macrophreata between 55°-65°,
the number in the case of the famihes of the Oligophreata
diminishing gradually as the temperature increases, and the num-
ber in the case of the Macrophreata decreasing gradually as the
temperature diminishes. *

Examining the total for all the comatulid families, we find the
largest representation between 55° and 65°, with the emphasis
between 60° and 65°. The only stalked crinoids of which we have

CLARK : RECENT CRINOIDS 583

a sufficient knowledge (the Pentacrinitida and the Bourgueti-
crinidae) are also found at these temperatures, while three of the
others (the famihes Apiocrinidae, Phrynocrinidae and Plicato-
crinidae) are found below, and one (Holopodidae) is known only
from above.

Among the comatulids we are without sufficient data in regard
to five famines (Himerometridae, Stephanometridae, Tropiometri-
dae, Ptilometrinae and Atelecrinidae) ; but one of these (Ptilome-
trinae) is actually known from this temperature, while the four
others are without doubt found here, if we may judge from the
mean temperature of the sea at the depths at which they are
known to live. At least all except four, and with little doubt
all, of the comatulid families are found between 55° and 65°, and
not onlj^ these, but also the two dominant families of the stalked
crinoids (Pentacrinitida and Bourgueticrinidae) . Thus it ap-
pears that the range of temperature between 55° and 65° (12.78°
and 18.33°C.) represents the temperature most suitable for the
recent crinoids.

There are certain very interesting attributes of the crinoids
which are found between the temperature limits of 55° and 65°;
they are all of medium size, none being very large and none very
small, and they are all conservative in their characters, with
never a large number of arms — usually ten only. This would
appear to indicate that the range of temperature between 55°
and 65° represents the temperature physiologically most suitable
for the crinoids, a temperature which tends to maintain a phy-
logenetical conservatism and to suppress any tendency toward
the extreme type of development characteristic of the crinoids of
the warm water, as well as that characteristic of the crinoids of
the cold water.

So far as can be seen, it is with recent species found between
these temperatures that the fossil crinoids best agree, and thus
the suggestion may be made that it was principally, if not en-
tirely, within this temperature range that the crinoids of the
post-palaeozoic fauna, which was characterized by a very great
development of the present dominant order, the Articulata, were
developed.

ABSTRACTS

Autliors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflBcial publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

METEOROLOGY, — The total radiation received on a horizontal surface
from the sun and sky at Mount Weather, Va. Herbert H. Kimball.
'Monthly Weather Review, 42: 474-487. August, 1914.

At this station a Marvin pyrheliometer was employed to measure
the intensity of direct solar radiation at normal incidence, and a Cal-
lendar horizontal recording pyrheliometer for measuring the total
radiation received on a horizontal surface from the sun and sky. By
employing a screen to eclipse the sun at intervals throughout the day,
the Callendar pyrheliometer was also utilized to measure the total
radiation from the sky alone. The bright receiving grids of this pyrheli-
ometer are selectively absorptive of radiation of different wave lengths
and it was therefore necessary to standardize the instrument for measure-
ments of radiation of different degrees of blueness, varying from the
color of sunlight to that of skyhght. This was accomplished by com-
paring measurements by Callendar and Marvin pyrheliometers of the
intensity of solar radiation transmitted by color screens.

The summary of measurements made between May, 1912, and
September, 1914, inclusive, shows that during this period with the
clearest sky the total radiation per square centimeter of horizontal
surface varied from 250 calories per day on December 20 to 765 calo-
ries on June 10. On March 20 it was 605 calories, and on September
20, 515 calories. In general, the radiation received on a clear day
during the half-year, December 21 to June 20, averaged about 8 per
per cent more than that received during the remaining half year.

The average daily radiation in summer, hicluding rainy and cloudy
as well as clear days, was about 68 per cent of that received on the
clearest days, and in winter about 63 per cent.

At noon, with a clear sky, the total radiation per minute per square
centimeter of horizontal surface varied from 0.77 calorie in December

584

abstracts: geodesy 585

to 1.55 calories in June. When clouds were near the sun but did not
obscure it these rates were increased momentarily by as much as 0.15
calorie. For the period September, 1907, to September, 1914, the maxi-
mum intensity of direct solar radiation at normal incidence at noon
varied from 1.37 calories in January to 1.50 calories in May and
September.

The measurements show that at mid-day in summer about 18 per
cent of the total radiation received on a horizontal surface was diffuse
sky radiation. With a hazy sky about one-third of the total daily
radiation was received in this way, as compared with one-tenth on a
very clear day.

The measurements also show that at noon, on a clear mid-summer
day, each square yard of horizontal surface at this station received heat
energy at the rate of about 1 kilowatt, and that the total received from
sunrise to sunset was equivalent to about 5 kilowatt-hours. From the
middle of March to the end of August, on the clearest days, the total
energy received was equivalent to 4 kilowatt-hours, or more.

H. H. K.

GEODESY.^ — Primary triangulaiion on the one hundred and fourth merid-
ian, and on the thirty-ninth ■parallel in Colorado, Utah, arid Nevada.
William Bowie. Special Publication No. 19. Coast and Geodetic
Survey. Pp. 163. 1914.

This volume contains the geographic positions and the descriptions
of about 600 primary triangulation stations, which are located along the
104th meridian of longitude in Colorado, Wyoming, the Dakotas, and
Montana, and along the 39th parallel of latitude in the states of Colo-
rado, Utah, and Nevada.

The field work of the 39th parallel triangulation was completed in
the late nineties, and a report on that work appeared in 1899 as Coast
and Geodetic Survey Special Pubhcation No. 4. Since that date a
standard datum for all connected triangulation in this country was
adopted and called the United States Standard Datum. In 1913, when
this datum was adopted by Mexico and Canada, its name was changed
to the North American Datum. It is not identical with that on which
the Transcontinental triangulation was originally based, hence the neces-
sity of publishing the new positions in Special Publication No. 19.

The field work on the 104th meridian triangulation was done during
one season of about six months by two observing parties. As this arc
is 720 miles in length, the rate of progress for each par.ty was about 60
miles per month.

586 abstracts: geodesy

There is given an account of the remeasurement of the El Paso Base
hne in Colorado, which was first measured with the "Secondary Base
Bars" in 1872. The remeasuring was done with 50-meter invar base
tapes. The difference between the two measurements is one part is
about 59,000. As the base ends were very substantially marked, when
the base was estabhshed, it is believed that the discrepancy is not due
to any shifting of the marks but that it is the result of an error in the
first measurement, probably caused by the inability to secure the actual
temperature of the metal rods of the bars liy means of mercurial ther-
mometers mounted near the rods.

Three new bases were measured on the 104th meridian with invar
tapes and the probable error of each base is smaller than one part in
one million. Nearly all of the observing for horizontal angles in the
main scheme was done at night, the pointings being made on acetylene
lamps posted at the distant stations. These lamps were of sufficient
power to be seen easily over the longest lines of the scheme — about 70
miles.-

The introduction of additional precise leveling elevations in the trigo-
nometric leveling net made a readjustment of the net necessary. In
consequence, a number of mountains are given elevations which differ
from the elevations given in Special Publication No. 4. Except in a
few cases in the vicinity of Pike's Peak, the new eleyations are lower
than the older ones. The changes in California and in western Nevada
and in central Colorado are small, being only one foot for Mt. Elbert
and Mt. Ouray in Colorado, and two feet for Mt. Grant in Nevada.
The maximum change comes in Utah; Pilot Peak, for instance, having
its elevation changed by 16 feet.

A discussion of the errors of triangulation indicates that when the
observations are made during the day and in the afternoon, triangula-
tion running north and south tends to deviate in azimuth towards the
west. Under similar conditions an east and west arc tends to deviate
towards the south. This systematic error is not present to any notice-
able extent when all the observations are made at night. It^is stated
that the error is probably due to some effect of unequal heating of the
theodolite. To minimize or overcome any such effect, the theodolite
now in use on primary triangulation is fitted with a nickel-iron circle
which has a much lower coefficient of expansion than that of the origi-
nal circle. No data are yet available as to the accuracy obtained with
a new circle.

W. B.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 92d meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was a
dehghtful all day, May 16, 1914, excursion of about 150 members to
Annapolis and the United States Naval Academy, Through the kind-
ness of the Navy Department and the Superintendent of the Naval
Academy, Capt. W. S. Fullam, many courtesies, including a trip up
the Severn and return on torpedo boats, were extended to the visiting
guests. The weather was ideal, and the excursion, under the man-
agement of the Committee on Meetings, in every way a success.

The 93d meeting of the Washington Academj^ of Sciences, a busi-
ness meeting, with President White in the chair and attended by
twenty members, was held in the Cosmos Club on May 28, 1914.

The revised bj-laws, as proposed on May 5, 1914, were adopted,
with but one amendment, namely, that the life membership fee shall
be $75, instead of, as formerty, $100.

At the suggestion of the corresponding secretary. Dr. Burgess, it
was agreed that the memorial volumes of the Royal Society of London,
after being kept on exhibition for a time at the Cosmos Club, be given
to Dr. L. O. Howard, who was the Academy's official representative
at the meetings in question.

Dr. G. R. Olshausen, of the Bureau of Standards, was elected to
resident membership.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 743d meeting was held on October 10, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,
Vice President Eichelberger in the chair; 25 persons present.

]\Ir. H. H. Kimball read a paper on Measurements of the total radia-
tion received on a horizontal surface from the Sun and sky. From records
at Mt. Weather since 1912 of the Callendar horizontal recording pyr-
heliometer, it has been found that the total radiation per square centi-
meter of horizontal surface, with the clearest sky, varies from 250
calories per day on December 20, to 765 calories on June 10. The
average daily radiation in summer is about 68 per cent of that received
on clear days, and in winter it is about 63 per cent. The maxinmm
solar radiation at normal incidence varies from 1.37 calories per minute
per square centuneter in January, to 1.50 calories in May and Septem-
ber. The total radiation on a horizontal surface with a clear sky varies

587

588 proceedings: philosophical society

from 0.77 calories per minute in December to 1.55 calories in June.
When clouds are near the Sun, but do not obscure it, the momentary-
rates are increased by about 0.15 calorie per minute. The diffuse sky-
radiation received on a horizontal surface at noon averages about 25
per cent of that received on the same surface from the Sun. On a
clear summer day it amounts to from one-eighth to one-third of the
total radiation. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. The com-
munication was discussed by Messrs. Bowie and Humphreys.

Mr. F. E. FowLE then presented an illustrated paper on Atmospheric
transparency and Avogadro\s constant. A brief summary of this paper
was published in this Journal, 4: 529-530. 1914. The paper was dis-
cussed by Messrs. Humphreys, Bowie, and Eichelberger.

The 744th meeting was held on October 24, 1914, at the Cosmos
Club, President Fischer in the chair; 22 persons present.

Mr. W. W. CoBLENTZ presented a paper on A comparison of stellar
radiometers and radiometric measurements on stars. It was shown there
is but little difference in the radiation sensitivity of stellar thermo-
couples constructed of bismuth-platinum or of bismuth-bismuth + tin
alloy. An improved method of maintaining vacuum by means of me-
tallic calcium was used. Measurements were made on 112 celestial
bodies, including 105 stars, quantitatively on stars to the 5.3 magnitude
and qualitatively to the 6.7 magnitude. It was found that red stars
emit from 2 to 3 times as much total radiation as blue stars of the same
photometric magnitude. Measurements were made on the transmis-
sion of radiation of stars through an absorption cell of water; these
showed that, of the total radiation emitted, the blue stars have about
2 times as much radiation as the yellow stars and about 3 times as much
as the rec^ stars. A stellar thermocouple in comparison with a bolo-
meter was found more sensitive. The investigation showed that the
sensitivity required to do much successful work in stellar spectral en-
ergy curves would be 100 times that of the apparatus used, which was
such that when combined with a 3-foot reflecting telescope a deflection
of 1 mm. would have resulted when exposed to a candle 53 miles dis-
tant. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Swann and Wenner.

Mr. H. L. Curtis then spoke on Insidating properties of solid dielec-
trics ivith special reference to surface films. A summary of this paper
appeared in this Journal, 4: 492, 1914. The paper was chscussed by
Messrs. C. A. Briggs, Burgess, Swann, and Stillman.

The 745th meeting was held on November 7, 1914, at the Cosmos
Club; President Fischer in the chair; 49 persons present.

By invitation, Mr. J. Johnston spoke on Soine effects of high pres-
sure. Thorough investigation of the effects producible by high pres-
sure will yield information of very great value in its bearing upon
many fundamental problems of physics and chemistry. For example,
it would seem that we are much more likely to ascertain precisely what
happens when a crystal melts by studying this process through a wide

proceedings: botanical society 589

range of pressure. Although comparatively little systematic investi-
gation of this domain has yet been made, several conclusions seem now
to be justified; the more important are as follows: Increase of pressure
raises the melting point (with but two known exceptions — bisnmth and
ice 1), the change produced being progressively smaller for each suc-
cessive pressure increment; but there is no reason for believing that
there is either a maximum melting point (as had been postulated by
Tammann) or a critical end-point solid-liquid. Change of pressure may
either raise or lower a transformation temperature (solid —^ solid) or a
solubihty; this implies that change of pressure may alter the number
and nature of the substances crystallizing out from a cooling solution
containing several components. Increase of pressure produces a de-
crease of electrical resistance of all the pure metals investigated (bismuth
excepted) , but increases the resistance of the alloys ; the change of resist-
ance of manganin or therlo is the most convenient means of measuring
high pressures accurately. Change of pressure displaces the position
of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, especially in reactions involv-
ing a vapor phase, since it has such a marked effect upon the con-
centration of the vapor. The communication was discussed by Messrs.
Buckingham, Sw^ann, Bowie, and Humphreys.

Mr. L. J. Briggs then spoke on The Australian meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. The meeting was made pos-
sible through the generosity of the Australian Commonwealth, which
placed at the disposal of the British Association a fund to defray in
part the over-sea expenses of members and guests. Meetings were
held at Perth, Melbourne, Adelaide, Sydney, and Brisbane, the capi-
tals of the five states of the Commonwealth. The scientific meetings
were limited to Melbourne and Sydney. Numerous excursions were
arranged at each place. Free transportation was provided. on all the
railroads, and the over-sea members were entertained in each of the
cities. Of the many interesting papers presented before the physical
section, there was mentioned in particular the address of the President
of the section. Professor Trouton, on Absorption and adsorption; IVIr.
C. G. Abbot's paper on The variability of the Sun; Sir Ernest Ruther-
ford's paper on Gamma rays; and Mr. Moseley's paper on High fre-
quency spectra.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The ninetv-eighth regular meeting of the Botanical Society of
Washington was held October 6, 1914, in the Cosmos Club. Forty
members and two guests were present. The followmg scientific pro-
gram was given: -7 / • .

P. H. Dorsett, The botanical garden of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (with

lantern). / • u i

W. F. Wight, Andean origin of the cultivated potato (with lantern

and specimens).

Both papers are to be published elsewhere.

