MOI JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME VI, 1916 William R. Maxon NATIONAL MUSEUM BOARD OF EDITORS N. Ernest Dorset BUREAU OP STANDARDS Adolph Knopf GEOLOGICAL SUBVET PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, MD. M9 fy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI JANUARY 4, 1916 • No. 1 MATHEMATICS. — A simple device for the graphical solution of the equation A=BC. F. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. The equation A = BC, in which the letters may represent numbers, or powers of numbers, or functions of variables as sines, cosines, tangents, logarithms, exponentials, etc., is essentially a simplified form of the equation of proportion, A:B = C: D (rule of three) and is so common in physical and technical prob- lems that different graphical methods have been suggested for its solution. A brief discussion of these methods was given several years ago b}^ the writer1 and the conclusion was reached that, "in all cases it is essential: (a) that the graphical means employed represent the relations adequately and as free from distortion as possible, and (b) that they be easy of application. The first principle requires that in any graphical representation the rela- tive accuracy over the entire field be uniform and comparable to that which obtains in nature." In order to apply this prin- ciple effectively to the solution of a given equation it may be necessary to increase the uniformity in the plotting scale by tak- ing some function of the values in the equation such as the logarithmic function or by raising the values to some power. 1 Graphical methods in microscopical petrography. Am. Jour. Sci., Ser. 4, 36:509-542. 1913. See also R. A. Harris: On uses of a drawing board and scales in trigonometry and navigation. Science, N.S., 18: 108-112. 1903. A diagram or chart for finding the sun's azimuth. Science, N.S. 22: 469. 1905. C. Runge. Graphical Methods. New York. 1912. 1 WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF EQUATION A=B-C In case A, B, C are functions of variables the equation A = BC may be considered to express relations between the functions themselves, namely, between A, B, and C rather than between the variables; fundamentally, of course, the equation expresses relations between the variables, and the increments are so taken. The procedure adopted below amounts practically to the representation of each function by a scale so chosen that the resulting curves are straight lines. Straight lines can be Fie.l A B A. B. C < 1 <^^ Fig.2 Fig.3 Fig.4 1 B A, B <1. C>1 A. B >1. C <1 Figs. 1 to 4. Diagrams for graphical solution of certain equations. drawn more readily and more accurately than curves; straight line diagrams are, moreover, easier to read. In the paper cited above a number of straight line diagrams are included which serve for the graphical solution of the equations encountered in microscopical petrography. These diagrams have been found in practice to be useful and time saving. Recently a device has been adopted by means of which these equations and others of the same general form can be solved with- out requiring a special plot for each type of equation. Its con- WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF EQUATION A=B-C 3 struction is based on the factthatan equation of the typeA = BC can always be expressed in such form that each factor has a value less than unity; for, in case a factor is greater than unity, the equation can be so written that the reciprocal of this factor is taken, which is then less than unity. The graphical solution of the equation by a straight line diagram can be accomplished either by a method of similar triangles or by a method of pro- jection which, however, is also a method based on similar tri- angles. Both methods furnish results of the same order of exactness. Convenient forms of solution by the two methods are illustrated in figures 1 to 4, in which a refers in each case to the solution by similar triangles while b represents the solution by the method of projection. In figure 1 A, B, C are less than unity; in figure 2 A, B, C > 1 ; in figure 3 A, B < 1, C > 1 ; in figure 4 A, B > 1, C < 1. In case it is inconvenient to use reciprocal values, it is possible to extend the range of the solution by changing the scale of the base line from 1 to 10, or to 100 or to any power of 10. This amounts simply to the shifting of the decimal point in one of the factors. In the first method (figs, la, 2a, 3a, 4a) it is evident that if the values of A, B, C be plotted along the side lines the remainder of the solution is simply a matter of rectangular coordinates; and similarly for the solution by the method of projection. The graphical solution on the basis of the above relations is readily accomplished by attaching permanently to a small draw- ing board of the usual size (19" x 26") a sheet of 1 mm. coordi- nate paper, 50 cm. square, at one corner of which a straight edge fits in a fixed socket so that it can be rotated about this corner as axis (fig. 5) . To solve an equation such as sin A = sin B sin C, two sine scales are first prepared by marking off the sine values directly (listed in sine tables) on a narrow slip of 1 mm. coordinate paper; these are then attached to the bottom and right side of the large sheet of coordinate paper as indicated in figure 5. In case B and C are known, set the edge of the rule at the value of B (40° in figure 5), find the abscissa C (41° in figure 5) and pass along its ordinate to the intersection with the edge of the rule; tf ■-.Ml m W 4 WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF EQUATION A=B-C the horizontal line through this point intersects the ordinate scale on the right at 25° which is the desired value of A. To save time it is well to prepare at the outset pairs of scales of all the trigonometric functions, of logarithms, of reciprocals of numbers, their squares and square roots, and of any other functions which may be employed. Such scales are then always ready for use. In case the observer has only a few types of the general equa- tion to solve it is convenient to plot the scales for each type of a: be IS - n<5 1 i|0 1 2|o | O | 4|0 | 5|0 | 6JO 1 7JO|qjt© Fig. 5. Device for graphical solution of equation A = B C. equation along the sides of a large sheet of coordinate paper, which then serves directly for the solution of the given equation. The bother of adjusting the scales to the sides of the plot is thus eliminated; a special sheet of coordinate paper is, however, required for each equation. The degree of accuracy attainable by this device depends on the care taken to read the scales. In case the reading is cor- rect to \ mm., the result is accurate to one part in a thousand. Typical examples of the kinds of equations which can be solved by this graphical method of proportional parts are: WRIGHT: A GEOLOGICAL PROTRACTOR 5 y = ax; pv = c; y = ax2; y% = ax; y = a*, or log y = x log a; y = xQ, or log y = n log x. sin i = n- sin r; D = sin A • sin A1; tan2 V = ^; cot A = sin B ■ sin C; tan A = sin 5 • cot C; cos A = cos 5 • cos C; sin A = sin B • sin C; tan A = sin B • tan C. This list is by no means complete but it serves to indicate the variety of equations which are of the form A = B- C and which can therefore be solved graphically with a fair degree of accuracy. GEOLOGY. — A geological protractor. F. E. Wright, Geo- physical Laboratory. In geological field and map work a protractor is commonly used for plotting angles of strike and dip. For the drawing of a vertical cross section it is also desirable to determine the line of slope of any given bed on the section. Heretofore this has been accomplished either by graphical methods or by compu- tation or by use of a graphical computation chart.1 It is pos- sible, however, by slightly modifying the protractor, to combine with it a slope angle computer such that the apparent dip of a bed can be read off directly for any angle of dip of stratum and for any azimuth of vertical section. The principles on which the slope computer is based are pre- sented in detail in the foregoing paper. The equation to be solved is of the form tan C = sin B ■ tan A in which A is the true angle of dip, B the direction angle between the line of strike of the bed and that of the vertical section, and C the apparent dip angle on the vertical section. In solving this equation by the graphical method here proposed it is important to note that, 1 A chart of this nature was first described by W. G. Woolnough, Proc. Austra- lasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1909: 244-249. Practically the same chart was published later by D. F. Hewett without knowledge, however, of Woolnough's chart. Economic Geology, 7: 190. 1912; and still later by H. Bancroft, Bull. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, July 1914, p. 1769. A straight line chart was first prepared by the writer. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:440-444. 1914. O WRIGHT! A GEOLOGICAL PROTRACTOR because the radius of the protractor circle is taken to be unity whereas the tangent values may range from zero to infinity, three different cases are to be distinguished: (a) Angles A and C are less than 45°; tan A, tan C < 1; (b) Angles A and C are greater than 45°; tan A, tan C > 1 ; (c) Angle A greater than 45° (tan A > 1) ; angle C less than 45° (tan C < 1) ; cos B is always less than unity. To adapt the ordinary protractor to the solution of these prob- lems a thin celluloid arm is so attached that it can be rotated Fig. 1. A geological protractor. about the center of the circle as an axis (fig. 1). On this arm a tangent scale is printed from 0° to 45°. A series of lines parallel to the base line of the protractor is printed on the face of the protractor as indicated in the figure. The extension of the ro- tating arm below the axis enables the geologist to use the pro- tractor as a hand goniometer for the measurement of the angles between crystal faces. A scale of inches, divided into tenths, and a scale of millimeters are added below the base line of the protractor. The methods of solution for the three cases noted above are indicated in figure la, b, c. In figure la OA ( = tan A) is the true GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS 7 dip; B, the direction angle, is read off directly on the graduated circle; OC (= tan C) is the apparent dip; thus the line of inter- section of a stratum, dipping at an angle of 35° (OA), with a ver- tical section which includes an angle 44° 30' (B) with the line of strike of the bed, has a slope angle (OC) of 26.1°. In figure 16 the angles A and C are greater than 45° and the numbers in parentheses on the scales are used; thus on a vertical section including an angle of 44° 30' (B) with the line of strike of a bed dipping at an angle of 72° (OA) the apparent dip is 65.1°. In figure lc the angle A is greater than 45° while C is less than 45°; in this case the numbers in parentheses on the scale of the rotat- ing arm are used, while for the angle C the unbracketed num- bers along OC are read; thus the trace of a bed, dipping at 60°, on a vertical section, which includes an angle of 24° with the line of strike of the bed, has a slope angle of 35.2°. CHEMISTRY. — The reaction of soil and measurements of hydro- gen-ion concentration. L. J. Gillespie, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by Oswald Schreiner.) The reaction of soil is conceded to be of great influence upon soil fertility. Certain plants seem to require a certain degree of acidity, and may flourish at an acidity sufficient to be very harmful to others. That excessive acidity is a common cause of infertility n) long-cultivated soils is generally recognized. On the other hand, sodium carbonate frequently occurs in the alkali soils of arid lands and imparts an excessive alkalinity. The study of the reaction of soil is therefore not only of considerable scientific but also of great practical importance. Let us consider briefly the case presented by a sour soil. Two questions are of especial interest: (1) What is the quantity of acid substance? and (2) what is the intensity of the acidity? The amount of liming or other ameliorative treatment required to neutralize the acidity will depend upon the quantity of acid substance. It seems probable, on the other hand, that charac- teristic effects of acidity upon soil fertility will be more clearly correlated with the intensity of acidity than with the quantity 8 GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS of acid substance. However this may be, a complete study of soil acidity must take both factors into consideration. The lime requirement method of Veitch1 and its numerous modifications, as well as all other titrimetric methods, for ex- ample, that of Baumann and Gully2 and that of Daikuhara,3 are an attempt to measure the quantity of acid substance, not the intensity of acidity. Furthermore, since a complete determi- nation of the acids and bases in soils is as yet impossible, one can- not calculate the intensity of acidity from the quantity of acid substance, even if this could be determined by any of the methods yet proposed. The intensity of acidity, or of alkalinity, can only be determined experimentally by a measurement of the hydrogen-ion concentration. In a study of the acids and colloids of humus Fischer4 meas- ured the hydrogen-ion concentrations of some soils by the electro- metric method. He added, when necessary, just enough water to the soil to make possible an intimate wet contact between the soil and the wire electrode. He was able to demonstrate the acid nature of Hochmoor sphagnum (six samples). These showed a hydrogen-ion concentration of 9.6'10~4to 6.5'10~4. Two Flach- moor samples were slightly acid (6'10-6 and l.l'lO-6); another soil and a sample of compost were slightly alkaline (2.7' 10 ~8 and 4'10-8). Litmus did not respond to the weak acidities or alkalinities of these samples, but did give an acid reaction with the samples of Hochmoor sphagnum. Fischer states that it can be concluded from this that adsorption processes are not to be assumed to vitiate tests of acidity made by means of indicators. Fischer had no other test with which to check his electro- metric results, and his electrometric procedure was one that would not be expected to lead to a quick attainment of equi- librium. He was therefore obliged to continue the observations until the potential became constant. Seven to eight hours were required for this, and in the case of the soils which showed 1 Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 24: 1120. 1902. 2 Naturw. Ztschr. Forst- u. Landw., 6:1. 1908. 3 Bull. Imp. Cent. Agr. Exp. Sta., Japan, 2:1. 1914. 4 Kuhn-Archiv (Halle), 4: 1-136. 1914. GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS 9 a hydrogen-ion concentration of about 10 ~6 or lower (and which were therefore feebly acid, neutral, or alkaline), constant poten- tials could not be obtained. It is objectionable to prolong the measurement unduly, as a platinized platinum electrode may be- come "sick," a phenomenon frequently observed after continued use. Hasselbalch and Gammeltoft5 state that for this reason measurements on blood must not take more than one hour. As a step toward the satisfactory determination of hydrogen- ion concentration in soil the writer has attempted to apply the hydrogen electrode to mixtures of soil and water and to apply indicators to extracts prepared by centrifuging such mixtures. GENERAL PROCEDURE IN THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION Since it seemed to be impossible to apply either the hydrogen elec- trode or indicators to soil in the condition in which we are most inter- ested, namely, at optimum moisture content, it was decided to add enough water, in this series of experiments, to facilitate the determina- tions. For the hydrogen electrode work a suitable quantity was found to be 2 cc. per gram of dry soil. The same quantity was used for the colorimetric, or indicator, work, though it was much more than is neces- sary. For expediency the soil was air dried, though in some cases the drying was interrupted when the soil was still somewhat damp. With- out forcing or grinding, the soils were put through a coarse sieve to remove sticks and stones, and in four cases through a one-millimeter sieve in the same way in order to remove fine woody material which interfered with the pipetting of the fluid after the use of the centrifuge. Twenty-two soils were taken for investigation. They included samples of muck, sandy loam, loam, silty loam, silt loam, clay loam, and clay. Some reacted strongly acid to litmus paper, some neutral, and some alkaline. The hydrogen ion concentration has been expressed, in the customary manner, as the hydrogen-ion exponent of Sorensen.6 ELECTROMETRIC DETERMINATIONS In figure 1 is shown the electrode vessel together with the electrode in position, the soil and water mixture and the junction between the h Biochem. Ztschr., 68: 206. 1915. 6 Biochem. Ztschr., 21: 131. 1909. 10 GILLESPIE.- HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS saturated potassium chloride solution and the soil extract. By means of a motor the vessel could be swung about an axis at x; during the mo- tion the body of the electrode vessel turned from an inclination of 3° to the horizontal to an inclination of about 33° to the horizontal. The electrode vessel had a capacity of about 65 cc, measured from the brim to the stopcock. Fifteen grams of dry soil were introduced into a test-tube 17 by 3 cm., 30 cc. of distilled water were added, and the mixture was well shaken and permitted to stand about 10 to 20 minutes for sedimentation. Fig. 1. The filled electrode vessel. The neck of the electrode vessel, including the bore of the stopcock, was filled with a portion of the soil extract so obtained and the stopcock was then closed. The end-tube a was filled with saturated potassium chloride solution by means of a capillary pipette. The rest of the soil mass was now well agitated and immediately poured into the vessel, which was then fastened to the shaking device. A rubber tube, filled with the saturated potassium chloride solution which led to the calomel electrode through a closed, ungreased stopcock, was joined to the tube a, and the vessel was closed with a well-fitting rubber stopper carrying the electrode and tubes for the entrance and exit of hydrogen. A volume of about 140 cc. of dry hydrogen, electrolytically generated from caustic potash solution A with iron electrodes, was rapidly swept through the GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS 11 space over the soil mixture, the current of hydrogen was stopped by- closing the exit, and the vessel was shaken 10 to 20 times. In order to remove residual atmospheric nitrogen another portion of hydrogen was passed through in the same way, and after shaking again 10 to 20 times the hydrogen entrance was also closed and the vessel shaken at the rate of 70 to 90 complete swings per minute for five minutes. The motor was stopped, the potassium chloride contact was made in the tube a, the shaking was started again, and the electromotive force of the combination of the electrode with a saturated KC1 calomel electrode7 was determined at once. The vessel was shaken continuously during the measurement, according to the proposal of Hasselbalch for meas- urements on biological fluids,8 this procedure being especially advan- tageous for work with fluids poor in regulating capacity. From this difference of potential and the temperature the hydrogen-ion exponent was calculated from the figures given by Michaelis.9 The tempera- ture was observed in a bottle which took the place of the usual potas- sium chloride trough; it remained be- tween 25.5° and 28.5°C. during all the k 33""" ~ determinations. Tests of the calomel electrode on regulator mixtures of known exponents showed no error due to the pjg 2. Hydrogen electrode, calomel electrode. The hydrogen elec- trode is shown in figure 2. A large sheet of plati num was used which measured 2.54 cm. by 3.3 cm. It was freshly coated with palladium black for each determination after complete removal of the previous coating. In constructing the hydrogen electrode it was necessary to support the sheet of platinum at both top and bottom, and also to pro- vide leads for the current at two opposite points, in order to secure an even deposit of palladium black. The electrode remained partially (about half) submerged during the shaking. The arrangement used for measuring the potentials was that de- scribed by Hildebrand.10 A capillary electrometer was used as a null-point instrument. A voltmeter was used which read directly to 20 millivolts.11 The potential could be estimated accurately to 2 millivolts and often to 1 millivolt. The voltmeter was calibrated 7 Michaelis and Davidoff, Biochem. Ztschr., 46: 131. 1912. 8 Biochem. Bulletin, 2: 367. 1913. 9 Die Wasserstoffionenkonzentration, 157. 1914. 10 Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 35: 847. 1913. 11 For further work a high-grade potentiometer will be available. 12 gillespie: hydrogen-ion concentration in soils against an accurate potentiometer with the kind assistance of Dr. William Mansfield Clark, of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In order to see whether a substantially correct potential had been obtained, the shaking was continued after the first measurement for 5 to 9 minutes longer and the potential was determined again in the same way. This was done in all cases but one. In 7 cases the poten- tial observed was the same, in 10 cases it had fallen (1 fall of 3, 1 of 2, and 8 of 1 millivolt), and in 4 cases it had risen (1 rise of 3, and 3 of 1 millivolt). No relation could be seen between the changes and the values of the potential. A possible interpretation of the falls of po- tential is that a more complete saturation of the water with acid sub- stance was attained during the second shaking. The rises may have been due to hydrolyzation of soil minerals. No difficulty was encoun- tered even with the measurement of soils which gave neutral or alkaline results.12 COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATIONS Fifteen grams of dry soil were treated in a centrifuge tube of 60 cc. capacity with 30 cc. of distilled water. After thorough wetting of the soil was accomplished by means of shaking or of slight stirring the tube was closed by the hand and violently shaken fifty times. Not more than 8 soils were thus treated at a time. The entire determination was now carried out without delay. The tubes were centrifuged for 10 to 20 minutes. The supernatant fluid in some cases was almost clear, in many cases there was considerable turbidity, and in a few cases there was a heavy turbidity together with a yellowish color. With a pipette provided with a rubber tube and mouthpiece 15 to 20 cc. were with- drawn, and 5 cc. were put into each of 3 test-tubes. Indicator solu- tion was added and admixed and the color so developed was compared with the colors obtained on adding the same quantity of the same in- dicator solution to tubes containing 5 cc. of various "regulators" of known hydrogen-ion concentrations. With all fluids it was possible to make a satisfactory comparison by means of at least one indicator, and with most fluids it was possible to make an independent comparison with a second indicator. This was done whenever possible. When the color which developed in the soil extract was the same as that in a particular regulator, the hydrogen-ion exponent of that regulator was 12 In preliminary experiments the use of soil and water in such quantities that agitation of the mass during shaking was inefficient was found to prevent the attainment of approximately equilibrium conditions within five minutes. GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS 13 recorded as the result. When the color was intermediate between the colors of two successive regulator tubes, the value of the hydrogen-ion exponent was estimated to one-half or one-third of the interval. TABLE I NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 SOU. Loam, from Maryland Silty loam, from Maine Loam, from Maine Sandy loam, from Virginia Silty loan, from Maine Sandy loam, from Virginia Silty loam, from Virginia Silty loam subsoil, from Maine Silt loam, from Maine Silty loam, from Virginia Silt loam, from Virginia Loam subsoil, from Maine Silt loam, from Maine Muck, from Maine Muck, from Maine Silt loam, from Maine Clay loam suhsoil, from Maine Silt loam, from Virginia Clay, from Montana Loam, from Utah Clay, from Montana Loam, from Utah i:le(thometb c RESLI.T-i * 13 o o 5 » MS ° 2 w 515 4.55 524 4.7 527 4.75 532 4.8 542 5.0 546 5.1 549 5.1 556 5.2 561 5.3 567 5.4 571 5.5 576 5.6 591 5.8 591 5.8 594 5.9 628 6.45 644 6.7 666 7.1 727 8.1 736 8.3 739 8.3 763 8.7 COLORIMETRIC RESULTS Indicator t-br-ph-s-pht methyl red t-br-ph-^-pht methyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red dipropyl red methyl red br-th-s-pht dipropyl red br-th-s-pht br-th-s-pht. . . br-th-s-pht br-th-s-pht ph-s-pht br-th-s-pht ph-s-pht ph-s-pht ph-pht ph-s-pht ph-pht ph-s-pht ph-pht ph-s-pht ph-pht a o ho a o o >> © 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.6 5.15 5.2 4.9 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.2 25 2 4 3 6 6 2 3 5 6 5.5 5.7 5.75 5.75 5.9 5.9 5.45 6.05 6.4 6.95 6.9 7.0 8.0 7.9 8.1 8.1 S.2 8.2 8.4 8.5 C3 o o 4J 4.3 4.5 5.2 4.9 5.3 5.2 5.3 5.45 5.6 5.25 5.55 5.6 5.75 5.9 5.45 6.05 6.7 6.95 7.95 8.1 8.2 8.45 o H H SA *z O m < a 5. 4.4 4.6 5.0 4.85 5.15 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.45 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.85 5.7 6.25 6.7 7.0 8.0 8.2 8.25 8.6 * Potential in millivolts, corrected by means of calibration curve. 14 GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS Twenty regulator mixtures were prepared for the work, the expo- nents were determined electrometrically and the colorimetric work was done while the solutions were fresh. The reaction varied from one tube to the next in the series by a step of about 0.3 in the value of the expo- nent. From the exponent 3.5 to 5.1 the regulators were prepared from a given quantity of n/10 sodium hydrate and decreasing quantities of n/2 acetic acid and water. The concentration of the sodium acetate formed in the mixing was m/200 in all cases. From 5.3 to 6.8, mixtures of m/10 potassium acid phosphate and m/10 sodium hydrate and water were used which had the same concentration of primary and of secondary phosphate as prescribed by Sorensen13 and were thus m/15 with phos- phate; and from 7.1 to 9.4, other mixtures of the same two solutions were used (without addition of water), in which the concentration of phos- phate decreased from m/16 to m/20, owing to the dilution involved in the use of sodium hydrate instead of the disodium phosphate used by Sorensen. The following six indicators were used: (1) tetrabromphenolsulfone- phthalein (abbreviated in the table to t-br-ph-s-pht) , 3 drops from a capillary pipette of a solution of 0.1 gram in 250 cc. alcohol; (2) methyl red, 2 drops of a solution of 0.1 gram in 300 cc. alcohol and 200 cc. water; (3) dipropyl red, 4 drops from a capillary pipette of a solution made in the same way as the methyl red; (4) bromthymolsulfone- phthalein (br-th-s-pht) , 6 drops from a capillary pipette of a solution of 0.1 gram in 200 cc. alcohol; (5) the sodium salt of phenolsulfone- phthalein (ph-s-pht), 1 drop of a 0.06 per cent aqueous solution; and (6) phenolphthalein (ph-pht), 1 drop of a 0.5 per cent solution in 50 per cent alcohol. The first, third, and fourth are new indicators re- cently prepared and described by Lubs and Clark.14 Solutions of these were kindly given to me by Dr. H. A. Lubs. These three new indicators would seem to have considerable value in this type of investigation. The colorimetric results are given, together with the electrometric results, in the table herewith (Table I). DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS In the table are given the hydrogen-ion exponent for each of the 22 soils as determined by the electrometric method and by the different indicators, and also the mean colorimetric result and the mean of the 13 Biochem. Ztschr., 21: 131. 1909; 22: 352. 1909. 14 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 5: 009. 1915. GILLESPIE: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS 15 two methods. The soils are arranged in the order of decreasing acidity. An exponent of 7 means neutrality; a smaller one, acidity; and a larger one, alkalinity. It will be seen that values were obtained between 4.4 and 8.6. Some of the acidities found are rather intense, from a bio- logical point of view. Thus Briinn15 has found that typhoid bacilli are killed with certainty by exposure for 24 hours to an acidity correspond- ing to an exponent of 5, and four of the soils show as high, or a higher acidity. One soil gave a neutral result and the four western alkali soils gave distinctly alkaline results. A study of the results for each soil obtained by the use of the various indicators and by the electrometric method shows that the agreement between the two indicators is very good except in one instance (No. 17), and that the agreement between the colorimetric and the electro- metric methods is good in every case. Such agreements show that the two methods give comparable results and give ground for inferring that such results are approximately correct. It would seem premature at this time to apply the results obtained in this way to the soil as it exists in the field, since carbon dioxide is lost during the drying and the natural "soil solution" is diluted for the determinations. Nevertheless it may well happen that the errors so introduced (from a field standpoint) are not great enough to obscure the differences observable between different soils. Further work will be required to ascertain whether this is the case. SUMMARY Procedures have been devised for the electrometric and col- orimetric determination of hydrogen-ion concentration in soil admixed with two parts of water. Twenty-two soils of various types and reactions were examined by means of these procedures. The hydrogen-ion exponents so determined were from 4.4 to 8.6. Some of the values are acid, some nearly neutral, and some dis- tinctly alkaline. Of the acid values some represented rather intense acidity. In 19 cases two different indicators could be used for the colorimetric test, and in these cases there was a good agreement between the two results so obtained. In all cases there was a good agreement between the electrometric and the colorimetric 15 Dissertation, Berlin, 1913; quoted by Michaelis in the book cited above. 16 gillespie: hydrogen-ion concentration in soils results. Such agreements show that the two methods give com- parable results and give ground for inferring that such results are approximately correct. CONTINUATION OF EXPERIMENTS The experimentation is being continued. Special effort will be made to develop the colorimetric method into a convenient and practical test and to determine its reliability as applied to soils under field conditions. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEODESY. — Triangulation in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. A. L. Baldwin. U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey Special Publication No. 30. Pp. 67. 1915. This publication contains the positions of 369 triangulation sta- tions which lie within the limits of the six states mentioned in the title, and most of which form that part of the Transcontinental Tri- angulation extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The publi- cation supplements the information given in Special Publication No. 4 which appeared in 1900 and contained features of special interest to scientists. Positions are there given of only the principal stations and only a few of them are described. Since the appearance of Special Publication No. 4 the United States Standard Datum, called the North American Datum since its use by Mexico and Canada, was adopted and it became necessary to place the old positions on that datum. In Special Publication No. 30 there are given the geographic positions, on the North American Datum, of all stations in the area covered, to- gether with all available descriptions of these points. In addition to the above-mentioned data, this publication gives the results of a trigonometric connection made in 1914 between the de- tached pieces of triangulation to the north and south of Louisville, Kentucky. It includes also the results of a primary base line measured in 1879 with six-meter contact-slide bars. Such apparatus is no longer used in the field in the United States, as the long invar tapes or ribbons have recently superseded all forms of bars in base line measurements. The field work covered by this publication was done between 1871 and 1914, but all details are omitted, except for the primary triangulation done in Indiana in 1914. Aside from its scientific interest, the volume has a large practical 17 18 abstracts: geology value, as it offers to the engineer and map maker a large number of points determined trigonometrically and correlated on one geodetic datum. These stations or points are a part of a framework, composed of the connected triangulation of the country, from which the state, county or private surveyor may extend triangulation of a lower grade for the control of detailed work. A. L. B. GEOLOGY. — The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the history of the Great Lakes. Frank Leverett and F. B. Taylor. U. S. Geological Survey Monograph 53. Pp. 529, maps and illustrations. 1915. This monograph describes the glacial features of Indiana and the southern peninsula of Michigan and the great glacial lakes which bor- dered the receding ice front. Brief mention is also made of related glacial and lake features in Ohio, New York, Ontario and Wisconsin. Glacial drift of Illinoian age extends 50 to 100 miles south of the border of the Wisconsin drift in Indiana and probably underlies the whole extent of the Wisconsin drift in the area described. Till of pre- Wisconsin age has been penetrated by borings over considerable areas in the Saginaw valley. At its maximum extension the Wisconsin ice sheet was not very definitely lobate but by the time the recession of the ice margin had progressed 75 to 100 miles the Huron-Erie lobe on the east began to be sharply separated from the Lake Michigan lobe on the west and a well defined reentrant appeared between them. Terminating at first in northern Indiana, this reentrant rapidly widened and extended north- eastward into Michigan until the Saginaw lobe became a distinct feature. All three of the ice lobes retreated in an oscillating manner and made a series of moraines. Readvances appear generally to have been relatively small, but in one or two cases they amounted to at least 20 to 25 miles. The report deals at length with the development and relations of the three lobes and their effects on drainage and on the great lakes which gathered in the great valleys whose natural outlets were tempor- arily obstructed by the ice. Among the moraines the Port Huron morainic system is particularly well marked, being identifiable from eastern Wisconsin to western New York. This system appears to mark a longer step of retreat and read- vance than the average. During a later stage drumlins were formed over a considerable area around Charlevoix, Michigan, and a few in other places. abstracts: geology 19 The rivers that issued from the great reentrants of the ice front carried enormous quantities of sediment, the coarser parts of which were spread over extensive areas in front of the ice. The soils thus produced are lower in fertile than those of the intervening moraines and till plains. The larger lakes began with glacial Lake Maumee which first appeared as a small crescent-shaped body of water bordering the ice front with its outlet at Fort Wayne, Indiana. In a similar manner glacial Lake Chicago soon appeared at the south end of the Lake Michigan basin. The bearing of certain facts observed in Ohio on the attraction of the ice sheet upon the lake waters near it is discussed in connection with Lake Maumee. Remarkable ice ramparts formed in connection with the same lake are also described. With further recession of the ice these lakes expanded northward until Lake Maumee found a lower outlet westward across the "thumb" of Michigan 50 miles north of Detroit. About this time a lake made its appearance in the Saginaw valley and from this point the history of lake waters is involved in considerable complexity. This complexity arose mainly from the oscil- lation of the ice front, and from its relation to certain parts of the land whose form and relief caused them to become barriers at climaxes of readvance but not at climaxes of recession. These barriers were: (1) the broad low ridge forming the "thumb" of Michigan, and (2) the northward sloping front of the highlands south of Syracuse, N. Y. In both of these regions, first on the "thumb" and then near Syracuse, outlets for the lake waters were alternately opened and closed by the oscillating ice front and the level of the waters was alternately lowered and elevated correspondingly. Following Lake Maumee, the waters underwent a number of changes of level and of outlet, forming succes- sively Lakes Arkona, W^hittlesey, Wayne, Warren, and Lundy. At length the lowland between the Huron and Erie basins was left dry and St. Clair and Detroit rivers began their post-glacial existence. Similarly the lowland between Lakes Erie and Ontario emerged and Niagara River and the great cataract came into being. Soon after the appearance of early Lake Algonquin in the south half of the Huron basin the waters in the three upper basins, those of Superior, Michigan, and Huron were united, forming the great Lake Algonquin, the largest of the glacial lakes of the region. Twice the recession of the ice opened outlets for Lake Algonquin, but on both occasions these were closed by differential elevation of northern lands. The first was at Kirkfield, Ont., and the second at North Bay, Ont. The uptilting of the land at 20 abstracts: geology the north is recorded in northward splitting and divergence of breaches and the relatively rapid rate of the uplift is shown by a wide interval in the north below the upper group of Algonquin beaches. The opening of the outlet at North Bay marks the final disappearance of the ice sheet from the Great Lakes region and the end of its influence in lake history. At this stage the upper lakes, known as Nipissing Great Lakes, were not very different from the present Great Lakes except that their outlet was eastward through the Mattawa and Ottawa rivers to the sea near Ottawa. Uplift of the land finally changed the outlet of these post-glacial lakes from North Bay to Port Huron and established the present system. In the closing chapter the possible causes of the deformation of shore lines, such as resilience with ice removal following depression by ice weight, eustatic movements, and crustal creep are considered, but final conclusions are not reached. F. B. T. GEOLOGY. — Contributions to Economic Geology, 1918, Part II, Min- eral Fuels. M. R. Campbell, and David White. U. S. Geo- logical Survey Bulletin 581. Pp. 187, 11 plates, 6 text figures. 1915. This volume contains two classes of reports on occurrences of oil and coal: (a) Short reports giving comparatively detailed descriptions of fuel resources that have economic interest but are not of sufficient impor- tance to warrant a lengthy report; (b) preliminary reports on econo- mic investigations, the results of which are to be published later in more detailed form. The papers included in the volume are the fol- lowing: Woodruff, E. G., and Day, D. T. Oil shale in northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah. Lupton, C. T. Oil and gas in the western part of the Olympic Peninsula , Wash- ington. Barnett, V. H. The Moorcroft oilfields, ("rook County, Wyoming. Barnett, V. H. Possibilities of oil in the Big Muddy Dome, Converse and Na- trona Counties, Wyoming. Pack, R. W., and English, W. A. Geology and oil prospects in Waltham, Priest, Bitterwater , and Peachtree Valleys, California. Wegemann, C. H. The Coalville coalfield, Utah. E. S. B. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 298th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on October 27, 1915. INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS G. F. Loughlin described an occurrence of hubnerite, wolframite, pyrite, etc., at Leadville, in deposits intermediate in nature between contact metamorphic deposits and ordinary veins. W. F. Hillebrand exhibited a liquid alloy composed mostly of gal- lium, with a small percentage of indium and zinc. This had been pro- duced in a zinc metallurgical plant, appearing as drops sweated out of zinc-lead dross-plates. It was learned by correspondence with the manager of the works that the particular ore from which it had been derived was uncertain and that in any case the amount which could be produced was probably small. In reply to questions from Spencer, Martin, and Wells, Hille- brand said that at present there was no use to which gallium was put. It has been obtained previously from zinc ores and indications of its presence were often found in spectroscopic work. REGULAR PROGRAM E. T. Allen: Chemical studies in copper sulphide enrichment. It was shown from a study of the copper sulphides that chalcocite was a mineral of variable composition, made up of cuprous sulphide with a varying amount of dissolved cupric sulphide. There are two crystal- line forms of cuprous sulphide, with a transition point at ,91°. Only the lower temperature form has so far been found in nature. It was explained how the system Cu-Fe-S was being studied through the dissociation pressure curves of the various sulphides of Cu and Fe. A preliminary study of gossans has been made, with the result that all appear to be amorphous and to show a thermal behavior similar to limonite. A comparative study of the rates of oxidation of the com- moner sulphides, in pure condition, has been made and much atten- tion has been given to the chemical study of the enrichment process. The action of copper sulphate solutions on the most important sul- phides has been studied at 200°, 100°, and 40°. In all cases the final product has been cuprous sulphide. Covellite, and chalcocite con- 21 22 proceedings: geological society taming dissolved cupric sulphide, appear as intermediate products. The logical conclusion from the data is that secondary chalcopyrite, bornite, and covellite are earlier stages of a process which was inter- rupted before it was complete. Many reactions, such as the synthesis of bornite and chalcopyrite in the wet way, have been worked out. Discussion: G. F. Loughlin inquired regarding rate of oxidation of galena in comparison with sphalerite. Allen replied that with galena the action is rapid at first but an insoluble coating soon forms and action ceases. E. S. Bastin spoke of a phenomenon he had observed in field work. In a certain type of enrichment covellite, chalcocite, etc. form; in another type only chalcopyrite. In the latter case galena, sphalerite and carbonates are prominent accompanying minerals. He asked Allen if he had any explanation. Allen replied that his experi- ments did not offer any suggestion. He emphasized the fact that the end product of true equilibrium between sulphide ores and copper sul- phate solutions is not chalcopyrite but chalcocite. A. C. Spencer asked if it were possible that in processes of secondary enrichment mi- gration of copper in carbonate solutions had taken . place. Allen thought that an obstacle to such a conception was the lack of the necessary oxidizing agent. C. Wythe Cooke: The age of the Ocala limestone of Florida. The Ocala limestone, which has heretofore been thought to represent the concluding stage of the lower Oligocene (Vicksburg group) and to overlie the Marianna and "Peninsular" limestones, occurs at Marianna, Florida, lying unmistakably beneath the Marianna limestone, which is of Vicksburg age. Critical study of the list of fossils from Ocala pub- lished by Dall in 1903 shows that the formation is of upper Jackson (Eocene) age. The "Peninsular" limestone is in large part identical with the Ocala but may include other formations. Discussion: R. S. Bassler spoke of the great difficulties encountered in working out stratigraphic relations in the Southern States, due principally to lack of satisfactory outcrops. T. Wayland Vaugran referred to some of the structural relations which had led former workers astray. One of the chief factors was the presence of an erosion un- conformity and the lack of certain members in certain type sections. L. W. Stephenson thought that one of the chief points brought out by the paper was the necessity for very careful paleontologic work. C. N. Fenner, Secretary. The 299th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on November 10, 1915. informal communications W. T. Schaller described briefly a kaolinite from Oklahoma which was of very pure composition, but remarkable for intumescence before the blowpipe. proceedings: geological society 23 regular peogram Edgar T. Wherky: Notes on the geology near Reading, Pennsylvania, (Illustrated.) The Cambrian, Ordovician, and Triassic formations of the region, and their structures, were briefly described. The Cambrian comprises a quartzite and two limestones; the Ordovician, limestone, cement-rock, and shale; and the Triassic, shale, sandstone, conglomerate basalt, and diabase. The beds are greatly disturbed, being in places overturned to 45°, elsewhere intricately folded, and cut by three systems of faults: thrust-faults from the southeast, dating from late Ordovician time; normal faults with the drop on the southeast, which formed dur- ing the Triassic deposition; and normal faults crossing the other two sys- tems nearly at right angles, which were "developed at the close of Triassic time. Discussion: G. W. Stose referred to the remarkable amount of faulting exhibited in this area. In an area 20-30 miles to the south, whose structure had been worked out, there is almost none. He re- marked also on the well-defined characteristics of the Martinsburg shale in this section. In an adjacent section it is difficult to distin- guish between the Martinsburg shale and certain shaly strata in the Cambrian. J. W. Gidley: The relations of vertebrate fossils to stratigraphy. (No abstract.) N. H. Darton: Some geologic features of southeastern California. (Illustrated.) The results of a reconnaissance made near the line of the Santa Fe Railroad from Needles to Cajon Pass in 1906 and 1914 were outlined. Some of the facts have been published in the Guide Book to Geology, etc., of the Santa Fe Railroad, but many technical details re- garding rocks, structure, and fossils were necessarily omitted from that publication. Six general series of rocks were found: (1) A widely ex- posed basement of pre-Cambrian granites and schists, mostly appearing in high ridges; (2) a succession of Paleozoic rocks which yielded Cam- brian to Carboniferous fossils at several localities, notably in Iron Mountain and its northern continuation, Providence Mountain, to which a side trip was made from Kelso; (3) intrusive quartz-monzo- nites and similar rocks cutting the Paleozoic strata and altering lime- stones to marbles; (4) a thick series of Tertiary (Rosamond, etc.) vol- canic rocks, largely breccia, tuffs, ash, and sediments, with interbedded effusive sheets, and some intrusive masses; (5) the valley fill of the desert plain, with lake beds and salt, gypsum, etc.; (6) recent volcanic cones and flows, notably the very fine examples near Amboy and Pisgah. Many details of structure were determined, but it was found that most of the ridges and valleys were not closely related to faults as popularly supposed. Discussion: F. C. Schrader inquired whether it was possible to make correlations among the various volcanic series of different sections; also as to the manner in which mineralization was associated with the igneous rocks. Darton replied that the volcanic rocks of the younger series 24 proceedings: biological society were variable, so that successive beds could not be identified individu- ally but the general history and succession could be worked out. Min- eralization seems to be associated with igneous rocks of all descriptions, but no very important mines have been developed. T. Wayland Vaugh'an spoke of the faulting and inquired if the great block faulting of the West Indies found a parallel in southern California. He had formed the impression from talks with R. T. Hill that such was the case. Darton replied that in his work the details of faults had not been de- termined. He had found, however, that the topographic lineaments of the region were not due to faulting. C. N. Fenner, Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 544th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, November 6, 1915 with President Bartsch in the chair; 90 persons present. On recommendation of the Council, Gilbert F. Bateman, Trinidad, Colorado was elected to active membership. The first paper of the regular program was by O. P. Hay: A new Pleistocene sloth from Texas. Dr. Hay discussed the finding in Texas of a new member of the genus Nothr other ium. This discovery extends the range of the genus from South into North America. The specimen was exhibited and remarks were made on the interrelationships and distribution of the living and fossil American Edentates. The second paper was by J. N. Rose: Botanical explorations in South America. Dr. Rose gave an account of his botanical explorations in South America. He outlined first the field work which he and Dr. N. L. Britton had planned in connection with the cactus investigations of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and then described the great cactus deserts of South America which he had visited. During his last trip to South America he spent six weeks in the state of Bahia, Brazil, six weeks in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and three weeks in Argentina. Large collections were obtained and many living plants were sent back to the United States for cultivation, the living collection being now on exhibition in the New York Botanical Garden. Several remarkable generic types of cacti were discovered. Dr. Rose's paper was illustrated by numerous lantern slides of the regions visited and of cacti in their native environment, and by many interesting botanical specimens. The last paper of the evening was by L. 0. Howard: Some biological pictures of Oahu {Hawaii). Dr. Howard showed a large number of lantern slides from photographs made by him during a short stay on the island of Oahu during the past summer. Special emphasis was laid on those which dealt with agricultural problems and economic entomology. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI JANUARY 19, 1916 No. 2 PHYSICS. — The constants of the quartz-wedge saccharimeter and the specific rotation of sucrose. Part I: The constants for the 26 gram normal weight.1 Frederick Bates and Richard F. Jackson, Bureau of Standards. (Communi- cated by G. K. Burgess.) The control of the quartz-wedge saccharimeter has previously been based upon the experimental work of Herzfeld2 and Schon- rock.3 The former prepared pure sucrose and determined the sugar equivalents or values of a number of carefully selected quartz plates, making the comparison upon quartz-wedge sac- charimeters illuminated by Welsbach gas mantles, the light of which was filtered through a potassium bichromate solution. The rotations of these plates were then measured by Schonrock in terms of the D lines of the sodium spectrum. These measure- ments showed that the normal quartz plate caused a rotation of 34? 657 at 20 ?0 C. The normal quartz plate is one which causes the same rotation on the saccharimeter as the normal sugar solution which is the fundamental basis of standardiza- tion. The rotation of the normal plate in terms of monochro- matic light is designated the Conversion Factor because it may be used to determine the sugar value of any other quartz plate whose rotation in terms of monochromatic light is known. 1 The complete paper will appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. 2 Zs. Ver. Zuckerind. 50: 826. 1900. 3 Zs. Ver. Zuckerind. 54: 521. 1904. 25 26 BATES AND JACKSON: QUARTZ-WEDGE SACCHARIMETER For the present investigation the purest granulated sugar of commerce was dissolved in its own weight of distilled water, clari- fied with washed alumina cream and filtered. The clear solution was boiled in a glass vacuum boiling apparatus at about 35°C. until it reached a concentration of about 80 per cent, sugar. The supersaturated syrup was poured out and allowed to crystallize while in continuous motion. The crystals were separated from the mother liquor by a powerful centrifugal machine and washed with pure alcohol. They were then redissolved and recrystallized repeatedly until deemed of sufficient purity to test. The progress of the purification was studied by testing for such impurities as could be detected. By weighing the ash left after ignition, inorganic impurities were found to be satisfactorily removed after two crystallizations. The test for reducing substance was complicated by the fact that sucrose itself possessed a slight reducing power. Neverthe- less a diminution of reducing power indicated the elimination of foreign reducing substances. By boiling a 10 gram sample of the original granulated sugar with 50 cc. of the Striegler4 reagent, a precipitate of 20 mg. of Cu20 was obtained. After one re- crystallization, this precipitate diminished to 9 mg., and after two crystallizations it became 7 mg. This latter quantity proved to be a minimum. To show that this precipitate was caused mainly by sucrose itself, analyses were made with a modi- fication of the Soldaini reagent5 consisting of about 300 grams KHC03 and 1 gram CuS04 5H20 in a liter of solution. By boiling a 10 gram sample with 50 cc. of this solution for two minutes a precipitate of 1.1 mg. Cu20 was obtained. To an- other sample 0.01 per cent or 1 mg. of invert sugar was added and the mixture boiled with the copper solution. The invert sugar caused an increased precipitation of 1.9 mg. Hence even if the entire precipitate of 1.1 mg. Cu20 were due to impurities, the latter could amount to but -^ X 0.01 per cent = 0.006 per i.y cent. 4 von Lippmann, Die Chemie der Zuckerarten, 1: 606. 1904. 5 Ibid. BATES AND JACKSON: QUARTZ-WEDGE SACCHARIMETER 27 A study of the reaction velocities of the copper solution with sucrose (a slow reaction) and with invert sugar (a rapid reaction) showed that a great part if not all of the 0.006 per cent reducing substance was due to pure sucrose. The recrystallized substance was consequently concluded to be free from reducing sugar. In order to be certain of the elimination of impurities which could not be detected by direct test, a quantity of sugar was fractionally crystallized. In this process those fractions which supposedly contained impurities of about the same solubility were united, in order to prevent too great a subdivision of the original substance. In this way five fractions were obtained after 32 crystallizations which upon test yielded essentially identical rotations. This was concluded to be evidence of the purity of the substance. In the elimination of moisture it was necessary to heat the substance for such a time and at such temperature as to avoid decomposition into caramel. The rates of decomposition were measured in several series of experiments and the results plotted. The curve showed the time at each temperature required to form caramel equivalent in reducing power to 0.01 per cent invert sugar. The data are: 100°C., 0.015 hrs.; 79?5, 0.57 hrs.; 66?6, 10.9 hrs. ; 50?0, 107.0 hrs. ; 39?0, 476 hrs. In preparing the sugar for polarization care was taken to avoid sensible decomposition. In studying the elimination of moisture the substance was subjected to high vacuum, to the highest permissible temperature, and to various drying agents for long periods of time. The con- clusion was reached that a few hours heating at 50° to 60? C in a vacuum of 0.001 mm. of mercury and in the presence of quicklime would eliminate all but negligible quantities of moisture. The solution used for polarization was never of exactly normal concentration. For preparing it the approximate normal weight was transferred to a weighed volumetric flask. Flask and sugar were then subjected to the drying operations before the final weighing. The volume of the total solution was found either by filling to the graduation mark of calibrated flasks or was calculated from the weight and density. Density was taken from published tables 28 BATES AND JACKSON: QUARTZ-WEDGE SACCHARIMETER in which it was coupled with percentage of composition of solu- tions. These two methods of determining the volume of solution checked satisfactorily. The measurements of the absolute rotations of the solutions were made on a large polarimeter with a silver scale reading to thousandths of a degree. The temperature of the solutions was controlled by an air bath placed between the polarizing and analyzing systems of the instrument. It was cooled below 20°C. by ice water and then heated electrically to 20°C. Regulation TABLE I Summary of Data on the Rotation op the Solutions wt. of sugar (air, brass weights) WT. OF SOLUTION (air, BRASS weights) PER cent sugar SUGAR BY WT. IN VACUO M H 5 Q O VOLUME OF SOLUTION CC AV. ROT. OF SOLU- TION FOR TWO 8AC C H A R I M E - TERS. DEGREE SUGAR ROT. OF NORMAL SOLUTION ON THE SACCH A- RIMETER. DE- GREE SUGAR. ROT. OF NORMAL SOLUTION FOR X = 5461A. CIR- CULAR DEGREES EXP. Comput- ed from wts. and density By" flask mark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 grams grams 25 24.370s 101.570 23.986s 1.09891 92.514 92.518 101.192 99.902 40.757 26 26.207a 109.497 23.926i 1.09863 99.761 99.750 100.89e 99.880 40.770 27 34.052a 142.665 23.861o 1.09834 130.010 130.012 100.6U 99.882 40.761 28 24.0292 101.546 23.655? 1.09741 99.687 99.89s 40.763 29 23.856s 101.381 23.523s 1.09680 92.518 92.520 99.044 99.87o 40.751 30 34.018s 142.636 23.84U 1.09825 130.000 129.997 100.56o 99.92i 40.773 31 24.18h 101.496 23.817o 1.09314 100.41s 99.88s 40.749 32 26.003s 109.533 23.7324 1.09775 100. 05i 99.9U 40.769 33 34.326i 143.045 23.9887 1.09892 101.232 99.904 40.771 34 25.881s 109.610 23.604s 1.09717 99.43s 99.897 40.767 Mean 99.895 40.763 was secured more closely than 0?05 C. The light source was the so-called yellow-green line, X = 5461 A, from a quartz mercury- vapor lamp. Three different makes of saccharimeters were used in order to eliminate the possibility of some peculiarity of instrument con- struction affecting the measurements. They were a Bates type Fric, a Schmidt and Haensch, and a Julius Peters. Two instru- ments were used in each experiment, one of which was always the Bates type Fric. It was enclosed in a wooden thermostat with automatic temperature control to within a few hundredths of a degree. The saccharimeter readings were made in a large BATES AND JACKSON: QUARTZ-WEDGE SACCHARIMETER 29 thermostated room with a content of about 15 cubic meters. With two observers in the large thermostat the maximum variations were about 0?3 C. The polarization tubes were of glass. Careful measurements established the fact that the tubes filled with distilled water gave a negligible rotation. The polariscopic measurements included a long preliminary series and a final series of ten experiments. The latter are given in Table 1 . It will be observed from the values given in column 9 that the normal sugar solution gave a rotation of but 99?896-*S6 on a saccharimeter calibrated according to the Herzfeld-Schon- rock' standard. This calibration was obtained by the use of two quartz plates whose absolute rotations and sugar values had been determined by the Reichsanstalt, the Institut fur Zucker- industrie, and also by us. It was, therefore, concluded that the Herzfeld-Schonrock standard was too large by over 0?1 S. The data were then recalculated on the basis of the reading of the normal solution which must be 100 ?00 S on the true scale. The sugar values of the two quartz plates were thus compared directly with the normal solution and their sugar values calcu- lated. Since the values of the plates were known in terms of monochromatic light, the new conversion factors followed by direct calculation. For X = 5892.5 A this became 34? 620 and for X = 5461 A it became 40? 690. On the same day that the solutions were read on the saccha- rimeters their rotations were also measured on the polarimeter in terms of monochromatic light, X = 5461 A . For this wave length the normal solution caused a rotation of 40? 763. The ratios of the rotations of quartz and of sugar solutions for the two wave lengths were determined For quartz and for sugar *ft\ = 5892.5 ,4 ^X = 5461 A ^\= 5892.5 A 0.85085 = 0.84922 X = 5461 A 6 The symbol S signifies a Sugar Degree, i. e., one-hundredth part of the rota- tion of the normal sugar solution on the saccharimeter. 30 BATES AND JACKSON: QUARTZ-WEDGE SACCHARIMETER From the data on the rotation of the normal solution for X = 5461 A and the latter ratio, the value for X = 5892.5 A was computed to be 34?617 at 20? For X = 5892.5 A the normal plate has 0?003 greater rotation than the normal solution, while for X = 5461 A it has 0?073 lower rotation. The rotary dispersion curves of the plate and solution thus cross at about X = 0.585 /*. The slight differences between the rotary dispersions of quartz and of sugar cause differences in the saccharimeter readings when illuminated by various light sources. If, instead of the Wels- bach mantle the saccharimeter is illuminated by the source X = 5892.5 A the calculated reading would be 99?99 S. ' The normal solution causes a rotation of wave length 5461 A which is by calculation 0.192 S higher than that of wave length 5892.5 A. Experimentally the difference was found to be 0?18B£. By combining data of two previous investigators on the rota- tion of quartz 1 mm. thick with our values for the rotation of the normal plate, the thickness of the latter is found. This calculation yielded the two values 1.5934 mm. and 1.5940 mm. The measurements of the rotations of the normal solutions for monochromatic light, afforded sufficient data for the exact calculation of the specific rotations since rotations, length of solution, and concentration were accurately known. The following values were obtained: Mx°i5892.5^66?529 Knf54Gi ^=78?342 The mean of the best previous determinations of the specific rotation of the normal solution for X = 5892.5 A is 66? 502 with which our value is in substantial agreement. On the other hand Schonrock calculated the specific rotation from the conversion factor 34? 657 and the saccharimeter reading of the normal solu- tion for X = 5892.5 A. This gave for the rotation of the nor- mal solution 34? 667 and the specific rotation 66? 627 which value is considerably too high. Our own value of the specific rotation MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 31 calculated either from direct observations on the rotation of the normal solution for monochromatic light, or by the method of Schonrock, in which, however, the conversion factor 34?620 is used, lies in essential agreement with the previously accepted value. This is concluded to be corroborative evidence of the correctness of the new value 34? 620 of the conversion factor. GEOLOGY. — Subdivisions of the Thaynes limestone and Nugget sandstone, Mesozoic, in the Fort Hall Indian Reservation, Idaho.1 G.R. Mansfield, Geological Survey. (Communi- cated by F. L. Ransome.) INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY In the field season of 1913 the writer with a U. S. Geological Survey party made an examination of the Fort Hall Indian Reservation in southeastern Idaho. The reservation, which has an irregu- lar shape and includes approximately 800 square miles, lies mostly between the meridans 112° and 112° 45' W. and between the parallels 42° 30' and 43° 15' N. (See fig. 1.) Although the main purpose of the work was a mineral classification of the land, considerable attention had to be paid to the stratigraphy of the region, and it was found necessary to map some of the formations in detail. This made it desirable to subdivide certain Mesozoic formations, particu- larly the Thaynes limestone, Lower Triassic, and the Nugget sandstone, Jurassic or Triassic. The strata in- volved, together with the intervening Ankareh sandstone, have a thickness of about 6,800 feet. Fig. 1. Index map of Idaho, showing the location of the Fort Hall Indian Reservation. 1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey. 32 MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION TABLE I Mesozoic Formations of Fort Hall Indian Reservation, Idaho THICKNESS IN GEOLOGIC AGE FORMATION DESCRIPriON FEET Jurassic Twin Creek a. Yellow, calcareous, fossilif- Est. 2500 limestone erous sandstone with some beds of massive, gray lime- stone. b. Laminated, shaly, gray lime- stone. c. Basal, yellow, calcareous sandstones; massive, with intercalated massive, gray limestone with oyster shells. Jurassic or Tri- Nugget sand- a. Brick red and light-colored assic stone sandstones, typical Nug- get; thickness not shown but estimated at not less than 1500 feet. 1500 b. Wood shale member; bright red, weathering to red soil; 200-250 feet. 250 c. Deadman limestone member; gray to purplish, dense limestone of almost litho- graphic quality, in some places with gray and green- ish chert. 150 ± d. Higham grit member; coarse, pink to white, gritty or conglomeratic sandstone. 500 ± Lower Triassic . . Ankareh Somewhat sugary, yellowish to sandstone grayish sandstone in beds 1-3 inches thick, weathering with pinkish tinge. 800 Thaynes group a. Portneuf Siliceous, cherty, gray to yel- lime- lowish limestone in massive stone beds; rounded elongated no- dules and streaks of chert, fossiliferous; fossils often silicified. 1500 ± b. Fort Hall Yellowish and grayish lime- forma- stone and sandstone, the lime- tion stone siliceous and cherty; the sandstone calcareous, fossilif- erous. 800 =*= MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 33 TABLE I— Continued GEOLOGIC AGE FORMATION DESCRIPTION THICKNESS IN FEET Lower Triassic. . c. Ross lime- stone Dense, gray, non-fossiliferous, thin-bedded limestone; olive- drab, platy, calcareous shale; purplish gray, thin-bedded and massively-bedded lime- stone with pelecypod and brachiopod faunas and with ammonite zones near base. 1350 ± Woodside shale Olive-drab, platy, calcareous shale with interbedded red- dish brown limestone more abundant near the top and crowded with pelecypods. 900 The Thaynes limestone has in this area been raised to the rank of a group consisting of three formations, and the Nugget sandstone has been subdivided into four members. The Anka- reh shale, owing to change in lithologic character, becomes the Ankareh sandstone. Additional interesting features were ob- served in the Woodside shale. The purpose of this paper is to describe briefly the formations which were subdivided and to explain the names used. The writer is indebted to Dr. G. H. Girty for his help in joint study of the formations in the field and for the determination and dis- cussion of the fossils collected. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY OF THE REGION The stratigraphic sequence in the Fort Hall Indian Reserva- tion is rather full, including all the great Paleozoic and later systems except the Cretaceous. There is, too, a great body of igneous rocks, chiefly extrusives, in both massive and fragmental form. The structure is complex, with folding and much faulting. Some of the systems are poorly represented and the identifica- tion of strata tentatively assigned to them uncertain. This is particularly true of the Silurian. The Paleozoic formations of the reservation probably agree in name and number with those of 34 MANSFIELD! MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION northern Utah, as described by Richardson,2 although it was. not practicable in the field work to give much attention to the lower formations. The Mesozoic formations are shown in the accom- panying table (Table I) . WOODSIDE SHALE The Woodside shale, the lowest Mesozoic formation in the dis- trict, takes its name from Woodside Gulch, in the Park City Mining District, Utah.3 It has been described in a number of reports and only differences from the usual types need be men- tioned here. In Utah and near Paris, Idaho, some of the beds of the Woodside shale are red, whereas in most of the south- eastern Idaho region the formation is characterized by yellowish and olive-drab tints. Near the base in the Fort Hall Indian Reservation the beds have a distinctive reddish brown tint and are relatively sandy. The base of the Woodside shale, which in regions previously studied has been rather sharply distinguished from the underlying Phosphoria formation of Permian(?) age by a lithologic as well as a faunal change, is not so clear here. A Paleozoic fauna, consisting chiefly of the brachiopod Ambocoelia in abundance, together with pelecypods suggesting Paleozoic characteristics but not definitely identified, is found in the Rex chert member of the Phosphoria formation above the chert. It occurs in brown- ish yellow, sandy shales and limestones not easily distinguished lithologically from the Woodside, although the faunas of the ad- jacent formations where well developed are very different. Par- ticular interest attaches to this feature because it appears to in- dicate that the change from Paleozoic to Mesozoic conditions, which in many places is marked by a sharp stratigraphic break, was here more gradual. 2 Richardson, G. B. The Paleozoic section in northern Utah. Amer. Jour. Sci., N. S., 36:406-416. 1913. 3 Boutwell, J. M. Stratigraphy and structure of the Park City Mining Dis- trict, Utah. Jour. Gcol., 15:434-458. 1907. MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 35 THAYNES GROUP The Thaynes limestone, which it is here proposed to call the Thaynes group, takes its name from Thaynes Canyon, in the Park City Mining District, Utah. In northeastern Utah and in the Slug Creek and Montpelier districts of southeastern Idaho the Thaynes forms platy, calcareous shales and brown weathering limestones with a massive limestone at the top. In that district the Thaynes limestone is about 2,000 feet thick. In the Fort Hall Indian Reservation the formation shows a marked tendency to differentiate into several units that can be mapped separately. These beds have there a thickness of 3,600 feet, yet according to G. H. Girty4 fossils similar to those of the upper limestone were found by C. L. Breger in shales underlying the Ankareh shale in Montpelier Canyon, Montpelier quadrangle. Thus the thicker group in this district occupies the same stratigraphic interval as the Thaynes limestone farther southeast. It has been found advisable to subdivide the group into three formations, the Ross limestone at the base, the Fort Hall formation, and the Portneuf limestone. Ross limestone. The Ross limestone takes its name from Ross Fork Creek, in the upper waters of which this limestone is well exposed. The base of the formation lies conformably upon the Woodside shale and is marked by the "Meekoceras beds" recog- nized by the Hayden Survey and referred to the Triassic and later referred by Hyatt and Smith5 to the Lower Triassic. The Meekoceras zone consists of gray to reddish brown lime- stones about 50 feet thick containing numerous Ammonites the chambered shells of which appear on the weathered surface of the rock. In the Fort Hall Indian Reservation the fossils do not weather out so readily and the horizon is not so conspicuous as in the Slug Creek quadrangle farther east. The Tyrolites and Columbites zones, which have been recognized by Smith in the region of Paris, Idaho, 250 and 275 feet, respectively, above the 4 Personal communication. 5 Hyatt, A., and Smith, J. P. The Triassic cephalopod genera of America. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 40: 17-19. 1905. 36 MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION Meekoceras zone,6 have not been recognized here, but there is evidence of more than one Ammonite horizon. Above the Meekoceras zone for about 800 feet are massively- bedded and thin-bedded gray to brown limestones containing large numbers of small brachiopods, chiefly Pugnax and tere- bratuloids, and pelecypods, Myalina and others, with inter- vening calcareous shales. The lithology of the shales and thinner-bedded limestones is much like that of the Woodside. The limestones weather with a sort of velvety appearance and are very fossil if erous. The presence of the small brachiopods in the massive limestones near the base is a convenient guide to the Ross limestone where the Meekoceras zone is not available. The upper part of the Ross limestone for about 500 feet con- sists of a dense calcareous shale, gray to olive-greenish in color and weathering brown to yellow. These shales form conspicuous cliffs and are mainly non-fossiliferous. G. H. Girty contributes the following faunal discussion of the Ross limestone: The fauna of the Ross limestone consists chiefly of brachiopods, pelecypods, and cephalopods. The brachiopods and cephalopods are largely restricted to zones which are narrow and possibly of small ex- tent, but where found at all they are abundant. The brachiopods comprise a Lingula, a Terebratula, and a Rhynchonella, those terms being employed in a broad and general sense. The Rhynchonella closely resembles the Carboniferous species Pugnax utah and, as the Triassic occurs in the general region from which the type specimen was obtained, typical Pugnax utah may indeed be the Triassic form, as was suggested to me several years ago by Mr. Breger. A few specimens of a small Discina have also been collected. The pelecypods consist mostly of pectinoids of which there are many species. They probably include representatives of both the Pectinidae and Limidae and they occur in some places in vast numbers either alone or associated with other forms. Like most of these Triassic fossils, they belong to undescribed species, though one form can probably be referred to Aviculipecten thaynesianus. Other types of pelecypods are much less common. The one most frequently found is that described by White as Volsella platynota, but if my specimens really belong to White's species I believe that it is a Myalina. A small alate shell, which may belong to Bakewellia or Pteria, has been found, and also forms which suggest the genera Schizodus, Cardiomorpha, and Pleurophorus. 6 Smith, J. P. The distribution of Lower Triassic faunas. Jour. Geol., 20: 17. 1912. MANSFIELD : MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 37 These last are so poorly preserved that their generic relations, even as based on external characters, are conjectural. The cephalopods have been carefully investigated to the almost com- plete neglect of the rest of the Triassic fauna of this region. The Ross limestone is the horizon of the cephalopods par excellence, the Meeko- ceras zone. Nevertheless, the collections studied, which were not made with special reference to any one group of organisms, contain neither very numerous nor very complete specimens. The following species have been identified with more or less certainty: Meekoceras much- bachanum, Meekoceras gracilitatis, Paranannites aspenensis, Ophiceras dieneri, Flemingites russelli, Clypites tenuis. Gastropods are so rare in the Ross limestone that they might with little loss be neglected in a hasty survey of its fauna. One collection contains an abundance of small naticoid shells (Natica lelial), but of much more interest is the occurrence in another collection of a species of Bellerophon. There can hardly be a doubt of the generic relationship^ of this form which resembles the Pennsylvanian species B. crassus. The Bellerophontidae, though profusely developed in the Paleozoic and al- most confined to that era, have been known in other parts of the world to range also up into the Mesozoic. Fort Hall formation. The Fort Hall formation is named from old Fort Hall, the site of which is in the valley of Lincoln Creek, which appears on some maps as Fort Hall Creek. The formation occupies a prominent ridge along the north side of this valley. The rocks lie conformably on the Ross limestone. The dividing line is drawn on both lithologic and faunal grounds. There are four fairly well defined subdivisions. (1) The base of the formation is a soft and somewhat sugary, yellow calcareous sandstone about 50 ± feet thick, sparingly fossiliferous and containing at one locality a bed of yellowish sandy limestone about 15 feet thick, with plicated oyster-like pelecypods, terebratuloids, and other forms. This bed is overlain by white calcareous sandstone weathering red or pink. (2) Above these sandstones there is a gray or yellowish, sili- ceous, dense limestone containing large pectin oids and irregular cherty nodules and streaks that weather with a rough surface and project along the bedding planes. This limestone forms rough ledges and high points. The thickness of this series is estimated at 100 ± feet. (3) Above (2) and observed at only two localities, sees. 36 and 26, T. 3 S., R. 37 E., Boise M., is a set of sandy and shaly gray 38 MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION limestones about 50 feet thick including an oolithic bed 6 to 10 feet thick. (4) The remainder of the section, estimated at about 600 feet, consists of yellow to grayish cherty and sandy limestones in thin beds represented chiefly by fairly smooth slopes strewn with yellow and reddish sandy and cherty fragments. Fossil collections were made at a number of places in the Fort Hall formation. The following faunal discussion is contributed by G. H. Girty: The Fort Hall formation might appropriately be called the Aviculi- pecten idahoensis zone, for it is particularly characterized by that species, which occurs in most of the collections and in many of them is very abundant. With A. idahoensis are associated a few other types of pelecy- pods, among which a large Bakewellia or Pteria and two or three species of pectinoid shells are the most common. There is also a form resem- bling Myalina (possibly the Volsella platynota of the Ross limestone, but- smaller and less abundant), and several types which are too poorly preserved to be identified but in general expression suggest Myacites, Schizodus, and Pleurophorus. A small naticoid (Nalica lelicfi) is rather abundant in places, but otherwise, gastropods are practically absent. In contrast to the preceding formation, the Fort Hall does not con- tain any cephalopods nor, with the single exception noted below, any brachiopods. As regards the pelecypods, the pectinoid shells, except A. idahoensis, are much less abundant in the Fort Hall formation, and some of the species of the Ross limestone appear not to occur there at all. On the other hand, A. idahoensis appears to be restricted to the Fort Hall formation. One collection shows a remarkable and interesting variant of the Fort Hall fauna. It is distinguished by the absence of most of the pectinoids, even of A . idahoensis, and by the abundance of terebratulas, of which there are four or five varieties or species. Of the pelecypods the most noteworthy are a large Lima (n. sp.) and a sharply plicated oyster, besides which there are two species of Myacites?, a large Bake- wellia? and one or two other forms. The gastropods are represented by Natica leila and by another species, possibly a Pleurotomaria. Portneuf limestone. The Portneuf limestone is named from the Portneuf River, at the head of which the limestone is well ex- posed. The rock is a massively bedded, siliceous, and cherty, gray to yellowish limestone. The chert occurs in rounded and elongated nodules and in streaks. Silicified fossils, including Spiriferina n. sp. (?), Terebratula semisimplex, and other tere- MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 39 bratuloids, and Myaphoria lineata(?), project from the weathered surfaces. The formation is fairly resistant to erosion and forms low, broad ridges and sloping interfluvial areas. Its thickness is estimated at about 1,500 feet, although there is some uncertainty because of complexities of structure. Numerous collections were made from this formation by G. H. Girty, who furnishes the following discussion of the fauna: The Portneuf fauna is the most varied and interesting of the three Triassic faunas of the Fort Hall Reservation. Echinoid spines occur in a number of locations but they are not plentiful. On the other hand, segments of the stems of Pentacrinus are often found in great abundance. In two localities bryozoa are abundant, small branching types, super- ficially resembling the Carboniferous genus Batostomella. Several new genera and species are indicated by thin sections. Brachiopods are abundant, but confined to two families. This is the horizon of Terebra- tula semisimplex, but there are also several other terebratuloid types which are apparently undescribed. An undescribed species of Spiri- ferina occurs in many of the collections, and there may be a second species. Pelecypod types are so numerous, and at the same time so poorly pre- served in many cases, that it would be inexpedient to do more than men- tion the most interesting. No species is more frequently met in this fauna than one which was figured by Meek as Myaphoria lineatat. The locality of Meek's specimen is given as Weber Canyon, and the horizon as Jurassic. I can not but think that there is some mistake in the stratigraphic position of his material, which was said to be above the quarry rock, the quarry, I assume, being then as now in the Nugget sandstone. Compared with their abundance in the two lower forma- tions, Pectens are scarce in the Portneuf. A large form with very coarse ribs occurs in several collections, and there are other species, both large and small. A large Pteria or Bakewellia has been found at many localities; also a Myalina or Mytilus. Leda is present, and Nucula, together with types suggesting Pinna, Myacites, Pleurophorus, Astarte, Cuculaea, and other forms. One locality has furnished a few specimens of Ostrea, not only a plicated form similar to that of the Fort Hall formation, but also a smooth type. The scaphopods too are represented in this fauna by one or two species of Dentalium. Gastropods are less abundant than pelecypods, the only common type being a small Natica, probably N. lelia. Several small species of Pleuro- tomaria? have been collected, and also shells suggesting the genera Holopea, Nerita, and Macrocheilina. The most interesting representa- tive of this type, however, is a beautiful little species apparently belong- ing to the Carboniferous genus Schizostoma, or at all events to the euomphaloid group. 40 MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL -RESERVATION Cephalopods are practically absent in this formation, as they are in the Fort Hall. One specimen only was obtained; it is apparently identical with Pseudosageoceras intermontanum. ANKAREH SANDSTONE The Ankareh sandstone derives its name from Ankareh Ridge in the Park City mining district of Utah. In its type locality, Big Cottonwood Canyon near Salt Lake City, and as originally described, the formation is called a shale and consists chiefly of clay shale of deep maroon or chocolate color, showing little lamination where fresh but commonly breaking down after ex- posure into thinner-bedded shaly material. It includes also some pale greenish, clayey and sandy and limy strata. In the Fort Hall Indian Reservation the beds that occupy this stratigraphic interval are not shales but are somewhat sugary, yellowish to grayish sandstones in beds 1 to 3 inches thick, and in some places more massive beds. They are non-fossiliferous, so far as observed, and weather into smooth depressions or slopes between the more resistant formations on either hand. The sand- stone is generally of uniform character and in some places weath- ers with a pinkish tinge. The base of the sandstone rests with apparent conformity upon the massive and siliceous Portneuf limestone, while the top is overlain by the Higham grit. Thus the formation is in most places clearly defined. THE NUGGET SANDSTONE The Nugget sandstone as originally described by Veatch7 in southwestern Wyoming is about 1,900 feet thick and consists of two distinct members, a lower brightly colored red bed member 600 feet thick, and an upper light-colored sandstone member. In the Fort Hall Indian Reservation there is a considerable variation in the character of the Nugget from that at the type locality. The formation is well developed and may be differen- tiated into several units, at least four of which may readily be mapped. These are (1) the Higham grit member at the base, 7 Veatch, A. C. IT. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 56: 56. 1907. MANSFIELD: MESOZOIC OF FORT HALL RESERVATION 41 (2) the Deadman limestone member, (3) the Wood shale member, and (4) the main sandstone or typical Nugget. Higham grit member. The basal member of the formation is named from Higham's Peak in sec. 23, T. 3 S., R. 37 E., the high- est summit in the northeastern part of the reservation, which is composed of this rock. The grit is a coarse, white to pinkish, gritty or conglomeratic sandstone, the component particles of which are coarse and subangular. Locally the rock is almost a quartzite. The Higham grit is distinct lithologically from other rocks of the region and is prominent topographically. It forms important strike ridges that are marked by rough, craggy ledges in many places. The pebbles are all of quartzite so far as ob- served, without material derived from immediately underlying formations. The grit appears to lie conformably on the Ankareh sandstone. The rocks are much fractured and slickensided as a result of severe deformations, a condition which causes them to weather in pinnacled and castellated forms. The thickness is about 500 feet. Deadman limestone member. Above the Higham grit member is a dense purplish-gray limestone of almost lithographic quality, with subordinate amounts of gray and greenish chert. This member is named the Deadman limestone after a creek in the northeastern part of T. 4 S., R. 38 E., Boise M., in the north- eastern part of the reservation, near the headwaters of which the rock is exposed. The limestone is resistant and in favor- able places forms topographically prominent ledges. Ordinarily, however, it is rendered inconspicuous by the proximity of the more resistant member below. No fossils have been observed in this limestone. The latter is about 150 feet thick. Wood shale member. Above the Deadman limestone member is a bright red shale that weathers to a red soil. This member is called the Wood shale from Wood Creek in T. 3 S., R. 38 E., Boise M., in the northeastern part of the reservation, which cuts across the entire Nugget formation. It is less resistant to erosion than the adjacent members on either hand and occupies depressions or gullies. Outcrops are few but the shale may be traced by patches of bright red soil. It is apparently 200 to 250 feet thick. 42 MERRILL! SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE" The main sandstone or typical Nugget. The main sandstone which constitutes the greater part of the formation is typical Nugget sandstone. In many places it consists of brick-red, platy, fine-textured sandstone in beds 1 to 6 inches thick, which form rounded hills that are strewn with angular, platy blocks weathered from the ledges. In other places the sandstone is somewhat firmer, coarser textured, and pinkish to whitish in color. Markings resembling footprints and other impressions were collected from these sandstones, but they proved to be too indistinct for identification. The lighter colored sandstones are somewhat quartzitic and weather into angular blocks that form a dark purplish talus. The top of the sandstone is not exposed, or has not been recognized, for the stratigraphically overlying Twin Creek limestone has been faulted irregularly across the for- mation. The thickness of the main sandstone has not been measured but it is estimated at not less than 1500 feet. The thickness of the entire formation appears to be as much as 2400 feet in the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and it may be somewhat greater. BOTANY. — The systematic position of the "rain tree," Pitheco- lobium Saman. E. D. Merrill, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. (Communicated by William R. Maxon.) The genus Pithecolobium as interpreted by Bentham is rather a heterogeneous assemblage of plants. Some of the species placed under this name differ so radically from typical represen- tatives of Pithecolobium that in some instances sectional differ- ences within the genus are decidedly greater than the distinctions between some of the universally recognized genera of the Mimo- soideae, while within the section Samanea the same statement holds for specific differences. It is believed that Pithecolobium will be a much more natural group if certain species be removed from it. At the present time, however, I am concerned especially with but a single one, the well known "rain tree," Pithecolobium Saman Benth., a native of tropical America but now extensively planted in most tropical countries. Among other species placed in the section Samanea of Pithe- MERRILL: SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE" 43 colobium by Bentham I am confident that the Malayan Pithe- colobium moniliferum Benth. should be removed as the type of a distinct genus, Cathormion, as Hasskarl1 has already proposed. In transferring this species from Inga to Pithecolobium Bentham inadvertently transcribed the specific name moniliformis as moniliferum, in which he was followed by Hasskarl. The correct specific name and synonymy are as follows: Cathormion Hassk. Cathormion moniliforme (Hassk.) Merrill. Inga moniliformis DC. Prodr. 2: 440. 1825. Pithecolobium moniliferum Benth. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 3: 211. 1844. Inga monilifera DC. ex Benth. loc. cit. in syn. Cathormion moniliferum Hassk. Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 10:231. 1856. The type of this species was from the Island of Timor, and the plant is cultivated in the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg, Java. Aside from the question of the generic limits of Pithecolobium, however, the application and validity of the name itself warrant some consideration. Mr. S. C. Stuntz, of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, has called my attention to the fact that Pithecolobium was originally published by Martius2 as Pithecellobium , the name being correctly derived from ttW^kos (monkey) and eWofiiov (earring), so that there was no need to change the spelling to Pithecollobium, as Martius3 did in 1837, nor to Pithecolobium, as Bentham4 did in 1844, the latter making the derivation of the latter part of the name from the Greek Xo/36s, the lobe or lower part of the ear. The original publication is as follows: Pithecellobium Mart. (IngaAuct). Affenohrring XXIII. 1. cyclocarpum Mart. (Ing. W.) Caracas. I? C. inundatum Mart. Bras, h C. Unguis Cati Mart. Bras. I? C. 1 Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 10: 231. 1856. 2 Hort. Reg. Monac. 188. 1829. 3 Flora, 202: Beibl. 114. 1837. 4 Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 3: 195. 1844. 44 MERRILL: SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE n Mr. Stuntz would regard the first species as the type of the genus, as it is the only one of the three enumerated that can be connected with a previously published binomial, Inga cyclocarpa Willd. This selection of the type would be most unfortunate as Inga cyclocarpa Willd. ( = Pithecolobium cyclocarpum Mart.) is an Enterolobium, so that the species now placed in Entero- lobium would have to be transferred to Pithecolobium, while the more numerous ones now placed in Pithecolobium would need a new generic name. Zygia as published by Boehmer5 would thus become the generic name for our Pithecolobium species, a name much older than the latter, although Pithecolobium is retained in the supplementary list of nomina conservanda adopted by the Brussels Botanical Congress.6 By absolutely strict rules of priority Inga cyclocarpa Willd. is undoubtedly the type of the genus Pithecolobium, and Martius un- doubtedly derived his generic name Pithecellobium from the fruit characters of this species; yet it seems possible to save the name in its currently accepted sense by the selection, somewhat arbi- trarily if necessary, of another species as the type. In the original publication the species are alphabetically arranged. There are no descriptions. The first species has a definite reference to Inga cyclocarpa Willd. ; the second is a nomen nudum, apparently never further considered; while the third is manifestly a transfer of Mimosa unguis cati *L. ( = Inga unguis cati Willd.), although no synonym is hinted at other than in the general statement, following the generic name: "Inga Auct." The selection of this species as the type of the genus Pithecolobium, or Pithecellobium as originally published, will save the name in its currently accepted sense. Again it is worth while to examine the original description of the genus as given by Martius.7 It includes " Pithecolobium" and "Enterolobium" characters, but the Pithecolobium fruit character "legumen .... tortum" appears before the Enterolobium character "aut pluries cochleatum." The first species described is a true Pithecolobium, P. tortum Mart., the description of which 5 Ludwig, Defin. Gen. PI. 72. 