590 proceedings: botanical society

The fourteenth annual meeting of the Botanical Society of Washing-
ton was held at 1.30 p.m., October 23, 1914. The customary reports
were presented and approved and the following officers were elected for
the ensuing year: Dr. R. H. True, President; Mr. G. N. Collins,
Vice President; Prof. C. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary; Dr.PER-
LEY Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary; Mr. H. C. Gore, Treasurer,
and Mr. W. E. Safford, Vice President to the Washington Academy of
Sciences.

The ninetj^-ninth regular meeting of the Botanical Society of W^ash-
ington was held November 3, 1914 in the Cosmos Club. Forty-nine
members and three guests were present. Mr. Wilson Popenoe was
unanimously elected to membership. The scientific program w^as:

Paul Popenoe, The date palm in antiquity (with lantern). The
speaker referred particularly to the influence of the date palm on the
religion of the Semitic peoples. Prized for the food and drink it fur-
nished, it was revered because of the mystery of sex emphasized by its
monoeciousness, and became identified with the primitive mother god-
dess of fertility. A sacred palm in a garden at Eridu, near the mouth
of the Euphrates river, is thought by many investigators to be the ori-
gin of the Tree of Life of the Garden of Eden, described in Genesis.
The culture of the palm was thoroughly known at a very early period,
the Babylonian inscriptions giving reason to believe that it was more
skillful 1900 years B.C. than it is in that region 1900 years A.D.

W. E. Safford, The economic 'plants of ancient Peru. This paper
was based upon collections and observations made by the speaker while
cruising along the Peruvian and ChiHan coast, in 1887, and while acting
as Commissioner for the World's Columbian Exposition to Peru and
Bolivia, in 1891 to 1893. Prehistoric graves were opened at Caldera,
Iquique, Arica, the Rimac valley, Ancon, Chimbote, Truxillo, and the
vicinity of Payta. The material obtained is mainly in the Field Colum-
bian Museum at Chicago and the United States National Museum.
In addition to objects of ethnological interest many articles were found
illustrating the ethnobotany of ancient Peru. Not only were seeds,
seed-pods, dried fruits, leaves, and tubers found, but beautiful represen-
tations of many of the food plants in terra-cotta, in the form of funeral
vases, were discovered in graves near the coast, especially at Chimbote
and Truxillo. Among these were a number not included in Wittmack's
list published in Reis and Stuebel's great work "Das Todtenfeld von
Ancon." Beautiful models in terra-cotta of the tubers of Solanum. tu-
berosum were found, also of the fruits of Solanum, 7nuricatum and Lu- '
cuma ohovota, and most interesting of all the almond-like kernels of
Caryocar amygdaUforme R. & P., easily distinguished by their pro-
truding recurved embryo. Another interesting object was a terra-cotta
vase representing the roots of the yahutia {Xanthosoma sp.). The collec-
tions include specimens of Phaseolus vulgaris and Phaseolus lunatus, a
gourd full of peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and models of the same on
terra-cotta vases; mandioca roots and models of the latter; quantities
of maize and models of the same on funeral vases; bags of coca leaves

proceedings: anthropological society 591

{Erythroxylum Coca), and specimens of raw cotton, dark brown, light
brown, and white, together with spindles with cotton yarn upon them;
looms with half-woven fabrics, and textiles of beautiful and intricate
designs. Among the most interesting of the funeral vases were forms
representing the corn god of ancient Peru, a monster with protruding
tusks, surrounded by ears of maize; and the god of agriculture, repre-
sented with a stalk of maize in one hand and a stalk of mandioca in the
other, with a cluster of roots at the base very much like those of a
dahlia.

This paper was illustrated by numerous slides, principally of objects
collected by the speaker and now in the collection of the Field
Columbian Museum.

Perley Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AVASHINGTON

At the 475th regular meeting of the Society, held October 21, in the
Public Library, Dr. D. S. Lamb, of the Army Medical Museum, deliv-
ered an address on Sanitation in ancient civilizations. In the usage of
the speaker the word ancient was specifically applied to the period be-
fore the fall of the Roman Empire. The beginning of the historic pe-
riod for different nations, he said, varies much; for Egypt, about 11,000
B.C.; for the American nations, within the Christian era. But the
character of all the beginnings was probably much the same: human
necessities, life, health, food, clothing, shelter, differed but little, except
as influenced by climate or geographical position. The need of sani-
tation was especially shown by the histories of epidemics; for instance,
the black death of the fourteenth century destroved, it is said, about
25,000,000 persons.

Pure water was one of the first necessities. Man must have availed
himself at first of the use of springs, lakes, and streams; and when these
were not available, he dug a well; later, to have the water still more
accessible, he built a cistern. And when many families had congre-
gated together, he built an aqueduct to bring the water to the town or
city and to distribute it to the individuals. Old artesian wells are found
in Asia Minor, Persia, China, Egypt, Algeria, and even the Desert of
Sahara. There were aqueducts in Palestine; one was built by Hezekiah
about 700 B.C. The earliest form of aqueduct in Greece was at Cos.
Rome had at one time 19 aqueducts; 14 of these were large and together
had a total length of 359 miles, 55 of which was on arches, somcthnes
100 feet high. Some of these are still in use. Most however fell into
decay or were destroyed by hostile armies. In olden times when the
king of Persia travelled he had the water boiled before drinking it.
Aqueducts have been found in Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru, anteda-
ting the arrival of Columbus.

As for the disposal of waste, among the Hebrews it was buried or
burned. There is no account of drainage among the Greeks. The
Romans built great cloacae or sewers, that carried the storm water and

592 proceedings: anthropological society

refuse into the Tiber. Several of these are still in use. At one time
the sewers were cleaned out at a cost of a million dollars; it was neces-
sary to divert the course of seven so-called rivers to do it. The dis-
posal of the dead varied much in different nations. After a battle it
was usual either to bury in large pits or trenches or to burn the bodies.
The opening of such pits or trenches, as well as the opening of church
vaults and old burial grounds, sometimes caused sickness and even
death. The Egyptians buried the dead after embalming them. In-
fants, however, were often buried beneath the habitation. In India
the dead were generally cremated. The Parsees placed their dead on
gratings in towers, for the vultures to eat; the bones were afterwards
gathered up. Among the Massagatae, says Herodotus, when a man
became old, he was sacrificed and eaten. In Greece the dead were bur-
ied near the houses of the living; cofRns of stone were used. The
Romans cremated the dead after about 450 B.C. until the spread of
Christianity, when for several centuries it was the custom to place the
dead in the catacombs beneath the city of Rome. The Hebrews always
buried outside the camp or city. The story of the burial of Jesus
Christ is that the body was wrapped in linen with spices about 100
pounds in weight and buried in a tomb in a garden on Mount Calvary.
The ancient Mexicans cremated the dead. Indian mounds in the United
States contain bodies of the dead.

The desire to bathe is probably as old as man himself. The Lace-
demonians are said to have devised the hot air bath. The Scythians
took a sweat bath. Soap was mentioned by Pliny about 25 A.D. and
was said to have been brought from Germany. The Hebrews were
required by religious regulations to be clean in person, clothing, and
houses. In Egypt, when Alexandria was taken by the Caliph Omar in
646, there were 4000 baths, and the 700,000 books of the great library
were burned to heat these baths. The Romans had many public baths,
free to all. The bath of Caracalla was a mile in circumference and
accommodated 2000 persons. The Greeks bathed daily.

Contagious diseases afflicted the ancients even more than the mod-
erns. The Hebrews especially attempted to get rid of leprosy by seg-
regating the lepers. Circumcision was common among the Egyptians,
the Ethiopians and peoples in the Pacific Islands, Asia Minor, Persia,
Arabia, and eastern and western Africa. Among the Hebrews the cus-
tom was a religious ceremonial. The Egyptians believed that diseases
usually were contracted through food and drink, and therefore they
tabooed some articles of food. Among the Greeks the Pythagoreans
had rules relating to what they ate or drank as well as to their exercises.
The Hebrews had many rules of diet that had the force of religious
injunctions; especially as to meat, the animal had to be slaughtered in
a certain way and with much attention to detail.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE .

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV DECEMBER 19, 1914 No. 21

PHYSICS. — Studies on the silver voltameter.^ G. A. Hulett
and G. W. Vinal, Bureau of Standards.

A comparison has been made of the silver voltameters and
methods employed at the Bureau of Standards with the volta-
meters and methods used at Princeton University. For the
details of the previous work at these two institutions reference
is made to the Bureau of Standards Bulletin, 9, 151, 209, 493;
10, 475, and the Transactions of American Electrochemical
Society, 12, 257; 22, 367. All the experimental data recorded
in this paper were obtained in the laboratory of Physical Chem-
istry of Princeton University.

A preliminary comparison of the voltameters, using the same
electrolyte in all, showed a consistent difference of one part in
ten thousand, the Bureau voltameters having the greater de-
posit. A systematic search for the cause of this difference showed
it to be due to two factors, viz., the differences in the methods
of preparing the porous cups and, second, the differences in the
method of washing the deposit.

The Bureau's porous cups were kept in silver nitrate between
experiments and produced little change of acidity in the electro-
lyte of the voltameter, but the Princeton porous cups were
usually washed free from the silver nitrate after each experiment
and kept in distilled water. It was found in this case that the
acidity of the voltameter electrolyte increased. The fact that
the Bureau's porous cups were made by a different maker than
for the Princeton cups was without significance since when the

I Detailed pcaper to appear in full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

593

594 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN IN GLASS

two different kinds were kept saturated with silver nitrate they
produced identical results.

The practice of nearlj^ all observers has been to continue the
washing of the deposit until the presence of silver nitrate can no
longer be detected in the wash waters by chemical tests, but
many have taken the further precaution of allowing distilled
water to stand on the deposit for a considerable period of time.
As a test on the completeness of the washing, we compared the
conductivity of the water before being put in the cup with its
conductivity after it has stood in the cup for various periods
of time. In every case the conductivity increased with time.
It was at first supposed that this increase was due to entrapped
silver nitrate gradually soaking out, as we could detect the silver
in the water after allowing to it stand overnight. All subse-
quent experiments, for which reference is made to the complete
paper, showed that this is not the case, but rather that an electro-
lytic process was taking place by which the silver was passing
into solution at the rate of about 0.006 mg. per hour from a 4
gram deposit of silver on platinum. To confirm this we were
able to show by a galvanometer that a current actually pass.ed
from the silver through the water to the platinum. In washing
the deposits overnight, this effect becomes appreciable. The
work was closed with a final comparison of the voltameters in
the light of our experiments and unusually good agreement found.

PHYSICS. — A simple method for the accurate 7neasure7nent of
relative strain in glass. Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical
Laboratory.

The phenomena attendant upon strain in glass have long
interested physicists and glass-makers, and much thne has been
spent in the investigation of the different phases of this subject.
The optical effects resulting from strain were first studied in
detail by Brewster^ at a time when only the simplest of optical
apparatus was available and but little was known of double
refraction. Notwithstanding this, Brewster deduced from a

' Philos. Tnins. 1814, 1815, ISKi,

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN IN GLASS 595

series of ingenious experiments many of the fundamental laws
of the optical behavior of glass strained either mechanically by
differential pressure or tension, or as a result of non-uniform
heating or cooling. Brewster found: that a plate of glass under
load is birefracting; that the optical effect produced is sensibly
proportional to the intensity of the strain; that a plate of glass
under differential compression behaves optically as a uniaxial
negative crystal with its principal axis in the direction of the act-
ing load, while under differential tension it acts as an optically
positive uniaxial crystal; that in a glass plate cooled quickly
from a high temperature a permanent strain is imparted which
is at maximum intensity next to the outer surfaces (zone of
compression) , and which, decreasing toward the center, reaches a
neutral band and passes then into a zone of tension in the central
part of the plate; that compression produces retardation, while
dilatation causes acceleration of the transmitted light waves,
with the result that a rapidly cooled cylindrical rod of glass with
plane parallel end surfaces behaves as a negative lens (meniscus) .
Following Brewster, Fresnel- proved definitely that two waves
are transmitted through a strained glass plate; F. E. Neumann^
gave a mathematical solution of the general problem on the basis
of certain assumptions; A. Wertheim'' verified Brewster's state-
ment of the proportionality between optical effect and intensity of
strain; Mace de Lepinay^ found that the path difference is practi-
cally the same for all wave lengths and that, therefore, the
interference colors are essentially those of Newton's color scale.
J. Kerr*' proved, by means of a Jamin interference-refractor, that
in the case of compression both waves are retarded while in the
case of tension both waves are accelerated; that the wave whose
vibrations take place in the plane normal to the direction of the
applied load is retarded most, its retardation being practically
twice that of the wave vibrating along the direction of strain;
that "the action of direationally strained glass, in the common

- Oeuvres Comi)letes.

3 Pogg. Ann. 54. 1841.

* Comptcs Rendus, 32, 33, 34. 1854.

f* Ann. d. Chim. et Phys., 19: 1-90. 1880.

« J. Kerr, Phil. Mag., (5), 36: 321. 1886.

596 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN IN GLASS

polariscope, upon light crossing the Une of strain at right angles
is due exclusively to strain-generated change of velocity of the
component ray which has its plane of polarization parallel to
the line of strain;" that in the case of plates cut parallel with,
or normal to the direction of strain, the difference of retardation
for obliquely incident rays varies directly as the cosine of the
angle of refraction. This relation, in particular, indicates how
closely similar in its optical behavior a strained glass plate is to
a uniaxial mineral. S. Czapski^ measured the relative strain
in glass rods by a dioptric method based on Brewster's observa-
tion that a cylindrical rod behaves optically as a meniscus lens.
F. Pockels^ studied, by means of a Jamin interferential refractor
and a Babinet compensator, the optical effects produced in a
glass plate by elastic deformation of given magnitude. He
found also that a lead silicate glass high in lead shows anomalous
optical behavior in that it acts under load as an optically positive
substance; also that for each color of light there is a composition
of lead silicate glass for which no optical effect is produced either
by compression or dilatation. Recently E. Zschimmer and H.
Schultz^ have investigated, by means of a Babinet compensator
in combination with an interference method based on Lummer's
theory of interference curves of equal inclination, the optical
behavior of glass heated and cooled under different condi-
tions. Their method, like that of Czapski, is so applied that
it furnishes an average or integration value of the relative re-
tardation of the waves after transmission through any particular
part of the plate. The method is well adapted for the purpose
but the apparatus is complicated and its manipulation evidently
requires a considerable degree of skill.

It is of interest to note that in practically every paper cited
above a new method is proposed for measuring the optical effects
observed. A careful study of these and other papers and also
of the general theory of the themial behavior of cooling glass
plates indicates clearly that further progress in this interesting
and technically important field depends chiefly on careful quanti-

7 Ann. d. Phys., 42: 319-331. 1889.

8 Ann. d. Phys., 7: 745-771. 1902; 9: 220-223. 1902.
3 Ann. d. Phys., (4), 42: 345-396. 1913.

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN IN GLASS

597

tative measurements and that therefore a simple method for
measuring relative optical retardations accurately should be of
value. The method presented below is suggested for this purpose.
In this method the glass plate is examined in strong monochro-
matic light between crossed nicols; the path difference of the
emergent light waves at any given point is measured by means
of a bi-quartz compensator of special type.*"

The most satisfactory source of monochromatic light avail-
able is the green line (546 hij.) of a strong mercury lamp, as viewed

1

1

'

1 !

. c

4 •

1 1

1

i

'

i

through a Wratten and Wainwright special filter No. 77. The
rays from the lamp are rendered parallel by means of a con-
denser lens before entering the polarizer. For certain purposes
direct sunlight or an arc light may be used and gives results
which are sufficiently accurate.

The bi-quartz compensator consists of two quartz plates and
two quartz wedges cut parallel to the principal axis and mounted
as indicated in figure 1 a. When viewed in the diagonal position
under crossed nicols this wedge presents the phenomenon of
figure 1 b, namely a dark, transverse band of exact compensation,
on both sides of which the interference colors rise to gray, or
other color of the first or higher order depending on the pitch
and length of the wedge. The wedge is so ground that gradua-
tions on the upper surface of the compensator indicate directly
the path differences in ixfx for the wave length (546mm) of light
employed. As indicated in figure 1 the bi-compensator is so

10 F. E. Wright, Amer. Jour. Sci., (4), 26: 370-371.
of Washington, Publication 158: 134-135. 1911.

1908; Carnegie Institution

598 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN IN GLASS

constructed that the optical elongations of the two halves are
equal but of opposite sign, the result being that on the insertion
of a birefracting plate in the diagonal position the dark band in
the one-half moves to the right while in the second it moves to
the left as indicated in figure 1 c. With a properly constructed
bi-compensator the shift produced by a path difference of less
than Imm can be readily detected and measured. The sensitive-
ness of the combination wedge varies inversely with the pitch
of the wedge. The most favorable conditions for observation
are: intense illumination by parallel, monochromatic rays; long
wedge with very low pitch, such that 1 scale division (0.1 mm.) is
equivalent to a path difference of 1 nfx; magnifying system for
examining wedge located above analyser. This last precaution
does away with the disturbing rotatory effects on the planes of
vibration of the transmitted waves at the surfaces of the lens
system. For most purposes, however, such precautions are
not necessary and it is sufficient to use a less sensitive bi-com-
pensator (1 scale division = di^n or 10 nn) in the lower focal
plane of a positive eyepiece in a petrographic microscope, the
analyser then to be a cap-nicol.

The conversion of the optical retardations thus measured on
a given piece of glass to the corresponding elastic deformation
data is accomplished by direct measurements on the glass sub-
jected to a series of mechanical loads of known magnitudes.

The above optical method for measuring relative strain in
glass has been employed for several years in practical glass work
and has been found to be satisfactory." In certain instances
details of the method require modification to meet best the special
conditions of measurement, but such adaptations are readily
made and the general underlying principles remain unchanged.

MINERALOGY. — Additional notes on babingtonite from Passaic
County, New Jersey. Clarence N. Fenner, Geophysical
Laboratory.

In the November 19th issue of this Journal the writer de-
scribed an occurrence of the mineral babingtonite in the deposits

" R. L. Frink. Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 5 : 13. 1912.

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 599

of zeolitic minerals found at various localities in the Watchung
basalt sheets of northern New Jersey. Mention was made
of the presence of certain remarkable cavities or casts of some
mineral formerly present, which are very abundant in the de-
posits and which have been a source of much speculation among
mineralogists for many years. It was believed that the evidence
indicated that the origin of the casts was to be ascribed to bab-
ingtonite. Since the article was written certain new evidence
has come to light which has an important bearing upon the subject.

Through the kindness of Dr. W. T. Schaller of the United
States Geological Survey my attention has been directed to two
recent discoveries. One of these was reported in an article in
the New York Times for November 23, in which Mr. F. I. Allen
of New York described the discovery of anhydrite at West
Paterson and ascribed to this the role of the parent mineral of
the casts. At about the same time or a little before, an un-
published discovery was made at McKiernan and Bergin's quarry
in Paterson of pseudomorphs of quartz occupying certain of the
cavities. These pseudomorphs were remarkable for the fact
that they were loose in the cavities and could be easily withdrawn,
but nevertheless showed sharply defined prismatic faces and
less distinct terminal faces. The presence of these faces suggested
that a comparison of the crystal angles with those of known
species might serve to establish the identity of the original
mineral.

Since the appearance of the previous article I have received a
number of inquiries regarding the occurrence of babingtonite
from mineralogists who have been interested in the casts, and
some question has been raised as to the quantitative importance
of this mineral in the formation of the cavities. Its identification
as babingtonite appears to have been accepted, but some doubt
has been expressed as to whether it was present in large amount
and as to whether most of the cavities should not rather be
ascribed to anhydrite and a possible thu-d mineral of unknown
nature. For these reasons and on account of the importance
of the new finds it seemed desirable to revisit the localities of
discovery, to examine all available material, and to present a

600 fenner: babingtonite from passaic counts

summary of the evidence which has come to view in its bearing
upon the question of the identity of the original mineral or
minerals of the cavities. Accordingly several days have been
devoted to visits to the New Jersey localities where the minerals
and casts have been found and to the collection of material for
examination. Considerable new evidence has been brought to
light and will be presented here.

One of the chief points upon which information was considered
desirable was the question of the relative importance and abund-
ance of the two minerals babingtonite and anhydrite. It was
found that the quantity of anhydrite so far discovered was very
small and that no new material had been opened up since that
which Mr. Allen described. However, through the kindness of
Mr. Allen and of another collector, Mr. Lovell, of Paterson, the
opportunity was given to examine several specimens. The
anhydrite occurs in large crystals in a quartz matrix and there
seems to be no reason to doubt that it is of primary origin and
does not simply fill cavities left by the removal of some other
substance. In the specimens seen it occurs either in simple
crystals of nearly square section or in slightly radiating or fan-
like crystals produced by a spreading-out in the direction of one
of the axes. Careful examination failed to show any indication
of laminae of quartz projecting from the walls into the anhydrite.
On the contrary the walls of the matrix appeared to be perfectly
straight and smooth and differed in that respect from those of
most of the rectangular casts. However, it does not seem
unlikely that under certain conditions of decomposition and re-
moval of the anhydrite such laminae might be built up along the
cleavage planes. The evidence appears quite clear that anhy-
drite was the original mineral of some of the rectangular cavities,
but the later investigation has strengthened the belief that
babingtonite also was an abundant and important mineral and
that certain of the casts left by its crystals are of such size and
form that they present a remarkable resemblance to those due
to anhydrite.

From a search among the minerals of West Paterson and Great
Notch it has been found that babingtonite is less rare than had

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 601

been supposed. Small remnants have been discovered on
nmnerous specimens (about two dozen in all have been obtained)
and its mode of occurrence is frequently such as to strengthen
the view regarding its relationship to the casts. In many in-
stances it is plain that the small fragments seen are survivals
of larger crystals. As a general rule the babingtonite is covered
with decomposition products, either the asbestos-like substance
mentioned in the preceding paper, or a green material, probably
of chloritic nature, or, less frequently, red hematite. In general
the greater part of the crystals has been removed and only the
impressions are left, but by directing a search among the termi-
nations of the cavities, where thin laminae of other minerals
projected into the original crystals, babingtonite has been found
so frequently as to leave little doubt that it represents portions
of the original crystals surviving because of their protected
situation. In another form of occurrence the relations are such
as to show that it is not of secondary deposition. Broad faces
of casts have been found, on which patches of babingtonite are
seen, and from other portions of the surfaces small projections
of the mineral run directly into the matrix. The relations indi-
cate that large crystals, which have been subsequently dissolved
away, carried small offshoots, which have been protected by the
matrix. The characteristics are those which have been ob-
served in several crystal groups of babingtonite which are in a
better state of preservation than usual.

From a study of the specimens in which these relations have
been found it is possible to arrive at certain conclusions regard-
ing the nature of the casts which are due to babingtonite.

In its simplest form the mineral has developed in small, thin
blades, extending Hke gashes into other minerals. These may
be single crystals or may form groups growing together without
apparent order. At times such groups show two or three crystals
of larger development, with small offshoots in various directions.
With increasing size the crystals, as inferred from the cavities,
have tended to assume rectangular forms, but with one dimension
still much less than 'the other two. In places the impressions
of these tabular crystals extend over a wide surface, often in a

602 fenner: babingtonite from passaic county

somewhat fan-like form. A specimen of pectolite showing the
impression of flattened crystals of this kind, and with numerous
small offshoots of babingtonite running into the matrix, gave
measurements of 4 x 5 cm. On the same specunen another
impression with essentially similar characteristics measured
2| X 5 cm. and showed a thickness of 0.5 cm. An impression
on quartz, with remnants of babingtonite among the laminae,
measured 7 x 1 x 0.5 cm., and another, likewise showing bab-
ingtonite, gave 7 X 3.5 x 0.3 cm. In another mode of develop-
ment the width and thickness of the cavities do not differ greatly
from each other and the crystals appear to have had a simple
prismatic form, whose cross-section was essentially rectangular.
A certain specimen which shows this type is composed of an
aggregate of prehnite crystals in a finger-like form, which now
surround a rectangular cavity running through the middle of the
group. The original crystal is inferred to have been babingtonite
because of the discovery of this material among the laminae
projecting from one of the surfaces of the orifice. The dimensions
of the cavity are 5 x 0.8 x 0.5 cm.

These measurements indicate that the crystals of babingtonite
attained large dimensions. Some may have been considerably
larger than the measurements given, as similar cavities of larger
size are not infrequent, but only those have been cited in which
the presence of babingtonite has been detected.

If, in cavities of this character, babingtonite had been dis-
covered in two or three specimens only, its presence might per-
haps be explained in other ways than under the supposition that
it represented the remnants of the crystals which filled the cavities,
but it has been found in repeated instances in the situations where
it was looked for and where it might be expected to resist for the
longest time the solvent action of circulating waters, and its
presence can hardly be regarded as fortuitous.

In practically all specimens in which babingtonite has been
found in the cavities thin laminae, projecting from the walls
and lying parallel to the widest surfaces, are a marked char-
acteristic, and 'such cavities are very abundant. In certain
other cavities the walls are either smooth or show ridges of some-

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 603

what different appearance from that presented by the extremely
thin laminae. In still others a cell-like structure of rectangular
partitions has been built across the cavities. In such types
anhydrite may have been the original filling, but no trace of
either mineral has been detected in them.

The formation of the laminae and ridges and partitions seems
best referable to the action of solvents upon planes of easy
solution in the crystal structure, with the simultaneous deposi-
tion of other minerals. Such solution-planes would most likely
correspond to cleavage-planes, although not necessarily so.
Anhydrite, as is well known, has three easy cleavages at right
angles to each other. According to Dana and Hintze, babing-
tonite has but two cleavages, which are parallel to 001 and 010
and include an angle of 92° 36', but it has been found by exami-
nation of small cleavage-fragments under the microscope that
in reality four are probably present. Three of these make angles
with each other which do not differ appreciably from 90°. These
cleavages have been observed both in the New Jersey mineral
and in National Museum specimens from Italy and Norway.
Therefore it does not appear practicable at present to differentiate
the casts on the basis of rectangular parting-laminae.

In these approximately rectangular cavities the babingtonite
crystals appear to have been of prismatic or tabular habit, with
a terminal plane cutting the other two at nearly right angles.
It cannot be stated definitely which crystal-faces are represented,
but, as suggested in the former paper. Dauber's g (210), h (110),
and c (001) appear probable forms. These are figured by Hintze
as faces of prominent development in babingtonite from Arendal
and Herbornseelbach and the included angles differ only slightly
from 90°. Crystals bounded by these three planes are of simpler
fomi than babingtonite ordinarily shows, but, considering the
well-known variations in this respect which many species exhibit,
this does not appear of serious importance.

Thus far the casts of rectangular form only have been treated
in this article, and it remains to consider those of lozenge-shaped
cross-section. The latter are also of frequent 'occurrence in the
deposits and are often associated with those of rectangular de-

604 fenner: babingtonite from passaic county

velopment. It is rather remarkable that, whereas the rectangu-
lar casts are found in various minerals — quartz, prehnite, pecto-
lite, datolite, albite — the lozenge-shaped casts have been observed
in quartz only, and no other minerals have been noticed in close
association (except possibly such as are of later origin). This
naturally implies a difference in conditions of deposition in the
two cases.

In the previous paper the lozenge-shaped cavities were regarded
as due to babingtonite. Since then little new evidence has
been found which either confirms or disproves this view, but
one fact on which the conclusion was in part based has been found
to have less force than had been supposed. It had been observed
that cross-sections of the babingtonite crystals first discovered
exhibited lozenge-shaped boundaries, and in the new material
likewise this is frequently true, but careful examination raises a
doubt as to whether this is not a result of the manner in which
weathering has attacked the crystals. It seems probable, in
fact, that, in some cases, decomposition has acted in a peculiar
manner upon the crystal-surfaces and has tended to produce
lozenge-shaped forms from originally rectangular crystals. Less
weight, therefore, is now attached to this evidence.

On the other hand, the measurements of the angles of the cav-
ities which were cited show very close agreement with the crystal
angle between the faces b (010) and g (210) of babingtonite.

A number of the quartz pseudomorphs from McKiernan and
Bergin's quarry have been obtained and a series of new measure-
ments has been made with a contact goniometer. Some of these
specimens were kindly loaned by Professor Palache of Harvard
University and by Mr. Lovell of Paterson, and others were
secured from the foreman of the quarry. Although these pseu-
domorphs show sharp prismatic angles there was less agreement
among the measurements than had been expected. The average
of 56 measurements gave 61 5°, but there were variations ranging
from 57| to 66^°, and the two extremities of the same pseudo-
morph frequently showed a marked difference.

The terminal faces of the specimens were small and much less
well-defined than the prismatic faces, and the angles were not

fenner: babingtonite from passaic county 605

measured. They appear to indicate monoclinic or triclinic
s>Tnmetry, but do not suggest the forms of babingtonite which
are figured by Hintze and Dana. Differences in conditions of
deposition, however, might cause much variation in this respect.
Some indication of the fonner presence of a ferriferous mineral
is afforded by the frequency with which these casts are stained
red by ferric oxide or are partially occupied by a chloritic
substance.

The conclusions which have been reached regarding the various
forms of cavities from a study of the new material and a re-
examination of all the available evidence may be summarized
as follows: Both babingtonite and anhydrite were undoubtedly
present in the deposits and the crystals of each attained a large
size. In some instances the geometric form of the two was so
similar that the nature of the original mineral cannot be decided
from the casts alone. Babingtonite, however, seems to have
shown a tendency to develop in a rather tabular shape, and cavi-
ties of this kind, especially when showing the projection of many
thin laminae, are regarded as more probably due to the latter
mineral. The rectangular cavities both of tabular and of nearly
square form seem sufficiently explained by the discovery of these
two minerals

The origin of the lozenge-shaped cavities is more uncertain.
They may have been occupied by babingtonite deposited under
different conditions from those which prevailed during the de-
position of the rectangular forms and therefore developing
different crystal-faces, or they may be due to some other mineral
to whose nature we have Httle clue. It seems necessary to ob-
tain more information before reaching a positive conclusion on
this point.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably
prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each
■of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-
ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should
be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.
The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in
this issue.

GEOCHEMISTRY.— T^afer analyses from the lahoratonj of the U. S.

Geological Survey. F. W. Clarke. U. S. Geological Survey,

Water-Supply Paper, 364. Pp. 40. 1914.