1760. 6 Act. Congr. Int. Bot. Brux. 1: 114. 1910. 7 Flora, 202: Beibl. 114. 1837. MERRILL! SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE" 45 precedes the generic diagnosis. Following the generic diagnosis are cited Inga excelsa Kunth, /. unguis cati Willd., /. bigemina Willd., /. cyclocarpa Willd., I. cochleata Willd., and I. contorta Willd., and the original descriptions of P. auaremotemo Mart., P. cauliflorum Mart., and P. gummiferum Mart. Of the ten species mentioned or described six are now placed in Pithecolo- bium, three in Enterolobium, and one in Inga. I have merely stated the case for and against two possible in- terpretations of the type of the genus Pithecolobium. Conveni- ence will certainly be served much better by the selection of P. unguis cati as the type. With this introductory statement re- garding the genus Pithecolobium itself it is now proposed to con- sider a single species, long placed in the genus, but which the author considers to be generically distinct. In the year 1800 the species under consideration was originally described by Jacquin from South American material as Mimosa Saman. It was transferred to Inga by Willdenow a few years later and subsequently by other authors successively to Pithe- colobium, Calliandra, Albizzia, and Enterolobium. Thus m less than one hundred years it has been considered by different writers under six generic names. As the various genera are now interpreted, Pithecolobium Saman, to use its generally accepted name, differs radically from all. Mimosa, Inga, Calliandra, and Albizzia can be dismissed without discussion, as the rain tree can- not possibly be referred to any of these genera. As between the two remaining genera, Pithecolobium and Enterolobium, it can- not possibly belong to the former as it has somewhat fleshy, at least pulpy, straight, indehiscent, and septate pods. Its true alliance is unquestionably with Enterolobium, where Sir David Prain has placed it; and yet in its straight or nearly straight, fleshy or pulpy pods and pedicelled flowers it is decidedly anom- alous in Enterolobium, while in facies it is very strikingly dif- ferent from the representatives of this genus known to me. Prain's8 discussion is so lucid and to the point that it is here reproduced : When Mr. Bentham tentatively placed the species [Enterolobium saman Prain] in Pithecolobium he explained that the tree was unknown * Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 642: 252. 1898. u L I 46 MERRILL! SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE >j to him. Dr. Grisebach, who had the advantage of studying the tree in the living state, at once recognized that it cannot possibly be a Pithecolobium and placed it in Calliandra, no doubt owing to the sutures of the pod being thickened as in that genus. That the pods are sep- tate and indehiscent militates however against his proposal, for the crucial test of a Calliandra is that its pods, which may not be septate, shall dehisce elastically from apex to base. The Index Kewensis has therefore replaced the " Rain-Tree" in Pithecolobium; this however is a step which in turn similarly mars the generic limits of that group, since the pods of Pithecolobium must not be septate. The writer places the species with more confidence in Enterolobium, owing to its possessing the septate pods characteristic of that genus. The pulpy, in place of spongy at length indurated mesocarp, and the shortly pedicelled in place of sessile florets, cannot, in view of the variability of these char- acters within adjacent genera, be considered more that comparatively trivial deviations from the hitherto recognized characters of Entero- lobium. The writer is unable, both on academic and on practical grounds, to agree with the proposal, made by some botanists, to amal- gamate Calliandra, Pithecolobium, Enter •olobium and Albizzia. I am in entire agreement with Prain, except that after having had an opportunity to study several species of Enter olobium, I am thoroughly convinced that, although the alliance of Pithe- colobium Saman Benth. is unquestionably with Enterolobium and not with Pithecolobium, it represents a group generically distinct, and that if placed in Enterolobium it will be anomalous in that genus, although not to the same extent as in Pithecolobium. I propose therefore to raise to generic rank Bentham's section Samanea, which is typified by the species under consideration. I am confident, however, that many of the species ultimately placed by Bentham in this section are not congeneric with Samanea as typified by Pithecolobium Saman, and I am equally confident that some of them cannot be logically considered as representatives of the genus Pithecolobium. Several species are, however, unquestionably congeneric with Samanea and should be transferred here. Samanea (Benth.) Merrill, gen. nov. Pithecolobium Mart. § Samanea Benth. in Hook. Lond. Joum. Bot. 3: 197. 1844.— Trans. Linn. Soc. 30:585. 1875. Flores 5-meri, hermaphroditi. Calyx infundibuliformis, breviter lobatus. Corolla subinfundibuliformis, petalis usque ad medium con- natis, valvatis. Stamina °° , basi in tubo connata, longe exserta; antherae parvae, eglandulosae. Ovarium sessile, °°-ovulatum, stylis MERRILL: SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE "RAIN TREE" 47 filiformibus, stigmate minuto, capitate Legumen rectum vel leviter curvatum, indehiscens, crassocompressum, epicarpio tenue crustaceo, mesocarpio pulposo, endocarpio firmiter crustaceo, continuo, inter semina septa formante, suturis incrassatis. Semina numerosa, trans- versa, oblongo-ovata, leviter compressa, nitida, exarillata, utrinque cum areola anguste oblonga instructa, funiculo filiformi. Arbor procera, coma expansa, inermis. Folia abrupte bipinnata. 4-6-juga, glandulis inter jugalibus instructa, foliolis deorsum minoribus, pinnis superioribus 6-8-jugatis, inferioribus 3-5-jugatis. Stipulae lan- ceolatae, parvae, deciduae. Pedunculi solitarii vel subfasciculati, elongati, in axillis superioribus subterminales. Flores rosei, pedicellati; inter Mimoseas mediocres, in capitulis globosis dispositi. The genus as above denned is most closely allied to Enter olobium, differing especially in its straight or nearly straight, pulpy, not indu- rated pods, and its pedicelled not sessile flowers. Pithecolobium differs in its cochleate, curved or twisted, nonseptate, dehiscent pods, the seeds often arillate. Albizzia differs especially in its thin, dehiscent, nonseptate pods. Samanea Saman (Jacq.) Merrill. Mimosa Saman Jacq. Fragmenta 15. pi. 9. 1800. Inga Saman Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 1024. 1806. Pithecolobium Saman Benth. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 3:101. 1844. Calliandra Saman Griseb. Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 225. 1864. Albizzia Saman F. Muell. Select Extra-Trop. Plants 27. 1891. Enterolobium Saman Pram, ex King in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 662: 352. 1897. Other synonyms given by Bentham are Inga cinerea Humb. & Bonpl., Inga salutaris H.B.K., Mimosa pubifera Poir., Calliandra tubulosa Benth., and Pithecolobium cinereum Benth. Sama?iea Saman, though apparently a native of the northern part of South America, is now widely distributed in cultivation in most tropi- cal countries. It is remarkable for its exceedingly fast growth, the ease with which it can be transplanted, and the rapidity with which it recovers from the most severe pruning when transplanted. The tree reaches large proportions, and on account of its widely spreading branches forms a magnificent shade tree. The sweet pulpy pods are produced in great abundance and are relished by cattle. In fact in some countries the cultivation of the tree has been recommended on account of the forage value of its pods. Because of the ease with which it can be propagated and its very rapid growth it gives promise of being of great value in reafforestation work in some tropical coun- 48 MERRILL: SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE RAIN TREE tries. While of comparatively recent introduction into the tropics of the Old World, it is now of very wide distribution and in some coun- tries has already established itself. It was introduced into the Philip- pines in about the year 1860 and is now by far the most common shade tree to be found in the larger towns throughout the Archipelago. The wood, which is dark in color, appears to be of some value, especially for interior finishings. In tropical America Samanea Saman is known as guango, samdn, cenizaro, and arbol de la lluvia, in the Philippines as acacia, in various British tropical colonies as rain tree, and in Hawaii as monkey pod. The common English name, rain tree, and its Spanish equivalent, arbol de la lluvia, probably owe their origin to the fact that the "sleep" or closing of the leaflets is a very conspicuous phenomenon, occurring at the approach of and during rains, and at night. The author has never observed, in this species, any dripping of water from hydathodes, such as has been noted in some tropical trees. In tropical countries with which the author is familiar flowering occurs at the height of the dry season. In those countries having a decided dry season the tree is deciduous, but the new leaves appear within a few days after the fall of the old ones, followed at once by anthesis which continues for several months. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearingi n this issue. GEOPHYSICS. — Researches of the department of terrestrial magnetism (vol. II): Land magnetic observations, 1911-1913, and reports on special researches. L. A. Bauer and J. A. Fleming; Carnegie Institution of Washington Pub. No. 175 (Vol. II). 278 pages. 13 plates, and 9 text-figures. 1915. The first portion of this publication contains the results of all mag- netic observations made on land by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism from January, 1911 to the end of 1913. New magnetic instruments of light and portable types are described ; these include two universal-magnetometer designs, viz., a combined magnetometer and dip circle, and a combined magnetometer and earth inductor. The stations at which magnetic observations were made be- tween 1911-1913 ma}^ be summarized as follows: Africa, 207; Asia, 83 Australasia, 264; Europe, 38; North America, 48; South America, 247 Islands of the Atlantic Ocean, 16; Islands of the Indian Ocean, 14 Islands of the Pacific Ocean, 16; Antarctic Regions, 30; the total num- ber of stations is thus 978. The table of results gives names of stations, geographic positions, values of the three magnetic elements, dates and local mean times of observations, references to instruments used, and the initials of observers. From about 18 per cent of the re- sults, data for the determination of the secular variation have been obtained. Extended extracts from the observers' field reports are given; following these are descriptions of the magnetic stations occupied during the period of 1911-1913. The first special report describes in detail the newly-erected research buildings of the Department at Washington. The second report is devoted to L. A. Bauer's inspection trip of 1911, in the course of which he visited various magnetic institutions, and to the observations secured 49 50 abstracts: zoology at Manua, Samoa, during the total solar eclipse on April 28, 1911. On Plate 10 is a full-size reproduction of the photograph obtained of the eclipse, showing the coronal extensions corresponding to a period of minimum sun-spot activity. The concluding report is concerned with the results of the comparisons of magnetic standards obtained by observers of the Department, dur- ing 1905 to 1914, both at magnetic observatories and in the field among themselves. It has been found possible with the aid of the accumulated data to fix on world or "international magnetic standards" designated I.M.S., which apparently yield values of the magnetic elements within an absolute accuracy of about O.'l or 0/2 in declination and inclination, and about 0.01 or 0.02 per cent in the value of the horizontal intensity. J. A. F. ZOOLOGY. — A review of the American moles. Hartley H. T. Jack- son. North American Fauna No. 38, Bureau of Biological Sur- vey, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 100, plates 6, text figures 27. September 30, 1915. This paper includes descriptions of the 28 species and subspecies of moles inhabiting America. One subspecies, Scapanus orarius schefferi is described as new. Pages 5 to 26 are devoted to introductory matters, in which are discussed among other topics the habits and economic status of moles, characteristics and development of the young, pelages and molts, time of molting, manner of molting, geographic variation, individual variation, sexual variation, age variation, seasonal variation, and history. There are two keys to the genera of American moles; one based upon external characters, the other upon cranial and dental characters. The American moles include five genera: Scalopus, Scapa?ius, Parascalops, Condylura, and Neiirotrichus. A detailed description of each genus is given, following which are a key to the species and sub- species of that genus and a systematic discussion of each form. Under each species or subspecies are given the synonymy, type locality, data of type specimen, geographic range, general characters, color, descrip- tion of skull, measurements, remarks upon the relationships and dis- tribution of the form, and an enumeration of the specimens examined. The illustrations include maps of the distribution of each form, etchings of external parts showing generic characters, and half-tones of skulls. H. H. T. J. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 760th meeting was held on October 16, 1915, at the Cosmos Club, President Eichelberger in the chair; 35 persons present. Mr. E. C. Crittenden presented an illustrated paper giving the re- sults of an investigation in collaboration with Messrs. E. B. Rosa and A. H. Taylor on Effect of atmospheric pressure on the candlepower of various flames. In order to calibrate flame standards of candlepower by comparison with electric standards it is necessary to know the effects of various atmospheric conditions on the flames. Humidity and atmospheric pressure are the conditions which cause most variation. The former varies considerably from season to season, and its effect has been determined by observations extending over several years. The natural variations in pressure from time to time at any one place are not great enough to determine their effect with precision, and at any rate extrapolation to other pressures would be unreliable. By using a set of tanks in which air could be supplied at high or at low pressure, the variation of the candlepower of pentane and Hefner lamps over a wide range of barometric pressure has now been determined. The varia- tion is not linear. In general the intensity of a flame increases with in- creasing pressure, but at a decreasing rate, until the flame becomes smoky, when a further increase in pressure may cause a slight decrease in intensity. Conversely, decrease of pressure in general causes a de- crease of candlepower, which is more and more rapid as the flame gets farther from the smoking condition. The pressure presumably affects the rate of diffusion, of oxygen through the fuel. When the pressure is increased the diffusion is slower, the process of combustion is re- tarded, and the time during which the carbon particles exist in the glowing state is increased. Consequently at any one time there are more particles giving out light. On the other hand the average tempera- ture of the particles is lowered, as is shown by the increasing redness of the flame, so that the light emitted by each particle is greatly reduced. Eventually such a condition is reached that the decrease in temperature counterbalances any further increase in number of glowing particles. Besides the data for the standard lamps, curves were shown to indicate the effect of variation in air pressure on the candlepower of gas burned in several types of burners. The effect of humidity on a gas flame, an acetylene flame, and a kerosene standard lamp was also shown. As an application of the data presented, a detailed discussion of the signifi- cance of gas candlepower tests, as made at present, was given. 51 52 proceedings: philosophical society Mr. P. D. Foote then spoke on The "center of gravity" and "effec- tive wave-length" of transmission of pyrometer color-screens, and the extrapolation of the high temperature scale. (Published in full in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5:526. 1915.) The same speaker then presented informally some remarks on A new relation from Planck's law. Numerous displacement laws may be derived from the Planck relation representing the spectral distribution of the energy radiated by a black body. A new displacement law was derived which states, that the product of the absolute temperature # and the X-component of the center of gravity of the spectral energy curve Xc is a constant, as follows: Xc = 0.37021c2, where c2 is the charac- teristic constant of the Planck equation. The two communications by Mr. Foote were discussed by Messrs. Swann, C. A. Briggs, Gray, Priest, Crittenden, and Sosman, particularly with reference to details of optical arrangements, the use of absorbing mirrors, and variations between observers. Mr. E. F. Mueller then presented a paper on Methods of resist- ance measurement. In the design of a Wheatstone bridge, the 0.01, 0.001, and 0.0001 decades were to be provided by varying the shunts on three coils, r%, r2, and r3, permanently connected in the variable arm of the bridge. The problem is to select suitable values for n, r2, r3, and for the shunting-coils. The values will be completely determined if the condition be imposed that r\ + r2 -\- r3 = p and that the r's be so chosen that the effect of errors in the shunting-coils, clue, e.g., to contact resistances in the dial switches, shall be a minimum. There are, however, obvious advantages in choosing the r's so that the shunting-coils for all decades are the same. This requires that r1 = r2"V 10 = r3"10 as may be seen from the formula used: viz., that the change in r, due to a shunt R, is equal to — r-=. If r2 is chosen so as to r -f- K be divisible by the numbers from 1 to 10, e.g.,r2 =0.6048, simple values for the shunting-coils are obtained. The paper was discussed by Mr. White with regard to variations in shunts. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI FEBRUARY 4, 1916 No. 3 GEOLOGY. — Some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward Islands and their bearing on the coral reef problem. Thomas Wayland Vaughan,1 Geological Survey. The Virgin Islands rise above a bank extending eastward from Porto Rico from which they are separated by water up to 17 fathoms deep. The St. Martin group, comprising Anguilla, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, and a number of islets, lie a little south of east from the Virgins across the Anegada Passage, which exceeds 1000 fathoms in depth. St. Croix is due south of the Virgins across a chasm, a great fault valley, which at a distance of 22^ miles south of St. Thomas attains a depth of 2580 fathoms (15,480 feet). Saba is south of St. Martin. The west end of the St. Christopher Chain, to which St. Eustatius, St. Christopher, and Nevis belong, is south of St. Bartholomew; while Antigua and Barbuda are east of the St. Christopher Chain. The ocean bottom off the shores of the Antilles shows three distinct types of profiles, and a fourth type is furnished by Saba and other banks. The first is that found off the volcanic islands, such as Saba and the members of the St. Christopher Chain, into the sides of which the sea has cut relatively narrow plat- forms (see fig. I).2 There are suggestions of submerged flats off the northwest end of St. Eustatius and southeast of Nevis. 1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and of the President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 2 The profiles illustrating this paper were draw by Miss Irene Pistorio, who also drew the contours on the hydrographic charts here discussed. 53 54 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands m a z < o or o tr CL c o N 'C o © (0 © CO "a _o ■- > iso • — c I— I OQ ID C o3 c C6 c C r © o O O 0 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 55 03 a o N o -a 05 05 05 C5 CO *c3 o •rH Sh 05 03 -a" o 03 05 m 03 bfi T3 CO 73 a 03 #o3 a CO 05 58 o CO 05 o PL, CM si 56 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 0-- /OOl aoo. 3oo: 5^/g L£l/SL ~~ K I — 1 ~ -Barn er . M^^^mm^- .. -Barrier --^^^ Barrier ^^^_ Barrier Borner reef PROFILES OFF SOUTH COAST OF ST JOHN. TORTOLA AND VIRGIN GORDA ISLANDS. PROFILES OFF THE NORTH COAST OF ST THOMAS SEA LEVEL PROFILES OFF THE EAST COAST OF ANGUILLA Nautical Miles I 0 1 2 3 « 5 6 Fig. 3. Profiles off Virgin Islands and Anguilla. the horizontal. Vertical scale 70 times The Second type of submarine profile is well represented off the north shore of St. Croix and the south shore of Cuba (see fig. 2). The precipitous character of these profiles indicates faulting and the geologic structure supports this interpretation. There is a downthrown block between St. Croix and the Virgin Group, and another downthrown block between Cuba and Jamaica. The third type of profile (see fig. 2), represented by shores off which are extensive shallow flats, occurs where planation agen- cies have long been active. Here the rocks often, if not usually, dip under the sea at relatively gentle angles. vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 57 PROFILES DFF THE WEST INDIES AND CENTRAL AMERICA J-.tOO' HAVANA HARBOR NORTH COAST Or ST T^CMA$ 0?f EAST COAST OF ANGUILLA Cora! reef OFF THE SOUTH EAST COAST OF ANTiGUA ACROSS MOSQUITO BANK OFF NICARAGUA PROFILES OF BANKS IN CARIBBEAN SEA OF FUNAFUTI ATOLL PEDRO BANK ROSALINO BANK FUNAFUTI ATOLL Fig. 4. Profiles off West Indies and Central America, of banks in the Caribbean Sea, and of Funafuti atoll. Vertical scales on sides, horizontal distance stated below profiles. The fourth type of profile is represented by the extensive submerged banks or platforms which have no bordering lands and whose upper surfaces range in depth from 9 to 30 fathoms (54 to 180 feet). Good examples are Saba Bank, southwest of Saba Island; Pedro Bank, southwest of Jamaica; and Rosa- lind Bank, off Mosquito Bank, which is the Continental Shelf northeast of Nicaragua and Honduras (see fig. 4). That the depth of water on these banks is essentially the same as in many atolls of the Pacific, especially the Paumotus, has been repeatedly pointed out, but apparently the fact has not yet been sufficiently emphasized. The profile of Funafuti atoll in figure 4 is very similar to the profiles of the West Indian banks, which are many times its dimensions. 58 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands The third type of profile (that showing submarine terraces around islands) will now be discussed in some detail. From shore line characters and other evidence the conclusion was reached that the Virgin Islands, the members of the St. Martin Group, and Antigua and Barbuda have recently undergone submergence to an amount of about 20 fathoms.3 Assuming this conclusion to be correct, should the sea level have remained stationary for a period of appreciable length before this submer- gence, there should be a submerged scarp or facet indicating its former stand; should there have been a succession of tem- porary stands there should be a series of submarine terrace flats separated by scarps. The available sources of informa- tion were the charts of the U. S. Hydrographic Office and of the British Admiralty. The Virgin Bank and the St. Martin Plateau were selected for special study. The charts of the former, on a scale of slightly more than 1 mile to an inch, and that of the latter, on a scale of about 2\ miles to an inch, were contoured on a 2 fathom interval from the shore to a depth of 40 fathoms, and on an interval of 10 fathoms from 40 to 100 fathoms. The Virgin Group will be described first. The shore line shows indentations indicative of submergence, and that the sea has stood at its present level long enough for alluvial filling of the heads of harbor digitations, while sea-cliffs occur at the ends of promontories. The chart of the nearby sea-bottom shows that south of St. John, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda there are two distinct submerged terraces and a less definite third terrace (see fig. 3). The outer terrace flat lies at depths between 26 and 28 fathoms on its landward and between 28 and 30 fathoms on its seaward margin, and it ranges in width from \ mile to 3 miles. On its sea-front is a ridge which is inferred to be a sub- merged barrier coral reef. On its landward side a scarp rises from a depth of 26 to 28 fathoms to about 17 fathoms. Above this scarp is a second terrace flat, which has a depth of 14 to 15 fathoms on its landward and a depth of 14 to 20 fathoms on its seaward face, and ranges in width from one-third of a mile to 2 miles. Apparently the outer margin of this flat also bears 1 Bull. Am. Geog. Soc, 46: 426-429. 1914. vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 59 a coral reef. These are the two principal terrace flats. The scarp separating them is indicated by crowded contours, and chart No. 1832, U. S. Hydrographic Office, shows its continuity for 36 nautical miles or about l£ land miles farther than from Washington to BaRimore. A third, still higher terrace flat is suggested between depths of 6 and 10 fathoms, above which a fourth terrace may now be in process of formation, but the in- formation regarding these is at present not definite enough to warrant a positive statement. The continuity of the upper one of the two well-marked flats needs to be emphasized. It should be noted that east of Virgin Gorda there has been an uptilt. On the windward (northern) side of St. Thomas, there is an extensive outer flat, bounded on its landward side by a steep escarpment which in places is nearly 160 feet high (see fig. 3). The landward margin of the plain is between 26 and 28 fathoms in depth; the seaward margin has a depth between 30 and 34 fathoms; the width is as great as 10 miles and for distances as great as 8| miles, in depths between 29 and 31 fathoms, the range in relief of the surface may be as small as 2 fathoms. Its outer margin is cut by reentrants which have bottoms about 40 fathoms deep and simulate hanging valleys. There are also near the outer margin of this flat, banks or ridges the upper surfaces of which are relatively flat, between 17 and 20 fathoms in depth. One of these banks has a total basal width of about 4 miles and a length of more than 5 miles. As its form is not that of a coral reef, it can only be the base of what was an island, which had been reduced almost to a smooth surface by marine planation and then, as indicated by other evidence, submerged. As all the other shoals with one exception are truncated at nearly the same level it seems that most of them should be ascribed to a similar origin. These shoals usually show escarpments between 20 and 30 fathoms on their windward sides and more gradual slopes on the leeward sides. The outer flat on the north side of St. Thomas corresponds to the lower flat on the south side of St. John, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda. Both are sub- marine plains, which several lines of evidence show were de- veloped when sea-level was about 20 fathoms or slightly more, 60 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands lower than now. The escarpment extending from the islands north of Culebra Island, east of Porto Rico, across the Virgin Passage, and along the north side of St. Thomas, and the es- carpment on the face of the outlying shoals apparently can be explained in no other way. The indentations on the outer margin of the outer flat may have been caused by emergence and stream cutting after its formation, or they may be due to initial marginal irregularities which have not been obliterated. The approximate accordance in level of the tops of the out- lying shoals at depths between 17 and 20 fathoms has been mentioned. These summits accord in height with a flat or gently sloping zone, which lies above and nearer shore than the deeper flat and represents the 14 to 20 fathom flat south of St. John and Tortola. It is scarcely represented on the seaward side of the promontories, viz. : Cockroach and Cricket rocks, and Outer Brass and Little Hans Lollick islands. However, it spreads out on the flanks of the promontories and ranges from half a mile to nearly 1| miles in width; it is separated on its seaward side by a steep slope or escarpment from the deeper flat and on its landward side by a less distinct escarp- ment, in places about 26 feet in height, from a less developed flat which has a depth of 7 to 10 fathoms. The descent is sudden from the shore to about 6 fathoms which is near the landward margin of the highest submarine flat. This flat, also, is narrow on the tips of the promontories mentioned, but widens on their flanks and along the shores of the main island. The submerged valley in Charlotte Amalia Harbor has a depth of 10 fathoms. The narrowness or absence of the 14 to 20 fathoms flat on the promontory tips, while it is so well preserved in protected places, especially off the south sides of St. John and Tortola, shows that it is older than the deeper flat and in exposed places was cut away during the formation of the latter, subsequent to the formation of which, after perhaps a brief interval of still lower stand of sea-level, the entire area has been re-submerged, to an amount about the same as that of the initial submergence. vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 61 There is doubt as to the interpretation of the 7 to 10 or 12 fathoms flat. In places it seems to be distinct and older than the one next lower, but it may represent the submarine terrace being formed at present sea-level. According to the physiography of the sea-bottom, the Vir- gin Islands were joined to Porto Rico during the cutting of the scarp separating the deepest from the next higher flat. The biogeographic evidence shows conclusively that the two were united and have been severed in Recent time by submergence. Stejneger says in his Herpetology of Porto Rico: "It is then plain that the 16 species of reptiles and betrachians found in St. Thomas and St. John form only a herpetological appendix to Porto Rico." Doctor Bartsch informs me that the testi- mony of the land Mollusca is the same as that of the reptiles and batrachians. The biogeographic evidence substantiates the deductions based on the purely physiographic study. There are three tiers of coral reefs in the Virgin Islands. They rise above (a) basements 10 fathoms or less in depth; (b) above the outer edge of the 14 to 20 fathoms flat; (c) above the outer edge of the 28 to 34 fathoms flat. As the escarpment within the outermost reef could not have been cut during the presence of such a reef, the flat must be older than the reef and the reef must have developed during subsequent submergence. The flat therefore cannot be due to the growth of the reef. The members of the St. Martin Group have indented shore- lines, seacliffs, and an unusually fine development of bay bars. The relations on the windward side of the St. Martin plateau are similar to those north of St. Thomas (see fig. 3) . The outer, deeper flat, from 26 to 36 fathoms in depth, has a maximum length east and west of over 30 miles. It seems composed of two terraces. The scarp on its landward side is distinct and in places is about 50 feet high, in depths between 20 and 28 fath- oms, as off the east end of Scrub Island, east of Anguilla Island. As some of the submerged valleys on the east side of the St. Martin plateau resemble valleys in the Upper Cretaceous Ana- cacho limestone of Texas, it appears that not only must the scarp line which has been pointed out be interpreted as a former 62 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands shore-line but these channels, with steep heads must be inter- preted as former drainage lines which were subaerially cut and afterwards submerged. The Anacacho limestone in the Brackett quadrangle (of the U. S. Geological Survey) is similar in general character to the limestone which composes Anguilla and Tinta- marre. While the shore-line stood some 20 fathoms lower than now, most of the St. Martin plateau must have been above sea- level. The biologic evidence is in accord with this interpre- tation, but at present it alone is not sufficient to be decisive. Antigua is another island with an indented shore-line. It shows typical instances of submerged valleys, and fairly good examples of pouch-shaped harbors. Profiles off the southeast shore are shown in figure 4. These exhibit essentially the same features as the profiles on the Virgin Bank and the St. Martin plateau. If sea-level stood 20 fathoms below its present stand, Antigua and Barbuda would be united. Dr. Bartsch has especially studied the land Mollusca and says: "The land shells show that these islands must have been connected in very recent time." The deduction that there has been in Recent geologic time submergence to an amount of about 20 fathoms in the Virgin Islands, on the St. Martin plateau, and on the Antigua-Bar- buda bank, it seems to me, may be accounted demonstrated. The upper part of figure 4 shows a set of profiles, all on the same vertical scale. They represent profiles (a) across Havana Harbor, showing depth of filled channel; (b) off the north side of St. Thomas ; (c) off the west side of Anguilla ; (d) off the south- east coast of Antigua; (e) Mosquito Bank, off Nicaragua. All these profiles indicate a rise of sea-level by an amount of about 20 fathoms. There is in the Virgin Islands and in Cuba clear evidence of a lowering of sea-level by about 20 fathoms, perhaps more, previous to resubmergence. Although the evidence for the other areas is not definite as to the return of sea-level to a former stand, the similarity of the profiles suggests that it also occurred in them. What caused this lowering and subsequent rise of sea-level? As it affects a large area, it appears too wide- vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 63 spread to be explained by local crustal movement. The changes in position of strand line here noted are more reasonably ex- plained by a lowering of sea-level due to the withdrawal of water in the Pleistocene ice epochs to form the great Continental glaciers and the raising of sea-level after each epoch through the melting of the glaciers, but the volume of evidence supplied by this area is perhaps not large enough to justify a general conclusion as to the relations of Re- cent coral reef development to gla- ciation and deglaciation. Figure • 5 is a map of Florida showing the superposition of upper Oligocene reef corals and coral reefs on the Ocala limestone, which has been traced under and beyond the reefs by means of natural exposures and numerous well borings. The general geologic history of the Floridian plateau has been especi- ally considered by Vaughan4 and by Matson and Sanford.5 A paper by Vaughan and Shaw in which the oscillations of the Florida reef tract are discussed is also cited.6 A brief comparison will now be made with the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Figure 6 presents pro- files, all on the same horizontal and vertical scales, the latter about seventy times the former. The uppermost profile, along a line running due east from Virginia Beach, Virginia, is introduced for comparison with those of the Continental Shelf and the Great Barrier Reef off the eastern Queensland coast. The Australian profiles are based on the 4 A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridian plateau. Carnegie Inst, of Washington, Pub. 133, pp. 99-185, 15 pis. 1910. 5 Geology and ground waters of Florida. U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-supply Paper 319. Pp. 445, 17 pis. 1913. 6 Carnegie Inst, of Washington, Year Book No. 14, pp. 232-238. 1916. Fig. 5. Map of Florida show- ing depth in feet below sea-level to upper surface of the Ocala limestone and the location of the superposed upper Oligocene coral reefs and reef corals. Oc = Ocala limestone; Al. B. = fossil reef corals or coral reefs in the Alum Bluff formation; Ch = fossil reef corals or coral reefs in the Chatta- hoochee and Tampa formations. 64 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands •— > to e a: c a> 05 sc o o> CO * ~* c o3 O .S js a" so o .5 — -4- ■S.S _ o r e> (3 > o cS PQ _c3 [a '3b s- c CO 0/ O si vaughan: virgin and leeward islands 65 British Admiralty charts. The latitude at the intersection of each profile with the shore-line is followed by a statement of the direction of the profile from the shore. South of the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef. 1. From Burleigh, S. Lat. 28° 4' 30", North 73° East. 2. From North Point, S. Lat. 27° 1' 45", North 3° East. 3. From Shore east of Leading Hill, S. Lat. 25° 26' 15", South 82° East. 4. From base of Sandy Cape, S. Lat. 24° 53' 40", North 68° East. Southern end of the Great Barrier Reef. 5. From Toowong Hill, S. Lat. 24° 22' 4", North 45° East, passing between Lady Elliot and Lady Musgrove islands. Across the Great Barrier Reef. 6. From Rodd Peninsula, S. Lat. 24° 0' 0", North 50° East. 8. From Georges Point, Hinchinbrook Island, S. Lat. 18° 25' 40", North 72° 30' East. 9. From Malbon Thompson Range, S. Lat. 17° 7' 15", North 68° 30' East. 10. From Yarrabah Mission, S. Lat. 16° 54' 30", North 37° East. 11. From mouth of Daintree River, S. Lat. 16° 18' 25", North 78" 30' East. 12. From half way between Cape Flattery and Lookout Point, S. Lat. 14° 56' 10", North 46° East. 13. From Cape Sidmouth, S. Lat. 13° 25' 45", North 85° East. 14. From Cape Grenville, S. Lat. 11° 58' 25", North 85° East. These profiles show the continuity of the platform from the area south of the Great Barrier, and that there is an outer, deeper flat about 200 feet deep. As except near its north end the reef stands back from the seaward edge of the Continental Shelf, apparently the idea that the platform was formed by infilling behind the reef may be permanently set aside. The similarity of the conditions here presented to those off Nicaragua and in the West Indies is obvious. The evidence in favor of a shore line between about 25 and 30 fathoms below present sea-level antecedent to Recent submergence is strong, if not conclusive, and supports the deduction that the living barrier reef is grow- ing on what was a land surface in Pleistocene time, an inter- pretation essentially that proposed by E. C. Andrews in 1902. The relations around the Pacific Islands off which barrier reefs occur are those of continuous platforms surmounted or mar- gined by discontinuous reefs. These relations indicate the super- 66 vaughan: virgin and leeward islands position of reefs on antecedent platforms which have undergone geologically Recent submergence. E. C. Andrews so interprets the conditions of formation of the barrier reefs off the Fiji Is- lands.7 It appears to me that the conditions governing the development of the living reefs in the West Indies, Central America, Brazil, Florida and Australia are clear. The reefs have grown upon antecedent basements during Recent sub- mergence. The history of these basements is complex, but dur- ing Pleistocene time they stood higher with reference to sea-level than now, their outer margins were remodeled by marine cutting and marine planatidn, and they were then resubmerged. These changes in height of sea-level accord with the demand of the glacier control theory. It would be remarkable if the conditions in the tropical western Pacific Ocean were exceptional, and the present available facts indicate that they conform to the principles governing reef development in the other areas. Here it should be said regarding the charts for the Pacific, that as they have been made primarily for navigation purposes the depths of lagoons and lagoon channels are often given in a way fairly satisfactory, but on only a few charts can the submarine profiles outside the reefs be determined. The coral reef prob- lem cannot be regarded as satisfactorily solved until the rela- tions in the Pacific islands have been ascertained. In my opinion but little further advance in understanding the problem can be expected from purely biologic studies or from physiographic investigations of the dry land surface alone. As apparently the greatest present need is for more accurate information on the detailed submarine relief in depths between 15 and 50 fathoms, especially on the seaward margins of the platforms, both outside the reefs and off the breaks in the reef lines, the efforts of those interested in such investigations should be concentrated on getting additional hydrographic surveys in coral reef areas. 1 Am. Jour. Sci. 41: 135-141. 1916. SCHALLER AND BAILEY: INTUMESCENT KAOLINITE 67 MINERALOGY. — Intumescent kaolinite. W. T. Schaller and R. K. Bailey, Geological Survey.1 A sample of kaolinite from eastern Oklahoma was sent in to the Geological Survey for identification by Dr. C. N. Gould of Oklahoma City. According to Dr. Gould, the mineral was re- ceived by him from Mr. Tom Wall of Poteau, Oklahoma, who stated that it forms vertical white streaks, one of which appears to be about 20 inches thick, on Back Bone Mountain, about two miles north of Williams, Le Flore County, Oklahoma. The de- posit lies near the boundary of sections 2 and 3, T. 8 N., R. 26 E., Le Flore County. The mineral formed small compact lumps with a glistening or fine satiny appearance. Examined micro- scopically, the material was seen to be pure, homogeneous, and well crystallized in minute hexagonal plates and crystals which had all the appearance of kaolinite. The crystals average about the following dimensions: c axis = 0.02 mm., b axis = 0.04 mm., a axis = 0.06 mm. In testing the fusibility of the mineral it was found to intumesce strongly and as no reference to any in- tumescent kaolinite was found in the literature the material was examined further for definite identification. It was found to differ from kaolinite only in its intumescence. The crystals are too small and the birefringence too low for re- liable results as to extinction angles and interference figures. The refractive indices were readily determined and are as follows : a(approx. parallel to c axis) = 1.561 /3(approx. parallel to a axis) = 1.563 7 (parallel to b axis) = 1.567 Birefringence (7 — a) = 0 . 006 These values are close to those given for kaolinite. Kaiser2 gives the refractive index as between 1.551 and 1.559, with a birefringence of 0.005-0.006. His values for the refractive in- dices are slightly lower than those here given. A possible ex- 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 2 Kaiser, Erich, tJber Verwitterungserscheinungen an Bausteinen I. Neues Jahrb. f. Min. Geol. Pal., 1907: Band 2, 42-64. 68 SCHALLER AND BAILEY: INTUMESCENT KAOLINITE planation is that the liquids used were not checked for their indices. It is very essential to redetermine frequently the index of these liquids. It was found, for instance, that our liquids had increased 0.003 from the value determined a year ago. Dick3 gives the mean index as 1.563 with a birefringence of 0.006. Further Dick gives (7 — (3) = 0.004 (on basal plane) and (/3 — a) = 0.002, values identical with those found on the material from Oklahoma. The value 1.54, given in some books as the mean index of kaolinite is doubtless too low. The mineral after intumescence, examined microscopically, is opaque and nearly all of it has lost its perfect crystal outline. Most of the pieces have a form which suggests that during the heating (and intumescence?) the escape of the water took place in such a way as to practically disrupt the crystal structure of the mineral. The chemical analysis, by R. K. Bailey, gave the results shown under (1), and for comparison under (2) is given an analysis of kaolinite from Saitzewo near Nikitowka (Donez-Becken) by Samojloff,4 and under (3) the theoretical composition. (1) (2) (3) Si02 46.55 46.51 46.50 A1S03 38.90 39.45 39.56 H2Oa 14.04b 14.10 13.94 99.49 100.06 100.00 a Loss on ignition. b Average of the two determinations, 13.97 and 14.10. A comparison of the figures given above shows the chemical identity of the mineral from Oklahoma with kaolinite. The water in it apparently behaves normally, for it was found that the total loss on heating the mineral to 330° was insignificant, the total loss of water being 0.09 per cent at 145°, 0.11 per cent at 220°, and 0.12 per cent at 330? 3 Dick, A. B., Supplementary notes on the mineral Kaolinite. Mineral Mag. 16:124-127. 1908. 4 Samojloff, J., Uber das Wasser des Kaolinits. Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 3:1137-1152. 1909. standley: tidestromia, a new generic name 69 BOTANY. — Tidestromia, a new generic name. Paul C. Stand- ley, U. S. National Museum.1 The three species of Amaranthaceae, tribe Gomphreneae, generally known under the name Cladothrix form a very natural and well defined genus. All are natives of the more arid regions of the western and southwestern United States and northern Mexico, two of them being rather local in their distribution, the third, however, ranging from Kansas and Utah to Texas and to Zacatecas and Sinaloa in Mexico. All three are much alike in general appearance, but they differ constantly among themselves in details of floral structure. The genus is distin- guished from all the other genera of the Gomphreneae by hav- ing the flowers merely glomerate rather than regularly capitate or spicate. Moreover, the leaves subtending the inflorescence become indurate and more or less connate in age, so as to form a sort of involucre. The oldest and best known species was published by Nuttall in 1820 as Achyranthes lanuginosa. In 1849 it was transferred by Moquin to Alternanthera. Watson in 1880 established the genus Cladothrix, including not only this species but another de- scribed by Torrey in 1859 as Alternanthera suffruticosa. The first appearance of the generic name Cladothrix in literature is in 1849, when Moquin cites a manuscript or herbarium name of Nuttall, Cladothrix lanuginosa, as a synonym of his own Alter- nanthera lanuginosa. The mere citation of the generic name in synonymy would not, of course, give it any standing under either of the codes of nomenclature now followed by most botanists and Cladothrix when used in this connection must, consequently, date from 1880. Unfortunately for the maintainance of this name in the Amaranthaceae a genus Cladothrix of the Schizomy- cetes had been proposed by Cohn in 1875. Cohn's genus is properly published and is generally accepted by mycologists. It is evident, therefore, that the name Cladothrix can not be main- tained in the Amaranthaceae and that another must be sub- st tuted for it. Since none is available, the writer proposes the 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 70 standley: tidestromia, a new generic name name Tidestromia, given in honor of Mr. Ivar Tidestrom, an indefatigable student of the plants of the United States, who has given many years to systematic herbarium and field studies of the plants of many parts of our country, especially of Maryland and Virginia, California, Arizona, and Utah. TIDESTROMIA Standley, nom. nov. Cladothrix Nutt. ; Moq. in DC. Prodr. 132 : 359. 1849, as synonym ; S. Wats. Bot. Calif. 2: 43. 1880. Tidestromia lanuginosa (Nutt.) Standley. Achyranthes lanuginosa Nutt. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. n. ser. 5: 166. 1820. Alternanthera lanuginosa Moq. in DC. Prodr. 132: 359. 1849. Cladothrix lanuginosa Nutt.; Moq. in DC. Prodr. 132: 360. 1849, as synonym; S. Wats. Bot. Calif. 2: 43. 1880. Western Kansas to southeastern Utah, south to Arizona, western Texas, and Zacatecas and Sinaloa, Mexico. Tidestromia oblongifolia (S. Wats.) Standley. Cladothrix oblongifolia S. Wats. Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 376. 1882. Cladothrix cryptantha S. Wats. Proc. Amer. Acad. 26: 125. 1891. Southeastern California to western Nevada and Arizona. Tidestromia suffruticosa (Torr.) Standley. Alternanthera suffruticosa Torr. U. S. & Mex. Bound. Bot. 181. 1859. Cladothrix suffruticosa S. Wats. Bot. Calif. 2: 43. 1880. Western Texas and southern New Mexico to Coahuila, Mexico. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Results of observations made at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory at Cheltenham, Md., 1918 and 1914- Daniel L. Hazard. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Serial Publication No. 19. 1915. This publication is in continuation of the series giving the results obtained at the Cheltenham magnetic observatory since its estab- lishment in 1901 . It contains a summary of the monthly determinations of the scale-values of the horizontal intensity and vertical intensity variometers; the base-line values derived from the weekly absolute observations; diurnal variation tables for the magnetic elements D, H, and I, the total force F, and the rectangular components X, Y, Z; hourly values of D, H, and Z, together with daily and hourly means for each month; a tabulation of the earthquakes recorded on the seis- mograph; a list of the magnetic disturbances of considerable magni- tude and reproductions of the magnetograms showing the more marked disturbances. Attention is called to the fact that beginning with 1913 intensity results obtained by this Bureau have been reduced to the in- ternational standard of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Published results for earlier years must be diminished by one part in a thousand to reduce them to that standard. D. L. H. GEOLOGY. — A peculiar oolite from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Edgar T. Wherry. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 49: 153-156, pi. 40-41. Aug. 13, 1915. The material described occurs in a quarry in magnesian limestone. In one layer the ooids are divided parallel to the bedding into a light 71 72 abstracts: geology and dark portion, the latter being the lower. Analyses of the rock of this bed and of 06 ids which have weathered out are given. By calculating the mineral compositions from these, and also the composi- tion of the matrix, assuming that the ooids make up half the rock, it is shown that the ooids are notably higher in dolomite, quartz, kaolin, limonite, and carbon, and lower in calcite and sideritethan the matrix. This oolite has probably formed by solution of original aragonite, caus- ing the insoluble carbon and nuclei to fall to the bottom of the cavities; secondary dolomite subsequently filled the latter; and still later the carbon precipitated some pyrite, which has altered to limonite. Fig- ures are given to bring out the various stages of the. process. E. T. W. GEOLOGY. — An ancient volcanic eruption in the upper Yukon Basin, Alaska. Stephen R. Capps. U. S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 95-D, pp. 59-64, with text figure and illustrations. 1915. In the upper Yukon Basin there is a persistent and widespread layer of volcanic ash, commonly overlain by a few inches or a foot or two of soil, silt, or vegetable humus, but in places appearing in great drifts or dunes devoid of vegetation. In general the ash follows closely the present topography, and, although locally overlain by recent stream deposits, is much younger than the glacial materials deposited during the last great period of glaciation. In thickness, the ash ranges from a thin film, at the borders of the area within which it is known, to several hundred feet near the point from which it is thought to have been ejected. It covers a known area of about 140,000 square miles and the estimated volume of the ash is about 10 cubic miles. Micro- scopic study shows the ash to be an andesitic pumice. On White River a stream bluff shows the ash to be covered by 7 feet of peat. An estimate of the rate of accumulation of the peat there, gives a figure of approximately 200 years to the foot of peat. On that basis the volcanic eruption that caused the ejection of the ash took place some 1400 years ago. S. R. C. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 761st meeting was held on October 30, 1915, at the Cosmos Club. President Eichelberger in the chair, 33 persons present. Regular Program Mr. F. E. Fowle presented a paper on The transparency of air and water vapor. Radiant energy (e0\) coming through the air from a heavenly body suffers five losses: 1, non-selective, as to wave-length, in the permanent gases of the air; 2, non-selective associated with water vapor; 3, selective in the permanent gases; 4, selective in the water vapor; 5, losses due to the dust. The losses (1) have been shown to be due to the scattering by the molecules of the air and may be com- puted accurately from the number of molecules in the path; it is ex- pressed by coefficients, aa\ (Astrophysical Journal, 40:435. 1914; 38:392. 1913). The losses (2) are greater than would be expected from the number of molecules of water vapor and are treated in the same paper; they are expressed by coefficients, aw\; coefficients for (1) and (2) vary slowly with the wave-length. The losses (3) and (4) are treated in detail in the present communication. The first are practically only in bands of limited wave-lengths and are expressed empirically as a function of the length of path, m, through the air. The losses (4) are similar to (3) but are expressed as a function of the amount of water vapor, w, in the path. The losses (5) due to dust vary at sea level from day to day but are nearly invariable with the wave-length in the region considered here. At Washington they may vary on good days from 3 to 11 per cent or more; above an altitude of about 1000 meters they are generally negligible. The resultant energy may be expressed by e = e0\ \aa\<£w) ■ Tables were given showing the losses from the incomng solar energy in calories and per cents due to scattering and absorption for sea level and other alti- tudes, various amounts of water vapor and zenith distances of the sun; also percentage absorptions due to water vapor at various wave- lengths and formulae for computing the various losses for particular cases. Discussion: Mr. C. A. Briggs cited a practical application of absorb- ing power of water vapor by the use of a steam curtain before doors of steel-heating furnaces. Messrs. Swann, Wells, and Bauer asked regarding presence of dust and possible effects at higher altitudes. Mr. 73 74 proceedings: philosophical society Humphreys referred to the assumption of three regions of dustiness which offers the easier explanation of sky polarization measurements, viz: (1) lower atmosphere hardly reaching the altitude of Mt. Wilson and a region of large dust particles ; (2) region of smaller dust particles extending from (1) to an altitude of about two miles, about the height of the ordinary convection clouds, and (3) thence to highest limit of convectional atmosphere and under surface of isothermal region and beyond, ordinarily very free of dust; region (1) would be most effective in scattering. Mr. Fowle noted that the losses at altitudes above 1000 meters were practically nothing, probably \ per cent. Messrs. C. A. Briggs and Priest referred to certain anomalous halo phenomena which Mr. Humphreys explained as well-known cases discussed in works on meteorological optics. Mr. I. G. Priest then spoke on A simple spectral colorimeter of the monochromatic type. The possibility of so-called "monochromatic color analysis" is due to the experimentally observed fact that any color sensation (except purples) can be "matched" by the sensation caused by a suitable mixture of some one monochromatic light with white light. From a philosophical point of view, this is the most natural and the simplest method of denning a color, but I A C J the experimental difficulties and uncertain- ties of putting it into practice have been considerable. The chief trouble has been due to the necessity of making a photo- metric comparison between colored light and white light in each color determination. The purpose of the present device is to eliminate this difficulty. The novel and L B D K essential feature of the instrument is the system of slits shown in the diagram. A B C D is a bilateral slit the width of which can be adjusted and measured by a micrometer screw. E F G H is a slit cut in the jaws of slit A B C D and perpendicular to it. (Actually, the jaws of slit A B C D consist of four wings, adjustable on two plates so that the width of the slit E F G H can be adjusted by sliding.) I J K L is a bilateral slit similar to A B C D with its jaws sliding on the jaws of the latter and placed so that their center-lines are coincident. This slit system is mounted in the focal plane of the collimator of a spectroscope so that the slit E F G H has the ordinary position of a spectroscope slit ; and provision is made for moving the whole system in its own plane, in the direction A B in such a way that the displacement can be measured. The whole slit system is illuminated by a uniform white diffusing surface. A slit parallel to the direction E F is placed in the focal plane of the observing telescope of the spectroscope; and obser- vations are made with the eye at this slit. "Dominant hue" is varied by displacement of the slit system in the direction A B and is deter- mined by the position of the slit E F G H. "Purity" is varied by varying the relative widths of the slits A B C D and I J K L and is MN 0 -F proceedings: philosophical society 75 computed from these slit widths, the ocular slit width, the width of EFGH, the "visibility" function, and the dispersion. Comparison with a sample is made by means of a Lummer-Brodhun cube before the objective of the observing telescope. Relative "brightness" is de- termined by relative slit widths. Scale values of slit width A C can be changed by means of neutral absorbing films covering A C N M and B P 0 D and not covering EFGH. This instrument was planned in April, 1915. The new slit system has been constructed, mounted, and tried qualitatively with improvised accessory apparatus. A com- plete instrument adapted to precise work is now to be designed and constructed, after which quantitative tests of its functioning will be undertaken. INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS Mr. I. G. Priest exhibited a newly-designed slide-rule for the rapid computation of the ratio tan #/tan X where the angles have values be- tween 6° and 84°; this slide-rule is particularly useful for laboratory reductions of observations with Marten's photometer and the Koenig- Marten spectrophotometer. Mr. Priest also exhibited a graphical device designed to evaluate equations of the form y = xn for values of x and y between 0.01 and unity and for values of n between about 0.1 and 10; this device is especially useful and permits rapid compu- tation of transmission for a given thickness when the transmission for some experimental thickness of material is known. Mr. J. A. Fleming exhibited a combined magnetometer and earth inductor with a portable galvanometer of the Kelvin type for field use designed and constructed by the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and spoke of some severe field trials showing the availability of this instrument for such use. The high degree of accuracy attainable was indicated by a resume of recent observatory intercomparisons of magnetic standards using an instrument of this type at Eskdalemuir in Scotland, Kew, Greenwich, and Stonyhurst in England, Cheltenham, Maryland, and Honolulu, Hawaii; these results indicate a readily attainable absolute accuracy of 0'.2 to 0'.3 in declination and inclination and about one five-thou- sandth part or less in horizontal intensity. The work reported on is the first practical successful application to field use of the earth inductor. Mr. Bauer, discussing this communication, referred to the great improve- ment effected in magnetic instruments since his comparisons of obser- vatory standards in 1899, and to the work of Schering at Darmstadt about 1899 with an earth inductor and galvanometer of moving-coil type which was used with great inconvenience at field stations but could not be considered practically applicable for field work. Mr. F. E. Wright stated that in his work with microscopes he had found that the better position of the plane of vibration of the polarizer is parallel to the vertical cross-hair of the eyepiece when ob- servations are made in the early morning or late afternoon and parallel to the horizontal cross-wire at noon. (Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 641. 1915.) 76 proceedings: philosophical society Mr. H. L. Curtis reported on a method to measure the thickness of a moisture film which forms on a metallic plate by determining the increase of capacity caused by the deposit between two metallic plates. Mr. W. J. Humphreys spoke on the cause and results of a terrific explosion outside of a 250-gallon tank of "casing-head" gasoline, an especially volatile gasoline, in south Oklahoma, due to volatilization of the gasoline because of exposure to the heat of the sun and careless- ness in opening the screwcap over the dome of the tank instead of applying some cooling agent, as water, to reduce the vapor tension inside the tank. Some curious effects on nearby structures, due to the explosion, were detailed. The 762nd meeting was- held November 13, 1915, at the Cosmos Club; President Eichelberger in the chair; 52 persons present. Regular Program Mr. D. L. Hazard presented a communication on The magnetic work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The growth of the work to meet the needs of the navigator and surveyor was traced from the reorgani- zation of the Coast Survey in 1843 to the present day, and showed the progress made in the systematic magnetic survey of the United States, begun in 1899. Since that date an average of about 250 new sta- tions and 75 repeat stations have been occupied annually. The first stage of the survey, the establishment of a network of stations 25 or 30 miles apart, is nearly completed as far as the accessible portion of the country is concerned, and the investigation of areas of local dis- turbance is in progress. The work on land has been supplemented by observations at sea on the vessels of the survey. The observations at repeat stations have supplied the data needed to determine the change of the earth's magnetism with time. Magnetic observatories have been in continuous operation at Cheltenham, Md., since 1901; Honolulu and Sitka since 1902; Vieques, P. R., since 1903; Baldwin, Kansas, from 1900 to 1909, and Tucson, Arizona, since 1909. The results are published as promptly as possible in suitable form to meet the varying demands. The success of the work is due largely to Charles A. Schott, for 50 years chief of the Computing Division, and to Dr. L. A. Bauer, inspector of magnetic work from 1899 to 1906. Discussion: Mr. W. Bowie stated that this work was an excellent example of applied science or engineering and praised the comprehen- sive and systematic scheme followed which supplies both theoretical and practical needs; the prompt publication of results is an admirable feature. Mr. R. L. Sanford then gave an illustrated paper on Uniformity of magnetic test bars. This paper dealt with the examination of test bars for magnetic uniformity, the nature of non-uniformities that commonly exist in such bars and their effect on the accuracy of magnetic measurements. All precision methods for magnetic measurement on straight bars assume uniformity along the length of the specimen. If this assumption is not met, errors are introduced which are impossible proceedings: philosophical society 77 to calculate and may be of considerable magnitude. It is therefore important that bars, which are to be used as standards for comparison of different methods, or whose properties it is desired to measure with high accuracy, should be examined for uniformity. A method was described which clearly indicates the position, nature, and magnitude of non-uniformities. which exist in a test bar. Curves were given show- ing the effects of non-uniformities on the accuracy of magnetic measure- ments. Such results naturally lead to a consideration of the possibility of examining ferrous material for soundness and the detection of flaws. Curves were given showing some of the possibilities in this direction. Mr. J. H. Dellinger then spoke on Rationalization of the magnetic units. There are two distinct sets of magnetic units in common use. The first set consists of the eg s units, which are consistent with the ordinary electromagnetic equations. The second set involves the use of the ampere-turn, which introduces certain changes into the equations. In the first set of units, the current use of the name "gauss" both for the unit of induction and the unit of magnetizing force is questionable. The two quantities are sometimes looked upon as physically the same. There are preponderating reasons, however, for considering them to have an essentially different nature, induction corresponding to the magnetized state of the medium, and magnetizing force being the agency tending to produce that state. The double use of "gauss" is an inconvenience in practice. There have been various proposals from time to time to rationalize the units, i.e., to use units such as to redis- tribute the factor 4ir in the equations. The first proposal, that of Heaviside, had much to recommend it but required a radical change of all the electric and magnetic units. Subsequent proposals have in- volved less change of existing units, but have all had the disadvantage of incorporating 4x in the value of permeability of vacuum. It is pointed out herein that the use of the ampere-turn leads to a rationalized set of units, without either of these disadvantages. Discussion: Messrs. Swann, Silsbee, and Rosa discussed this com- munication. Such proposals for rationalization are of distinct value to emphasize the sometimes illogical designation of units; the advisa- bility, however, of radical changes from the existing systems is to be questioned since it is difficult to revolutionize practice. Although the two systems of magnetic units sometimes cause ambiguity, simplifi- cation as proposed would lead probably to greater confusion, particu- larly so because of radically different usage by investigators. The in- corporation of the factor 4tt is quite natural since it has a physical significance in distribution of force over a spherical surface. Mr. Rosa suggested that an International Committee on units and nomenclature is desirable. INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS Mr. F. E. Wright exhibited a graphical device for solving equations of the general form A = B • C. (Published in full in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 1-3. 1916.) J. A. Fleming, Secretary. 78 proceedings: biological society THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 545th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday evening, November 20, 1915; called to order by President Bartsch with 50 persons present. On recommendation of the Council Leo D. Miner, E. 0. Wooton, A. M. Groves, all of Washington, D. C, were elected to active mem- bership. Under the heading Brief Notes: Mr. Lewis Radcliffe called atten- tion to recent efforts of the Bureau of Fisheries in rearing shad in ponds. Young fish thus raised attained twice the size of those of the same age in their natural environment. Specimens of both kinds were exhibited. The regular program consisted of three papers, as follows: Frederick Knab, The dispersal of some species of flies; Alex. Wetmore, Notes on the habits of the duck hawk; Elmer D. Merrill, Geographic relation- ships of the Philippine flora. The 546th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday evening, December 4, 1915; called to order by President Bartsch, with 55 persons present. On recommendation of the Council Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, Washington, D. C, and Arthur deC. Sowerby, Tien Tsin, were elected to active membership. On recommendation of the Council the following resolutions were read and adopted: Whereas: Dr. George M. Sternberg, former Surgeon General of the U. S. Army, a distinguished worker in the biological sciences as applied to medicine, long time an active member of the Biological Society of Washington and its President during the years 1895 and 1896, has passed from this life, therefore be it Resolved: That the Biological Society of Washington keenly regrets his death and offers its warmest sympathy to Mrs. Sternberg, and will always be grateful to his memory for the important part which he took in the affairs and discussions of the Society and for the dis- tinction which his eminent name adds to its list of past Presidents. Signed, L. 0. Howard, Frederick V. Coville, Paul Bartsch. Under the heading Brief Notes, Exhibition of Specimens: Dr. O. P. Hay exhibited the skull of a walrus from the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and called attention to other specimens of walrus from localities now far south of its present range. It was Dr. Hay's opinion that the walrus had followed the retreating ice sheet northward. Dr. L. O. Howard called attention to the cluster-fly (Pollenia rudis), an insect resembling the house fly but collecting in houses in autumn and leaving a yellow stain when crushed. Its life history was unknown until recently, a foreign entomologist having now shown that the PKOCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 79 larvae are parasitic in earthworms in France. Dr. Howard is having large numbers of earthworms examined for such larvae, but so far without success. He hoped that anyone finding any grubs parasitic in earthworms would communicate with him. The first paper of the regular program was by Dr. Charles H. T. Townsend, "Identification of the stages in the asexual cycle of Bartonella bacilliformis, the pathogenic organism of verruga, and their bearing on the etiology and unity of the disease." (Published in full in this Journal, 5: 662-667, December 19, 1915.) The second and last paper of the program was by A. A. Doolittle, "The Mississippi River dam at Keokuk, Iowa: Its effect upon biological conditions, especially those of the plankton. The speaker stated that the Bureau of Fisheries has been examining the new conditions caused by the damming of the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa, to develop electric power. The water is raised to 40 feet above 0 of the river gauge at Keokuk, that is, to the 525-foot level above sea. The water power company must maintain the lake between the 519 and 525-foot levels. The effect of the dam runs out at Oquawka, 111., 54 miles from Keokuk. In the lower third of its course Lake Cooper, as the im- pounded waters are called, fills the gorge of old Des Moines Rapids. In the middle third of its course is the greatest lateral expanse, 4 miles or more, covering much island and farm lands. Forests are removed from only a little of the submerged area. Water persicaria seems to be the only water weed establishing itself in great quantity. In the upper third the threatened banks are being enclosed by levees and will be drained by pumping stations. Tributaries are filled for some dis- tance from the river-lake, the larger ones being navigable for upwards of 3 miles in small launches. There are present the usual characteristics of a river lake : increased regularity of water stages; decreased current; decreased turbidity; establishment of rooted aquatic plants. The most immediate effects of economic importance, biologically, are the destruction of the famous mussels of the rapids, and the interference with the usual passage of fish up and down the river, especially the periodic migrations. The dominant zooplankton were several species of Entomostraca (Moina, Diaphanosoma, and Cyclops viridis); the phytoplankton in- cluded Conferva spp., Anabaena spp., and Clathrocyctis. Estimates of the abundance of plankton were based upon the cubic yard. Above the influence of the dam about 50 entomostracan individuals con- stituted the plankton, with traces of algae. At Keokuk this was in- creased in July to 1500 individuals, in August to 270,000 (volume estimated at 26 cc), and in September to 1500. Green algae measured 0.14 cc. in July, 29 cc. in August, and 5 cc. in September. Blue-green algae measured traces in July, 2.6 cc. in August, and the same in early September. Below the dam at the maximum for the season the run- off contained 3,000 Entomostraca per cu. yd., 1.17 cc. green algae, and traces of blue-greens, a marked enrichment over that of normal river conditions. In weedy waters, additional heavy-bodied Euto- 80 proceedings: biological society mostraca occurred (Sida, Scapholeberis, Simocephalus) , varying in num- bers with the density of growth to a maximum of 178,000 individuals, with estimated volume of 23 cc. per cubic yard. Streams and sloughs filled with back flow from the lake "ripened" earlier than the main lake body, and contained upwards of 50,000 Entomostraca per cu. yd. in July, with less, usually, in August. Algae were less than in the lake. Where tributaries were filled by their own waters, plankton was of different character. When in flowing streams often protozoans (Euglena) or rotifers (Asplanchna) were dominant, with little algae. When tributaries were filled with seepage water the plankton again was of special character, holozooplanktonic, with one or another Entomostracan species dominant, as Cyclops leuckarti and Diaptomus spp. Some of these characteristic forms could be traced into the main stream, but they did not survive. It is evident that there is a vast increase of fundamental food for some species of fishes. The paper was illustrated with map, diagram and slides showing the conditions existing in the summer of 1914. It was discussed by the Chair, and by Messrs. Coker, Marsh, and William Palmer. The 547th and 36th annual meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, December 18, 1915; called to order by President Bartsch, with 27 persons present. On recommendation of the Council the following persons were elected to active membership: H. R. Rosen, U. S. National Museum; Miss Virginia Boone, U. S. National Museum; Ira N. Gabrielson, Biological Survey; James Silver. Annual reports of officers and committees were submitted. Election of officers for the year 1916 resulted as follows: President, W. P. Hay; Vice-Presidents, J. N. Rose, A. D. Hopkins, Hugh M. Smith, and Vernon Bailey; Recording Secretary, M. W. Lyon, Jr.; Corre- sponding Secretary, W. L. McAtee; Treasurer, W.W.Cooke; Coun- cillors, N. Hollister, J. W. Gidley, William Palmer, Alex. Wet- more, E. A. Mearns. President Hay was elected as the Society's representative upon the board of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The president announced the following committees: Committee on Publications: N. Hollister, W. L. McAtee, W. W. Cooke; Com- mittee on Communications: Wm. Palmer, Alex. Wetmore, Lewis Radcliffe, J. W. Gidley, William R. Maxon, H. S. Barber. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI FEBRUARY 19, 1916 No. 4 ELECTRICITY. — Quantitative experiments with the auction. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radiotelegraphic Laboratory. The extent to which vacuum tube detectors of electrical waves have come into general use both for damped and undamped oscillations has made it desirable to determine the law of response of these instruments, especially as they are often used with shunted telephones for making estimates of the strength of received signals in radiotelegraphy. The form of vacuum detector chosen for investigation was the DeForest three-electrode audion.1 As is well known the audion can be used either as. an ordinary detector (old audion connection) with the secondary receiving circuit connected to the hot filament and the intermediate electrode (grid), or by connecting to the grid and cold plate (ultraudion connection) local oscillations may be set up in the receiver so that signals may be received by the beat method. For determining the laws relating to the strength of the received waves and the response of the detectors, the circuit containing the audion was excited by a wave meter in which oscillations of varying strength were produced either by an oscillating audion for undamped or by a buzzer for damped excitation. As it is impossible to use a galvanometer directly in the tele- phone circuit of the audion on account of the continuous current flowing through it from the dry battery, the following arrange- 1 For description, see Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 6: 540. B,eprint 140, 1911. 81 82 AUSTIN! EXPERIMENTS WITH THE AUDION ment of apparatus was employed: The primary of an iron core telephone transformer was placed in series with the telephones and to its secondary a silicon detector in series with a sensitive galvanometer was connected. The changes in current strength which affect the telephones produce similar effects in the tele- phone transformer and give rise to alternating currents in the secondary which in turn are rectified in the silicon detector and are thus made to affect the galvanometer. The galva- nometer deflections have been shown to be proportional to the square of the alternating currents in the detector2 and there- fore to the square of the telephone pulses in the main circuit. When the audion was made to produce local oscillations these were found to affect the detector slightly, but their influence was entirely eliminated by placing a condenser of 0.1>f across the detector. The strength of the high frequency oscillations which were sent out from the sending wave meter was measured by means of a thermoelement connected in the wave meter circuit. TABLE I Old Audion DAMPED EXCITATION I2 I I2 2 I2 i 12 20 2 14.1 30 4 15.0 50 13 13.9 75 28 14.2 107 57 14.2 121 70 14.5 154 107 14.9 •173 145 14.4 The first experiment was intended to determine the law of response of the circuit in old audion connection, the sending wave meter being excited by a buzzer. The results are shown in Table 1. Here I) represents the readings of the thermo- 2 Bulletin I'ureau of Standards, 6: 530. 1911. AUSTIN: EXPERIMENTS WITH THE AUDION 83 element galvanometer in the sending circuit and I2 the readings of the detector galvanometer in the telephone transformer. Ii is proportional to the high frequency sending currents and therefore to the high frequency currents received; I2 is propor- tional to the value of the current pulses in the receiving telephone circuit. Column three, Table I shows that the telephone pulses (response) are proportional to the square of the high frequency currents received. An experiment similar to the above except that the receiving circuit had the ultraudion connection, but so adjusted that no local oscillations were produced, shows that the same law holds as in the case of the old audion connection. TABLE II Oscillating Ultraudion DAMPED EXCITATION I2 1 Ij h h 11 9 1.11 20 19 1.02 33 29 1.06 52 46 1.06 71 64 1.05 90 84 1.03 TABLE III Oscillating Ultraudion UNDAMPED EXCITATION I2 1 I2 2 h 1 2 0.71 3 4 0.87 5 8 0.79 7 11 0.80 9 16 0.75 Tables II and III show the results with the audion in ultra- audion connection and oscillating. In Table II the sending waves are damped as in Table I, while in Table III the sending waves are undamped, the sending wave meter being excited by 84 AUSTIN: EXPERIMENTS WITH THE AUDION an oscillating auction. Here the note in the receiving telephone is produced by the beats between the local and incoming oscil- lations, being rough from the damped oscillations but clear and musical from the undamped. Column three in each of the last two tables shows that the response in the case of the local oscillations is proportional to the received high frequency current and not to its square as was the case in the non-oscillating audion. The value of the ratios in the third columns shows that the response of the receiving- telephone is greater for undamped oscillations than for damped, other things being equal, in the ratio 1.4 to 1. But assuming equal decrements in the sending and receiving circuits, which is probably at least approximately correct, this represents equal E sensitiveness, since in the case of undamped waves I = — and K E 5i in the case of damped I = . where - represents the V- ■ 6i """ s' 02 ratio of decrements in the two circuits. In addition to the experiments with the detector and gal- vanometer, determinations have also been made of the relative sensibility of the old audion and the oscillating ultraudion con- nections. For this the shunted telephone method was used with spark excitation, either distant signals or from the buzzer. It was found that for unit audibility with the old audion connection the oscillating ultraudion gave from three hundred to one thou- sand audibility, but as the law of response is different in the two cases the ratio will of course decrease as the signals grow stronger. With the non-oscillating ultraudion the signals are from twenty to forty times as strong as with the old audion. This ratio becomes greater if the ultraudion is brought nearer to the oscillating condition. The experiments show that the atmospheric disturbances are but little louder in general with the oscillating audion than with the old audion; the sounds are more continuous in the former, however. knowlton: conifers from pleistocene asphalt 85 PALEOBOTANY. — Notes on two conifers from the Pleistocene Rancho La Brea asphalt deposits, near Los Angeles, Cali- fornia.1 F. H. Knowlton, Geological Survey. The famous asphalt deposits or so-called "tar-pits" of the Rancho La Brea, near Los Angeles, California, are now well and widely known from the vast numbers of animal remains that have been exhumed from them. From the many hundreds of skulls and tens of thousands of skeletal bones that have been brought to light, it is said that more than fifty species of birds, and nearly or quite as many kinds of mammals, have been identified. Considering the marvelous degree of perfection with which these animal remains have been preserved, it has been — at least to the writer — a matter of speculation as to why it was not equally fitted to preserve such hard parts of plants as seeds, fruits, cones, wood, etc., as must have chanced to fall into it. Be this as it may, plant remains, at least so far as re- corded observations go, appear to be exceedingly rare, and it is, therefore, with especial pleasure that I am able to record the discovery of two perfectly preserved coniferous cones that were recently sent me for identification. These cones were received, through Mr. H. W. Henshaw of the Biological Survey, from Mr. Frank S. Daggett, Director of the Museum of History, Science, and Arts of Los Angeles, in which institution they are now deposited. They are said to be the only cones thus far discovered in these deposits, which, if true, seems a very remarkable condition. They are, of course, thoroughly impregnated with the asphaltum and are black in color. They have suffered no distortion and are in practically perfect condition. The species represented are: Pinus attenuata Lemmon, Cupressus macrocarpa Hartweg. The knobcone pine, according to Sudworth's "Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope," ranges throughout the Coast Mountains of southern Oregon and of California, and also in the southern Cascades of Oregon and northern California Sierras, while the Monterey cypress is confined to a few miles of the central Cali- 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. 86 cook: quichua names of sweet potatoes fornia coast on the peninsula between Monterey Bay and Car- mel Bay. This shows that the knobcone pine is, at least in part, living in the same general area it occupied in Pleistocene time, whereas the cypress has retreated for some hundreds of miles up the coast, where apparently it has made its last stand. It is perhaps presumptuous with the data available to venture to draw any conclusion as to the climatic and other conditions that obtained when these cones were entombed in the Rancho La Brea deposits, but such as it is it may be presented. According to Sudworth the knobcone pine now occurs usually on dry, exposed, steep southern slopes, but often in deep gulches and protected ravines, growing on poor, dry, rocky, or gravelly and sandy soils. It endures seasonal changes of temperature from zero to 95° F., with occasional heavy snows and an annual rain fall up to 45 inches. The Monterey cypress in its natural state appears to re- quire quite different conditions. It grows on rocky sea cliffs in clay loam soil, under a mild equable temperature, never at freezing point and rarely above 90° F. The annual rain fall is about 17 inches, but the moist sea winds keep the air humid for the greater part of the year. As it is often planted in other parts of California for wind-breaks, it has been found that it will not only thrive in fresh soils away from the influence of the sea, but is capable of withstanding a greater range in tem- perature than that of its native range. If planted in dry soils where the temperature falls below freezing, it will grow well and mature its wood before frost. Inasmuch as the trees themselves, judging from these two cones, appear to have changed very little between the Pleisto- cene and the present time, it at least suggests that their climatic requirements have likewise suffered little change. ETHNOBOTANY.— Quichua names of sweet potatoes. 0. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. Quichua was the language of the Incas at the time of the Span- ish conquest of Peru, and is still spoken by a large native popula- tion. The ancient center of the Quichuas is in the region about Cuzco on the eastern slope of the Andes, from an altitude of cook: quichua names of sweet potatoes 87 over 14,000 feet at the Pass of La Raya, down to Santa Ana, at an altitude of 3000 feet. The lower valley of the Urubamba river was visited by the writer in May, June, and July, 1915, as a member of the Yale Peruvian Expedition conducted by Prof. Hiram Bingham, of Yale University, in cooperation with the National Geographic Society and the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. At 6000 feet and below, the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is one of the principal root-crops. At Santa Ana it appears to be somewhat less important than rumu (Manihot) or uncucha (Xanthosoma), but much more important than achira (Canna). Two classes of sweet potatoes are recognized under separate names, apichu for the sweet varieties and cumara for the starchy. A similar distinction is often made in the United States between "sweets" and "yams." The Quichua language seems to have no inclusive term that can be applied to all kinds of sweet potatoes. For this purpose Spanish-speaking Quichuas use the word ^camote.'n Both cumaras and apichus are represented by numerous varieties differing in shape and color of roots and foliage. At San Miguel, in the valley under Machu Picchu, with an alti- tude of 6000 feet, three varieties of cumaras were noted: yuracjcu- mara (white), pucacumara (red), and co??ipillicjlla, the last a very short turnip-shaped purple root. Of apichus there were also three varieties, yuracjapichu, pucaapichu, and azulapichu (blue, a combination of Spanish and Quichua). Other names, learned at Santa Ana, are oqquechuto, cusicumara, and pucacusi- cumara, the last mentioned said to mean "red-long-cumara." Another with deep purple flesh like a beet, that stains the tongue, is called incampamaccasccan. At Lima the Quichua names are not recognized, only camote being used. Two varieties grown between Lima and Callao are called supano and luriniano, the former with leaves very deeply cut, the latter with nearly entire leaves. Supe and Lurin are places on the coast not far from Lima. Wild sweet potatoes are said to be of common occurrence in the valleys of the interior. At San Miguel a plant identified by the Indians as cusiapichu was found growing spontaneously 88 cook: quichua names of sweet potatoes in a place not recently cultivated. At Santa Ana three distinct kinds, to judge from the foliage, were found as common weeds in cultivated land. But to certify that any plant is a genuine native species seems out of the question in a region where all of the land has probably been cleared many times and cultivated inter- mittently for centuries. On the other hand, there is no reason to deny that the sweet potato may have been domesticated in the Peruvian region, as many other plants appear to have been. The words apichu and cumara have been recorded before, but without indications of their concurrent use and distinct applications among the Quichuas. Markham's Quichua Vo- cabulary gives apichu as the name of the sweet potato, but over- looks cumara altogether. Reference might also be made to Holguin's Arte y Diccionario without finding cumara, since the word does not appear in its alphabetic position, but under apichu we find: "Apichu, cumar, nom. Camote." Martius's Ethno- graphic has neither apichu nor cumara, but gives camote as the Quichua name, with a derivation from the Mexican camotli. Cobo, whose Historia was written in Peru less than seventy years after the conquest (though not published till 1890), recorded apichu as the Quichua name, tutuca as the Aymara name, and camote as the name used by the Spaniards of Peru, borrowed from the language of Mexico. Cobo appears to have visited the in- terior of Bolivia, but not the interior of Peru. No reason is apparent for questioning the status of apichu and cumara as genuine Quichua words. Etymologies would be easy to invent. For apichu such a combination as api (maize pudding) and pichu (flesh) or pichi (root) would be appropriate, while cumara might be related to ccumu or kumu, meaning crooked or hunch-backed. Other Quichua names analogous to cumar or cumara are pallor (Phasaeolus), quinuar (Buddleia), quisuar (Polylepis), ancara (gourd), sara (Zea), tara (Caesalpinia tinctoria), and achira (Canna). The sweet potato was not known to Europeans before the discovery of America. The first name that the Spaniards learned and carried back to Spain was batata, the original of our word potato, but the Mexican name camote is now more widely cook; quichua names of sweet potatoes 89 known in Spanish America. Many names in local languages have probably been lost, but some have been placed on record. Martius collected the following series from native tribes of Brazil: coutarouti, coundi, gnunana, hetich, ictig, imazaka, jetica, joto, mapas (?), mtiporu, mapuey, mouka, napi, orairai, quaiu, tsa, and zamaygua. In the Kekchi language of eastern Guatemala, a member of the Maya family, the sweet potato bears the name is. The Kekchis do not raise many sweet potatoes, this crop being dis- tinctly less important than osh (Xanthosoma) or piyak (Dios- corea), yet sweet potatoes often grow as weeds in cultivated lands. The potato (Solatium tuberosum) is called by the Kekchis kash- lanis, meaning "foreign sweet potato." Several of the early Spanish historians of the West Indies recorded the name age or aje, but whether this belonged properly to the sweet potato or to some other root-crop has been uncer- tain. Some of the accounts evidently refer to Manihot, but Gray and Trumbull settled upon Dioscorea as the correct appli- cation.1 Gomez de la Maza claims both age and boniato as in- digenous Cuban names of sweet potatoes. More than a score of Cuban varieties are listed, mostly with names derived from native languages of the Island. Boniato is the name in regular use in Cuba, batata being scarcely known.2 Batata is used in Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and Panama; but two indigenous names, araba and deki, are reported by Pittier from primitive tribes living on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica.3 Among all these names of sweet potatoes in other parts of America there appears to be no definite resemblance to either of the Quichua words, apichu and cumara. Perhaps the nearest approach to similarity is between cumara and the Mexican camote or camotli. Yet the number and diversity of the native names are not without significance as indications of the American 1 Gray A., and Trumbull, J. H. Review of de Candolle's Origin of Cultivated Plants; with annotations upon certain American species. American Journal of Science, Third Series, 25: 250. 1883. 2 Gomez de la Maza, M. Diccionario Botanico de los Nombres Vulgares Cubanos y Puerto-Riquenos. 1889. 3 Pittier, H. Plantas Usuales de Costa Rica, 105. 1908. 