This paper is a compilation of 203 analyses of river, lake, spring,

well and mine waters made by the chemists of the Geological Survey.

Among them are included the important series of analyses of waters

from the Yellowstone National Park, originally published in Bull. 47.

F. W. C.

GEOCHEMISTRY. —Quality of the surface waters of Washington.
Walton Van Winkle. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 339. Pp. 105. 1914. (Prepared in cooperation with the
State Board of Health of Washington).
Serial analyses of water collected for a year at 17 stations on the
principal rivers of Washington are reported and discussed in connection
with geologic, climatic, and economic conditions. The streams are low
in mineral content and. excellent for general industrial use and irriga-
tion, being comparable in quality to the extremely soft waters of New
England. All the waters belong to the calcium carbonate types, the
content of sulphate is not large, and chlorine is very low. The water
of Columbia River was under study for two years at Cascade Locks,
the lowest sampling point above tide-water. The stream ranges from
68 to 129 parts per million of dissolved solids and averages 94 parts
with a hardness of 58 parts. It carries an average of only 26 parts per
million of suspended matter; calculations show that it is denuding its
drainage basin at a rate of 100 to 150 tons of rock material per square
inile per annum.

R. B. Dole. .
606

.abstracts: botany 607

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Quality of the surface waters of Oregon. Walton
Van Winkle. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 363.
Pp. 1137 1914. (Prepared in cooperation with the state of Oregon,
John H. LEwqs, State Engineer.)
This document embodies the results of the first comprehensive study
of the quality of the surface waters of Oregon and reports serial analy-
ses of water from 20 stations on the principal rivers with a discussion
of the analyses in relation to conditions of geology, climate, and eco-
nomic development. The investigations of the composition of saline
lake waters in southeastern Oregon indicate that the commercial recov-
ery of soda salts from few of them is practicable. Most of the streams
within the State drain regions of basalts and other effusives, and con-
sequently carry relatively little mineral matter in solution.

R. B. Dole.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — The constitution of the natural silicates. Frank
WiGGLESWORTH Clarke. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No.
588. Pp. 128. 1914.
This bulletin is essentially a revision, brought down to date of bulle-
tin No. 125. It gives a more complete discussion of the silicic acids,
and develops more completely than in the former edition the conception
that the complex alumosihcates are best formulated as substitution
derivatives of normal silicates of aluminum. F. W. C.

BOTANY. — A conspectus of North American firs, exclusive of Mexico.
W. H. Lamb. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters,
9. Pp. 528-538. October, 1914.

This is a dendrological monograph on North 'American species of
Abies, exclusive of Mexico, designed especially for the information of
forest officers.

In our native firs, generally regarded as difficult to distinguish, each
specific form is here definitely separated from its nearest relative by
some anatomical difference. Those characteristics which are so variant
as to be valueless as a means of identification are discarded, and the
form of the cone-bract, the arrangement of the leaves, the character
of the upper surface of the leaves, and the position of the resin ducts
in the leaf are considered as the determinative factors so far as our
native firs are concerned.

The firs, as far as they can be distinguished from foliage alone, are
outhned in a key based entirely upon leaf differences, and a complete

608 abstracts: ornithology

key to North American species follows in which every distinguishing
characteristic is illustrated in accompanying plate and text figures. A
brief botanical description and statement of geographical distribution
is given for each species. On account of the large number of trees
which are mentioned in botanical literature under the name Abies,
an index of nomenclature is included in which the name now used by
the Forest Service is followed by its most commonly accepted English
equivalent.

The paper is concluded with a brief bibliography. W. H. L.

ORNITHOLOGY. — A monograph of the genus Chordeiles Swainson,
type of a new family of goatsuckers. Harry C. Oberholser.
Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 86. Pp. viii +
123, pis. 1-6. 1914.

The genus Chordeiles is of South American origin, though at present
occupying large areas in Central and North America. It has com-
monly been placed in the family Caprimulgidae, but its schizognathous
palate and other characters, chiefly osteological, show that it should
be separated as a new family, Chordeilidae. With it should be asso-
ciated the genera Nannochordeiles and Nyctiprogne, also possibly
Lurocalis and Podager. Incidentally, the monotypic genus Antro-
stomus (type, Antrostomus carolinensis) is, as shown by its cranial and
other characters, very distinct from the Old World Caprimulgus, and
also from the American whip-poor-wills, which latter should con-
stitute a new genus Setochalcis (type, Caprimulgus vociferus Wilson) .

The members of the genus Chordeiles are remarkable among other
things for their great individual variation, amounting in some cases
to distinct color phases, and to very considerable external structural
differences. The genus comprises three specific groups — Chordeiles
virginianus, Chordeiles acutipennis, and Chordeiles rupestris. The first
mentioned is divisible into nine geographic races, i.e.: C. v. virginianus,
from eastern and northwestern North America; C. v. hesperis. Pacific
Coast and northwestern United States; C. v. sennetti, northern Great
Plains; C. v. howelli, subsp. nov., central portion of western United
States; C. v. henryi, Arizona and New Mexico; C. v. aserriensis, subsp.
restit., southern Texas; C. v. chapmani, Florida and Gulf coast to
eastern Texas; C. v. vicinus, Bahama Islands; and C. v. minor. Greater
Antilles. Of Chordeiles acutipennis there are five subspecies: C. a.
acutipennis, from central and northern South America; C. a. exilis
(= pruinosus Auct.), coast of Peru and northern Chile; C. a. micro-

abstracts: zoology 609

meris, subsp. nov., southern Mexico; C. a. texensis, central and northern
Mexico and southwestern United States; and C. a. inferior, subsp.
nov., Lower CaUfornia. The South American Chordeiles rupestris has
three forms: C. r. rupestris, from middle and northern Brazil and eastern
Bolivia; C. r. xyostidus, subsp. nov., central Colombia; and C. r. zaleucus,
subsp. nov., eastern and central Peru. .H. C. O,

ZOOLOGY. — Une etude philosophique de la relation enire les crinaides
actuels et la temperature de leur habitat. Austin H. Clark. Bulle-
tin de ITnstitut Oceanographique, Monaco, No. 294. 1914.

Of the two suborders of recent unstalked crinoids (comatulids) one,
Macrophreata, is chiefly developed in the colder waters while the other,
Oligophreata, occurs chiefly in the warmer seas.

In the Macrophreata the maximum number of families is found
between the temperatures of 50° and 66° Fahrenheit, from which point
the number gradually decreases as the temperature becomes less, and
abruptly decreases as the temperature increases; in the Oligophreata
the maximum number of families is found between 60° and 65° Fahren-
heit, from which point the number gradually decreases as the tempera-
ture increases, and abruptly decreases as the temperature becomes less.

Considering all the comatulid families together, the greatest repre-
sentation is between 55° and 65°, with the emphasis as 60°-65°; the
few families of stalked crinoids of which we have adequate knowledge
also occur at these temperatures.

Thus it would appear that the temperature range between 55° and
65° Fahrenheit (12?78 and 18?33 Centigrade) represents the optimum
temperature for the recent crinoids as a whole.

The species occurring between these temperatures represent very
conservative types, all of the more aberrant types being developed in
warmer or colder water. Furthermore, it is within these temperatures
that the fossil crinoids find their closest living representatives. Hence
it is suggested that it was possibly within these temperatures, between
55° and 65° Fahrenheit (12?78 and 18?33 Centigrade) that the post-
pala?ozoic crinoid fauna was chiefly developed. A. H. C.

INDEX TO VOLUME IV

PROCEEDINGS, WASHINGTON ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES.

Anthropological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 14, 79, 167, 336, 591.
Biological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 66, 203.
Botanical Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 35, 84, 125, 261, 384,

589.
Chemical Society. Proceedings: 13,

36, 85, 168, 233, 263, 332.

Geological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 8, 169, 236, 295,

382.
Philosophical Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 88, 126, 204, 235, 333,

587.
Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 65, 259, 587.

AUTHOR INDEX.

Abbot, C. G. The solar constant of
radiation. 89.

Agree, S. F. The reactions of both
ions and molecules of acids, bases
and salts. 332.

Adams, L. H. *Observations on the
Daubree experiment and capillar-
ity in relation to certain geological
speculations. 5.

Agnew, p. G. a watthour meter
method of testing instrument trans-
formers. 509.

Andersen, Olaf. The crystallo-
graphic and optic properties of
magnesium and manganese pyro-
phosphates. 318.

Appleman, Prof. Chas. O. The phys-
iology of the rest period in the
potato tuber. 384.

Austin, L. W. Recent experiments in
the reception of radio-telegraphic
signals. 335.

Quantitative experiments in radio-
telegraphic transmission. 570.

Avers, H. G. *Fourth general ad-
justment of the precise level net
in the United States and the result-
ing standard elevations. 255.

Ayers, S. Henry. *Ability of Strep-
tococci to survive pasteurization.
504.

*Pasteurization in bottles and the

process of bottling hot pasteurized
milk. 290.

Babcock, Wm. H. The North Atlan-
tic Island of Brazil. 83.

Bacon, C. W. Changes that take place

in the curing of cigar-leaf tobacco.

233.
Bancroft, Howland. *Geology and

ore deposits near Lake City, Col*

or ado. 193.
Banks, Dr. Edgar J. Bismya, or

the Lost City of Adab. 343.
Barber, H. S. *Observations on the

life history of Micromalthus dehilis

Lee. 200.

' Abstracts.

610

INDEX

611

*0n interspefic mating in Phen-

godes and inbreeding in Eros. 257.

*The remarkable life-history of a

new family (Micromalthidae) of
beetles. 231.

Barber, T. C. *The Argentine ant.
201.

Barnett, W. H. *Geology of the
Standing Rock and Cheyenne Elv-
er Indian Reservation, North and
South Dakota. 423.

Bartlett, H. H. Further evidence
of mutation in Oenothera. 203.

Bastin, Edson S. *Geology of the
pitchblende ores of Colorado.
256.

Some geologic features of the East-
port region, Maine. 236.

Bates, F. J. The influence of atmos-
pheric conditions in the testing of
sugars. 317.

Bates, S. J. Comparison of the silver
and iodine voltameters and the de-
termination of the value of the
faraday. 69.

Bauer, L. A. Results of a first analy-
sis of the Sun's magnetic field.
126.

Bayley, W. S. *Raritan, New Jer-
sey, folio. 371.

Becker, George F. Note on mean
density of fractured rocks. 429.

Beekly, a. L. *Geology of the Stand-
ing Rock and Cheyenne River In-
dian reservation. North and South
Dakota. 423.

Berry, Edward W. *The Upper
Cretaceous and Eocene floras of
South Carolina and Georgia. 330.

Bisset, Peter. The James River
hybrid walnut. 85.

Blackwelder, Eliot. Post-Cretaceous
history of the mountains of central
western Wyoming. 445.

Bleininger, a. V. The veritos firing
rings. 446.

Bonine, C. a. Radial barite concre-
tions from the Cretaceous of south-
eastern Montana. 295.

Bowie, William. *Fourth general ad-
justment of the precise level net
in the United States and the result-
ing standard elevations. 255.

Isostasy in India. 245.

*Primary triangulation on the hun-
dred and fourth meridian, and on
the thirty-ninth ijarallcl in Color-
ado, Utah, and Nevada. 585.

Some geodetic evidence of isostasv.

382.

Briggs, L. J. *Indicator significance
of vegetation in Tooele Valley,
Utah. 228.

The Australian meeting of the Brit-
ish Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. 589.

*The water requirements of plants.

I. Investigations in the Great Plains
in 1910 and 1911. 6.

*The water requirement of plants.

II. A Review of the literature. 7.
Brown, G. H. The veritos firing

rings. 446.

Brown, Nellie A. *A bacterium
causing the disease of sugar-beet
and nasturtium leaves. 119.

Burchard, E. F. a barite deposit on
Castle Island, Duncan Canal, Alas-
ka. 382.

Buckingham, E. The interpretation,
of experiments on models. 336.

Physically similar systems. 347..

Bureau of Standards Circular No. 19.
*Standard density and volumetric
tables, 4th edition. 160.

Burgess, A. F. *The dispersion of
the gypsy moth. 200.

Burgess, G. K. The allotropy of
iron. 336.

The electrical resistance and criti-
cal ranges of pure iron. 436.

The emissivity of metals and ox-
ides. 279.

* Abstracts.

612

INDEX

-Observations on finishing tempera-
ture and properties of rails. 353.

-The emissivity of metals and o.x-
ides, II: Measurement with the
micropyrometer. 566.

-A thermoelectric method for the

determination of the purity of
platinum ware. 282.

Burns, K. Astronomical photog-
raphy and the Schumann region.
333.

Burrows, Charles W. An experi-
mental study of the Koepsel per-
meameter. 491.

Butler, B. S. *Geology and ore de-
posits of the San Francisco and
adjacent districts, Utah. 222.

Cain, J. R. The determination of
carbon in steels and irons by direct
combustion in oxygen at high tem-
peratures. 393.

Calkins, F. C. *Geology and ore-
deposits of the Phillipsburg quad-
rangle, Montana. 163.

Calvert, W. R. *Geology of the
Standing Rock and Cheyenne Riv-
er Indian reservation, North and
South Dakota. 423.

Cameron, F. K. Potash from kelp.
168.

Campbell, M. R. The probable mode
of origin of the Lewis over thrust.
298.

Capps, S. R. Some ellipsoidal lavas
on Prince William Sound, Alaska. .
169.

Carpenter, Everett. *Ground water
in Boxelder and Tooele Counties,
Utah. 199.

Chestnut, V. K. Berkeleyan days. 35.

Clark, Austin Hobart. Circulation
of the abvssal water of the oceans.

-The correlation between the bathy
metrical and the geographical range
in the recent crinoids. 558.

-Nocturnal animals. 139.

*Notes on some speciments of a

species of onychophore {Oroperi-
patus corradoi) new to the fauna of
Panama. 291.

*Sopra una piccola di Onychophora

da Australia. 75.

The relation between recent crin-
oids and the temperature of their
habitat. 579.

^*Une etude philosophique de la

relation entre les crinoides actuels
et la temperature de leur habitat.
609.

*Two interesting mammals from

the island of Tobago, West Indies.
74.

Clark, W. Blair. A laboratory rou-
tine auxiliary to sugar beet breed-
ing. 234.

Clark, William Mansfield. *The
characteristics of bacteria of the
colon type found in bovine feces.
486.

The colon group of bacteria. 373.

Clarke, F. W. *The composition of
crinoid skeletons. 419.

The relative abundance of several

metallic elements. 58.

*Water analyses. 606.

*Constitution of natural silicates.

607.

Cleaves, H. E. The determination
of carbon in steels and irons by
direct combustion in oxygen at
high temperatures. 393.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Exhibition of ex-
treme forms of thermopiles. 126.

Measurements on standards of ra-
diation in absolute value. 565.

A comparison of stellar radiometers ,

and radiometric measurements on
stars. 588.

The exudition of ice from plants.

206.

Various modifications of thermo-
piles having a continuous absorb-
ing surface. 511.

Abstracts.

INDEX

613

CoKER, R. B. Surface temperature in
the Humboldt current and its
coastal eddies. 203.

Cole, Dr. Leox J. Experiments in
breeding pigeons for color inheri-
tance. 66.

Collins, G. N. A hybrid between
Tripsacum and Euchlaena. 114.

Collins, W. D. Radioactivity of Vir-
ginia mineral waters. 36.

Cooke, Charles Wythe. Correla-
tion of the Hawthorne formation.
250.

Cooke, Wells W. Bird migration in
the Mackenzie Valley.

Cooper, Robert E. *Suitability of
longleaf pine for paper pulp. 502.

CoviLLE, Frederick V. Personal ex-
periences. 35.

The physiology of the blueberry.

66.

Crittenden", E. C. Flame standards
in photometry. 280.

*The Pentane Lamp as a working

standard. 72.

Cross, Whitman. *Dike rocks of the
Apishapa quadrangle, Colorado.
422.

The stratigraphic break below the

Jurassic sandstone in southwestern
Colorado. 237.

Crowe, J. J. Observations on finish-
ing temperature and properties of
rails. 353.

Curtis, Harvey L. A vibration elec-
trometer. 567.

The insulating properties of solid

dielectrics. 492.

CrsHMAN, Joseph A. A monograph
of the foraminifera of the North
Pacific ocean. Part III. Lageni-
dae. 291.

CusnMAN, R. A. *The Calliephialtes
parasite of the coddling moth.
144.

Darton, X. H. a peculiar fault in
southwestern New Mexico. 288.

Stratigraphy of the Red Beds in

New Mexico. 295.

Davenport, Charles B. Man from
the standpoint of modern genetics.
79.

Davis, Brooke J. *The colon group
of bacteria. 373.

Day, a. L. A method for determin-
ing the expansion of liquid metals.
88.

Day, D.T. Bituminous shale in north-
western Colorado and northeastern
Utah. 170.

Densmore, Frances. *Chippewa
music, II. 232.

Sioux War songs. 167.

Dewey, F. P. Artificial sperrylite.
168.

The pyrometer in the assay muffle.

263.

Dewey, L. H. The common names of
plant fibers. 384.

Dickinson, Hob art C. Combustion
calorimetry and the heats of com-
bustion of cane sugar, benzoic acid,
and naphthalene. 434

DiLLER, J. S. *Mineral resources of
southwestern Oregon. 329.

An occurrence of chrj'sotile asbes-
tos at Ash Creek, 35 miles north-
east of Globe, Arizona. 295.
-Dole, R. B. Note on the chlorine
content of rain water at Tortugas,
Fla. 3.

*Radioactivity of mineral waters.

458.

DoRSETT, P. H. The botanical gar-
den of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 589.

Dy.\r, H. G. *The mosquitoes of North
and Central America and the West
Indies. 232.

Eakin, H. M. The conditions of "an-
tiplanation" in sub-Arctic regions,
(illustrated) 171.

Edwards, J. D. The determination
of ammonia in illuminating gas.
316.

* Abstracts.

614

INDEX

Eldredgb, E. E. *Bacteriology of
cheese of the Emmenthal type.
229.

Emery, W. O. The estimation of an-
tipyrin. 264.

Emmons, W. H. *Geology and ore-
deposits of the Phillipsburg quadr
rangle, Montana. 163.

Evans, Alice C. *Bacteria concerned
in the production of the charac-
teristic flavor in cheese of the
Cheddar type. 487.

The characteristics of bacteria of

the colon type found in bovine
feces. 486.

Evans, Walter H. An attempt at
revegetation on Kodiak Island,
Alaska. 125.

Evermann, Barton W. Seasonal
movements of fishes at Lake Max-
inkuckee. 203.

Fairchild, J. G. Electro-analysis of
the copper alloys. 36.

The iodometric determination of

iron. 36.

Tenner, Clarence N. AUotropy as
illustrated by the forms of silica.
235.

Babingtonite from Passaic County,

N.'J. 552.

Additional notes on babingtonite

from Passaic County, N. J. 599.

Ferguson, H. G. Auriferous pocket
deposits of the Klamath Moun-
tains, California. 298.

Ferner, R. Y. a reasonable per-
foiTnance of a high grade watch.
333.

Fewkes, J. W. *Antiquities of the
upper Verde and Walnut Creek
Valleys, Arizona. 258.

*Casa Grande, Arizona. 258.

Egyptian experiences. 339.

Folkmar, Daniel. Some results of
the first census of European races
in the United States. 14.

Foote, p. D. The emissivity of met-
als and oxides. 279.

Forbes, R. H. *Agriculture in Sul-
phur Spring Valley, Arizona. 197.

Fotjbert, C. L. Changes that take
place in the curing of cigar-leaf
tobacco. 233.

FowLE, F. E. Atmospheric transpar-
ency for radiation. 206.

Avogadro's constant and atmos-

piieric transparency. 529.

*The non-selective transmissibility

of radiation through dry and moist
air. 159.

Frachtenberg, L. J. *Coos texts.
202.

Fuller, Myron L. *The geology of
Long Island, New York. 224.

Gale, Hoyt S. *Nitrate deposits.
165.

*The origin of colemanite deposits.

165.

Garner, W. W. Changes that take
place in the curing of cigar-leaf
tobacco. 233.

GiDLEY, J. W. Notes on the fossil
mammals of the Fort Union. 203.

Gilbert, Chester G. *The Mount
Lyell copper district of Tasmania.
223.

Gilbert, Grove Karl. *Interpre-
tation of anomalies of gravity.
192.

The transportation of debris by

running water. 154.

Goldman, M. I. Petrographic evi-
dence on the origin of the Cata-
houla sandstone. 296.

Grant, U. S. *Coastal glaciers of
Prince William Sound and Kenai
Peninsula, Alaska. 193.

Gray, Arthur W. Micrometer mi-
croscopes. 45.

The production of temperature

uniformity in an electric furnace.
134.

Some peculiarities of invar. 88.

■ Abstracts.

INDEX

615

Greene, Edward L. Response. 35.
Griffiths, David. Brief notes and

reviews of literature. 125.
Gronberger, S. M. The origin of the

Goths. 342.
Hale, Albert. Modern Argentina.

339.
Harder, E. C. *Iron-ore deposits of
the Eagle Mountains, California.
162.
Harper, D. R. 3d. The specific heat
of copper in the interval 0 to 50°C.,
with a note on vacuum-jacketed
calorimeters. 489.
Harking, Harry K. *A list of the
Rotatoria of Washington and vicin-
ity, with descriptions of a new
genus and ten new species. 230.

*Syuopsis of the Rotatoria. 230.

Harris, R. A. On periodic quanti-
ties, especially motions. 335.
Hart, E. B. *Bacteria concerned in
the production of the characteristic
flavor in cheese of the Cheddar
type. 487.
Harter, L. L. *The foot-rot of the

sweet potato. 120.
Hasselbring, H. Carbohydrate
transformations in sweet potatoes
during storage. 234.

The relation between transpiration

and the absorption of inorganic
constituents by plants. 125.
Hastings, E. G. *Bacteria concerned
in the production of the charac-
teristic flavor in cheese of the
Cheddar type. 487.
Hedgcock, George Grant. Injury
by smelter smoke in southeastern
Tennessee. 70.
Heller, Edmund. *The white rhi-
noceros. 374.
Hendrixon, W. S. *Underground

water resources of Iowa. 196.
Hersey, M. D. *The history of Ohm's
law. 72.

The laws of lubrication of horizon-
tal journal bearings. 542.
Hess, Frank L. A hypothesis for the
origin of the carnotite deposits of
Utah and Colorado. 236.

Pintadoitc and uvanite, two new

vanadium minerals from Utah:
A preliminary note. 576.
Hewett, D. F. Occurrence of the
mineral hisengerite in central Ida-
ho. 296.
Hewitt, J. N. B. The psj-chology of

the myth. 336.
Hicks, W. B. Preliminary note on

searlesite* a new mineral. 397.
HiGGiNS, D. F. *Coastal glaciers of
Prince William Sound and Kenai
Peninsula, Alaska., 193.
Hitchcock, A. S. Botanical writings.
35.

*Mexican grasses in the United

States National Herbarium. 118.

Reviewed paper by Trabut on oats,

and by Schultz on wheat. 262.
Holt, E. G. Winter bird-life in the

swamps of Alabama. 203.
Hopkins, A. D. Parallelism in mor-
phological characters and physio-
logical characteristics in scolytoid
beetles. 66.
HoKTON, A. H. *The Ohio Valley
flood of ]\Iarch to April, 1913.
227.
Hough, Walter. *Culture of the An-
cient Pueblos of the Upper Gila
River region, New Mexico and
Arizona. Second INIuseum-Gates
expedition. 292.
Howard, L. O. *The mosquitoes of
North and Central America and
the West Indies. 232.
HoYT, William Glenn. *The effects

of ice on stream flow. 226.
HuLETT, G. A. Studies on the silver

voltameter. 593.
Humphrey, H. B. A recently discov-
ered loose smut of rye. 384.

* Abstracts.

616

INDEX

Humphreys, W. J . American tempera-
tures and European rainfall. 345.

Is lighting discharge of direct or

oscillatory character? 336.

On thunderstorms. 335.

Hunter, J. Fred. *Erosion and sed-
imentation in Chesapeake Bay
around the mouth of Choptank
River. 421.

Melilite and other minerals from

Gunnison County, Colorado. 473.

Irving, John Dubr. *Geology and
ore deposits near Lake City, Col-
orado. 193.

Jackson, H. J. *The Ohio Valley
flood of March to April, 1913. 227.

Jackson, R. F. Equilibrium in the
system: lead acetate, lead oxide,
water. 496.

Jamieson, Clara O. *A bacterium
causing the disease of sugar beet
and nasturtium leaves. 119.

Johnson, Harry R. *Water resources
of Antelope Valley, California.
198.

Johnson, W. T., Jr. *Ability of Strep-
tococci to survive pasteurization.
504.

— — *Pasteurization in bottles and the
process of bottling hot pasteurized
milk. 290.

Johnston, John. *Observations on
the Daubree experiment and capil-
larity in relation to certain geo-
logical speculations. 5.

Some effects of high pressure. 588.

Jones, L. A. A transmission and re-
flection photometer for small areas.
313.

Kearney, T. H. *Indicator signifi-
cance of vegetation in Tooele Val-
ley, Utah. 228.

Kebler, L. F. Chemical investiga-
tions in tablet medication. 87.

Kellberg, I. N. The electrical re-
sistance and critical ranges of pure
iron. 436.

Kellerman, Karl F. Bacterial pre-
cipitation of calcium carbonate.
400.

Kelton, F. C. *Geology and water
resources of Sulphur Spring Valley,
Arizona. 197.

Kempton, J. H. A hybrid between
Tripsacum and Euchlaena. 114.

Kimball, H. H. The relation be-
tween the solar radiation intensi-
ties and the air temperatures for
the Northern hemisphere. 205.

Measurements of the total radia-
tion received on a horizontal sur-
face from the sun and sky. 587.

*The total radiation received on a

horizontal surface from the sun and
sky at Mount Weather, Va. 584.

A return to normal atmospheric

transparency. 17.

Klein, A. A. The hydration of Port-
land cement. 573.

Knab, F. *The mosquitoes of North
and Central America and the West
Indies. 232.

Knowlton, F. H. *The Jurassic flora
of Cape Lisburne, Alaska. 165.

Koehler, Rene. *A contribution to
the study of the Ophiurans of the
United States National Museum.
290.

Kolster, Frederick A. A direct
reading instrument for measuring
the logarithmic decrement and
wave length of electromagnetic
waves. 569.

KtJMMEL, H. B. *Raritan, New Jer-
sey, folio. 371.

Lamb, D. S. Sanitation in ancient
civilization. 591.

Lamb, W. H. *Discussion of chemical
analysis in distinguishing Jeffrey
pine. 501.

*A conspectus of North American

firs. 607.

Lambert, W. D. The motion of fall-
ing bodies. 334.

•Abstracts.

INDEX

617

Larsen, Esper S. CeboUite, a new
mineral. 4S0.

Melilite and other minerals from

Gunnison County, Colorado. 473.

Preliminary note on searlesite, a

new mineral. 397.

The Stratigraphic break below the

Jurassic sandstone in southwestern
Colorado. 237.

LeClerc, J. A. *Environmental in-
fluences on the physical and chemi-
cal characteristics of wheat. 119.

Lee, Charles H. *An intensive study
of the water resources of a part
of Owens Valley, California. 198.

Lee, R. E. The Guillaume appara-
tus for the distillation and rectifi-
cation of alcohol. 264.

Lee, W. T. Use of physiography in
the study of Rocky Mountain
stratigraphy.

Levene, p. a. The chemistry of the
nucleic acids. 13.

Leverett, Frank. Problems of the
glacial geologist. 171.

Lewis, A. B. Travels in the South
Seas and New Guinea. 337.

Littlehales, G. W. Condensation
of the tables of the azimuth of
celestial bodies. 461.

A special method of finding the

Sumner line. 505.

Lloyd, E. R. The Cannonball marine
member of the Lance formation.
172.

Logan, K. H. *Electrolysis from elec-
tric railway currents and its pre-
vention. Experimental test on sys-
tem of insulated return feeders in
St. Louis. 202.

Long, W. H. *Polyporus dryadeus,
a root parasite on the oak. 121.

*Three undescribed heart-rots of

hardwood trees, especially of oak.
123.

An undescribed species of Gym-

nosporangium, from Japan. 122.

LoTKA, Alfred J. An objective stand-
ard of value derived from the prin-
ciple of evoluiion. I. 409.

An objective standard of value

derived from the principle of evolu-
tion. II. 447.

An objective standard of value.

Correction and addendum. 499.

LouGHLiN, G. F. The oxidized zinc
ores of Leadville, Colorado. 382.

Lyon, Marcus Ward, Jr. *Tree-
shrews, an account of the mam-
malian family Tupaiidae. 330.

Maddren, A. G. Quarternary his-
tory of the Mount St. Elias Region,
Alaska. 10.

Matson, George C. *Geology and
ground waters of Florida. 45S.

Matthes, F. E. Concave exfoliation.
295.

IMoraine Dome and the moraines of

the Little Yosemite Valley. 295.

McCoLLUM, Burton. *Electrolysis
from electric railway currents and
its prevention. Experimental test
on a system of insulated return
feeders in St. Louis. 202.

*Surface insulation of pipes as a

means of preventing damage bj'
electrolysis. 75.

McDaniel, a. S. The silver voltam-
eter. Part IV. 52.

McLane, J. W. *Indicator significance
of vegetation in Tooele Valley,
Utah. 228.

McMurran, S. M. The anthracnose
of the, mango in Florida. 121.

Mees, C. E. Kenneth. The physical
chemistry of photography. 264.

Meinzer, O. E. *Geology and water
resources of Sulphur Spring Val-
ley, Arizona. 197.

*Underground water resources of

Iowa. 196.

Melcher, a. F. Note on the change
of density of sulphur with rupture.
431.

* Abstracts.

618

INDEX

Menge, G. a. The preparation of
aminonitriles. 36.

Merriam, John C. Fauna of the Pleis-
tocene asphalt at Rancho La Brea,
California. 260.

Merwin, H. E. a formula for cal-
culating solubility, vapor pressure,
and optical dispersion. 204.

Equations containing only one un-
known constant to represent the
parabola, the rectangular hyper-
bola, and certain exponential
curves. 467.