90 cook: quichua names of sweet potatoes origin of the sweet potato or, at least, of its wide distribution in prehistoric times. The general interest of the Quichua names lies in the fact that cumara or kumara is also the name of the sweet potato in the Polynesian Islands. This was first pointed* out by Seemann, a botanist who had visited the Pacific Islands and the west coast of South America about fifty years ago. Seemann's ob- servation appeared as a brief editorial note in connection with a statement by the ethnologist Crawfurd, to the effect that no communication could have taken place between the American continent and the Pacific Islands.4 The presence of the Quichua name in Ecuador is readily under- stood, the native kingdom of Quito having been conquered and occupied by the Incas. Some of the early Spanish historians of Peru recorded Inca traditions of voyages to islands in the Pacific, but such a possibilit}^ of communication between the American continent and the Pacific Islands has not seemed worthy of serious consideration. Nevertheless, cultivated plants of American origin appear to have crossed the Pacific before the arrival of Europeans. Among these trans-Pacific plants are the coconut palm, the bottle-gourd, and the sweet potato. Coconuts and gourds may be supposed to have floated to the Islands and es- tablished themselves without human assistance, but the sweet potato and its name could hardly be conveyed in this manner. Nor is it to be taken as a mere coincidence that a Quichua name not shared with other American languages should be associated with the same crop in the Pacific Islands. 4 Crawfurd, John. On the migrations of cultivated plants in reference to ethnology. Seemann's Journal of Botany, 4: 328. 1866. "The Sweet Potato, or tuber-yielding Convolvulus, appears to be a native of many parts of the tropical Old and New World. Some have alleged that it was first made an object of cultivation by the native Americans, but when the South Sea Islands, which had assuredly no communication with the American people, were discovered, the sweet potato was found to be in cultivation, and known by a native name throughout, the word being essentially the same, and a native one varying only in pronunciation, as kumava, human, and gumala abbreviated mala." Seemann's comment on the above statement was as follows: "{Kumara or umara, of the South-Sea Islanders, is identical with cumar, the Quichua name for sweet potato in the highlands of Ecuador. — Ed.] ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. CHEMISTRY. — Some qualitative tests for gum arabic and its quantita- tive determination. C. E. Waters and J. B. Tuttle. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 67. Pp. 15. 1916. A study of many of the published tests for the gum, as well as a search for others than the few that proved to be reliable. It was found that basic lead acetate gives the most characteristic reaction, while mixtures of copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide, and of neutral ferric chloride and alcohol are of value as confirmatory tests. Dex- trin and gum ghatti were subjected to the same tests. A summary of the more important methods that have been proposed for the quantitative estimation of gum arabic is next given, followed by a description of the steps that led the authors to the use of alcoholic copper acetate-ammonia solution for this determination. C. E. W. CHEMISTRY. — The determination of barium carbonate and barium sulphate in vulcanized rubber goods. John B. Tuttle. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 64. Pp. 5. 1916. Specifications for purchasing rubber goods frequently permit the use of barytes (barium sulphate) as a mineral filler without having the sulphur which if contains count as part of the specified total sulphur. In such cases the barium sulphate must be determined in order to properly correct the total sulphur. When barium sulphate only is used, the amount present is readily ascertained by determining the total amount of barium present. If barium carbonate is used, it is necessary to separate the two salts. By means of tests made on compounds of known composition pre- pared at the Bureau of Standards, a method has been devised which permits the quantitative determination of barium carbonate in the 91 92 abstracts: geology presence of either lead sulphate or barium sulphate, the two sulphates most commonly used in rubber goods. The accuracy of the determina- tion is satisfactory for all practical purposes. J. B. T. GEOLOGY. — The stratigraphy of the Montana group. C. F. Bowen. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 90, pp. 95-153. 1915. Because of differences of opinion which have arisen regarding the age and stratigraphic position of the Judith River formation, a study of the stratigraphy of the Montana group was undertaken. It is shown that the Judith River formation has been traced continu- ously from areas wher^ its position beneath the Bearpaw shale is un- disputed into the western part of the type area (namely, at the mouth of Judith River) and has been found to be identical with the Judith River at that locality. The paleontologic evidence shows: (1) that the argument that the Judith River formation overlies the Fox Hills is unfounded; (2) that the flora of the Judith River formation is of Montana age; (3) that the invertebrates of the Judith River formation are more closely allied to the Belly River than to the Lance; (4) that if the Judith River is to be made the equivalent of the Lance on the basis of the similarity of the vertebrate fauna, the Belly River must on the same evidence also be made the equivalent of the Lance formation; (5) that the Cera- topsidae, which form so important an element of the Lance fauna, are generically and specifically unlike the representatives of that family in the Belly River and Judith River faunas. The palaeontologic evi- dences therefore indicating a closer relationship between the Belly River and Judith River than between either of these formations and the Lance are in accord with the stratigraphic evidence, which shows conclusively that both the Judith River and Belly River formations are separated from the Lance by a marine formation which is of un- doubted Cretaceous age. R. W. S. GEOLOGY. — Erosion intervals in the Eocene of the Mississippi embay- ment. E. W. Berry. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 95, pp. 73-82. 1915. The older Tertiary deposits of the Gulf Coastal Plain, comprising several thousand feet of sands, clays, marls, lignites, and impure lime- stones, have always been considered as forming an uninterrupted and conformable series, extending from the lower Eocene to the top of the abstracts: geology 93 Oligocene. It is shown in this paper that the sedimentation of Eocene time was interrupted during several intervals, which were of consider- able duration in terms of organic evolution. Such intervals occurred between the Midway or basal Eocene deposits and the overlying Wilcox group and between the Wilcox and the Claiborne. It is concluded that the strand line migrated back and forth over the Mississippi embayment several times during the period represented by the older Tertiary deposits. R. W. S. GEOLOGY.— The Willow Creek district, Alaska. S. R. Capps. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 607. Pp. 86, with maps, sec- tions, and illustrations. 1915. The geologic formations exposed consist of mica schists, possibly of Paleozoic age; quartz diorites and gneisses, probably Mesozoic; Eocene arkoses, conglomerates, shales, and sandstone, with some interbedded basaltic lava flows; and Quarternary glacial deposits and recent stream gravels. The Tertiary beds are somewhat folded, but have prevailing dips of 20° to 50° to the southward. Gold quartz veins fill fissures in the quartz diorite, and occur in two predominant sets, one striking northwest, and the other north- east. The prevailing dip is 30° to 50° to the westward. The veins show little surface oxidation and no secondary enrichment and prom- ise to maintain the same characters with depth that they display near the surface. Some gold placer deposits have been worked, but most of the con- centrations of placer gold that must have resulted from the erosion of the gold-bearing quartz veins were swept away and scattered by the vigorous glaciers which occupied the valleys during the height of the Quarternary ice invasion. S. R. C. GEOLOGY.— The Ellamar district, Alaska. S. R. Capps and B. L. Johnson. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 605. Pp. 125, with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1915. The rocks exposed include the Valdez group of interbedded slates and graywackes, possibly of Paleozoic age, and the Orca group, possibly Mesozoic, including in ascending order: (1) fine black slates; (2) slates and graywackes; (3) ellipsoidal lavas and massive diabase flows with some interbedded sediments; (4) conglomerates and sandstones; and (5) another series of slates and graywackes. The dominant structural trend is northwest-southeast, and the beds have prevailing dips to 94 abstracts: geology the northeast. The rocks of the Valclez group overlie those of the Orca group, as the result of a great overthrust fault. In the almost complete absence of fossils the age of the various formations has not been conclusively determined. The sulphide ore veins of the district, most of which are mined chiefly for their copper content, but one of which is now producing gold ores, occur in zones of fracture and shearing along fault planes. Most of the mines and prospects occur in the greenstones, but the largest mine is in slate and graywacke, stratigraphically beneath the greenstone. The shear zones in many places are particularly well developed in slates and graywackes interbedded with the greenstones, as these sedimentary beds yielded to the deformational stresses more readily than the green- stones themselves. The ores are, in part at least, replacements of the crushed rock, but in the largest mine they are believed to replace cal- careous sedimentary beds. The copper in the veins as well as the gold is believed to be genetically connected with granitic intrusives and not derived from the greenstones as has been previously suggested. S. R. C. GEOLOGY. — Rhode Island coal. George H. Ashley. U. S. Geo- logical Survey Bulletin No. 615. Pp. 62, 5 plates. 1915. Coal occurs at a number of places near Providence and Newport, Rhode Island. Attempts to use it as fuel began nearly 150 years ago, but in spite of its favorable situation as regards markets and trans- portation these have not met with success. The rocks of the Rhode Island coal field have been subjected to in- tense lateral pressure which folded them in great folds with accom- panying crushing, squeezing, and shearing. As in regions of intense pressure and folding the softer rocks tend to yield, flowing away from points of greatest pressure, so the Rhode Island coal has moved under pressure and accumulated as irregular lenses in places of less pressure. The pressure and accompanying heat changed the coal to anthracite containing a high percentage of fixed carbon, and in places to graphite. The graphite is localized where the metamorphism was greatest. In general, the thinner the coal at any point, the larger the percentage of graphite it contains. Crevices in the coal have locally become filled with quartz or asbestos. The breaking open and recementing of the coal appears to have let into it more or less of th?> adjoining shale, so that where the coal is abstracts: geology 95 thin from having been squeezed it is higher in ash. The coal in the same mine therefore may be high in graphite and ash where it is thin, and freer of both ash and graphite in the wider pockets. The field as a whole appears to have been subjected to large regional differences in pressure and there are corresponding regional differences in the coal. Rhode Island coal is a high-ash, high-moisture, graphitic anthracite of high specific gravity. R. W. S. GEOLOGY. — The Broad Pass region, Alaska. Fred H. Moffit, with sections on Quarternary deposits, igneous rocks, and glaciation, by Joseph E. Pogue. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 608. Pp. 80, with maps, section and views. 1915. The region described lies south of the axis of the Alaska Range and includes part of the headwaters of Susitna, Chulitna, and Nenana rivers. Rocks ranging in age from Devonian to Tertiarj7 are exposed and in addition unconsolidated deposits of glacial, glacio-fluvial, and fluvial origin are present. The Devonian rocks include limestone, slate, and conglomerate, all of which are folded and otherwise altered. In places the slate and con- glomerate have become schistose. Rocks tentatively referred to the Triassic are basaltic lavas apparently overlain by dark-blue and black slates with interstratified arkose and graywacke. Other dark-blue and black slate s interbedded with graywacke and conglomerate are tentatively referred to the Jurassic and a complex of sedimentary rocks, chiefly slate and limestone, are considered to be probably Mesozoic. The principal Tertiary rocks are the Cantwell formation (Eocene), a massive conglomerate, locally containing fossiliferous shale beds. It is folded and in its eastern extension takes on a schistose structure. All the consolidated sediments are cut by intrusives, most of which are granitic or porphyritic and of felsic (acid) character. The youngest intrusives are of Tertiary age. The Broad Pass region has been profoundly glaciated, as is plainly shown by its topography. Mining has not been established here. The region, however, is favorable for prospecting. F. H. M. REFERENCES Under this heading It Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It Is requested that authors cooperate with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal. MAMMALOGY Allen, G. M. The water shrew of Nova Scotia. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 15-17. February 12, 1915. (Description of Neosorex palustris acadicus, subsp. nov. — N. H.) Bailey, V. Revision of the pocket gophers of the genus Thomomys. North Ameri- can Fauna No. 39. Pp. 1-136, plates 1-8, figs. 1-10. November 15, 1915. (Monograph of the species and subspecies, with maps of distribution; Tho- momys sheldoni, from Tepic, is described as new.- — N. H.) Dearborn, N. Silver fox farming in eastern North America. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture No. 301. Pp. 1-35, figs. 1-22. October 29, 1915. (Complete account of breeding foxes of the genus Vulpes for com- mercial purposes. — N. H.). Figgins, J. D. Diagnosis of a new subspecies of marmot from Colorado. Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 147-148. September 21, 1915. (Describes Marmota fiaviventer campioni, from Jackson County, Colorado.— N. H.) Goldman, E. A. A new spider monkey from Panama. Proceedings of the Bio- logical Society of Washington, 28: 101-102. April 13, 1915. (Description of Ateles dariensis, sp. nov. — N. H.) Goldman, E. A. Five new rice rats of the genus Oryzomys from Middle America. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 127-130. June 29, 1915. (New forms: Oryzomys guerrerensis, 0. nitidus alleni, 0. alfaroi dari- ensis, 0. couesi regillus, and O.fulvescens lenis. — N. H.) Goldman, E. A. Five new mammals from Mexico and Arizona. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 133-137. June29, 1915. (Describes new forms of Potos, Geomys, Neotoma, and Noctilio. — N. H.) Hollister, N. The type locality of Pecari tajacu. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 70. March 12, 1915. Hollister, N. A new name for the white-tailed jack rabbit. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 70. March 12, 1915. (Lepus campanius proposed, to replace L. campestris, preoccupied. — N. H.) Hollister, N. The systematic name of the Mexican spider monkey. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 142. June 29, 1915. {Ateles neglectus Reinhardt, 1872, replaces A. tricolor Hollister, 1914. — N. H.) 96 references: mammalogy 97 Hollister, N. The genera and subgenera of raccoons and their allies. Proceed- ings of the U. S. National Museum, 49: 143-150, pis. 38, 39. August 13, 1915. (New genus: Nasuella, for the mountain coati mundi, Nasua olivacea, and its related forms. — N. H.) Hollister, N. The specific name of the striped muishond of South Africa. Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 184. November 29, 1915. (The Cape form of the striped muishond to be known as Ictonyx striatus. — -N. H.) Howell, A. H. Revision of the American marmots. North American Fauna No. 37. Pp. 1-80, plates 1-15. April 7, 1915. (History, habits, economic rela- tions, and systematic account of the American woodchucks and marmots. Marmota monax petrensis, from British Columbia, and Marmota flaviventris sierrae, from California, are described as new. — N. H.) Howell, A. H. Descriptions of a new genus and seven new races of flying squirrels. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 109-113. May 27, 1915. (The generic name Eoglaucomys is proposed for the Himalayan Sci- uropterus fimbriatus, and new species and subspecies of American flying squirrels are named. — N. H.) Jackson, H. H. T. A review of the American moles. North American Fauna No. 38. Pp. 1-100, plates 1-6, text figs. 1-27. September 30, 1915. Lantz, D. E. Field mice as farm and orchard pests. U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 670. Pp. 1-10. June 3, 1915. (Describes the habits, geographic distribution, and methods of destroying meadow mice and pine mice, and discusses the value of protecting their natural enemies. — N. H.) Lyon, M. W., Jr. Eureodon as the generic name of the warthogs. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 141. June 29, 1915. (Eureodon Fischer, 1817, replaces Phacochoerus.- — N. H.) Lyon, M. W., Jr. Macaca versus Pithecus as the generic name of the macaques. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 179. November 29, 1915. (Macaca to be restored in place of the recently used Pithecus. — N. H.) Miller, G. S., Jr. A new squirrel from northeastern China. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 115, 116. May 27, 1915. (Describes Tamiops vestitus from 65 miles northeast of Peking. — N. H.) Osgood, W. H. The name of Azara's agouarachay . Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 142-143. June 29, 1915. (Discusses the nomen- clature of two South American species of Canis. — N. H.) Osgood, W. H., Preble, E. A., and Parker, G. H. The fur seals and other life on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, in 1914. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries No. 34. Pp. 1-172, plates 1-18, maps 1-44. June 19, 1915. Shufeldt,-R. W. Comparative study of certain cranial sutures in the primates. Anatomical Record, 9: 121-124. January 20, 1915. (Abstract of a more formal paper in preparation. — N. H.) Shufeldt, R. W. On the taxonomy of the Procyonidac. Science, n. s., 61: 691, 692. May 2, 1915. (Advance abstract of a memoir containing complete and comparative accounts of the osteology of the various genera of Procyonoidea, which will be published later, with plates. — N. H.) n ' m ^ 98 references: engineering Thomas, 0. Determination of Vesperugo vagans Dobson from "Bermuda." Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 69. March 12, 1915. (Vesperugo vagans proves to be identical with Chalinolobus tuberculaius of New Zealand, and the locality, "Bermuda," is unquestionably erroneous. — N. H.) Thomas. (). The generic name Connochaetes of Lichtenstein. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 69. March 12, 1915. (Connochaetes Lichtenstein, 1814, considered a valid name. — N. H.) Thomas, O. Phacochoerus as the generic name of the warthogs. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 181. November 29, 1915. (Phaco- choerus Cuvier not to be replaced by Eureodon Fischer. — N. H.) TECHNOLOGY Bureau of Standabds. Standard tables for petroleum oils. Circular No. 57. Pp. 64. 1916. (For finding the density at a standard temperature when the density at another temperature is known.) Boughton, E. W. The detection of resin in drier. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 66. Pp. 9. 1916. ENGINEERING Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Willamette River basin, Oregon. U. S. Geo- logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 349. Pp. 9. 1914. Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Bear River basin, Idaho. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 350. Pp. 9. 1914. Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Snoqualmine, Sultan, and Skykomish rivers, Washington. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 366. Pp. 7. 1914. Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Missouri River from Great Falls to Three Forks, Montana. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 367. Pp. S. 1914. Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Wenatch.ee River basin, Washington. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 368. Pp. 7. 1914. M arshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Chelan and Methow River basins, Washington. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 376. Pp. 8, 5 profiles. 1915. M \rshall, R. B. Profile surveys in 1914 in JJmpqua River basin, Oregon. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 379. 23 profiles. 1915. Pierce, C. H., and Larrison, G. K. Water resources of Hawaii, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 336. Pp. 392. 1914. Ste\ ens, Guy C, and Hall, W. E. Surface water supply of South Atlantic and eastern Gulf of Mexico basins, 1915. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 352. Pp. 84. 1915. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 106th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, October 5, 1915, at 8 p.m. Thirty members and two guests were present. The following scientific program was given: Some recent investigations in sugar-beet breeding (lantern slides) : F. J. Pritchard. The speaker presented a large number of tables and figures based upon 10 years' experiments in sugar-beet breeding from which the following conclusions were drawn: Differences in the size, total sugar content, and percentage of sugar of individual beet roots show no evidence of inheritance. There is no correlation between percentage or quantity of sugar of roots of ordinary sizes and their yield of seed nor between their yield of seed and the average percentage of sugar in their progeny. Fluctuations in percentage and yield of sugar of beet families planted in progeny rows in alternation with check rows greatly exceed their real differences. The discontinuance of selec- tion for one generation caused no deterioration but some apparent gain in percentage of sugar. No improvement was obtained in yield or percentage of .sugar from continuous selection ; both the good and the poor families transmitted average qualities. Fluctuations in per- centage and yield of sugar are caused chiefly by irregularities of the soil; the nutritive conditions which favor the production of a large root cause a large tonnage of beets but a low percentage of sugar; even with a uniform stand certain rows and certain parts of the field produce a relatively small root and consequently a high percentage of sugar, while neighboring areas produce a large root and a low percentage of sugar. As the fluctuations in percentage and yield of sugar are large they obscure real differences between varieties or families, but real differences may be distinguished by planting each variety or family a large number of times. Notes on plant-parasitic ne?natodcs (lantern slides) : L. P. Byars. After a few introductory remarks concerning the general characteristics of the three groups of nematodes — the free living, animal-parasitic, and plant-parasitic — the speaker indicated some of the more important anatomical and life-history features of species belonging to the last group. Emphasis was laid on the economic importance of and present distribution of Tylenchus dipsaci, the bulb and stem-infesting nematode; Tylenchus tritici, a nematode living in wheat kernels; Aphelenchus armerodis, the violet bud organism; and Heterodera radicicola, the gall-forming nematode, all of which are parasites introduced into this country. Illustrations and drawings were used to show the speaker's 99 100 proceedings: botanical society method of growing Heterodera radicicola in pure culture and to indicate the effect of this parasite on its host. The first Washington Botanical Society: P. L. Ricker. While collect- ing material for the bibliography and biography in the forthcoming- Flora of Washington the speaker first learned1 of the existence of a Washington Botanical Society organized on March 13, 1817 with thirteen charter members: John Boyle, W. A. Bradley, Dr. John A. Brere- ton, Samuel Elliot, Jr., William Elliot, J. W. Hand, Dr. Henry Huntt, Maj. James Kearney, Rev. Dr. James Laurie, Dr. Alex- ander McWilliams, J. M. Moore, John Underwood, and George Watterson. Subsequently six additional members were elected and three honorary members: Dr. Jacob Bigelow, Dr. William Darling- ton, and Dr. William P. C. Barton. Meetings of the society were held until March 27, 1826, when the society adjourned sine die. It was ordered that the library of the society be deposited in the Wash- ington Library. The herbarium was placed under the care of Dr. McWilliams, but its subsequent disposition has not been learned. The records of the society eventually found their way into a local second hand book store and were presented to the late Lester F. Ward in 1883, remaining in his possession until his death, when his library was given to Brown University. After correspondence with the librarian of Brown University, formal request was made to the Trustees of that institution by the Secretary of this Society for the return of the records to Washington, which request was granted. The proceedings of the meetings for the first few years show considerable progress in the study of the local flora and offer many interesting historical data. The 15th annual meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held at the Department of Agriculture, Tuesday, October 19, 1915 at 1.30 p.m., with twenty-four members present. The report of the Executive Committee showed the following facts concerning the activi- ties of the society for the preceding year. Average attendance of 73 members and guests. Seven members were lost during the year: one by resignation and six by change of residence. Eighteen new members were elected, making a total net membership of 143. One joint meet- ing was held with the Washington Academy of Sciences. Twenty-one formal scientific papers were presented and the following visiting- botanists were entertained: Prof. J. C. Bose, Dr. Camillo Schneider, Dr. F. Kolpin Ravn, Dr. Otto Appel, and Dr. Gentaro Yamada. The customary reports were presented and approved and the fol- lowing officers elected for the ensuing year: President, Prof. A. S. Hitchcock; vice-president, Dr. J. W. T. Duvel; recording secretary, Chas. E. Chambliss; corresponding secretary, Mr. W. E. Safford; treasurer, Dr. C. E. Leighty. Dr. R. H. True was nominated as the representative of the Society upon the Board of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences. Perley S paulding, Corresponding Secretary. 1 Coville, Frederick V. Early Botanical Activity in the District of Columbia. Records of the Columbia Historical Society, 5: 176-194. 1901. proceedings: botanical society 101 The 107th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washing- ton was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m., Tues- day, November 2, 1915. Forty-five members and six guests were present. The following papers were presented: Relation of catalase and oxidases to respiration in plants (with lan- tern) : Chas. O. Appleman. (To be published in full as Bulletin No. 191 of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station.) The chemical mechanism of respiration in plants is very complex and imperfectly understood. Enzyme action undoubtedly plays the most important role. Among the enzymes which have been assigned various functions in respiration we find the oxidases and catalase, al- though their relation to this process is almost entirely hypothetical. Respiration in potato tubers is not only greatly accelerated by various artificial treatments, but is subject to fluctuations under natural con- ditions, such as greening and sprouting. The rate of respiration also varies in different parts of the same tuber and tubers of different varie- ties. Since these tubers also contain very active catalase and oxidase, they were chosen as specially favorable material in making a quanti- tative study of the relation of both catalase and oxidase activity to the intensity of respiration. The data seem to justify the following conclusions : 1. The oxidase content in potato juice gives no indication of the intensity of respiration in the tubers. In other words, there is no correlation between oxidase activity and the rate of respiration in these organs. The author does not disclaim any role of the demonstrable oxidases in respiration, but they certainly are not the controlling fac- tor in regulating the rate of respiration in potato tubers. 2. Catalase activity in the potato juice shows a very striking corre- lation with respiratory activity in the tubers. Some Philippine botanical problems: E. D. Merrill. (To be pub- lished in full elsewhere.) Botanical notes of a trip to Japan: W.T. Swingle. (To be published in full elsewhere.) The 108th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, December 7, 1915, at 8 p.m. Thir- ty-two members and three guests were present. Messrs. A. T. Speare, James Johnson, H. R. Rosen, and H. C. Rose were elected to mem- bership. The following papers were presented: Dr. W. Ralph Jones: An appreciation: C. L. Shear. Dr. Jones was quiet and retiring in disposition and of excellent habits. He had a great aversion to taking animal life and would not take courses in zoology involving the death of higher animals ; neither would he hunt nor fish. His chief recreation and amusement were novel reading and music. He was very fond of reading good French novels in the original, and of the opera. He showed an interest in natural science early in life and as a boy began a collection of minerals and also an herbarium of flowering plants. His interests in botany were 102 proceedings: botanical society broad and his training in languages, chemistry, and physiology were such as to give a broad and substantial foundation for research. He possessed three of the fundamental requirements for success in scientific work, namely, love for truth, combined with thoroughness and ac- curacy. His notes, drawings, and manuscripts were models of neat- ness and accuracy. He had undertaken several lines of investigation in connection with blackberry, currant, and gooseberry diseases, but had practically completed only one of these. This was a study of what appears to be a new species of Thielavia isolated from diseased dewberry plants. It is to be deeply regretted that a man so well equipped by temperament and training for research should be cut down in the prime of life and usefulness. Experimental study of the life duration of seeds (with lantern) : Wm. Crocker. (To be published in full elsewhere.) Notes on variations in Chinese chestnuts (specimens) : P. L. Ricker. (To be published in full elsewhere.) The 109th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Friday, January 14, 1916, at 8 p.m. Seventy members and five guests were present. Messrs. Rodney B. Harvey, G. McMillan Darrow, and Roland McKee were elected to mem- bership. The program consisted of the following papers: Economic botanical exploration in China (with lantern) : Frank N. Meyer. Mr. Meyer, an agricultural explorer of the United States Department of Agriculture, has spent nine years in China and adjoining countries studying the flora of this region and searching for plants of economic value for introduction into the United States. He found quite re- cently a hickory in China which has never been recorded in botanical literature. As yet no sycamores nor any papaw {Asiminia triloba) or leather-wood (Dirca paiustris) have been found in China. Field work in botany in China is extremely difficult because most of the wild vegetation near densely settled parts has been exterminated. However Buddhist and Tavist priests have preserved many speci- mens in their temple compounds. Mr. Meyer made reference to the discovery of the wild peach in the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu, and to the expertness of Chinese gardeners in grafting. He expressed the opinion that in this country there is great need of national arboreta and permanent botanical collections. The recent outbreaks of white pine blister rust: Perley Spaulding. When this disease first reached this country, it was thought, repeated annual' inspections of the lots of diseased trees would soon result in the complete eradication of the disease. Experience since that time, together with increasing knowledge of the characteristics of the dis- ease, show that this is not true. Apparently the only method of completely eradicating this disease in any lot of infected trees is that of total destruction of that lot. While large numbers of plantings of diseased imported trees were made in 1909, the careful inspection work proceedings: botanical society 103 done since that time by the states has kept the disease in them almost completely in control. It has become increasingly evident that our great danger lies in lots of diseased trees which were imported before 1909. These in most cases we know nothing about and of course have not been able to give them the necessary inspection. In the years 1909 to 1914, inclusive, there were 11 outbreaks of this disease, that is, cases where it escaped from the diseased pines onto neighboring currents or gooseberries. In 1915 the weather conditions were so favorable for the disease that it spread very readily and for relatively long distances. Last year 12 outbreaks occurred. These areas vary in extent from only a few currant or gooseberry bushes up to a single area of some 400 or 500 square miles. Experiments have shown that the wild currants and gooseberries of the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions are susceptible to it. In fact it may be stated that all species of currants and gooseberries, so far as they have now been tested, are susceptible. The ordinary cultivated black currant, Ribes nigrum, however, is far more susceptible than any other species. While it is not grown in large quantities, it is very widely scattered; enough so that the disease during the past season readily spread upon this single species for miles. The future of the white pine, which has been quite largely depended upon for the forests of the north- eastern states, is very seriously threatened by this disease, unless effi- cient efforts are made to control it. The character of this fungus is such that the removal of all wild and cultivated currants and goose- berries from the affected areas will stop its further spread in those areas. If the cultivated black currant could be eliminated from the nursery trade, so that it would not be sold and its use could gradually be discontinued everywhere within the affected states, a great step. would be taken toward the control of this disease. But more than this, state officers must have absolute power to destroy diseased pines and currant and gooseberry bushes, in order that unanimous action can be carried out within these affected areas. With this power should also be given the power to declare and enforce quarantines against shipments of stock from other states. When compared with the minute search which is required in finding gypsy and brown-tail moth nests in southern New England, the search for wild and cultivated cur- rants and gooseberries is comparatively simple. It also is comparatively easy to carry out when compared with the climbing of trees 75 to 100 feet in height in certain sections of New England for the removal of brown-tail moths' nests, as is done every year. An efficient fight against this disease even now is not impossible, but it very shortly will be if not started at once. Catha edulis: A narcotic of the southern Arabs (with specimens): Paul Popenoe. The kat (Arabic qat) shrub is a native of Africa, but much cultivated in Yaman, where its use is increasing so that the town of Aden now consumes annually more than 2,000 camel-loads of the leaves and twigs, which are chewed for their stimulating properties. The plant contains 104 proceedings: biological society small quantities of an alkaloid called katrine, which seems to resemble cocain. It has been introduced into the United States by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, United States Department of Agriculture, and grows well in the South. The dangers from its use have probably been much exaggerated. This plant may present commercial possibilities as the source of a new beverage to compete with tea. W. E. Safford, Corresponding Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 548th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, January 15, 1916; called to order by President Hay, with 40 persons present. The President noted the recent death of F. M. Webster, long a member of the Society. Upon recommendation of the Council the following were elected to active membership: H. F. Taylor, Bureau of Fisheries, Douglas C. Mabbott, Biological Survey; Wallace M. Yatees, Department of Agriculture. Under the heading of Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens Mr. Wm. Palmer exhibited a specimen of seahorse which actually came from near Colonial Beach, Chesapeake Bay, but which had at- tained much newspaper notoriety as having been caught in the Tidal Basin, D. C. He also exhibited the collector's sketch of a pipefish which had actually been captured in the Tidal Basin. The regular program consisted of a communication by W. W. Cooke, Notes on Labrador birds. Mr. Cooke gave an interesting account of Mr. Clarence Birdseye's experiences and travels in Labrador dur- ing the past four years while engaged in farming silver gray foxes for their fur, describing the difficulties under which he labored and the disastrous effect of the European War on the fur market. The speaker then gave an historical survey of Labrador ornithology from the early days of Cartwright to Mr. Birdseye's latest observations which include the extension of range of several species of birds. Mr. Cooke's paper was illustrated with lantern slide views of maps of Labrador, maps of migrations of certain birds, and views of several birds which had lately been observed for the first time in eastern Labrador. Mr. Birdseye's observation on Labrador birds will appear in full in the April Auk. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wm. Palmer and Alex. Wetmore. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI MARCH 4, 1916 No. 5 MINERALOGY.— A peculiar intergrowth of phosphate and sili- cate minerals. Edgar T. Wherry, National Museum.1 A green and white substance occurring associated with varis- cite in fissure veins in metamorphosed slate near Manhattan, Nevada, was recently submitted to the U. S. National Museum for identification by Mr. Percy Train of that place.2 It appears to be of sufficient interest to justify this preliminary announce- ment of its character. The material presents the form of a "sulphate" green, glassy mass, traversed by numerous sub-parallel wavy white lamellae, varying from 1 mm. down to 0.05 mm. in thickness, but at the latter size becoming too translucent to be distinguished, so that the variation may well continue to still thinner dimensions. Both minerals are practically amorphous, showing between crossed nicols only traces of weakly doubly refracting material. A small sample of the purest green material which could be separated by hand picking was submitted to J. E. Whitfield for analysis; it was free from visible lamellae, although it may have contained indistinguishable ones. Its composition proved to be: CaO 6.30, CuO 1.25, MgO 0.80,3 A1203 25.90, Fe203 2.14, P205 24.76, Si02 7.32, H20 below 100° 21.90, above 100° 9.20, sum 99.57. These figures lead to no simple formula, but as it 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 U. S. National Museum Catalogue No. 92909. 3 Determined by the writer on a separate sample. 105 106 wherry: phosphate and silicate minerals seemed probable that the silica might be due to lamellae which are present but unrecognizable because of their thinness, an attempt was made to determine the composition of the white lamellar mineral. It proved impracticable to separate the lamellae from the green ground-mass with any. degree of com- pleteness, but a very small sample, containing perhaps one-third of the latter, was analyzed by the writer with the following results : CaO+CuO 9.0, MgO 0.5, Al203+Fe203 23.3, P205 12.1, Si02 30.0, H20 below 100° 10.4, above 100° 14.8, sum 100.1. Although amorphous colloidal minerals like these do not necessarily possess definite formulas, it seemed worth while to attempt to determine at least their approximate nature. The known aluminium phosphate minerals fall into four divisions with reference to the ratios of the A1203 to P205, as shown in the following table: Al203:P20s 1 : 1 3:2 2 : l 3: 1 Formula AlPOi (AlOH) "3 (P04)2"' (AlOH) " (AlOiHo) ' (POO'" (AIO2H2V (POO '" Excess H20:Al2Ob 0: 1 berlinite trolleite augelite 1: 1 planerite peganite spherite 2: 1 ceruleolactite (and turquois) some ''rich- mondite" 3: 1 wavellite fischerite 4: 1 callainite, lucin- ite and varis- cite some "rich- mondite" evansite 5: 1 vashegyite (two varieties) 6: 1 some "richmon- dite"andzeph- arovichite The ratio Al203(+Fe203) : P2O5 shown in analysis 1 is 3.1: 2, so that this mineral evidently belongs to the second of these divisions. It is also very high in water, and accordingly lies toward the bottom of the table. The possibility of its identity with vashegyite must therefore be considered. The latter mineral was wherry: phosphate and silicate minerals 107 described by Zimanyi4 as a dense (dicht, derb) white, meerschaum- like substance with the (rather improbable) ratios A1203 : P2O5 : H20 = 4:3: 30, associated with a similar material with the ratios 3:2:17. It seems likely that these are really the same mineral, the ap- parent difference, in ratios being due to the impure character of the samples analyzed. In Doelter's Handbuch der Mineral- chemie this mineral is listed as amorphous,5 but a specimen labeled vashegyite in the collection of Colonel Roebling has been found by Dr. E. S. Larsen, Jr., to be cryptocrystalline with an index of refraction of 1.480 and double refraction 0.002. 6 A com- parison of the properties of the present mineral and vashegjdte is given below: Manhattan mineral Vashegyite Color pale green white to yellowish Luster vitreous dull Hardness 3.5 2.5 Specific gravity 1.9S 1.964 Structure amorphous, glass-like compact, meerschaum- like Optical character isotropic anisotropic, cryptocrys- talline Index of refraction variable, 1.48 to 1.50 1.480 Double refraction absent very weak, about 0.002 Ratio A1,03: P206: H20... . about 3: 2: 18 3: 2: 17 or 4: 3:30 Impurities considerable, including very small in amount copper oxide, yield- ing the green color Occurrence associated with variscite "In the immediate neighborhood of var- iscite" The differences in optical properties can be explained as due to the vashegyite examined by Dr. Larsen being a "metacolloid," a colloid exhibiting incipient crystallization, while the Man- hattan mineral is still essentially amorphous; the difference in color is attributable to the presence of copper in the latter.7 The two minerals thus agree to a sufficient extent for them to be regarded as identical. 4 Math. term. Ert. 27: 64. 1909; Zeits. Kryst. Min. 47: 53. 1909. 5 Handbuch der Mineralchemie, 3: 465. 1914. , 6 Private communication. 7 The copper probably replaces either some of the (AlOH)* groups or H therein. 108 wherry: phosphate and silicate minerals The nature of the white lamellar mineral can not be definitely made out from the data at hand. Of the constituents found in the second analysis, all of the P205 and part of the A1203 and H20 are undoubtedly due to the admixed green material; if this amounted to one third of the whole, then the approximate com- position of the white mineral would be CaO 17, A1203 17, Si0247 and H20 19, corresponding roughly to the ratios of these four constituents, respectively, 2 : 1 : 5 : 7. No amorphous mineral of this composition appears to be on record, although the crystal- line zeolite laubanite differs only in having slightly less water. However, the mean index of laubanite, as determined by Dr. Larsen8 is 1.475, while that of the present mineral is higher, vary- ing from 1.53 to 1.54, so the two must be entirely distinct. It may be noted that the mineral fuses with intumescence before the blowpipe, so that it evidently belongs to the zeolite group, but under the circumstances it would be unsafe to assign a name to it. Although in many aluminium phosphates siliceous impurities have been found to be present, no definite intergrowth relations have heretofore been reported to exist between the two. The structure here shown is not difficult to explain, however, when the colloidal character of the materials is considered. The lamel- lae have the aspect of forms produced by rhythmic precipitation in gels, such as obtained in many of the experiments described by Liesegang9 and others. In this case if, while the phosphate gel was still soft, a solution containing calcium and silica flowed over it, reaction might readily have occurred, with removal of part of the phosphoric acid and formation of a calcium aluminium silicate with the liberated alumina. The material studied is regarded, then, as a colloidal vashegyite traversed by rhythmically precipitated laminae of a calcium aluminium silicate of probably zeolitic nature. 8 Private communication. 9 Geologische Diffusionen, Dresden and Leipzig, 1913. cockerell: lower cretaceous flora 109 PALEOBOTANY. — A Lower Cretaceous flora in Colorado. T. D. A. Cockerell, University of Colorado. During the past summer Mr. Terry Duce, working for the Geological Survey of Colorado, was so fortunate as to find a new locality for Mesozoic plants, with fairly abundant remains. The locality is on the high point between Cutthroat Gulch and Hovenweep Canyon, Lat. 37°, 53' N., Long. 108°, 57' W. The greater part of the section there exposed is assigned to the McElmo, presumed to be Jurassic. Above the McElmo black shales alternate with massive sandstone, the two combined in- cluding the uppermost 131 feet of the whole exposure, which measures some 410 feet. The plants are preserved in hard white quartzose sandstone, with occasional iron concretions, about 10 feet below the top of the section. This flora is of peculiar interest, not only for the light it throws on the age of the strata, but especially because it belongs to the period when angiosper- mous plants were just beginning to appear. One of the greatest puzzles in evolution is the apparently sudden arrival of the an- giosperms during the Mesozoic ; at first represented by few species, but presently developing a remarkable series of broad-leafed trees, including generic types apparently identical with those now living. Any plant material from the period which saw the dawn of the higher plants in North America is therefore of par- ticular value, although we must doubtless go to some very differ- ent part of the globe to find, if they ever are found, the immediate ancestors of the Cretaceous angiosperms.1 At the beginning of my studies of Mr. Duce's material I sent photographs of the best specimens to Dr. A. C. Seward and Dr. Edward W. Berry, both of whom very kindly reviewed and criticised my preliminary determinations. There is in the col- lection only one species which can claim to be an angiosperm. Elongate-lanceolate willow-like leaves, at first rather suggesting some Podozamites,2 are seen on closer inspection to have lateral 1 For a most interesting discussion of this problem, see Weiland, G. R. : Amer. Journ. Sci. 38: 541-460. 1914. 2 See, Seward, A. C, Jurassic Plants from Caucasia and Turkestan: Mem. d. Comite-Geolog. (St. Petersbourg), N. S., 38: pi. 8, fig. 68. 1907. 110 cockerell: lower cretaceous flora veins leaving a midrib, curving more or less, and at least toward the apex of the leaf uniting to form a series of arches. These leaves are evidently those of Sapindopsis, and may well belong to the species S. variabilis Fontaine, although the lateral veins appear to form a more acute angle with the midrib than in that species as figured by Berry." Berry refers this genus with con- fidence to the modern family Sapindaceae, but we should like to see the reproductive parts. Is it possibly something more than a coincidence that the venation is of the same type as that of Gnetum, the modern broad-leafed gymnosperm? Equisetaceous stems, the larger about 8 mm. in diameter, with about nine striae, may well represent the species Equisetum Fig. 1. Cycadospadix (?) sp. About natural size. burchardti (Dunker) Brongn., but the sheaths are unfortunately wanting. Some curious palmlike structures, certainly not palms, closely resemble Cycadospadix.4 They represent possibly more than one organism, and one of the specimens, Dr. Berry notes, has some resemblance to the base of a fern such as Matonidium; it appears that Lignier, some years ago, actually described fern- remains of this type as a Jurassic palm. The best preserved specimens in the collection are elongate 3 Maryland Geol. Surv., Lower Cretaceous, pi. 83. 1911. 4 Schenk, A., in Zittel, Handb. Palaeontologie, Abt. II, Palaeophytologie, 228. 1890. Also, Dr. Seward, after examining the photographs, suggests comparison with Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 47: 099, pi. 7, fig. 18. 1911. cockerell: lower cretaceous flora 111 pinnae which I refer with confidence to Matonidium althausii (Dunker) Ward. Although the sori, from the nature of the sand- stone matrix, are poorly preserved, the structure appears to agree exactly with this species, especially as figured by Seward.5 Dr. Seward, also, after examining the photographs, states that he has little doubt that the specimens belong to Matonidium. This plant is a fern of peculiar interest, as it appears to be the ancestor of the isolated modern genus Matonia, found in Borneo and the Malay peninsula. Matonidium althausii is a well-known European fossil, but the Colorado specimens present no differ- ences that can be seen. The collection also contains some ferns which agree very well with Todites, so far as appearances go, but there are no sori, and exact determination is not possible. Some specimens could belong to Weichselia, or even better, as Dr. Berry suggests, to Cladophle- bis. One fragment ap- pears to agree exactly with Onychiopsis. Searching for a corresponding flora in the records, we find the nearest approach in the Fuson formation of the Black Hills, from which 26 species have been recorded by Ward and Fontaine.6 The Fuson list contains Matonidium althausii, Sapindopsis variabilis, Equisetum burchardti, Cladophlebis, and Weichselia. According to Berry this is approximately contemporaneous with the Patapsco of Maryland and Virginia; which, however, contains a much greater variety of angiosperms. The Fuson list includes, in addition to Sapindopsis, fragments referred to Ulmiphyllum, Qaercophyllum, and Ficophyllum. Berry notes 5 Jurassic Flora. I. The Yorkshire Coast, 76. fig. 7A. 1900. 6 U. S. Geol. Surv., 19th Ann. Rept., pt. 2. 1899. Fig. 2. Matonidium althausii (Dunker) Ward. About natural size. 112 pittier: new genus of mulberry family that the first of these is really a fern, and that the last is at any rate not a true Ficophyllum. The Quercophyllum could possibly be Dictyophyllum, a fern. Thus the angiospermous flora of the Fuson is not beyond suspicion, and apparently the beds may be regarded as somewhat older than the Patapsco. It would be possible to regard the Colorado material as contempo- raneous with the Fuson, or somewhat older, but apparently younger than the Kootanie. A note may be added concerning Weichselia reticulata (Stokes & Webb) Ward, reported from the Fuson. Seward7 gives a detailed drawing of the venation of a specimen from Bernissart, Belgium, and it must be said that this is rather strikingly differ- ent from the venation of the pinnules of the Black Hills plant, as shown in Ward's report. It may be, therefore, that our Lower Cretaceous plant is a distinct species. Seward remarks on the absence of fructification in specimens of Weichselia, and suggests that it may not be a true fern, but Zeiller,8 re- cording specimens from Peru, states that he found fertile fronds, and that the plant is really a fern, perhaps a member of the Marattiaceae. BOTANY. — Inophloeum, a new genus of the mulherry family. Henry Pittier, Bureau of Plant Industry. Under the name Olmedia? armata Miquel described briefly in 1854 a remarkable moraceous tree, a meager specimen of which was collected by Seemann on the Cupica River in the Colombian Darien. That he remained in doubt as to the proper place of the species is shown by the question mark following the generic name and by the following remark preceding the de- scription: "Valdopere dolendum, stirpem admodum memorabilem ex unico parvulo ramulo vix certe definiendam nee apte de- scribendam esse."1 In the course of the botanical survey of Panama I have col- lected specimens of the same tree at several places in the forests to the east of the Canal, and from a specimen of the bark in the 7 Fossil Plants, 2: 495. 1910. 8 Compt. Rend., Acad. Sci. (Paris), June 6, 1910. 1 In Seemann, Bot. Voy. Herald, 196. pittier: new genus of mulberry family 113 Museum of the National Institute at Panama City it may be inferred that its area extends to the westward as far as the Code Mountains, on the Atlantic water-shed.2 Unfortunately, though the material now at hand is more copious, it hardly throws more light on the systematic position of the tree under consideration, because, notwithstanding strenu- ous efforts, I have been unable to obtain specimens of the male inflorescences. It is obvious, however, that this species cannot continue figuring under Olmedia, which is characterized by hav- ing its female flowers single in a many-bracteate, more or less loose involucre, while in the former these are in clusters of 4 or more, connate, and with the receptacle bractless, or the bracts coalescent so as to be singled out only with difficulty, except for an occasional free tip. The next possible genus would be Castilla, which, however, differs in having the many-flowered, cuplike receptacles provided with several rows of imbricate bractlets, and in the pulpous mesocarp of the nutlets. The aculeate limbs, bracts, petioles, and main nerves of the leaves and the habit of the tree are secondary characters which may be of some weight in justifying the recognition of this species under a new generic name, Inophloeum, which I have selected on account of the thick, fibrous bast, to which further reference will be made later. Following are the characters of the proposed genus and a description of its only species: Inophloeum Pittier, gen. nov. Flores dioici. Masc. ignoti. Fern.: Receptaculum pauciflorum obsolete bracteatum, vel bracteae confertim coalescentes. Perianthia crassa, tubulosa basi inter se connata, apice libera, 4-dentata. Ovarium semiinferum uniloculare, ovulo unico ex apice cavitatis pendulo ana- tropo. Stylus brevis, crassus, inclusus, stigmatibus 2 brevibus angus- tis acutis. Nucula perigonio concrescente coriaceo obtecta. — Arbor armata, foliis distichis 3-nerviis integerrimis, stipulis amplexicaulibus aculeatis, inflorescentiis axillaribus, receptaculis parvis cum perianthiis concrescentibus. Species unica panamensis. 2 If I remember correctly, the specimen, consisting of a large piece of bark made into a garment, is labelled: "Vestido de un Indio de Penonome, hecho de La corteza de unapalmera," which, translated, means: "Clothing of a Penonome Indian, made /rom the bark of a palm." This label had been written by a Dr (?) Marquis, professor of botany and author of an extensive and extraordinary paper on the palms of Panama! 114 pittier: new genus of mulberry family Inophloeum armatum (Miquel) Pittier. Olmedia f armata Miquel in Seemann, Bot. Voy. Herald, 196. 1854. Arbor mediocris, ramulis, petiolis, costa foliorum subtus, stipulisque aculeatis, foliis distichis, coriaceis, petiolo crasso subtereto laminis lato- ovatis, obliquis, basi rotimdatis vel subcuneatis apice obtusiusculo- apiculatis, glabris, utrinque 7-8-costatis, costis subtus prominentibus, stipulis convolutis, subspathaceis, cicatricem obliquam circularem re- liquens; receptaculis foemineis axillaribus, 3-7-floribus, perianthio ovoideo-tubuloso, coriaceo, stylo incluso, stigmatibus linearibus, erectis, contiguis, fere adnatis. Bacca coriacea, et caetera ignota. Arbor 10-20 metralis, trunco erecto, cortice crasso, sublaevi. Aculei conici, basi crassi, apice acuto, hyalino, ampulliformi, circa 3 mm. longo. Petioli 1.5-2.5 cm. longi; laminae 14-40 cm. longae, 11-25 cm. latae. Stipulae 2-2.5 cm. longae. Perianthium foemineum ca. 6 mm. longum. Panama: Around Dos Bocas, Fato Valley, province of Colon, in forests, female flowers, August 16, 1911, Pittier 4202. Alhajuela, on the shady banks of the Chagres River, leaves only, May 25, 1911, Pittier 3731. Lake shore in the Gatun Valley, in forest, May, 1914, Pittier, without number. Around Pinogana, southern Darien, April, 1914, Pittier, without number. Miquel mentions white, setulose hairs mixed with the aculei of the stipules and bracts. In our specimens such hairs, when extant, are so scarce and inconspicuous as not to be worth mention. The larger dimensions of the leaves are those given by the same author; in our specimens they are not over 25 cm., long and 18 cm. broad. The liber of this tree is very thick and the fibers of its many layers are strong and crossed. After a convenient preparation, which con- sists mainly of soaking in running water for several days and a thorough beating with a wooden club to separate the outer cortical part, it is used by the Choco, Cuna, and Guaymi Indians as the usual covering of the women, as well as for small hammocks, blankets, etc. In for- mer times, as reported by Seemann,3 the larger pieces were made into sails for the native canoes. This use of the bark of Inophloeum, how- ever, is not exclusive, others being similarly applied. For instance, it is said that in Costa Rica and Panama species of Brosimum and Castillo, are treated in the same way for identical purposes, while in other parts the bark of Ficus species is preferred. The known natives names of Inophloeum armatum are namagua in the Cupica district of the Colombian province of Choco, maragua in Darien, and cocud in the negro villages on the Atlantic coast, close to the territory of the San Bias Indians. 3 Bot. Voy. Herald, 196. CLARK: NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS 115 | ZOOLOGY. — Seven new genera of echinoderms.1 Austin H. Clark, National Museum. The past ten years has witnessed an activity in the study of the echinoderms far surpassing that of any previous decade. In] every class important and comprehensive memoirs, many of them monographic in scope, have been published which in- clude more or less complete revisions of genera, of families, and of higher groups. Little by little the former wide differences of opinion in regard to the internal systematic arrangement in each class have disappeared, and today such diversity as exists chiefly relates to the refinement of generic limits and the allo- cation of a few anomalous types. Along these lines there is still much work remaining to be done, and it is in the hope of throwing additional light on cer- tain obscure points that I am calling attention to the following four crinoid and three starfish types which appear to me to be well worthy of generic rank. Comatonia, new genus Genotype. — Actinometra cristata (P. H. Carpenter, MS.) Hartlaub, 1912. A genus of Capillasterinae (Comasteridae) in which the size is small; there are 10 arms only; the cirri are not excessively slender; there are no carinate processes on the basal segments of the proximal pinnules; terminal combs occur only on the pinnules of the first pair (Pi and P2), from one or both of which they may be absent; the combs usually arise about, or within, the proximal third of the pinnule, and are composed of exceptionally large rounded teeth which usually much exceed in height the lateral diameter of the segments which bear them; the fourth-seventh brachials bear prominent spinous median knobs or keels; usually one or more of the earlier segments of Px are twice as long as broad, or even longer. The only species of this genus, Comatonia cristata (Hartlaub), ranges from North Carolina to Key West, Florida, in from 1\ to 132 fathoms. Austrometra, new genus Genotype. — Oligometra thetidis H. L. Clark, 1909. This new genus of Colobometridae is most closely related to Anal- cidometra, with which it agrees in possessing expanded genital pinnules, a character not known elsewhere in the family. Both Austrometra 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 116 CLARK! NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS and A nalcidometra are related to Oligometrides more closely than to any other type. The third-fifth segments of the genital pinnules are more or less expanded to protect the genital glands; there is a single median trans- verse ridge of moderate height on the cirrus segments; Pi, though longer and stouter than P2, is not exceptionally so. Austrometra thetidis (H. L. Clark), the only species of the genus, occurs off the coast of New South Wales in 55 to 56 fathoms. Cotylometra, new genus Genotype. — Oligometra gracilicirra A. H. Clark, 1908. This genus of Colobometridae in general resembles Oligometra; but there are 30 or more cirrus segments of which only the basal bear transverse ridges, these after the proximal fourth of the cirrus trans- forming into very long dorsal spines, and P2 has at most 12 segments instead of at least 15. The single species of this genus, Cotylometra gracilicirra (A. H. Clark), ranges from the Andaman Islands to the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine Islands in from 44 to 49 fathoms. Daidalometra, new genus Genotype. — Antedon hana A. H. Clark, 1907. A genus of Thalassometrinae (Thalassometridae) in which the centro- dorsal is small, low, hemispherical or thick discoidal, the broad dorsal pole beset with irregular rather long spines, the sides bearing 10 closely approximated columns of cirrus sockets of from one to three (usually two) each; the cirri are XII-XX, 51-75, slender, from about one-half to three-fourths as long as the arms; the longer proximal segments are usually about three times as long as broad ; the basal three or four seg- ments bear dorsally a fine median carination ending distally in a small but prominent spine; the disk is moderately plated; the division series and arms in general are as in Stenometra, but the arms are only from 10 to 12 in number, and the earlier brachials have only a faint low median keel; the pinnules are as in Stenometra. Of the two species referable to this genus, one, Daidalometra hana (A. H. Clark), occurs off southwestern Japan in between 107 and 139 fathoms; the other, Daidalometra acuta (A. H. Clark), was dredged south of Timor in 40 fathoms. Mariaster, new genus Genotype. — Johannaster giganteus Goto, 1914. This new genus belongs to the subfamily Goniasterinae of the family Goniasteridae. The general form is stellato-pentagonal, with greatly produced, nar- row, evenly tapering rays which are somewhat more than two and one , claek: new geneka of echinoderms 117 half times as long as the distance from their base to the center of the disk. The size is very large, up to R = 338 mm., r = 87 mm. ; R,: r = 3.9 to 4.8:1. The abactinal plates are very numerous, irregularly polygonal, largest in the radiating papular areas and along the center of the arms, diminishing in size slightly toward the center of the abactinal surface and very markedly toward the superomarginals bordering the disk and the proximal third of the arms; on the outer two thirds of the arms the abactinal plates are subequal, irregularly polygonal; an irregular carinal row of plates is sometimes traceable from the outer half of the disk along the arms. The madreporic plate, which is large, conspicuous, and polygonal, is situated near the center of the abactinal surface and is covered with very fine striae which radiate from the center. The abactinal plates are uniformly covered with crowded granules, which are much finer than those on the actinal intermediate plates. The papulae are segregated in conspicuous petaloid areas which extend from a central papular region and radiate onto the arms, reach- ing nearly to the middle of the latter. Many of the plates in the papular areas bear small pedicellariae, of which there may be as many as three or four on the larger plates; the plates of the interradial areas also bear pedicellariae, though here they are much less numerous. The superomarginals increase gradually both in length and in breadth from the center of the interbrachial arc to the arm bases; in the interbrachial arc they are confined to the side wall of the body and overhang the inferomarginals ; on the arm bases they become more recumbent, so that a greater part of their breadth (about two thirds) lies on the dorsal surface. Pedicellariae, sometimes three or four to a plate, occur in the interbrachial arcs, but they gradually become less frequent and are rare in the distal half of the arms. The inferomarginals increase in length, but decrease in breadth, from the center of the interbrachial arc to the arm bases. In the interbrachial arc they lie well within the actinal surface, the margin of the body being delimited by the superomarginals; on the arms both superomarginals and inferomarginals reach the same vertical plane. The inferomarginals are slightly shorter than the superomarginals; in the center of the interbrachial arc the two series correspond, but from the arm bases outward the former alternate more or less with the latter. The inferomarginals bear pedicellariae similar to those on the superomarginals, mostly situated near the intermarginal suture. Both superomarginals and inferomarginals are somewhat tumid, and both are covered with small closely packed hemispherical granules. The actinal intermediate plates are very numerous and decrease in size from the adambulacral series toward the center of the inter- brachial arc; those adjoining the adambulacrals are relatively large and regular in arrangement; within these there is a more or less regular second row which may be traced for about half of the distance to the 118 CLARK: NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS arm bases; but within and beyond these the plates are small, irregularly polygonal, and with no obvious arrangement. All of the actinal inter- mediate plates are slightly tumid and are uniformly covered with crowded granules; many bear pedicellariae, of which those on the plates adjoining the adambulacrals are conspicuously larger than the others; a plate in this series may bear as many as four pedicellariae. At the oral angle of the interradial area there is usually a large odd plate which may bear as many as six pedicellariae. The adambulacral plates are about as long as broad, becoming pro- portionately longer distally; the furrow border is angular; the furrow series consists of from 10 to 15 flattened spines, the outer flattened parallel with, the inner transverse to, the furrow; within these there is a bare area, followed by a row of from four to five prominent stout spines, beyond which are numerous tubercles decreasing in size toward the outer edge of the plate. Most of the adambulacral plates bear one, proximally often two, large high pedicellariae on the inner part near the proximal border. The mouth plates are small; each of them bears from 12 to 15 very .stout flattened spines along the furrow, and a half dozen or more short spines, either forming a single row along the suture line, or more ir- regularly arranged, on the actinal surface. Mariaster differs markedly from Johannaster in the lack of regularity in the arrangement of the actinal intermediate plates, in the absence of spines on the same plates, and in several other important features. It agrees more nearly with Ly Master and Circeaster (especially the for- mer), showing its relationship in the character and arrangement of the actinal intermediate plates, in the character of the armament of the adambulacral plates, in the character and distribution of the pedicel- lariae, in the form and size of the madreporite, and in other ways; it differs most strikingly from these genera in having narrower and longer arms on which the abactinal plates are not conspicuously larger than those of the disk. The single species referable to this genus, Mariaster giganteus (Goto), is known only from near Misaki, Sagami Bay, Japan, in from 160 to 1120 meters. Five specimens in all are known to have been collected, four of which are in the museum of the Science College at Tokyo. Pseudonepanthia, new genus Genotype. — Pseudonepanthia Gotoi, new species. The characters of this new genus, which appears to be referable to the family Asterinidae and the subfamily Asterininae, are included in those of the type species, the description of which follows : Pseudonepanthia Gotoi, new species Eight arms; R = 72mm.;r= 11 mm.; R: r = 6.5: 1; inferomarginals 111. The rays are very long and narrow, almost circular in cross section, evenly tapering to the tip; only three are of full size, the remainder CLARK : NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS 119 being very small; two of the very small rays alternate between the three of full size; the other three are side by side between two of the later. The gonads extend to the ninth superomarginal. The interbrachial septum is very deep, extending from the stomach to "the lateral interradial body wall, and is membranous except for a broad centrally situated pillar composed of large overlapping plates. Prominent superambulacral plates are present. The pedicels are in two rows; they carry large sucking disks and are connected internally with double ampullae. The plates of the abactinal surface are very numerous, greatly re- duced in size, narrow, crescentic with swollen and rounded ends, im- bricating outward in the median line and perpendicularly to the mid- radial line elsewhere. Three parallel rows of larger plates occupy the mid-dorsal line of the arms; from the outer of these on either side the smaller plates extend in regular diagonal rows to the superomarginals, in such a maimer that the diagonal rows arising at any one point in the median line run both distally and proximally at the same angle with the superomarginals, while the plates of the succeeding rows also form straight and regular transverse rows between, and perpendicular to, the mid-dorsal rows and the superomarginals with which, however, they do not quite coincide. Externally the lateral plates appear as crescents regularly decreasing in size from the dorsal region to the margin, each crescent partially surrounding a single large papula situated in its concavity, on its abactinal side; the plates of the median rows, while commonly crescentic with the concavity proximal, may be triangular or irregular in shape. The plates of the disk are irregular; most of them are of about the same size as the median plates of the arms, but they become smaller about the anal opening. To the naked eye the appearance of the abactinal skeleton is some- what similar to that in such species of Henricia as H. leviuscula, though the arrangement of the plates is much more regular. The surface of the abactinal plates is thickly beset with numerous fine spines, of which the larger may bear from 20 to 25. In the proxi- mal third to half these spines are stout, rounded-conical, with a dull surface, but the distal portion is glassy and transparent, in lateral view increasing in diameter at first slowly, later more rapidly, to the coarsely serrate tip, so that they appear narrowly fan-shaped; in end view they are seen to consist of three very delicate glassy calcareous laminae united by their inner edges. The papulae are large and conspicuous, decreasing in size from the mid-dorsal region of the arms to the superomarginals; they are arranged in very regular diagonal, and also transverse, rows. They are absent from the region between the central portion of the disk and patches at the base of the arms, and from a region including the actinal half of each interbrachial angle and extending thence in a long triangle to about the eighteenth inferomarginal. On the arms there is one papula 120 CLARK : NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS in the concavity of each of the crescentic abactinal plates, except in the mid-dorsal line, where some plates may be without them, and at the end of the arms, where they occur in a single line on either side of the median line, and a quadruple, later triple and double, line just above the superomarginals. The tip of the arm is entirely without papulae. On the disk papulae occur one to a plate in a more or less triangular area within each arm base; scattered papulae occur in the center of the disk. In the proximal three-fourths of the arm the superomarginals cor- respond with the inferomarginals, and are of about the same size; in the distal fourth of the arm they become irregular in position and indistinguishable from the abactinal plates; at first they are narrow and transversely oblong, becoming triangular after the fourteenth. Their armature is the same as that of the abactinal plates, from which they are distinguishable only by their shape. The inferomarginals, 111 in number, are at first longitudinally oblong, becoming squarish at the middle of the arm, and transversely oblong distally; their armature resembles that of the superomarginals. The actinal intermediate areas are narrow; the plates are arranged in rows parallel to the furrows; one row reaches to the distal fourth of the arm, or possibly beyond; a second reaches the 25th inferomarginal ; the third reaches the twelfth inferomarginal ; the fourth extends to the seventh superomarginal ; and the fifth to the fifth; beyond the fifth row there are a few additional plates. The armature consists of from 7 to 16 (usually about 12) well spaced sacculate spines with fluted and spinous sides, ending in a tuft of spinelets. On the arms the spines on the actinal intermediate plates resemble those on the abactinal plates rather than those on the interradial regions of the disk (just described), but are larger and longer. The armature of the adambulacral plates consists of four or five long furrow spines, the inner very slightly the longer, set in a slightly curved comb ; beyond these there is a row of four or five spines resem- bling those on the actinal intermediate plates, but somewhat longer and stouter; this row is rather more strongly curved than the furrow series and is placed diagonally, so that the proximal end is farther from the groove than the distal ; this obliquity decreases distally and is not notice- able in the outer two thirds or half of the arm; beyond this second row there are a few additional shorter spines, not distinguishable from those on the adjacent actinal intermediate plates. The mouth plates are small, bearing on the furrow margin five long flattened spines decreasing in length and stoutness outwardly; these spines are finely fluted, with saw teeth on the ridges; within this furrow series is a second series of five similar but shorter spines; the remainder of the surface of the mouth plates bears four or five spaced spines similar to those on the actinal intermediate plates. Color in alcohol dark reddish brown. Type.— Cat. No. 36899, U. S. N. M., from "Albatross" Station 3746, Sagami Bay, Japan, in 49 fathoms. CLARK: NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS 121 Glabraster, new genus Genotype. — Porania magellanica Studer, 1876. This new genus is referable to the family Echinasteridae. The whole animal in enclosed in a thick skin which entirely conceals the plates and all but the tips of the spines; this investment carries minute scattered spicules. The ampullae are single. The gonads are attached to the dorsal wall on either side of the inter- brachial septum. The interbrachial septum is complete and rather large, though entirely membranous; it is crossed in the middle, in a line more or less parallel to its curved inner border, by a narrow band of elongate cal- careous ossicles placed end to end and not always touching, which actinally curves inward and runs adorally to the mouth plates. This band is more or less interrupted and may be present only in part. The first ambulacral ossicle is much larger than those succeeding and is widely forked in its proximal half. The abactinal skeleton is very wide-meshed, reticulate, formed of very narrow elongate overlapping plates with usually pentalobate spiniferous plates at the more important nodes. There is a central pentalobate plate, the lobes being radial in posi- tion, which bears a prominent conical spine; in each interradius about one third of the distance between the central plate and the marginals there is a similar spiniferous pentalobate plate; these five spiniferous pentalobate plates about the central abactinal plate are connected by narrow lines of plates, and from the middle of each of these lines a similar line (radial in position) runs to the central plate; also from each of these five interradial lobate plates lines of plates run out on either side parallel to the interbrachial margin, those from adjacent plates uniting at an obtuse angle in the mid-radial line, so that five triangles which are about twice as wide as high are formed, of which the lines directly connecting the interradial pentalobate plates are the bases. From the apex of each of these triangles, which is marked, by a pentalobate plate bearing a small spine, a more or less irregular series of from four to seven similar spiniferous lobate plates runs down the mid-dorsal line of each arm; these plates are connected in the mid- dorsal line by low elongate plates. From the large spiniferous lobate plates in each interradius a double series consisting of five pairs of elongate plates runs to the marginals; the second pair beyond the lobate plate consists of plates with the adcentral ends broadened, and from these there runs to the proximal mid-radial lobate plate at the arm base a series of narrow plates; from a point midway on this series to the arm tips there is a very irregular interrupted series of similar but smaller plates, from which lines of plates run to each superomarginal and to each node in the mid-radial line. Within the wide meshes between the very narrow lines of plates are large papular areas, the integument of which is abundantly dotted with calcareous granules. 122 CLARK : NEW GENERA OF ECHINODERMS The anal opening, which is large and surrounded with short spines, lies near the apical spiniferous plate. The madreporite is a separate skeletal element lying between the plates of the first pair below the large lobate plate at the base of the interradial area. The superomarginals are trilobed and strongly imbricating; in the proximal two thirds of the arm the imbrication is toward the center of the interbrachial arc, in the distal two thirds it is toward the arm tips; a quadrilobate plate imbricating both ways marks the transition. Except for slightly greater size the inferomarginals are not different from the plates forming the outermost row of the actinal intermediate series, just within them; they are much broader than long in the interbrachial arc, but increase in length outwardly; their imbrication which is slight, is outward. Each inferomarginal bears a prominent flattened spine with a truncated gouge-shaped tip, except for the three or four in the center of the interbrachial arc which bear two similar but smaller spines. The actinal intermediate plates are elongate, imbricating adcentrally, arranged in regular bands between the inferomarginals and the adam- bulacrals which correspond to the former but not to the latter. The plates composing these lines form about five regular transverse rows. The row adjoining the inferomarginals has an additional plate in the center. There are no actinal papulae. The aclambulacral plates have a prominent, slender, sharp-pointed spine deep in the furrow, and a much longer and stouter chisel-shaped spine with a truncated gouge-shaped tip on the inner border of the actinal surface; in the terminal portion of the arm there are two of these latter to each plate instead of one. The mouth plates bear two long flattened spines distally, which increase in diameter to the truncated tip, and a similar spine at the border of the first adambulacrals. Glabraster magellanica (Studer) is confined to the Magellanic region, occurring in the Straits of Magellan and along the shores of Patagonia from the shore line down to 45 fathoms; Glabraster antarctica (E. A. Smith), the only other species of the genus, is known from Kerguelen, Marion Island, Prince Edward Island, the Crozet Islands, and South Georgia, in from 50 to 1600 fathoms. REFERENCES Under this heading it Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal. CHEMISTRY Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth. The data of geochemistry (3d edition). U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 616. Pp. 821. 1916. GEOLOGY U. S. Geological Survey. Shorter contributions to general geology, 1915. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 95. Pp. 120. 1916. Contains the following papers: Hicks, \V. B. The composition of muds from Columbus Marsh, Nevada, pp. 1-11. Atwood, W. W. Eocene glacial deposits in southwestern Colorado, pp. 13-26. Lee, W. T. Relation of the Cretaceous formations to the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico, pp. 27-58. Capps, S. R. An ancient volcanic eruption in the upper Yukon Basin, pp. 59-64. Hicks, W. B. Evaporation of potash, brines, pp. 65-72. Berry, E. W. Erosion intervals in the Eocene of the Mississippi embay ment, pp. 73-82. Van Orstrand, C. E., and Dewey, F. P. Preliminary report on the diffusion of solids, pp. 83-96. Smith, P. S. Notes on the geology of Gravina Island, pp. 97-105. Cooke, C. W. The age of the Ocalla limestone, pp. 107—117.- ORNITHOLOGY Bailey, F. M. A family of North Dakota marsh hawks. Bird-Lore, 17:431-438, 5 figs. November-December, 1915. Beal, F. E. L. Food of the robins and bluebirds of the United States. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 171. Pp. 1-31, figs. 1-2. February 5, 1915. Beal, F. E. L. Food habits of the thrushes of the United States. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 280. Pp. 1-23, figs. 1-2. September 27, 1915. Cooke, W. W. The migration of North American sparrows. Bird-Lore, 16: 176- 178. May- June, 1914; 16: 267-268. July-August, 1914; 16: 351. September- October, 1914; 16: 438-442. November-December, 1914; 17: 18-19. Janu- ary-February, 1915. 123 124 references: ornithology Cooke, W. W. The migration of North American kinglets. Bird-Lore, 17: 118- 125. March-April, 1915. Cooke, W. W. New bird records for Arizona. Auk, 31: 403-404. July, 1914. (Records 9 species previously unknown from Arizona, with additional records for several others. — C. W. R.) Cooke, W. W. Distribution and migration of North American rails and their allies. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 128. Pp. 1-50, figs. 1-19. September 25, 1914. Cooke, W. W. Preliminary census of birds of the United States. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 187. Pp. 1-11. February 11, 1915. Cooke, W. W. Bird nligration. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 185. Pp. 1-47, pis. 1-4, figs. 1-20. April 17, 1915. Cooke, W. W. Some winter birds of Oklahoma. Auk, 31: 473-493. October, 1914. (Notes on 110 species— C. W. R.) Cooke, W. W. The migration of North American birds. Bird-Lore 17: 199-203. May-June, 1915; 17: 378-379. September-October, 1915; 17: 443-445. No- vember-December, 1915. Cooke, W. W. Bird migration in the Mackenzie Valley. Auk, 32: 442-459, figs. 1-5. October, 1915. Cooke, W. W. Distribution and migration of North American gulls and their . allies. Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, No. 292. Pp. 1-70, figs. 1-31. October 25, 1915. Cooke, W. W. Our shorebirds and their future. Yearbook of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture of 1914, pp. 275-294, pis. 21-23, figs. 16-18. 1915. Dearborn, N. Bird houses and how to build them. U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 609. Pp. 1-19, figs. 1-48. September 11, 1914. Fleming, J. H. A new Turnagra from Stephens' Island, New Zealand. Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 121-123. May 27, 1915. (Describes Turnagra capensis minor, subsp. nov., and adds note on the plum- age of T. c. capensis. — C. W. R.) Kalmbach, E. R. Birds in relation to the alfalfa weevil. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 107. Pp. 1-64, pis. 1-5, figs. 1-3. July 27, 1914. McAtee, W. L. Five important wild-duck foods. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, No. 58. Pp. 1-19. figs. 1-16. February 7, 1914. McAtee, W. L. Birds transporting food supplies. Auk, 31: 404-405. July, 1914. (Calls attention to several records of birds observed to place snails and ants under their wing feathers for later use as food. — C. W. R.) McAtee, W. L. How to attract birds in northeastern United States. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 621. Pp. 1-15, figs. 1-11. De- cember 14, 1914. McAtee, W. L. Eleven important wild-duck foods . Bulletin of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, No. 205. Pp. 1-25, figs. 1-23. May 20, 1915. Mearns, E. A. Diagnosis of a new subspecies of Gambel's quail from Colorado. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 27: 113. July 10, 1914. (Describes Lophortyx gambelii sanus, subsp. nov. — C. W. R.) references: ornithology 125 Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of new African birds of the genera Francolinus, Chalcopelia, Cinnyris, Chalcomitra, Anthreptes, Estrilda, Halcyon, Melitto- phagus, and Colitis. Proceedings of the TJ. S. National Museum, 48: 381- 394. January 19, 1915. (Describes 14 new subspecies from East Africa. — C.W.R.) Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of seven new subspecies and one new species of African birds (plantain-eater, courser, and rail). Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- tions 6513: 1-9. November 26, 1915. (Describes new subspecies of Turacus, Corythaeola, Cursorius, Rhinoptilus, and Sarothrura. — C. W! R.) Oberholser, H. C. A synopsis of the races of the long-tailed goatsucker, Capri- mulgus macrurus Horsfield. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 48: 587-599. May 3, 1915. (Recognizes 9 subspecies, of which Capri?nulgus macrurus mesophanis and C. m. anamesus are new. — C. W. R.) Oberholser, H. C. A review of the subspecies of the ruddy kingfisher, Entomo- thera coromanda (Linnaeus). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 48: 639-657. May 18, 1915. (Nine forms are admitted, of which five are new.— C. W. R.) Oberholser, H. C. Critical notes on the subspecies of the spotted owl, Strix occidentalis (Xantus). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 49: 251-257. July 26, 1915. Oberholser, H. C. A synopsis of the races of the crested tern, Thalasseus bergii (Lichtenstein). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 49: 515-526, pi. 66. December 23, 1915. (Recognizes 10 subspecies, of which Thalasseus bergii halodramus is new. — C. W. R.) Richmond, C. W. Note on the generic name Bolborhynchus Bonaparte. Proceed- ings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 183. November 29, 1915. (Finds the type of this genus to be Psittacula lineola Cassin and proposes the generic name Amoropsittaca for Arara aymara, the alleged type of Bolbor- hynchus.—C. W. R.) Richmond, C. W. Notes on several preoccupied generic names (Aves). Proceed- ings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 180. November 29, 1915. (Renames five genera of birds, chiefly neotropical — C. W. R.) Ridgway, R. Bird Life in southern Illinois. I. Bird Haven. Bird-Lore, 16: 409-420, 7 figs. November-December, 1914. Ridgway, R. Bird-Life in southern Illinois. II. Larchmound: a naturalist's diary. Bird-Lore, 17: 1-7, 3 figs. January-February, 1915. Ridgway, R. Bird-life in southern Illinois. III. Larchmound: a naturalist' s diary. Bird-Lore, 17: 91-103, 2 figs. March-April, 1915. Ridgway, R. Bird-life in southern Illinois . IV. Changes tohich have taken place in half a century. Bird-Lore, 17: 191-198. May-June, 1915. Ridgway, R. Descriptions of some new forms of American cuckoos, parrots, and pigeons. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 105-108. May 27, 1915. (Describes twelve new subspecies from tropical America, and Notioenas as a new genus of pigeons. — C. W. R.) Ridgway, R. A new pigeon from Chimqui, Panama. Proceedings of the Bio- logical Society of Washington, 28: 139. June 29, 1915. (Describes Oenoenas chiriquensis, sp. nov. — C. W. R.) 126 references: ornithology Ridgway, R. A new pigeon from Jamaica. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 177. November 29, 1915. (Describes Chloroenas inornata exigua, subsp. nov. — C. W. R.) Riley, J. H. On the remains of an apparently reptilian character in the Cotingidae. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 27: 148-149. July 10, 1914. (Note on the presence of pores or pitlike depressions on hind tarsus in species of this family. — C. W. R.) Riley, J. H. An apparently new Sporophila from Ecuador. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 27: 213. October 31, 1914. (Describes Sporophila incerta, sp. nov. — C. W. R.) Riley, J. H. Descriptions of three new birds from China. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 161-164. September 21, 1915. (De- scribes Tetrastes bonasia vicinitas, Dryocopus martins silvifragus, and Eophona melanura sowerbyi. — C. W. R.) Riley, J. H. Note on Chlorostilbon puruensis. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 183. November 29, 1915. (Finds the above species is a member of the genus Chlorestes, and probably a subspecies of C. caeruleus. — C. W. R.) Shtjfeldt, R. W. Osteology of the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius). Auk, 31: 358-362, pi. 34. July, 1914. (Description of the skeleton of this species. — C. W. R.) Shtjfeldt, R. W. On the oology of the North American Pygopodes. Condor, 16: 169-180, figs. 50-54. July 25, 1914. (Discusses the eggs of the grebes and loons.— C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. Reder og aeg Nor darner ikanske Kolibrier (Trochili). Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings Tidsskrift, 8: 187-195, pis. 2-8. August, 1914. (De- scribes the nests and eggs of North American humming birds. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. Contribution to the study of the "tree-ducks" of the genus Dendro- cygna. Zoologische Jahrbiicher (Abth. fiir Syst.) 38: 1-70, pis. 1-16. 1914. (Describes the osteology of this genus, and ranks it as a subfamily. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. Unusual behavior of a ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris). Auk, 31: 536-537. October, 1914. Shufeldt, R. W. Anatomical notes on the young of Phalacrocorax atriceps georgi- anus. Science Bulletin of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 2: 95-102, pis. 17-18. November 5, 1914. (Account of the anatomy of the young of this species. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. On the skeleton of the ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata), with notes on the osteology of other Meleagridae. Aquila, 21: 1-52, pis. 1-14. Nov. 15, 1914. (Describes the skeleton of this species and offers compara- tive notes on the genus Meleagris. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. Anatomical and other notes on the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) lately living in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens. Auk, 32: 29-41, pis. 4-6. January, 1915. Shufeldt, R. W. Fossil birds in the Marsh collection of Yale University. Trans- actions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 19: 1-109, pis. 1-15. February, 1915. (Gives revised determinations of species and genera described by the late O. C. Marsh, and describes 18 new species and 4 new genera. — C. W. R.) references: ornithology 127 Shufeldt, R. W. The fossil remains of a species of Hesperornis found in Mon- tana. Auk, 32: 290-294, pi. 18. July, 1915. (Describes Hesperornis montana as a provisional new species. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. On the comparative osteology of Orthorhamphus magnirostris (the long-billed stone-plover). Emu, 15: 1-25, pis. 1-7. July 1, 1915. (De- scribes the osteology of this species and gives a colored figure of the head.