^Measurement of the extraordinary

refractive index of a uniaxial crys-
tal by observations in convergent
light on a plate normal to the optic
axis. 530.

The optical properties of azurite

and alamosite. 253.

The thermal dehydration of stil-

bite, thaumasite, and the hydrates
of magnesium sulphate and of cop-
per sulphate. 494.

Meunier, Stanislas. Origin and mode
of formation of magmatic gases.
213.

MiCHELSON, Truman. Algonquian lin-
guistic miscellany. 402.

— — -Notes on the Fox Indians of Iowa.
82.

*Preliminary report on the lin-
guistic classification of Algonquin
tribes. 201.

MoFFiT, Fred H. *Geology of the
Nome and Grand Central quad-
rangles. 164.

Montgomery, E. T. *Some leadless
fritted glazes. 78.

Mooney, James. The Gaelic factor
in the world's population. 80.

MouRHESs, Charles A. *Triangula-
tion on the coast of Texas, from
Sabine Pass to Corpus Christi
Bay. 73.

Mueller, E. F. *Industrial gas cal-
orimetry. 76.

Munn, M. J. *Reconnaissance of the
Grandfield district, Oklahoma.
419.

Murphy, Edward Charles. The trans-
portation of debris by running
water. 154.

Nelson, Aven. Rocky Mountain flora.

35.
Newell, Wilmon. *The Argentine

ant. 201.
Norton, W. H. *Underground water

resources of Iowa. 196.
Nutting, P. G. A transmission and

reflection photometer for small

areas. 313.
The axial chromatic aberration of

the human eye. 385.
The brightness of optical images.

129.
Oberholser, H. C. *Monograph of

the genus Chordeiles Swainson.

608.
OsTWALD, Wolfgang. The chemistry

of colloids. 234.

Paige, Sidney. The mechanics of
granite intrusion in the Black Hills,
South Dakota. 173.

Palache, C. Supplementary note on
the crystal form of hodgkinsonite.
153.

Palkin, S. The estimation of anti-
pyrin. 264.

Palmer, Chase. Reactions of nickel
arsenides with silver salts. 295.

Some fossil waters. 237.

Palmer, William. Remains of a pre-
historic feast. 203.

The problem of the gliding gull.

203.

Parker, E. G. *Selective adsorption
by soils. 143.

Perrin, Jean. Brownian movement
and molecular reality. 127, 259.

Peters, O. S. *Surface insulation of
pipes as a means of preventing
damage by electrolysis. 75.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

619

Pezet, Sexor F. a. Contrast^ in the
development of nationality in Lat-
in- and Anglo-America. 340.

Phelps, Earle B. Recent advances
in sewage chemistiy. 85.

Phelp-s, F. p. The influence of at-
mospheric conditions in the test-
ing of sugars. 317.

Phillips, A. J. The hj'dration of Port-
land cement. 573.

PiEMEiSEL, R. L. *Indicator signifi-
cance of vegetation in Tooele Val-
ley, Utah. 228.

Pierce, W. Dwight. *Miscellaneous
contributions to the knowledge of
the weevils of the families Attelabi-
dae and Brachyrhinidae. 146.

*New potato weevils from Andean

South America. 146.

*The occurrence of a cotton boll

weevil in Arizona. 145.

PiSHEL, Max a. *Geology of the
Standing Rock and Cheyenne Riv-
er Indian reservation. North and
South Dakota. 423.

Pogue, Joseph E. *The Mount Lyell
copper district of Tasmania. 223.

Popexoe, Paul B. Arabic interpreta-
tions of the songs of birds. 204.

The date palm in antiquity. 590.

Rabak, Frank. *Aroma of hops: A
study of the volatile oil with rela-
tion to the geographical sources of
the hops. 369.

Randall, W. W. The determination
of camphor in spirits of camphor.
332.

Ransom, B. H. *Cysticerus ovis, the
cause of tapeworm cysts in mutton.
123.

Ransome, Frederick L. The Ter-
tiary orogeny of the -North Ameri-
can Cordillera and its problem.
169.

Wurtzite at Goldfield, Nevada.

482.

Rawdox, H. S. Allot ropy in metals.
235.

Observations on finishing temper-
ature and properties of rails. 353.

Ronixsox, Henry Hollistkr. *The
San Franciscan volcanic field, .Ari-
zona. 195.

Rogers, L. A. *Bacteriology of cheese
of the Emmenthal type. 229.

*The characteristics of bacteria of

the colon type found in bovine
feces. 486.

*The colon group of bacteria. 373.

*The preparation of dried cultures.

229.

Rogers, G. S. Review of "Principles
of Stratigraphy" by A. W. Grabau.
238.

Rosa, E. B. *Electrolysis from elec-
tric railway currents and its pre-
vention. An experimental test on
a system of insulated return feed-
ers in St. Louis. 202.

Flame standards in photometry.

280.

The silver voltameter. Part IV.

52.

Rose, J. N. Certain seeds used for
ornamental purposes in the West
Indies. 203.

Safford, William Edwin. Acacia
cornigcra and its allies. 356.

*Annona sericea and its allies. 63.

The economic plants of ancient

Peru. 590.

*Classification of the genus Annona

with descriptions of new and im-
perfecth' known species. 424.

Pan-pipes of Peru. 183.

Pollen protection in the flowers of

Acacia and Annona. 203.

Sale, P. D. A thermoelectric method
for the determination of the purity
of platinum ware. 282.

Salisbury, R. D. *Raritan, New Jer-
sey, folio. 371.

'Abstracts.

620

INDEX

Sanford, Samuel. *Geology and

ground waters of Florida. 458.
ScHALLER, Waldemar T. Cebollite,

a new mineral. 480.
Mineralogical notes. Series 3.

354.
Pintadoite and uvanite, two new

vanadium minerals from Utah : A

preliminary note. 576.
The identity of empressite with

muthmannite. 497.

Schrader, F. C. Andradite and ged-
rite from a contact metamorphic
zone in the Washington-Duquesne
camp, Arizona. 382.

ScnuLTZ, A. R. *Geology and geog-
raphy of a portion of Lincoln
County, Wyoming. 370.

Scofield, C. S. Chinese wild rice. 262.

Shaw, Eugene Wesley. So-called
waterlaid loess of the central
United States. 298.

The characteristics of the Missis-
sippi delta in the light of some ob-
servations on Old World deltas.
298.

*The mud lumps at the mouths of

the Mississippi. 221.

Shantz, H. L. *Indicator significance
of vegetation in Tooele Valley,
Utah. 228.

Reviewed paper by Sir Francis

Darwin, on stomatal adjustment.
262.
*The water requirements of plants.

I. Investigations in the Great
Plains in 1910 and 1911. 6.

*The water requirement of plants.

II. A review of the literature. 7.

Shedd, J. C. *The history of Ohm's
law. 72.

Shoemaker, D. N. Some Chinese hor-
ticultural Brassica species. 85.

Shrader, J. H. The reactions of pro-
pyliodide with both the ions and
the molecules of sodium phenolate.
332.

SiEvERS, A. F. *Individual variation
in the alkaloidal content of bella-
donna plants. 118.

Simpson, H. E. *Underground water
resources of Iowa. 196.

Smith, N. R. Bacterial precipitation
of calcium carbonate. 400.

Smith, Philip S. *The Noatak-Kobuk
region, Alaska. 161.

Smith, W. H. The iodine number of
linseed and petroleum oils. 316.

Snyder, John Otterbein. The fishes
of the Lahontan drainage system
of Nevada and their relation to the
geology of the region. 299.

SosMAN, R. B. AUotropy from the
physico-chemical standpoint. 235.

A method for determining the e.\-

pansion of liquid metals. 88.

Spalding, P. Present status of the
white pine blister rust. 262.

Spencer, G. B. Goettingen. 36.

Standley, Paul C. *Descriptions of
new plants, preliminary to a report
upon the flora of New Mexico. 64.

*Plants of the Alpine Club expedi-
tion to the Mount Robson Region.
74.

The genus Arthrocnemum in North

America. 398.

Stebinger, Eugene. Stratigraphy of
the Montana group (Upper Cre-
taceous) in northwestern Montana
and its relation to the Belly River
beds and Judith River formation.
383.

Steiger, George. The relative abun-
dance of several metallic elements.
58.

Stephenson, L. W. The Cretaceous-
Eocene contact in the Atlantic and
Gulf Coastal Plain. 11.

Stockberger, W. W. The social ob-
ligations of the botanist. 261.

Surface, Henry E. *Effect of vary-
ing certain cooking conditions in
producing soda pulp from aspen.
501.

• Abstracts.

INDEX

621

*Suit ability of longleaf pine for

paper pulp. 502.

SwANN, W. F. G. The atmospheric
potential gradient and a theory as
to its connection with other phe-
nomena in atmospheric electricity.
127.

Swingle, Walter T. The name of
the wood-apple, Feronia Limonia.
325.

Talbott, Henry. An American Swas-
tika. 203.

Tassin, Wirt. iSIetallography applied
to inspection. 87.

Taylor, A. H. *The Pentane Lamp
as a working standard. 72.

TiDESTROM, Ivar. Reminiscences. 3.5.

TiLLYER, E. D. Photographic lenses
and plates. 333.

TiTT.MAN, O. H. Our Northern bound-
aries. 37.

True, R. H. Alcohol and agriculture
in Germany. 233.

A report on the Atlanta meeting

of the Botanical Society of Ameri-
ca. 125.

TuTTLE, J. B. The iodine number of
linseed and petroleum oils. 317.

Udden, J. A. *Geology and mineral
resources of the Peoria quadrangle,
Illinois. 219.

Umpleby, Joseph B. Crystallized
chrysocoUa from Mackay, Idaho.
181.

*Geology and ore deposits ot Lemhi

County, Idaho. 166.

*Some ore deposits in northwestern

Custer County, Idaho. 194.

1 he contact metamorphic copper

deposits at Mackay, Idaho. 12.

Van Orstrand, C. E. 1 he calcula-
tion and comparison of mineral
analyses. 514.

Van Winkle, W *Quality of the sur-
face waters of Washington. 606.

*Quality cf the surface waters of

Oregon. 607.

Vaughan, Thomas Wayland. Sketch
of the geologic history of the Flor-
ida coral reef tract and compari-
sons with other coral reef areas.
26.

Comparison of the geologic history

of the Florida Reef tract with that
of other reef areas. 169.

Correlation of the Hawthorn for-
mation. 250.

Verrill, Addison Emery. *Mono-
graph of the shallow-water star-
fishes of the North Pacific coast
from the Arctic Ocean to Cali-
fornia. 291.

ViERECK, Henry L. *Descriptions of
twenty-three new genera and thir-
ty-one new species of Ichneumon
flies. 145.

*Type species of the genera of

Ichneumon fhes. 375. >

ViNAL, G. W. Comparison of the silver
and iodine voltameters and the de-
termination of the value of the
faraday. 69.

On certain electrochemical prob-
lems. 204.

The silver voltameter. Part IV.

52.

Ftudies on the silver voltameter.

593.

Waidner, C. W. *IndustriaI gas cal-
orimetry. 76.

Walcott, Charles D. *Cambrian
Geology and Paleontology, II.
No. 11. New Lower Cambrian
subfauna. 371.

*Cambrian Geology and Paleontol-
ogy, II, No. 12. Cambrian for-
mations of the Robson Peak Dis-
trict, British Columbia and Alber-
ta, Canada. 372.

*Cambrian Geology and Paleontol-
ogy, II, No. 13. Dikelocephalus
and other genera of the Dikelo-
cephalinae. 372.

' Abstracts.

622

INDEX

*Cambrian Geology and Paleon-
tology, III, No. 1. The Cambrian
faunas of Eastern Asia. 423.

Walker, P. H. Note on a new ex-
traction apparatus. 168.

Waltenberg, R. G. The emissivity
of metals and oxides, II: Measure-
ments with the micropyrometer.
566.

Observations on finishing tempera-
ture and properties of rails. 353.

Ward, L. Keith. Review of papers.
170.

Waring, Gerald A. *Geology and
water resources of a portion of
south-central Washington. 226.

Washburne, C. W. Evidence of the
inorganic origin of petroleum. 10.

Washington, Henry S. *Some lavas
of Monte Arci, Sardinia. 5.

The distribution of the chemical

elements in the earth's crust. 263.

Weibel, Ernest. The testing of poten-
tiometers. 469.

Wells, R. C. The electromotive be-
havior of soluble sulfides. 332.

Wenner, Frank. Adjustments of the
Thomson bridge in the measure-
ment of very low resistances. 471.

The testing of potentiometers. 469.

Wheeler, W. C. *The composition
of crinoid skeletons. 419.

Wherry, Edgar T. The occurrence
of carnotite in eastern Pennsyl-
vania. 296.

Variations in the compositions of

minerals. 111.

White, David. Resins in Paleozoic
coals. 10.

*Resins in Paleozoic plants and in

coals of high rank. 225.

White, W. P. Calorimeter jacket de-
sign. 334.

Thermostats of relatively high pre-
cision. 205.

Wight, W. F. Andean origin of the
cultivated potato. 589.

Williams, Henry S. *Recurrent Tro-
pidoleptus zones of the Upper De-
vonian in New York. 199.

Willis, Bailey. Physiography of the
Southern Andes. 8.

Wilson, Charles Branch. *Crusta-
cean parasites of West Indian fishes
and land crabs, with descriptions
of new genera and species. 231.

Winchester, D. E. The upper Cre-
taceous formations of western New
Mexico and their relations to the
underlying rocks. 300.

Woodruff, E. G. Bituminous shale
in northwestern Colorado and
northeastern Utah. 170.

Well at Dubuque, Colorado. 169.

Wooton, E. O. *Descriptions of new
plants, preliminary to a report
upon the flora of New Mexico.
64.

Wright, Fred Eugene. The calcula-
tion and comparison of mineral
analyses. 514.

The change of optical and crystal-

lographic properties of quartz with
temperature. 9.

Color photography. 333.

The determination of the relative

refringence of mineral grains under
the petrographic microscope. 389.

The measurement of crystallo-

graphic and optical properties at
high temperatures. 205.

The measurement of the refractive

index of a drop of liquid. 269.

Measurements of refractive indices

on the principal optical sections of
bi-refracting minerals in conver-
gent polarized light. 534.

A new dip chart. 440.

A new half shade apparatus with

variable sensibility. 309.

The optical character of the faint

interference figure observed in high
power objectives between crossed
nicols. 301.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

623

A simple method for the accurate

measurement of strain in ghiss. 594.

YoDER, P. A. *Environmental influ-
ences on the physical and chemical
characteristics of wheat. 119.

ZoN, Raphael. *Balsam fir. 503.

Meteorological observations for

purposes of botanical geographj^,
agriculture and forestry. 262.

SUBJECT INDEX.

Agricultural Chemistry. *Aroma of
hops. F. Rabak. 369.
*Selective absorption by soils. E. G.

Parker. 143.
References. 293.
Agriculture. Sugar beet breeding. W.

B. Clark. 234.
Agronomy. References. 376.
Allotropy. AUotropy as illustrated by
the forms of silica. C. N. Fen-
NER. 235.
Allotropy from the physico-chemical
standpoint. R. B. Sosman. 235.
Allotropy in metals. H. S. Rawdon.