— C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. On the comparative osteology of the limpkin (Aramus vociferus) andits place in the system . Anatomical Record, 9: 591-506, figs. 1-16. August, 1915. (Describes the osteology of this bird and concludes it belongs in a family, Aramidae, near the Rallidce. — C. W. R.) Shufeldt, R. W. Fossil remains of the extinct cormorant Phalacrocorax macropus found in Montana. Auk, 32: 485-488, pi. 30. October, 1915. Shufeldt, R. W. A critical study of the fossil bird Gallinuloides wyomingensis Eastman. Journal of Geology, 23: 619-634, figs. 1-2. October-November, 1915. (Compares the skeleton of this species with several recent forms and concludes it was a true grouse, allied to Bonasa. The new name Palaeo- bonasa is suggested, since Gallinuloides is "very misleading." — C. W. R.) Todd, W. E. C. Preliminary diagnoses of seven apparently new neotropical birds. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 169-170. November 29, 1915. (Describes Euscarthmus olivascens, Attila arizelus, Coryphistera alaudina campicola, Phoethornis snbochraceus, Columba inornata proximo, Asturina nitida pallida, and Crax annulata. — C. W. R.) Watson, J. B., and Lashley, K. S. Homing and related activities of birds. Papers from the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 7: 1-104, pis. 1-7, figs. 1-9. (Under the above general title are included the following papers: "An historical and experimental study of homing," by Watson and Lashley; "Notes on the nesting activities of the noddy and sooty terns," by Lashley; "Studies on the spectral sensitivity of birds," by Watson.— C. W. R.) Wetmore, A. A new Accipiter from Porto Rico with notes on the allied forms of Cuba ant] San Domingo. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washing- ton, 27: 119-121. July 10, 1914. (Includes description of Accipiter striata* venator.—C. W. R.) Wetmore, A. The development of the stomach in the Euphonias. Auk, 31: 458- 461. October, 1914. Wetmore, A. A peculiarity in the growth of the tail feathers of the giant hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 497-500. October 24, 1914. Wetmore, A. Mortality among waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, Utah. Bulle- tin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 217. Pp. 1-10, pis. 1-3. May 26, 1915. Wetmore, A. An anatomical note on the genus Chordeiles Swainson. Proceed- ings of the Biological Society of Washington, 28: 174-176, fig. 4. November 29, 1915. (Notes the presence of a small gall bladder in this genus, con- trary to published records. — C. W. R.) Williams, R. W. Notes on the birds of Leon County, Florida, — third supplement. Auk, 31: 494-498. October, 1914. (Notes on 10 species not previously re- corded, with additional data on other species. — C. W. R.) PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 763d meeting was held on November 27, 1915, at the Cosmos Club. President Eichelberger in the chair, 42 persons present. The minutes of the 762d meeting were read in abstract and approved. Mr. E. D. Tillyer presented a paper entitled A spectrograph for photographing E talon rings. A systematic determination of the wave- lengths of a spectrum such as the iron arc by means of the Etalon in- terference rings requires a spectrograph giving sharp definition along the spectrum lines and not necessarily sharply defined lines. The spectrograph described was intended to be used in the ultra-violet region from about 0.220 ju to 0.320 /jl and it was desired to obtain the best possible definition through this region. A true flattening of the field being impossible because of the absence of necessary materials it was decided to use only quartz and rock salt in the optical system and to so proportion the relative powers as to produce a flat though inclined field when used with a 60° rock-salt prism. After setting up the optical equations a solution was obtained which gave the neces- sary flatness of field when the collimator was an ordinary quartz-rock- salt objective achromatised to reunite X = 0.220 fj, to X = 0.320 /j. and the camera lens was composed of two quartz lenses close together and having almost normal field curvatures. The maximum curvature in the hundred millimeters of field is less than a millimeter and could have been further reduced except for the uncertainty of the indices of the materials in the ultra-violet region. In practice this spectro- graph will give fairly good definition throughout the visible spectrum by a change of adjustment as well as in the region for which it was designed. Mr. H. E. Merwin then spoke on Linear interpolation of wave- lengths in spectrograms. That the curve for the spacing of lines on a spectrogram is of the same form as a dispersion curve is shown thus: Let i = angle of incidence on prism, A = angle of prism, n = refractive index of prism, /3 = angle between photographic plate and normal to back face of prism, d = distance from line on plate to normal to face of prism; A, B, etc., are constants. Then d = (A/sin /3) (s/n2 — sinH — sin i. cot A), or, approximately, d = A (Bn — C) or A (Dn2 = F) or d = (Gn-H) or (Kn2 — L) . But the dispersion formula is n2 = a+r^— — rfX.2 \~— c 128 proceedings: philosophical society 129 Then d = M+N (^-^A2). A table of the complex factor, call it n', is easily computed from Barlow's Tables of Squares and Recipro- cals if b, c, and d are taken equal to 0.01, as they are approximately for quartz. But the same table of values of n' will fit values of X in- creased or decreased by as much as 30 ju/z, which is ample to allow three comparison wave-lengths in a spectrogram to be brought into coin- cidence with the curve. Other wave-lengths are then interpolated by d = M + Nn.' The paper was discussed by Mr. Burgess. Mr. P. D. Merica then presented an illustrated paper on Some metallographic methods. The term metallography connotes in its gen- eral sense the study of the structures of metallic substances and the properties of these substances as related to structure ; it has often been confused with the microscopic study of metallic substances, which is really only one phase of metallography. Slides were shown to illus- trate the crystalline structure and growth of metals and alloys. De- fective materials are often to be detected by microscopic examination, such as, for example, the presence of slag or oxide, the application of improper heat treatment, etc. The method of thermal analysis is used to determine the melting points and transformation temperatures of metals and alloys ; it has been used to detect the presence of impurities in metallic tin, for example, the presence of 0.3 to 0.5 per cent of zinc. Initial stresses are found in most metallic materials, due to unequal rate of cooling or working; it has been shown that these are often re- sponsible for failures of materials, for example, in the case of brass rods and tubes. A method for determining structural identity or differ- ence according to Hanemann was described. The theories of plastic deformation of metals were discussed and evidence described bearing upon these theories. In conclusion a plea was made for a fuller de- scription of metallic materials used in determinations of constants. The paper was discussed by Messrs. White and Tillyer with reference to methods of getting wire of certain properties for thermo-elements. The 764th regular meeting and 45th annual meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, December 11, 1915. Vice-President Briggs in the chair ; 33 persons present. The minutes of the 44th Annual Meeting were read. The report of the Secretaries was read by Mr. Fleming, showing an active membership of 149. Sixteen regular meetings have been held. The report was ordered accepted. The Treasurer's report through December 9, 1915, was read by Mr. Sosman. The total receipts for the year were $1075.09; total expenditures, $1420.09, including pur- chase of bond of par value $500; total investments, $12,000; cash in hand, $109.72. The report of the Auditing Committee consisting of Messrs. Kimball, Ferner, and Wallis was read by Mr. Kimball. This Committee reported the statements in the Treasurer's report to be correct. The report was ordered accepted and to be filed with that of the Treasurer. The Treasurer's report was ordered accepted. 130 proceedings: anthropological society The following officers were duly elected for the ensuing year: President: L. J. Briggs. Vice-Presidents: E. Buckingham, G. K. Burgess, W. J. Humphreys, and William Bowie. Treasurer: R. B. Sosman. Secretaries: J. A. Fleming and P. G. Agnew. General Committee: H. L. Curtis, N. E. Dorsey, R. L. Faris, E. G. Fischer, D. L. Hazard, R. A. Harris, W. F. G. Swann, W. P. White, and F. E. Wright. It was moved and carried unanimously that this meeting recom- mend to the General Committee that Messrs. Dall and Abbe, both charter members of the Society, be made honorary life members, and be exempt from payment of further dues. Jno. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON At the 490th meeting of the Society, held November 2, 1915, in the Public Library, Dr. Walter Hough, of the National Museum, spoke on Progress in Anthropology in California. He first discussed the prob- lems connected with the populating of California by the Indians, giving a general view of the geographical obstacles and the avenues to the* north and south by which migrants entered. The conditions as to food, water, and means of transportation were shown to have greatly influenced the condition and direction of the migrations. A brief review was given of the numerous stocks of Indians in California and attention was called to the similarity, as regards the large number of tribes present, to the Mexican Gulf area studied by Dr. J. R. Swanton. The Pacific Coast was described as a vast ethnic enclave, a veritable swarming place of tribes, whose origin, antecedents, and development in most instances perplex the ethnologist. California presents a most interesting field of study to anthropologists. Californian historians are alive to the value of these studies as a groundwork for history, and the speaker mentioned the work of H. H. Bancroft, Charles F. Lurnmis, Robert E. Cowan, and others who have contributed valuable work. Progress in museum display of anthropological material was noted and the great collections in San Francisco and Los Angeles described. The speaker found evidence of the increasing growth of civic pride in sustaining the work and adding to the effectiveness of museums. It was said also that the University of California is a force for anthropolog- ical science in California, and the intelligent patronage of Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst in this direction was praised since she had made possible the important researches of Dr. A. L. Kroeber and others and the en- riching of a great museum through exploration. An account was given of the work in the more than 400 shell mounds of San Francisco Bay carried on by Gieford, Nelson, and Waterman and of the explorations among the Indian tribes. proceedings: anthropological society 131 The two great expositions which California has successfully carried on this year are of great importance to anthropology, especially that at San Diego, where this subject was preeminent, the San Francisco Exposi- tion being mainly devoted to modern progress. The anthropological exhibit of the former was prepared by Prof. W. H. Holmes, Dr. Ales Hrdlicka and others of the United States National Museum in coopera- tion with Dr. E. L. Hewett, and furnished a superb contribution to the study of man. The speaker said in closing that there is being built up on the West Coast a people of general culture who are appreciative and receptive of the researches of science. It augurs well for the science of anthropology here that it has an alert public which aids in the extension of its activities — a public that demands it and can assimilate its results. At the 491st meeting of the Society, held in the Public Library, December 7, 1915, Francis LaFlesche, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, read a paper entitled Right and left in Osage rites. The Osage, at the formative period of their tribal organization, had arrived at the idea that all life proceeded from the united fructifying powers of two great forces, namely, the sky and the earth They also perceived in these two forces an inseparable unity by which was made possible the continuity of the life proceeding from them It was upon these conceptions that they founded their complex gentile organization. They first divided the people into two great divisions, one of which they called Tsi-zhu (household), symbolically representing the sky, and the other, Hon-ga (sacred), representing the earth. These two great symbolic divisions they brought together to form one body which they likened to a living man. He stood facing the east, the left side of his body, the Tsi-zhu division, being to the north, and the right side of his body, the Hon-ga, being to the south. When a war party including men of both the great tribal divisions was being organized, the people pulled down their wigwams and reset them in a ceremonial order, which was in two squares, with a dividing avenue running east and west. In this arrangement the position of the symbolic man was changed so that he faced the west; consequently the right side of his body, the Hon-ga division, was at the north, and the Tsi-zhu divisions, at the south. All the ceremonial movements were made in reference to the right and left sides of the symbolic man, as was also the placing of the symbolic articles used in the ceremonies. The portable shrine has a right and a left side. When the ceremonies of the tribal war rites were being performed, the shrine was put in its place so that the left was toward the Tsi-zhu and the right toward the Hon-ga. When a man was initiated into the mysteries of the war rites, the shrine of his gens was temporarily transferred to his keeping. If he belonged to the Hon-ga division he hung the sacred article at the right side of his door when viewed from within; if he belonged to the Tsi-zhu division, he hung it at the left of his door. A woman for whom a sacred burden-strap had been ceremonially made hung the sacred 132 proceedings: anthropological society article at the right side of her door if she belonged to the Hon-ga division, at the left side if she belonged to the Tsi-zhu division. The observance of right and left pertained to many details connected with the tribal ceremonies and appeared in the daily customs of the people. The paper was discussed by Miss Alice C. Fletcher and Messrs. Hodge, Swanton, Fewkes, Mooney, and Michelson, among others. Similar dualistic concepts regarding right and left or earth and sky as determining social relationships and fundamental modes of con- duct were reported as found in widely separated tribes, such as the Hopi of the Southwest and the Piegan of the north. The discussion cen- tered largely upon the significance of 7 and 6 as sacred numbers, which are found widely spread in ancient and oriental nations as well as in America. Several members referred the origin of 6 as a sacred or occult number to the six "cardinal points," north, south, east, west, up, and down. The number 7 adds to these the concept of the center between the points. Dr. Fewkes referred at length to his earlier studies of the preference given the left hand in the sacred mysteries of the Zunis and what he has called the "sinistral circuit," which was followed, for instance, in Zuni processions and by anyone approaching the kiva. Some theories account for this significance of the left side by this being the side where lies the heart and the side which sup- ports the shield in battle. Miss Fletcher dwelt upon the intellectual and especially the poetic and anthropomorphic character of the con- cepts of the Indian thinker who faces nature in the open and feels im- pelled to think out and give reasons for things. Is not the sky side, the left in the Osage conception, given the place of honor because of a deep feeling of its religious significance? Daniel Folkmar, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI MARCH 19, 1916 No. 6 BOTANY. — A remarkable new Eysenhardtia from the west coast of Mexico.1 William E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry. In a recent paper on Eysenhardtia polystachya2 the author called attention to the variability of that species and to the consequent difficulty in delimiting the species included in the group to which it belongs. Of those already described Eysenhardtia orthocarpa S. Wats, and E. adenostylis Baill. are held by some authorities to be specifically identical with E. polystachya (Orteg.) Sarg., and E. amorphoides H.B.K. is undoubtedly a synonym of it. So distinct from this group and from Eysenhardtia spmosa Engelm. and its allies is the plant I am about to describe, that it ought to be placed in a section apart from them. Its ten stamens are monadelphous instead of diadelphous, the style is not genicu- late or hooked, the calyx is deeply instead of shallowly and broadly lobed, and it differs conspicuously from hitherto de- scribed species of Eysenhardtia in its spreading, compound, paniculate inflorescence and its very large retuse leaflets. A critical study of the entire genus is greatly to be desired. Eysenhardtia Olivana Safford, sp. nov. A tree, 8 to 10 meters high, glandular-punctate throughout; heart- wood dense and blackish; branches slender and spreading. Leaves alternate, usually odd-pinnate (only those of flowering branches ob- served); rachis 10 to 11 cm. long, grooved above; leaflets 7 or 8 pairs, 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 2 Eysenhardtia polystachya, the soiirce of the true lignum nephriticum mexi- canum. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 503-517. 1915. 133 s 134 safford: a remarkable eysenhardtia subopposite, stalked, oval or oblong-elliptical, finely granular-dotted, retuse at apex, rounded at base, the largest (near the middle of the rachis) 4 cm. long, 1.6 cm. broad, glabrous above, sparsely puberulent beneath (as seen under the lens) ; petiolules about 4 mm. long, densely glandular-tuberculate (in type specimen without stipels). Flower small (about 8 mm. long), white, turning yellow in drying, crowded in spicate racemes, these forming the ultimate divisions of a spreading terminal compound panicle; branches of inflorescence finely cinereous- tomentose and glandular-punctate; pedicels very short and slender (1 mm. long), subtended by a minute acute sessile lanceolate deciduous bracteole. Calyx funnel-shaped, deeply divided into 5 nearly equal linear-oblong lobes (rounded at the tips), clothed on the outside with minute cinereous hairs and irregularly dotted with resinous globules. Corolla subpapilionaceous, composed of 5 distinct unguiculate petals, the standard (vexillum) twice as broad as the wings and keel petals, emarginate or retuse at the apex, carinate; wings and keel petals nearly similar, equalling the standard in length. Stamens 10, graduated in length, united into a cleft tube, the upper (vexillar) the shortest, the lower slightly exceeding the style; anthers similar, the pollen cells united by a relatively broad connective. Ovary nearly sessile, 1-ovuled, clothed with minute hairs; style terete, slender, not hooked at the tip, but with a slightly broader terminal stigma. Legume not observed. Type in the United States National Herbarium, No. 385587, col- lected at La Correa, State of Guerrero, Mexico, at an altitude of 150 meters, October 1, 1898, by E. Langlasse (No. 395). " Arbre 8-10 m., bois pr£cieux noiratre; fleurs blanches. Nom indigene, Palo de arco [bowwood]." This species is named in honor of the late Dr. Leonardo Oliva, Pro- fessor of Pharmacology in the University of Guadalajara, who first indicated the true botanical classification of the Mexican lignum nephriticum and identified Eysenhardtia amorphoides H.B.K. with Viborquia polystachya Ortega. The accompanying figure is from a drawing of the type by Mrs. R. E. Gamble. Explanation of Fig. 1. Type specimen of Eysenhardtia Olivana Safford, showing the branching inflor- escence, leaves, a flower, and the essential parts: a, flower with one petal removed, to show the stamens and pistil; b, resinous globule, detached from the calyx; c, cleft staminal tube with stamens, some of them deprived of their an- thers; d, carpel, showing pilose ovary and style with terminal stigma; e, ver- tical section of ovary, showing solitary ovule;/, vexillar petal (standard); g, a wing petal; h, one of the keel petals. Leaves and inflorescence natural size; a, c, d, f, g, h, scale 5; b, e, scale 6. Fig. 1. Type specimen of Eysenhardtia Olivana Safford. 135 136 swanton: aboriginal name "aje" ETHNOBOTANY — Note on the aboriginal name "aje." John R. Swanton, Bureau of American Ethnology. In Mr. Cook's article in this Journal for February 19, 1916, entitled "Quichua names of sweet potatoes" my attention was attracted to the word age, or aje, applied to a native root by the aborigines of the West Indies. Mr. Cook says of this: " Several of the early Spanish historians of the West Indies recorded the name age or aje, but whether this belonged properly to the sweet potato or to some other root-crop has been uncertain. Some of the accounts evidently refer to Manihot, but Gray and Trumbull settled upon Dioscorea as the correct application. Gomez de la Maza claims both age and boniato as indigenous Cuban names of sweet potatoes." Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste in his Prehistoria de Puerto-Rico also identifies it with the yam and says regarding it:1 "Dr. Chanca noted in his letter to the Seville corporation: 'All come laden with ages, which are like turnips (nabos), very excellent food.' Oviedo says (lib. VII, cap. Ill): 'In this island of His- paniola and in all the other islands and the Mainland, there is a plant which is called ajes, which look something like the turnips (nabos) of Spain, especially those which have the bark or surface white above, because there are of these ajes white and red, which verge upon violet, and some yellow, and they are very much larger than turnips (nabos) commonly are.' The same author, in chapter 82, distinguishes the ajes from the batatas. Peter Martyr in his third Decade, book V, chapter III, describes the ajes and the batatas. Las Casas does not confound them when he says (t.v. page 307) : ' There are other roots which the Indians call ajes and batatas: and there are two species of these: these last are more delicate and of a nobler nature: thy are sowed in hills after the manner of yuca, but the plant is different.' There are modern writers like Seflor Pichardo, who think that the aje is the white name (yam). This plant, the name, was brought from Africa with the importation of the negroes into America." 1 Cayetano Coll y Toste. Prehistoria de Puerto-Rico, pp. 197, 198. San Juan, 1907. cook: determining types of genera 137 The fact to which I wish to call attention is the close resem- blance between this term age or aje and the terms applied to all kinds of " potatoes" by many of our southern tribes. The Creek and Alabama word is aha, but that of the Choctaw and the Hitchiti, the ancient inhabitants of southern Georgia, ahe. Along with some qualifying words this is used for the Irish potato, sweet potato, and yam, but it is also applied to a wild root which it is natural to suppose was the original plant so designated. The root to which the Alabama Indians apply the term, plus a qualifying adjective meaning " rough," tcagawa, has been iden- tified for me by Mr. Paul C. Standley, of the National Her- barium, as Apios apios (L.) MacM. Presumably this is the same as the Creek aha akiiwahi, "mud potato," and the Choctaw ahe kamassa or ahe ahkamassa, "hard potato." We have here the perplexing problem of a very similar name applied originally, to all appearances, to entirely unrelated plants and by derivation 'to the very same plants. The resemblance may be purely accidental, but I think it more likely that the word was borrowed from the West Indies by the southern tribes, or vice versa, as the name of several roots not perfectly discrimi- nated from each other. Precisely the same thing has happened in the case of the name kunti. This was originally applied by the Creek Indians to the roots of several species of Smilax; but after those Creeks who came to be known as Seminole had invaded Florida, they found a Zamia in use there to which they gave the very same term. At first the older kunti was distin- guished as the "red kunti" and the new plant as the "white kunti;" but later, or at least where only one of them was to be had, the qualifying adjective was dropped. It thus came about that the same word had a totally different application in different sections of the territory occupied by the same people. TAXONOMY. — Determining types of genera. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. Biological taxonomy is being rebuilt on a new foundation. The older method of naming by concepts is giving place to nam- ing by types. Names are no longer thought of as relating pri- 138 cook: determining types of genera marily to the definitions of the natural groups, but as attached to the groups themselves, through the medium of types. Each species has its type specimen, each genus its type species. The method of naming the concepts was used by Linnaeus and his followers for over a century, but had to be abandoned on account of the confusion caused by names slipping away from their original application. Types not being recognized, the ap- plications of the names varied with interpretations of the defini- tions. Two or more names often became current for the same genus, or the same name for two or more genera. How to place the older names on a type basis is still a problem. Priority governs the acceptance of names and should also determine the application of names. Priority of application means that a name should remain with its original type. Cer- tainly no practical purpose is served by accepting a name unless the application is determined. Names without applications are worse than useless. Generic names that have been misapplied need to be re- stored to their original applications and fixed by the recognition of types. But by using wrong methods in the work of restora- tion it is possible to damage the taxonomic structure still more. Historical continuity is sacrificed when names are carried away from their original applications. This objection lies against all of the arbitrary methods of fixing types, whether we take as types the last species by elimination, the first species named, or the first species to be designated as type by a later author. The method of elimination is most defective, because it does not give the same results in the hands of different students and because it often leads away from the true type. Obscure names are brought out for prominent genera, and prominent names trans- ferred to obscure species. The confusion is worse than if the transferred names had been discarded altogether. The need of more care in determining the original applications of names may be illustrated by an example from millipeds. The generic name Spirobolus has been used for a very large group of tropical species with their chief center in South America. The genus was established by Brandt in 1833, with two species cook: determining types of genera 139 named, S. olfersii from Brazil and S. bungii from northern China. The generic description relates entirely to the char- acters of the antennae and refers to a drawing of S. olfersii, the only species figured. The characters as stated and illus- trated are applicable only to S. olfersii, so that a strict inter- pretation would exclude S. bungii. It seems plain that Spiro- bolus was based wholly on S. olfersii, and that this species must be considered as the true historical type of the genus. Nevertheless, Spirobolus bungii has been designated as the type of the genus, on the ground that the establishment of Rhino- cricus in 1881 had the effect of removing olfersii, so that only bungii was left. But now it appears that olfersii was not really removed, since Rhinocricus needs to be maintained as a distinct genus, with the Porto Rican Rhinocricus parous as type. Even if olfersii and parens were congeneric, there would still be no ade- quate reason why the publication of Rhinocricus should be sup- posed to take away the historical type of Spirobolus and change the application of the name. Obviously, any later name based on olfersii, or on any species truly congeneric with olfersii, should be treated simply as a synonym of Spirobolus. Under the law of priority a name has to be replaced if another is older, but elimination often has the effect of replacing an older name by a later one. Changing the type makes it possible for a later synonym to supplant an old, well-known generic name, which is then slipped along to a different application. To assume that the naming of Rhinocricus could have the retro- active effect of transferring the name Spirobolus from a Brazilian genus represented by olfersii to a Chinese genus represented by bungii, is neither consistent with priority nor in the interest of stability. Transferring Spirobolus to China has the effect of giving the same name to a second genus. Altering the application of the name subverts the law against homonyms. Future writers and readers must guard themselves against confusing the two genera to which the name Spirobolus has been applied. Some taxonomists hold that the first formal designation of a type species, however arbitrary or erroneous, must be main- 140 cook: determining types of genera tained; but such a rule leads, in cases like the present, to a mere shuffling of names, without historical warrant or practical advantage. It seems more reasonable to hold that in using olfersii exclusively as the basis of his genus Brandt himself des- ignated the type of Spirobolus. The original application of the name should not be subject to change by any later author, either by proposing a new genus in the place of Spirobolus or by desig- nating a different type for Spirobolus. Instead of being taken as the type of Spirobolus, bungii should be associated with Arctobolus, the genus of Spirobolidae that is dominant in the temperate regions of North America. The case is one of many where types are not to be determined from considerations of nomenclature alone. It would be use- less to ask a nomenclatorial expert or commission to rule upon Spirobolus without the pertinent facts. Instead of premature regulations and decisions, the need is for more facts and more thorough study of taxonomic problems. Adequate investigation might lead to simple and practical solutions that could be applied by any careful student.1 Complications have been increased unnecessarily in the effort to force a general adoption of an imperfect system. Priority has been pushed to extremes in the acceptance of names, only to be disregarded in determining the applications of names. Abortive names and synonyms that might well have remained in oblivion have replaced many well-known names, and others are being misapplied as a result of the practice of elimination. That botanists and zoologists are using different methods of typifying genera also shows how casual the study of taxonomic problems has been. Such divergence of views can only mean that the subject is not adequately understood, for the need of a stable taxonomy is the same in both branches of biological science. 1 Other phases of the question have been treated in previous papers. See, Terms relating to generic types, The American Naturalist, 48: 308; and Fiat nomenclature, Science, N.S., 40: 272. CLARK: EXTENDED RANGE OF GENUS LYDIASTER 141 ZOOLOGY. — A new starfish (Lydiaster americanus) from the Gulf of Mexico, representing a section of the subfamily Go- niasterinae hitherto knoivn only from the Indo-Pacific region.1 Austin H. Clark, National Museum. One of the most interesting of the new starfishes described in 1909 by Professor Koehler from the collections of the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator was Lydiaster johannae which, with the closely allied genus Circeaster decribed at the same time, represented a hitherto unknown type of Gonias- terinae. Lydiaster johannae was dredged only in a single locality off the southwestern coast of Ceylon in 401 fathoms, while the two species of Circeaster were found off the western coast of Ceylon and southern India in from 912 to 1053 fathoms. Thus, so far as known up to the present time, these two genera are confined to the Arabian Sea. The only genus closely related to these two, Mariaster, occurs off southern Japan. But it appears that Lydiaster also inhabits the Gulf of Mexico, being represented in this region by a remarkable new species, in some respects intermediate between Lydiaster and Circeaster. This may be known as Lydiaster americanus, sp. no v. Five arms; R = 100 mm.; r = 35 mm.; R:r = 2.9: 1; superomar- gi rials 24. General form pentagonal, with relatively narrow, evenly tapering- arms, the length of which, measured actinally along the curve from a point directly below the commencement of the enlarged plates, is equal to the distance from the same point to the center of the interbrachial arc opposite. The diameter of the arms at the base (at the level of the distal border of the fifth supermarginal) is 19 mm. In the outer half the arms bend gradually upward, so that their terminal portion makes an angle of about 60 degrees with the plane of the disk. Compared with L. johannae the interbrachial arcs are more nearly straight and the arms, which are narrower, appear to arise more abruptly. The abactinal surface, which is somewhat swollen, is covered with small polygonal plates which are mostly subequal in size and irregular in arrangement; they vary from about 1 mm. to about 2 mm. in diame- ter, being usually about 1.5 mm.; just before the base of the arms the Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. 142 CLARK! EXTENDED RANGE OF GENUS LYDIASTER plates become shorter radially, so that they appear to be transversely elongated; on the arms they slowly increase in size, though not in regularity, the largest being something over 3 mm. in diameter; in the distal half of the arm only one row of plates separates the superomar- ginals, and the last four or five superomarginals are in contact along the mid-dorsal line of the ray. Each of the abactinal plates is bordered by a ring of flattened gran- ules, there being from 20 to 24 about the largest; in the central portion of the abactinal surface each plate bears from two to six rounded granules, each inserted in a small pit; toward the periphery these be- come less numerous and less prominent, though they occur nearly to the marginals ; the plates on the abactinal surface of the arms are some- what more flattened than those of the disk, and the isolated granules are less common in their central portion; most of the plates on the disk bear spatulate pedicellariae with usually strongly dentate jaws, each sunk in a deep depression, but on the rays, except for one or two very small and imperfectly formed, these are lacking. The papular areas, which are confined entirely to the disk, are very large; the only regions free from papulae are the center of the disk and low triangles about three times as broad as high based upon the superomarginals, in which areas also the plates decrease in size toward the border and do not bear pedicellariae. The papulae are smaller and less abundant in the mid-line of each ray than elsewhere, and this causes the mid-radial plates in the peripheral half of the disk to appear somewhat prominent. The marginal plates of both series are 24 in number; but the infero- marginals are somewhat longer than the superomarginals, so that, although the two series correspond in the interbrachial arcs, in the distal part of the arms they alternate in position. The interbrachial arc as defined by the superomarginals is straight, as defined by the inferomarginals gently concave. In abactinal view the superomarginals, which are markedly tumid, are seen to increase very slightly in width to the fifth, at the base of the rays, thence decreasing gradually distally; in lateral view they de- crease regularly in height from the center of the interbrachial arc, where they are twice as high as the inferomarginals, to the distal third of the arm, where the plates of the two series are of about the same height. In the interbrachial arc the outer third of the superomarginals is vertical, and the inner two-thirds bends inward so that the inner half, which is flat, extends at an angle of about 45 degrees over the dorsal (abactinal) margin ; on the arms the inner half becomes more nearly horizontal ; here also the inner border of the superomarginals is straight, but on the arms it becomes slightly convex or angular. On the aver- age the superomarginals, as viewed abactinally, are about twice as deep as long, those at the arm bases being somewhat longer, those toward the arm tips slightly shorter. Each superomarginal carries on its surface numerous widely spaced deciduous granules arranged in the interbrachial arc roughly in five CLARK: EXTENDED RANGE OF GENUS LYDIASTER 143 alternating rows of seven or eight each, becoming less numerous dis- tally; the granular area is confined to the median portion of the plate, though in the interbrachial arc it may reach the proximal border; in the interbrachial arc nearly all the superomarginals bear near their actinal border a very small deeply sunken spatulate pedicellaria; a narrow border of flattened squarish granules surrounds each superomarginal. The inferomarginals are essentially similar to the superomarginal; viewed actinally they are seen to decrease in size from the center of the interbrachial arc to the arm bases, thence much more gradually to the arm tips; in the interbrachial arc in lateral view the inferomarginals are only half as high as the superomarginals (2.5 mm.), but they rapidly increase in height so that on the outer half of the arm the plates of the two series are nearly equal. The inner portion of the inferomarginals is everywhere horizontal, and the inner border is everywhere convex. A border of small squarish granules similar to that on the superomarginals is found on the inferomarginals, and the same granular ornamentation occurs on their surface, though the granules are rather more numerous. In the interbrachial arc the inferomarginals usually carry small exca- vate spatulate pedicellariae just within the upper border, and one or two additional on the ventral (actinal) surface; pedicellariae of both series occur irregularly to the terminal portion of the arms. The actinal intermediate areas are extensive; the row of actinal intermediate plates adjacent to the adambulacrals, which extends to the sixteenth superomarginal (the distal third of the arm), is regular and the next row is regular to the arm bases ; a partial third row may be traced, but within the triangular area between this and the inferomarginals the plates, which decrease in size, tend to become arranged in columns perpendicular to the inferomarginals. In the center of each of the actinal intermediate plates is a large pedicellaria which resembles those on the adambulacrals, and is more or less proportionate in size to the plate; on the larger plates this is surrounded by several large rounded tubercles, beyond which are the lower tubercles forming the bordering series of the plates ; on the smaller plates only the latter occur. The adambulacral plates are oblong, from one-third to one-half again as broad as long, with a very slightry curved furrow margin which is not quite parallel to the groove, the proximal end being slight^ more distant. The furrow series consists of five stout subequal truncated spines, mostly rounded-quadrate in section, the most proximal of which is so situated that it overlaps the most distal of the preceding series. Behind the furrow spines is a series of three or four tubercles, the most distal abruptly the largest, and behind these a long, low, Hippasteria- like bivalved pedicellaria placed somewhat diagonally with its distal end slightly nearer the mid-radial line. Beyond the pedicellaria is a series of two or three large tubercles, and beyond these a series of several smaller tubercles which, with similar tubercles, at right angles to the two ends of this series, delimit the borders of the plate. The mouth plates are triangular and inconspicuous, about twice as 144 mooney: the Greenland eskimo long as broad; the furrow margin is about equal to the edge adjoining the first adambulacral ; the furrow series consists of seven short blunt spines, stouter than those on the adambulacrals, of which the inner- most is broad, flat, and trapezoidal; just behind the two terminal spines in this series are two large tubercles ; the remaining portion of the sur- face of the mouth plates is covered with about 18 spaced polygonal tubercles resembling those on the actinal intermediate plates, but somewhat larger. The color in alcohol is white. Type.— Cat. No. 10872, U. S. N. M., from "Albatross" Station 2395, Gulf of Mexico, in 347 fathoms. ANTHROPOLOGY.— The Greenland Eskimo: Pastor Frederik- sen's researches. James Mooney, Bureau of American Ethnology. The great Arctic island of Greenland is held by Denmark, having been first colonized by the Norse about the year 1000, and re-occupied from Denmark in 1721, the first colony having become extinct long before, possibly through inroads of the Eskimo. Since the second occupation Lutheran and Moravian missionaries, under the auspices of the home government, have labored with such devotion and success among the aborigines that of approximately 10,000 Eskimo of pure or mixed blood all but a few hundreds along the most remote coasts are civilized, Christianized, self-supporting, and able to read and write in their own language, while living on the best of terms with the handful of colonists. So carefully has the Danish government safeguarded their interests that famine, intemperance, and foul diseases which are so rapidly destroying the race in Alaska and British America are virtually unknown in Greenland, as well as wars and rumors of wars with their white neighbors. Since 1861, with a few breaks, there has been published at Godthaab (Nungme) on the west coast, a small monthly journal, the Atuagagdliutit or "Reading Miscellany," entirely in the Eskimo language, which for press-work, illustrations, and literary con- tent is fairly equal to anything of the same size in this country. Another mission monthly journal, the Avangnamiok, is pub- lished under the supervision of Rev. V. C. Frederiksen, resident missionary at Holstensborg, one of the northernmost outposts of mooney: the Greenland Eskimo 145 civilization and well within the Arctic circle. Between pastoral visits and sick calls in an open skin kayak, or by dog sledge, from one to another of the small native settlements scattered for three hundred miles along the dangerous west coast, this de- voted missionary — whose only white companions are his wife and two children and a couple of assistants — has found time to give to his charges in their own language a volume of church hymns, a brief history of Greenland, and several literary trans- lations, besides making some important archeologic explorations. In a paper upon "Eskimo Migrations," published originally in the native language in Atuagagdliutit, Mr. Frederiksen arrives at the conclusion, from linguistic, geographic, and archeologic evidence, that the Eskimo tribes reached Greenland from an original nucleus body in the extreme west. He believes that they traveled southward around the coast to the east, the Eskimo of the East Greenland coast representing the oldest migration, and decreasing in number toward the north by reason of the scarcity of game and of building material. The houses also dwindle in size as we proceed northward along the east coast. The Norse occupation about the year 1000 made a wedge of separation be- tween the Eskimo of the east and west coasts for several cen- turies, but with the extinction of the Norse colony about 1490, probably from attack and final absorption by the natives, some of the eastern bands again moved down toward the south. Of those who remained behind, the most northerly, beyond Angmag- salik, finally became extinct by starvation through the gradual diminution of the whale and seal, while the more southern tribes were saved from the same fate only by the kindly care of the later Danish colonists. The Eskimo of South Greenland have probably a considerable strain of the old Norse blood, which may help to account for their superior capacity for civilization. The prevailing early house type of the South Greenland Eskimo, on both the east and west coast, as shown by the ruins, was rectangular, but about Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg, 65° to 68° N., Mr. Frederiksen has discovered numerous remains of semi-subterranean houses of circular form, always in groups, 146 michelson: an archeological note sometimes of twenty together, resembling those about Cape York in North Greenland and about the mouth of the Mackenzie and westward. These round houses he considers to represent a later migration or period; in fact, in one instance he found the ruins of the round house within the remains of a larger rect- angular house. The stone lamps found in these round houses have always a partition wall, as among some of the far west- ern Eskimo, to separate the oil from the blubber. Other objects found, obtained from whaling ships, would indicate a period not earlier than 1700. The modern Greenland house type is also rectangular, except in the extreme north. In the same neighborhood he found also the remains of a great circular struc- ture, of the type of the assembly house of the Alaskan Eskimo. ANTHROPOLOGY. — An archeological note. Truman Michel- son, Bureau of American Ethnology. Squier and Davis in their Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pages 249, 250, discuss a gray sandstone pipe now depos- ited in the museum of the Historical Society of New York. They show quite clearly that this is the original of the drawing by Choris in his Voyage Pittoresque; and they demonstrate that there must be some mistake as to the provenience of this pipe, for there are no ancient tumuli in Connecticut. The purpose of this note is to elucidate this last point. I call attention to the fact that the Sauk pipe shown in the plate at the end of volume 2 of Bel- trami's Pilgrimage belongs to the same culture as the one shown in figure 149, page 249, in the work of Squier and Davis. I have seen a photograph of the original of the latter, and it is far closer to the Sauk pipe than the drawing indicates. If the drawing of Beltrami is no closer to the original than is that of Squier and Davis to its original, it is possible that the originals of both are the same. Even if they are not the same, I think the above will have made clear that the provenience of the pipe shown in the work of Squier and Davis must be the upper Mississippi region, near the Rock river, where the Sauk had their principal encamp- ment when Beltrami visited their country, viz., 1823. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— The preparation of -pure iron and iron carbon alloys. J. R. Cain, E. Schramm, and H. E. Cleaves. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 266. Pp. 26. 1916. As previous work on the iron-carbon diagram is unsatisfactory be- cause of the great variation in the materials used, it was thought desir- able to produce at the Bureau of Standards a series of alloys of great purity to form the basis of a redetermination of the diagram. The general method pursued consisted in melting electrolytic iron with sugar carbon in magnesia crucibles. The electrolytic iron was pre- pared from ingot iron anodes in a chloride bath with or without the use of porous cups. The operation of melting the iron with carbon gave great trouble at first, because the ingots obtained were full of blow- holes and contained considerable quantities of impurities. These difficulties were overcome by melting in a vacuum furnace, and making the crucibles of especially pure magnesia, made and calcined with great care at the Bureau of Standards. A satisfactory procedure was finally worked out and a series of alloys prepared of the composition Fe + C = 99.96 per cent. H. E. C. GEOLOGY. — Mount Shasta — some of its geological aspects. J. S. Diller. Mazama, 4: December, 1915, 11-16, illustrations and maps. Stress is laid on the geologic basis for differentiating the Cascade Range and the Klamath Mountains' from the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges. Mount Shasta is a mass of hornblende and hypersthene andesites rising more than 10,000 feet above its base of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. It is bordered on the east by later basalts and 147 f 148 abstracts: geology crowned by 5 small glaciers of which the Whitney glacier, the largest, is 2l miles in length. Near the summit are several fumaroles, a residual of its waning volcanic heat. J. S. D. GEOLOGY. — Geology and mineral resources of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. G. C. Martin, Arthur Hollick, Bertrand L. Johnson, and U. S. Grant. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 587. Pp. 243, with maps, sections, and views. 1915. The volume consists of five papers entitled: General features of Kenai Peninsula. G. C. Martin. The western part of Kenai Peninsula. G. C. Martin. Correlation of the Kenai flora. Arthur Hollick. The central and northern parts of Kenai Peninsula. Bertrand L. Johnson. The southeastern coast of Kenai Peninsula. U. S. Grant. This volume contains the results of reconnaissance investigations of a region about 9400 square miles in area situated on the Pacific coast of south-central Alaska. It presents a summary of what is known of the geography, geology, and mineral resources. Some parts of the peninsula have been studied in considerable detail, others have been traversed only hastily, and information concerning considerable areas is almost lacking. The Kenai Peninsula includes two sharply defined, and geographically and geologically dissimilar, districts, the Kenai Mountains and the Kenai lowland. The Kenai Mountains have a general altitude of from 3000 to 5000 (maximum, 6400) feet and are in large part occupied by glaciers. They are composed of thoroughly indurated, partly metamorphosed, and highly folded rocks that include slates and graywackes of un- determined age in the main mountain mass, and Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic limestones and pyroclastics on the western border. Some intrusive masses, chiefly granitic, but including also felsic (acidic) dikes, are present. The Kenai lowland has a general elevation of from 50 to 200 (maximum, 2000) feet. It is composed of slightly indurated and gently folded Tertiary (Eocene?) coal-bearing (non-marine) sands and clays overlain by extensive Quarternary deposits. The general stratigraphic sequence in the Kenai Peninsula is as follows : Quarternary Recent alluvial deposits Glacial and terrace gravels abstracts: mineralogy 149 Tertiary Kenai formation (sands and clays, with lignite beds, and contain- ing fos-il plants) Lower Jurassic Tuffs with marine fossils Upper Triassic Limestone and tuff with marine fossils Chert Triassic (?) Ellipsoidal lavas Paleozoic (?) Slates and graywackes Schists Metalliferous deposits occur as veins, stringer lodes, and mineralized felsic (acid) dikes, and these follow two sets of Assuring approximately at right- angles to each other. The ore deposits are chiefly auriferous, but some copper-bearing lodes have been found. The mineralization is probably due to the action of mineral-bearing solutions (magmatic waters) that were forced out of the deeper parts of the igneous magma during its solidification. G. C. M. MINERALOGY. — The chemical composition of bornite. Edgar T. Wherry. Science, 42: 570-571. 1915. Discussion of a paper by Rogers (Science 42: 386. 1915.) It is suggested that the variability in the composition of bornite (normally Cu5FeS4) is due to the presence of submicroscopic inclusions of one or more of the minerals often occurring as visible inclusions in it, namely chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite. E. T. W. MINERALOGY. — Notes on allophanite,fuchsite, and triphylite. Edgar T. Wherry. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 49: 463-467. 1915. A description is given of a specimen of allophanite from Utah. Its index of refraction varies with the water content, being the average of the indices of the constituents, which is regarded as evidence that no complete chemical combination between them exists. Occurrences of fuchsite in Pennsylvania and Colorado are described, and the per- centages of chromium oxide present are given. A new locality for triphylite in New Hampshire is announced and its composition dis- cussed. It contains 60 per cent lithio-ferro-triphylite and 37 per cent lithio-mangano-triphylite. E. T. W. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 765th meeting was held on January 8, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. President Briggs in the chair, 50 persons present. The min- utes of the 763d meeting were read in abstract and approved. Mr. H. N. Heck presented by invitation a communication entitled, Detailed submarine relief, a practical method of development. The amount of detail required for submarine relief depends upon whether the point of view is scientific or utilitarian. The standard methods of obtaining knowledge of submarine relief were described and the reason given why these are insufficient in manjr parts of the earth. The de- velopment of the wire-drag method was described and that method mathematically defined. The importance of geological accidents in sub- marine relief was emphasized and two forms of especial importance pointed out. Slides were shown to illustrate cases where submarine relief agrees closely with the adjacent land forms and also to show, by examples selected from all parts of the United States, Alaska, and else- where, where there is marked disagreement, or forms entirety unex- pected. Two ways were indicated in which geology can assist in de- termining where the wire-drag method must be applied. The question is open whether it is possible to predict from available geological in- formation the existence or absence of certain forms of submarine relief . The effect of submarine relief on the three principal motions of the sea was briefly discussed. Discussion: Mr. Wright referred to dangers from hidden rocks ex- perienced during geological expeditions in Alaskan waters. Mr. Hazard asked how often it was necessary to change the height of the drag. Mr. Sosman called attention to the recent discovery of a pin- nacle of rock in the Liverpool Channel. Mr. Heck stated that it was sometimes necessary to change the height of drag every 20 minutes. The Chair expressed to Mr. Heck the thanks of the Society for his very interesting communication. Mr. A. L. Thuras presented a paper entitled, A method of deter- mining densities at sea and its use in locating ocean currents. A new method of ocean-density measurement particularly adapted to sea conditions was briefly discussed. The temperature of the water sample was varied until its density was just equal to that of a glass "bobbin." A calibration curve was shown giving the density of the sample at 15°C. in terms of the equilibrium temperature. The accuracy attained was greater than 0.008 per cent. A continuous 150 proceedings: philosophical society 151 record of the ocean temperature near the surface was also obtained, and each gave evidence of the location of ocean currents. Charts giving these data and thus locating the Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream in the vicinity of the Great Bank were shown. The density (reduced to 15° C.) of the Labrador Current was about 1.0245, of the Gulf Stream 1.0270; but the actual densities in situ were respectively 1.0267 and 1.0266. The width of the Labrador Current at latitude 45° N. was 65 miles and at 44° N. only 25 miles. Detail temperature curves showed beautifully the interdiffusion of the two streams at the southern end of the Great Bank. The results in general corroborate the current charts of Captain C. E. Johnston. Discussion: Messrs. Sosman, White, and Humphreys discussed the possibility of the Labrador Current diving under the Gulf Stream. Captain Johnston stated that by observing icebergs he had come to the conclusion that the Labrador Current acts like a band; when a great quantity of cold water accumulates it sweeps under the Gulf Stream or breaks through irregularly. Mr. Stillman asked whether it was feasible to measure densities by measuring resistances. Mr. Dickinson stated that salinities could be measured by electrical methods in the laboratory but that difficulties would be encountered at sea. Mr. Swann suggested the use of the string galvanometer for work on board ship. Mr. P. V. Wells then spoke on The study of fog at sea. The speaker described the work on fog clone aboard the ice-patrol cutter Seneca during a cruise in May, 1915. The nucleation, the number of persistent nuclei per cubic centimeter, was measured three times daily by the corona method of Barus. The error was less than 15 per cent. Gen- erally the nucleation was high in cyclonic areas, from which it was inferred that the nuclei at sea are mainly salt particles — evaporated spray. The nucleation was never below 400, normally 1000, and three times rose to 50,000. The liquid content, or grams of liquid water per cubic meter, was determined by evaporating the fog electrically and measuring the humidity at the higher temperature. A value, 0.7, with an error of less than 20 per cent, was obtained. The size of the fog particle was 5X10-4 cm. A rise of 1?4 C. would dispel this fog, and as an inversion of 2?5 was observed at the masthead, the fog- did not extend that high. The speaker suggested the possibility of seeing from the masthead a powerful light or a flag on the masthead of a nearby ship. Discussion: Mr. Swann stated that the measured ionization over the sea is about as great as over the land; on land it is possible to account for 5 ions per cubic centimeter, while over the sea it is possible to ac- count for only 1| ions per cubic centimeter. Mr. Wells stated that the nuclei over the sea were less numerous than over the land, which is in agreement with observations of atmospheric electricity. Barus sus- pected a connection between nuclei and ionization; it would have been an improvement had it been possible to observe nucleation and ioniza- tion simultaneously. 152 proceedings: philosophical society The 766th meeting was held on January 22, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. President Briggs in the chair, 51 persons present. The min- utes of the 765th meeting were read in abstract, corrected, and approved. REGULAR PROGRAM Mr. C. G. Abbot presented a paper entitled, New proofs of the solar variability. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory has inves- tigated for 12 years the intensity of solar radiation. In speaking of the variability of the sun we do not refer to variations caused by the atmosphere of the earth or by the yearly fluctuations of the earth's solar distance. The latter are readily eliminated. The elimination of atmospheric influences depends on spectrobolometric observations at different altitudes of the sun, reduced in accordance with sound theory. Experiments at Washington, Mount Wilson, Mount Whitney, and Bas- sour (Algeria), under circumstances differing widely as to atmospheric temperature, pressure, humidity, and length of path, are in close agreement in their indications of the intensity of solar radiation out- side the atmosphere. The results are further checked by confirmatory observations at different altitudes ranging on the earth from sea-level to Mount Whitney, and by manned balloons to 8000 meters, and by sounding balloons to 25,000 meters. Variations of solar emission of radiation were indicated by Mount Wilson observations and confirmed by simultaneous work at Bassour, Algeria. A correlation coefficient of 50=*= 7 per cent is found between the variations noted at the two sta- tions. This leaves the chance of accidental correlation 1 in 25,000. Four years of pyrheliometry at the Arequipa, Peru, station of the Harvard College Observatory, under direction of Professor E. C. Pickering, are now being published by the Smithsonian Institution. This work confirms the solar variability from day to day, and from year to year, found at Mount Wilson. Measurements of the distri- bution of radiation along the diameter of the solar image have been made by the Smithsonian observers at Washington and at Mount Wilson. Fluctuations of contrast between the center and the edge of the sun are found to occur in all wave-lengths, but greater for short wave-lengths than for longer ones. These fluctuations occur from day to day and from year to year. Both kinds of changes are correlated in time with changes in solar radiation. Curiously the correlation is in opposite senses for long-period and short-period changes. When great solar activity prevails, as shown by sun-spots, faculac, etc., high solar-radiation values predominate, and a greater contrast of bright- ness between the center and the edge of the sun is found. But when irregular changes of the solar radiation occur in the short period, they are associated with less contrast of brightness between the center and the edge of the sun. The first type of change was explained as a tem- perature effect, the second as due to changes of transparency of the outer solar envelope. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Discussion: Mr. Swann pointed out that some of the data deter- mined from variation in the sun's atmosphere were suggestive of solec- proceedings: philosophical society 153 tive absorption; he also questioned the extent to which the sun may be treated as a black body, particularly in the ultra-violet region. Mr. Humphreys asked whether there was any connection found be- tween the daily fluctuations of the solar constant and the changing barometric pressure at the same time. Mr. Abbot stated that the work did not indicate selective absorption since the differences from all wave-lengths are not found to be in the same sense; there appears to be no connection between the daily variations of solar constant and barometric pressure. Mr. L. A. Bauer then presented a paper entitled, Corresponding changes in the earth's magnetic field and the solar radiation. Recent in- vestigations with the aid of later solar and magnetic data have con- firmed the author's preliminary conclusions of 1914 and 1915. It is again found in the majority of cases (about 80 per cent) that in- creased intensity of solar radiation, as shown by the changes in solar- constant values possessing the accuracy of those of the Smithsonian Institution, is accompanied by an appreciable decrease in the constant used as a measure of the intensity of the earth's magnetic field. While the magnetic effect, observed on the average, is such as accompanies the heating of a magnet, it is, apparently, not to be referred to such a cause. A preliminary examination of the magnetic effects in different parts of the earth indicates that the seat of the system of forces caus- ing the effects is not within the earth itself but in the regions above us. In conclusion, it was pointed out that, from the standpoint of terres- trial magnetism, observations dependent solely upon the thermal en- ergy of solar radiation can not be given any greater significance than that they may indicate some change in solar activity. Thus changes in the solar constant may not be regarded as a true, or adequate, measure of the various ionizing agencies (ultra-violet light, corpuscu- lar radiations, electrons impinging upon our atmosphere, etc.) which are, at present, believed to be ultimately the cause of the magnetic effects. To the pyrheliometer, the bolometer, and meteorological ap- pliances, must be added the magnetic needle, if we wish to get as com- plete a representation as possible of the various effects attributable to our sun, directly or indirectly. Discussion: Mr. Swann stated that computations, assuming the total energy of the spectrum could be wholly absorbed in the upper atmosphere, indicated the resulting ionization would be only 1/100 of that required to account for the diurnal variation if we accept Schuster's theory. Mere heat and light radiation could not account for the conductivity. INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS An apparatus for making hydrostatic weighings, developed for finding the volumes of precision weights, was shown and described by Mr. A. T. Pienkowsky. The chief aim in designing the apparatus was to allow fairly accurate measurements to be repeated quickly, and to provide for the easy handling of several different sized objects in succes- sion. A scale-pan, essentially a flat grid, is suspended by a wire coated 154 proceedings: philosophical society with a rough, spongy coating of gold, applied electrolytically. An arrestment table, meshing with the scale-pan and raised or lowered by a rack and pinion, allows the object to be put on or taken off from the scale-pan with the least possible disturbance. A guard ring sur- rounds the suspension-wire at the surface of the water to help main- tain a uniform surface-tension on the wire. The 767th meeting was held on February 5, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. President Briggs in the chair, 58 persons present. The min- utes of the 766th meeting were read in abstract and approved. REGULAR PROGRAM Mr. E. C. Bingham presented by invitation a communication, illus- trated by lantern slides, entitled, Plastic flow. (To be published in a later number of this Jouivnal.) Mr. E. Buckingham then presented a paper entitled, Notes on the theory of efflux viscosimeters. The paper was concerned with the rela- tive determination of the viscosities of liquids, in terms of the viscosity of some standard liquid, by the commonly used efflux method. In- struments for making such comparisons must, in general, be standard- ized, or have their "scales" determined, by means of a series of liquids of which the relative viscosities have already been found by other methods. The speaker's purpose was to show how the necessity for such a standardization might be obviated and the series of standardiz- ing liquids dispensed with. It was shown, by dimensional reasoning, that whatever be the nature of the orifice or mouth-piece through which the liquid is discharged, if the driving head be so adjusted that its square root is proportional to the rate of discharge, the rate of discharge will itself be proportional to the kinematic viscosity of the liquid. Hence when this adjustment of the conditions has been effected, the kinematic viscosities of two liquids are directly as their observed rates of efflux. A viscosimeter which is so arranged that this adjustment may be made need not be standardized at all, unless absolute values are required; and in that event a single standard liquid of known kinematic viscosity suffices. It was shown that if the viscosimeter is a cylindrical burette with a small oriffice at the bottom, and if the ob- servations consist in readings of the times at which the surface of the liquid passes the marks on the burette as the liquid flows out at the bottom, the inconvenient process of adjustment previously mentioned may be dispensed with and the result obtained graphically. The paper concluded with several suggestions regarding the practice of the proposed method of viscosimetry. Discussion: Mr. Bauer asked what liquid would be best suited as a standard. Mr. Abbot asked what degree of accuracy is practically desired; if the accuracy wanted is high, is not the adhesion to the side of the tube a difficulty? Mr. Buckingham stated that water would be the best standard but that the practical requirements would make necessary other intermediate standards as the viscosity increases. proceedings: geological society 155 Mr. Herschel stated that an accuracy of 5 per cent is sufficient for technical purposes. In investigating efflux viscosimeters he has found a modification of Griineisen's diagram very helpful. Plot as ordinates , — and as abscissas Ji — . If the commonly accepted Ubbelohde form of equation were correct, we would have a straight line cutting the X-axis at a distance — = — from the origin, where (I + X) is the effective 32Z length of capillary, and making an angle whose tangent is — 7 with ma . the X-axis; m is the kinetic-energy coefficient which is 1.12 according to Boussinesq. Mr. Herschel finds that m is variable when a certain velocity is exceeded. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION Mr. L. A. Bauer discussed Some corresponding changes in solar radiation, terrestrial magnetism, and astronomy . With the aid of lan- tern slides, striking similarities were shown to exist between the follow- ing 3 curves: (1) Curve of changes in the solar constant, 1905-1914; (2) curve of anomalies in the regular^ progresing secular variation of the earth's magnetic field, 1905-1913; and (3) curve of mean irregu- larities in motion of Mercury, Venus, the moon, and the earth, 1905- 1913. Astronomers having exhausted the possibilities of explaining the outstanding astronomical motions by gravitational causes, are now seeking for some connection with effects arising from possible inter- acting magnetic fields of planets. Inquiries received at various times from astronomers, notably from the late Professor Newcomb, have led the speaker to undertake an examination into the various questions involved. As the first step, he has established a tentative formula which gives the magnetic field strength of the sun within 10 per cent of Hale's provisional value, and shows that a magnetic field possibly to be associated with Jupiter may have a strength almost that of the sun, namely, about 68 times that of the earth. The Chair expressed to Mr. Bingham the thanks of the Society for his most interesting communication. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 300th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on November 24, 1915. informal communications D. F. Hewett: Manganese deposits in Virginia. Among six de- posits examined five showed a striking relationship to topographic features. The deposits lie at the base of the Blue Ridge, where the Tertiary plain merges with the hills, and occupy old river channels 156 proceedings: geological society in the plain. It seems plausible that they were formed while the plain was being developed and during a climatic cycle more favorable than the present one; i.e., under milder and more humid conditions. Discussion: Sidney Paige inquired as to the source of the manganese. Hewett replied that there had been considerable speculation on this matter; it seems likely that it was derived from basic silicates in cer- tain shale beds. T. Wayland Vaughan spoke of the climate of the Eocene in the Gulf States, as shown by marine fossils. In the early Eocene the climate was tropical, in the middle Eocene somewhat cooler, and in the late Eocene tropical again. REGULAR PROGRAM L. W. Stephenson: Correlation of the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. (Illustrated.) The Upper Cretaceous sediments of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain are chiefly medium to fine-grained clays, sands, chalks, and marls, ranging in origin from those laid down on low coastal plains, in estuaries or in very shallow seas, to those formed in waters perhaps exceeding 100 fathoms in depth. In our present state of progress the fossils most usable in determining the age relations of the marine sediments formed in waters ranging in depth from moderately shallow to 50 fathoms or more are the representatives of the genus Exogyra, which were adapted for life in all but the very shallowest of the Upper Cre- taceous marginal seas and which underwent evolutionary changes with sufficient rapidity to form faunal zones traceable through con- temporaneous formations. Three principal zones have been differentiated, which, in ascending order, are: (1) The zone of Exogyra upatoiensis, which is at the base of the Eutaw formation in the Chattahoochee region; (2) the zone of Exogyra ponderosa, which has been traced from New Jersey to the Rio Grande. On the basis of fossils other than Exogyra this zone is sepa- rable into two parts, — lower and upper. The former is traceable from Georgia to the Rio Grande, and the latter from New Jersey to the Rio Grande; (3) the zone of Exogyra costata, which has been traced from New Jersey to Mexico. This zone is roughly separable into three parts: a lower, characterized by a variety of Exogyra costata with broad costae; a middle, characterized by a variety with costae of medium breadth ; and an upper, characterized by a variety with narrow costae. The correlations based on the Exogyra zones and subzones are sup- ported by many other molluscan species of restricted stratigraphic range and more or less extended geographic range. Tables and charts were shown illustrating the physical and age re- lations of the formations, the stratigraphic position of the species and varieties of Exogyra, and the correlation of the formations with each other and with the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Western Interior and of Europe. proceedings: geological society 157 G. R. Mansfield and P. V. Roundy: Some Jurassic and Cretaceous formations of southeastern Idaho. (Illustrated.) In the Montpelier and Wayan 30-minute quadrangles of south- eastern Idaho parties of the Geological Survey have found great thick- nesses of strata, aggregating 17,000 feet or more, that have hitherto been assigned to the Beckwith and Bear River formations. On the maps of the Hayden Surveys both formations are included in the Laramie. The Beckwith has been assigned to the Cretaceous or Juras- sic, and the Bear River to the Upper Cretaceous. There is such lack of agreement between the formations in the quadrangles named and the Beckwith and Bear River formations in their type localities that it now seems inadvisable to continue the use of the names Beck- with and Bear River in this district. Three groups of strata are recog- nized, the lowest of which is marine Jurassic and rests unconformably upon the Twin Creek limestone, the main Jurassic formation of the region. The two higher groups are non-marine and probably Lower Cretaceous. They are separated from each other by an unconformity, but the lower group appears to be conformable on the Jurassic beds below. The two higher groups have some resemblances to the Koo- tenai, but the data are at present insufficient for their correlation with that formation. No characteristic Bear River fossils have been found in the district, though such have been found farther north, and there is a possibility that the doubtful beds may grade upward into the true Bear River in that direction. The beds formerly called Beckwith are divided into seven formations and a new name is given to the strata hitherto called Bear River. The paper gives a statement of the strati- graphic problems involved, together with a description of the formations. Discussion. C. J. Hares asked if the pebbles of the conglomerate described could be attributed definitely to any older formation. Mans- field replied that many different formations were probably represented but could not be definitely recognized. T. W. Stanton remarked on the lithologic and successional differences in this section from those in adjacent sections. He said also that the formations between the marine Upper Jurassic and the marine Upper Cretaceous still needed much study before it would be possible to make definite correlations. A. C. Spencer: Gold deposits of the Atlantic and South Pass Dis- tricts, Wyoming. (No abstract.) At the 301st meeting, held December 8, 1915, the presidential ad- dress was delivered by the retiring president, T. Wayland Vatjghan: Some problems in the geologic history of the perimeters of the Gulf of Mexico and. the Caribbean Sea. The address will be published at a later date. At the twenty-third annual meeting the following officers were elect- ed for the ensuing year: President, Arthur C. Spencer; Vice-Presi- dents, W. C. Mendenhall and F. H. Knowlton; Secretaries, Carroll H. Wegemann and H. E. Merwin; Treasurer, S. R. Capps; Members-at- large of the Council, B. S. Butler, C. W. Gilmore, G. F. Loughlin, H. S. Gale and R. W. Pack. C. N. Fenner, Secretary. 158 proceedings: botanical society THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 110th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, February 1, 1916. Fifty-three members and four guests were present. Messrs. Chas. H. Clark, Felix J. Schneiderhan, and T. Tanaka were elected to membership. The following papers were presented: Egyptian use of date tree products other than fruit (with lantern) : S. C. Mason. (To be published in full elsewhere.) Botanical and economic notes on the dasheen (with lantern and ex- hibit): R. A. Young. The dasheens represent one type of the taro, which is well known in the Orient and the islands of the Pacific. All belong to the genus Colocasia. The variety under special consideration was the one known as the "Trinidad," from the island of Trinidad; it is believed to have come originally from China. Slides were shown illustrating the dif- ferences in floral and other characters between two very distinct types of Colocasia, which for the past sixty years have been included under the name C. antiquorum (L.) Schott. One of the types, which includes the dasheen, was recognized tentatively by Schott, in 1832, as a good species under the name C. esculenta (L.) Schott. In 1856 he reduced it to a varietal rank. The other type, which is represented by the "qolqas" or "colocasia" of Egypt, is the species C. antiquorum. It is contended that the reduction of C. esculenta to varietal rank, was an error and it is proposed to restore it to specific rank. The true C. anti- quorum properly includes the common elephant-ear plant, generally referred to as Caladium esculentum of Ventenat. The dasheen is gaining in importance in the far south, and a northern market is developing. Many culinary experiments have been made and a number of delicious and attractive dishes have resulted. After the program, dasheens which had been parboiled and baked with electric stoves, were served. The pathological inspection work of the Federal Horticidtural Board. Geo. R. Lyman. The Plant Quarantine Law seeks to prevent the introduction into the United States of injurious plant diseases from abroad by requir- ing the inspection of imported plant material. The inspection of com- mercial importations presents few difficulties, inasmuch as the variety of host plants involved is not great and the importations are ordinarily from countries where the diseases are well known. But importations by the Department of Agriculture for experimental and introduction purposes present many problems, since they come from every quarter of the globe and are practically unlimited in variety of host plant. Both host and disease may be new and hence potentially dangerous. All such importations are received in a specially constructed inspection house in Washington, and the packages are opened in the presence of the inspectors, all wrappings being burned. The plant material is closely examined and suspicious specimens are referred to experts of the Department of Agriculture for study and determination. Extra- proceedings: biological society 159 ordinary precautions are taken to prevent infection being carried on the hands or clothing of the inspectors. After inspection the material may be (1) passed, if it is apparently clean; (2) burned, if dangerous diseases are found; (3) ordered fumigated or cleansed when the pests found can be eradicated by such treatment (facilities for treating material are present in the inspection room) ; or (4) ordered grown in quarantine. The quarantine greenhouse ad- joining the inspection room is divided into small units where sus- picious plants may be isolated and grown under close observation until the proper disposition of them is determined. Moreover, much of the material which passes inspection is ordered grown in the propagation gardens of the Government, one of which is situated at Yarrow, Maryland. Here the plants are propagated and grown under observation and are given a last close inspection when finally ready for distribution. W. E. Safford, Corresponding Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 549th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, January 29, 1916, at 8 p.m.; called to order by President Hay with thirty persons present. The recent deaths of three members of the Society, G. D. Elliot, A. M. Groves, and C. E. Slocum, were noted by the President. On recommendation of the Council Dr. Walter K. Fisher, of Stanford University, was elected to active membership. Under the heading "Brief Notes" Dr. L. 0. Howard told of some of the published anecdotes regarding the entomologist General Dejean who served under Napoleon I, and of his zeal as a collector even under the excitement of battle. Also, Dr. H. M. Smith called attention to the successful introduction of the tilefish into the markets, restaurants, and homes of the United States. Under the heading "Exhibition of Specimens" Dr. Howard exhibited a photographic lantern slide of Orsini's statue, Proximus Tuus, repre- senting a malarial-stricken Italian peasant. The statue was exhibited at the San Francisco fair and illustrations of it are used in a California antimosquito campaign. By way of contrast Dr. Howard showed a group of healthy children on the formerly malaria-infested Roman Campagna. Under the same heading Mr. William Palmer exhibited several bones of extinct cetaceans recently collected by him at Chesapeake Beach, Maryland. He called attention to the work of Cope and of other paleontologists on this group and pointed out the relationships of the forms with some of the modern cetaceans. The regular program consisted of a paper by Dr. Ned Dearborn, Fur farming in Alaska. Dr. Dearborn pointed out the possibilities of fur farming in Alaska, stating that at present there are seventy- 160 proceedings: biological society three localities in that territory where such farming is carried on to a greater or less extent. The possible animals that may be bred for fur are the fox, mink, marten, otter, and beaver; but so far it has only proved practicable with foxes and minks. Silver foxes are successfully bred in the interior and fed on salmon and rabbits to a large extent. Blue foxes are successfully raised along the coast, especially on cer- tain of the islands. The paper was discussed by Dr. C. W. Stiles who called attention to the prevalence of certain forms of hookworms in the dogs and foxes of Europe and Alaska but seldom found in the dogs of the United States. The 550th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 12, 1916, at 8 p.m., fifty persons being present. On recommendation of the Council, Walter P. Taylor, of the Mu- seum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, California, was elected to active membership. Under the heading Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens, L. O. Howard called attention to the work lately done by Dr. W. V. King, of the Bureau of Entomology, in demonstrating that Anopheles puncti- pennis was a carrier of both tertian and aestivo-autumnal malaria parasites. He exhibited lantern slides of this mosquito and photo- micrographs of the stages of the malaria organism in this hitherto sup- posedly harmless species of mosquito. Under the same heading W. L. McAtee gave some of his recent observations on the vegetation of Virginia in the region south of Washington. The first paper of the regular program was by Henry Talbott: Nepigon. Mr. Talbott gave an entertaining account of a trip made by himself and others to Lake Nepigon. The fishes of the lake and neighboring region were especially dwelt on. Mr. Talbot's paper was discussed by Dr. Howard. The second and last paper of the regular program was by Vernon Bailey: Game and other mammals of the Yellowstone Park region. Mr. Bailey gave a short outline of his recent trip through the Yellowstone Park and the neighboring region, particularly to the south. The ground covered was mainly off the tourist track. The speaker de- scribed the beauties of the park from the viewpoint of the lover of wild life; he called particular attention to the loss of fear of men by wild life when protected from guns, dogsandcats; he called tonoticethe thriving condition of herds of ruminants in the park and the successful efforts now made to supply hay to the needy in winter, and to keep the antelope from wandering out of the park. Mr. Bailey's communica- tion was profusely illustrated with lantern slide views of the park and of its wild life, especially the white-tailed deer, mule deer, elk, moose (recently described as Alces shirasi), antelope, bison, some of the smaller mammals and Canada geese. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI APRIL 4, 1916 No. 7 ASTRONOMY.— The distances of the heavenly bodies.1 W. A. Eichelberger, U. S. Naval Observatory. A year ago our retiring president took the members of the Society into his confidence as follows: Cognizant of the fact that my election to the presidency of the Philosophical Society a year ago, obligated me to give an address of some sort one year later, I confidently waited for the inspiration that I felt would suggest a fitting subject for the occasion. The expected inspiration did not, however, materialize. Undoubtedly because of that fact, and out of the goodness of his heart, towards the close of his address he turned to the present speaker, then presiding, and said: I have said nothing whatever about the determination of the dis- tances between the planets nor of the units used by astronomers in reckoning distances of the stars. . . . They form, so to speak, other chapters of the subject which I shall leave to some future ex- president of our Society. This call, I suppose, was intended to take the place of an inspiration, and wherever I have gone during the past twelve months the call has ever been ringing in my ears. The subject of the evening is presented therefore not as a matter of choice but from compulsion. Before any attempt was made by the ancients to determine the distance from the Earth of any celestial body, we find them 1 Presidential address before the Philosophical Society of Washington on March 4, 1916. 161 162 eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies arranging these bodies in order of distance very much as we know them to-day, assuming that the more rapid the motion of a body among the stars the less its distance from the Earth ; the stars, that were supposed to have no relative motions, were assumed to be the most distant objects. The first attempt to assign definite relative distances to any two of the bodies was probably that of Eudoxus of Cnidus who, about 370 B.C., supposed, according to Archimedes, that the diameter of the Sun was nine times greater than that of the Moon, which is equivalent to saying that, since the Sun and the Moon have approximately the same apparent diameter, the distance of the Sun from the Earth is nine times greater than that of the Moon. A century later, about 275 B.C., Aristarchus of Samos gave a method of determining the relative distances of the Sun and Moon from the Earth as follows: When the Moon is at the phase first quarter or last quarter, the Earth is in the plane of the circle which separates the portion of the Moon illuminated by the Sun from the non-illuminated part, and the line from the observer to the center of the Moon is perpendicular to the line from the center of the Moon to the Sun. (Diagram shown.) If, at this instant, the angular separation of the Sun and Moon is determined, one of the acute angles of a right-angle triangle — Sun, Moon, and Earth — is known, from which can be deduced the ratio of any two of the sides, as, for instance, the ratio of the distance from the Earth to the Moon to that from the Earth to the Sun. Aristarchus gives the value of this angle as differ- ing from a right angle by only one-thirtieth of that angle, i.e. it is an angle of 87°, from which it follows that the distance from the Earth to the Sun is nineteen times that from the Earth to the Moon. This method of Aristarchus is theoretically correct, but in determining the angle at the Earth as being 3° less than a right angle, he made an error of about 2° 50'. Hipparchus, who lived about 150 B.C. and was called by Delambre the true father of astronomy, attacked the problem of the distances of the Sun and Moon through a study of eclipses. Assuming in accordance with the result of Aristarchus that the eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies 163 Sun is nineteen times as far from the Earth as the Moon, having determined the diameter of the Earth's shadow at the distance of the Moon and knowing the angular diameter of the Moon he found 3' as the Sun's horizontal parallax. By the Sun's parallax is meant the angle at the Sun subtended by the Earth's semi- diameter and if a = the semi-diameter of the Earth, A - the distance to the Sun, and n = Sun's horizontal parallax, the relation (diagram shown) between these quantities is expressed by the equation: a Sinn = - A The next attempt to determine the distance of a heavenly body was made about 150 A.D. by Claudius Ptolemy, the last of the ancient astronomers and one whose writings were con- sidered the standard in things astronomical for fifteen centuries. To determine the lunar parallax he resorted to direct obser- vations of the zenith distance of the Moon on the meridian, com- paring the result of his observations with the position obtained from the lunar theory. He determined the parallax when the Moon was nearest the zenith, and also when it crossed his merid- ian at its farthest distance from the zenith. From his obser- vations he obtained results varying from less than 50 per cent of the true parallax (57'0) to more than 150 per cent of that value. According to Houzeau the definitive result of Ptolemy's work i- 58'7. It is thus seen that the astronomers of two thousand years ago had a fairly accurate knowledge of the distance of the Moon from the Earth, but an entirely erroneous one of the distance of the Sun, the true distance being something like twenty times that assumed by them. This value of the distance of the Sun from the Earth was accepted for nineteen centuries from Aristarchu> to Kepler, having been deduced anew by such men as Copernicu- and Tycho Brahe. W ith the announcement by Kepler, early in the seventeenth century, of his laws of planetary motion, it became possible to deduce from the periodic times of revolution of the planets around 164 EICHELBERGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES the Sun their relative distances from that body, and thus to determine the distance of the Sun from the Earth, by determin- ing the distance or parallax of one of the planets. From observations of Mars, Kepler obtained the distance of the Sun from the Earth as about three times that accepted up to his time. His value, however, was but one-seventh of the true distance. About fifty years later Flamsteed and Cassini work- ing independently and using the same method as that employed by Kepler obtained for the first time approximately the correct value of the distance of the Sun from the Earth. In a letter, dated November 16, 1672, to the Publisher of the Philosophical Transactions, Flamsteed says: September last I went to Townley. The first week that I intended to have observed c? there with Mr. Townley, I twice observ'd him, but could not make two Observations, as I intended, in one night. The first night after my return, I had the good hap to measure his distances from two Stars the same night; whereby I find, that the Parallax was very small; certainly not 30 seconds: So that I believe the Sun's Parallax is not more than 10 seconds. Of this Observation I intend to write a small Tract, when I shall gain leisure; in which I shall demonstrate both the Diameter and Distances of all the Planets by Observations; for which I am now pretty well fitted. During the two and a half centuries since Flamsteed's de- termination there have been more than a hundred determinations of the solar parallax by various methods. In the method used by Flamsteed, the rotation of the Earth is depended upon to change the relative position of the observer, the center of the Earth, and Mars. (Diagram shown.) Another method is to establish two stations widely separated in latitude, and in ap- proximately the same longitude. At one station, the zenith distance of Mars will be determined as it crosses the meridian north of the zenith; at the other station, the zenith distance will be determined as it crosses the meridian south of the zenith. The sum of the two zenith distances minus the difference in latitude between the two stations will give the displacement of Mars due to parallax. These two methods have been success- fully applied to several of the asteroids whose distances from the Sun are very nearly that of Mars. eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies 165 The nearest approach of Venus to the Earth is during her transit across the face of the Sun, and these occasions, four during the last two centuries, have been utilized to determine the solar parallax. Here as in the case of Mars two different methods may be used, either by combining observations at two stations widely separated in latitude, or at two stations widely separated in longitude. (Diagrams shown.) The methods just described for obtaining the solar parallax, the geometrical methods, were made available, as has been said, by the discovery of Kepler's laws of planetary motion. New- ton's discovery of the law of gravitation gave rise to another group of methods, designated as gravitational methods. The best of these is probably that in which the distance of the Sun from the Earth is determined from the mass of the Earth, which, in turn, is determined from the perturbative effect of the Earth upon Venus and Mars. This method is long and laborious but its importance lies in the fact that the accuracy of the result increases with the time. Professor C. A. Young says: this is the "method of the future," and two or three hundred years hence will have superseded all the others, — unless indeed it should appear that bodies at present unknown are interfering with the move- ments of our neighboring planets, or unless it should turn out that the law of gravitation is not quite so simple as it is now supposed to be. A third group of methods of determining the distance of the Sun from the Earth, called the physical methods, depends upon the determination of the velocity of light in conjunction either with the time it takes light to travel from the Sun to the Earth obtained from observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- lites, or with the constant of aberration derived from observa- tions of the stars. In August, 1898, Dr. Witt of Berlin discovered an asteroid, since named Eros, which was soon seen to offer exceptional opportunity for the determination of the solar parallax, as at the very next opposition, in November, 1900, it would approach to within 30,000,000 miles of the Earth. At the meeting of the Astrographic Chart Congress in Paris in July, 1900, it was re- solved to seize this opportunity and organize an international 166 EICHELBERGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES parallax campaign. Fifty-eight observatories took part in the various observations called for by the general plan. The merid- ian instruments determined the absolute position of Eros from night to night as it crossed the meridians of the various observa- tories; the large visual refractors measured the distance of Eros from the faint stars near it, at times continuing the meas- ures throughout the entire night; and the photographic equa- torials obtained permanent records of the position of Eros among the surrounding stars. In addition long series of obser- vations had to be made to determine the positions of the stars to which Eros was referred. When several years had elapsed after the completion of the observations, and no general discussion of all the material had been provided for, Prof. Arthur R. Hinks of Cambridge, Eng- land volunteered for the work. The undertaking was truly monumental. He first formed a catalogue of the 671 stars which had been selected by the Paris Congress for observation as marking out the path of Eros from a discussion of the results obtained by the meridian instruments and from the photographic plates. This done, with these results as a basis, a larger catalogue of about 6000 stars had to be formed from measures on the photographic plates. He was then ready to commence the discussion of the observations of Eros itself. From 1901 to 1910 there appeared in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society eight articles covering 135 pages giving the results of his labors. From a discussion of all the photographic observations he obtained a solar parallax of 8".807 ± 0".0027 a probable error equivalent to an uncertainty of about 30,000 miles in the distance to the Sun. From a discussion of all the micrometric observations he obtained 8".806 * 0//.004 The observations with the meridian instruments gave EICHELBEEGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES 167 8".837 ± 0".0185 a determination relatively much weaker than either of the others. A parallax of 8". 80, the value adopted for all the national almanacs twenty years ago, corresponds to a distance of 92,900,- 000 miles. At present it seems improbable that another paral- lax campaign will be undertaken before 1931, when Eros ap- proaches still nearer to the Earth, its least distance at that time being about 15,000,000 miles. TABLE I Approximate Distance from Earth to Sun as Accepted at Various Times 275 B.C. to 1620 A.D. 1620 Kepler 1672 Flamsteed 1916 DISTANCE miles 4,500,000 13,500,000 81,500,000 92,900,000 When Copernicus proposed that the Sun is the center of the Solar System and that all the planets including the Earth revolve around the Sun, it was at once seen that such a motion of the Earth must produce an annual parallax of the stars. Tycho Brahe rejected the Copernican System because he could not find from his observations any such parallax. However, the system was generally accepted as the true one and the determi- nation of stellar parallax or the distance of the stars became a live subject. Picard in the latter half of the seventeenth century, using a telescope and a micrometer in connection with his divided circle, showed an annual variation in the declination of the pole star amounting to 40". In 1674 Hooke announced a parallax of 15" for y Draconis. About this same time Flamsteed announced a parallax of 20" for a Ursae Minoris, but J. Cassini showed that the variations in the declination did not follow the law of the parallax. The period which we have now reached is so admirably treated by Sir Frank W. Dyson, Astronomer Royal, in his Halley Lee- 168 eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies ture delivered at Oxford on May 20, 1915, that I ask your indulgence while I quote rather freely from that source. Thus in Halley's time, it was fairly well established that the stars were at least 20,000 or 30,000 times as distant as the sun. Halley did not succeed in finding their range, but he made an important dis- covery which showed that three of the stars were at sensible distances. In 1718 he contributed to the Royal Society a paper entitled Con- siderations of the Change of the Latitude of Some of the Principle Bright Stars. While pursuing researches on another subject, he found that the three bright stars — Aldebaran, Sirius, and Arcturus — occupied posi- tions among the other stars differing considerably from those assigned to them in the Almagest of Ptolemy. He showed that the possibility of an error in the transcription of the manuscript could be safely ex- cluded, and that the southward movement of these stars to the extent of 37', 42', and 33', — i.e. angles larger than the apparent diameter of the sun in the sky — were established. . . . This is the first good evidence, i.e. evidence which we now know to be true, that the so -called fixed stars are not fixed relatively to One an- other. It is the first positive proof that the distances of the stars are sensibly less than infinite. At the time of the appearance of Halley's paper there was coming into notice a young astronomer, James Bradley, then 26 years old. He was admitted to membership in the Royal Society the same year that Halley's paper was presented. He was exceedingly eager to attack the problem of the distances of the stars. At length the opportunity presented itself. To quote again from Sir Frank Dyson: Bradley designed an instrument for measuring the angular distance from the zenith, at which a certain star, y Draconis, crossed the merid- ian. This instrument is called a zenith sector. The direction of the vertical is given by a plumb-line, and he measured from day to day the angular distance of the star from the direction of the vertical. From December, 1725, to March, 1726, the star gradually moved further south; then it remained stationary for a little time; then moved northwards until, by the middle of June, it was in the same position as in December. It continued to move northwards until the beginning of September, then turned again and reached its old position in De- cember. The movement was very regular and evidently not due to any errors in Bradley's observations. But it was most unexpected. The effect of parallax — which Bradley was looking for — would have brought the star farthest south in December, not in March. The times were all three months wrong. Bradley examined other stars, thinking first that this might be due to a movement of the earth's eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies 169 pole. But this would not explain the phenomena. The true expla- nation, it is said, although I do not know how truly, occurred to Bradley when he was sailing on the Thames, and noticed that the direction of the wind, as indicated by a vane on the mast-head, varied slightly with the course on which the boat was sailing. An account of the observations in the form of a letter from Bradley to Halley is published in the Philosophical Transactions for December, 1728: When the year was completed, I began to examine and compare my obser- vations, and having pretty well satisfied myself as to the general laws of the phenomena, I then endeavored to find out the cause of them. I was already convinced that the apparent motion of the stars was not owing to the nutation of the earth's axis. The next thing that offered itself was an alteration in the direction of the plumb-line with which the instrument was constantly rectified; but this upon trial proved insufficient. Then I considered what refraction might do, but there also nothing satisfactory occurred. At length I conjectured that all the phenomena hitherto mentioned, proceeded from the progressive motion of light and the earth's annual motion in its orbit. For I preceived that, if light was propagated in time, the apparent place of a fixed object would not be the same when the eye is at rest, as when it is moving in any other direction than that of the line passing through the eye and the object; and that, when the eye is moving in different directions, the apparent place of the object would be differ- ent. When Bradley's observations of 7 Draconis were corrected for aberration, they showed, according to himself, that the parallax of that star could not be as much as 1".0, or that the star was more than 200,000 times as distant from the Earth as the Sun. On December 6, 1781 there was read before the Royal Society a paper by Mr. Herschel, afterwards Sir William, on the Parallax of the Fixed Stars. We read: The method pointed out by Galileo, and first attempted by Hook, Flamstead, Molineaux, and Bradley, of taking distances of stars from the zenith that pass very near it, though it failed with regard to paral- lax, has been productive of the most noble discoveries of another nature. At the same time it has given us a much juster idea of the immense distance of the stars, and furnished us with an approximation to the knowledge of their parallax that is much nearer the truth than we ever had before. . . . In general, the method of zenith distances labours under the fol- lowing considerable difficulties. In the first place, all these distances, though they should not exceed a few degrees, are liable to refractions; and I hope to be pardoned when I say that the real quantities of these refractions, and their differences, are very far from being perfectly known. Secondly, the change of position of the earth's axis arising from nutation, precession of the equinoxes, and other causes, is so far from being completely settled, that it would not be very easy to say what it exactly is at any given time. In the third place, the aber- 170 EICHELBERGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES ration of light, though best known of all, may also be liable to some small errors, since the observations from which it was deduced laboured under all the foregoing difficulties. I do not mean to say, that our theories of all these causes of error are defective; on the contrary, I grant that we are for most astronomical purposes sufficiently furnished with excellent tables to correct our observations from the above men- tioned errors. But when we are upon so delicate a point as the parallax of the stars; when we are investigating angles that may, perhaps, not amount to a single second, we must endeavour to keep clear of every possibility of being involved in uncertainties; even the hundredth part of a second becomes a quantity to be taken into consideration. Herschel then proceeds to advocate selecting pairs of stars of very unequal magnitude and whose distance apart is less than five seconds, and making very accurate micrometric measures of this distance from time to time. The first condition, should give, in general, stars very unequally distant from the Earth, so that the changing perspective as the Earth revolves in her orbit would give a variation of the apparent distance between the stars, while the small distance, less than five seconds, would eliminate from consideration entirely any effect upon this dis- tance of the uncertainties in refraction, precession, nutation, aberration, etc. Herschel had already commenced the catalogu- ing of such double stars and in January, 1782, submitted to the Royal Society a catalogue of 269. This work did not enable Herschel to determine the distances of the stars but did enable him to demonstrate that there exist pairs of stars in which the two components revolve the one around the other. In twenty years he had found fifty such pairs. Coming forward another generation, that is, to a time a little less than a hundred years ago, we find Pond, then Astronomer Royal, writing: The history of annual parallax appears to me to be this: in pro- portion as instruments have been imperfect in their construction, they have misled observers into the belief of the existence of sensible parallax. This has happened in Italy to astronomers of the very first reputation. The Dublin instrument is superior to any of a similar construction on the continent; and accordingly it shows a much less parallax than the Italian astronomers imagined they had detected. Conceiving that I have established, beyond a doubt, that the Green- wich instrument approaches still nearer to perfection, I can come to no other conclusion than that this is the reason why it discovers no parallax at all. EICHELBERGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES 171 Within fifteen years after this statement by Pond, obser- vations had been obtained which showed a measurable parallax of three different stars. The announcements of these results, each by a different astronomer, were practically simultaneous. W. Struve, using a filar micrometer, determined the distance of a Lyrae from a small star about 40" distant on 60 different days over a period of nearly three years. He obtained a parallax of 0//.262 ± 0".025. Bessel, using his heliometer, determined the distances of 61 Cygni from two small stars distant about 500" and 700" respectively. He obtained for this star a parallax of 0".314 ± 0".020. Henderson, using determinations of the position of a Centauri by meridian instruments, deduced a parallax of 1".16 ± 0".ll. All three of these results were announced in the winter of 1838-39, and indicate that the three stars are distant from the Earth about 750,000, 650,000, and 200,000 times the distance of the Sun from the Earth. TABLE II Parallax of 61 Cygni MEAN DATE 1837 August 23.... September 14 October 12. . . November 22. December 21. 1838 January 14. . . February 5. . . May 14 June 19 July* 13 August 19 September 19 OBSERVED DISPLACEMENT +0.20 +0.10 +0.04 -0.21 -0.32 -0.38 -0.22 +0.24 +0.36 +0.22 +0.15 +0.04 COMPUTED FROM 0"314 + 0.18 + 0.08 -0.05 -0.22 -0.27 -0.27 -0.23 +0.20 +0.28 +0.28 +0.19 +0.06 Table II exhibits the observed displacement of 61 Cygni by monthly means as given by Main from Bessel's observations. The last column gives the computed displacement on the assump- tion of a parallax of 0".314. The reality of the parallax is seen at a glance. 172 EICHELBERGER : DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES In 1888, fifty years after the first determination of what we now know to be a true stellar parallax, Young in his General Astronomy gives, in a list of known stellar parallaxes, 28 stars and 55 separate determinations. Within the next ten years the number of stars whose parallaxes had been determined about doubled, due principally to the work of Gill and Elkin. Probably the most extensive piece of stellar parallax work in existence is that with the Yale heliometer. The results to date were published in 1912 and contained the parallaxes of 245 stars, the observations extending over a quarter of a century, the entire work having been done by three men, Elkin, Chase, and Smith. In selecting a list of stars for parallax work an effort is made to obtain stars which give promise of being nearer than the mass of stars. At first the brighter stars were selected, and then those with large proper motions. The Yale list of 245 stars contains all stars in the northern heavens whose annual proper motion is known to be as much as 0".5. Of these 245 stars, 54 are given a negative parallax. A negative parallax does not mean, as some one has expressed it, that the star is " somewhere on the other side of nowhere," but such a result may be attributed to the errors of observation or to the fact that the comparison star's are nearer than the one under investigation. It is safe to say, however, that somewhat more than half of the 245 stars have a measurable parallax. Another series of stellar parallax observations, comparable in extent with the one just mentioned, is that of Flint at the Washburn Observatory. This series includes 203 stars and extended from 1893 to 1905. These observations were made with a meridian circle, but not after the method of a century ago. The observations were strictly differential, the general plan being to select two faint comparison stars, one immediately preceding and the other immediately following the parallax star, and to determine the difference in right ascension, the ob- servation of the three stars occupying about five minutes. Here as in the case of the Yale heliometer work a large proportion of the resulting parallaxes are negative ; somewhat more than half, however, were found to have a measurable parallax. The eichelberger: distances op heavenly bodies 173 average probable error of a parallax was the same in each of these two pieces of work, about 0".03. The progress of the work during the last two or three generations is given in Table III which contains also a brief statement of the discoveries made during the preceding century due chiefly to efforts to measure stellar parallaxes. TABLE III Approximate Number of Known Stellar Parallaxes DATE ASTRONOMER NUMBER OF STARS WITH KNOWN PARALLAXES DISCOVERIES 1718 Halley No parallax. Proper motion. 1728 Bradley No parallax. Aberration. 1750 Bradley No parallax. Nutation. 1790 Hersehel No parallax. True binary systems. 183S 3. 1888 28. 1898 50 to 60. 1916 200 to 300. A generation ago photography entered the field of stellar parallax work, and has outdistanced all the previously employed methods for efficiency. In 1911, two publications appeared giving the results of photographic stellar parallax work, one by Russell, giving the parallaxes of forty stars from photo- graphs taken by Hinks and himself at Cambridge, England, the other by Schlesinger, giving the parallaxes of twenty-five stars from photographs taken mostly by himself at the Yerkes Obser- vatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin. In speaking of these two series of observations, Sir David Gill said: On the whole, the Cambridge results, when a sufficient number of plates have been taken, and when the comparison stars are symmetri- cally arranged, give results of an accuracy which, but for the wonder- ful precision of the Yerkes observations, would have been regarded as of the highest class. Schlesinger has shown that with a telescope of the size and char- acter of the Yerkes instrument "the number of stellar parallaxes that can be determined per annum, with an average probable error of 0''013, will in the long run be about equal to the num- ber of clear nights available for the work." 174 eichelberger: distances of heavenly bodies In other words, the Yerkes 40-inch equatorial used photographi- cally determines stellar parallaxes with one-tenth the labor re- quired with an heliometer and with twice the accuracy. In July, 1913, stellar parallax work was undertaken with the 60-inch reflector of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, and at the meeting of the American Astronomical Society at San Francisco in August, 1915 a report on that work was made. The parallaxes of thirteen stars had been determined, with a maximum probable error of 0".010 and an average probable error of less than 0".006, giving twice the accuracy of the Schlesinger results with the Yerkes 40-inch and from three to five times that obtained fifteen years ago. What may we not expect when the 100-inch reflector gets to work on Mt. Wilson. At the meeting of the American Astronomical Society to which reference has just been made, two other observatories reported upon their stellar parallax work. Lee and Joy of the Yerkes Observatory reported the parallaxes of nine stars with a maximum probable error of 0."014 and an average probable error of 0".010, and Mitchell of Leander McCormick Observatory reported the parallaxes of eleven stais with a maximum probable error of 0".012 and an average probable error of 0".009. The progress made in the accuracy of parallax results is shown at a glance in Table IV. TABLE IV The Accuracy of Stellar Parallax Determinations DATE 1838 1838 1880-1898 1888-1912 1893-1905 1910 1915 1915 1915 INSTRUMENT o o Dorpat refractor Konigsberg heliometer Cape heliometer Yale heliometer Washburn meridian circle Yerkes refractor Yerkes refractor Leander McCormick refractor Mt. Wilson 60-inch reflector. . . PROBABLE ERROR OBSERVERS 0!025 Struve. 0.02 Bessel. 0.017 Gill and Assistants. 0.03 Elkin, Chase, and Smith. 0.03 Flint. 0.013 Schlesinger. 0.010 Lee and Joy. 0.009 Mitchell. 0.006 Van Maanan CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES 175 From these results it appears that any star whose parallax is as much as 0".02, i.e., whose distance from the Earth is less than ten million times that from the Earth to the Sun, should give a positive result when subjected to the treatment now employed in parallax investigations, and as eight or ten observa- tories are devoting their energies to stellar parallax work at present, the combined programs containing over 1000 different stars, we ought soon to have lists of at least a few thousand stars whose parallaxes are known where our present lists contain but a few hundred. OCEANOGRAPHY. — On the temperature of the water below the 1000-fathom line between California and the Hawaiian Is- lands.1 Austin H. Clark, National Museum. From October 11, 1891 until January 15, 1892 the United States Fisheries steamer Albatross was engaged in a cable survey between California and the Hawaiian Islands. On this cruise she occupied 556 stations (Nos. 2655 to 3202 in the records of the Albatross as published by the Bureau of Fisheries, Nos. 1 to 556 in the report published by the Navy Department), at nearly half of which the temperature of the bottom water was ascertained. Although these records are individually not so accurate as might be desired, it has seemed possible to make use of them by employing a system of broad averages; that is, by accepting as approximately true the mean of all the readings not obviously erroneous within units of five degrees of longitude. Abyssal temperatures in the Pacific vary so slightly that if given in the actual figures it is difficult to appreciate the differ- ences. The most graphic exposition of these differences is by presentation as plus or minus departures from the mean tem- perature for the whole ocean at the depths considered, as as- certained by comparison with the table published by Murray and Hjort.2 1 Published with the permission of the Commissioner of the Bureau of Fisheries. 2 Depths of the Ocean, p. xvi. 1912. 176 CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES Using this method we find the following departures from the mean for the depth given between California and the Hawaiian Islands : TABLE I DEPTH (FATHOMS) 1000-1500 1500-2000 OVER 2000 120° to 125° W. long -0?20(3)* ^0 (1) -0?25(6) +0?15(2) -0?26 (7) -0?17 (23) -0?11 (11) -0?12 (24) -0?04 (16) -0?02 (15) +0?15 (15) +0?15 (9) 125° to 130° W. long 130° to 135° W. long 135° to 140° W. long 140° to 145° W. long 145° to 150° W. long 150° to 155° W. long 155° to 160° W. long Maximum variation 0?20 0?40 0?41 * The numbers in parentheses are the numbers of observations. Below 2000 fathoms we find a maximum variation of only 0?41 Fahrenheit. The abyssal water is coldest on the California coast; it gradually becomes warmer to long. 130°-140°W., then becomes gradually warmer again at almost the same rate to long. 145°-160°W., from which point it becomes rapidly warmer to long. 150°-160°W. The water between 1000 and 2000 fathoms is also warmer about the Hawaiian Islands than on the Cali- fornian coast. (See fig. 1.) ♦01 *0.0 -01 -0.2 -4)3 +01 ±0 0 -03 Fig. 1. Diagram illustrating the increase in the temperature of the water below 2000 fathoms between California and the Hawaiian Islands. The tempera- tures, recorded as plus or minus departures from the mean of the ocean as a whole, are given as averages of all the observations for each five degrees of longitude. BINGHAM: PLASTIC FLOW 177 On the basis of the data it would be hazardous to attempt any generalizations; but the regular sequence of the figures suggests that in spite of the individual variation of the observations the averages are more or less reliable, and that the warming of the abyssal water from the California!! coast toward the mid-Pacific may be accepted as a fact. In this connection it is well to call attention to the relatively high abyssal temperatures on the South and Central American coasts, as contrasted with those from southern California north- ward, especially off southern California and in the Gulf of Alaska. 5 5 PHYSICS.— Plastic flow.1 E. C. Bingham, Richmond College. (Communicated by C. W. Waidner). Bingham and Durham2 showed experimentally that the fluidity of a suspension is a linear function of the concentration. The zero of fluidity is reached at a comparatively low volume con- centration, as is shown in figure 1. The concentra- tion which has zero fluidity serves to sharpty demarcate viscous from plastic flow. All concentrations less than this are viscous and any shearing force, no matter how small, will produce a permanent deformation if exerted long enough. Con- centrations greater than this are plastic and it is necessary to use a shearing- force of definite magnitude in order to produce a per- manent deformation. The laws of plastic flow have never been studied. The method of attack was to force suspensions of clay in water under known 1 This work has done at the Bureau of Standards. 2 Amer. Chem. Journ. 46: 278. 1911. 100 50 J 1 \ / l 200 o H o 01 100^ so 25 SO 75 VOLUME PERCENTAGE CLAY 100 Fig. 1. Relation of fluidity and friction to concentration. 178 BINGHAM.* PLASTIC FLOW pressure through capillaries of different dimensions and measure the rates of flow. Some of the values obtained are shown in figure 2. For medium pressures the volume of flow is given 50 100 150 200 PRESSURE 250 3O0 Fig. 2. The flow (in cc.) of 50 per cent clay suspension in water containing 0.1 per cent of potassium carbonate in solution, for pressures (g. per sq. cm.) as shown, and at 25 °C, except one series of experiments with Capillary No. 1 which was made at 40°C. The following are the numbers and dimensions of the capillaries used: 'umber of Capillary Radius in cm. Length in on 1.0 0.02848 2.468 6.1 0.05785 5.011 6.2 0.05811 2.509 6.3 0.05850 9.998 by the formula v = k (P — /), where P is the pressure em- ployed and / is the " friction, " i.e., the force required to start the flow. Putting (P — /) in place of P in the ordinary Poiseuille formula for calculating the fluidity, we have a means for cal- culating the "mobility" of plastic substances, analagous to the BINGHAM: PLASTIC FLOW 179 >5 h h o S3 fluidity of viscous substances. The friction increases as a linear function of the concentration of solid present (fig. 1). It is independent of the length and diameter of the capillary and of the viscosity of the medium. It is, however, affected by the presence of alkalies or acids in the medium. The mobility decreases rapidly as the concentration of the solid is increased, as is seen in figure 3. The mobility is enormously sensitive to the presence of alkalies or acids, the mobility of a neutral clay suspension being increased 330 per cent by the addition of 0.1 per cent of potassium carbon- ate. At pressures little if any greater than those necessary to overcome the friction there was detected a seepage of the me- dium past the solid particles (see capillary 6.1, fig. 2). At high pressures there was some- times a sudden increase in the rate of flow, which is apparently due to slipping (see capillary 0*.3, fig. 2) . If the solid material con- sisted of spheres of equal size, the pore space left when the spheres were as closely packed as possible would amount to about 26 per cent, quite irrespective of the radius of the spheres. How- ever, due to the friction of the spheres on each other, the pore space may be larger than this, and this is particularly true if the material is finely divided. As a matter of fact, it was found that on shaking dry clay into a flask the pore space amounted to 81.6 per cent of the total volume. This corresponds closely to the percentage of liquid present in the mixture having zero fluidity, which is 80.5. It is upon this friction that plasticity depends and the plasticity is thus closely related to the fineness of subdivision of the material. Fig. 3. 25 50 75 100 VOLUME PERCENTAGE CLAY Relation of mobility to concentration. 180 knowlton: age of morrison formation GEOLOGY. — Note on a recent discovery of fossil plants in the Morrison formation. x F. H. Knowlton, Geological Survey. There has been a good deal of discussion within the past few years regarding the stratigraphic position of the Morrison for- mation, that is, as to whether it should be placed in the upper part of the Jurassic or the lower portion of the Cretaceous. The divergence of opinion on this point among stratigraphers and paleontologists was well brought out in the symposium on the " Close of Jurassic and opening of Cretaceous time in North America," given before the Paleontological Society at the Philadelphia meeting in 1914, 2 though the concensus of opinion appeared to favor placing it in the Cretaceous. Heretofore, with the exception of some 20 nominal species of cycad trunks found in the Freezeout Hills in Carbon County, Wyoming, no fossil plants have been reported from the Morrison. This deficiency is now in a small measure supplied by the fortun- ate discovery of a plant-bearing horizon in the Morrison near Little Cottonwood Creek, in the eastern part of Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Mr. C. T. Lupton, of the United States Geological Survey, found this locality in 1915 and sent in a small collection. Mr. Lupton has kindly supplied ,me with the following data regarding the location and stratigraphic relations: The fossil leaves I sent in were collected by my assistant, Mr. E. M. Parks, in the NW. | sec. 14, T.47 N., R. 89 W., on the east side of Little Cottonwood Creek, an intermittent tributary of No Wood River. This place is about 5 miles west slightly north of the town of Ten Sleep, and about 1^ miles north of the Worland-Ten Sleep road where it crosses the former stream. The leaves occur in a thin bed of light shaly sandstone which lies just beneath a prominent 50-foot bed of white ledge-making sandstone containing a little conglomerate at its base. This prominent sandstone is variable in thickness and constitutes the basal part of the Cloverly formation as identified by Darton. The varicolored beds below this conglomeratic sandstone are characterized in many places by gastro- liths ('stomach-stones'). 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 2 Papers by Osborn, Lee, Mook, Lull, Berry, and Stanton. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 26: 295-348. 1915. wherry: cavities in zeolite deposits 181 The matrix in which the plants is preserved is a white, fine- grained, shaly sandstone, well fitted to retain the details of nervation, and there can be no question as to the identification. The two species present are: Nilsonia nigricollensis Wieland3 and Zamites arcticus Goppert.4 The first species has previously been found only at its type locality in the lower part of the Lakota sandstone, near the summit of the Black Hills rim, 5 miles north of Sturgis, South Dakota. The other species (Zamites arcticus) is very abundant in the Kootenai of Montana, and several Canadian localities. It has been reported also from the so-called Shasta flora of California, and from the Kome (Urgonian) of Greenland. While it is manifestly unsafe to build much of a generalization on two species, yet so far as they go they indicate that the Morrison is Cretaceous. A word may be added as to the evidence to be derived from the cycad trunks above mentioned from the Freezeout Hills. Although they are referred to a distinct genus (Cycadella) they are certainly very close to, if not indeed identical with, similarly silicified trunks of the genus Cycadeoidea, which are so abundant in the Lakota sandstone of the Black Hills rim and which occur also in the Patuxent formation of Maryland. The internal structure has not been fully investigated in Cycadella, about the only obvious difference between it and Cycadeoidea being the profusion of ramentum in the former, which is a character of doubtful generic value. This evidence also — so far as it goes- argues for the Cretaceous age of the Morrison. MINERALOGY. — The lozenge-shaped cavities in the First Watch- ung Mountain zeolite deposits. Edgar T. Wherry, Na- tional Museum.1 The zeolite deposits in the basalt of First Watchung Mountain in Passaic County, New Jersey, frequently contain angular cayities representing minerals which crystallized out at an 3 Wieland, G. R., in Ward: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 48, 319, pi. 73, figs. 15a-d. 1905. 4 Op. cit., 306, pi. 73, figs. 1-6. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 182 wherry: cavities in zeolite deposits early stage, became surrounded by quartz, prehnite, or zeolites, and at some subsequent time dissolved away. Replacement by quartz also took place at various stages in the history of these crystals, so that the cavities sometimes show lamellae where the quartz entered along cleavage planes, and in other cases have been completely filled by quartz, occasionally yielding a removable core. Two types of crystals are represented, one rectangular in outline, thick to thin tabular in habit, and evi- dently orthorhombic, the other lozenge or " diamond "-shaped in cross section, prismatic in habit, and monoclinic in symmetry. Babingtonite was suggested by Dr. C. N. Fenner2 as the original mineral of the rectangular cavities, and possibly of the lozenge shaped ones as well, while Mr. F. I. Allen3 has shown that anhydrite was the original occupant of the former in many cases. Reasons are here presented for believing the mineral of the lozenge shaped cavities to have been glauberite, Na2Ca(S04)2- In connection with studies of the Triassic rocks of the eastern United States the writer has long been interested in the angular cavities occasionally found in the shales, and while examining specimens of these from one mile south of Steinsburg, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, obtained a clue to the nature of the original mineral. Plaster casts of the well-preserved cavities in this shale were prepared, and found to have the angles, habit, and type of oscillatory combination of faces, resulting in stria- tions and rounding of faces, characteristic of glauberite. No trace of the original mineral is here preserved; but in another occurrence, described by Mr. A. C. Hawkins,4 the crystallization of the mineral in the muds in downward-radiating groups of long slender monoclinic (or triclinic) prisms and the filling of its cavities by secondary analcite and calcite (which contain sodium and calcium respectively) indicate that the original mineral here also was probably glauberite. Comparison of the lozenge-shaped, prismatic cavities in the First Watchung Mountain zeolites with glauberite thereupon 2 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4: 552-558, 598-605. 1914. 3 Amer. Journ. Sci. 39: 134. 1915. 4 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 23: 163. 1914. wherey: cavities in zeolite deposits 183 suggested itself, and the angles, habit, and curvature of faces (due to oscillatory combination) of plaster casts of a few of them were found to be essentially identical with those of glauberite.5 That glauberite has not been considered in this connection before is probably due to the fact that the crystals figured in Dana's System of Mineralogy happen to be all of tabular habit, although, as noted in the text, this species is not infrequently prismatic, owing to the extension of the form s. This form is usually regarded as the unit pryamid, but it may well be questioned whether it might not be made the unit prism.6 The forms which have been observed on the cavities in the zeolites are c (100), «(334), e(445), s(lll), ro(110), a(100), and e(311); the most important angles are sas' 63°42' (the prismatically developed form), cas 43° 2', CAa' 112°11', sAe 4°55', sa« 6°21', and a'*e 31°42', variations of several degrees owing to the oscillatory combination of forms being frequent in these angles, a phenom- enon observed also in many crystals of the mineral. The identification of the mineral of these cavities as glauberite, though based primarily on crystallographic data, is confirmed by geological and genetic considerations. At Steinsburg and at Princeton the mineral crystallized in the sediments as a result of concentration of the water in enclosed lakes. Most of the known occurrences of this mineral are in this sort of deposit, and it is always one of the earliest to form. The basalt lava of the First Watchung Mountain, as shown by Dr. Fenner,7 flowed locally into a similar lake, the waters of which contributed to the formation of the zeolites and other minerals and could readily have furnished the calcium sulphate of the anhydrite and the additional sodium sulphate of the closely associated glauberite. It is noteworthy that glauberite has been observed,8 5 Dr. W. T. Schaller of the U. S. Geological Survey has made an extensive series of measurements of the angles of the quartz "cores" found in some of the cavities, and he kindly lent his notes to the writer for comparison; complete agreement with the artificial casts was shown. 6 In a subsequent paper this new orientation of the mineral will be fully dis- cussed by Dr. Schaller. 7 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 20: 93-187. 1910. 8 Bergeat. Zeit. prakt. Geol. 7: 43. 1899. 184 wherry: cavities in zeolite deposits on the island of Vulcano, in fumarole deposits, which are geneti- cally related to these "zeolite- veins." There is also a quite analogous occurrence of this mineral at Rosenegg, Wiirttemberg, the igneous rock being in that case a phonolite tuff, while the glauberite has been replaced by both calcite and quartz.9 Sumrnary: The lozenge-shaped, prismatic, monoclinic cavi- ties which occur in Triassic shales and especially in the First Watchung Mountain zeolite deposits are believed to represent the mineral glauberite, the crystallographic, geological, and genetic evidence all pointing in the same direction. A full report on this subject, with descriptions of the geologic occur- rences, the crystallographic measurements, figures of specimens, etc., is in preparation. 9 Leuze. Jahresh. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. Wiirttemberg 1886, 62; 1889, 305; abstracted in Zeit. Kryst. Min. 14: 408. 1888; 20: 303. 1892. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. CHEMISTRY. — The colorimetric determination of acetylene and its application to the determination of water. E. R. Weaver. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 267. Pp. 39. 1916. A colorimetric method for the detection of small amounts of acety- lene has been developed in the course of an investigation upon the determination of small amounts of water by the use of calcium carbide. The results upon the quantitative determination of water have not been satisfactory, but a simple and very sensitive qualitative test for water is easily made. The method for the determination of acetylene has been worked out successfully. The determination is made by conducting the gas to be investigated into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride con- taining gelatine and alcohol, and comparing the red colloidal solution so obtained with a suitable standard, which may be either a solution of red dye or a piece of ruby glass. The method is very sensitive. Amounts of acetylene as small as 0.03 mg. may be detected and amounts up to 2 mg. may be determined with an accuracy of better than 0.05 mg. Hydrogen sulphide and large amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide interfere with the test, but all of these may be removed by passing the gas to be tested through a hot alkaline solution of pyrogallol without loss of acetylene. A qualitative test for water, sensitive to less than 0.1 mg., may be very easily and quickly made by bringing the substance to be tested into contact with calcium carbide in the presence of a solvent for acetylene, which is then decanted or distilled into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride. E. R. W. 185 186 abstracts: anthropology PALEONTOLOGY. — Bibliographic index of American Ordovician and Silurian fossils. Ray S. Bassler. U. S. National Museum Bulletin 92. Pp. 1521, 4 pis. (tables). 1915. This work gives the entire bibliography and synonomy of the hun- dreds of genera and thousands of species found in North America in the rocks of the Ordovician and Silurian periods. In addition, the genotypes of the genera are given, and also the formation, the type locality, and the known wider distribution of the species. In cases where the U. S. National Museum has type material, this is noted and the Museum catalog numbers are cited. At the end of the bibliog- raphy proper is given an index of specific names and their generic combinations (pages 1342-1406), a bibliographic classification and index of genera (1407-1440), faunal lists of American Ozarkian to low- est Helderbergian species (1441-1509), and a list of American Ordovic- ian and Silurian formations showing their place in the geologic column (1511-1521). Finally at the end of the work are four very important correlation tables of the geologic divisions and their occurrence in the various basins of deposit. R. S. B. ANTHROPOLOGY. — Kickapoo tales. William Jones and Truman Michelson. Publications of the American Ethnological Society, 9:1-143. 1915. The texts of these tales were collected by the late William Jones in 1903; the translations are nearly all by Truman Michelson, as are all the comparative notes. The notes on Kickapoo grammar are based mainly on the materials left by William Jones, edited by Truman Michelson, though some observations by the latter have also been in- corporated. The notes on the conditions of the texts are likewise by the latter. The tales are, so far as is known, the first extended publication of Kickapoo folk-lore. They are eleven in number: three Culture Hero tales, three Animal tales, and five miscellaneous tales. A compara- tive study shows that both woodland and plains elements occur. The question as to which predominates cannot be answered until more material is available. That European elements also occur is clear. Tentatively we may say that Kickapoo folk-tales and mythology are closest to Fox, which is in accordance with the linguistic facts. T. M. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 768th meeting was held on February 19, 1916, at the Cosmos Club; President Briggs in the chair, 41 persons present. The minutes of the 767th meeting were read in abstract and approved. Mr. William Bowie presented an illustrated paper on Determi- nation of the intensity of gravity on land in the United States. Numerous attempts have been made to determine accurately the absolute gravity by the reversible pendulum, but the results were not very satisfactory for there were a number of errors which entered into the determination. The principal ones were probably in the determination of the distances between the two knife edges on the pendulum, the flexure of the pen- dulum support, and the temperature changes. Later attempts were made by using the invariable pendulums which were swung only in the direct position, the period being determined at the base station and then at the new station. Since the length of the pendulum is invariable, the difference in gravity at the two stations could be obtained by a simple formula involving only the two periods. Because of the great length of the second pendulum used at first, great accuracy was not obtained from the observations. A great step forward was made when Baron von Sterneck of Vienna designed and constructed the half- second invariable pendulum which he swung in a closed case from which the air had been almost entirely exhausted. These pendulums give a high degree of accuracy in the determination of the relative intensity of gravity at any two stations. All the gravity determinations in the United States during the last 25 years have been made with the Mendenhall pendulum, which is a modification of the von Sterneck pendulum, and the results have been most satisfactory. The value of the intensity of gravity at each station in the United States has been corrected for topography and isostatic compensation, as well as for elevation above sea level. The resulting anomalies (the differences between the ob- served and computed values) are small in comparison with the anomalies obtained by the older methods which are not based upon the theory of isostacy. Discussion: Mr. Swann asked whether the proposed use of invar in the construction of the pendulum would not require correction for magnetization. Mr. Humphreys stated that some invars were practi- cally non-magnetic. Mr. Abbot asked how much time was required to make a satisfactory determination. Mr. C. A. Briggs thought that 187 188 proceedings: philosophical society the transfer of the knife edges from the pendulum to the support would introduce inaccuracies. Mr. Bowie stated that, on the average, 4 stations were occupied per month; the transfer of knife edges from the pendulum to the support causes no sensible error. Vice-President Humphreys took the chair and Mr. L. J. Briggs then presented an illustrated communication on Measurement of the acceler- ation of gravity at sea. The different Methods which have been proposed and used in the measurement of the acceleration of gravity were first discussed. Two other methods, the first based on the current-balance and the second on the viscosimeter, were suggested. The speaker then presented a series of gravity measurements at sea from New York to San Francisco via Panama with instruments of the type already used in trans-Pacific measurements; in this type the pressure of an in- closed mass of gas is balanced by a column of mercury of variable height. The apparatus is so designed that the volume of gas is con- stant at the time of making the observations and, since the temperature is maintained constant by a bath of melting ice, the heights of the mercury column at two stations are theoretically inversely proportional to g at the two stations. The average probable error of the mean of the readings of 3 instruments at base stations on the voyage from New York to San Francisco was 1 part in 60,000. Apparent anomalies were observed at sea on both sides of the Isthmus, off the coast of Lower California, and off the California coast near San Francisco. Discussion: Mr. Swann stated that one should expect systematic differences for observations during rough weather because of the effect of centrifugal action on the mercury column and called attention to a possible method for compensation. Mr. Bowie thought that the results presented indicated a decided improvement in the accuracy of determination at sea over previous work ; along the shallow waters near the coast the errors doubtless would be greater than those due to topography, but over the deep-sea areas the data obtained should be valuable. Mr. Abbot asked how much time was required for ob- servations at base stations. Mr. Curtis referred to the difficulties experienced with reference to designation of units for gravity work. Mr. White referred to possible improvements in details of contraction of the apparatus. Mr. Briggs stated that he thought further improve- ment could be effected by exercising greater precaution with reference to the cleaning of the mercury and the apparatus before sealing. The 769th meeting was held on March 4, 1916, at the Cosmos Club: President Briggs in the chair, 68 persons present. The evening was devoted to the address of the retiring President, Mr. W. S. Eichelberger, The distances of the heavenly bodies. (This Journal, pp. 161-175). J. A. Fleming, Secretary. proceedings: geological society 189 THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 302d meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on January 12, 1916. INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS Max W. Ball exhibited photographs of the results of an earthquake which occurred about 50 miles south of Winnemucca, Nevada. The pictures were taken by S. L. Gillan, Mineral Inspector, General Land Office. REGULAR PROGRAM T. Wayland Vaughan: Some littoral and sub-littoral physiographic features of the Virgin and Leeward Islands. A discussion of submarine terraces, their significance, the criteria for determining their relative age, and their relation to the development of coral reefs. Illustrated. (Published in full in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 53-66. 1916.) 0. E. Meinzer: Physical features of Guantanamo Bay and adjacent areas in Cuba. The rocks in the region comprise: (1) a basal complex of metam orphic and igneous rocks; (2) a sedimentary series, several thousand feet thick, consisting chiefly of conglomerate, limestone, and shale resting unconformably on the basal complex and in general dipping away from its outcrops; (3) horizontal beds of conglomerate and coralline limestone underlying a series of terraces and resting unconformably on the basal complex and on the tilted beds of conglo- merate, limestone, and shale; (4) stream gravels; and (5) recent marine and delta deposits. Fossils collected in 20 localities have not yet reached Washington. Four marine terraces are well developed — in most of the region at altitudes of about 40, 200, 500, and 750 feet. They consist largely of benches cut into the older rocks (Series 1 and 2) and mantled with coralline limestone (Series 3). Their development in the interior valleys indicates that the present major topographic features were in existence prior to the terraces. They rank in age according to their altitudes. All bear evidences of geologic youth and were apparently formed in the Quaternary period. After the 40- foot terrace was formed the region stood higher than at present, as is indicated by innumerable small bays and estuaries which were created through the dissection of the 40-foot terrace limestone, and by a sub- merged bench (or series of benches) 100 feet or less below present sea level. That the shore line has for a long time been stationary is shown by the existence of a well-developed bench at present sea level. G. S. Rogers: Oil field waters and their chemical relations to oil; particularly the conversion of sulphates into carbonates by hydrocarbons. It has long been known that oil and gas are commonly associated with water, but of the chemical relations between the two we know little, and scientific literature contains only a few references to the chemical composition of the waters themselves. The study of several hundred analyses of water from the oil fields of the San Joaquin Valley, Cali- 190 proceedings: geological society fornia, discloses the following facts, (a) Some of the deepest waters are as salty as sea water, while in others chlorides are practically lacking. The distribution of the chlorides is apparently a function of the freedom of the underground circulation, which is controlled largely by geologic structure, (b) Sulphates, which are the predominating salts in the normal ground water on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, diminish rather regularly in amount as the oil zone is approached and finally disappear, but outside of the oil fields their quantity remains constant to great depths or even increases, (c) Carbonates increase as the oil zone is approached, and if no chlorides are present constitute the only dissolved salts in the waters associated with the oil. These marked variations in the character of the waters are presum- ably due to reaction between them and the hydrocarbons, by which the sulphate is reduced to H2S and the hydrocarbons oxidized to car- bonate and C02. Carbon dioxide, doubtless derived in this way, is present in the hydrocarbon gas in these fields and usually occurs in greatest quantity (up to 35 per cent) nearest the outcrop, where the sulphate waters enter the strata and where the reaction would be most vigorous. It is probable also that part of the H2S formed is oxidized to sulphur, which would react with the oil and make it heavier and more asphaltic. In general, the heaviest oil is that nearest the outcrop and that in the zone of "tar sands" above the main oil zone, where the sulphate water would exercise its greatest effect. The occurrence of the heavier oil nearest the surface has hitherto been ascribed to oxidation, but the action of sulphur derived from the sulphate waters is believed to have been more important. The 303d meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on January 26, 1916. REGULAR PROGRAM G. F. Loughlin: Faulting in the Tintic Mining District, Utah. Five periods of faulting are recognized: (a) faulting during the later stages of the period of folding; (b) faulting during the subsequent period of recoil; (c) faulting due to igneous intrusions, especially that of the main monzonite stock; (d) Assuring and faulting just after igneous intrusion, providing channels for the ore-forming solutions; (e) post- mineral Assuring and faulting. The largest faults in the mining district proper are included in groups (a) and (c). They had only minor influence in determining the locations of ore bodies. A detailed discussion of the faulting will be included in a forth- coming report of the United States Geological Survey on the geology and ore deposits of the Tintic District. Philip S. Smith: Notes on the geology of the Lake Clark-Iditarod region, Alaska. The speaker described the areal geology of the Lake Clark-Iditarod region, Alaska. This region is located in southwestern Alaska, extending from the Pacific Mountains to the central part of the Yukon Plateau province. The rocks are dominantly sedimentary proceedings: botanical society 191 strata of Mesozoic age, but some Paleozoic limestones are also exposed. Igneous rocks both of intrusive and effusive origin occur at a number of places and certain of them seem to have been closely associated with the deposits of commercial value such as gold and quicksilver. Un- consolidated deposits are widespread and throughout much of the region mantle and hide the underlying bedrock. These deposits are mainly of glacial and glacio-fluviatile origin, though lacustrine, fluvi- atile, and volcanic ash deposits are also described. F. W. Clarke: The inorganic constituents of marine invertebrates. Two hundred analyses of hard parts of corals, mollusks, echinoderms, worm tubes, algae, etc., throw much light on the origin of magnesian limestone and phosphatic rock. (No abstract; the complete paper will be published as a Professional Paper of the U. S. Geological Survey). Carroll H. Wegemann, Secretary. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 111th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held in the Crystal Dining Room of the New Ebbitt Hotel, Wed- nesday evening, March 8, 1916. Eighty-two members and 117 guests were present. Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, president of the Society, pre- sided. Dr. Rodney H. True, as retiring president, delivered an ad- dress, an abstract of which is given below. A dinner preceded the address, after which there was dancing. Relation of Thomas Jefferson to Botany: Rodney H. True. It is not generally known that Thomas Jefferson, who was perhaps the center of a more intense partisan activity than any other man of his time, was at the same time a great lover of outdoor life and took a keen interest in an amateur way in botany. Throughout his life he main- tained a correspondence with many of the prominent botanists of his time and exchanged garden plants with William Hamilton, Bernard McMahon, John Bartram, and other gardening botanists. Like many of his planter neighbors, Jefferson accumulated a rather extensive collection of rare and interesting plants and built up what was perhaps one of the best botanical libraries in the United States. He wrote only one book dealing chiefly with matters of science, his Notes on Virginia, printed while he was in France in 1784. This book dealt with the State of Virginia in all its aspects and in proper chapters dis- cussed the botany and natural history of the state. This book was translated into the French and German languages and ran through many editions during the first fifty years of our country's history. While in France he kept in close touch with the various developments of European science and wrote long letters to various American corre- spondents, including friends at Harvard, Yale, and other institutions, summarizing the most important results coming to his attention. His belief that the future of the United States was closely connected with the country beyond the Mississippi led him to endeavor to secure the exploration of that country soon after the close of the Revolution. 192 proceedings: botanical society But it was not until he received authority to launch the Lewis and Clark expedition that he was able to achieve his object. He planned the expedition with the greatest of care, appointed chief officers, gave them very detailed instructions concerning what they should attempt to do, and after the return of the expedition was finally successful in getting the results collected for publication. After his retirement to Monticello he maintained an active correspondence with many bota- nists and other scientists on the important scientific questions then under consideration. In his old age he was the means of securing the appropriation making possible the University of Virginia. He was made head of the institution, planned its buildings, supervised their construction, chose the faculty, and determined the policy of this great state institution. It seems clear that, notwithstanding the promi- nent position which Jefferson attained in the political life of his country, he was also an important figure in the American scientific world of his time. Willtam E. Safford, Corresponding Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI APRIL 19, 1916 No. 8 PHYSICS. — A misconception of the criterion for gray body radia- tion. Paul D. Foote and C. O. Fairchild, Bureau of Standards. Some 15 years ago Lummer and Pringsheim1 investigated spectrophotometrically the radiation of carbon and platinum by comparison with a black body at various known temperatures. It was found, when the carbon was maintained at a constant temperature and the temperature of the black body was altered, that the graph of the logarithm of the ratio of the intensities of the two sources at any given wave length plotted against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature of the black body was a straight line, and further that these linear graphs for various wave lengths in the visible spectrum intersected at one common point. The fact that such a common point of intersection existed was casually suggested as a possible proof of the "grayness" of carbon where the term gray is understood to denote that the material has an emissivity independent of the wave length. Consequently the value of the temperature coordinate corre- sponding to this point of intersection would be the true tempera- ture of the gray radiating material. Recently an extensive paper on this subject has been published by Elisabeth Benedict2 working under the direction of Lummer and Pringsheim in which the following questions among others proposed by Dr. Lummer are considered. 1 Lummer and Pringsheim. Verh. d. Deut. Phys. Ges. 3: 36-42. 1901. s Benedict. Ann. d. Phys. 47: 641-678. 1915. 193 194 FOOTE AND FAIRCHILD : GRAY BODY RADIATION 1. Are there materials which show true intersections of the logarithmic isochromatics? 2. Do these intersections furnish an exact measure of the true temperature? Carbon was found to show the intersections referred to. The conclusion was accordingly made that carbon is gray and that the temperature corresponding to the point of the intersection is the true temperature of the carbon. It is the purpose of this note to point out that these conclu- sions can not be drawn from the experimental data. It will be shown that even though the logarithmic isochromatics of vari- ous wave lengths do intersect in one common point, this point of intersection is no immediate indication whatever of the true temperature of the non-black radiator, and is no proof that the radi- ator is even approximately gray. The radiation of a black body is compared spectrophotometri- cally with that of a non-black body. J i = intensity of radiation of wave length X from black body. J2 = intensity of radiation of wave length X from non-black body. 6 = absolute temperature of black body. T = absolute true temperature of non-black body. A = emissivity coefficient of non-black body which in gen- eral is a function of both T and X. The question of A as a function of T is not considered in the present note. We shall accordingly assume A to be a function of X only. (1) J1 =c,X e M {Wieri's law for black body.) (2) J2 = d \~bAe~*r (Analogous law for non-black body.) Whence ^ ^jrx^A+ci(j-i) FOOTE AND FAIRCHILD : GRAY BODY RADIATION 195 Suppose that A can be represented, within observational er- rors, by a function of the following form, where p and A' are constants {C2P ,loge4=logeA' + ^ A Substituting in (3) (5) log.^-log.A'-S^i + p-I Since by the method in question T is maintained constant, the only variables being J2/Ji, A and 6, the above equation is of the form (6) (y — a) = m (b — x) i.e. a family of straight lines with the variable parameter c2/X. The common point of intersection has the coordinates loge A' i 1 and - + p. We have accordingly shown that the intersection may occur when the material is not gray and that the temperature corre- sponding to the point of intersection T' is not the true tempera- ture T but related to it by the reciprocal expression — - = — \- p, where p is a constant which requires an entirely different mode of experimentation for its determination. It is of course recog- nized that only a- few functions of the type represented by equa- tion (4) will satisfy the condition that intersections of the iso- chromatics occur, and that there is probably no physical reason why the true emissivity relation should take this one peculiar form, which invalidates the conclusion that the emissivity must be independent of the wave length. But it may be remarked that the intersections are never perfect, that the straight lines at best are only a smoothed mean of the observed points, that there are only a few radiating materials which do show intersections, and finally that within the observational errors involved in work upon radiation the proper choice of A' and p of equation (4) will satisfactorily determine almost any function desired. 196 FOOTE AND FAIRCHILD I GRAY BODY RADIATION As a particular illustration of the possible erroneous conclu- sions which may be drawn from the intersection of isochromatics, viz. that the radiating material is gray and that the temperature corresponding to the intersection is the true temperature of the radiator, the following example may be cited, in which the radia- tion from a black body at various temperatures is compared with that from a non-black and non-gray body. There can be no question that this particular radiator is not gray. We have purposely made it as far from gray as conveniently possible. Temperature of non-black radiator = 1400° abs. WAVE LENGTH EMI3SIVITY OAfi 0.102 0.5 0.280 0.6 0.549 0.7 0.889 The logarithmic isochromatics obtained by (theoretically) com- paring this radiator with a black body at temperatures 1200°, 1300°, 1500°, and 1600° absolute are shown in figure 1. A per- .0006E 64 7£ Yq 74 76 Fig. 1 feet intersection occurs at the temperature 1170° absolute. Fol- lowing the criterion of Lummer and Pringsheim as applied by Benedict we would conclude that this radiator is gray and is at safford: new genus rolliniopsis 197 the temperature 1170° absolute. Actually this radiator is very far from gray and has the temperature 1400° absolute. Using the valuable method of isochromatics and considering the constant p of equation (4) the writers hope to present later experimental data on the emissivity of carbon. It may be re- marked that the intersections used directly give simply the tem- perature at which a color match is obtained. It is also interest- ing to note that a non-black material may show the energy dis- tribution of a gray body and still not be gray. That is, it is theoretically possible to obtain a color match against a black body with certain materials which have an emissivity coefficient varying greatly with the wave length. It is theoretically pos- sible to have two radiators at different temperatures, one gray and the other far from gray, giving an exact color match, and an exact intensity match at every wave length. BOTANY. — Rolliniopsis, a new genus of Annonaceae from Bra- zil. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.1 Among the plants collected by Messrs. Dorsett, Shamel, and Popenoe while on their mission of agricultural exploration in Brazil, in 1914, there is one of peculiar interest, belonging to the Annonaceae, with 3-winged flowers resembling those of a Rol- linia but with clusters of small, one-seeded, orange-colored fruits very much like those of a Guatteria or Aberemoa. A photo- graph of the flower and fruit was taken in the field, and plants propagated from the seeds were distributed by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, bearing the label " Guatteria sp., S. P. I. No. 37902." A second species having the same botanical features was brought back from Brazil more recently by Dr. J. N. Rose and Air. P. G. Russell, who collected it in the state of Bahia, in the summer of 1915, while carrying on botanical exploration under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. For these and two allied plants hitherto assigned to the genus Rollinia (R. parmflora St. Hil. and R. leptopetala R. E. Fries) must be created a new genus, for which I here propose the name Rolliniopsis. 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 198 safford: new genus rolliniopsis Rolliniopsis Safford, gen. nov. Flowers resembling those of Rollinia, solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3. Calyx gamosepalous, 3-lobed. Corolla gamopetalous, the lobes cor- responding to the outer petals of other Annonaceae produced into three spreading obtuse spurs or compressed rounded wings, the three alternate inner lobes connivent in such a way as to leave only a very small opening above the gyncecium. Stamens minute, numerous, closely crowded on the torus, the connective produced into a thin transverse shield above the pollen sacs, these linear, parallel, and con- tiguous, opening extrorsely by a longitudinal fissure. Carpels several to many, forming a cluster (gyncecium) in the center of the mass of stamens just below the opening of the corolla; ovaries 1-ovuled. Re- ceptacle (torus) at length indurated and bearing a cluster of distinct fruits, these closely crowded but not concrescent nor compressed into prisms or angular pyramids. Fruits small, pyriform or ovoid, contain- ing a single seed surrounded by a thin layer of aromatic pulp (mesocarp), very much as in the genus Guatteria. Seeds pyriform, obovoid, or ovoid, the thin testa somewhat wrinkled by the inclosed ruminate endosperm and marked by a longitudinal line from the small basal hilum to the rounded apex. Type species: Rolliniopsis discreta Safford. Geographical range: Brazil, from the State of Bahia to Minas Geraes. This genus is separated sharply from Guatteria by its 3-winged flowers. From Rollinia2 it differs chiefly in its fruits, which consist of a cluster of separate, or discrete, carpels instead of a fleshy Annona- like syncarpium. Its relation to Rollinia is very much the same as that of Aberemoa or Duguetia to the genus Annona. The seeds differ from those of a typical Rollinia in their minute hilum; and the fruits, instead of having a sugary, juicy pulp like that of the commercial custard- apples, possess a thin aromatic mesocarp surrounding the seed, very much like that of certain species of Xylopia known in Brazil as "mon- key peppers" and in Panama as "malaguetas," suggesting also the flavor of the Mexican xochinacaztli, or "ear-flower" (Cymbopetalum penduli- florum), whose petals were used by the Aztecs as an ingredient of their chocolate. KEY TO THE SPECIES Leaf blades oblong-elliptical or oblong-lanceolate. Nerves 7 to 9 on each side 1. R. discreta. Nerves 9 to 13 on each side 2. R. simiarum. 2 Prantl, in an analytical key of the section Xylopieae, briefly distinguishes the genus Rollinia as follows: "Kronenb. ilber dem holen Grunde seitlich zusam- mengedrilckt; Fr. verschmolzen." Nat. Pflanzenfam. 32: 35. 1891. safford: new genus rolliniopsis 199 Leaf blades broadly elliptical Flowers minute ; young branches f erruginous-tomen- tose; leaf blades acute 3. R. parviflora. Flowers medium-sized (winged petals about 1 cm. long); 3'oung branches fulvous-tomentose; leaf blades round-tipped 4. R. leptopetala. 1. Rolliniopsis discreta Safford, sp. nov. A small tree, 6 to 9 meters high. Vegetative branches not observed; flowering branches slender, grayish brown, thickly dotted with gray lenticels and bearing prominent leaf scars. Leaf blades oblong-ellipti- cal, rounded or obtuse at the base, usually rounded or obtuse or some- times slightly refuse at the apex, variable in size, when normal 7 to 8 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 cm. broad, with 7 to 9 nerves on each side; smaller blades near extremities of branchlets 5 cm. long, 1.5 cm. broad; petioles ' 5 to 7 mm. long, often recurved, broadly grooved above, clothed with fine gray- ish tomentum; blades membranaceous but firm, minutely tomentose with short whitish hairs on both surfaces, more densely so beneath; midrib im- pressed above, prominent beneath and tomentose like the petiole. Flowers (fig. 1) solitary or in 2's or 3's; pe- duncles extra-axillary or opposite a leaf, straight or curved and wirelike, 10 to 17 mm. long, clothed with minute reddish brown tomentum, subtended at the base by a small sessile tomentose bracteole and usually bearing a second minute clasping bracteole at or below the middle; calyx 3-lobed, clothed outside with reddish tomentum like that of the peduncle, the divisions broadly triangular, 5 mm. broad, 3 mm. high; corolla reddish brown, the 3 lobes corresponding to outer petals compressed laterally into thin orbicular vertical wings 1 1 to 12 mm. in diameter, minutely tomentellous (as seen under the microscope) , the 3 lobes corresponding to inner petals minute, grayish-puberulent, connivent. Stamens numerous, minute (0.6 mm. long, 0.2 mm. broad), with the reddish brown connective expanded above the two straw- colored parallel pollen sacs. Gyncecium composed of about 50 carpels, these remaining distinct and developing into a cluster of small drupes. Mature fruit cluster 4 cm. in diameter; indurated receptacle 8 to 12 mm. in diameter; drupes pyriform, sessile, often somewhat oblique, 12 to 14 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. in diameter, rounded at the apex and termi- nating in a short oblique point, gradually narrowing toward the base; pericarp bright orange, turning dark brown in drying; seeds pyriform or obovoid, enveloped in a thin layer of aromatic pulp, 9 to 10 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. in diameter, the testa light brown, slightly wrinkled by Fig. 1. Flower of Rolliniopsis discreta, with portion removed to show crowded stamens surround- ing the central gyncecium. Scale about 1.5. Fig. 2. Rolliniopsis discreta Safford. 200 safford: new genus rolliniopsis 201 the corrugations of the enclosed ruminate endosperm, marked on one side by a longitudinal line extending from the small basal hilum to the rounded apex. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 865593, collected and photographed at Januaria, State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, February 15, 1914, by Messrs. Dorsett, Shamel, and Popenoe (No. 371 b; photograph, Field No. 1855, File No. 15508; seeds, No. 125a). "A small tree 20 to 25 feet high, common between Januaria and Brejo, 4 miles back from the river. Fruits bright orange; called 'fruta de macaco1 [monkey- fruit]." EXPLANATION OP FIG. 2. The type specimen of Rolliniopsis discreta, showing flowering branches with leaves, flower, and fruits both immature and mature; a, stamen, dorsal view; b, stamen, ventral view;c, two mature carpels which have fallen from the receptacle; d, seed. Branches with flower and fruits, and detached carpels and seed, c, d, natural size; a, b, scale 10. 2. Rolliniopsis simiarum Safford, sp. nov. A small irregularly branching tree with small narrow round-pointed leaf blades, 3-winged flowers, and dense clusters of small yellow aro- matic berries. Young growth grayish-tomentulose, the branchlets soon becoming glabrous, those of the vegetative growth slender, zigzag, with reddish brown bark sparsely dotted with lenticels, those termin- ating the limbs often irregular, with grayish bark, short internodes, and prominent leaf scars. Leaf blades variable in shape, those at the base of the branchlets smaller and relatively broader than the succeeding ones; normal leaf blades oblong-lanceolate, rounded or very slightly retuse at the apex, rounded at the base, 8 to 10 cm. long, 2.8 to 3.5 cm. broad, with 9 to 13 nerves on each side, membranaceous, deep green above, paler beneath, yellowish green or olivaceous when dry, apparently glabrous on both faces but as seen under the micro- scope clothed with scattered minute curved whitish hairs; midrib impressed above, prominent beneath, reddish brown, sparsely clothed with grayish hairs; parenchyma between the lateral nerves divided into polygonal areoles by fine reticulating veins; petioles broadly grooved above, clothed at first with grayish tomentellum, those of the normal leaves 6 to 8 mm. long, of the smaller leaves 3 to 5 mm. long. Flowers (only the detached petals of one flower observed) reddish brown when dry; petals laterally compressed, winglike, suborbicular, abruptly contracted at the base, 11 mm. long, 9 mm. broad; calyx persistent (observed only on dry fruits), 3-lobed, the divisions rounded or obtuse at the apex, 2 mm. broad, 1.8 mm. high; peduncles (only those of fruit observed) at length woody, 12 to 21 mm. long. Fruit a cluster of small distinct sessile carpels borne on the indurated recep- tacle; mature carpels aromatic, pyriform or obovoid, 8 to 12 mm. long, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, rounded or abruptly beaked at the apex, gradually narrowed at the base; pericarp glabrous, yellow when fresh, dark brown or blackish when dry; seed solitary, obovoid or pyriform, 202 safford: new genus rolliniopsis sometimes slightly compressed, 7 to 10 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. in diam- eter, the testa light brown, slightly wrinkled by the corrugations of the inclosed ruminate endosperm, the hilum basal, small, and inconspicuous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 762291, collected in the vicinity of Machado Portella, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 19-23, 1915, by J. N. Rose and P. G. Russell (No. 19963). The specific name chosen for this plant was suggested by its Portu- guese vernacular name, fruta de macaco [monkey fruit]. 3. Rolliniopsis parviflora (St. Hil.) Safford. Rollinia parviflora St. Hil. Fl. Bras. Merid. 1 : 30. 1825. A small tree with rufous-pubescent branchlets. Leaf blades 4 to 6.4 cm. long, 1.8 to 2.5 cm. broad, oblong, acuminate at the apex, acute at the base, glabrous above, puberulous beneath, the midrib prominent, ferruginous-pubescent, the lateral nerves parallel; petioles about 4 mm. long, nearly terete, ferruginous-pubescent. Flowers small, the peduncles solitary, 4 to 6 mm. long, recurved, slightly thick- ened at the apex, ferruginous-villous. Calyx ferruginous-villous, 3-lobed, the divisions broadly ovate, acute. Corolla 3 to 5 mm. long and broad, villous, green to rufescent, 6-lobed; lobes thick and obtuse, horizontally spreading, those corresponding to the inner petals of other Annonaceae a little narrower than the others, nearly orbicular. Torus convex on top, bearing a cluster of about 15 carpels at its apex and below these a mass of minute, closely crowded stamens (about 1 mm. long). Fruit a cluster of small oblong-ovoid sessile drupes, these 1 cm. long, 5 mm. in diameter, closely crowded on the indurated receptacle, but quite distinct and falling off separately when mature, like those of Guatteria. Type collected by Augustin St. Hilaire "in sylvis primaevis montis Tejuca prope Sebastianopolim [Rio cle Janeiro]. Florebat Novembre." Rolliniopsis parviflora can readily be distinguished from the two pre- ceding species as well as from R. leptopetala by the minute size of its flowers and the relatively short and thick lobes of the corolla. In the type material collected and described by St. Hilaire there were no specimens of fruit and the fruit remained unknown until 1905, when R. E. Fries described it from specimens collected by Riedel in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro.3 In the amended description of this 3 "Die Friichte, die fur diese Art bisher nicht bekannt sind, bieten ein sehr eigenthumliches Aussehen dar. Die Einzelfriichte sind nicht in einem Syncar- pium vereint; sie sind liinglich eiformig . . . und sitzen ungestielt auf dem Receptaculum dicht zusammen, unter einander jedoch frei; sie fallen auch von einander getrennt ab, wie z. B. bei den Guatterien. Hierin weicht R. -parviflora von den allermeisten iibrigen Rollinia-Arten ab, von denen man Friichte kennt; nur R. leptopetala R. E. Fr. hat die Frucht auf ahnliche Weise gebaut." — R. E. Fries, in Arkiv for Botanik, 54: 20. 1905. safford: new genus rolliniopsis 203 species by Martius4 the leaves are described as " ovate, ovate-lanceolate, or lanceolate," and two varieties are indicated: var. a latifolia and var. /3 angustifolia. Whatever varieties may be established, that which corresponds with the original description of the species must be regarded as the type form ("Rollinia foliis oblongis, acuminatis, basi acutis"). A specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium (No. 703471), collected by Riedel "in sylvis montosis prope Rio Janeiro, 1829," with most of the leaf blades broadly elliptical or oval and acuminate, belongs un- doubtedly to the variety latifolia. The blades of the smaller leaves at the base of the flowering branchlets of this specimen are orbicular. It is quite possible that the leaves of vegetative branches would be rela- tively narrower, like those of the type described by St. Hilaire. Distribution : Known only from Brazil. Primeval forests of Mount Tejuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, St. Hilaire (type, as cited above); Glaziou 6077 ; Mount Gabia and neighboring hills, Martius, Sellow, and Lhotzky; Serra Tingud, Schott; Rio de Janeiro, without definite locality, Selloio, Riedel; "Versant de Copacabana," January 26, 1870, Glaziou 3859; without definite locality, Glaziou 2120. 4. Rolliniopsis leptopetala (R. E. Fries) Safford. Rollinia leptopetala R. E. Fries, Kongl. Sv. Vet. Handl. 345: 50. pi. 7, f. S, 4. 1900. A tree or shrub, with gray to blackish gray bark, that of the young branches dotted with numerous light-colored lenticels; young branch- lets, petioles, and peduncles tomentose with projecting yellowish hairs. Leaf blades broadly elliptical, rounded at the base and rounded or sub- emarginate at the apex, variable in size, reaching the dimensions of 8 cm. in length and 4.5 cm. in breadth, membranaceous, clothed on the upper surface more or less densely with short white hair's, at length glossy though still bearing scattered hairs; on the lower surface clothed with a uniform tomentellum of yellowish white hairs; midrib impressed above, beneath prominent, reddish brown like the principal lateral nerves (6 to 8 on each side) ; petioles 5 to 8 mm. long, narrowly grooved above. Peduncles 1 to 1.5 cm. long, bearing at the base and at the middle two small acute hairy bracteoles (1 mm. long). Flowers red, fragrant. Calyx lobes 2 mm. long, 2.5 mm. broad, rounded and abrupt- ly acuminate at the apex, united at the base, clothed outside with reddish hairs, glabrous within. Outer petals obtuse, each bearing a thin ferruginous-pilose, rounded or cuneate wing 8 to 11 mm. long and, near the rounded apex, 6 to 8 mm. broad; inner petals (corolla lobes) 2.5 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, suborbicular, obtuse, clothed outside with minute grayish hairs, glabrous within. Stamens scarcely 1 mm. in length. Fruit (observed only on 1 specimen) spheroidal, 1.5 cm. in 4 Fl. Bras. 13': 19. 1872. 204 COLLINS AND KEMPTON : A FIELD AUXANOMETER diameter, composed of a few smooth ovoid carpels 8 mm. by 6 mm. in size, borne on the indurated receptacle. Seeds oval, 7 mm. long, 5 mm. in diameter, light yellow, smooth. Type in the Berlin Botanical Museum, collected in the state of Piauhy, Brazil, in 1840, by George Gardner (No. 2033). Fries compares the leaves of this species to those of Rollinia longifolia, which, however, are relatively narrower and are not rounded at the apex. He says that the flowers and fruit are more like those of Rol- linia emarginata, but specimens of the latter in the U. S. National Herbarium show its fruit to be a solid syncarpium. To this species he assigns as a variety, angustifolia, a plant in the Berlin Botanical Museum collected at Rio de Janeiro by Glaziou, No. 13508, but of this he figures only a single leaf and gives no account of the flower or fruit. In his figure of the type6 the wings of the corolla are shown as different from those of Rolliniopsis discreta in size and form, and the mature carpels as ovoid instead of pyriform as in the latter species; moreover he de- scribes R. leptopetala as a tree or shrub with "ramulis, petiolis, pedun- culisque fulvo-tomentosis" . ... and its "jungsten Sprosse von abstehenden gelblichen Haaren wollig." These characters readily serve to disinguish his species from both R. discreta and R. simiarum, as well as from the ferruginous-tomentose R. parvifolia. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— A field auxanometer. G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry. In studying the effect of different environmental factors, such as light, temperature, and water supply, on the rate of growth of maize varieties, the lack of some means of measuring the elongation of plants growing naturally in the field has for several years been recognized as a serious obstacle. There are two prin- cipal requirements in securing satisfactory measurements: (1) In order to ascribe any observed difference in the behavior of two varieties to its environmental cause it is necessary to make the measurements at short intervals; (2) that due allowance may be made for individual diversity, it is essential to make simultaneous measurements of a number of plants. These conditions have been met by devising a form of auxanometer well adapted to * Op. cit. pi. 7, f. 3, 4. COLLINS AND KEMPTON I A FIELD AUXANOMETER 205 __ a, field conditions and sufficiently simple and inexpensive to permit the use of a number of instruments at one time. The following description is published in the belief that the instrument may- be found useful in other fields. The instrument is illustrated diagrammatically in figure 1. It con- sists of a light wooden box, a, 4 inches square and 12 inches in height constructed of \ inch material. Passing en- tirely through the box is a glass rod or tube, b, about f-inch in diameter and about 20 *>- inches long. The lower end of this rod is attached to the growing plant by means of a copper wire and a light clip or wire hook. The rod is supported b}' a cord attached to a close fitting cork, e, through which the rod is passed. The cord leads over a pulley, c, to a counterpoise, d. The recording pen, /, is made of thin sheet copper bent into a e_ shallow trough and attached to a light wooden arm supported on the cork. The driving mechanism consists of an ordinanr alarm clock, g, placed face down. The milled head used in setting the hands is removed and replaced by a f-inch brass rod, 7 inches long, drilled and slotted at the lower end in the same manner* as the dis- carded milled head. A shallow groove also is cut in the upper end of the rod. The drum, h, for carrying the record paper is made of a section of a pasteboard mailing tube filled at either end with a perforated cork, through which the brass rod passes. A pin passed through the cork at the upper end rests in the shallow groove in the top of the brass rod. The counterpoise string for lifting the glass rod is attached near the edge of the cork, e, and the pressure of the pen on the drum regulated by a slight turning of this cork. A convenient method of supporting the machine is to drive a round wooden stake by the side of the plant to be measured, on which a Fig. 1. Field auxanometer. ian be o CM _ 01 sm « $2 9 o »o »^ ou CM - O^ 15 50 : 45 c fc. o <*. 05 O of -M m > a. ert '/. 3 J3 u -u -t-s a a 03 ~ N C c3 S 03 o *-> si c & 0) 8C >> (V a; 3 .2 o ■ O OJ o c ^- £ 03 ^ — ' 0? 03 -C > += 03 •- a o 0) 03 a^ 0) 03 s 03 o -C d H X - ffi kO J— 1 — c: 0) Hh O CM o •^ O — 2 0 £ i3 0> 03 -*— — c. 0. 03 X ft B a! X CN hi 200 COLLINS AND KEMPTON : A FIELD AUXANOMETER 207 wooden shelf is supported. A narrow slot is cut from one end of the shelf to within an inch or two of the other, and near the open end the slot is enlarged to pass over the stake. A bolt provided with a wing nut is passed edgewise through the board behind the opening for the stake, permitting the shelf to be fastened at the desired height. The auxanometer is attached to the shelf by means of a wood screw or bolt which passes through the slot and into the bottom of the box. This arrangement permits movement in either direction, and allows the instrument to be brought directly over the plant to be measured. Satisfactory clocks can be had for $5.35 per dozen. The value of all other materials is trifling and the cost of the finished machines, including the labor, need not exceed $15.00 per dozen. Since the recording pen is attached directly to the growing part of the plant by an inelastic rod, the accuracy of the measurements is not affected by lack of precision in the construction of the instrument. The only essential is that the parts move freely and with a minimum of friction. If the axis of the recording drum and the glass rod are not parallel, there will be a slight error in the absolute elongation recorded, but this error will be constant throughout the record and will not affect the comparative elongation of different periods. In this particular this simple auxanometer may claim advantages in accuracy over the more elaborate and expensive forms, in which the motion is transmitted by a flexible thread and the direction of the motion is changed by passing the thread over a revolving drum. With such instruments it is difficult to eliminate slight errors due to hygroscopic changes in the thread, and any inaccuracies in the curvature or centering of the drum* are reflected in the measurements. In the making of continuous measurements of plants in the open, the movement of the plant due to wind is always a disturbing element. With the instrument here described the displacement of the plant, of course, depresses the pen; but as the highest point that the pen can reach at any given time is the position of rest, the effect of wind is to cause a series of almost vertical lines always below the horizontal line that marks the true elongation. In very gusty weather, when the plants are unprotected, this may result in the formation of an almost continuous band, but even then the upper margin of this band records the correct elongation. The effect of a moderate wind is shown in the last two hours of the record reproduced in figure 2. It is believed that the relatively high cost of the auxanometers that are on the market, together with the fact that they are not adapted 208 COLLINS AND KEMPTONI A FIELD AUXANOMETER for use in the open, has seriously retarded the accumulation of infor- mation regarding individual and varietal diversity in the reaction of crop plants to changes in environment. In designing the present instru- ment, therefore, an effort was made to use only the cheapest material and the simplest form of construction, so that the cost might be kept down to a point that would permit the use of the instrument in sufficient numbers to acquire extensive data for statistical treatment . Ia.o 0 L3.0 02.3 0-n U 0c 1.0 a .s / ID U 12 12 34-S6 7S9 10 111E.1E3AS67 3 9 lO 11 12 NOON P.M. MIDNIGHT A.M. NOON Fig. 3. Graph of hourly elongation, taken from record shown in figure 2. Our observations on the rate of elongation in maize plants have led to the belief that in many of the investigations of peri- odicity in growth individual variation in the plants has not been adequately considered. For example, it was found that some plants showed a definite reduction in the rate of elongatidh be- tween the hours of 8 and 10 a.m., while other plants of the same variety showed no such reduction. To detect differences of this kind it is necessary to secure records from a number of plants simultaneously, for if the records were taken on different days it would be difficult to exclude the possibility that differences in behavior were due to differences in the climatic conditions. In many investigations it is equally important that measure- ments should be made on plants growing naturally in the field. With maize, at least, results obtained under greenhouse or lab- oratory conditions are quite at variance with results obtained in the open. In our experiments the only maize plants to ex- hibit a greater rate of elongation at night than in the day have michelson: fox ritualistic myths 209 been greenhouse individuals. The question naturally arises, then, as to what extent the accepted belief that elongation is generally more rapid at night than in the day may be due to the fact that most experments on periodicity have been conducted under greenhouse or laboratory conditions. ANTHROPOLOGY. — Ritualistic origin myths of the Fox Indi- ans.1 Truman Michelson, Bureau of American Ethnol- ogy. The Fox Indians of Iowa, who are probably the most primi- tive of all Algonkins within the borders of the United States, have an extremely extensive folk-lore and mythology. Their long systematic myths accounting for existing ceremonies are especially noteworthy, and it should be mentioned that the par- ticular type of these myths is thus far unique. To go into some details: The plots are all of one type. The hero is usually poor and sometimes ill-treated, but fasts and in a vision sees his supernatural helper or helpers. Ordinarily he has a vision of them four times and receives a little instruction each time. He then goes home, informs the people, and holds the ceremony in which he has been instructed. The ceremony is the one in actual use today. The songs are the existing ones, as are some of the set speeches. Usually the people subse- quently are attacked by their enemies or there is a famine. In any case the hero always succors them. Such topics as taboos, facial paintings, localizations in clan- feasts, descriptions of drums, positions in dancing, the number of ceremonial attendants and the gentes to which they belong, songs, set speeches, contents of sacred packs, and instruction re- garding exogamy of gentes come up incidentally in these ritualis- tic origin myths. In so far as the actual ceremonies can rarely, if ever be witnessed in their entirety, owing to the conservative character of the Fox Indians, these myths are extremely valu- able for strictly ethnological studies. ] Summary of an address delivered before the Anthropological Society of Wash- ington, February 15, 1916. Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 210 michelson: fox ritualistic myths It is the profusion of information contained in the Fox ritual- istic origin myths that gives them their unique character in primi- tive literature. This applies especially to the incorporation of existing songs and set speeches. Among the Piegans, as Wissler has pointed out, myths occur- ring in many other tribes in certain cases have been utilized for ritualistic myths. Thus it is patent that they are secondarily adapted for such uses. Among the Menomini (Skinner) such is not the case; the myths do not occur elsewhere out of their ritu- alistic setting. But the ritualistic myths of both these tribes are not comparable with those of the Foxes in the details given. Yet there is one point in which the Fox ritualistic origin myths resemble those of the Menomini; that is, that the elements do not occur elsewhere outside their setting. Some of the songs of the Fox ritualistic origin myths occur among the Kickapoo, which shows that they must be rather an- cient. Unfortunately the Kickapoo as well as the Sauk ritualis- tic origin myth is at present unknown. In so far as Kickapoo folk-lore and mythology are extremely close to Fox (as I have recently shown), and as Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo are extremely closely related linguistically, it is the more to be regretted, for it might prove that not only the same type of ritualistic origin myths occurs in all three, but also the same myths, which in this case would go back to a hoary antiquity unless they have spread by dissemination. In this connection it must be stated that our knowledge of Sauk folk-lore and mythology is too scanty to permit us to determine how close it is to Fox. In so far as Fox origin myths are all of one type, it is clear that literary systematization has taken place. In other words we cannot regard the Fox ritualistic origin myths as the actual his- tory of how certain ceremonies were introduced among the Fox Indians. This is somewhat confirmed by the fact that the Ojibwa have some of the ceremonies that the Fox ritualistic origin myths account for, but apparently lack the origin myths. It is, how- ever, possible that they have simply not been thus far recorded. Yet today there is a large amount of Ojibwa mythology pub- lished, and Dr. Jones' unpublished material (which I am editing michelson: fox ritualistic myths 211 for publication) is very bulky; nevertheless in both the sys- tematic origin myth of the Fox type is absent. Only a single Ojibwa myth in Dr. Jones' collection shows a resemblance to the Fox type of ritualistic origin myth. Both the Potawatomi and Cree to my own knowledge also possess certain ceremonies which Fox ritualistic origin myths account for, but unfortunately our knowledge of their folk-lore and mythology is too limited to compare these with those of the Foxes. Summing up, we must say that at present we cannot prove that the Fox ritualistic ori- gin myths were invented -to account for the existing ceremonies, though this may have been the case. On the other hand it is entirely possible that certain individuals did have religious ex- periences and did initiate ceremonies which subsequently were utilized in ritualistic origin myths. Unfortunately there is too little comparative material from closely cognate Algonkin tribes at present available to settle these problems. As to the language employed in the Fox ritualistic origin myths: The words are unusual and archaic. The set speeches are interspersed with variations of a mystic word no tti (so writ- ten in the current syllabary), the exact translation of which is difficult. Words are considerably mutiliated in the songs and would rarely be intelligible in themselves. They must be ex- plained in full by informants, to make their meaning at all clear. Padding by mere vocables also occurs in considerable profusion. Though these are blemishes from our point of view, from the native standpoint they are not. A single word or phrase will recall to the Fox Indian the entire thought, which is all that is desirable from their point of view. In closing, I may say that the genuineness of these ritualistic origin myths is attested by the facts (1) that some of the songs contained in them occur among the Kickapoo; (2) that I have heard some of the songs in the appropriate existing Fox cere- mony; (3) that in other cases the informant has been gauged by his other stories — if this latter material checks up well, there be- ing reason to doubt his honesty in regard to the ritualistic origin myths; and (4) that Indians are quite incapable of inventing long, sustained, origin myths without internal evidence of fraud. 212 FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE ARCHEOLOGY. — The relation of Sun Temple, a new type of ruin lately excavated in the Mesa Verde National Park, to prehistoric "towers."1 J. Walter Fewkes, Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology. During the summer of 1915, under the direction of the Sec- retary of the Interior I carried on excavation and repair of ruins in the Mesa Verde National Park. This work was a continu- ation of that already accomplished on these cliff-dwellings : Cliff Palace, Spruce-tree House, and Balcony House. The general plan was to bring to light any types of ruins existing in the Park different from those already known, in order to enlarge our knowl- edge of the character or culture of prehistoric man on this res- ervation. Cliff Palace, which lies in one of the canyons of the Mesa Verde, was excavated and repaired in 1909, and at that time a pile of stones was discovered on the point of Chapin Mesa, across Cliff Canyon. The artificial character of marking found on stones on the surface of this mound and the great quantity of debris suggested the former existence of a building of large size. A small fragment of wall projected above the surface of the mound on which grew many old trees and bushes, giving evidence that the place had long been deserted by human beings. The government work on this mound extended from August 10 to the close of October, 1915, and a report on the more popular phases of this work has already been transmitted to the Secre- tary of the Interior,2 to be followed by a more extended account for the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The follow- ing account gives a summary of the work thus far accomplished and a brief description of the ruin. There was brought to light a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park, and the building excavated shows the best masonry and is the most mysterious structure yet discovered in a region rich in so many prehistoric remains. Although at first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was early recognized that it was not con- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 See, Excavation and Repair of Sun Temple, Mesa-Verde National Park. Dept. of Interior, 1916. Also, newspaper bulletin released January 16, 1916. FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE 213 structed for habitation, and it is now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and ceremonies ; the first of its type yet recog- nized in the Southwest. The ruin was purposely constructed in a commanding situation in the neighborhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to present a marked object from all sides, especially the neighboring mesas. It must have presented an imposing appearance, rising on top of a point above inaccessible, vertical cliffs. No better place could have been chosen for a religious building in which the inhabitants of many cliff dwell- ings could gather and together perform their great ceremonial dramas (see fig. 1). The ruin was found to have the form of the large letter D, as shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 2). It was composed of two sections, one of which may be called the original building, and the other the Annex. The side wall, which was situated on the south side, is 121.7 feet long. The whole building is 64 feet wide. The walls, including the central core of rock and adobe, average four feet in thickness. The entire outer facing of the wall is composed of well cut stones, some of which were smoothed by rubbing. There are about 1000 feet or more, containing 28,000 cubic feet of masonry. It is estimated that the building was once several feet higher than it is at the present time. The rooms in this building vary in form and type, one kind being circular, the other rectangular. The circular rooms are identified as kivas, or sacred rooms; the purpose of the rectangular rooms is un- known. There are two circular rooms, or kivas, of about equal size in the original building, and a third occupies the center of the Annex. There are 23 other rooms; 14 of these are in the original building, and have parallel walls; several have curved walls, others straight. Of the rooms with curved walls three had entrances from the roofs, four had lateral doors into the plaza, and the remainder are arranged in two series, the members of which communicate with each other. Not a single room, either circular or rectangular, shows any signs of plastering, but all joints between stones from the bottom to the top were carefully pointed with adobe and generally chinked with stones, the impressions of human fingers and palms of small hands of the workmen, probably women, still showing in the clay mortar. The principle of the arch was unknown, but the corners were practi- cally vertical, implying the use of a plumb bob. The curved walls are among the best in the ruin. Outside the main building is a cir- cular building with walls four feet thick, which closely resembles the base of a tower. This was probably intended for ceremonial rites. One of the most interesting features is the embellishment of the walls by geometrical figures cut in their surfaces — a rare form of decoration. Several stones bearing incised figures were set in the walls. Generally the designs are geometric, but there are others, including the figure 214 FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE CD 03 0> o CO a a H a CO bD FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE 215 of a ladder leaning against a wall, turkey tracks, and the conventional sign for flowing water. The importance of these incised figures on stones set in walls lies in the fact that they seem to indicate an advance in architectural decoration not represented in other prehistoric buildings in the South- west. They may be regarded as first steps in mural sculpture, a form of decoration that reached such an advanced stage in old ruins in Mexico and Central America. Each figure may have had a special meaning or symbolic significance connected with the room in which it was placed, but these figures seem to me to have been introduced rather for ornament or decorative effect. Fig. 2. Perspective view of Sun Temple from the southwest. The argument that appeals most strongly to my mind as supporting the theory that Sun Temple was a ceremonial building is the unity shown in its construction. A preconceived plan existed in the minds of the builders before they began work on the main building. Sun Temple was not constructed haphazard, nor was its form due to addi- tion of one clan after another, each adding rooms to an existing nucleus. There is no indication of patching one building to another, so evident at Cliff Palace and other large cliff dwellings. The construction of the recess of the south wall, situated exactly, to an inch, midway in its length, shows it was planned from the beginning. We can hardly believe that one clan could have been numerous enough to construct a house so large and massive: its walls are too extensive; the work of dressing the stones too great. Those who made it must have belonged to several clans fused together; and if they united for this common work, they were in a higher state of socio- logical development than the loosely connected population of a cliff dwelling. 216 FEWKESI RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE In primitive society only one purpose could have united the several clans who built such a structure, and this purpose must have been a religious one. This building was constructed for worship, and its size is such that we may practically call it a temple. The fine masonry, the decorated stones found in it, and the unity of the plan stamp Sun Temple as the highest example of Mesa Verde architecture. The walls were constructed of the sandstone of the neighborhood. Many stone hammers and pecking stones were found in the neighborhood. One of the most remarkable features of the structure is a fossil set in the outer wall near the southwest corner. Mr. F. H. Knowlton of the U. S. Geological Survey has identified this as the fossil leaf of a palm tree of the Cretaceous epoch. The point is that the rayed leaf resembles the sun, and that the ancient races were sun worshipers. A natural object resembling the sun would powerfully affect a primitive mind. At all events they partially inclosed their emblem with walls in such a way that the figure is surrounded on three sides, leaving the opening on the fourth, or west side. There can be no doubt that the walled inclosure was a shrine, and the figure in it may be a key to the purpose of the building. The shape of the fossil on the rock suggests a symbol of the sun, and if this suggestion be correct, there can hardly be a doubt that solar rites were performed about it. It is impossible to tell when Sun Temple was begun, how long it was building, or when it was deserted. There are indications that its walls were never completed; and from the amount of fallen stones there can hardly be a doubt that when it was abandoned they had been carried up in some places at least six feet above their present level. The top of the wall has been worn down at any rate six feet in the inter- val between the time it was abandoned and the date of my excavation of the mound. No one can tell the length of this interval in years. We have, however, some knowledge of the lapse of time, because the mound had accumulated enough soil on its surface to support the growth of large trees. In the Annex, near the summit of the highest wall, there grew a juniper or red cedar of great antiquity, alive and vigorous when I began work. This tree undoubtedly sprouted after the desertion of the building and grew after a mound had developed from fallen walls. Its roots penetrated into the adjacent rooms and derived nourishment from the soil filling them. It is not improbable that this tree began to grow on the top of the Sun Temple mound shortly after the year 1540, when Coronado first entered New Mexico, but how great an interval elapsed during which the walls fell to form the mound in which it grew and how much earlier the foundations of the ruined walls were laid no one can tell. A conservative guess of 250 years is allowable for the interval between construction and the time the cedar began to sprout, thus carrying the antiquity of Sun Temple back to about 1300 A.D. From absence of data the relative age of Sun Temple and Cliff Palace is equally obscure, but it is my firm conviction that Sun Temple FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE 217 is the younger, mainly because it shows unmistakable evidences of a higher sociological condition of the builders; but here again we enter a realm of speculation which merely adds to the mystery of the building. Comment has been made on the fact that practically no household implements were found in the rooms, which has been interpreted to mean that the building was never finished. It also signifies that the workmen did not live in or near it during construction. On the theory that this building was erected by people from several neighboring cliff dwellings for ceremonies held in common, we may suppose that the builders came daily from their dwellings in Cliff Palace and other houses and returned at night, after they had finished work, to their homes. The trails down the sides of the cliffs, which the workmen used, are still to be seen. The place was frequented by many people, but there is no evidence that any one clan dwelt near this mysterious building during its construction. Perhaps the most important result of my explorations at the Mesa Verde National Park last summer was the unearthing for the first time of this large, mysterious building bearing evidence that it was constructed solely for religious purposes. This in- terpretation is very important, if correct; and in order to test the theory by reference to other ruins I have studied in a com- parative way related structures that have certain architectural features in common with Sun Temple. Among the most strik- ing of these are the problematical buildings known as "towers," represented by a number of examples in southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah. The existence along the Lower Mancos, on the San Juan, and in the canyons of the McElmo, of a type of ruins hitherto un- recorded in the Southwest, designated as " towers," was made known in 1876 and 1879 by Mr. W. H. Jackson8 and Mr. W. H. Holmes.4 Since that date, now almost 40 years ago, the figures they published have been frequently reprinted,5 but the buildings themselves still await systematic excavation and study. Work 3 Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Rept. U. S. Geol. & Geog. Surv. 1876. 4 Report on the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado examined during the Summers of 1875 and 1S76. 10th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. & Geog. Surv. 1879. 5 In Search for a lost race, Illustrated American, Ma}^ 1892. In this ar- ticle Mr. Gunckel adds a few new observations of interest, mainly regarding distribution of towers; no excavations were made. See also, Peet, Stephen Denison: The Cliff Dwellers and Pueblos. American Antiquarian, Chicago, 1899. 218 FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE at Sun Temple has stimulated my desire to know more of archi- tectural details and especially the use to which these towers were formerly put. So far as the question of use is concerned their resemblances to ceremonial rooms called kivas would appear con- clusive. Let us consider some of the known architectural fea- tures of these towers, on the theory that they are ceremonial in character. Fig. 3. Tower ruin in Ruin Canyon, Utah. The central room of one of these towers is circular in form, suggesting a kiva, but its inner walls show no evidences of the former presence of pedestals, or pilasters, or supports of a roof. Evidently if a roof once covered the central room, it was not vaulted as in the majority of circular kivas, but flat, the beams supporting it having been laid parallel, with ends resting on top of the walls. One of the characteristic features of a typical tower is the double wall with intervening rooms separated by partitions.6 Unfortunately we do not know the character of the floors of these towers, as they still await the spade of the arche- 6 I am inclined to doubt the existence of triple walled towers. FEWKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE 219 ologist; but so far as I am aware, evidence is strong that they belong to the second type of circular kivas, those with flat roofs and destitute of columns for support of the roof beams. One of the so-called towers described by Professor Holmes is said by him to be 140 (138) feet in diameter, this dimension sug- gesting a large ceremonial building like Sun Temple rather than a tower or kiva. I suspect that, if the architecture of the build- ing containing the tower referred to by Professor Holmes were better known, it would be found to- have a straight wall on the side above the cliff and a D-shaped, rather than a circular, wall about it. Another " tower" described by the same author as set in the midst of secular rooms is evidently a kiva with two encircling walls, surrounded by rooms separated by partitions. The strong resemblence of the Annex, or western end of Sun Temple, to such a tower leaves little doubt that both were identical in use, being sacred enclosures. In a comparison of the Annex with one of the McElmo towers we find in the middle a circular room around which are arranged other rooms, irregularly placed in the former, and modified on one side by confluence with an attachment to the original (main) building. Both have, in the center, cere- monial rooms known as kivas which belong, however, to a type different from the subterranean kivas of Cliff Palace.7 As has been elsewhere pointed out, we have in the Mesa Verde culture area circular kivas belonging to two types, one of which, the more common, is subterranean, with vaulted roofs supported on pilasters attached to the inner walls, characteristic ventilators and deflectors, and (generally) a ceremonial opening in the floor styled the sipapn. These may be designated vaulted-roofed kivas. The second, or flat-roofed type, to which, en passant, it may be said the towers above considered are related, appar- ently had no pilasters to support the low vaulted roof; conse- quently the roofs are flat, the ends of the supporting beams ex- tending across the chamber with their extremities resting on the walls of the room, not from one pilaster to another. Some 7 Semicircular, or D-shaped, Sun temples occur also in Peruvian ruins. 220 FEAVKES: RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE kivas of the flat-roofed type are so surrounded by other rooms that their walls have a sunken appearance, but the chambers are not subterranean. When isolated from the room groups, as are certain modern kivas, they suggest the towers found in the Mesa Verde culture area.8 The tower kiva is more closely allied to kivas of the second type, represented in Cliff Palace by 0 and R, and possibly by W (see my account of the excavation and repair of that ruin). I do not regard this type as a transi- tion form connecting circular and rectangular kivas, as suggested by Nordenskiold, for I find they have distinct origins, but a cir- cular subterranean kiva with pedestals and an arched roof may be related to a round kiva of the second type.9 The comparisons that have been made above between the ceremonial rooms in cliff dwellings, towers, and the ruin called Sun Temple have led me to believe that certain of the structures, known as towers, were in reality not lookouts, as commonly be- lieved, but were constructed solely for religious purposes as sug- gested by the discoverers. On the other hand, some of the tow- ers cannot be regarded as places of worship. Some served prob- ably as lookouts, while many were built for storage, defense, or other purposes. All our theories about their use are tentative, awaiting the time when we shall have more exact knowledge of details, which can be discovered only by scientific excavation of the debris that has fallen around their foundations, obscuring the floors and the connections with other buildings in the im- mediate neighborhood. In closing this comparison of Sun Temple or its kivas with San Juan tower kivas, a word may be said in explanation ol the term "type ruin." Our Southwest is dotted with prehistoric habitations of several distinct forms, indicating different culture areas, so far as it is possible to determine them in the light of 8 The circular kivas without pilasters are common lower down the San Juan in the Navaho National Monument. The modern circular kivas belong to the group without vaulted roofs, which includes also towers. A D-shaped kiva of the second type, suggesting D-shaped tower kivas of Ruin Canyon, is found in Oak Tree House. 9 Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace. Bull. 51, Bur. Amer. Ethn. 1911. FEWKES; RELATIONSHIP OF SUN TEMPLE 221 architecture. Manifestly it is not necessary to excavate care- fully and repair all these ruins, even if money were available for that purpose. We need to determine, however, how many kinds of ruins there are, and to get clearly in mind the essential features of each kind, in order to discover culture groups of the prehis- toric Southwest. The problem is not unlike that with which the biologist has to deal, and which he has so well worked out in biological textbooks. An intimate knowledge of the anatomy of the starfish, crayfish, frog, cat, and other animals representative of the groups to which they belong, respectively, makes it pos- sible for the zoological student to get a good idea of the anatomy of other members of these groups, the knowledge being gained largely through dissection or through study of "preparations" made by others. These animals serve as types. The same method, with modifications, may be applied in the study of Southwestern archeology, although from the nature of the case preparations of types should be made, for beginners or even for advanced students, by experts. A few of these type ruins already have been prepared for in- spection and for study. The famous Casa Grande in the Gila valley is a good example of a type ruin of the great house ruins of that valley, while Cliff Palace and Spruce-tree House are ex- cellent type ruins of cliff dwellings. Sun Temple seemingly rep- resents a type of ruined buildings of a well defined prehistoric culture area, and as a type will afford the student information bearing on the architecture of other members of a group of ruins one of the main features of which is a specialized building con- structed for religious ceremonies. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — The illumination from a radiating disk. Paul D. Foote. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 263, pp. 583-586. 1916. A knowledge of the illumination from a radiating disk is of practical value to engineers, but certain solutions of this problem which have appeared in technical journals have been in error. In this paper is given the correct expression for the illumination produced by a diffusely and uniformly radiating circular disk, at any point on any surface parallel to the disk. P. D. F. PHYSICS. — Inclusions in the silver voltameter deposits. G. W. Vinal and W. M. Bovard. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 271, pp. 147-172. 1916. For the purpose of determining the absolute value of the electrochemi- cal equivalent of silver and the absolute value of the faraday it is neces- sary to learn the amount of "inclusions" in the silver voltameter de- posits. Lord Rayleigh1 advocated heating the platinum cups with de- posits to incipient redness as the simplest method of expelling the in- clusions, which are chiefly water and silver nitrate. Richards and An- deregg2 have recently used this method also, finding the inclusions to be large and variable in amount. When silver deposits are heated in the platinum cups alloying of the two metals takes place, and on removing the silver the platinum cup shows stains which are brownish or black. We have found that these stains are platinum black and that they render the weight of the empty platinum crucible very uncertain unless the precaution is taken to heat the cups to incandesence, or to remove 1 Phil. Trans. A. 175: 411. 1884. 2 J. Am. Chem. Soc. 36: 15. 1915. 2212 ABSTEACTS: PHYSICS 223 the stains by aqua regia before making further deposits. This heat- ing process transforms the platinum black to platinum gray and the loss in weight apparently suffered by the cups may be anything from 0.1 mg. to 5.0 mg., depending on the amount of material adsorbed by the platinum black. The presence of either platinum black or plati- num grey in the cup renders the cup unfit for use in measuring the electric current since they exercise a catalytic action on the hydrogen ions present in the solution and therefore the amount of silver deposited is too small to represent all of the electricity which actually passed through the voltameters. Taking these sources of error into consideration we have made de- terminations of the losses in weight of deposits from pure electrolyte and find, as the mean of 25 determinations, that it amounts to 0.0040 per cent. The Bureau of Standards published some time ago an absolute value3 for the electrochemical equivalent of silver which was obtained by the silver voltameters containing especially pure electrolyte and an abso- lute current balance of the Rayleigh type. The value found was 1.11805 mg. per coulomb which may be now corrected by subtracting 0.0040 per cent. It thus appears that the value 1.11800 mg. per coulomb which was adopted by the International Electrical Conference in 1908 is in reality within one part in one hundred thousand of the best value which we can now assign to this constant. On this basis, and using the present value for the atomic weight of silver (107.88), we find the farady to be 96,494 coulombs. G. W. V. PHYSICS.- — A study of instruments for measuring radiant energy in absolute value: an absolute ihermo-pile. W. W. Coblentz and W. B. Emerson. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 261. Pp. 49. 1916. The 'present status of the determination of the con- stant of total radiation of a black body-. W. W. Coblentz. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 262. Pp. 30. 1916. The first paper gives the results of an investigation of an instru- ment for measuring radiant energy in absolute value. The instrument consisted of a thin blackened strip of metal with a thermopile back of it. The strip of metal functions (1) as a receiver for absorbing radiant energy, (2) as a source of radiation (by heating it electrically) which can be evaluated in absolute measure and (3) as a standard source of radia- 3 Bulletin Bureau of Standards 10: 477. 1914. 224 abstracts: geology tion for calibrating the radiometer which includes the galvanometer and the thermopile. Various widths and thicknesses of metal were used in the receiver which was covered with various kinds of absorbing surfaces of lamp black and platinum black. The instrument was found satisfactory for refined radiometric measurements. The second paper gives the results of an inquiry into the probable value of the coefficient of total radiation of a uniformly heated en- closure or so-called black body. Experimental data are given on the lack of blackness of the radiator, on the absorption caused by atmos- pheric water vapor, on the reflecting power of lamp black, etc. W. W. C. GEOLOGY. — Ground water in Lasalle and McMullen counties, Texas. Alexander Deussen and R. B. Dole. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 375-G, pp. 142-181, with geologic and artesian water maps and sections. 1916. Lasalle and McMullen counties lie in the Coastal Plain of south- west Texas, where irrigation supplies are valuable. Physiographically they consist of uplands and valleys, the uplands being divided into several parallel belts trending northeast, the valley lands including two groups of Pleistocene terraces. On the uplands are remnants of a late Pliocene plain now nearly destroyed by erosion. The sediments exposed comprise several formations belonging to two systems, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. Deep wells encounter also formations belonging to the underlying Cretaceous system. The beds older than the Quaternary have been elevated and tilted toward the Gulf. The upland gravels and valley deposits were laid down after some tilting and erosion had taken place. An important feature is a difference in the direction in which the formations dip on the opposite sides of a line extending diagonally across the area from the northwest corner of Lasalle County, as suggested by the structure contours. A normal fault having a vertical displacement of probably 40 feet is inferred on the evidence of well sections and the quality of the water. There are several extensive sandy beds separated by beds of impervious clay or shale. The sandy beds are artesian reservoirs and supply flowing- wells. Numerous analyses given in the report indicate that almost all the waters exceed 500 parts per million in total mineral content, and nearly two-thirds of them exceed 2000 parts. Sulphate and chloride waters predominate and more than half contain notable amounts of abstracts: technology 225 black alkali. The best water is found in the northwestern part of the area, in the deepest formations. Irrigation on a small scale is practi- cable west of the fault line. 0. E. M. ENGINEERING.— Water powers of the Cascade Range, Part III, Yakima River basin. Glenn L. Parker and Frank B. Storey. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 369. Pp. 1-169, with text figures and illustrations. 1916. This is the third of a series entitled "Water powers of the Cascade Range," prepared by the United States Geological Survey and the Washington State Board of Geological Survey. Part I, containing data on the drainage basins of Klickitat, White Salmon, Little White Salmon, Lewis, and Toutle rivers, in southwestern Washington, was prepared by John C. Stevens and was published in 1910 as Water- Supply Paper 253. Part II, relating to the drainage basins of Cowlitz (except the Toutle), Nisqually, Puyallup, White, Green, and Cedar rivers, on the west side of the Cascade Range, was prepared by Fred F. Henshaw and Glenn L. Parker and was published in 1913 as Water- Supply Paper 313. The Yakima River basin described in this report lies east of the Cascade Range. The data on which this report and the others are based consist of stream-flow records, river plans and profiles, reservoir surveys, and field reconnaissances of the rivers and the various tributaries. The physical characteristics, economic conditions, and industrial develop- ment of the region are described rather fully in order that the limitations to the development of power may be more clearly understood. G. L. P. TECHNOLOGY. — Determination of carbon in steels and irons by direct combustion in oxygen at high temperatures. J. R. Cain and H. E. Cleaves. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 69. Pp. 10. 1916. A method has been devised for the determination of carbon in steels and irons by direct combustion in oxygen at 950° to 1100° C, finishing above 1450°, so that the oxides of iron are kept fused for several min- utes, in order to give the best possible chance for liberating all the carbon. This method was tested by analyzing various types of plain carbon and alloy steel standards of the Bureau and some of the pig iron standards, and the results obtained for carbon in this way were in the mean about 0.01 per cent carbon above the certificate averages. J. R. C. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The 104th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the 17th annual meeting, was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, the evening of January 13, 1916, with Vice-President W. S. Eichel- berger in the chair and about 75 persons present. The Corresponding Secretary reported a total membership of 486, 179 nonresident, 297 resident, 1 life, 6 honorary, and 4 patrons (1 of whom is also a regular member) . This is a net gain of 72 over the membership at the time of the last preceding annual meeting. During the year the Academy lost by death several of its most noted members : Charles E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska; Karl E. Guthe, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Joseph H. Holmes, Washington, D. C; Morris Longstreet, Cam- bridge, Massachusetts; F. W. Putnam, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Frank A. Sherman, Hanover, New Hampshire; Geo. M. Sternberg, Washington, D. C; and Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Washing- ton, D. C. The Recording Secretary reported the previous annual meeting and the 7 subsequent meetings at which scientific papers were presented. The report of the Treasurer, confirmed by the report of the auditors, showed : Cash balance, January 1, 1915 $1,597.31 Total receipts during 1915 3,991.31 $5,588.62 Disbursements, 1915 $3,560.55 Investments, 1915 500.00 Balance, December 31, 1915 1,528.07 $5,588.62 The Academy's total investments are: $13,090.00. The following were elected officers for the ensuing year: President, L. O. Howard; Corresponding Secretary, F. E. Wright; Recording Secretary, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, William Bowie; Vice- Presidents, representing the: Anthropological Society, J. Walter Fewkes; Archeological Society, Mitchell Carroll; Biological Society, W. P. Hay; Botanical Society, R. H. True; Chemical Society, R. B. Sosman; Electrical Engineers Society, C. B. Mirick; Engineers Society, J. C. Hoyt; Entomological Society, W. D. Hunter; Foresters Society, Geo. B. Sudworth; Geographical Society, O. H. Tittmann; 226 proceedings: the Washington academy of sciences 227 Geological Society, T. W. Vaughan; Historical Society, J. D. Morgan; Medical Society, E. Y. Davidson; Philosophical Society, L. J. Briggs; Non-Resident Vice-Presidents, A. G. Mayer and E. C. Pickering; Managers, Class of 1919, G. K. Burgess and C. L. Alsberg. After the election of officers the Academy continued its meeting jointly with the Chemical Society to hear the address of Dr. Carl L. Alsberg on The chemical analysis of animal nutrition, — an instruc- tive survey of the beginning, development, present status, and immedi- ate problems of this exceptionally difficult yet all-important branch of chemistry. The 105th meeting of the Academy was held in the auditorium of the New National Museum on Thursday evening, March 2, 1916, with President L. O. Howard in the chair. Dr. Douglas W. Johnson, Professor of Physiography in Columbia University, gave an illustrated lecture on the Surface features of Europe as a factor in the war. The geologic history of Europe was briefly outlined and the result- ing present physiographic features explained and illustrated in some detail. It is these features, especially the steep walls on the eastern margin of the "Paris basin," and the lakes, rivers, and swamps of western Russia, that throughout the war have largely determined the routes of advance and retreat, the lines of defense, and the points of attack. The 106th meeting of the Academy was held in the auditorium of the New National Museum on Tuesday evening, March 23, 1916, with President L. O. Howard in the chair and a large audience present. Dr. L. H. Baekeland, Member of the Naval Consulting Board, gave an address on Chemistry in relation to war. Early experiments were described that led to the chemical discovery and commercial develop- ment of dynamite, gun cotton, "T. N. T.," and the various other modern high-power explosives, and the processes of their manufacture outlined. It was explained that in the manufacture of these substances nitric acid is indispensable. The only large-scale sources of this acid, as now manufactured, are "Chili saltpeter" and the nitrogen of the air. Three methods of "fixing" the nitrogen of the air are now in use, two of which were first developed commercially in the United States, though subsequently abandoned owing to the high cost of the necessary power. Both processes are now extensively used abroad, especially in Norway and Germany. Whether nitrogen shall be "fixed" in America, and aniline dyes and other chemicals manufactured on a large scale, is merely a question of business and dividends, the speaker pointed out, and in no sense a question of scientific ability and chemical knowledge, both of which of high order exist in this country. W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary. 228 proceedings: biological society THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 551st regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 26, 1916; called to order at 8 p.m. by President W. P. Hay. Fifty persons were present. The first paper of the program was by D. E. Lantz, An Early Seventeenth Century mammalogist. This was a review of Edward Top- sell's History of Foure-footed Beastes, published in London in 1607. Topsell was born about 1538 and at the completion of this, the first general work on mammals published in the English language, was chaplain of the church of St. Botolph, Aldergate, under Richard Neile, Dean of Westminster, to whom the book is dedicated. The work, including illustrations, is largely translated from Conrad Gesner's Historia Animalium, published in 1551; but the author quotes also from the works of over 250 other writers — Hebrew. Greek, Latin. German, Italian, and French authorities — including 76 medical trea- tises. The speaker gave many curious extracts from Topsell, illustrat- ing them with lantern pictures of the animals under discussion, taken from the old wood cuts in the book. The pictures included those of the antelope, an ape monster, the American sloth, the beaver, various kinds of hyenas, the unicorn, the riverhorse, and the Su, an untamable and ferocious animal that has been identified with the American opossum . The second and last paper of the program was by J. W. Gidley, A talk on the extinct animal life of North America. Mr. Gidley defined the terms fossil and petrifaction, explained how fossils were formed under various conditions, and how they are discovered by the collector. He discussed the evolution of certain animals as shown bjr their fossil remains, and as particularly exemplified by horses, elephants, and dinosaurs. He emphasized in especial the unfortunate tendency on the part of paleontologists to try to see in fossil remains ancestral forms of later fossils or of existing animals. The speaker thought that many fossils represented highly specialized types of their kind, some extinct animals being more highly specialized than their present day represen- tatives; in fact in many cases their extreme specialization led to their extinction. In a general way fossil forms represent the evolution of certain groups, but the immediate connecting forms are for the most part lacking. Mr. Gidley's communication was profusely illustrated with lantern views of fossil-bearing localities, of fossils, and of certain artists' re- storations of fossils. It was discussed by Dr. L. 0. Howard. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI MAY 4, 1916 No. 9 PHYSICS. — Polarized skylight and the petrographic microscope.1 W. S. Tangier Smith. (Communicated by F. L. Ransome.) When skylight is used with the petrographic microscope, there is often a notable loss of available light owing to its partial polarization. This polarization, like the blue color of the sky, is due to the effect of light waves on particles of matter in the atmosphere, the diameter of which is small compared with the wave-length of light, so that the light which strikes them, instead of being reflected, sets up harmonic vibrations in the particles or the surrounding ether, these vibrations in turn giving rise to light waves and resulting in what is commonly referred to as "scattered light." This scattered light, composed mainly of blue and violet rays, is polarized to a greater or less extent, since at any one point the vibrations which give rise to it are confined to a single plane transverse to the direction of trans- mission of the original beam of light. The more numerous the minute particles which scatter light, and the fewer the larger reflecting particles which mask the scattered light, the bluer is the sky and the greater the polariza- tion of its light when viewed in certain directions. The blueness of the sky and the polarization of its light being due to the same cause, they vary for the most part together, and the polarization is therefore greatest under those circum- 1 Read before the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America. April 11, 1913. , 229 230 smith: polarized skylight and the microscope stances which give the bluest skies. Hence it is that the polari- zation of the skylight and the resulting loss of light in the micro- scope are most evident on the brightest days, with the clearest, bluest skies, and from those parts of the sky which are the deepest blue ; moreover it is especially noticeable in the more arid parts of the country and at considerable altitudes. The polarized skylight, reflected from the mirror of the micro- scope, enters the lower nicol vibrating in a plane which may or may not coincide with the plane of vibration of the nicol. If the two coincide, there is of course no loss of light. When they do not, however, there is always more or less loss, some- times amounting to one-half or more of the total illumination received by the microscope. Any remedy for the difficulty must involve either some change in the illumination, or else a shifting of the microscope or a modification of its optical parts. Among the possible devices which would reduce or prevent the loss of light are the following: (1) Artificial light may be used as the source of illumination, or a translucent screen may be interposed between the microscope and direct sunlight. A cloudy or foggy sky has the same effect as an interposed screen, the light from clouds being non-polarized. (2) The microscope may be so placed that the light will come from a favorable part of the sky. As already noted, the degree of polarization of the skylight varies in different parts of the sky, being greatest in those portions from which lines to the sun and the microscope make an angle approximating 90° with each other, and decreasing rapidly on either side of this zone, more especially with approach toward the sun (fig. 1). It also de- creases close to the horizon, on account of the large number of reflecting particles present in this portion of the sky. The horizon belt, however, is generally too narrow and often too low to be of much practical use; while near the sun the intensity of the light becomes too great. Thus, while the selection of favor- able parts of the sky may somewhat decrease the polarization effects, it is not always a satisfactory remedy, especially when the choice is restricted to those parts visible from a single window. smith: polarized skylight and the microscope 231 Fig. 1. Diagram to illustrate the variation in the polarization of scattered right from different parts of the sky. The short lines perpendicular to the lines representing the sun's rays are the traces of planes of vibration of harmonic motions which give rise to scattered light . A-B marks the approximate maximum limits of the sun's diffraction glow, the circle of intense illumination close to the sun, within which the effects of scattering are more or less masked and polariza- tion is at a minimum. (3) The microscope may be rotated on its base until the plane of vibration of the reflected polarized skylight coincides with that of the lower nicol of the instrument. This is a simple expedient, applicable at all times, and when the observer can move with the microscope it is entirely satisfactory. When he cannot, however, it necessitates his becoming familiar with the use of the micropscope and its accessories in varied positions, and even with such familiarity it is likely to lead to some confusion. In this connection it may be noted that the orientation of the plane, of vibration in the polarizer of the microscope may have some effect in increasing or decreasing the difficulties with polarized skylight. The plane of vibration of the lower nicol is differently oriented in different instruments, even of the same make. In the common type of the Bausch and Lomb petro- graphic microscope, for example, this plane of vibration is square with the instrument, in some cases running from front to rear, in others from right to left. In the "Larson Model" the plane of vibration is diagonal, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in the other. The difficulties with polarized skylight are met with 232 smith: polarized skylight and the microscope in all four of these types, and in this respect there is little to choose between them; what slight preference there may be for one type or the other will depend on the sky facing which one adopts — or often must adopt ; on the time of day when the micro- scope is most used; and on the importance of sky polarization as a factor at noonday. F. E. Wright,2 in a recent paper, has concluded that for Washington, D. C, where "at noon time there is always an abundance of light from a clear sky" (so that the polarized scattered light may be disregarded) , and for a northern facing, and a use of the microscope at any hour of the day, "there is a slight advantage in having the plane of vibration parallel to the vertical cross-hair." (4) A suitable compensator introduced below the polarizer of the microscope, and capable of independent rotation about the axis of the instrument, may effect practically complete correction of the polarization of the skylight and at the same time give a whiter and more favorable light. A simple type of such compen- sator is a thin, parallel-faced plate of some transparent, bire- fringent material — as quartz or muscovite — cut so as to give, theoretically, with monochromatic light of 518 nn wave length (the value which yields, with the petrographic microscope, results most nearly in accord with the conditions of ordinary white light), a phasal- difference of a half wave length between the entering and emerging rays of light. Practically, it is cut so as to give with ordinary light and between crossed nicols pure white of the first order as an interference color. This compensator or half- wave plate, mounted in a movable ring, should be free to rotate about the axis of the microscope through an angle of not less than 90°, and in use should be so turned that, theoretically, its planes of vibration, for light with normal incidence, bisect the angles between the planes of vibration of the reflected polar- ized skylight and the polarizer of the microscope (see fig. 2) ; practically, so as to obtain the maximum illumination. If the compensator is tested between the nicols of a microscope — the most severe test which can be applied — there is no observable 2 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 5: 641-644. 1915. smith: polarized skylight and the microscope 233 loss of light, even when the nicols are crossed. The writer has used such a compensator in his own work and finds it entirely satisfactory. Fig. 2. Diagram to illustrate the action of the polarized-skylight compensator or half-wave plate. S-S is the trace of the plane of vibration of polarized skylight. P-P is the trace of the plane of vibration of the polarizer of the microscope. C-C and c-c are the traces of the planes of vibration in the compensa- tor. They bisect the angles between S-S and P-P. The polarized skylight which enters the compensa- tor, vibrating in the direction S-S and with ampli- tude OS, is resolved into two plane polarized rays, C-C and c-c, with amplitudes OC and Oc, respec- tively, and with no phasal difference. Emerging with a phasal difference of one-half wave length, these rays combine to form a single plane polarized ray, R-R, whose direction of vibration coincides with that of the polarizer, P-P, and whose amplitude, OR, equals that of the original ray, OS. Theoretically, therefore, there is no loss in the light entering the polarizer. The compensator just described can be used, of course, only with a stationary polarizer. In order to use it with the type of microscope in which both nicols can be rotated simultaneously, it is necessary to connect the mounting of the compensator with that of the polarizer in such a way that, when the polarizer is turned through any angle, the compensator will be rotated, automatically, through half that angle, the movements of both being in the same direction. This rotation of the mounting, however, is inde- pendent of that of the compensator itself, already referred to. When both nicols are rotated simultaneously without the com- pensator, the intensity of the light transmitted by the polarizer may vary considerably, while with the compensator the illumi- nation is uniform during rotation. It may happen, during the middle of the day, that the full skylight, even from the zone of maximum polarization (which, it may be noted, is also the zone of minimum illumination), is too intense for the most satisfactory work with the petrographic microscope. At such times, when using light from this zone or 234 cockerell: uropods of acanthotelson stimpsoni near it, the compensator may be used, not only to correct the loss of light resulting from a lack of correspondence between the planes of vibration of skylight and polarizer, but also to adjust the light to the needs of the worker, either by an incom- plete correction of the light loss or, where there is already es- sentially complete correspondence between the vibration planes, by a reduction of the illumination through a reverse movement of the compensator. PALEONTOLOGY. — The uropods of Acanthotelson stimpsoni. T. D. A. Cockerell, University of Colorado. Among some fossils kindly presented by Mr. L. E. Daniels to the University of Colorado Museum is a specimen of Acanthotel- son stimpsoni Meek & Worthen in a nodule from the Carbon- iferous of Mazon Creek, Illinois. I have examined many ex- amples of this species, but the present one is re- markable for the perfect preservation of the uro- podal rami, permitting a more exact interpretation of their structure than was possible to Meek and Worthen, or to Packard.1 The rami are about 9.5 mm. long, hard and perfectly spiniform, and strongly longitudinally grooved. The outer one is straight, the inner gently curved. Stiff spinelike bristles occur at intervals of somewhat less than a millimeter on both sides of the inner ramus; and also on the outer side of the outer ramus, where they are more closely set. There are in addition many very fine, soft setae fringing the rami, forming an especially long fringe on the inner side of the outer ramus. Packard's figure is, therefore, in er- ror in showing numerous quite closely set bristles of one sort only. Acanthotelson is an animal of more than ordinary interest. It belongs to a group of Crustacea which Packard named Syncarida, peculiar freshwater Malacostraca in which there is no carapace whatever. In the Carboniferous and Permian strata of the Fig. 1. Uro- podal rami of Acanthotelson stimpsoni. About scale 4. > Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 3: 15th Memoir, pi. 1, fig. Id. 1886. cockerell: uropods of acanthotelson stimpsoni 235 northern hemisphere there is evidence of the existence of several genera. Formerly it was supposed that the group became extinct in later Paleozoic times, but in 1893 a living representative (Anaspides Thomson) was discovered in deep pools in the moun- tains of Tasmania. Still more recently two other living gen- era have been found: Par anaspides G. Smith in Tasmania and Koonunga Sayce in the vicinity of Melbourne, Australia. As early as the Mazon Creek Carboniferous, the appendages known as uropods had become greatly modified from a strictly primi- tive type. In Palaeocaris typus Meek & Worthen, of which an example from Mazon Creek is before me, the rami are flattened and expanded, approaching the form usual in Malacostraca, and evidently used for swimming, i.e., for propulsion in water. In Acanthotelson, on the other hand, the rami are of a very different nature, slender and spinelike, apparently suited for executing springing movements (comparable to those of the Collembola) in the soft sand or mud at the bottom of the water. Thus two types of modification were present ; one became nearly universal, while the other, that of Acanthotelson, died out. Acanthotelson must be regarded as the type of a distinct family, Acanthotel- sonidae, and the groups of Syncarida may be tabulated thus : Rami of uropods spinelike Acanthotelsonidae. (Acanthotelson Meek & Worthen. Mazon Creek Carboniferous.) Rami of uropods flattened swimming organs 1- 1. First thoracic somite quite distinct, though short. . . . Uronectidae.2 (Permian of Europe; Carboniferous of Europe and America.) 1. First thoracic somite fused with head, the point of junction more or or less indicated by a groove (living forms) 2. 2. Eyes sessile Koonungidae (Koonunga.) 2. Eyes stalked Anaspididae. No dorsal hump; mandible with three-jointed uniramous palpus. Anaspidinae (Anaspides). With a dorsal hump; mandible with four-jointed biramous palpus. Paranaspidinae (Paranaspides) . 2 Packard called this family Gampsonychidae, basing it on Gampsonyx Jordan & V. Meyer. It appears, however, that this generic name was earlier used for a genus of birds; so the next available name, Uronectes Bronn, has to be used. This is the Permian form; the Carboniferous one is Palaeocaris Meek & Worthen (Praeanaspides H. Woodward). Palaeocaris typus has a more or less distinct dorsal hump, though Packard's figure does not show it. 236 standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina The fact that the three living genera are extremely distinct from one another, and are monotypic, indicates that they are ancient forms, the group having apparently lost all tendency to produce new species. The curiously restricted geological and recent distribution of the whole series shows how little we know of some types of life, which must have had a long evolutionary history now hidden from us. I take this opportunity to note that the Arachnid family Holo- tergidae Petrunkevitch,3 which occurs at Mazon Creek, must be called Curculioididae, as " Holotergidae" is not based on a gen- eric name. BOTANY. — Comparative notes on the floras of New Mexico and Argentina. Paul C. Standley, National Museum.1 That there exists a marked relationship between the flora of the southwestern United States and that of central and southern Argentina is a fact fairly well known to botanists. The close- ness of this relationship is scarcely realized, perhaps, except by one familiar with the flora of either region when he inspects a collection of plants or goes over a list of species characteristic of the corresponding area. About three years ago Mr. Walter Fischer, at that time director of the Escuela Experimental de Agricultura at Rio Negro, in the Department of Rio Negro, southern Argentina, secured some three hundred numbers of plants in that vicinity. His collections were studied and named by Dr. Crist6bal M. Hicken, Professor of Botany in the Univer- sity of Buenos Aires. Dr. Hicken has published recently2 an extended report upon these specimens. The collection, although not a large one, is interesting to the student of the Argentine flora because of the considerable number of new species and of species previously unknown in Argentina which it contains. A set of Mr. Fischer's plants was received recently by the U. S. National Museum. When the writer had occasion to inspect the specimens, he was impressed at once by the strong resem- 3 Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts & Sciences, 18: 81. 1913. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2Physis,2: 1-18,101-122. 1915-16. standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina 237 blance of many of the species to others of the same genera with which he is familiar in New Mexico. A comparison of the flora of this limited area with that of the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico may be of some general interest. It is not certain that the flora of this particular region of the southwestern United States is the one with which that of the Rio Negro might best be compared; but the writer, being more familiar with the vegeta- tion of the Rio Grande Valley, is better able to use it as a basis of comparison, than some similar area in Arizona or southern Cali- fornia with whose flora, also, that of the Argentine region shows an equally close or possibly even closer alliance. Rio Negro is sitfiated in southern Argentina, in about latitude 39°, upon the Rio Negro, one of the larger streams of the region. The Mesilla Valley of New Mexico, with which it is proposed to compare its flora, lies along the Rio Grande in southern New Mexico, in latitude about 32° North. Judging from the data available from Mr. Fischer's notes, the two regions must bear a strong resemblance topographically : a wide river valley with large areas of heavy clay soil under irrigation, broken by stretches of sand dunes, the valley bordered by elevated sandy mesas or low hills. In the Argentine region part of the uplands appears to consist of clay soil, but in New Mexico all the mesa land is sandy, at least until the foothills of the mountains are reached. From the information at hand it is not possible to compare the composition of the corresponding zones of vegetation; conse- quently it seems more practicable to compare the related specific elements which constitute each flora as a whole. It is remarkable to find that several species of plants are actu- ally common to these two regions. These are as follows: Agrostis verticillata Vill. Andropogon saccharoides Swartz Echinochloa zelayensis (H. B. K.) Schult. Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Link Festuca octo flora Walt. Paspalum distichum L. Phrag mites phragmites (L.) Karst. Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf . Cyperus inflexus Muhl. Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. Br. Juncus mexicanus Willd. Rumex persicarioides L. Monolepis nuttalliana (Roem. & Schult.) Greene Silene antirrhina L. Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene Dancus pwsillus Michx. Heliotr opium curassavicum L. Petunia parviflora Juss. Solatium elaeagnifolium Cav. Linaria canadensis (L.) Dum. 238 STAND LEY-. FLORAS OF NEW MEXICO AND ARGENTINA Most of these are species of wide distribution, some of them, like Phragmites phragmites, Polypogon monspeliensis, and Eleo- charis palustris, extending to the Old World. Polypogon mon- speliensis may even be adventive in the Western Hemisphere. Others of the list, like Paspalum distichum, Juncus mexicanus, Heliotropium curassavicum, and Petunia parviflora, have an ex- tended range in the warmer parts of North and South America. Several of the other species, however, are not continuous in their ranges, being restricted to the temperate parts of the two American continents. Among them are Festuca octoflora, Mono- lepis nuttalliana, Silene antirrhina, Halerpestes cymbalaria, Daucus pusillus, Solanum elaeagnifolium, and Linaria canadensis. Some of these are plants which range widely in the United States, but the Monolepis, Halerpestes, Daucus, and Solanum are typi- cally southwestern plants. Solanum elaeagnifolium is a charac- teristic plant of southern New Mexico and Arizona and of western Texas. In addition to the species listed which are common to the two regions, certain others occurring in the Argentine area appear elsewhere in the southwestern United States. Veronica anagallis- aquatica L. occurs in New Mexico and Arizona, and Lythrum hyssopifolium L. and Scirpus riparius Presl in California. Pani- cum urvilleanum Kunth is known only from Arizona, California, Chile, and Argentina. Malacothrix coulteri Gray is common to southern California and Argentina. Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Potamogeton filiformis Pers., and Hordeum pusillum Nutt. are widely diffused in North America. More interesting and suggestive is the following list of paired species. The species listed in the lefthand column are Argentine, while those in the righthand column are certain New Mexican ones which bear a close resemblance to them. A few of those cited from New Mexico do not actually occur in the Mesilla Valley out they are found at New Mexican points not far distant. Argentine Species New Mexican Analogues Azolla filiculoides Lam. Azolla caroliniana Willd. Ephedra ochreata Miers Ephedra trifurca Torr. STAND LEY: FLORAS OF NEW MEXICO AND ARGENTINA 239 Setaria3 villiglumis Hicken Salix chilensis Mol. Parietaria debilis Forst. Atriplex ameghinoi Speg. Chenopodium hircinum Schrad. Dondia divaricata (Moq.) Stand- ley4 Clematis dioica campestris (St. Hil.) Kuntze Draba australis ameghinoi Speg. Radicula philippiana (S p e g.) Standley5 Hoffmanseggia falcaria Cav. Prosopis juliflora DC. Strombocarpa strombulifera (Benth.) Gray Lupinus microcarpus Sims Vicia graminea Sims Covillea cuneifolia (Cav.) Vail. Covillea divaricata (Cav.) Vail. Covillea nitida (Cav.) Vail. Euphorbia ovalifoUa argentosa Muell. Arg. Tithymalus portulacoides (L.) Standleys Condalia lineata Gray Sida leprosa (Orb.) Schum. Sphaeralcea miniata (Cav.) Spach Nuttallia albescens (Gill. & Arn.) Standley9 Menodora integrifolia (Cham. & Schlecht.) Steud. Androsace salasii Kurtz Chaetochloa composita (H. B. K.) Scribn. Salix exigua Nutt. Parietaria obtusa Rydb. Atriplex argentea Nutt. Chenopodium incanum (S. Wats.) Heller Dondia intermedia (S. Wats.) Heller Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. Draba cuneifolia Nutt. Radicula obtusa (Nutt.) Greene Hoffmanseggia densi flora Benth.6 Prosopis glandulosa Torr.7 Strombocarpa pubescens (Benth.) Gray Lupinus pusillus Pursh Vicia exigua Nutt. Covillea glutinosa (Engelm.) Rydb. Chamaesyce serpyllifolia (Pers.) Small Tithymalus montanus (Engelm.) Small Condalia spathulata Gray Sida hederacea (Dougl.) Torr. Sphaeralcea lobata Wooton. Nuttallia multiflora (Nutt.) Greene Menodora scabra Gray Androsace occidentalis Pursh 3 The names Setaria and Chaetochloa apply to the same genus. 4 Suaeda divaricata Moq. Chenop. Enum. 123. 1840. 5 Nasturtium philippianum Speg. Bol. Agr. Buenos Aires, 1: 200. 1901. 6 It is doubtful whether this is distinct from H. falcaria. It ranges from western Texas to southern Arizona and adjacent Mexico. H. falcaria is found in southern South America. 7 The relationship of this to P. juliflora, and the range of the latter species are very uncertain. The Argentine plant may not be P. juliflora, but on the other hand, P. glandulosa may not be sufficiently distinct from P. juliflora. The same species, or else two closely related ones, occurs in Argentina and New Mexico. 8 Euphorhia portulacoides L. Sp. PI. 456. 1753. 9 Bartonia albescens Gill. & Arn. Edinb. Phil. Journ. 2: 273. 1831. 240 standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina Cressa australis petiolata Meissn. Gilia valdiviensis Griseb. Lappula redowskii (Lehm.) Greene10 Phyla nodiflora (Michx.) Greene11 Verbena gracilescens Cham. & Schlecht. Lycium floribundum Dunal Lycium pubescens Miers Lycium wilkesii Ball Nicotiana monticola Dunal Plantago patagonica Jacq. Plantago rocae Lorentz Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng. Aster squamatus (Spreng.) Hieron. Baccharis juncea Desf . Baccharis salicifolia Pers. Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze Gaillardia megapotamica scabio- soides Baker Gnaphalium cheiranthifolium Lam.12 Solidago microglossa DC. Tessaria absinthioides DC. Thelesperma scabiosoides Less. Cressa truxillensis H. B. K. Gilia inconspicua (Smith) Dough* Lappula occidentalis (S. Wats.) Greene Phyla incisa Small Verbena neomezicana (Gray) Small Lycium parvifiorum Gray Lycium torreyi Gray Nicotiana trigonophylla Dunal Plantago purshii Roem. & Schult. Plantago major L. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L. Aster exilis Ell. Baccharis wrightii Gray Baccharis glutinosa Pers. Flaveria campestris Johnston Gaillardia pinnatifida Torr. Gnaphalium chilense Spreng. Solidago arizonica (Gray) Woot. & Standi. Tessaria borealis Torr. & Gray Thelesperma gracile (Torr.) Gray In some of the cases cited the resemblance is very striking, for example, in the instance of Ephedra, Atriplex, Draba, Lupinus, Vicia, Sida, Nuttallia, Androsace, Solidago, and Thelesperma. The two Sidas belong to a small group which, in the United States, is chiefly southwestern. Other instances of representatives of genera or groups of species which with us are typical of the arid southwest, are found in species of Ephedra, Hoffmanseggia, Strombocarpa, Covillea, Condalia, Sphaeralcea, Menodora, Cressa, Gilia, Lycium, Baccharis, Flaveria, Tessaria, and Thelesperma. It is interesting to note that in Argentina the cresote bush, Covillea, is represented by three species, while in the southwest 10 The determination of this species is doubtfully correct. At any rate, the plant is very close to L. occidentalis. 11 The plant so determined may not really be P. nodiflora, but it is very like P. incisa. 12 The specimens so determined are different from the plant of western South America found in herbaria under this name. standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina 241 we have but a single one. Strombocarpa strombalifera is in many respects similar to S. pubescens, the well-known screw-pod mes- quite or tornillo of the Southwest, especially in its fruits, which are almost identical. But the Argentine plant can scarcely, like its New Mexican ally, be an important source of firewood, for it is only two or three decimeters high. Besides the instances just mentioned, certain Argentine species of Persicaria, Gutierrezia, Grindelia, Astragalus, Clycyrrhiza, Le- pidium, Pappophorum, Monnina, Phacelia, Polygala, Ximenesia, Senecio, Disiichlis, Stipa, Poa, Sophia, and Heliotropium bear a general resemblance to New Mexican species of the same genera. There are also represented in the collection such genera as Myri- ophyllum, Tissa, Allocarya, Amsinckia, Bowlesia, Pectocarya, Bud- dleia, and Hydrocotyle, which are not represented in the Mesilla Valley, although they occur in regions not far distant. Most of these genera, also, consist in the United States of characteris- tically southwestern plants. It is significant to find about Rio Negro a curious xerophytic shrub belonging to the Caper Family, Atamisquea emarginata Miers, a species found also in Lower Cali- fornia but unknown in the intervening countries. Several genera which occur in the Southwest are represented in Argentina by species very unlike the North American ones. Some of these are Lippia, Elymus, Frankenia, Verbena, Menodora, Prosopis, Atri- plex, Sida, Eupatorium, Eryngium, and Sporobolus. The Ver- benas are specially interesting; species of this genus are very numerous in southern South America, but many of them are strik- ingly different from our North American ones, all of which fall into two groups, each composed of similar plants. Some of those of Argentina are shrubs, often with curious leaf form, and some of them have yellow flowers. Of course, there are represented in this Argentine locality genera of which no species are found in the southwestern United States. Among them are Mulinum and Asteriscium (Apiaceae), Chuquiragua and Cyclolepis (Mutisiaceae), Adesmia (Fabaceae), Fabiana and Treclionaetes (Solanaceae), Facelis and Hysterionica (Asteraceae) ,♦ Turrigera and Oxystelma (Asclepiadaceae) , Schinus 242 standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina (Anacardiaceae) , Cristaria (Malvaceae), Hippeastrum (Amaryl- lidaceae) , Margyricarpus (Rosaceae) , Boagainvillea (Allioniaceae) , Arjona (Santalaceae) , and Hypochaeris (Cichoriaceae) . Most of these have no obvious analogues in the United States, al- though Oxystelma and Turrigera may correspond to our Phili- bertella, and Adesmia in a manner take the place of Astragalus or perhaps Lotus. The family Mutisiaceae reaches its greatest development in the arid regions of western and southern South America. In North America it is represented in Mexico and the southwestern United States chiefly by the genera Trixis and Perezia. Many of our characteristic New Mexican genera, on the other hand, are not found in Argentina. Among them may be men- tioned Tridens, Sitanion, Yucca, Eriogonum, Abronia, Dithyraea, Koeberlinia, Fouquieria, Oreocarya, Hymenopappus, Toivnsendia, and Chrysothamnus. From all the analogies of the two floras that have been cited it is evident that the relationship between the vegetation of southern Argentina and that of New Mexico is strongly marked. The limited size of Mr. Fischer's collection affords, of course, an in- sufficient basis for an extensive comparison of the vegetation of these areas, but the data afforded by other collections only accen- tuate the closeness of the relationship. It is evident that stu- dents of the flora of the southwestern United States would do well to devote more- attention to the flora of the corresponding regions of South America. No doubt many of our United States species find their closest allies in those regions, and it may well be that in some cases identical forms common to the two areas have been described independently by botanists who relied too much upon geographic isolation in establishing their species. Prob- ably, however, such instances are few. The botanists of Cali- fornia long have been aware of the relationship of their xerophytic flora to that of Chile, and have profited by this knowledge. Un- fortunately the plants of southern and western South America are too poorly represented in United States herbaria at present to furnish an adequate basis for comparative studies* of the flora. standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina 243 Before finishing his comparison of these floral areas, the writer feels it desirable to make some mention of the adventive and nat- uralized plants of the Rio Negro Valley represented among Mr. Fischer's collections. Of the native Argentine species two are of interest to United States botanists because they have become more or less naturalized in this country. Poinciana gilliesii Hook., the bird-of-paradise bush, is one of the commonest cul- tivated plants of the arid southwestern United States and of Mexico, and is often found as an escape from cultivation. Ama- ranthus crispus (Lesp. & Thev.) A. Br. has been collected at Albany and New York City, New York, at Wilmington, North Carolina, and at Mobile, Alabama. It was described originally from plants adventive in France, and only in very recent years has it been ascertained that its native habitat is Argentina. A list of the more noteworthy plants adventive in Argentina, as shown b}r the present collection, is as follows: Agrostis alba L. Dactylis glomerata L. Holcus halepensis L. Hordeum murinum L. Phleum pratense L. Poa annua L. Polygonum aviculare L. Rumex crispus L. Atriplex rosea L. A triplex semibaccata R. Br. Salsola pestifer A. Nels. Portulaca oleracea L. Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Web. Sisymbrium altissimwn L. Medicago lupulina L. Medicago saliva L. Melilotus alba Desr. Melilotus indica (L.) All. Trifolium repens L. Tri folium pratense L. Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her. Convolvulus arvensis L. Marrubium vulgare L. Plantago lanceolata L. Cichorium intybus L. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Sonchus oleraceus L. Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Karst. Xanthium spinosum L. Anthemis cotula L. Senecio vulgaris L. All of the above are Old World plants which occur in New Mexico, and many of them are common in the irrigated lands of the Mesilla Valley. In addition, the following species may be, mentioned which have become established in the Rio Negro Val- ley but are not known from New Mexico, although they have be- come established elsewhere in the United States, most of them in the Southwest: 244 standley: floras of new Mexico and Argentina Lolium italicum A. Br. Notholcus lanatus (L.) Nash A triplex hortensis L. Amaranthus deflexus L. Brassica napus L. Brassica nigra L. Cer ostium vulgatum L. Medicago denticulata Willcl. Medicago orbicularis All. Conium maculatum L. Daucus carota L. Veronica peregrina L.13 Dipsacus fullonum L. Lactuca scariola L.14 Centaur ea melitensis L. Cirsium lanceolatum (L.) Scop. Several of these European plants, notably Dipsacus fullonum, Centaurea melitensis, Hordeum murinum, Medicago sativa and M. denticulata, Melilotus indica, Marrubium vulgar e, Er odium cicutarium, and Sonchus asper, are either confined in the United States to the Southwest or else are particularly abundant there, and are known to have occurred in that region at an early date. It is probable that they reached the United States through the same agency by which they were transported to Argentina — the early Spanish settlers. While some of the European plants cited have become widely scattered with the development of international commerce, many thrive only in temperate regions, and several of them, like the Salsola, Erodium, Hordeum, and Centaurea, seem to thrive best in arid or subarid regions. These adventive plants, combined with the more than slightly familiar aspect of the native flora, would make a botanist accustomed to our Southwestern vegeta- tion feel very much at home when he first made the acquaintance of the Rio Negro Valley of Argentina. 13 In New Mexico we have V. xalapensis H.B.K. as a native species. While all botanists may not consider it specifically distinct from V . peregrina, it cer- tainly is distinguished readily from the naturalized European plant. 14 In New Mexico only L. integrata (Gren. & Godr.) A. Nels. is known. It is often considered a subspecies of L. scariola. REFERENCES Under this heading It is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal. PHYSICS Bureau of Standards. The testing of hydrometers. 4th ed. Circular No. 16. 1916. Bureau op Standards. Invar and related nickel steels. Circular No. 58. Pp. 68. 1916. Bureau of Standards. Standard density and volumetric tables, 5th ed. Circu- lar No. 19. Pp. 64. 1916. Foote, Paul D., and Fairchild, C. O. Luminosity of a black body and tempera- ture. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 270, pp. 137-145. 1916. CHEMISTRY Berg, W. N. Biochemical comparisons between mature beef and immature veal. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 667-712, figs. 1-6. January 10, 1916. Gile, P. L., and Carrero, J. O. Ash composition of upland rice at various stages of growth. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 357-364. November 29, 1915. Gore, H. C. Studies of fruit juices. Bulletin of the IT. S. Department of Agri- culture, No. 241. Pp. 1-19. June 14, 1915. Hasselbring, H., and Hawkins, L. A. Carbohydrate transformations in sweet potatoes. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 543-560. December 27, 1915. Headden, W. P. Occurrence of manganese in wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 349-356. November 22, 1915. Russell, G. A. A study of the soft resins in sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and in open storage. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 282. Pp. 1-19. August 11, 1915. Shedd, O. M. Variations in mineral composition of sap, leaves, and steins of the wild-grape vine and sugar-maple tree. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 529-542. December 20, 1915. Thatcher, R. W. Enzyms of apples and their relation to the ripening process. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 103-116. October 18, 1915. Withers, W. A., and Carruth, F. A. Gossypol, the toxic substance in cottonseed meal. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 261-288, pis. 25-26. November 15, 1915. 245 246 REFERENCES: HORTICULTURE SOILS Alway, F. J., and Bishop, E. S. Nitrogen content of the humus of arid soils. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 909-916. February 14, 1916. Brown, P. E. Relation between certain bacterial activities in soils and their crop- producing power. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 855-870. January 31, 1916. Bouyotjcos, G. J. Effect of temperature on the movement of water vapor and capil- lary moisture in soils. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 141-172, figs. 1-11. October 25, 1915. Giltner, Ward, and Langworthy, H. Virginia. Some factors influencing the longevity of soil micro-organisms subjected to desiccation, with special reference to soil solution. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 927-942. February 14, 1916. Koch, G. P. Soil Protozoa. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 511-560. September, 1915. Koch, G. P. Activity of soil Protozoa. Journal of Agricultural Research,' 5: 477-488. December 13, 1915. Kopeloff, Nicholas, Lint, H. C., and Coleman, D. A. Separation of soil Protozoa. Journal of Agricultural Research. 5: 137-140. October 18, 1915. LeClair, C. A. Influence of growth of cowpeas upon some physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5:439-448, figs. 1-2, pi. 42. December 6, 1915. Oskamp, Joseph. Soil temperatures as influenced by cultural methods. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 173-180, figs. 1-4. October 25, 1915. Plummer, J. K. Petrography of some North Carolina soils and its relation to their fertilizer requirements. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 569-582, pi. 52. December 27, 1915. BOTANY Hedgcock, G. G. Parasitism of Comandra umbellata. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 133-136. October 18, 1915.' Mason, S. C. Botanical characters of the leaves of the date palm used in dis- tinguishing cultivated varieties. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 223. Pp. 1-28. June 23, 1915. Piper, C. V., and Morse, W. J. The bonavist, lablab, or hyacinth bean. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 318. Pp. 1-15. November 18, 1915. Sudworth, G. B. The spruce and balsam fir trees of the Rocky Mountain region. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 327. Pp. 1-43. February 19, 1916. Westgate, J. M., Coe, H. S., Wiancko, A. T., Robbins, F. E., Hughes, H. D., Pammel, L. H., and Martin, J. N. Red-clover seed production: pollination studies. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 289. Pp. 1-31. September 21, 1915. HORTICULTURE Coville, F. V. Directions for blueberry culture, 1916. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 334. Pp. 1-16. December 28, 1916. references: agronomy 247 Husmann, G. C. The raisin industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulle- tin No. 349. Pp. 1-15. March 17, 1916. Mason, S. C. Dates of Egypt and the Sudan. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 271. Pp. 1-40. September 28, 1915. FORESTRY Humphrey, C. J., and Fleming, Ruth M. The toxicity to' fungi of various oils and salts, particidarly those used in wood preservation. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 227. Pp. 1-38. August 23, 1915. Weir, J. R. Larch mistletoe: some economic considerations of its injurious effects. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 317. Pp. 1-27. January 20, 1916. AGRONOMY Babcock, F. R. Cereal experiments at the Williston Station. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 270. Pp. 1-36. July 29, 1915. Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. Effect of frequent cutting on the water require- ment of alfalfa and its bearing on pasturage. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 228. Pp. 1-6. May 22, 1915. Cates, H. R. Farm practice in the cultivation of corn. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 320. Pp. 1-67. January 24, 1916. Chilcott, E. C., Cole, J. S., and Burr, W. W. Barley in the Great Plains area; relation of cultural methods to production. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 222. Pp. 1-32. May 24, 1915. Chilcott, E. C, Cole, J. S., and Burr, W. W. Oats in the Great Plains area; relation of cultural methods to production. U. S. Departmentof Agriculture, Bulletin No. 218. Pp. 1-42. May 28, 1915. Chilcott, E. C, Cole, J. S., and Burr, W. W. Corn in the Great Plains area; relation of cultural methods to production. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 219. Pp. 1-31. June 2, 1915. Chilcott, E. C, Cole, J. S., and Burr, W. W. Crop production in the Great Plains area; relation of cultural methods to yields. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 268. Pp. 1-28. July 20, 1915. Chilcott, E. F., Griggs, W. D., and Burmeister, C. A. Corn, milo, and kafir in the southern Great Plains area; relation of cultural methods to production. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 242. Pp. 1-20. June 19, 1915. Dillman, A. C. Breeding millet and sorgo for drought adaptation. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 291. Pp. 1-19. January 25, 1916. Grace, O. J. The effect of different times of plowing small-grain stubble in eastern Colorado. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 253. Pp. 1-15. June 29, 1915. McLachlan, Argyle. Community productioyi of Durango cotton in the Imperial Valley. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 324. Pp. 1-16. December 22, 1915. Meade, R. M. Single-stalk cotton culture at San Antonio. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 279. Pp. 1-20. August 24, 1915. 248 references: phytopathology Salmon, Cecil. Cereal investigations on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 297. Pp. 1-43. October 28, 1915. Scofield, C. S., Kearney, T. H., Brand, C. J., Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T. Community production of Egyptian cotton in the United States. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 332. Pp. 1-30. January 13, 1916. Saunders, D. A., and Cardon, P. V. Custom ginning as a factor in cotton-seed deterioration. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 288. Pp. 1-8. September 7, 1915. Shaw, H. B. Sugar beets: Preventable losses in culture. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 238. Pp. 1-21. July 14, 1915. Stanton, T. R. Cereal experiments in Maryland and Virginia. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 336. Pp. 1-52. February 10, 1916. Surface, F. M., and Pearl, Raymond. A method of correcting for soil hetero- geneity in variety tests. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1039-1050, fig. 1, February 28, 1916. Vinall, H. N., and McKee, Roland. Moisture content and shrinkage of forage; and the relation of these factors to the accuracy of experimental data. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 353. Pp. 1-37. March 16, 1916. Zook, L. L. Tests of corn varieties on the Great Plains. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 307. Pp. 1-20. December 14, 1915. BACTERIOLOGY Cooledge, L. H. Agglutination test as a means of studying the presence of Bacillus abortus in milk. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 871-876. February 7, 1916. PHYTOPATHOLOGY Allard, H. A. Distribution of the virus of the mosaic disease in capsules, fila- ments, anthers, and pistils of affected tobacco plants. Journal of Agricultural Research, 6: 251-256, pi. 23. November 8, 1915. Brooks, Charles, and Fisher, D. F. Brown-rot of prunes and cherries in the Pacific Northwest. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 368. Pp. 1-10. March 6, 1916. Brown, Nellie A. A bacterial disease of lettuce. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 475-478. August, 1915. Bryan, Mary K. A nasturtium wilt caused by Bacterium solanacearum. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 4: 451-358, figs. 1-3, pis. 63-66. August, 1915. Carpenter, C. W. Some potato tuber-rots caused by species of Fusarium. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 183-210, pis. A-B, pis. 14-19. Novem- ber 1, 1915. Cobb, N. A. Tylenchus similis, the cause of a root disease of sugar cane and banana. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 561-568, figs. 1-2. September, 1915. Coons, G. H. Factors involved in the groivth and the pycnidium formation of Plenodomus fuscomaculans. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 713-770. January 17, 1916. Edson, H. A. Histological relations of sugar-beet seedlings and Phoma Betae. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 55-58, pis. 1-2. October 4, 1915. references: plant physiology 249 Harter, L. L. Siveel-potato scurf. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 787- 792, pis. 57-58. January 24, 1916. Hedgcock, G. G., and Long, W. H. A disease of pines caused by Cronartium pyriforme. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 247. Pp. 1-20. July 20, 1915. Jackson, H. S. An Asiatic species of Gymnosporangium established in Oregon. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1003-1010, pis. 78-79. February 28, 1916. Long, W. H. Two new hosts for Peridermium pyriforme. Journal of Agricul- tural Research, 5: 289-290, pi. 27. November 15, 1915. Long, W. H. A honeycomb heart-rot of oaks caused by Stereum subpileatum. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 421-428, pi. 41. December 6, 1915. Melhtts, I. E. Hibernation of Phytophthora infestans of the Irish Potato. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 5: 71-102, figs, 1-3, pis. 4-8. October 11, 1915. Melhus, I. E. Perennial mycelium i)i species of Peronosporaceae related to Phytophthora infestans. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 59-70, fig. 1, pi. 3. October 11, 1915. Pool, Venus W., and McKay, M. B. Relation of stomatal movement to infection by Cercospora beticola. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1011-1038, figs. 1-6, pis. 80-81. February 28, 1916. Rand, F. V. Dissemination of bacterial wilt of cucurbit*. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 257-260, pi. 24. November 8, 1915. Rosenbaum, J. Pathogenicity and identity Of Sclerotinia libertiana and Sclero- tica smilacina on ginseng. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 291-298, fig. 1, pis. 28-29. November 15, 1915. Rosenbaum, J., and Zinnsmeister, C. L. Alternaria panax, the cause of a root- rot of ginseng. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 181-1S2, pis. 12-13. October 25, 1915. Smith, Erwin F., and Bryan, Mary K. Angular leaf-spot of cucumbers. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 465-476, pis. 43-49. December 13, 1915. Stakman, E. C., and Jensen, Louise. Infection experiments with timothy rust. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 211-216. November 1, 1915. Taubenhaus, J. J. Soilstain, or scurf, of the sweet potato. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 995-1002, pis. 76-77. February 21, 1916. Valleau, W. D. Varietal resistance of plums to brown-rot. Journal of Agri- cultural Research, 5: 365-396, pis. 37-39. November 29, 1915. Weir, J. R., and Hubert, E. E. A serious disease in forest nurseries caused by Peridermium filamentosum. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 781-786. January 24, 1916. Wolf, F. A. Further studies on peanut leafspot. Journal of Agricultural Re- search, 5: 891-902. February 7, 1916. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Bartram, H. E. Effect of natural low temperature on certain fungi and bacteria. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 651-656. January 3, 1916. Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. Influence of hybridization and cross-polli- nation on water requirement of plants. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 391-402, fig. 1, pi. 58. August, 1915. 250 references: animal husbandry Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. An automatic transpiration scale of large capacity for use with freely exposed plants. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 117-132, figs. 1-18, pis. 9-11. October 18, 1915. Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. Hourly transpiration rate on clear days as determined by cyclic environmental factors. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 583-650, figs. 1-22, pis. 53-55. January 3, 1916. Buckner, G. D. Translocation of mineral constituents of seeds and tubers of certain plants during growth. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 449-458. December 13, 1915. Cook, F. C. Boron: Its absorption and distribution in plants and its effect on growth. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 877-890. February 7, 1916. Fred, E. B. Relation of green manures to the failure of certain seedlings. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1161-1176, pis. 83-84. March 20, 1916. Harris, F. S. Effect of alkali salts in soils on the germination and growth of crops. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1-54, figs. 1-48. October 4, 1915. Hart, E. B., and Tottingham, W. E. Relation of sulphur compounds to plant nutrition. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 233-250, pis. 20-22. No- vember 8, 1915. Hasselbring, H., and Hawkins, L. A. Respiration experiments with sweet potatoes. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 509-518. December 20, 1915. McGeorge, W. T. Fate and effect of arsenic applied as a spray for weeds. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 5: 459-464. December 13, 1915. Pitz, Walter. Effect of elemental sulphur and of calcium sulphate on certain of the higher and lower forms of plant life. Journal of Agricultural Research. 5: 771-780, pi. 56. January 17, 1916. EVOLUTION Belling, John. Inheritance of length of pod in certain crosses. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 405-420, pi. 40. December 6, 1915. Rietz, H. L., and Roberts, Elmer. Degree of resemblance of parents and off- spring with respect to birth as twins for registered Shropshire sheep. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 479-510. September, 1915. Sievers, A. F. Some effects of selection on the production of alkaloids in bella- donna. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 306. Pp. 1-20. October 15, 1915. Wentworth, E. N., and Aubel, C. E. Inheritance of fertility in swine. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1145-1160, figs. 1-4. March 20, 1916. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Curtis, Maynie R. Frequency of occurrence of tumors in the domestic fowl. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 397-404. November 29, 1915. Pearl, Raymond. Measurement of the winter cycle in the egg production of domes- tic fowl. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 429-438. December 6, 1915. Steenbock, H. Diuresis and milk flow. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 561-568. December 27, 1915. Woodward, T. E., Turner, W. F., and Griffiths, David. Prickly-pears as a feed for dairy cows. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 405-450, fig. 1, pi. F, pis. 61-62. August, 1915. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 304th meeting assembled in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on February 9, 1916, and immediately adjourned out of respect to the memory of Dr. C. Willard Hayes, past President. The 305th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on February 23, 1916. REGULAR PROGRAM Charles Butts: Faults of unusual character' in central Pennsyl- vania (Illustrated). In the vicinity of Henrietta, in the southeast corner of the Hollidaysburg quadrangle, Pennsylvania, a wedge-shaped block 8 to 10 miles long and 2 miles wide at base is thrust up between younger rocks. The maximum throw is at the point of the wedge at the north end where the Waynesboro formation, of Middle Cambrian age, is in contact with dolomite of Beekmantown age. The relations resulting from the converging faults are abnormal for the Appalachian valley. The fault block is overthrust along the west fault and rela- tively downthrown along the east fault. The west fault is the major one and seems to extend northward for a long distance. It, or one in the same line of disturbance, is revealed in a cut of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Birmingham, Pennsylvania, where the fault plane dips eastward about 15? Several possible explanations were given for the abnormal relations along the fault on the west side of the wedge: First, that it is a nor- mal fault downthrown on the east; second, that it was formed long subsequent to the west fault and after deep erosion, the movement being along the bedding plane of the base of the Beekmantown lime- stone; and third, that it took place along a second original fissure east of that along which the main overthrust occurred, at a time when the arch was completely overturned in such a way as to bring the second fissure into line with the direction of the maximum pressure of the overthrusting force. Laurence LaForge: Resume of the geology of southeastern New England in the light of field work since 1908 (Illustrated). No abstract. 251 252 proceedings: geological society Alfred H. Brooks: The physiographic provinces of Alaska (Illus- trated). Five principal physiographic provinces, each divisible into sub- provinces, are recognizable in Alaska. These are (1) Pacific Mountain system, (2) Central Plateau region, (3) Rocky Mountain system, (4) Arctic Mountain system, and (5) Arctic Slope region. The Pacific Mountain system is made up of a number of parallel ranges forming a rugged highland of crescentic outline sweeping around the Gulf of Alaska. Its central part is upwards of two hundred miles in width, but the system narrows to the southeast and to the southwest. It is continued to the southeast by the Coast Range of British Colum- bia and to the southwest by the rugged Aleutian Islands. Several sub- provinces of lesser relief are included within the Pacific Mountain system. In most places the inland slope of this system falls off abruptly to the Central Plateau region, though the line of demarcation between the two provinces is not everywhere well defined. The Central Plateau region is characterized by flat-topped inter- stream areas separated by broad valleys and lowlands and broken by minor ranges and peaks that rise above the general level. The plateau feature is best developed in the upper Yukon basin, for it loses its definition on approaching Bering Sea. Here the characteristic topog- raphy consists of low rounded highlands rising island-like from broad lowlands. The Rocky Mountain system maintains its northwesterly trend through western Canada to within about 400 miles of the Arctic Ocean and then bends to the west and enters Alaska as a single range (Ogilvie Mountains). Crossing the boundary just south of the 66th parallel it loses its definition and soon merges with the fiat summits of the Central Plateau region. The Crazy and White Mountains of the Yukon-Tanana region that stand above the plateau level lie in the continuation of the Rocky Mountain axis. A new name, Arctic Mountain system, is proposed for the east and west trending mountain system of northern Alaska formerly regarded as part of the Rocky Mountain system. Recent investigations by Canadian and American geologists have shown that this is a distinct system from the Rocky Mountains, although they are connected by the flat-topped Richardson Mountains forming the Mackenzie-Porcupine divide. The Arctic Mountain system stretches westward from the International Boundary to the Arctic Ocean north of Kotzebue Sound. It is not everywhere sharply differentiated from the plateau region to the south, for in many places the dissected plateau remnants merge with the foothills of the ranges. In its western part the northern limit of the lowland of the Kobuk Valley affords a definite line of demarca- tion. On the north the mountains, so far as known, everywhere fall off abruptly to the Arctic Slope. This scarp affords a definite boundary line between the two provinces. The system is made up throughout its extent of two or more parallel ranges and includes some broad low- lands. These lowlands are specially striking topographic features in proceedings: geological society 253 the western half of the chain. The Arctic Mountain system is con- tinued east of the boundary by some mountains of lesser altitude. These end in a scarp at the Mackenzie delta, east of which they have not been recognized. The Arctic Slope region has two subdivisions, the Anaktuvuk Plateau and the Coastal Plain. The first forms a piedmont plateau sloping northward from the base of the range. Along the Colville River it has a width of about 50 miles, but it narrows to the east. At the boundary it appears to be entirely absent, for here only a nar- row coastal plain intervenes between the mountains and the sea. The westward extension of Anaktuvuk Plateau is unexplored. On the north the plateau is bounded by a scarp which separates it from the Coastal Plain. This plain varies from a width of less than 10 miles at the bounary to over 150 south of Point Barrow. All of the features described, except those of the Arctic Slope region, form a part of the North American cordillera. Tectonically, however, the Arctic Mountain system is a discordant element in this cordillera. Its structures parallel the Arctic Ocean, and its folding was probably caused by movements from the Polar Sea. Tectonically and possibly physiographically it is to be correlated with the Werojanski Range and its northeastward extension of Siberia. The 306th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on March 8, 1916. REGULAR PROGRAM C. F. Bowen: Review of the stratigraphy and structure of the Hanna Basin, Wyoming. In the early Territorial surveys under King, Hayden, and Powell the 20,000 feet of coal-bearing rocks overlying the uppermost marine sediments of the Hanna Basin — the Lewis shale — were grouped in a single formation, for which the name Laramie was adopted. In 1907, A. C. Veatch (U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, p. 246. 1907.) subdivided this group into two formations which he designated as "Upper and Lower Laramie." Correlating a conglomerate at the base of the "Upper Laramie" on the west side of the basin with a con- glomerate that marked a pronounced unconformity on the east side of the basin, he announced that the "Upper and Lower Laramie" were separated by an unconformity that involved the removal of 20,000 feet of strata. Veatch's upper division became the type of the "Upper Laramie" formation, and the flora which it yielded was adopted as a standard for comparison in other fields. Recent detailed work over three quadrangles in the Hanna Basin has demonstrated that the unconformity which Veatch assigned to the base of the "Upper Laramie" is really near the middle of that forma- tion or 6,500 feet above the position to which he assigned it. The "Upper Laramie" of Veatch is thus divisible into two formations sepa- 254 proceedings: geological society rated by a marked unconformity which permits the upper part of that formation to transgress across all of the older formations exposed. There are no structural evidences of the supposed unconformity between the "Upper and Lower Laramie" as defined by Veatch. No angular or erosional discordance or apparent evidence of overlap be- tween the two formations was noted. Furthermore both seem to have been equally affected by diastrophic disturbances. The only apparent evidence in support of an unconformity at this horizon is the presence of a conglomeratic zone, the base of which has been taken as the bound- ary between the two formations. Recent petrographic studies seem, however, to indicate that this conglomerate was not derived from the surrounding mountains but was obtained from a more remote source — apparently that which furnished the sediments of the "Lower Lara- mie." The conglomerate seems to have been deposited before the orogenic disturbances which gave rise to the present mountain ranges surrounding the Hanna Basin and without any great physical break between it and the underlying formation. These observations seem to indicate that the great post-Cretaceous orogenic disturbance and resultant unconformity occurred about the middle of the so-called "Upper Laramie" epoch rather than preceding- it; that is, it is pre- Wasatch instead of pre-Fort Union. Carroll H. Wegemann: The discovery of Wasatch fossils in so-called Fort Union beds of Powder River Basin, Wyoming, and its bearing on the stratigraphy of the region. The rocks overlying the Fox Hills in the region southeast of the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming have been divided by most writers into two formations, — the Lance or Triceratops beds below and the Fort Union above. The Fort Union is separable, on lithologic grounds, into two divisions; the lower carries abundant fossil leaves and con- sists of shale and fine-grained bluish-white sandstone, together with numerous thin beds of highly ferruginous sandstone; the upper is composed of gray shale and rather coarse-grained yellow and buff sandstone (the color of the whole formation being predominantly yellow), ferruginous beds are lacking, and fossil leaves are not abun- dant. During the past season specimens were obtained, by R. W. Howell and the writer, of teeth of Coryphodon molestus from beds near the top of the upper disvision of the Fort Union as exposed in the Pumpkin Buttes, and from beds near the middle of the formation. Coryphodon molestus is known only from the Wasatch, and the finding of its remains in the upper division of the Fort Union appears sufficient evidence for the correlation of that division with the true Wasatch. Former collections, near the base of the upper division of the so-called Fort Union, of small mammal teeth resembling species collected from the Torrejon of New Mexico and the Silbcrling Quarry of Montana are not considered by Dr. J. W. Gidley as necessarily establishing the correlation of the beds in which they were found with the Fort Union, since recent discoveries in the Clark Fork and Sand Coulee beds of Wyoming and in the Ignacio beds of Colorado have proved proceedings: geological society 255 that these primitive mammals are not confined to the Fort Union but are present also in the Wasatch beds. The fresh-water formations above the marine Fox Hills appear, therefore, to belong to three formations: The Lance at the base, bear- ing Triceratops; the Fort Union in the middle, bearing abundant leaves; and the Wasatch at the top, containing remains of Coryphodon. The Kingsbury conglomerate in the vicinity of Buffalo is probably basal Wasatch, and the great erosional unconformity on which it rests repre- sents the one which is present at many localities between the Fort Union and Wasatch formations. C. J. Hares: Stratigraphic relations of some.' of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the Hanna and Powder River basins with those of the Wind River Basin. Mountains did not exist or were very small between Hanna, Wind River, Big Horn, and Powder River basins until the lower group of the Upper Laramie of Hanna Basin, the Great Pine Ridge beds of Powder River Basin, and the beds mapped as Fort Union in Wind River Basin were deposited. Only in the Bighorn Basin has an unconformity been demonstrated below a formation correlated. with these beds. The posi- tion of the so-called Fort Union beds, only 250 feet above the Lewis Shale at Alkali Butte, is now believed to be due to extraordinary thinning of the Lance formation. These widely separated so-called Fort Union beds contain the same cherty conglomerate, but contain, so far as satisfactorily shown, no pebbles of Upper Cretaceous age, ex- cept possibly west of Rawlins and at Alkali Butte. Should the pebbles at these localities prove to be Mowry shale, then it is still necessary to prove that the containing beds are pre-Wind River in age. These formations contain no dinosaur bones, but many Fort Union leaves. Succeeding their deposition orogenic movements were pronounced be- tween the present intermontane basins; in the Granite Mountains relative uplift amounting to nearly 20,000 feet took place, but in the middle of the basins the algebraic sum of the movements was nearly zero. Succeeding these greatly deformed so-called Fort Union beds occurs the only profound, angular, and overlapping unconformity in the Cretaceous-Eocene series of Wj^oming. This occurs at the base of the Wind River formation and is believed to be obvious at all places except in the middle of the basins of deposition. The Wind River formation rests on upturned Cambrian to Fort Union strata, and the relief of this old surface even in short distances is certainly 1000 feet and may have amounted to 5000 feet. The Wind River formation con- tains fragments of all underlying formations including Madison lime- stone pebbles with Niobrara fossils and ferruginous material contain- ing Fort Union leaves, all derived from the adjacent mountains. Strata below the unconformity contain no recognizable local material. Thin sections of Mesaverde, Lower Laramie, lower group of the Upper Laramie, Lance, and so-called Fort Union show no marked differences. The Wind River formation contains much arkosic material and granite 256 proceedings: biological society bowlders up to 5 by 10 by 20 feet, which are now found 8 miles or more from the nearest granite outcrop. They were probably trans- ported by sapping and water. The type Wind River is like the "Wa- satch" at Whiskey Peak, which can be traced southward to the U. P. Railway, and is of the same age as the beds above the angular un- conformity in the Hanna Basin. It is like the Wasatch of Bighorn Basin and the Coryphodon bearing beds of Powder River Basin, which include the Kingsbury conglomerate resting on upturned for- mations including Madison limestone and the Great Pine Ridge beds. The unconformity below the Kingsbury is of more than local impor- tance and corresponds to the pronounced angular unconformity in the other basins. The formations above this unconformity in each basin except the Hanna Basin contain a Coryphodon fauna that varies somewhat from basin to basin, more because of incompleteness of collections than of difference in age. Two alternatives appear to be possible; first, the terms Fort Union, Wind River, and Wasatch may apply to the same group of strata or, second, the type Fort Union of North Dakota may include at the top beds of Wind River age and should therefore be separable into Fort Union below and Wind River above. The first alternative appears the more probable. The Wind River is unconformably overlain by the White River formation, which is highly arkosic, volcanic, clayey, and conglomeratic, and contains pebbles of lava and andesitic porphyry, the latter derived from the intrusives in the Rattlesnake Mountains. The porphyry pebbles are not found in the Wind River, and hence are post-Wind River and pre-White River in age. The North Park formation of Hanna Basin and possibly the Browns Park formation of Colorado, which are of like composition and position, are of the same age. Carroll H. Wegemann, Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 552d regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 11, 1916, at 8:00 p.m.; called to order by President Hay, with 28 persons present. On recommendation of the Council the following persons were elected to active membership: Dr. Molyneux L. Turner, R. T. Jackson, H. L. Viereck. Under the heading Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens, Dr. Shufeldt exhibited lantern slide views of some of the aquatic and ter- restial vertebrates of the District of Columbia and vicinity. Under the same heading Mr. Wm. Palmer made remarks on, and exhibited, the bones of a hitherto unknown cetacean lately collected by him at Chesapeake Beach, Maryland. The first paper of the regular program was by M. W. Lyon, Jr.: Hemolysis and complement fixation. Dr. Lyon outlined the steps in proceedings: biological society 257 the discovery of hemolysis by normal and immune serums from the early observation following transfusion by Landois in 1875, through Pfeiffer's phenomenon of bacteriolysis in 1899, Bordet's discovery of of complement in 1899, and Borclet and Gengou's discovery of com- plement fixation in 1901 to the practical application of the latter phenomenon as utilized by Wassermann in 1905 and by later workers in the diagnosis of syphilis, glanders, Malta fever, dourine, tuberculosis, infectious abortion, etc. The graphic conceptions of amboceptor, complement, antigen, and fixation as understood by Ehrlich, and as understood by Bordet, were illustrated by movable models. The action of hemolytic amboceptors and complement on blood cells of the ox and of the sheep was demonstrated by test tube mixtures, and some positive and negative results in complement fixation were exhibited. The last paper of the regular program was by D. L. Van Dine: A study of malarial mosquitoes in their relation to agriculture. Mr. Van Dine said that the Bureau of Entomology is making a study of the relation of malaria to agriculture and of the malaria-bearing mosquitoes, on a plantation in the lower Mississippi valley where typical conditions as regards malaria and plantation operations occur. The object is to devise measures for prevention of malaria which will apply practi- cally to farming conditions. Lines of work include determination of the manner in which malaria operates in reducing farm profits, of the rel- ative efficiency of Anopheles to act as transmitting agent and their distribution, of behavior of each species under known conditions of environment, and consideration of preventative measures which involve control of mosquito hosts. Solution centers around prevention of malaria among tenants, since it has been shown that the direct loss to planters occurs through lost time and reduced efficiency in labor. Detailed study was made of tenants, their relation to the plantation, their habits, and the prevalence of malaria among them, the conclusion being that it will be more practical to control the mosquito than the human host. One measure of prevention consists in the favorable location of ten- ants' houses, requiring information on habits of flight, food, and breeding of the mosquitoes. Where drainage is impracticable, sur- face water must be rendered unsuitable for Anopheles development. Food requirements and natural checks to larval development are being studied, the Bureau of Fisheries cooperating in the study of the re- lation of fish to mosquito development. Anopheles quadrimaculatus, A. punctipennis, and A. crucians were the species studied. A. quadrimaculatus is the common house-fre- quenting species of that region, A. crucians occurs in very limited numbers, and A. punctipennis is more restricted in its house habits but is common in nature. The work thus far has dealt almost entirely with A. quadrimaculatus, but following the demonstration of tertian and estivo-autumnal malaria in A . punctipennis by King in cooperation with Bass it will be expanded to include this species. The study includes the habits of mosquitoes under low temperature conditions; also the 258 proceedings: biological society resistance of malaria organisms to low temperatures in the body of the mosquito host. Mr. Van Dine's paper was illustrated with lantern slide views of the various conditions on the plantation. Messrs. William Palmer, Doolittle, and Knab took part in the discussion. The 553d regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 25, 1916, at 8 p.m.; called to order by President W. P. Hay, with 40 persons present. The President called attention to the recent death of Henry Talbott, a member of the Society. Under the heading Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens, General Wheeler showed lantern slide views of the country along the Mexican border of the United States. Mr. A. A. Doolittle exhibited a speci- men of Amblystoma puncta um from the District of Columbia. Dr. O. P. Hay exhibited the mutilated braincase of an elk which had caused much difficulty in identification; he showed also a remarkably well preserved skull of an extinct horse. President Hay exhibited a number of lantern slides of biological interest, chiefly of aquatic animals in the vicinity of Beaufort, North Carolina. Medical Inspector Ames asked if any member present had positive knowledge as to the ability of camels to swim; this question was discussed by several members. He also inquired as to the possible existence of a South American animal with dorsally placed mammae. The regular program was as follows: W. P. Hay: Notes on the growth of the loggerhead turtle (Illustrated by lantern slides and chart). Mr. Hay gave an account of two young loggerhead turtles now under observation at the U. S. Fisheries Bio- logical Station at Beaufort, North Carolina. They are the survivors of a lot of 77 hatched September 9 to 11, 1912, from eggs obtained from a nest on Bogue Bank about six weeks earlier. When first hatched the average size and weight of the young were: Total length 77.3 mm.; length of carapace, 46.2 mm.; weight, 20.1 gram. At the age of three years the survivors measure 493 and 515 mm. in total length and 343.75 and 365 mm. in length of carapace, and weigh 6690 and 7967 grams, respectively. The increase in size and weight has been steady and the measurements, which have been taken twice a year, can be plotted as points on a curve. This curve continued indicates that the maximum size of this species, about 1000 mm. in length of carapace, may possibly be obtained in the tenth or eleventh year and that sexual maturity is probably reached in the sixth or seventh year. This is considerably more rapid growth than has usually been attributed to animals of this kind. The paper was discussed by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, Dr. O. P. Hay, Medical Inspector Ames, and Mr. Doolittle. R. W. Shufeldt: The restoration of the dinosaur, Podokesaurus holyokensis. Dr. Shufeldt gave an historical account of a discussion proceedings: biological society 259 upon the restoration of the dinosaur Podokesaurus holyokensis of Talbot, which took place in the autumn of 1915. This discussion was carried on in correspondence and participated in by Dr. Richard S. Lull, Dr. Mignon Talbot, Dr. Gerhard Heilmann, and the speaker. Lan- tern slide illustration and blackboard demonstration were employed to point out what were held to be inconsistencies in the restoration of this animal, as figured in Dr. Lull's Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley (fig. 31). Lull and Talbot contend that the pubic element in the matrix of Podokesaurus holyokensis occupies the position in relation to the other bones of the skeleton that obtained in life. Shufeldt and Heilman controvert this decision by pointing out that all the bones in the slab containing the remains of this dinosaur are far removed from their normal articulations and that if the pubic element were articulated as Lull has figured it, it would have come, in life, forcibly in contact, anteriorly, with the sternal ribs and been a constant menace to the abdominal viscera in various movements of the animal. R. E. Coker: A biological and fish cultural experiment station (Illus- trated by lantern slides). Mr. Coker said that since biologists, at least, are generally familiar with the functions of the Fairport Biological Sta- tion in the propagation and study of the fresh-water mussels, particular attention would be given to the purposes of that station in experimental work relating to the rearing of fishes. As in horticulture the problems of the nurseryman and those of the fruit grower are distinct, so in fish- culture and in fish-culture experimental work there is the phase of the hatchery, with its product of fry and fingerling, and that of the fish farm where it is intended to rear fish to adult size in commerical quan- tities. The Fairport station is concerned with problems of rearing rather than of hatching. The grower of fish has problems similar to those of the stock farmer or the poultry raiser, while in addition he must take thought of conditions affecting the respiration of fish. He cannot always regulate the numbers of fishes in his ponds by direct means, but may have to accomplish this end by proper association of species. It may even be necessary to group together species which are to an extent "incompatible." The problem of the fish pond has its mechanical, physical, chemical, and zoological aspects; more espe- cially, however, it is a problem of appropriate vegetation, promotion of food supply, and proper association of species of fish. Following the adjournment of the Society several members examined a microscopic preparation of a living embryo of Filaria bancrofti obtained by Dr. M. W. Lyon from a former inhabitant of British Guiana, for several years resident in the District of Columbia. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. THE CELEBRATION OF THE ONE HUNDREDTH ANNIVER- SARY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY In 1816 the U. S. Coast Survey was organized under Mr. Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler as Superintendent and field work was begun. This event was fittingly celebrated in Washington on the 5th and 6th of April last by meetings to which the public was invited in the auditorium of the New National Museum. At these meetings papers were pre- sented by representative men in the fields of Science, Engineering, Com- merce, the Federal Government, and Military Affairs. The celebra- tion closed with a banquet at the New Willard hotel on the evening of the sixth, at which the President of the United States was the princi- pal speaker. The present Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Mr. E. Lester Jones, presided at the banquet and at the three public sessions at the Museum. Abstracts of the addresses delivered at the Museum and at the banquet are given below. AFTERNOON OF APRIL 5TH Dr. Hugh M. Smith, Commissioner of Fisheries: The Bureau of Fish- eries and its relation to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Dr. Smith said that early in the history of the Bureau of Fisheries there began close cooperative relations with the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The former has always depended upon the latter for its basic triangula- tion whenever a biological survey of any kind has been undertaken in a region in which the Coast and Geodetic Survey has operated, which of course means anywhere on the coast of the United States. On the other hand, the hydrographic and topographic results of this biological work have always been made available to the Survey. On both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts a considerable part of the offshore sound- ings found on the charts was made by the steamers Fish Hawk and Albatross in pursuance of their fishery investigations, and some of the inshore data of certain of the earlier charts came from reconnaissances by the Albatross. While much of the latter has been superseded by more accurate work, as the Coast Survey was able to extend its oper- ations, it served a good purpose for some years. Dr. L. A. Bauer, Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magne- tism, Carnegie Institution of Washington : The work done by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in the field of terrestrial magnetism. From the earliest days of the Coast Survey magnetic observations have been considered a legitimate and useful part of its work, but it was not 260 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL 261 until 1899 that an increased appropriation made it possible to under- take a systematic magnetic survey oi the United States. The first chart issued by the Survey (in 1855) showing the lines of equal mag- netic declination was based on only about 150 values distributed very irregularly near the seacoast. At the close <>f 1915 the number of sta- tions was about 5000, distributed over the whole country with a fair degree of uniformity, and observations had been made at about 500 stations in our outlying possessions. Meridian lines for the use of sur- veyors had been established at many county seats, magnetic data at sea had been obtained by vessels of the Survey, and magnetic obser- vatories (5 since 1903) had been maintained for recording continuously the countless fluctuations of the earth's magnetism. An extensive compilation of the available data relating to the change of the compass direction with lapse of time, combined with the systematic reoccupation of old magnetic stations, has made it possible for the Survey to furnish promptly information of great value in the settlement of disputed land boundaries, established by compass as much as 100 or 150 years ago. It may be said, without fear of contradiction, that the contributions of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to the advancement of our knowledge in terrestrial magnetism have not been excelled by those of any other national organization. Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director of the United States Bureau of Stand- ards: The Bureau of Standards and its relation to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The speaker sketched the history of the various standards which have been used in this country and paid a high tribute to Mr. Hassler for creating the division of weights and measures of the Survey. This division became in 1904 the present Bureau of Standards, a separate organization. He spoke of the close coopera- tion which has always obtained between the Bureau of Standards and the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rear Admiral J. E. Pillsbury, United States Navy (Retired) : Ocean currents and deep sea explorations of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. After mentioning the early voyagers who came in contact with and noticed the Gulf Stream, the speaker gave a brief description of the first American investigation, that of Benjamin Frank- lin. It was not until 1845, under the administration of A. D. Bache, that the Coast Survey began a systematic study of the Gulf Stream. From that year until 1853 many vessels were engaged in the work under the most comprehensive orders. In 1867 Prof. Henry Mitchell of the Coast- Survey began an investigation of the Gulf Stream by a new method. He sounded between Key West and Havana and observed currents to 600 fathoms by means of cans floating or suspended from a floating can. In 1883 the first attempt was made to investigate the actual flow of the Gulf Stream by a vessel at anchor, when the Schooner Drift, under Lieutenant Fremont, anchored with wire rope and ob- served the currents between Jupiter Inlet, Florida, and Memory Rock, Bahama. The results were of so great value that the Superintendent decided to continue the work. The Blake, under Lieutenant Pillsbury, 262 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL was the vessel chosen, and during the following five years she was engaged in Gulf Stream work each winter season and several summers. As to results, it was found that the velocity of the Gulf Stream varied daily, according to the moon's transit, and monthly, following its declination, and that these variations could be predicted with fair accuracy. A calculation as to its volume, deduced from many hun- dreds of observations in the narrowest part of the Straits of Florida, was 90,000,000,000 tons per hour. Dr. George Otis Smith, Director of the United States Geological Survey : The United States Geological Survey and its relation to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Geological Survey have much in common. The field of endeavor for each is nation-wide; they are scientific in spirit and civil in organiza- tion; both are primarily field services; and the product of most of the work of each reaches the public in the form of maps. With full oppor- tunity to overlap their fields of operation, to duplicate work, and thus to waste public money, there has been economical coordination rather than wasteful competition. In these days when, as American citizens, we have such deep concern in the question of public regulation of private business, it may be opportune for some of us as public officials to pause and consider the question of regulation of public business. In making the informal comparison of the actual and ideal in the administration of the scientific bureaus of the Government, the speaker had ever in mind the existence of a real basis for optimism in the splendid record of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Geological Survey in abso- lutely coordinating their endeavors in the public service. EVENING OF APRIL 5TH Hon. J. Hampton Moore, Member of the United States House of Representatives: The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey's part in the development of commerce. Mr. Moore spoke of the relation of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to Commerce and, after paying high tribute to the perseverance and loyalty of the men of the Service, said that commerce itself did not fully appreciate the importance of the work. He spoke in particular of the needs of extending the surveys along the Atlantic coast. Along the coasts of Florida there are 172,000 square miles of water area which should be charted accurately for the use of ships engaged in commerce and in national defense. He also called attention to the changes made by the waves and currents on the North Carolina, Virginia, and New Jersey coasts. He stated that inlets close and open according to the whims of nature and that it is an interesting historical fact that no living man is now able to locate the inlet through which passed the expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh which made the first English settlement on Roanoke Island in 1584. That the vessels of Amadis and Barlow entered Croatan Sound is well established, but the channel through which they came has long since disappeared. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL 263 Brigadier General W. M. Black, Chief of Engineers, United States Army: The United States Corps of Engineers and its relation to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The speaker said that the asso- ciation in work of the Corps of Engineers and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey began with the organization of the Survey. In 1802 the Corps of Engineers was organized as a separate body, of which the U. S. Military Academy formed a part. The first Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Ferdinand R. Hassler, was appointed from the Corps of Instructors of the Academy, having served there as Acting Professor of Mathematics from 1807 until 1810. From 1843 through a period of many years officers of both the Army and Navy served by detail with the Coast Survey Bureau. When a harbor is to be improved the first recourse of the Army Engineer is to the charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The triangulation points estab- lished by the Survey are used, when available, as a basis for the work of the Engineers. Free interchange of information is made between the two organizations, and the work of one supplements that of the other. In yet another way the work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is useful to and is utilized by the Corps of Engineers, namely, in the preparation of projects for national defense; for this purpose the charts of the Survey are at once available. The work of the Survey and that of the U. S. Engineers touch at many points, but their respective spheres of duty are well defined and separate. The great work done by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in its hundred years of existence and the traditions of faithful labor well performed will always be an inspiration for further effort. Hon. George R. Putnam, Commissioner of Lighthouses: The Light- house Service and its relation to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The speaker said that all progressive countries recognize their obligations to survey, light, and mark their coasts, and that when a country builds a lighthouse or publishes a chart, it aids the whole family of nations. An accurate survey of the coast is a necessary preliminary to the location of aids to navigation; without an accurate chart an aid may be so stationed as to lead a vessel on to some hidden danger. The two bureaus under discussion have the important common object of protecting the mariner and keeping him out of danger. One gives him the chart showing where the course is safe; the other gives him aids to guide him over the course. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has made special surveys for choosing sites of lighthouses, and accurately deter- mines their positions. The Lighthouse Service marks new dangers located by surveys, and moves aids as new surveys show the need. Much work is required in keeping charts corrected for changes in aids, and in this work there must be close cooperation. On a single chart, that of New York Harbor, there are shown 299 aids. As both nature and the works of man are ever changing the coast line, channels, and harbors, and as the needs of commerce are continually varying, both charts and beacons must ever be corrected and modified; therefore, the cooperation in these two important works must always be continued. 264 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL Mr. George Washington Littlehales, Hydrographic Engineer, United States Hydrographic Office : Hydrography and charts with special reference to the work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The speaker pointed out that a century ago the United States insti- tuted a survey of its coasts and authorized as an aid large drafts from the Army in earlier years and yet larger ones from the Navy as long as they could be spared from the battle fleet. It is the province of marine hydrography to chart the features of the submerged border to the land, thereby indicating the hidden dangers to be avoided and the safe chan- nels, for the guidance of shipping to and from our ports, not only at home but also in the distant countries under our jurisdiction. It must be with no small degree of pride that men should feel that their calling has made the coast of the United States its best known geographical feature, a calling so enriched with the heroisms of the sea and so unex- celled for the aggregate of its influence in promoting the security of shipping and in safeguarding the lives of seamen. AFTERNOON OF APRIL 6TH Prof. William Henry Burger, College of Engineering, North- western University: The contribution of the United States Coast and and Geodetic Survey to geodesy. Previous to 1843 the geodetic function was little in evidence in the work of the Coast Survey; but upon the reorganization in that year, the broad and far-reaching plans advocated by Superintendent Hassler were adopted and the corner stone was laid for that fine system of geodetic operations which the Survey has at present. A further impetus was given when the geodetic connection between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States was author- ized, the result of which was the great arc of triangulation along the 39th parallel. Another arc of note is the Eastern Oblique Arc from the Bay of Fundy to New Orleans, which binds together the surveys of the harbors on the Atlantic coast. Many other arcs have been measured by the Survey, until now the length of the combined arcs is more than three-sevenths of the circuit of the globe. The precise leveling work by the Survey stands without a rival in the world, as judged by the very magnitude of its operations, by the instruments employed, and in the speed and cost. The formation of the great telegraphic longitude net of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is a geodetic feat worthy of special notice. The problem of determining the shape and size of the earth may be said to be the climax in geodetic work, from a scientific point of view, and in this the Coast and Geodetic Survey has contributed much to the field of geodesy. Rear Admiral Richard Wainwright, United States Navy (Retired) : The Civil War record of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and what the Survey is doing towards preparedness. Mentioning his acquaintance with the Coast and Geodetic Survey for over GO years as warrant for attempting to give the record of the field force of the COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL 265 Survey during the Civil War, the speaker referred to the officers of the Survey as early volunteers of their services to the country and to their assistance, which was eagerly sought by generals in the field and admirals afloat. They gave valuable military service during the Civil War, and afterward returned to their regular duties without any of the rewards of rank or pay or pension for themselves or families so freely distributed at this time for military services. In a future war the field force of the Coast and Geodetic Survey will be needed as it was during the Civil War. The Army and Navy are both very short of officers and there is little likelihood of its being otherwise for many years. A trained topographer will always be of value on the staff of a general. In modern war with long-range guns the general must visualize his work by close reference to the map, and a topographer from the Coast Survey would find little training necessary to keep the new features and move- ments of the troops plotted ready for the commanding general. In the Navy a skilled hydrographer would prove a most valuable addition to the staff of an admiral. His power of quickly locating his position on a chart would be of assistance in bombardment, blockading, mining, and countermining. On the practical side, the work of the Survey has been done well and with economy. The Coast and Geodetic Survey charts stand at the head of all others for accuracy of execution and in general usefulness. Dr. Otto Hilgard Tittmann, President of the National Geographic Society. The international work of the United States Coast and Geo- detic Survey. Speaking of the international work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey done in direct cooperation with other countries, Mr. Tittmann said that it may justly give satisfaction to the members of the Survey that the results of its work are nearly all international in their scope. The hydrographic and tidal surveys are obviously for the benefit of all mankind, because they safeguard the commercial inter- course of nations. Its geodetic work contributes to the knowledge of the Earth's dimensions and constitution. The world's knowledge of terrestrial magnetism would be incomplete without the record of the observation of magnetic phenomena as they occur in the vast territory inhabited by us, and so with those relating to tides. Thus, in the prosecution of its tasks the Survey adds to our knowledge of the planet which we inhabit and thereby furthers the ultimate aim of all civili- zation, the intellectual development of mankind. After reviewing briefly the delimitation by the Survey of the Alaska boundary, extending over a length of about 1800 miles, Dr. Tittmann described the part taken by the Survey in the delimitation and remonu- menting of our Canadian and Mexican boundaries, an undertaking which he considered the most striking of the Survey's international accomplishments. He then spoke of the relation of the Survey to the International Geodetic Association and described the Survey's share in the scientific work leading to the establishment of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 266 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL Dr. Charles Lane Poor, Professor of Celestial Mechanics, Co- lumbia University: Oceanic tides, with special reference to the work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The mathematical theory of the tides first assumes a solid Earth surrounded by a shallow, fric- tionless ocean, in which the moon would cause waves to travel around the earth from east to west. While this is apparently a simple problem, conditions which actually exist, with the ocean varying in depth and broken up by continents, present a most complex one. Yet scientists for years considered the tides as an ideally simple wave, modified and broken up by the continental barriers and the varying depths of the ocean. Tins world wave theory, based on a study of European tides, which are exceptionally simple, became the basis of all tidal work and theories. Later the tides of the Pacific were studied; and although they differed greatly from those of Europe, the discrepancy was ex- plained away as a modification of the theory, due to some local condition. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has for a century collected and dis- cussed an enormous amount of tidal data in the Pacific and Atlantic- Oceans. These data revealed so many departures of the observed tides from those predicated upon the world wave theory, that the accepted general tidal wave would have to be so radically modified, in order to represent the observed phenomena, as to lose all semblance to a single uniform progressive wave. Gradually a feeling was evolved that the tides were not a world phenomenon, but were strictly local in character; that the tides of the Atlantic were due to oscillations in the waters of the Atlantic, independent of what might be happening in the Pacific. This idea has been developed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey into a thoroughly consistent theory, and stands out as the great scientific contribution of the survey to the theories of oceanic tides. Dr. Douglas Wilson Johnson, Associate Professor of Physiography, Columbia University: The contribution of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey to physical geography. Every division of physical geography has been enriched by the contributions of the Coast and Geodetic Survey during the century of its existence. We are indebted to this Bureau for notable additions to our knowledge of the size and form of the Earth and associated phenomena as developed in its work in latitude, variation of latitude, longitude, azimuth, triangulation, gravity, and terrestrial magnetism. To the physical hydrography of the ocean it has supplied data for detailed study of material and relief of the bottom. Its studies of the Gulf Stream and other currentsPhave produced notable results. The Survey's treatment of the subject of the tides and tidal currents has been exhaustive, culminating in a monu- mental expansion of the equilibrium theory of tides. Its charts record the changes in coastal topography and exemplify the laws which govern the action of wave and current. To the physical geography of the atmosphere this organization has contributed a study of the winds and related phenomena. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL 267 EVENING OP APRIL 6TH Dr. Paul Ritter, Minister of Switzerland: Hassler, the organizer of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Minister of Switzerland said that he owed his presence at the banquet to the circumstance that the first Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey was the Swiss engineer, Ferdinand R. Hassler. He sketched the life and career of Mr. Hassler in Switzerland, his native land, and also in the United States, to which country he migrated in order to satisfy his desire for wider fields of activity. In 1807 Hassler submitted a plan to Congress for the survey of the coasts, which was adopted. In 1816 he was appointed Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and in that year field work was begun. Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy: The cooperation of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey with the Navy. The Secretary of the Navy spoke of the cooperation between the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Navy and called particular atten- tion to the fact that for a number of years naval officers were detailed for duty in the Survey, where they had charge of the vessels engaged upon the hydrographic work. When the Spanish war began, the naval officers returned to the regular naval duties on the fleets. Since that time all of the work of the Survey has been done by civilians. Hon. William C. Redfield, Secretary of Commerce: The scope and needs of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The address of the Secretary of Commerce was a tribute to the mem- bers of the Survey and a plea for support for the Survey by the public and by Congress, in order that it might be able to render still greater usefulness to the nation in the safeguarding of ships and lives on the oceans and in assisting in the development of the country. Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, former Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey: The superintendents of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Dr. Mendenhall took as his theme the salient features of the careers of the various superintendents of the Survey, starting with Hassler. He sketched the development and progress of the Survey during its one hundred years of existence and expressed the hope that its work during the next century might compare in character Avith that of the first one. The President of the United States: The scientific spirit of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. During the course of his address, in referring to the Coast and Geo- detic Survey, the President said: "This is one of the few branches of the public service in which the motives of those who are engaged cannot be questioned. There is something very intensely appealing to the imagination in the intellec- tual ardor which men bestow upon scientific inquiry. No social ad- vantage can be gained by it. No pecuniary advantage can be gained by it. In most cases no personal distinction can be gained by it. It is 268 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY CENTENNIAL one of the few pursuits in life which gets all its momentum from pure intellectual ardor, from a love of finding out what the truth is, regardless of all human circumstances, as if the mind wished to put itself into intimate communication with the mind of the Almighty itself. There is something in scientific inquiry which is eminently spiritual in its nature. It is the spirit of man wishing to square himself accurately with his environment not only, but also wishing to get at the intimate interpretations of his relationship to his environment; and when you think of what the Geodetic Survey has been attempting to do — to make a sort of profile picture, a sort of profile sketch, of the life of a nation, so far as that life is physically sustained, — you can see that what we have been doing has been, so to say, to test and outline the whole underpinning of a great civilization; and just as the finding of all the outlines of the earth's surface that underlie the sea is a process of mak- ing the pathways for the great intercourse which has bound nations together, so the work that we do upon the continent itself is the work of interpreting and outlining the conditions which surround the life of a great nation." E. Lester Jones, Superintendent, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI MAY 19, 1916 No. 10 BIOCHEMISTRY. — The biochemical analysis of nutrition.1 Carl L. Alsberg, Bureau of Chemistry. There are a number of ways in which nutrition may be studied. By the statistical method the effect of diet upon definite social or geographical groups of individuals or upon inmates of hos- pitals, asylums, or barracks is determined. The physical method determines the energy income and outgo of the individual. The physiological method determines the role in nutrition of individual organs. Nutrition may, furthermore, be studied by the method of biochemical analysis. This method seeks to follow each one of the many chemical complexes that enter into the composition of food in its course through the animal organism. Therefore, for the purposes of this method the component chemical radicals of the food must be known. This information can be obtained only by resolving the food elements into their component parts, that is, by analyzing them bio- chemically. This paper, therefore, presents a discussion of some of the component parts of the food elements and of the fate in the metabolism of some of the individual chemical com- plexes that are found free or combined in food, in so far as their fate is understood or surmised. My reason for selecting this particular subject is that during recent years perhaps the most interesting contributions to knowledge made by biochemists have been in this field. Among 1 The address of the retiring President of the Chemical Society of Washing- ton, given at a joint meeting of that Society with the Washington Academy of Sciences, January 13, 1916. 269 270 alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition the most important contributions of recent years to the study of nutrition are investigations upon the role of the proteins and of the nitrogenous constituents of the food in the animal organism. You know, no doubt, that in Liebig's time proteins were regarded as that element of the food which supplied the material for growth,- tissue maintenance, and repair, as well as for most of the energy. Though it was soon demonstrated that while proteins did and could furnish energy, under ordi- nary conditions this was supplied in the main by sugar and other carbohydrates and by catabolized fats. The proteins were, how- ever, still regarded as all of about equal value, and their value was estimated as proportional to the amount of nitrogen they supplied to the animal organism. One protein was regarded as of about as much dietary value as another. This was, how- ever, soon found to be an erroneous notion. It was learned that with certain proteins, gelatine for example, as the sole source of nitrogen in the diet, life could not be supported. The proteins then came to be divided into two classes, the true proteins and the albuminoids. Gelatine was classed as an albuminoid. The fact that it and some other proteins were found to be incapable of supporting life was regarded as corroborative evidence that they were not true proteins. Why they are incapable of sup- porting life was not known. It was known that animals could not live without proteins in the diet, but it was believed that rela- tively few of the proteins were incapable of supplying all the nitrogenous needs of the animal organism. That is about where matters rested for a long time. Then in 1901 Loewi published a most startling investigation, so startling in fact that it received scant attention. He subjected the pan- creatic gland, which all of you know as sweet-bread, to self- digestion, the process that is technically known as autolysis. As you know, practically all cells and tissues contain many en- zymes or ferments, some of them similar to those secreted in the stomach and intestines for the purpose of digesting pro- teins. Therefore, under suitable conditions tissues can be made to digest themselves. Loewi caused the self-digestion of the pancreas to proceed until the digestion of the proteins in the gland alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition 271 was so complete that no trace of any reaction for protein could be obtained. This predigested material as the sole nitrogenous element of the diet was then fed to dogs and it was found that upon such a diet the animals maintained their weight. These results were remarkable because they tended to show that it was not absolutely necessary to life that protein be an element of the diet. For a time these findings were ignored, but it has since been shown that life can be supported for a time at least upon a diet containing no complexes known as protein, but instead a suitable mixture of amino-acids. For the information of those of you who have not followed the chemistry of the proteins during recent years I may say that the proteins are combinations of the amino-acids, by which we mean ordinary organic acids in which one or two hydrogen atoms have been replaced by the amino group, NH2. The simplest amino-acid found in protein is glycine which, as you see, is derived from acetic acid. NH20 I II H— C— C— OH I H There are seventeen of these amino-acids commonly found in proteins. Several others have been reported more or less definitely. Perhaps the commonest one is leucine, which has six carbon atoms. O NH2H H H II I I I I HO— C— C— C— C— C— H I I I I H H H H— C— H I . H As you see, in all these substances the amino group is associated with the carbon atom adjacent to a carboxyl, COOH, group, the alpha position, as it is known technically. When two amino 272 alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition groups are present one is in the alpha position ; the other is associ- ated with the terminal carbon atom at the other end of the chain, the omega position. Lysine is such a diamino-acid, as you can observe from the .formula CH2(NH2)(CH2)3 . CH(NH2)COOH. In these acids the atoms are arranged in a chain. However, the protein molecule may contain amino-acids in which the arrangement is such that a ring is found. Tyrosine, a benzol derivative, is a good example. H NH2 O I I II C C— C — C— OH /% I I H— C C— H H H II I H— C C— H \s c I OH Histidine is another ring compound: H H I I II >CH I H— C— H I H— C— NH2 I HO— C=0 Tryptophane, which is related to indigo, is still another. The proteins are combinations of a number of these amino-acids with one another. Most of the seventeen or eighteen amino-acids are found in each protein. In all probability each molecule of protein contains a number of hiolecules of a given amino-acid, so that the protein molecule may be very large. The union of the amino-acids with one another is, so far as now known, always of the same kind; the amino group of one acid is united alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition 273 with the carboyxl group of another. One of the simplest com- pounds of this type is glycylleucine : NH,CH2— CO ' NH-CH-COOH Giycyi I I Leucine These compounds are known as peptides and were first made artificially. They were later discovered among the decom- position products of proteins. A peptide with a molecular weight of more than one thousand, composed of eighteen mole- cules of amino-acids, has been made. Substances with still larger molecular weights could be made, were it worth while. Thus substances which are believed to have a structure similar to that of proteins, and which have a molecule approaching in size that qf some proteins, have actually been made. After this digression in explanation of the chemical structure of proteins let us return to the problem of the nutrition of ani- mals with amino-acids. Loewi found that animals could be kept for a time without loss in weight upon a mixture of completely digested protein. It was not at that time known that such mixtures contained peptides, which, as I have explained, have certain resemblances to proteins. It was therefore a most important discovery when it was later determined that an animal could be maintained for a time upon an artificial mixture of the pure crystalline seventeen or eighteen amino-acids found in proteins free from peptides. If these observations are correct, it is theoretically possible to supply the so-called protein needs of animals by wholly artificial substances. Certain investigators have very recently gone still further by endeavoring to show that some of the nitrogenous needs of the animal organism can be supplied by simple salts of am- monia such as are used in fertilizers. It has hitherto been be- lieved that only plants are capable of utilizing ammonia. The matter has not been settled; but there is good reason to believe, as will appear later, that even if it be shown that animals can utilize ammonia, it is impossible to support animal life upon ammonia as the sole source of nitrogen. alsbeeg: biochemical analysis of NUTRITION Whatever may be the ultimate practical significance of the observations that animals can supply themselves with most or all of their nitrogen needs by means of synthetic amino-acids. th— xperiments have led to investigations that have explained much that has been obscure in the physiology of nutrition. Formerly it was believed that proteins when ingested were digested by the enzymes of the intestinal tract and converted into simpler substances, in the main albiunoses and peptones, which were - rbed. These albumoses and peptones, while simpler than most food proteins, are. nevertheless, still very complex substances. It was believed that they are absorbed and then converted by the animal into the protein characteristic of that particular animal. How that conversion was accom- plished - oot understood. Xow every species of animal and plant has its own characteristic proteins. The proteins of even closely related species are different. The proteins of the food supply are quite different from those of the animal taking that food. Much work was done to explain how the proteins of the food were converted into the proteins of the body and where this conversion took place. At first it was be- lieved to occur in the blood. Later a difference of opinion arose - to whether it took place in the tissues or in the intestinal wall. s food proteins could be demonstrated in neither place, the matter remained unsettled. We know today that neither hy- pothesis is tenable. Proteins are not ordinarily absorbed such. They -are completed dismembered within the intestinal canal into their component amino-acids and these are absorbed. As long as it was not known that an animal can be maintained upon pure synthetic amino-acids. no one had any reason to believe that proteins were completely digested before absorption. w what happens to these amino-acids after they are ab- sorbed? As ordinary diets may contain more nitrogenous material than is needed by the organism, a part of the amino- acids is changed within the walls of the intestinal canal by the removal of the amino group to form ammonia. As this takes place in the presence of carbonic acid, ammonium carbonate and ammonium carbamate are formed. It has recently been alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition found that there is an equilibrium between these — sub- stances, so that where one is -ent in solution ther- - found a definite amount of the other. I easy stej :: >m ammonium carbamate to urea. Thus the amino group split off from the ami no-acid in the intestinal wall or elsewher- ri- mately converted into urea and excreted. There are probably other methods of the formation of lire:: 3 xample cleavage from arginine which con* guanidir. _ ingclos related to urea. After the removal of the amino group from the amino-acids there is lei" arbona - -idue which may be burned to furnish energy, perhaps directly, perhap- n- version into sugar. A portion of the amino-aeic - - rbed the intestines is not. however, deprived of its nitrogen, but passes into the blood stream from which it :»rbed by each indi- vidual cell according to that cell's particular needs. The cell then reconstructs from these amino-ac: h its wn ch ric protein. Thus it is possible to explain in a comparatively sim- ple manner how. for example, wheat protein when fed t animal is converted into the characteristic proteins of that ani- mal. It is done by the cells of the tissues from amino-: : Is supplied to the cells by the blood,, the blood receiving the amir - acids from the intestinal wall. This theory concerning the fate of food proteins in the ani- mal body is supported by certain very interest!: a a x"peri- ments. In these experiments animals, usually whit- - were fed upon definite mixtures containing only a few pure food substances. These mixtures consisted of sugai I mineral salts, and a single pure protein. In each set oi experiments a different pure protein was used in each series, all oi remaining constant. It is in this way possible to determine the nutritive value of individual proteins. The results of 1 - work indicate that many proteins are incapable either of supporting life or of producing growth. On the whole it may be said that many more vegetables than animal proteins are defective in this wa Now, when the compo-:- tion of such defective proteins is compared with that of proteins that are not defective in this respect, it is found thj I 276 alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition the defective proteins lack one or more of the amino-acids which are found in the proteins that are not defective. This is very much oftener true for the vegetable proteins than for the animal proteins. Some lack lysine, others tryptophane or histidine, or cystine. The latter is an amino-acid containing sulphur, the usual form in which sulphur is contained in proteins. Some proteins lack more than one amino-acid. Gelatine, for example, contains no cystine, tyrosine, or tryptophane. Now it has been shown in certain cases that if to a diet of thetkind just described, containing a single defective protein, there be added the amino- acids which that protein lacks, the value of the diet is greatly increased; in certain instances it may even become entirely capable of supporting life and growth. We have here a direct proof that the animal organism is capable of utilizing amino- acids and incapable of manufacturing for itself certain amino- acids. Herein it differs from the plant organism which is cap- able of making all the amino-acids necessary to support its life. The animal organism is, however, capable of making certain amino-acids. It can, for example, make glycine. It has not as yet been finally determined exactly which amino-acids can be made by animals and which can not. There are a number of ways in which the lack of certain amino-acids may affect the functioning of the animal organism. Their lack may, of course, make it impossible for the animal to manufacture its own tissue protein. It suffers a kind of starvation. There are, however, more indirect ways in which the absence from the diet of a necessary amino-acid may be important. It has recently been found that the iodine com- pound of the thyroid gland, the gland that you feel in the neck about the Adam's apple, is a derivative of the amino-acid trypto- phane. It has long been known that the normal functioning of the thyroid gland is essential to life and health. It has been found that the normally functioning gland contains the iodine compound now believed to be formed from tryptophane. It is therefore possible that when there is no tryptophane in the diet, difficulty in the formation of the iodine compound necessary for the thyroid gland results with corresponding disturbance of the gland's function. alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition 277 The iodine compound of the thyroid gland is physiologically active; that is to say, it is poisonous. It is not, however, the only physiologically active substance produced from amino- acids in the animal metabolism. ^Adrenaline CH (HO)C^ '\>CH(OH)CH2-NHCHr, (HO)C< ^C V is another such substance probably derived from an amino-acid. As you may see by comparing the formulae, it is related to the amino-acid tyrosine. It is formed in the adrenal glands, two small glands found in the kidney fat just above the kidneys. Hence their name, which was given to them before it was known that they have no direct relation to the kidneys. They apparently furnish adrenaline to the blood. Adrenaline when injected into the blood causes the small blood vessels to contract and therefore the blood pressure to rise, since the heart then pumps against the increased resistance of the contracted vessels. When the adrenal glands do not function normally, as for example when they are tuberculous, Addison's disease develops, which is characterized among other symptoms by a low blood pressure. The substance adrenaline is probably known to you, since it is used therapeutically in a number of ways, for instance, to con- strict capillary blood vessels to stop bleeding from the capillaries on wound surfaces. If there is an absence from the diet of the material necessary to form adrenaline, it is conceivable that symptoms other than those of starvation might result. There is a small gland at the base of the brain known as the pituitary gland, which is apparently necessary to life and which manufactures a physiologically active substance, probably de- rived from the amino-acid histidine. Disease of this gland seems to occur in certain giants and in the disease akromegaly, in which among other symptoms is . found enlargement of the bones of the face and the extremities. A very interesting physiologically active substance, para- 278 alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition oxyphenylethylamine, is formed in the self-digestion of the pancreas from tyrosine, as shown by Emerson. It is tyrosine from which carbonic acid has been removed. This is of great interest, since it was at one time believed that carbonic acid was formed in living organisms solely by oxidation. This ob- servation shows that it can also be formed by enzymatic cleav- age. This is of profound biological interest, since in all prob- ability the energy which is required by organisms living in an environment free from oxygen is obtained by reactions of this type. Ordinarily we think of such organisms as being limited to the fungi, but there are quite highly organized animals which live in this way; for example, parasitic intestinal worms. The gases of the intestines are practically free from oxygen. In all probability these worms obtain the energy necessary for the maintenance of life by cleavages, rather than by direct oxidation. Finally, it is interesting to note that most of these physiologically active substances are amines, probably derived from amino- acids by removal of carbonic acid, that is, by the elimination of the carboxyl, COOH. This method of the formation of amines is probably quite common in plants and leads to the formation of various poisonous plant bases. It has been sug- gested that the active principle of ergot is formed in this way. In making this digression to explain that physiologically active substances may be formed from amino-acids, it was my purpose to suggest that the defective or incomplete proteins, when the main or sole nitrogenous element of the diet, may not merely produce a form of starvation, but that they may also have an indirect action through failure to supply the raw materials which are needed by certain glands to elaborate their specific products. It should not be inferred from what has been said that these incomplete or defective proteins are without food value. On the contrary they may be of great food value. They are merely not of themselves sufficient, but they can be made sufficient if supplemented in relatively small amounts by other proteins that contain the lacking elements. This is a matter of the greatest practical importance in the feeding of farm animals. alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition 279 Animal feeds consist in the main of vegetable proteins which are often incomplete. Obviously such a feed can be used most economically if it is supplemented by small amounts of pro- teins which supply the missing elements. To do this it is neces- sary to know what amino-acids are contained in the different vegetable foods. Agricultural chemists are now engaged in studying this problem. In this connection it must be pointed out that there is a distinction between maintenance and growth. It is perfectly possible to maintain an animal in good health upon a diet which will not permit it to grow. It is possible to stop the growth of an animal by putting it upon such a diet. When the diet is changed growth may be resumed. The capacity for growth has not been destroyed. Furthermore, it has been shown that it is not safe to conclude that a given diet is sufficient if it permits an animal to develop to adult life. It is necessary to show that it will also permit it to reproduce. There are diets that apparently permit perfect development but do not permit reproduction. It has also been found that more growth will take place upon a diet containing a mixture of incomplete proteins than upon a diet containing only one or two of them. Thus growing pigs will utilize for growth only about 24 per cent of the proteins of corn or wheat, whereas upon a mixture of the two grains they will utilize for growth about 33 per cent. It may be stated by way of comparison that pigs will utilize for growth about 60 per cent of the milk proteins fed. Some of the investigators who put animals upon these restricted diets found that the animals throve a great deal better if small quantities of certain substances were added to the diet. The presence of so small a quantity of milk that its protein was a negligible factor kept animals growing or in good condition upon diets that would not otherwise permit the animals to remain in good health. A diet which does not permit normal growth will do so if a small quantity of butter is added. Appar- ently there are present in certain foods small quantities of substances of unknown nature which are necessary to growth and life. What this substance in butter is is not known. It seems to contain neither nitrogen nor phosphorus. This is 280 alsberg: biochemical analysis of nutrition of importance, since it proves that the substance is not a lipoid. Lipoids are complex fat-like substances containing both nitrogen and phosphorus. It has been claimed that a diet without lipoids will not support life. The absence of nitrogen from the growth- promoting substance of butter indicates that it is not related to the vitamine of rice which is almost certainly a nitrogenous base. The vitamines are substances of unknown composition, found in certain foods and essential to life. In the polishing of rice the vitamine is removed. An individual living upon a diet of polished rice will develop a disease known as beri-beri, frequently found among rice eaters. There is apparently a whole series of substances found in foods which are necessary to life. The absence of certain of them is believed to produce scurvy. A similar hypothesis has been advanced concerning the disease pellagra. Little is known as yet concerning the chemical nature of these substances. They are very unstable, being decomposed by heating, especially by sterilizing under pressure. Lime juice has been used for many years as an antiscorbutic. It is not particularly rich in these substances, but in lime juice they seem unusually stable. It has been suggested that the free organic acid present in the lime juice protects the antiscorbutic substances. It is therefore quite evident that the last decade has brought forward many contributions of the greatest hygienic and economic importance. It is quite certain that more important discoveries are still to come. It is therefore well to look askance at popular prophecies concerning the approaching inadequacy of the world's food supply. When our viewpoint has changed so radically in a few years, it is idle to speculate about the future. If I have been able tonight to present this point to you clearly, I have accomplished my purpose. NORTON! MIGRATIONS OF SMILAX 281 PHYTOGEOGRAPHY.— 77ie eastern and the western migra- tions of Smilax into North America. J. B. Norton, Bureau of Plant Industry. It is generally recognized by students of that group that Smi- lax and its allies must have spread over the earth from a point somewhere in southeastern Asia. This conclusion is borne out by several facts, particularly by the presence in that region of all the related genera with their subgenera, and by the breaking down there of certain group characters separating sections of the large genus Smilax, the last circumstance indicating a sur- vival of the links that are often mourned as missing in other groups of organisms, but which are a source of trouble to a key maker when present. The evidence offered by paleontology likewise leads to the above conclusion. In addition to these reasons for considering the region east of the Himalaya as the home of this group, the distribution of the species of Smilax in North America has a very distinct bearing on the question. Smilax hispida Michx. and S. rotundi- folia L. are often confused by collectors, so closely do they re- semble each other in some characters. S. rotundifolia and the related S. Walteri Chapm. have their nearest relatives in the Azores, the Canary Isles, the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor, Turkestan, and western India This chain is broken in a few places from the complex group of spieces in northern India includ- ing S. ferox Wall., through S. excelsa L. and S. canariensis Willd. to S. Walteri and S. rotundifolia in America. The trail across the Atlantic is partly hidden, as the Bermudian species, S. Bonanox L., is apparently connected with the other European species, S. aspera L. But the relationship of S. rotundifolia to S. excelsa from the Azores is too striking to overlook. Throughout this group the stems have few large spines, which are never at the nodes. In S. hispida and its allies, on the other hand, the spines are slen- der and needle-like and numerous, at least below, where they of- ten make a definite ring at the node. In S. hispida and its allies the berries are always greenish-black without a glaucous bloom, while in the rotundifolia group the berries are red or blue, with a distinct glaucous coat. 282 NORTON: MIGRATIONS OF SMILAX 03 O 03 ™ 73 v -a 0 «j .. 03 •** ► ' _C 03 a =0 o .a o> ^ "* ■+= 73 ,— _c Q, - <-> -+^ ^C !^ *- G ^ * -, o utc » "S o o -a 03 s — i t<,o a S - "S> IS E-1 — o w _ « ^ £ o 03 a> ° 3 J3'5 g « ^« 3 . •> o o 0 Si o J3 o3 _ -i e3 +=> o -tf • - a> ^3 •£ o3 bC > 03 3 S 73 03 -i A -O s so 03 1 — s rs ■"-> (H o o bC 73 03 a 03 .°° e a 03 ■ 03 03 g a -3 a a « " c3 ^ a £ ~ £ 03 <» bC « a so .2 23 Si 2 CC o? ° 03 a .-. o 2 a -a 03 ■a ^a a -a o3 CO Id ^ "2 03 ;_, "~s c3 r- 03 c ft M a ■ 03 03 a co o — < s © e a cjd ~ J) c i m;s . «t-l +3 r-H ^ O „Q <» S O c3 H _2 G ft CD 03 03 03 o3 i-. 03 ? 03 ° -a 03 45 .Th .S g» o a ■— ^ ^ s, -^ « — 5- ft " ^ s I -3 g .5 -a, « 03 C" -C «) K C ■P J>'H 03 -2 -0 03 03 g a a£ fc< 3 03 03 o 03 ■a O 03 .So, ^ a ^ ^ o a T2 ._ 03 § S" x £ tH 03 03 03 T3 ft -a C & ** 03 d -a 03 03 03 c3 a « o 2 .2 ^ 03 • a a CO ^"^ ^> <» '—l 03 -» >, 9 ■J? W 03 -a 03 c3 ^3 a ^ rt ri m " 03 be '£ a +3 ■g 03 73 .2 L *-> 03 u 73 g 03 5 13 — ' 03 -^ o rfl -a m a « ft 03 A % £ 03 t S s a _ ^ O c3 • ^3 *-> ^H 03 • U 2 03 a a 73 . fe '3: -o ro a S ^ 03 H 03 (13 . CI o (51 -w T3 03 03 a a. CO 03 (13 03 03 iJS , whe n Am ft 03 m "-1 03 o3 tn a a |S O .a O -1 § u 03 03 .a "a e -a 03 a +^> a a o 73 03 > to rrl ' — ' • (13 o ^J -C T3 -u t*-c -t-> 03 -r o - -a — a 03 (13 o ■ — ^ 03 +J •+^» ~ X a U 03 03 -Q 'to e 03 a t- !S tH ro o o • —* ^3 .a u-~ '0 CO 03 O ^3 CS ft 03 71 73 o «<-> ■. 03 ^ aj ^ b£ •- f-^ 03 •2 a > ~5 "* Z. . 'a o3 ^ § a o <£ o 03 cb M -2 ? o b£ ^ -a a "3 -^ 'S u *-* - gd 03 03 a <^ ^ 03 03 a 03 NORTON! MIGRATIONS OF SMILAX 283 Smilax hispida has no European relatives but can, however, be traced back to India in another direction. S. californica Gray, a closely allied form, is found in a small area in northern Cali- fornia and southern Oregon, where it was apparently stranded when its connection with the rest of the world was destroyed by some disturbance in the past. The next species in point of rela- tionship is S. Sieboldi Miq. of Japan and Korea. South of Korea we find no near relatives until we reach Yunnan, where S. sco- binicaulis Wright fills in a space in the trail, both geographically and phylogenetically. S. scobinicaulis links up closely with the imaginary primitive types that can be constructed from the maze of inter-related species in the home area of the genus. In this migration we have a fine case of simple orthogenetic pro- gression, with each successive step set off from the last by a bar- rier and with its nearest relatives in their proper places in the sequence. Smilax herbacea L. and its relatives have followed the same path taken by S. hispida but have spread further, both in area and in differentiation of characters. While the other American groups have not left so plainly the tracks of their migrations from their Asiatic home, there can be little doubt that careful research will connect them all with the original stem. The eastern and western migrations of Smilax have met and overlapped in the eastern United States, but it is probable that both waves are still moving. S. hispida has not as yet reached the Atlantic ocean, while S. rotundifolia is plainly stretching west through Texas to the Pacific. Eventually it is to be supposed that the waves will meet again in China. When this has oc- curred in any group the geologic record is necessary in tracing the course of the migration. In this connection it is interesting to note that the type of the fosssil S. lamarensis Knowlton, from the Yellowstone, has been examined and found to show an un- doubted intermediacy between S. californica and S. hispida. To complete the geographic trail it is only necessary to find a fossil form from the North Pacific coast. In the accompanying chart (fig. 1), based on M creator's projection of the globe, the longitudinal separation of the successive steps in the northern zones is greatly exaggerated. 284 cook: vegetation in southern peru BOTANY. — Agriculture and native vegetation in Peru. 0. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. Alternation of forests with open grass lands or sparse desert vegetation is one of the most striking of the biological phenomena of tropical countries. Since the time of Humboldt many travelers in tropical America have sought to explain the presence or absence of the different types of vegetation by reference to differences of geological formations, altitudes, prevailing winds, or other natural features. More recent observations in Central America have led to the opinion that the chief factors governing the distribution of the forest vegetation are the agricultural occupa- tion of the land and the continued action of fire on lands aban- doned from cultivation. There are reasons for believing that most of the forests of Central America do not represent original or virgin growth, but different stages of reforestation. Likewise most of the open grass lands and deserts appear to be consequences of the native system of farming — to be interpreted as artificial conditions rather than as natural features. The climatic, geologic, or topographic factors, though not without influence in determining the rate of reforestation, seem in general to have very little importance in comparison with human activities and exposure to fire. The complete reforestation of fireswept grass lands is a long and gradual process, but the successive stages can be recognized by taking account of the habits of the different kinds of trees.1 Opportunities of studying the relations of agriculture to forest vegetation under a different combination of natural conditions have been afforded during four months (April to July, 1915) spent in southern Peru and Bolivia as a member of the Expedi- tion conducted by Professor Hiram Bingham, under the aus- pices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society, with the cooperation of the United States Department of Agri- culture. Most of the time was spent in the region traversed by the Urubamba River and its tributaries, from the Pass of 1 Cook, O. F. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. Bull. 145, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1909. cook: vegetation in southern peru 285 La Ray a, at an elevation of 14,000 feet, down to Santa Ana, at an elevation of 3000 feet, including a visit to the Panticalla Pass and the Lucumayo Valley. The region includes Cuzco, Pisac, Ollantaytambo, and Machu Picchu, the chief centers of the Inca and pre-Inca or Megalithic civilizations, and is of great agricultural and ethnological interest as the original home or place of domestication of numerous species of cultivated plants. In this part of Peru, as in Central America, it apears that the present distribution of the principal types of vegetation is not a natural effect of altitudes, climates, or soils, but an artificial result of an intensive agricultural occupation of the land, extend- ing through a long period of time. If we wish to think of an original condition, a biological background, so to speak, of the primitive agricultural civilization that occupied this region, we must imagine a country well covered with forests. The destruction of forests appears to have been carried much further than in Central America, in many localities to the complete extermination of all forms of arboreal vegetation. The chief considerations that seem to support these conclusions are stated in the following paragraphs. BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO FOREST GROWTH Though many districts are now entirely treeless and true forests are found in only a few localities, there appear to be no natural conditions that are definitely unfavorable to arboreal vegetation. Light, heat, and moisture are sufficient to sup- port the growth of trees and there is ample fertility of soil, at the higher elevations as well as in the lower and more tropical valleys. In other words, there seems to be no climatic or biologi- cal factor to preclude the growth of trees on any part of the land surface except the bare rocks and snow fields at the summits of the high cordilleras. From the positions of the moraine deposits and the lack of soil accumulations above them it may be inferred that the glaciers have receded in comparatively recent times, perhaps following the destruction of the forests. Some of the moraines Fig. 1. Native agriculture iu a branch of the Ushcopata Valley above Sicu- ani, Peru, at an altitude of nearly 13,000 feet, with fields of potatoes, barley, and broad beans, and remnants of the native forest flora — the white trees qui- shuar, the others mostly quenuar and capuli. 286 cook: vegetation in southern peru 287 are as low as 9000 feet, with the present glaciers ending from 2000 to 4000 feet above. Under the Peruvian conditions it does not seem unreasonable to believe that the removal of a forest covering might tend to bring about a recession of the glaciers. Greater exposure of the rocky slopes would bring increased heat and dryness of atmosphere. Less snow would fall and the ac- cumulations on the high summits would be exposed to longer periods of melting under direct sunlight. As trees are often found above the moraines, there is no reason to doubt that the ancient forest covering extended up to the glaciers, as forests are known to do in other glacial regions. Several isolated tracts of forests have been found by Professor Bingham at very high elevations, even up to 15,000 feet. These high-altitude forests are of interest as affording the most definite demonstration of the fact that tree growth is not limited by elevation alone. ANDINE FOREST FLORA . The possibility of a forest covering for all of the inhabited areas of this region is shown not only by the fact that trees grow when planted, but also by the presence of an indigenous forest flora whose different components are well adapted to the various natural conditions afforded by different exposures and elevations, up to the line of glaciers. Two of the high-altitude trees, quenuar (Polylepis) and quisuar (Buddleia), have been noted frequently by travelers because they are often planted in villages or allowed to grow among the fields. (See fig. 1) Other members of the Andine forest flora of southern Peru are lambran (Alnus), chachacoma (Escallonia), unca (Eugenia), lengli (Hesperomeles), quisca (Berberis), mulli (Schinus), chicjlluromay (Vallea), and numerous other trees, including various arboreal Compositae. Several of the genera are represented by two or more species. Some of these, such as the species of Escallonia, are reported by botanical writers only as shrubs, but under favorable conditions they attain true arboreal proportions, especially at altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. 