235.
The allotropy of iron. G. K. Bur-
gess. 336.
Alloys. Electro-analysis of the copper
alloys. J. G. Fairchild. 36.
Some peculiarities of invar. A. W.
Gray. 88.
Anthropology. Algonquian linguistic
miscellany. T. Michelson. 402.
*Ancient Pueblos of the Upper Gila

River region. W. Hough. 292.
*Antiquities of the upper Verde and
Walnut Creek Vallej^s, Arizona.
J. W. Fewkes. 258.
*Casa Grande, Arizona. J. W.

Fewkes. 258.
*Chippewa music, II. Frances

Densmore. 232. »

*Coos texts. L. J. Frachtenberg.

202.

Linguistic classification of Alogon-

quian tribes. T. Michelson. 201.

Man from the standpoint of modern

genetics. C. B. Davenport. 79.

Modern Argentina. A. Hale. 339.

Pan-pipes of Peru. W. E. Safford.

183.
The remains of a prehistoric feast.

W. Palmer. 203.
Results of first census of European

races in U. S. D. Folkmar. 14.
References. 174, 268, 381.
Astronomy. Azimuth of celestial

bodies. G. W. Littlehales. 161.
Special method of finding the Sumner

line. G. W. Littlehales. 505.
Astrophtjsics. The solar constant of

radiation. C. G. Abbot. 89.
*Transmissibility of radiation through

dry and moist air. F. E. Fowle.

159.

Atmospheric Electricity. Atmosphei'ic
potential gradient. W. F. G.
Swann. 127.

Bacteriology. *Ability of Streptococci
to survive pasteurization. S. H.
Ayers and W. T. Johnson, Jr.
504.

*Bacteria in cheese of the Cheddar
type. A. C. Evans, E. G. Hast-
ings and E. B. Hart. 487.

*Bacteria of the colon type in bovine
feces. L. A. Rogers, W. M.
Clarke and A. C. Evans. 4S6.
Bacterial precipitation of calcium
carbonate. K. F. Kellerman and
N. R. Smith. 400.

*Bacteriology of cheese of the Emmen-
thal type. E. E. Eldredge and
L. A. Rogers. 229.

*The colon group of bacteria. L. A.
Rogers, W. M. Clark and
Brooke J. Davis. 373.

• Abstracts.

624

INDEX

*Pasteurization and bottling of pas-
teurized milk. S. H. Ayers and
W. T. Johnson, Jr. 290.
*The preparation of dried cultures.
L. A. Rogers. 229.

References. 377.
Biology. The physiology of the blue-
berry. F. V. CoviLLE. 66.

Scolytoid Beetles. A. D. Hopkins.
66.
Botany. Acacia cornigera and its al-
lies. W. E. Safford. 356.
*Annona sericea and its allies. W. E.
Safford. 63.

Atlanta meeting of the Botanical So-
ciety of America. R. H. True,
125.

An attempt at revegetation on Ko-
diak Island. W. H. Evans. 125.
*Chemical analysis in distinguishing
Jeffrey pine. W. H. Lamb. 501.

The economic plants of ancient Peru.
W. E. Safford. 590.

The date palm in antiquity. P.
Popenoe. 590.

The botanical garden of Rio de Ja-
neiro. P. H. DORSETT. 589.

Andean origin of the cultivated po-
tato. W. F. Wight. 589.

Chinese horticultural Brassica spe-
cies. D. N. Shoemaker. 85.

Chinese wild rice. C. S. Scofield.
262.

The common names of plant fibres.
L. H. Dewey. 384.

Conspectus of North American firs.
W. H. Lamb. 607.

Further evidence of mutation in

Oenothera. H. H. Bartlett. 203.

*Genus Annona with descriptions of

new species. W. E. Safford.

424.

The genus Arthrocnemum in North
America. Paul C. Standley.
398.

Greene, E. L. Celebration of his
, seventieth birthday. 35.

*Indicator significance of vegetation
in Tooele Valley, Utah. T. H.
Kearney, L. J. Briggs, H. L.
Shantz, J. W. McLane and R.
L. Piemeisel. 228.

The James River hybrid walnut.
P. Bisset. 85.

Loose smut of rye. H. B. Hum-
phrey. 384.

Meteorological observations for bo-
tanical purposes. R. Zon. 262.
*Mexican grasses in the U.S. National
Herbarium. A.S.Hitchcock. 118.

A new hybrid. G. N. Collins and

J. H. Kempton. 114.
*New plants of New Mexico. E. O.
WooTON and P. C. Standley.

64. V

Physiology of the rest period in the
potato tuber. C. O. Appleman.
384.
*Plants from the Mount Robson Re-
gion. P. C. Standley. 74.

Pollen protection in the flowers of
Acacia and Annona. W. E. Saf-
ford. 203.

Review of a paper by Trabut. A. S.
Hitchcock. 262.

Seeds used for ornamental pui'poses
in the West Indies. J. N. Rose.
203.

The wood-apple, Ftronia Limonia.
W. T. Swingle. 325.

References. 147, 207, 293.
— See also: Plant pathology; plant

physiology.
Chemical Technology. Alcohol and ag-
riculture in Germany. R.H.True.
233.

Ammonia in illuminating gas. J. D.
Edwards. 316.
Chemistry. Artificial sperrylite. F. P.
Dewey. 168.

Chemical investigations in tablet
medication. L. F. Kebler. 87.

Chemistry of colloids. W. Ostwald.
234, 261.

' Abstracts.

INDEX

625

The chemistry of the nucleic acids.

Du. P. A. Levene. 13.
Determination of carbon in steels and

irons. J. R. Cain and H. E.

Cleaves. 393.
The estimation of antipyrin. W. O.

Emery and S. Palkin. 264.
Expansion of liquid metals. R. B.

SOSMAN. 88.

Goettingen. G. B. Spencer. 36.

Guillaume apparatus. R. E. Lee.
264.

The iodine number of linseed and
petroleum oils. W. H. Smith and
J. B. Tuttle. 316.

The iodometric determination of iron.
J. G. Fairchild. 36.

Mineral analyses. C. E. Van Or-
STRAND and F. E. Wright. 514.

New extraction apparatus. P. H.
Walker. 168.

Potash from kelp. F. K. Cameron.
168.

The preparation of aminonitriles.
G. A. Menge. 36.

The pyrometer in the assay muffle.
F. P. Dewey. 263.

Reactions of nickel arsenides with sil-
ver salts. C. Palmer. 295.

Recent advances in sewage chemis-
try. E. B Phelps. 85.

References: 376, 460, 488.
— See also: Agricultural chemistry;
Chemical technology; Electro-
chemistry; Geochemistry; Physi-
cal chemistry.
Crystallography. Properties of Pyro-
phosphates. Olaf Andersen. 318.
Economics. Objective standard of val-
ue. A. J. LoTKA. 409,447,499.
Electrical Engineering. *Electrolysis
from electric railway currents and
its prevention. E. B. Rosa, B.
McCoLLUM and K. H. Logan.
202.
Electrochemistry. Electrochemical
problems, etc. G. W. Vinal. 204.

Extreme forms of thermopiles. W.

W. Coblentz. 126.
Silver and iodine voltameters. G.

W. Vinal and S. J. Bates. 69.
The silver voltameter. E. B. Rosa,
G. W. Vinal and A. S. McDan-
iel. 52.
Entomology. *The Argentine ant. W.
Newell and T. C. Barber. 201.
*The cotton boll weevil in Arizona.
W. Pierce. 145.

*Descriptions of new genera and Ich-
neumon flies. H. L. ViERECK.
145.

*The dispersion of the gypsy moth.
A. F. Burgess. 200.

*Life-history of a new family (Micro-
maltidae) of beetles. H. S. Bar-
ber. 231.

*The mosquitoes of North and Cen-
tral America and the West Indies.
L. O. Howard, H. G. Dyar and
F. Knab. 232.

*New potato weevils from Andean
South America. W. D. Pierce.
146.

*Observations on the Micromalthus
debilis Lee. H. S. Barber. 200.

*0n interspecific mating in Phengodes
and inbreeding in Eros. H. S.
Barber. 257.

*The parasite of the codling moth.
R. A. Cushman. 144.

*Type species of Ichneumon flies.
H. L. Viereck. 375.

*The weevils of the families Attelabi-
dae and Brachyrhinidae. W. D.
Pierce. 146.
References: 150, 175, 210, 242, 265,
380.
Ethnology. An American Swastika. H.
Talbott. 203.

Bismya, the lost city of Adab. E. J.
Banks. 343.

Contrasts in the development of na-
tionality in Latin- and Anglo-Amer-
ica. F. A. Pezet. 340.

■ Abstracts.

626

INDEX

Fox Indians of Iowa. T. Michel-
son. 82.

The Gaelic factor in the world's pop-
ulation. J. MOONEY. 80.

Origin of the Goths. S. M. Gron-

BERGER. 342.

Sioux War Songs. Frances Dens-
more. 167.

Travels in the South Seas and New
Guinea. A. B. Lewis. 337.

Evolution. References: 147.

Fisheries. Seasonal movements of
fishes at Lake Maxinkuckee. B.

W. EVERMANN. 203.

Forestry. *Balsam fir. R. Zon. 503.
*Effect of varying cooking conditions
in producing soda pulp. H. E.
Surface. 501.
*Suitability of longleaf pine for paper
pulp. H. E. Surface and R. E.
Cooper. 502.
References: 294.

Geochemistry. Chlorine content of rain

water. R. B. Dole. 3.
*The composition of crinoid skeletons.

F. W. Clarke and W. C. Wheel-
er. 419.
*Constitution of natural silicates. F.

W. Clarke. 607.
*Water analyses. F. W. Clarke.

606.
*Surface waters of Oregon. W. Van

Winkle. 607.
*Surface water of Washington. W.

Van Winkle. 606.

Geodesy. Anomalies of gravity. G. K.
Gilbert. 192.
Primary triangulation on the one
hundred and fourth meridian, and
on the thirty-ninth parallel in Col-
orado, Utah, and Nevada. W.
Bowie. 585.
*Coast of Texas. C. A. Mourhess.

73.
*Fourth general adjustment of the
precise level net in the U. S. W.
Bowie and H. G. Avers. 255.

Our Northern Boundaries. O. H.

TiTTMANN. 37.

Some geodetic evidence of isostasy.
W. Bowie. 382.

References: 426.

Geography. The North Atlantic Island

of Brazil. Wm. II. Babcock. 83.

Geology. Andradite and gedrite from

a contact metamorphic zone in

Arizona. F. C. Shrader. 382.

A barite deposit on Castle Island,
Duncan Canal, Alaska. E. F.
Burchard. 382.

Bituminous shale in Colorado and
Utah. E. G. Woodruff and D.
T. Day. 170.

The Cannonball marine member of
the Lance formation. E.R.Lloyd.
172.

Carnotite deposits of Utah and Col-
orado. F. L. Hess. 236.

Carnotite in Eastern Pennsylvania.
E. T. Wherry. 296.

Change of optical and crystallo-
graphic properties of quartz with
temperature. F. E. Wright. 9.

Crysotile asbestos at Ash Creek, Ari-
zona. J. S. Diller. 295.
*Coastal glaciers of Prince William
Sound and Kenai Peninsula, Alas-
ka. U. S. Grant and D. F. Hio-
GINS. 193.

Concave exfoliation. F. E. Mat-
thes. 295.

Comparison of the Florida Reef
tract with other reef areas. T.
W. Vaughan. 169.

Conditions of "antiplanation" in
sub-Arctic regions. H. M. Eakin.
171.

Contact metamorphic deposits. J.
B. Umpleby. 12.

Correlation of the Hawthorn forma-
tion. T. W. Vaughan and C. W.
Cooke. 250.

The Cretaceous-Eocene contact in
the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Plain. L. W. Stephenson. 11.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

627

Deposits of the Klamath mountains,
California. H.G.Ferguson. 298.
Dike rocks of the Apishapa quad-
rangle, Colorado. Whitman
Cross. 422.
Ellipsoidal lavas on Prince William
Sound, Alaska. S. R. Capps.
169.

*Erosion and sedimentation in Chesa-
peake Bay. J. Fred Hunter. 421.
Fishes of the Lahontan sj^stem of
Nevada and their relation to the
geology of the region. J. O. Sny-
der. 299.
Fossil waters. C. Palmer. 237.
Geologic features of the Eastport
region, Maine. E. S. Bastin. 236.
Geologic history of coral reefs. T.
W. Vaughan. 23.

*Geology and geography of Lincoln
County, W y o m i n g. A. R.
SCHULTZ. 370.

*Geolog3^ and ground waters of Flor-
ida. G. C. Matson and S. San-
ford. 458.

*Geology and mineral resources of the
Peoria quadrangle. .J. A. Udden.
219.

*Geology and ore deposits near Lake
City, Colo. J. D. Irving and H.
Bancroft. 193.

*Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi
Count}^ Idaho. J. B. LTmpleby.
166.

*Geology and ore deposits of the Phil-
lipsburg quadrangle, IMontana.
W. H. Emmons and F. C. Cal-
kins. 163.

*Geology and ore deposits of the San
Francisco and adjacent districts,
Utah. B. S. Butler. 222.

*The geology of Long Island. M. L.
Fuller. 224.

*Geology of the Nome and Grand Cen-
tral quadrangles, Alaska. F. H.
MOFFIT. 164.

*Geology of the pitchblende ores of
Colorado. E. S. Bastin. 256.

*Geology of the Standing Rock and
Cheyenne River Inrlian reserva-
tion. W. R. Calvert, A. L.
Beekly, W. H. Barnett and Max
A. PiSHEL. 423.
Granite intrusion in the Black Hills,

South Dakota. S. Paige. 173.
Inoganic origin of petroleum. C.
W. Washburne. 10.

*Iron-ore deposits of the Eagle Moun-
tains, California. E. C. Harder.
162.

*The Jurassic flora of Cape Lisburne.

F. H. Knowlton. 165.
Metallic elements. F. W. Clarke

and George Steiger. 58.
Mineral hisengrite in central Idaho.

296.
*Mineral resources of southwestern

Oregon. J. S. Diller. 329.
The ^Mississippi delta and Old World

deltas. E. W. Shaw. 298.
Moraine Dome and moraines of the

Little Yosemite Valley. F. E. Mat-

thes. 295.
*The Mount Lyell copper district of

Tasmania. C. G. Gilbert and

J. E. PoGUE. 223.
Mount St. Elias region, Alaska. A.

G. Maddren. 10.

*The mud lumps at the mouths of the

Mississippi. E. W. Shaw. 221.
A new dip chart. F. E. Wright.
440.

♦Nitrate deposits. H. S. Gale. 165.

*The Noatak-Kobuk region, Alaska.
P. S. Smith. 161.

♦Observations on the Daubrce experi-
ment. J. Johnston and L. H.
Adams. 5.

*Ore deposits in Custer County, Ida-
ho. J. B. Umpleby. 194.
Origin and mode of formation of mag-
matic gases. S. Meunier. 213.

*Thc origin of colemanite deposits.

H. S. Gale. 165.
Origin of the Catahoula sandstone.
M. I. Goldman. 296.

'Abstracts.

628

INDEX

Origin of the Lewis overthrust. M.
R. Campbell. 298.

The oxidized zinc ores of Leadville,
Colorado. G. F. Loughlin. 382.

Peculiar fault in New Mexico. N.
H. Darton. 288.

Physiography in Rocky Mountain
stratigraphy. W. T. Lee. 8.

Physiography of the Southern Andes.
B. Willis. 8.

Post-Cretaceous history of moun-
tains of Wyoming. E. Blackwel-

DER. 445.

Problems of the glacial geologist.

F. Leverett. 171.
Radial barite concretions from the
Cretaceous of Montana. C. A.
BoNiNE. 295.
*Raritan, New Jersey, folio. W. S.
Bayley, R. D. Salisbury and
H. B. Kummel. 371.
*Reconnaissance of the Grandfield dis-
trict, Oklahoma. M. J. Munn.
419.
Resins in paleozoic coals. D.White.

10.
*Resins in paleozoic plants and in
coals of high rank. D. White.
225.
Review of papers by L. Keith Ward.

A. C. Spencer. 170.
Review of "Principles of Stratig-
raphy" by A. W. Grabeau. G. S.
Rogers. 238.
*The San Franciscan volcanic field,
Arizona. H. H. Robinson. 195.
*Some lavas of Monte Arci. H. S.

Washington. 5.
The stratigraphic break below the
Jurassic sandstone in southwestern
Colorado. W. Cross and E. S.
Larsen. 237.
Stratigraphy of the Montana group
(Upper Cretaceous). E. Stebin-
GER. 383.
Stratigraphy of the Red Beds in New
Mexico. N. H. Darton. 295.

The Tertiary orogeny of the North
American Cordillera. F. L. Ran-
SOME. 169.

Transportation of debris. G. K.
Gilbert and E. C. Murphy. 154.

Waterlaid loess of the central United
States. E. W. Shaw. 298.
Geophysics. Change of density of sul-
phur with rupture. A. F. Mel-
cher. 431.
Isostasy in India. W. Bowie. 245.

Mean density of fractured rocks.
G. F. Becker. 429.
—See also: Hj^drology; Oceanogra-
phy.
Hydrology. *The effects of ice on
stream flow. W. G. Hoyt. 226.

*Geology and water resources of a
portion of south eentral Washing-
ton. G. A. Waring. 226.

*Geology and water resources of Sul-
phur Spring Valley, Arizona. O.
E. Meinzer and F. C. Kelton.
197.

*Ground water in Boxelder and Tooele
Counties, Utah. E. Carpenter.
199.

*An intensive study of the water re-
sources of part of Owens Valley,
California. C. H. Lee. 198.

*The Ohio Valley flood, 1913. A. H.
Horton and H. J. Jackson. 227.
Surface temperature in the Hum-
boldt current. R. E. Coker. 203.

*Underground water resources of Iowa.
W. H. Norton, W. S. Hendrixon,
H. E. Simpson, O. E. Meinzer
and others. 196.

*Water resources of Antelope Valley,
California. H. R. Johnson. 198.
Ichthyology. References: 244.
Mammalogy. *Treeshrews. M. W.
Lyon, Jr. 330.

*The white rhinoceros. E. Heller.

374.
References: 239,426.

"Abstracts.

INDEX

629

Mathematics. Equations with one un-
known constant. H. E. Mekwin.
467.
Metallography. Metallography ap-
plied to inspection. W.Tassin. 87.
Meteorology. American temperatures
and European rainfall . W. J. Hum-
phreys. 345.

Atmospheric transparency for radia-
tion. F. E. FowLE. 206.

First analysis of the Sun's magnetic
field. L. A. Bauer. 127.

A formula for calculating solubility,
vapor pressure and optical disper-
sion. H. E. Merwin. 204.

Measurements of the total radiation
received on a horizontal surface
from the sun and sky. H. H. Kim-
ball. 587.
*The total radiation received on a
horizontal surface from the sun and
sky at Mt. Weather, Va. H. H.
Kimball. 581.

Is lightning discharge of direct or
oscillatory character? W. J. Hum-
phreys. 336.

Measurement of crystallographic and
optical properties at high tempera-
• turcs. F. E. Wright. 205.

Normal atmospheric transparency.
H. H. Kimball. 17.
. On thunderstorms. W. J. Hum-
phreys. 335.

The relation between solar radiation
and air temperatures. H. H. Kim-
ball. 205.

References: 526.
Mineralogy. Babingtonite from Pas-
saic County. C. N. Fenner. 552.

Additional notes on babingtonite.
C. N. Fenner. 599.

Cebollite, a new mineral. E. S. Lar-
sen and W. T. Schaller. 480.

Compositions of minerals. E. T.
Wherry. 111.

Crystal form of hodgkinsonite. C.
Palache. 153.

Crystallized chrysocolla. J. B. Um-

PLEBY. 181.
Pintadoite and uvanite, two new

vanadium minerals from Utah: A

preliminary note. F. L. Hess and

W. T. Schaller. 576.
Identity of empressite with muth-

mannite. W. T. Schaller. 497.
Melilite and other minerals from

Gunnison County, Colorado. E.

S. Larsen and J. F. Hunter.

473.
Mineralogical notes, series 3. W. T.

Schaller. 354.
The optical properties of azurite and

alamosite. H. E. Merwin. 253.
Searlesite, a new mineral. E. S. Lar-
sen and W. B. Hicks. 397.
Wurtzite at Goldfield, Nevada. F.

L. Ransome. 482.
Oceanography. Circulation of abyssal

water of oceans. A. H. Clark. 1.
References: 376.
Ornithology. Arabic interpretations of

the songs of birds. P. B. Pope-

NOE. 204.
Bird migration in the Mackenzie

Valley. W. W. Cooke. 204.
The problem of the gliding gull. W.

Palmer. 203.
Winter bird-life in the swamps of

Alabama. E. G. Holt. 203.
*Genus chordeiles Swainson. H. C.

Oberholser. 608.
References: 267,528.
Paleontology. *Cambrian Geologj^ and

Paleontology, II, Nos. 11, 12, 13.

CD. Walcott. 371, 372.
♦Cambrian Geology and Paleontology,

III, No. 1. The Cambrian faunas

of Eastern Asia. C. D. Walcott.

423.
Cretaceous formations of New Mexi-
co. D. E. Winchester. 300.
Fauna of the Pleistocene asphalt at

Rancho La Brea, California. J.

C. Merriam. 260.

* Abstracts.

630

INDEX

Fossil mammals of the Fort Union.

J. W. GiDLEY. 203.

*Re('uirent Tropidoleptus zones of the
Upper Devonian in New York. H.
S. Williams. 199.
*Upper Cretaceous and Eocene floras
of South Carolina and Georgia.
E. W. Berry. 330.

References: 147,207,420.
Pnllwlogy. *The cause of tapeworm
cysts in mutton. B. H. Ransom.
123.

References: 380.
Petrography. Petrographic evidence
on the origin of the Catahoula
sandstone. M. I. Goldman. 296.
Pharmacology. *Variation in the al-
loidal content of belladonna plants.
A. F. SiEvERS. lis.
Physical Chemistry. Determination of
camphor in spirits of camphor.
W. W. Randall. 332.

The distribution of the chemical ele-
ments of the earth's crust. H. S.
Washington. 263.

Electrical resistance and critical
ranges of pure iron. G. K. Bur-
gess and I. N. Kellberg. 436.

The electromotive behavior of solu-
ble ' sulfides. R. C. Wells. 332.

Equilibrium in the system: lead ace-
tate, lead oxide, water. R. F.
Jackson. 496.

The physical chemistry of photog-
raphy. C. E. K. Mees. 264.

Reactions of ions and molecules of
acids, bases and salts. S. F. Agree.
332.

Reactions of propyliodide with so-
dium phonolate. J. H. Shrader.
332.

A thermoelectric method to deter-
mine the purity of platinum ware.
G. K. Burgess and P. D. Sale.
282.

Thermal dehydration of stilbite, etc.
H. E. Merwin. 494.

The hydration of Portland cement.

A. A. Klein and A. J. Phillips.

573.
Testing of sugars. J. F. Bates and

F. P. Phelps. 317.

Physical Metallurgy. Finishing tem-
perature and properties of rails.

G. K. Burgess, J. J. Crowe, H.
S. Rawdon and R. G. Walten-
berg. 353.

Physics. Astronomical photography
and the Schumann region. K.
Burns. 333.

Avogadro's constant and atmospheric
transparency. F. E. Fowle. 529.

The brightness of optical images.
P. G. Nutting. 129.

Brownian movement and molecular
reality. J. Perrin. 127, 259.

The Australian meeting of the Brit-
ish Association. L. J. Briggs.
589.

The emissivity of metals and oxides,
II : Measurements with the micro-
pyrometer. G. K. Burgess and
R. G. Waltenberg. 566.

A vibration electrometer. H. L. Cur-
tis. 567. ,

Measurements on standards of radia-
tion in absolute value. W. W.

COBLENTZ. 565.

Calorimeter jacket design. W. P.

White. 334.
Chromatic aberration of the human

eye. P. G. Nutting. 385.
Color photography. F. E. Wright.

333.
Combustion calorimetry. H. C. Dick-
inson. 434.
The emissivity of metals and oxides.

G. K. Burgess and P. D. Fogte.

279.
Expansion of liquid metals. A. L.

Day. 88.
Extreme forms of thermopiles. W.

W. Coblentz. 126.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

631

Flame standards in photometry. E.

B. Rosa and E. C. Crittenden.

280.
*The history of Ohm's hxw. J. C.

Shedd and M. D. Hersev. 72.
Some effects of high pressure. J.

Johnston. 5S8.
Studies on the silver voltameter.

G. A. HuLETT and G. W. Vinal.

593.
A comparison of stellar radiometers

and radiometric measurements on

stars. W. W. Coblentz. 588.
The insulating properties of solid

dielectrics. H. L. Ctrtis. 492.
Interference figures in objectiA^es.

F. E. Wright. 301.
Measurement of relative strain in

glass. F. E. Wright. 594.
The interpretation of experiments on

models. E. Buckingham. 336.
Measurement of refractive index.

H. E. Merwin. 530.
Measurement of refractive index of a

drop of liquid. F. E. Wright.

269.
Measurements of refractive indices.

F. E. Wright. 534.
Micrometermicroscopes. A. W. Gray

45.
Mineral grains under the microscope.

F. E. Wright. 389.
Modifications of thermopiles. ^^^

W. Coblentz. 511.
The motion of falling bodies. W. D.

Lambert. 334.
A new half shade apparatus. F. E.

Wright. 309.
*The Pentane Lamp as a working

standard. E. C. Crittenden and

A. H. T.WLOR. 72.
Performance of a high grade watch.

R. Y. Ferner. 333.
Periodic quantities, especially mo-
tions. R. A. Harris. 335.
Photographic lenses and plates. E.

D. Tillyer. 333.

Photometer for small areas. P. G.
Nutting and L. A. Jones. 313.

Physically similar systems. E. Buck-
ingham. 347.

Specificheat of copper. D. R.Har-
per, 3d. 489.
*Standard density and volumetric
tables. 4th edition. Bureau of
Standards Circular No. 19. 160.

Study of the Koepsel permeameter.
C. W. Burrows. 491.

Temperature uniformity in an elec-
tric furnace. A. W. Gray. 134.

The testing of potentiometers. l'\
Wenner and E. Weibel. 469.

Thermostats of relatively high pre-
cision. W. P. \A'hite. 205.

The Thomson bridge in the measure-
ment of very low resistances. F.
\\ENNERandE. Weibel. 471.

A watthour meter method of testing
instrument transformers. P. G.
Agnew. 509.

— See also: Electrochemistry; Geo-
physics; Physical chemistry; Tech-
nical physics.

References: 488.
Physiology. References, 488.
Phytopathology. *The anthracnose of
the mango in Florida. S. M. Mc-
» MURRAN. 121.
*A bacterium causing the disease of
sugar-beet and nasturtium leaves.
N. A. Brown and C. O. J.vmieson.
119.

*The foot-rot of the sweet potato.
L. L. Harper. 120.

*Gymnosporangium from Japan. ^\'.
H. Long. 122.

*Heart rots of hardwood trees. \\ .
H. Long. 123.

*Polyporus dryadeus. W. H. Long.
121.

References: 149,209,378.
Plant Pathology. Water requirements
of plants. L. J. Briggs and H.
L. Shantz. 6, 7.

* Abstracts.

632

INDEX

Plant Physiology. Carbohydrate
transformations in sweet potatoes.
H. Hasselbrinc?. 234.
Changes that take place in the cur-
ing of cigar-leaf tobacco. W. W.
Garner, C. W. Bacon and C. L.

FOUBERT. 233.

*Environment influences on wheat.
J. A. LeClerc and P. A. Yoder.
119.
Injury by smelter smoke. G. G.

Hedgcock. 70.
Laboratory routine auxiliary to
sugar beet breeding. W.B.Clark.
234.
Review of a paper by Sir Francis

Darwin. H. L. Shantz. 262.
References: 378.
Psychology. The psychology of the

myth. J. N. B. Hewett. 336.
Radioactivity. *Radioactivity of min-
eral waters. R. B. Dole. 458.
Radioactivity of Virginia mineral
waters. W. D. Collins. 36.
Radiolelegra-phy. Reception of radio-
telegraphic signals. L. W. Clark.
335.
A direct reading instrument for meas-
uring the logarithmic decreement
and wave length of electromagnetic
waves. F. A. Kolster. 569.
Quantitative experiments in radio-
telegraphic transmission. L. W.
Austin. 570.
Sanitation. Sanitation in ancient civ-
ilizations. D. S. Lamb. 591.
Technical Physics. Laws of lubrica-
tion. M. D. Hersev. 542.
Technology. *Industrial gas calorime-
try. C. AV. Waiuner and E. F.
Mueller. 76.

*Some leadless fritted glazes. E. T.
Montgomery. 78.

*Surface insulation of pipes. B. Mc-

CoLLUM and O. S. Peters. 75.
The veritos firing rings. A. V.
Bleininger and G. H. Brown.
446.
References: 7, 381.
Zoology. *Contribution to the study
of ophiurans of U. S. National
Museum. R. Koehleh. 290.

"'Crustacean parasites of West India
fishes and land crabs. C. B. Wil-
son. 231.
Geographical range of recent cri-
noids. A. H. Clark. 558.

*List of the Rotatoria of Washington
and vicinity. H. K. H a r r i n g .
230.
The relation between recent crinoids
and the temperature of their habi-
tat. A. H. Clark. 579.

*Mammals from the island of Tobago.
A. H. Clark. 74.

*Monograph of starfishes of the North
Pacific coast. A.E.Verrill. 291.

*Monograph of the f oraminifera of the
North Pacific Ocean. Part III.
J. A. CUSHMAN. 291.
Nocturnal animals. A. H. Clark.
139.

*Onychophora da Australia. Austin
H. Clark. 75.

*Specimens of Onychophoi'e. A. H.
Clark. 291.

*Synopsis of the Rotatoria. H. K.
Harring. 230.

*Une etude philosophique de la rela-
tion, etc. A. H. Clark. 609.

References: 378.

— See also: Entomology; Fisheries.

* Abstracts.