288 cook: vegetation IN SOUTHERN PERU REFORESTATION OF TERRACED VALLEYS Though no original or virgin forests are now known to exist in this part of Peru on any lands that could be cultivated, re- forestation with native trees is in progress in many places, notably in the valley above Ollantaytambo, and in the next valley to the west, leading up to the Panticalla Pass. In both valleys the growth of the native trees has progressed so far that Fig. 2. Valley above Ollantaytambo, Peru, at an altitude of about 10,000 feet, showing terraced slopes partly overgrown with forests of native trees, including quishuar, quenuar, lambran, unca, and lengli. genuine forest conditions have been restored, in the Ollantay- tambo Valley covering several hundred acres, in the Panticalla Valley thousands of acres. Reforestation is demonstrated by the fact that the trees stand on ancient agricultural terraces supported by skilfully constructed stone walls. (See fig. 2.) The survival of native trees in these valleys may be ascribed to the presence of lateral ravines too deep, narrow, and precipitous for cultivation. Such places may well have escaped the other- cook: vegetation in southern peru 289 wise complete clearing of the land for agricultural purposes. Hardy types of woody vegetation, growing in the ravines and on the rocky slopes above, might survive even long perods of agricultural occupation of the terraced lands below. The neigh- boring areas might be seeded easily from the old trees. Such a ravine, leading up from the other side of the spur shown in the figure, is now heavily wooded and contains many well matured trees of the same species that now cover the terraces, although very few of the trees appear to be very old or to have reached the stage of natural decay. Some of the terraces in the Panti- calla Valley are covered with much older trees than any found in the valley above Ollantaytambo. HABITS OF SURVIVING NATIVE TREES Although the genera of native trees, as mentioned above, belong to as many different families, there is a general similarity in habits of growth, in that all of them sprout readily from the stumps and endure repeated cutting. Seed is produced in a few years, if the sprouts are allowed to grow. The limitation of the present forests to such trees may be taken to indicate that persistent vitality was necessary to pass through the periods when these valleys were occupied by large agricultural popu- lations, as shown by the extensive terracing of the slopes. A period of complete denudation of a valley would mean the extermination of all kinds of trees that were unable to sprout from the stumps, but trees like Escallonia, Eugenia, and Schinus might survive centuries of pollarding. The last is familiar as the "pepper-tree," now grown by thousands in southern Cali- fornia for shade and ornamental purposes. Other members of the Andine tree flora are even more attractive in appearance and promising for introduction into the United States. DENUDATION OF UNCULTIVATED LANDS The former presence of large agricultural populations accounts not only for the clearing of all the lands that could be cultivated, but also for the denudation of lands that were not capable of 290 cook: vegetation in southern peru cultivation. The growth of each native community means that supplies of fire-wood have to be sought farther and farther away. A large Indian town is usually surrounded by a broad belt of denuded lands, no forest being allowed to remain within two or three leagues. Judging the past by the present, a period of denudation of all the neighboring slopes must have followed the building of the extensive systems of terraces in the valleys about Ollantaytambo, Torontoy, and Machu Picchu. The country around these centers must have reached the same treeless state as the districts that now have large agricultural populations, such as the Vilcanota Valley and the slopes around Lake Titicaca. reforestation prevented by fire In many localities cultivation is confined to the bottoms of the valleys or to the lower slopes, while the higher slopes have only a sparse covering of grass or low bushes. This gives the im- pression that the interior of the country is naturally treeless, like the desert regions along the coast. But the coast deserts are explained by the rainless climate, whereas in the interior the rainfall is sufficient to support forest growth. The former cultivation of many of the higher slopes is indi- cated by the ridges and terraces that still remain. These show in turn the previous existence of forests, since forests must have preceded cultivation in order to accumulate soil and make it possible to clear the land by the primitive method of burning. This method is ineffective on grass lands, which have, to be re- forested before they can be re-occupied by a primitive agricul- tural people. At tfye higher altitudes grassy slopes are culti- vated by spading, but this method is used only where turf is formed. When treeless slopes are seen in tropical valleys meeting the tropical forest vegetation, it is plain that some active enemy of forest growth must be at hand, and this is fire. The fires that are set to clear land for cultivation commonly escape and over- run the slopes above. As the grass-covered slopes are used only for grazing, no effort is made to protect them from fire. cook: vegetation in southern peru 291 forests in inaccessible places Trees are often found growing under very unfavorable natural conditions, in places that are too steep, rocky, or isolated to be cleared for cultivation or for providing fuel. In the lower Urubamba Valley it was observed that the driest and rockiest hillsides in the vicinity of Santa Ana are covered with forests of huillca (Piptadenia) and other tropical trees, while the smooth- er and more fertile lands on either side have no trees, but a heavier growth of grass. Tree seedlings often appear in grass lands, but are killed when fires sweep over them. Hence, the forests are confined to the rocky slopes as long as the adjacent grass lands are visited by fire. Grazing reduces the danger of fire, and this assists in reforestation; but the forests themselves may burn after sufficiently long periods of drought. In the lower Urubamba Valley, at altitudes of from 4000 to 8000 feet, the forests have been burned on many slopes altogether too steep for cultivation. This not only kills the trees but often has the effect of loosening the soil and rocks, causing destructive landslides. PAUCITY OF THE HUMUS FAUNA Another indication of the more complete denudation of this region in former times is the paucity of the humus fauna, com- prising the insects, millipeds, centipeds, and other small ani- mals that live normally in the upper layers of the soil. These creatures become very abundant under conditions that afford permanent moisture in the soil, but are killed when the land is burned over or parched by severe drought. In southern Peru the humus-inhabiting animals are everywhere extremely scarce, and often lacking altogether. The number of species is very small, as well as the number of individuals. Of millipeds only three orders are represented, Merocheta, Anocheta, and Diplo- cheta; in many localities only Merocheta, and most of these of Antarctic types rather than tropical. The three orders of very primitive arthropods, Symphyla, Rhabdura, and Dicellura, are present, but were nowhere found in abundance, even in places 292 cook: vegetation in southern peru where reforestation has advanced so far that ample deposits of humus have accumulated. Humus-inhabiting insects of other orders, including the Thysanura and Collembola, are also few. absence of palms in tropical forests The flora of the valley between San Miguel at 6000 feet and Santa Ana at 3000 feet is distinctly tropical, and large areas are forested, but not with original or virgin growth. That reforesta- tion is still far from complete is shown by the general scarcity and often complete absence of palms. Instead of a normal palm flora, no locality in the Urubamba Valley was found to have more than two species, a large Geonoma and a small Chamaedorea. This deficiency seems the more significant because the natural conditions are extremely favorable and the palm flora of the adjacent regions of South America is one of the richest in the world. The original palm flora of this district can not be esti- mated at less than a dozen species, and may have included two or three times that number. But denudation would involve a complete extermination of the palms, and these plants are very slow to return, even after forest conditions have been re- established. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA In view of these indications of prolonged interference with the original conditions of plant and animal life it does not seem reasonable to ascribe the present distribution of the native vegetation entirely to differences of soil, temperature, altitude, or rainfall. An ecological account of the Peruvian flora that ignores the factor of human activity, as in the treatise by Weber- bauer, does not convince. To present an adequate conception of the native flora and its relations with the external conditions would require a process of reconstruction, a careful collecting and piecing together of the parts of the flora and fauna that are left. Then there would need to be a careful comparison with the floras and faunas of neighboring regions that were not occupied and denuded by the ancient civilizations, if such re- gions can be found. This would give a better appreciation of cook: vegetation in southern peru 293 the extent to which the presence of man has modified the original conditions of the environment along the eastern slopes of the Andes. AGRICULTURE AT HIGH ALTITUDES Corresponding with the wide range of altitude there is great diversity in the forms and habits of the wild vegetation and in the agricultural arts of the native inhabitants. In the lower valleys where corn is the principal crop the method of clearing the land and the relation of agriculture to the native vegetation are much as in Central America. The high plateaus of Peru, where the native agricultural population is now chiefly centered, are unlike any part of Central America, the nearest approach being found in the tablelands of Guatemala. In Central America cultivation is hardly carried above 8000 feet; whereas in Peru potatoes and other Andine crops are commonly grown at 13,000 feet and in some places at 14,000 feet. Moreover, it is in these elevated districts that the native system of agriculture attained its highest development and was least disturbed by the Spanish •' conquest. conclusions The native agriculture of southern Peru is self-limiting. Cultivation may be maintained for longer periods on the table- lands and higher slopes, but when the soil is once exhausted and removed by erosion there is less prospect of renewal through reforestation than at the lower elevations. Although under the high altitude conditions the accumulation of soil goes on to a certain extent in open grass lands, without the aid of forests, such gains evidently do not make good the losses incidental to cultivation. Large areas of the higher slopes that appear to have been cultivated intensively in former times are now com- pletely sterile and abandoned. Thus Peru may be said to afford even more striking evidence than Central America of the fact that the primitive agricultural civilizations were not permanent, but of limited duration. Eventually the soil became unsuited to cultivation by the native methods. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — Lavas of Hawaii and their relations. Whitman Cross. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 88. Pp. 93, 4 plates. 1915. The Hawaiian Islands have been built up by a long continued series of volcanic eruptions beginning at a point far west of the principal islands of today. While basalt of a common type is the predominant rock of the islands, there is much greater variety among the rocks than has heretofore been recognized. As indicated by the work of Cohen, E. S. Dana, Lyons, and Silvestri, the rocks range chiefly between normal basalts rich in olivine, augite, and highly calcic plagioclase to pyroxene andesites either free from or poor in olivine and containing andesine or more richly sodic plagioclase. There are, however, more basic rocks such as limburgite, nephelite and melilite basalt, and picritic basalt, while xenoliths of peridotite are reported from several islands. A soda trachyte is the most feldspathic rock so far collected. The chemical characters are discussed on the basis of 43 existing analyses showing many rocks of the so-called alkaline type. These analyses evidently do not cover the entire range of rock types but, classifying the analyzed rocks in the "quantitative system," all but the three most salic rocks come within the range of two classes, that is, in Class III or the adjacent halves of Classes II and IV. The Hawaiian archipelago forms a simple petrographic province whose rocks are clearly comagmatic and consanguineous. The region is especially suited to furnish the means of testing several broad generali- zations of the day regarding the genetic relations of igneous rocks. Each of the larger islands contains several kinds of rocks showing important differences in both chemical and mineral composition and conversely several kinds of rocks are known in all or nearly all the larger islands. In view of the meagerness of our knowledge concerning 294 abstracts: botany 295 all the centers of eruption it is believed that nearly all the varieties described and perhaps some others occur on each of the principal islands. Nephelite-melilite basalts are known on three islands — Kauai, Oahu, and Maui. Strongly feldspathic andesites occur on Hawaii; and the lavas of Kilauea, the youngest volcano of the islands, are predominantly olivine-poor basalts. The relations of the magmas as differentiation products are compared with those of other island groups of the Pacific Ocean, and the distri- bution of the Hawaiian types in other parts of the world is considered. Their chemical characters and the circumstances of their association demonstrate that the so-called alkalic and calcic magmas may and do occur together as derivatives from a common source. The current generalization that this distinction between alkalic and calcic series ("Atlantic and Pacific branches") of igneous rocks is of fundamental importance in pedogenesis and may serve as a factor in a natural system of classification is held to be fallacious and to lead to endless confusion. The series of Hawaiian lavas are concluded to have been derived from a general magma of nearly the same character in all parts of the province. It does not seem probable that there has been any note- worthy differentiation in the main reservoir beneath the Hawaiian district. During the active growth of each volcano the lavas presented a moderate variability in composition, but definite system in this variation was not detected. With decreasing eruptive activity and possibly attendant contraction and limitation of lava chambers a higher degree of differentiation was accomplished and is shown by more salic and correspondingly more femic lavas than those of earlier date. In the long period of parasitic or subsidiary eruptions conditions were favorable to extensive differentiation. The processes of differentiation are still problems for investigation. Movement under gravity of crystal particles may have played a part. J. Fred. Hunter. BOTANY. — On the characters and relationships of the genus Monopteryx Spruce. Henry Pittier. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 42: 623-627. 1915. The genus Monopteryx (Fabaceae) was based upon flowering speci- mens of a tree collected by Spruce on the upper Rio Negro, Brazil. Because of the fact that the fruits were unknown, the genus has been erroneously placed among the Sophoreae. Complete specimens of a new Venezuelan species, Monopteryx jahnii, show that the genus is closely related to Pterocarpus. H. P. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The 107th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held in the auditorium of the New National Museum at 4.45 p.m., April 7, 1916, with President L. 0. Howard in the chair and a large audience present. Dr. Eugene F. DuBois, Medical Director of the Russel Sage institute of Pathology, New York, gave an illustrated lecture on The basal food requirement of man. The lecture dealt chiefly with the amount of heat generated by the body as affected by such factors as age, sex, size, labor, and disease. It was shown that the metabolism, or sum-total of chemical changes within the body, as manifested by the quantity of heat generated per unit area of surface, is very low in the infant, rises to a maximum (1.5 that of the adult) at the age of 4 to 6 years, and then falls rapidly to the metabolism of the normal adult, except at the age of puberty when it rises slightly. From 20 to 30 it remains constant, after which it slowly decreases. Metabolism is somewhat greater in man than woman, increases prac- tically in direct proportion to the total skin area, varies enormously — even more than 5 fold — with different degrees of exertion, and in dis- ease varies widely with the nature of the malady. In typhoid, for instance it is roughly 50 per cent greater than in health, demonstrat- ing that the typhoid patient needs to be fed, rather than starved. Equally interesting and valuable results have been gained from the studies of other diseases, so that scientific human feeding may soon be expected, at least in hospitals. The 108th meeting of the Academy was held in the auditorium of the New National Museum, Friday afternoon, April 14, 1916, with Dr. Carl L. Alsberg in the chair and a large audience present. Dr. Graham Lusk, Professor of Physiology, Cornell Medical College, gave an illustrated lecture on Nutrition and food economics. An extremely interesting exhibit was shown of different kinds of food, — hominy, oat meal, rice, flour, potatoes, etc. — each sufficient in amount for an adult, if inactive, for 24 hours. At present prices the cheapest food appears to be corn meal, or hominy, costing, if one lived on this alone, about 4 \ cts. per day. Tables were shown that gave the quantities and the costs of many kinds of food, assuming one to live on each alone. Hominy, oat meal, and rice are the cheapest, while of 296 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences 297 ordinary foods meat is the most expensive. Other tables were pre- sented that gave the actual quantities and kinds of food used at cer- tain schools, some of which strikingly confirmed the general belief that one eats more during his "teens" that at any other time of life. The 109th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the New National Museum, Friday afternoon, April 21, 1916, with President L. 0. Howard in the chair and an appreciative audience present. Dr. E. B. Forbes, Chief of the Department of Nutrition of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, gave an illustrated lecture on Investigations in the mineral metabolism of animals. Careful investigations, especially with cattle and hogs, have shown the importance of having sufficient amounts of certain mineral substances in their food. Of these calcium in some assimilable form is needed in greatest abundance, particularly during the period of rapid growth. Hence blue grass, which is rich in calcium salts, is an excellent food for growing stock, while an all-grain food, poor in such substances, is inade- quate. Among the interesting developments of the work was the fact that good milch cows secrete more mineral matter during the period of full lactation than they assimilate from even the best food, and thereby suffer a kind of mineral exhaustion. The 110th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Geo- logical Society of Washington in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, April 26, 1916, with Dr. A. C. Spencer presiding and about 60 persons present. Dr. K. F. Kellerman spoke of Bacteria as agents in the precipita- tion of calcium carbonate. Illustrations were shown of spherulites formed through bacterial agency from solutions of calcium sulphate, calcium acetate, and artificial sea water, which are practically indistinguishable from those formed in nature. Dr. J. Johnston discussed Some factors which influence the deposi- tion of calcium carbonate. The fundamental importance of the solu- bility-product in relation to saturation was explained, and the different methods of producing precipitation or inducing solution discussed. The greater solubility of calcium carbonate in cold water obviously must lead to its depletion in the higher latitudes and its accumulation in equatorial regions, a process which appears to be in full operation. Dr. H. E. Merwin described The forms of calcium carbonate and their occurrence. There are at least three easily distinguishable crystallized forms of calcium carbonate and a number of doubtful forms. The form deposited from a solution depends very largely upon tempera- ture, though there may also be other contributing causes. In the discussion that followed Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan spoke of the oolitic deposits of Florida and their problems, and Dr. Chas. D. Walcott described the similar silicious deposits of the Yellowstone Park. 298 proceedings: philosophical society The 111th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the New National Museum, Friday afternoon April 28, 1916, with Presi- dent L. O. Howard in the chair and about 200 persons present. Dr. Carl Voegtlin, of the U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C, gave an illustrated lecture on The relation of the vitamines to nutri- tion in health and disease. It formerly was supposed that any diet was sufficient if it contained enough proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts; but it is now known that under certain circumstances, even with an abundance of food, nutrition diseases such as scurvy and beri-beri are apt to develop. Beri-beri, for instance, is likely to develop when polished rice forms the exclusive diet, but does not occur when the rice is unpolished and even disappears when the patient is given rice-bran or certain bran extracts. It follows that the bran contains something essential to health which the rice-grain proper does not. Such prod- ucts are found in many grains and plants and are known as vitamines, that is, basic organic compounds essential to life. These compounds are produced by plants only, but very unequally. In the animal body they are found most abundantly in the spinal cord and other nerve tissue, W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary. THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 770th meeting was held on March' 18, 1916, at the Cosmos Club; President Briggs in the chair, 46 persons present. The minutes of the 768th and 769th meetings were read in abstract and approved. The Secretary reported the action of the General Committee adopting an amendment to Article V of the By-laws to class as life members all who have maintained an active membership in the Society for 40 years. Messrs. Abbe, Clarke, Dall, and Gilbert have been designated life members under this amendment. The treasurer read a communica- tion from the Secretary General of the Committee of the International Association of Academies in charge of the publication of the Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data expressing thanks for the con- tinued financial aid received from the Society. Mr. H. C. Dickinson presented an illustrated communication giv- ing the results of an investigation in collaboration with Mr. M. S. Van Dusen on Heat transmission through air layers. Measurements were made of the heat transmission in unit time per unit area and unit tem- perature difference through vertical air layers inclosed between plane nickel-plated copper plates, for heights (h) of from 3 to 60 cm., for dis- tances (D) between the plates of from 1 to 60 mm., and for differences of temperature (A) of from 5° to 30° centigrade. The effect of direct radiation was determined and all observations were corrected to include only transmission due to gas conduction, quiet convection, and tur- bulent convection. Transmission decreases to a minimum for increas- ing D and for greater widths becomes nearly constant, the position of minimum depending upon h. Transmission decreases with increasing proceedings: philosophical society 299 h, and increases with increasing A. Applications of the results to calori- metric problems in the laboratory as well as to many industrial prob- lems were suggested. An approximate mathematical expression for the results obtained was presented. By invitation Mr. L. H. Adams presented an illustrated paper on The thermoelectric power of pure metals. Thermoelectric force and the closely allied thermal and electrical effects have an important bearing on many aspects of the behavior of metals and an extended knowledge of these quantities would go far toward a solution of the problems of metallic conduction. The results enable one to calculate 4 other quan- dE d2E tities, viz. -77= , -7= , Peltier effect, and Thomson effect. The last named, dr dl2 although extremely difficult to measure calorimetrically, can be deter- mined by the electrical method with considerable accuracv. Curves dE illustrating the course of -r=. and of the Thomson effect from absolute dr zero to very high temperatures show that the relations involved are much more complicated than has hitherto been supposed, and explain the difficulty of obtaining a suitable equation for representing the ther- moelectric force as a function of the temperature. It is of interest to note the extraordinary sensitiveness of the thermoelectric force to slight impurities in the metal. The communication was discussed by Messrs. Swann, Burgess, and White. The Chair expressed to the speaker the Society's thanks for his very suggestive paper. Mr. A. Hall then spoke on The equatorial micrometers of the Naval Observatory, illustrating his communication with lantern slides. The micrometers constructed by Clark, Saegmiiller, Warner and Swasey, and Repsold were compared. The last is a large instrument, made of iron and steel, with a platinum-iridiuni position circle, purchased by the Naval Observatory in 1913. An eye-piece microscope is provided for the examination on the telescope of the micrometer screw. The readings of the screw can be made in the usual manner or can be printed on a Morse fillet, on two type-metal wheels which carry raised figures. Great care is taken to have the illumination of the threads symmetrical, and in every way provision is made to eliminate systematic errors. The Secretary read an invitation from the Washington Academy of Sciences inviting members of the Society to attend a lecture by Dr. L. H. Baekeland at the New National Museum on March 23 at 8.30 p.m. The 771st meeting was held on April 1, 1916, at the Cosmos Club; President Brigg.s in the chair, 44 persons present. The minutes of the 770th meeting were read in abstract and approved. Mr. R. S. Woodward presented a communication on The extraction of square roots of numbers. Referring to a previous communication to the Society by the author on the same subject some further applica- tions were explained of the formula 300 proceedings: philosophical society Vm=V(^6) = i(a + 6)|l - jj^p> (1) In this m is any number and a and b are any two numbers whose pro- duct is m. Attention was called to the rapid approximation which may be secured by successive applications of the arithmetic mean \{a + b). Special emphasis was given to the use of formula (1) when m is an integer and not a square. In this case the square root of m is involved in the two equations y2 — mx2 = ix y2 + mx1 = v in which every symbol represents an integer. These equations give1 IH-'-^L.-^*- (2) 2xy 4 xy v 16 xyp3 The number ju is arbitrary within certain limits. For the present pur- pose it is obviously most advantageous to have y. = + 1, and it is known from Fermat's theorem that n = +1 is always possible. Moreover, an infinite series of sets of values of x and y exists, each set satisfying the equation y2 — mx2 = +1. Hence an infinite series of increasingly rapid approximations to the y/m is furnished by equation (2). The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wead, Farqtjhar, Van Os- trand, and Harris, particularly with reference to earlier methods. Mr. W. W. Fraser then presented a communication on Vectors and quaternions; what has been done and what can be done. Among his defini- tions we find that Hamilton has defined the quaternion as the quotient of two vectors a, /3, as q = - ; and as a set of four, or q = x -f- iyx + jyi a -+- ky3 where if j, and k are algebraic extraordinaries such that i7 = j2 = fca = —l}ij = k= — ji, etc., making the quaternion analysis an algebra of sets in which the commutative law for the multiplication of the extraordinaries is thrown out. Grassmann's Ausdehnungslehr dif- fers chiefly from the quaternions in his definition of the product of two vectors, being defined (inner), A.B = \A\\B\ cos (A,B); and (outer) A X B = n | A|| B \ sin (A,B) (after Gibbs): The Borali-Forti assump- tion that i X ( ) = i (of Hamilton) = V — 1 affords a means of unit- ing the systems of Grassmann, Gibbs, and Hamilton, since we can effect translations from scalars, rotations with complexes or quaternions, and projective transformations with the dyadic of Gibbs. If Ohm's law for alternating currents is expressed with Grassmann vectors instead of complexes, as used by Dr. Steinmetz, the difficulties of the latter's sym- bolic method are avoided. Mr. W. J. Spillman then presented the results of an investigation in collaboration with Messrs. H. R. Tolley, and W. G. Reed on A gra- ft 7)1 X 1 Equation (2) may be derived from (1) by writing a = - and b = — . x y proceedings: philosophical society 301 phic method for the determination of the average interval between depart- ures from the mean greater than a given departure. In determining the absolute winter minimum below which the winter temperature would not fall on the average oftener than once in thirty years, a problem which arose in connection with the investigations of the methods and cost of heating greenhouses, a curve was constructed for which the abscissas are departures from the mean expressed in terms of the stand- ard deviation, and the ordinates represent the reciprocals of the pro- bability of departures greater than a given amount. Thus if the depart- ure in question is an annual event, the ordinates of the curve represent the average interval, in years, between successive occurrences of the event. Periods of observations of meteorological phenomena are too brief to give very reliable results from the method outlined. The method is also applicable only to variables represented by normal fre- quency curves. In the case of 569 stations the actual number of spring frosts after the calculated date be3^ond which frost should occur on the average only one jrear in ten gave no unexpected frosts in 73 per cent of the stations and only one unexpected frost in 21 per cent of the sta- tions. Thus in 94 per cent of the stations there was either no unex- pected frost or only one. The mean of the standard deviation for these stations was calculated from an average of about 23 observations. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Woodward and Humphreys. The 772d meeting was held on Thursday. April 20, 1916, at the Cos- mos Club; President Briggs in the chair, 130 persons present. The evening was devoted to an address by Dr. R. A. Millikan on Some recent aspects of the radiation problem. Partly as the result of an experimental situation and partly because of a theory, Planck's h first made its appearance in 1900 in connection with the development of the laws of black-body radiation. Since then it has unexpectedly revealed itself (2) in the domain of specific heats, (3) in that of corpuscular emis- sion under the influence of light and X-rays, (4) in the domain of spec- troscopy, both of light and of X-rays, and (5) in the general radiation which is stimulated by the impact of corpuscles against the atoms of matter. This is an extraordinary experimental situation which has not yet been interpreted in the light of any consistent theory. After the pre- sentation of the facts which have recently come to light in connection with the last three of the foregoing fields, it was pointed out that the work of Duane, Hunt, and Hull seems to permit of a real advance in theory in that it appears to show that the h which is found in connec- tion with the general X-ray radiation, and presumably in connection with black-body radiation has nothing to do with the natural periods of the atomic constituents of the radiating bodies as heretofore as- sumed, since it is quite independent of the nature of these bodies. It appears to be rather a property of the ether pulse which is generated by the stopping of an electron. 302 proceedings: chemical society The inverse problem, namely, that of obtaining any satisfactory con- ception of the way in which a train of ether waves of frequency v can eject an electron from an atom with an energy hv is as yet quite un- solved. Yet the direction in which a solution must be found seems to be indicated. For the conception of localized bundles of energy travel- ing out through space from the radiating body is untenable in view of the oil-drop experiment, while energy considerations preclude the possibility that the ejected electron receives its energy from a single spreading ether pulse. It seems therefore necessary to assume with Planck and Bohr that the atom possesses such a structure that it can absorb energy without radiating at all until a critical energy content is reached when an explosion takes place and the electron is ejected with the energy hv. How it can do this we do not yet know, but experi- ments are presented which show that in any case this type of absorp- tion is not a phenomenon of resonance. With Bohr's atom, however, which is shown to have had notable success very recently in explain- ing the relations between the lines of fluorescent X-radiations, it is not surprising that absorption is unlike anything which we have observed in the region of low frequency vibrations where the cause of absorption is, in general, resonance. The communication was discussed at length by Messrs. Duane, Hull, Bateman, and Swann. Mr. Hull gave some additional experi- mental data extending Bohr's theory. A vote of thanks was unanimously extended to Dr. Millikan and the other speakers for their kindness in addressing the Society. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY The '251st meeting of the society was held at the Bieber Building on October 14, 1915, the society being the guests of the members of the Bureau of Chemistry. Several reels of motion pictures showing vari- ous activities of the Department of Agriculture were shown. Presi- dent Alsberg, as Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, gave a short ad- dress of welcome, outlining the various phases of the work of the Bureau. The laboratories of the Bureau were opened for inspection and a very profitable and enjoyable evening was spent by the two hundred mem- bers and guests attending. The 252d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 11, 1915, for the annual election of officers. President C. H. Herty of the American Chemical Society was present as a guest of the local section and gave a brief address, especially emphasizing the important role the American chemist is to play in the important matters now before the American public. The following were elected officers for the year 1916: President: R. B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. First Vice-President: H. M. Loomis, Bureau of Chemistry. Second Vice-President: A. Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory. proceedings: chemical society 303 Secretary: E. C. McKelvy, Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: F. P. Dewey, Bureau of the Mint. Councilors: J. Johnston, Geophysical Laboratory; R. C. Wells, Geological Survey; C. S. Hudson, Bureau of Chemistry. Executive Committee: J. C. Hostetter, Geophysical Laboratory; E. C. Schorey, Bureau of Soils; A. N. Finn, Bureau of Standards; M. J. Ingle, Bureau of Chemistry. It was the sentiment of the meeting that the previous custom of hav- ing a presidential address by the retiring president be revived for the January meeting and for the following years. The 253d meeting, a special meeting of the society held jointly with visiting members of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, was held through the courtesy of the Borden Condensed Milk Company of New York City at the Circle Theatre, November 16, 1915. The pro- gram consisted of motion pictures, illustrating the production and test- ing of certified milk, ably explained by Mr. W. E. B. Kirk, a represen- tative of the company. After the pictures were shown the members adjourned to the research laboratories of the National Canner's Associa- tion, 1739 H Street, N.W., for inspection of the laboratories and a social hour. The 254th meeting (special) was held at the New Willard Hotel on December 8, 1915, the society being guest of the National Rivers and Harbors Congress. The part of the program of especial interest to the members consisted of motion pictures provided by the National Tube Co., showing the manufacture of steel tubing from the ore to the finished product. Explanatory remarks and a short history of the use and manufacture of steel pipes were given by a representative of the company. The 255th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December 16, 1915. R. B. Sosman was elected to represent the society as a vice president of the Washington Academy of Sciences during the year 1916. The president appointed the following committee of three to consider the arguments pro and con and present a report to the society regarding the bill H. R. 528, introduced by Representative Albert Johnson of Wash- ington State, to discontinue the use of the Fahrenheit scale of tem- perature in government publications : W. F. Hillebrand, J. Johnston and E. B. Sosman. The following were appointed as auditing com- mittee: A. B. Adams, J. A. LeClerc, and R. C. Wells. The follow- ing papers were presented. R. B. Dole, Geological Survey: The action of natural waters on boilers. B. McCollum and K. H. Logan, Bureau of Standards (given by Mr. Logan) : Chemical factors affecting electrolytic corrosion in soils and rein- forced concrete. 304 proceedings: chemical society Experiments on corrosion in soils from various sources show a wide variation in the coefficient of corrosion. The rates of electrolytic cor- rosion were not materially different for Ingot iron, wrought iron, cast iron, and machine steel. A series of tests in which nitrates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and chromates were added to the soil showed that only the chromates retarded the electrolytic corrosion. The character of the corroded surface depends upon the chemical in the soil. Pitting is not due en- tirely to the non-homogeneity of the anode. The coefficient of corrosion in normal concrete is usually about 1 per cent. High current density, temperatures above 50°C, the addi- tion of salt to the cement, and the exposure of small green specimens to C02 greatly accelerate the corrosion. Electrolytic corrosions with alternating currents show low coefficients of corrosion, unless the length of the cycle or the character of the soil is such as to prevent the corroded iron from plating back on the reversal of the current. The coefficient of corrosion is usually low, even when the period of a complete cycle is several hours. On account of the reversing polarity of the underground structures throughout a large part of the areas affected by stray currents from street railways, electrolytic damage will usually be much less than might be expected. Coefficients of corrosion greater than 100 per cent are only found when the current density is low, and are probably due to accelerated self-corrosion. (Author's abstract.) G. K. Burgess and P. D. Merica, Bureau of Standards (given by Mr. Merica) : Some examples of metal failures. The talk was illustrated by many slides of great interest. The question of metal failures is a very comprehensive one and may indeed be said to embrace all cases in which a metal does not fulfill, as well as may be, the use or uses to which it is put. Whether or not a metal is a failure under given conditions may therefore be a relative matter and there cannot usually be an ideal standard of service. Metal failures may evidently be classified as to type or cause, whether due to inherent chemical or physical imperfections or to some incor- rect treatment (thermal, mechanical or chemical) which it may have received either in manufacture or subsequently. It is often necessary, in considering metal failures, to fix the responsi- bility for failure, and it may be necessary at times to decide whether the fault lay in the metal or in the specifications which may have been so incorrectly or inadequately drawn as to be entirely unsuited to the metal in question. Examples of metal failures and of imperfections in metals were given with illustrations, the same being taken from the experience at the Bureau of Standards. The effect of pipe, segregation, and blowholes in ingots of steel can be readily traced in the properties of articles manufactured from these ingots. Steel rails, for instance, will contain longitudinal seams, due proceedings: chemical society 305 to cavities in the ingot, and will be found to be unduly brittle in the web, due to the segregation of the impurities and carbon in the origi- nal ingot. The effect of wrong heat treatment of otherwise good material, such, for instance, as overheating, was illustrated in the case of steel and of naval brass. Other cases of failure of a typical sort arc the oxidation of the tin fillings of fusible tin boiler plugs, due to the presence in the tin of a small content of zinc, the selective corrosion of Muntz metal sheet ex- posed to action of sea water, and the season-cracking of brass, particu- larly manganese bronze, which is due to the presence in the material, particularly when in the wrought condition, of high initial stresses. (Author's abstract.) The 256th meeting, a joint meeting with the Washington Academy was held at the Cosmos Club, January 13, 1916, The retiring presi- dent, C. L. Alsberg of the Bureau of Chemistry presented as his presidential address, The chemical analysis of nutrition, which consisted of a brief survey of the advance during the last decade in our knowledge regarding the chemical substances involved in animal nutrition and metabolism. Particular reference was made to the advance in our knowledge of the chemical nature of the active constituents of the ductless gland secretions. The effect of vitamines and small quanti- ties of other materials upon the assimilation of foods was considered. The address called forth considerable interesting discussion. A. Sei- dell spoke of his success in concentrating vitamines by means of Lloyd's reagent, that is, by absorbing with hydrated aluminium silicate. The reports of the officers for the year 1915 were read and approved. The following committees were appointed by the president for the year 1916: Communications: E. B. Phelps, H. S. Bailey, W. H. Keen, R. S. McBride and A. Seidell; Entertainment: F. A. Wertz, H. R. McMillin, G. W. Morey, H. J. Morgan, E. E. Smith. The following resolution regarding H. R. Bill 528 to discontinue the use of the Fahrenheit thermometer scale in government publications, presented by the committee appointed to prepare an expression of the feeling of the society, was approved : Resolved, That the Chemical Society of Washington favors unquali- fiedly the purpose of Bill 528, now before the House of Represen- tatives and in charge of the Committee on Coinage, Weights and Meas- ures, and endorses said bill, provided it shall appear that its provisions are such as will lead to the desired end with the least determinable inconvenience to the public and to the Government service. The 257th meeting of the society was held at the Cosmos Club, February 18, 1916. Mr. H. C. Fuller presented a memorandum in relation to the Sheppard bill (S 1082) now pending before the Senate. The substance of the memorandum was adopted with the proviso that a committee of three be appointed by the President to shorten the 306 proceedings: chemical society memorandum in order to make it more effective. Messrs. Johnston, Munroe and Fuller were appointed members of the Committee. The resolution in its final form reads ; Whereas the bill now before the Senate, known as S 1082, introduced by Senator Sheppard, which is concerned with the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors within the District of Columbia, in its present form contains provisions which would prohibit absolutely the use of grain alcohol for all chemical and technical purposes in all the many laboratories, connected with Government departments or with educa- tional or private institutions, now established in the District of Colum- bia, and would also prohibit the delivery, for analysis or other purposes, of samples and specimens containing alcohol; And whereas the important work, highly beneficial to the public welfare, carried on by these several laboratories would be very seriously crippled, and much of it would be stopped altogether, by the prohibi- tion of the delivery of alcohol to these laboratories, or of its use therein ; for in many chemical operations pure alcohol is an absolute necessity and irreplaceable; And whereas Congress itself has specifically provided in the Food and Drugs Act and in the Insecticide Act that the degree of purity of food and drug products should be determined by certain prescribed tests, few of which could be made if the use of alcohol be prohibited; And whereas it is unreasonable to suppose that Congress would enact a law which would effectually prevent the making of tests pre- scribed in previous acts, work which moreover can not be interrupted without detriment to public welfare; and it is the belief of this Society that it is not the intent of Congress to prevent legitimate and neces- sary scientific work in any laboratory, private or public, or to hinder the advancement of science, or to interfere in any way with the train- ing of technically skilled men, especially at this time when the advan- tage— nay, the necessity — of proper technical training and advice has been brought home to all of us; Therefore be it resolved by the Washington Section of the American Chemical Society, that the foregoing summary statement of facts be brought to the attention of those in charge of this bill, with the plea that they modify those provisions which, if the bill S 1082 were enacted in its present form, would be highly prejudicial to the laboratory work, scientific, technical, and educational, now carried on within the District of Columbia, a work which is absolutely essential to the continued progress of the country. The program of the evening consisted of a lecture on Radium by C. L. Parsons, of the Bureau of Mines. A concise survey of the re- cent methods developed by this Bureau for the extraction of radium from carnotite ores was accompanied by lantern slides and motion pictures showing the entire range of operations from the mining of the ore to the crystallization of the radium bromide. By means of the new methods it is thought that 90 per cent of the radium is actually proceedings: chemical society 307 recovered; by previous methods about 70 per cent was considered a very good yield. An interesting discussion ensued, partaken in by many members of the society. The 258th meeting of the society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Y. M. C. A. on March 9, 1916. The following program was presented : H. H. Custis, Bureau of Animal Industry: The action of light on chlorine, with special reference to the formation of chloracetic acid. The reactions between chlorine and other substances in the presence of light were all classed with those reactions in which the light only gives an impulse to the activity of chemical change. Several examples of such reactions were cited. A brief outline of the history of the study of phenomena accompanying reaction between hydrogen and chlorine in the presence of light and a resume of the work previously reported on the reaction between chlorine and acetic acid were given. The speaker then reported that after unsuccessful attempts to chlo- rinate acetic acid, benzene, and toluene under the influence of light from a projection lantern he was able to make mono-chloracetic acid by the action of chlorine on acetic acid at the temperature of the steam bath under the influence of the rays from an iron arc. The reaction was accelerated by the use of red phosphorus as catalyzer. He was also able to chlorinate benzene and toluene at room temperature, using an iron arc. In these experiments no catalyzers were used. Though benzene was not chlorinated by chlorine subjected to the rays from a quartz mercury arc while passing through a quartz tube, toluene was chlorinated. (Author's abstract.) Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory: The isolation of vitamine from brewer's yeast. Vitamine is the name which has been given to a recently recognized essential food element necessary for normal metabolism. Although vitamine (vitamines?) is undoubtedly widely distributed in food stuffs, the amount actually present in any one is probably very minute. Attempts which have so far been made to concentrate vitamine or isolate it have been only partially successful. The material appears to be destroyed or seriously altered by the manipulations involved in the processes of isolation. It has therefore not been possible to make extensive studies of the physiological action of vitamine uninfluenced by accompanying substances. Brewer's yeast has been shown to be comparatively rich in vitamine. While attempting to concentrate the vitamine present in this product it was ascertained that hydrous aluminium silicate (fuller's earth) selectively adsorbs vitamine from the complex, aqueous, autolyzed yeast solution. Experiments on pigeons receiving a deficient diet of polished rice showed that the separation of the vitamine by means of the adsorbent was complete. The yeast solution filtered from the 308 PROCEEDINGS : ( riEMICAL SOCIETY solid was free of vitamine, whereas the solid adsorbent retained all that was originally present in the yeast solution. The solid combina- tion of fuller's earth and vitamine appears to be stable and shows un- impaired vitamine activity even after several months. Since the in- organic solid adsorbent is an inert substance, from the standpoint of its action on the organism, the combination serves as a convenient source of vitamine for nutritional experiments and possibly as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of beri-beri and other nutritional deficiency diseases. Experiments upon the separation of vitamine from its solid combination with fuller's earth are under way and a crystalline product possessing the vitamine action has already been prepared. (Author's abstract.) R. R. Williams, Bureau of Chemistry: The chemical nature of the vitamines. Alpha-hydroxypyridine exists in three isomeric forms. Two of these forms can be isolated as needle and prism crystals respectively, while the third enolic form is present only in the metallic salts of the compound. Prism crystals may be converted into needles by dry heat. The needles on standing in the air at ordinary temperatures are transformed again into prisms. Water solutions of the needles produce rapid cures of avian beri-beri when administered within five or six days after the solution is made. The prism crystals have no curative power. The enolic or metallic salt form probably possesses no therapeutic value. A similar isomerism and physiological effect appears to be common to all hydroxypyridines, suggesting that the natural vitamines possess a similar chemical structure. (Author's abstract.) The 259th meeting (special) of the society was held in the Chemical Lecture Hall of George Washington Medical School on March 21, 1916. The speaker of the evening, John Uri Lloyd, of Cincinnati, presented a Practical demonstration of some of the principles of colloidal chemistry. An experimental demonstration was given of the selective absorption of alkaloids by what is now known as Lloyd's reagent, a selected fuller's earth (hydrated aluminium silicate) especially treated to give extreme fineness of grain and great absorptive power. The absorption is carried out in acid solution and presents a distinct ad- vance in the technique of alkaloid separation and manufacture. The action is extremely rapid and applies to practically all alkaloids. How- ever, though the application of the reagent as an absorbent for alka- loids used in the therapeutics looks promising, its application as a remedy in alkaloid poisoning has so far been unsuccessful, owing to the liberation of the alkaloid in the alkaline parts of the alimentary tract. A considerable number of slides were presented showing micro- graphs of the reagent and its absorption compounds. E. C. McKelvy, Secretary. proceedings: geological society 309 THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 307th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on March 22, 1916. informal communications E. T. Wherry presented a communication on the cavities in vein fillings of the basalt near Paterson, New Jersey. He showed that the lozenge-shaped cavities from a shale in eastern Pennsylvania were like those in the basalt. These cavities correspond to glauberite crystals. (Published in full in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 181-184. 1916.) REGULAR PROGRAM R. B. Sosman and J. C. Hostetter: Zonal growth in hematite and its bearing on the origin of certain iron ores. In studying the natural oxides of iron, the authors have observed that some of these can be separated magnetically into fractions. They have also shown (Journ. Ainer. Chem. Soc, April, 1916) that ferric oxide (Fe203) and magnetite (Fe304) form a series of solid solutions in which the percentage of FeO increases continuously from zero to 31.03, which is the percentage in magnetite. The oxides become increasingly magnetic as the percentage of FeO increases. The powdered oxide from certain crystals of hematite from Elba contains considerable FeO and can also be fractionated magnetically. It is therefore not homogeneous, as would be the case if the crystal were a uniform solid solution throughout. Analyses and magnetic measurements on a cross-section of an Elba crystal showed that the magnetic susceptibility and percentage of FeO vary, not irregularly, but continuously, being highest at the base and lowest at the free- growing tip of the crystal. The crystal is therefore zoned with respect to its FeO content. The physico-chemical conditions which could bring about such a zonal growth were discussed. R. W. Pack: Structural features of the San Joaquin Valley oil fields, California. (Illustrated.) The general features governing the occurrence of oil in the San Joaquin Valley are (1) the presence of material in which the oil origi- nated; (2) an avenue affording an easy escape for the oil from this ma- terial in which it originated; (3) lithologic and structural features that together form a reservoir favorable for the accumulation of this oil. The first condition is satisfied by the presence of thick formations of shale composed largely of the remains of minute organisms — dia- toms and foraminifers — and it appears certain that it is in these forma- tions and from these organisms that the petroleum originated. The escape of the petroleum from these shales is rendered easy by the unconformable relation at the top of the shales. Adequate reservoirs are afforded by the sandy beds that rest upon the truncated edges of 310 proceedings: geological society the shale. Numerous anticlines heading in the central part of the ranges on the west side of San Joaquin Valley, running out into and plunging beneath that valley, form traps in which the oil has accumu- lated and is now retained. Each of the productive fields on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley shows all the features listed and the intervening non-productive areas lack one or more of them. The sandy beds that form the reservoirs for the oil outcrop in or near the fields. Escape of the oil is prevented by a sealing of these beds by tar. This tar is the result either of the fractional distillation of the oil and removal of the lighter constituents or of interaction of oil and mineral waters, both probably being effective. Oil moving upward through the sandy beds overlying the shales, being prevented by this tarry seal from further movement, moves outward down the dip through sandy beds lying stratigraphically above the bed resting unconformably upon the shale. Oil moves through these upper beds away from the plane of unconformity until its further movement is prevented by a sealing of these upper beds by tar. The tarry seal in this case may be formed, as in the case with the outcrop, by natural fractionation of the oil, but in the deeper sands it is evidently caused chiefly by the action of "edge water" on the oil. The tarrification of oil in the presence of water is well recognized in the fields, and this knowledge is of practical value in drilling for the deeper sands, since it furnishes a guide as to the proximity of water. The productive sands, although occurring in a definite zone in the lower part of the formation that rests upon the shale, are not con- tinuous sands, but lie rather in a step-like arrangement, one small oil sand above another, all of them abutting against the diatomaceous shale on the flanks of the anticline, but diverging more and more widely from the shale toward the axis of the syncline. Charles T. Lupton: Notes on the stratigraphic and structural relations in southern and eastern Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Bighorn Basin is a large topographic and structural depression in northwest Wyoming nearly surrounded by Bighorn, Bridger, Owl Creek, and Shoshone Mountains. It is drained by Bighorn River, which flows through deep canyons in the mountain rim at the south (Wind River Canyon) and at the northeast (Bighorn Canyon). The rocks exposed in the basin range from Cambrian to Quarternary in age. Only those formations between the Morrison and the base of the Wasatch were considered in detail. Leaves of Cretaceous age were found during the field season of 1915 in the upper part of the Morrison formation near Ten Sleep. The overlying Cloverly forma- tion, Thermopolis and Mowry shale, Frontier formation, Cody shale, Mesaverde formation, Bearpaw (?) shale, Lance (?) and Fort Union formations were described in considerable detail. Of these, the Clover- ly, Mowry, and Frontier produce a light, high grade oil and some gas. The Cody shale is equivalent to the upper part of the Colorado and the lower part of the Montana groups. The Mesaverde on the south proceedings: biological society 311 and east sides of the basin is believed to correspond to the Gebo on the west side, Bearpaw (?) to part or all of the Meeteetse, and the Lance (?) to the Ilo. No evidence has been obtained in Bighorn Basin to prove that the beds designated Bearpaw (?) or Meeteetse are marine. Two unconformities are recognized in Bighorn Basin — one at the base of the Fort Union and the other at its top. Discordance in dip and lenses of conglomerate mark the unconformities. Structurally Bighorn Basin is a vast geosyncline with minor folds developed on its flanks. Its axis trends northwest-southeast. The axes of the minor folds trend in the same general direction but more nearly parallel to the adjacent mountains. The upfolds are character- ized by narrow flanks and steep dips on the mountainward sides and broad flanks and gentle clips on the basinward sides. The anticlines and domes that produce most of the Oil and gas are nearest the major axis of the basin. Many of the anticlines plunge into the basin and are of little value as oil and gas reservoirs. Most of the anticlines are developed in rocks older than Wasatch, but in a few places that formation is deformed. Such a condition suggests a greater deformation of the beds on which the Wasatch rests. Only a few faults are present. The greater number of them extend parallel to the strike of the beds. An unusual condition obtains at Greybull, where dip faults throw out the middle of the oil and gas field. Carroll H. Wegemann, Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 554th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 8, 1916, at 8 p.m.; called to order by President Hay, with 65 persons present. The President called attention to the recent death of Wells W. Cooke, Treasurer of the Society, and announced the appointment of Messrs. Hollister, Gidley, and Wetmore to draw up appropriate resolutions. The President also announced the election of Dr. Ned Dearborn to the office of Treasurer, made vacant by Mr. Cooke's death, also the appointment of Dr. Dearborn to the committee on publications. On recommendation of the Council the following persons were elected to active membership: Robert M. Libbey, Washington, D.C.; G. K. Noble, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts; and Dr. Howard B. Ames, U. S. Navy (Retired). The following informal communications were made : Dr. R. W. Shufeldt commented upon and exhibited specimens of a Japanese salamander, Diemictylus pyrrhogaster, obtained from a local dealer in live animals. Dr. Paul Bartsch called attention to the introduction of the Euro- pean agate snail, Rumina decollata, in certain parts of the southern states and to the recent publication by J. B. Henderson of a book 312 proceedings: anthropological society entitled, The cruise of the Tomas Barrera, the narrative of a scientific expedition to western Cuba and the Colorados Reefs, with observations on the geology, fauna, and flora of the region. Dr. M. W. Lyon, Jr., made remarks on the history of the Filaria bancrofti embryos exhibited at the previous meeting of the Society. Mr. F. Knab discussed the mosquito host of Filaria bancrofti, saying that an appropriate species of Culex is found in Washington in the late summer. The regular program was an illustrated lecture by Mr. Edmund Heller entitled, Hunting in the Peruvian Andes. Mr. Heller gave an account of a recent collecting trip made by him from the west coast of Peru up into the high Andes and down to the head waters of the Amazon. He described the animals collected, mainly mammals, but also birds and reptiles, including the rare spectacled bear, wild llamas, etc. He also commented on the habits and customs of the natives, and showed photographic lantern slides not only of the wild -life, the inhabitants, and physiographic features, but also of many points of archeologic interest. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON At the 492d meeting, held December 21, 1915, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, gave an illustrated lecture on his archeological investigations in the Mesa Verde National Park dur- ing the preceding summer. The substance of the address has since been given in this Journal (6: 212-221. April 19, 1916), although with a special view to a comparison between the "Sun Temple" excavated by him on the Mesa Verde and the so-called prehistoric "towers." At the 493d meeting of the Society, held January 18, 1916, Dr. Tom A. Williams read a paper on The origin of superstitions. He stated that the forms which superstitions assume are imposed by traditional survival, but that superstitious feeling occurs when extraneous support is desired in too difficult situations. It is a reaction to inadequacy, especially prone to occur when the brain is numb with drugs, infec- tions, body poisons, or fatigue. An attitude of mind may also induce it. Other refuges from the feeling of inadequacy or discomfort are drug-taking, wine-bibbing, tobacco-smoking, wandering about, various amusements, and even intemperate work. The fantastic personalities of our dreams, of which so-called psychic phenomena are merely a variety, give support to occultistic beliefs. It is in the feelings themselves, however, that the origin must be sought, belief being merely an attempted rationalization of these, as when a person deduces from the exceptional character of his feelings during the experience a supernatural quality of the force that must have caused it. Such inferences need have no religious color. For proceedings: anthropological society 313 instance, one patient with intact perceptions and intelligence declares, "It is black all around; there is no world there; but you can not under- stand, and I can not explain it." The root of this condition is a dis- turbance of the internal feelings, the cause of which is usually a physi- cal disorder, a perverted body chemistry. However, as the feelings may be incited psychogenetically, and as the superstitious belief may persist even when the body chemistry is restored, it is necessary in dealing with them to understand the facts of human psychology, more especially of morbid psychology. The comfort brought by the feeling of support and the sense of refuge found in reliance upon a supernatural agent make their appeal very strong to inadequate persons. That is why the superstitious aspect of so many religions is clung to so fer- vently; for, not differentiating this from the essence of the religion, the devotee fears that the destruction of the superstition will entail the loss of the comfort brought by his religion, which is, of course, an improper inference. That the religious aspect of these, however, is not that which makes belief in them so strong is proved by what so often happens during anaesthesia. For instance, Humphry Davy, on waking from nitrous oxide narcosis, had so grandiose a feeling of having made wonderful discoveries that he showed his contempt for those round him by walk- ing about calling, "Nothing exists but thought; the universe is com- posed of impressions, pleasure, and pain;" and it took him some time to overcome his belief in the validity of this experience. Again, a young man, who, during anaesthesia for an operation, had the awful feeling of a world reverting to nothingness, could not shake off the belief in the terribleness of this, so that special measures had to be used to bring his mind into normal touch with the real world. The color of the superstition depends upon the Zeitgeist; but its fundamentals are psychopathological facts, and the study of their origin demands an extensive knowledge of the cognate phenomena revealed by persons with disturbed minds. Even in the case of amputated limbs a patient may declare himself "more sure of the lost limb than of the one he has." Like these instances the inexpressible wonderfulness of the mystic's experience is pure illusion and its origin is in feelings of similar kind. The portion of the address on The craving for the supernatural appeared in the Medical Record for February 12, 1916. At the 494th meeting of the society, held February 1, 1916, two pa- pers were read. The first, by Dr. Truman Michelson, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, was on Ritualistic origin myths of the Fox Indi- ans. This has appeared in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences (6: 209-211. April 19, 1916). In the discussion, a visitor, Mr. Stewart, who said that he had grown up among the Kickapoo, in- sisted that scientists should get behind the form of the myth to its mean- ing and that, although the solar explanation of myths, for example, had been overworked by Max Miiller, there is a real esoteric meaning of 314 proceedings: anthropological society the ritual in certain American tribes. Mr. LaFlesche agreed, from his knowledge of the Osage ritual, that all has a meaning and that noth- ing is nonsensical. Every bodily movement even has a symbolic sig- nificance; the prayers which the ritual contains are for safety, for health, and to secure offspring, that is, for the welfare of the tribe. Mr. Hewitt cited, in this connection, the Iroquois ritual for the installa- tion of the chief, which recounted the history of the tribe and the for- mation of the League. Dr. Michelson replied that it is necessary to study the forms of rituals of different tribes in order to determine their origins, because it is evident that the interpretations now placed upon them are in nearly all cases secondary. Dr. Swanton, referring to the old question as to whether myth or ritual were prior, stated as the essential fact that myth and ritual are in association and that these associations as they exist should be the object of our study. The second paper, by Mr. William H. Babcock, was entitled Cer- tain pre-Columbian notices of American aborigines. It dealt mainly with records found in early Norse writings. Four regions were taken up in geographical order: The eastern coast of Greenland; the western coast of Greenland; Markland (probably Newfoundland), and Wine- land and the neighboring regions. For the first he quoted from the Floamanna Saga the account of the attack of Thorgisl on the two "giant women" gathering driftwood; for the second, the statement of Islend- ingabok concerning the Skrelling relics found by the first Norse settlers, the mention in Historia Norwegiae of meetings between Norse hunters and Skrellings in the districts north of the settlements, the narrative of the far northward exploration of 1266 contained in a priest's letter (on which voyage no Eskimo were discovered, only the sites of their habitations), and the account of the two trolls who became servants of a shipmaster visiting Greenland. The account of the Markland cap- tives was given from the Hauksbok version of Eric the Red; both of the accounts of the killing of Thorvald, as they present different views of the natives on the southeastern border of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and both versions of the intercourse of Karlsefni and his people with the more southerly Wineland natives and the hostilities, which ended both it and the Norse scheme of colonization. In answer to questions by Dr. Anderson, Mr. Stewart, Miss Breton, Dr. Folkmar, and others, Mr. Babcock said that he con- sidered it probable that Irish monks reached America before the Norse- men. While some of the Celtic theories are fantastical, it is certain that Irish relics were found by the Norse in Iceland; that Disnil tells of a voyage made by them far beyond that island until they were stopped by the ice ; that on such voyages they may have touched America ; and that the western region which the Norsemen called Great Ireland, or White Man's Land, was probably a part of our coast. The evidence for a Chinese discovery of America was not considered sufficient to war- rant quotations in the paper of the evening. "Fusang" may have been Korea, Japan, or at most the Aleutian Islands, although some of the products reported resemble those of Mexico. There is no positive proceedings: anthropological society 315 evidence for priority of discovery by Basque or Breton fishermen. Corte-Real's voyage to Newfoundland occurred in 1500 A.D. The name Bacalaos applied to this land first appears on maps of a later date. On being asked what degree of reliance is to be placed on the Norse narratives, since they were handed down for a time by oral tradition before they were written down , Mr. Babcock said that the earliest dates of the writings are unknown; that the Erlendsspn copy of the Eric the Red manuscript was made before 1334, perhaps about 1320; that the narrative which it contains bears evidence of having been composed in the eleventh century; and that a brief log of Karlsefni's voyage seems to be the kernel of part of the sagas. Certainly all of the de- tails are not to be relied on. At the 495th meeting, held February 15, 1916, Mr. Paul Popenoe addressed the Society on Progress in the study of human heredity. He said that man offers by far the most difficult material for the study of heredity and that the number of students who have undertaken to work upon it is small. The Eugenics Record Office, at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York, is the principal American agency; Dr. Alex- ander Graham Bell has founded a Genealogical Record Office in Washington for the study of longevity; many anthropologists are con- tributing to the knowledge of heredity in man; and various physicians and geneticists in colleges are also making contributions. The Galton Laboratory of National Eugenics at the University of London, directed by Karl Pearson, is the principal agency in England. On the conti- nent of Europe the work is scattered among medical men and anthro- pologists. It is now regarded as established that physical and mental traits are inherited with the same intensity and in the' same manner. Most of the physical traits thus far studied have been abnormalities and are therefore not of great significance to race betterment; but the study of longevity and disease resistance points the way to important progress in eugenics. The study of mental traits has also dealt largely with abnormal or pathological conditions — feeble-mindedness, insanity, epilepsy, and the like. At present students are showing a tendency to take up the study of positive characters that are of more significance to the progress of the race. In many cases an attempt has been made to show exactly how a given trait is inherited. Probably a hundred traits have been classed, at one time or another, as "known," but this list is greatly exaggerated. If the evidence for them were critically sifted, the traits of the exact mode of inheritance of which there could be no doubt would be re- duced to a group not much larger than the following: Huntington's chorea, brachydactyly, and a white blaze in the hair (dominants); al- binism and various rare diseases or pathological conditions (recessives) . Some sexlinked characters are also definitely worked out, as one kind of color-blindness, one kind of night-blindness, haemophilia, and a few defects of the eye. 316 proceedings: anthropological society Concerning the heredity of many other traits, such as feeble-minded- ness, we have enough knowledge to be of great social value. Most of our knowledge of the general principles of heredity will have to be learned through experimentation with plants and lower animals. Work with them has resulted in the elaboration of the "factorial hypothesis" of heredity, which is accepted by most advanced workers today; it assumes that every transmission of traits is due to the transmission of hypothetical "factors" in the germ-plasm and that each one of these factors influences an indefinitely large number of factors. These hy- pothetical factors are perhaps to be looked on as chemical reactions, one of which gives rise to another and so on in an unbroken chain dur- ing the development and differentiation of the embryo. The present knowledge of heredity in man is sufficiently ample to form the basis for much sociological action — to guide a program of national eugenics; but it will be a long time before we can confidently give very much advice as to individual marriage matings. Several speakers in discussing the paper maintained that environ- ment is of more weight than heredity, notwithstanding the geneticists' claim to the contrary. Dr. Folkmar suggested that the evolution of man would be more rapid in the distant future than in the past, be- cause it will be the result, in part, of artificial and not, as in the past, merely of natural selection. In the future, "evolution per saltum" will be possible, although it cannot explain the appearance of the Java man or the Neanderthal, or any other race that has evolved in the past. Following the suggestion that alcoholic drinks hasten the survival of the fit by killing off the unfit, and that Indians are killed off faster than the whites by the use of alcoholic liquors because their race has not been weeded out through centuries of drinking, Dr. Anderson and others stated that many American tribes did have alcoholic drinks be- fore the Discovery. Mescal was found in the Southwest, and the chi- cha, made from corn or bananas, still farther south. Dr. Michelson said, however, that alcoholic beverages were known but slightly north of Mexico prior to the Discovery. Daniel Folkmar, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI JUNE 4, 1916 No. 11 PHYSICS. — The relation between color temperature, apparent tem- perature, true temperature, and monochromatic emissivity of radiating materials. Paul D. Foote, Bureau of Standards. In an earlier note1 the relation between color temperature and true temperature was discussed. The present paper interrelates the color temperature, apparent temperature, true temperature, and monochromatic emissivity coefficient of a radiating mate- rial. A new method of determining the temperature coefficient of monochromatic emissivity is also considered. Most metals are supposed to have practically zero tempera- ture coefficient of monochromatic emissivity in the visible spec- trum, a region of resonance where the well known Maxwell rela- tions for emission coefficient do not apply. This supposition is not thoroughly warranted by experimental data, since the accu- racy of many of the data is not sufficient to detect a 10 per cent change in emissivity over a temperature range of several hundred degrees. For some metals, moreoever, a small tempera- ture coefficient of monochromatic emissivity has been observed. The following empirical equation may represent the emissivity for wave lengths in the visible spectrum and a moderate tem- perature range where A', c», p and q are constants, A the emis- sivity coefficient, T the absolute true temperature, and X the wave length in microns. 1 Foote and Fairchild, J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 193-197. 1916. In this paper the following corrections were overlooked in the manuscript. Eq. (3), change + — to — — , page 195, Eq (5) and lines 10 and 14, change +p to —p. A A 317 318 foote: temperature and emissivity C2J> q_ (1) A=A'e*eT By proper choice of A', p, and q, the above equation can be adjusted to fit almost any curve of emissivity which is likely to be found experimentally. A type of dispersion of emissivity which it can not represent is that in which the emissivity pos- sesses a very decided maximum in the middle of the visible spectrum. There is no experimental evidence of such a form of emissivity as a function of the wave length for metals, possibly excepting gold and copper. Over the small range of wave lengths comprised by the visible spectrum the emissivity of most metals is, within experimental observations, either increasing or de- creasing linearly or exponentially with the wave length. All such variations are accounted for by adjusting the constant p. If the emissivity is constant with wave length, as in the case. of a gray body, p = 0. Similarly, all probable variations in the emissivity with temperature over a reasonable temperature range are accounted for by adjusting the constant q. The only serious restriction to equation (1) is that it assumes all wave lengths of the visible spectrum have the same temperature coefficient of emissivity. This assumption is probably practically correct — there is no satisfactory experimental evidence bearing directly upon this point. If a material having an emissivity coefficient given by equation (1) is compared spectrophotometrically with a black body at various temperatures, and the logarithmic isochromatics are plotted for various wave lengths (viz., logarithm of the ratio, ait a definite wave length, of the intensity of radiation of the non-black body at true absolute temperature T to that of a black body at absolute temperature 6, versus 1/0) these isochro- matics will show the following form. (Natural logarithms throughout.) (2) l0ig_(^+i).?g_(i.p)} where foote: temperature and emissivity 319 <*• «/i = Ci X-5 e~ a7 for black body Ji = Ci A X-5 e~ >^ for non-black body Equation (2) represents a family of straight lines of variable parameter — intersecting at log A' + — and — — p. At A J- J- the point of intersection the ratio of the intensity of the non- black body to the intensity of the black body is the same for every color. This by definition is a "color match" and the tem- perature of the black body when the condition of color match exists is the "color temperature"of the non-black body. Denote the color temperature by T', then (o) rp, = rp — P If S denotes the apparent temperature of the non-black material for a wave length X, equation (4) follows immediately from Wien's law, (A) 1 X log A _ 1 S c2 T and from equations (1), (3) and (4) ,5) 1 1 _ Xg/logA' 1\ (5) ST' e,\ q +V+r) which is a straight line of slope — ^r when ( -^ — — j is plotted against — ;. The apparent temperature S and the color tem- perature T', easily measured quantities, may therefore be used to determine the constant q, and thus give the temperature coefficient of monochromatic emissivity. Color temperature of carbon. From the work of Elisabeth Benedict2 and also from some unpublished work of the writer it appears that the logarithmic isochromatics for a carbon lamp 2 Ann. d. Physik, 47: 641. 1915. 320 foote: temperature and emissivity intersect at a point for any temperature of the lamp. That is, a perfect color match against a black body is possible at all temperatures. Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe3 have published a table of color temperature versus apparent temperature (X = 0.665m) for an untreated carbon filament lamp. If (- — —J is plotted against —, using their observations, the relation is found to be linear within observational errors, in accordance with equation (5). From the slope of the line, q is found to be +462. Putting this value of q in equation (1) the monochromatic emissivity is seen to decrease with increasing temperature as follows. TABLE I TEMPERATURE ABSOLUTE 1500 2000 2400 RELATIVE MONOCHROMATIC EMISSIVITY 1.00 0.92 0.89 Mendenhall and Forsythe4 experimentally found the emissivity at 1300 and 2300° absolute to be 0.86 and 0.79 respectively. This is in qualitative agreement with the above table. Color temperature of tungsten. A more interesting verification of the correctness of the above equations is obtained by a con- sideration of Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe's5 data on tungsten. In this paper a table is given of the observed color temperatures, true temperatures, and apparent temperatures (X = 0.665/t) for a tungsten lamp. From the values of the apparent temperature and true temperature the emissivity for X = 0.665/* may be computed according to equation (4). Taking the value of 322 c2 = 14350 it was found that eT represents the tempera- cure coefficient exactly. The coefficient p of equation (1) was found to be +0.0000104 and the general equation for emissivity of tungsten is as follows. 3 J. Frank. Inst. 181: 420. 1916. 4 Astrophys. J. 37: 389. 1913. 5 Loc. cit. p. 419. Also Worthing, idem, p. 417. FOOTE : TEMPERATURE AND EMISSIV1TY 321 (6) 0.1492 322 A = 0.304 e x e? Where X = wave length in microns and T = true absolute temperature. The relation between the color temperature and true temperature follows from equation (3) viz. 1/T' = 1/T — 0.0000104. The agreement between the computed and observed values illustrated in the following table is surprisingly good, and proves at once that the above theoretical relations have a sound physical significance. TABLE II OBSERVED VALUES COMPUTED VALUES S0.665/i T t' A0.665m 322 A oc e T t' obs comp 1627 1753 1840 1909 1967 2017 2062 2102 2113 2140 2174 1729 1875 1976 2056 2125 2184 2238 2286 2299 2332 2373 1763 1917 2025 2109 2179 2237 2290 2338 2350 2383 2425 0.458 0.448 0.446 0.448 0.442 0.441 0.439 0.438 0.438 0.436 0.435 0.458 0.451 0.447 0.445 0.442 0.440 0.439 0.438 0.437 0.436 0.435 1761 1912 2017 2101 2173 2235 2291 2342 2355 2390 2433 +2 +5 +8 +8 +6 +2 -1 -4 -5 -7 -8 Average d ieviation ±0.0008 ±5° As seen from columns 6 and 7, the color temperature, computed by equation (3) where p = 0.0000104, agrees far within experi- mental errors with the observed color temperature, the difference between the computed and observed values showing an average deviation of only 5°. Using equation (6) one can predict what the emissivity at any wave length will be. Table III gives the emissivity of tungsten for several wave lengths. Whether equation (6), obtained indi- rectly from the color temperatures, can be used as far out as X = 0A/x is of course questionable. It is not likely however that the values are in great error. 322 foote: temperature and emissivity TABLE III T EMISSIVITY (Cn = H350) 0.7 m 0.665/1 0.6 m 0.5 n 0 4 ii 1700 0.455 0.460 0.471 0.50 0.53 1800 0.450 0.455 0.466 0.49 0.53 1900 0.446 0.451 0.462 0.49 0.52 2000 0.442 0.447 0.458 0.48 0.52 2100 0.439 0.444 0.454 0.48 0.51 2200 0.436 0.440 0.451 0.47 0.51 2300 0.433 0.438 0.448 0.47 0.51 2400 0.431 0.435 0.446 0.47 0.50 Color temperature of platinum. Koenigsberger has determined* the emissivity for various wave lengths in the visible spectrum for platinum at room temperature. If the logarithm of the emissivity is plotted against 1/X the slope of the straight line is Cop, whence p of equation (1) is directly determined. This com- putation gives p = 0.0000287. Waidner and Burgess7 deter- mined the emissivity of platinum at its melting point (assuming melting point = 1 755 °C.) for three different wave lengths. Their values give p = 0.0000185. It is quite possible that this latter value of p is too low because of the difficulty in obtaining accu- rate measurements of emissivity at high temperatures. If both values of p are correct platinum must have a temperature coeffi- cient of emissivity and the temperature coefficient must be a function of the wave length. The following table shows the relation between the color temperature and the true temperature of platinum, based on both values of p. TABLE IV p = 0.0000287 p = 0.0000185 T T' T'-T T' T'-T 1000 1500 2000 . 1030 1567 2122 30 67 122 1019 1543 2077 19 . , 43 77 •Ann. d. Physik, 43: 1205-22. 7 Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 11, p. 244. 1905. foote: luminosity and temperature of metals 323 The interesting point is that the color temperature of plati- num at the melting point must be 80° and possibly 120° higher than the true temperature. This is at variance with the con- clusions drawn by Paterson and Dudding,8 who claim that plati- num is practically gray thus requiring that p = 0 and T = T' . Conclusion. The various relations between color temperature, apparent temperature, and true temperature are pointed out for the first time. These relations are checked by observations of Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe on tungsten and are found to agree excellently with experiment. Color temperatures open a new field in the subject of optical pyrometry which is certain to prove highly interesting. Color temperature may be measured by the spectrophotometer using the method of logarithmic isochro- matics, or by an ordinary photometer if the observer is skilled in color matching. A still better means perhaps of studying the color temperatures of various materials is by use of a suit- able form of colorimeter. Measurement of the dominant hue of a black body and of metals at various temperatures is a field of investigation as yet untouched. PHYSICS. — Luminosity and temperature of metals. Paul D. Foote, Bureau of Standards. , Recently Mr. Fairchild and the writer published a paper on the relation between the luminosity and temperature of a black body.1 In the present note this work is extended to apply to the case of radiation from metals, and from oxides for which the emissivity coefficient can be represented by equation (4) below. Luminosity of a black body is defined as the integral from 0 to °° in respect to d\ of the product of visibility (V) and energy (J) of the radiating source thus: (1) L = J*o" VJdx Cz where V = f (X) and J = i\ X 5 e *d = Wien's law 8 Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 27: 253. 1915. 1 Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 270. 1916. 324 foote: luminosity and temperature of metals The integral of equation (1) obtained graphically using the data of Ives, Nutting, and Hyde and Forsythe for visibility was found to have the following form. where, for c2 = 14450 B = - 105.92 C = + 265.46 D = + 72.166 The luminosity of a non-black body, such as a metal, is defined by equation (3) where A is the emissivity coefficient of the non- black material. (3) U = j™ AVJdX The writer has shown2 that for most metals the emissivity co- efficient can be accurately represented by equation (4) where A', p, and q, are constants, X the wave length in microns, d the true absolute temperature. (4) A = A'ex ee If equation (4) is substituted in (3) one obtains the following: (5) L' = A'e9 f CiX_5e~x^/^F(x) d\ (6) Let J> = -d-p (7) then L' = A' tf \ c, X~5 e~ xT' V (X) d X The integral in equation (7) is identical with that of (1) hence from (2): 2 This Journal, 6: 317-323. 1910. FOOTE I LUMINOSITY AND TEMPERATURE OF METALS 325 which represents the luminosity of a non-black body at tem- perature 0 where 6r is given by equation (6) . It is well known that 6' is the color temperature3 of the non-black body. Application of equation (8) to the determination of the melting point of tungsten. Langmuir4 found the luminosity of tungsten to be 6994 candles per square centimeter at its melting point. Equation (8) may be used to determine the temperature corre- sponding to this value of the luminosity after the constants P, A' p, and q have been evaluated. The constant P is obtained by equation (2) from the work of Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe5 upon the brightness of a black body at various temperatures. The result of this computation is shown in the following table. TABLE I e candles/cm P X 10 ~ 7 1700 5.3 1.94 1800 11.3 1.84 1900 24.4 1.92 2000 45.0 1.84 2100 80.0 1.80 . 2200 146.0 1.91 2300 248.0 1.97 2400 382.0 1.93 2500 600.0 1.98 2600 880.0 1.97 Mean P = 1.91 ± 0.05 X 107 The constants p and q, on the basis of Hyde, Cady, and For- sythe's6 data for color temperature, true temperature and appar- ent temperature of tungsten were found7 to have the values p = +0.0000104 and q = + 322. On the basis of c2 = 14450 and these data A' = 0.303. From equation (6) 6' is found, whence from equation (8) I/, the luminosity for various values 3 Foote and Fairchild, J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 195. 1916. Foote, this Journal, 6: 317-323. 1916. 4 Phys. Rev. 6: 141. 1915. 5 J. Frank. Inst. 181: 421. 1916. s J. Frank. Inst. 181: 419. 1916. Also Worthing, idem, p. 417. 7 Foote, this Journal, 6: 317-323. 1916. 326 WRIGHT! CRYSTALS AND CRYSTAL FORCES of the true temperature 6 may be computed. From a curve of U versus 6 the temperature corresponding to a luminosity of 6994 candles per square centimeter is found to be 3712° absolute. If one uses Langmuir's values of the emissivity, the constants A', p, and q have the values: A' = 0.388, p = + 0.0000079, and q = 0. This gives a temperature of 3660° absolute for the melting point of tungsten. Summary. An equation has been derived giving the relation between luminosity and temperature, of a non-black body, more especially a metal. This has been applied for the computation of the melting point of tungsten from Langmuir's determinations of the luminosity of tungsten at its melting point. The value of 3712° absolute is obtained on the basis of Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe's and Worthing's measurements on the color tem- perature, true temperature, and apparent temperature of tungs- ten. If Langmuir's values for the emissivity are used, the melt- ing point is found to be 3660° absolute. Both of these values are computed on the basis of c2 = 14450 and upon Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe's values of the luminosity of a black body at various temperatures. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— Crystals and crystal forces.1 F. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. The object of this paper is to state a problem, namely, that of the measurement of crystal forces, and to discuss briefly some of the more important phenomena which result from the action of these forces and which may possibly be of value in the solution of the general problem. A crystal is a body whose component atoms are arranged in definite space lattices; this arrangement is probably the result of the vectorial action of interatomic forces and, as a rule, finds outward expression in the development of flat crystal faces. In this definition no reference is made to the state of cohesion of the body, whether solid or liquid ; nor to its homogeneity. Ordi- narily these attributes are essential and are included in the definition; but the discovery of liquid crystals by Lehmann has 1 Read before the Geological Society of America on December 29, 1915. weight: crystals and crystal forces 327 rendered rigidity in a crystal a less fundamental characteristic than it was formerly supposed to be; while the common occur- rence of zonal growth in natural mix-crystals has taken away some of the emphasis which used to be placed on chemical and physical homogeneity. In general, crystals are rigid and show a high degree of homogeneity and are bounded by flat faces; but the fact that these characteristics are lacking in certain indivi- vidual units has an important bearing on the theory of crystal growth and crystal forces. In crystals there is a regular periodic arrangement in space of the component atoms. All theories of crystal structure are based on this postulate which in recent years has been con- firmed by the brilliant investigations, especially, of Professor W. H. Bragg and his son, W. L. Bragg, on the phenomena of diffraction and reflection of characteristic X-rays from oriented crystal plates. From this it may be inferred that the orderly arrangement of the atoms in interpenetrating space lattices is the result of the action of interatomic forces which are spa- cially vectorial in character. Little is known, however, of the order of magnitude of these forces and of the law of their varia- tion with distance. The problem of measuring these forces and of ascertaining the laws describing their behavior may be treated from different viewpoints. Development of crystal forms. The development of crystal forms as it has been stated by Victor Goldschmidt2 in his law of complication is a remarkable expression of the action of crystal forces; this law may, in a given crystal substance, enable us to ascertain the directions of the primary poles of attraction in the crystal structure. Crystal growth. Studies on the rate and character of crystal growth have added much to our knowledge of the individuality of a particular crystal group and also of the mechanism of crystal growth. The importance of diffusion and adsorption in crystal growth is now clearly recognized; Marc3 and others have shown 2 Uber Entwickelung der Kristallformen. Zeitschrift fur Kristallographire, 28: 1. 1897. 3 Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, 67: 470. 1909; 67: 640. 1909; 68: 104. 1909; 73: 685. 1910; 75: 710. 1911; 79: 71. 1912; 81: 641. 1912. 328 WRIGHT! CRYSTALS AND CRYSTAL FORCES that the presence, in the solution, of minute quantities of cer- tain colloids or semicolloids may influence profoundly the rate and character of crystal growth, these colloids probably enter- ing into the surficial adsorbed layer and changing greatly the rate at which the molecules diffuse through the adsorbed film to the growing crystal. Gibbs concluded from thermodynamical rela- tions that, because of the vectorial character of crystals, the surface tension on different crystal faces is different and that, therefore, a difference in the solubility of these faces must exist ; Curie inferred that in a growing crystal the tendency exists, by virtue of surface tensional forces, to develop in such form that the total surface energy is a minimum. Ritzel and Marc4 con- cluded further that because of the differences in solubility of the different faces the tendency also exists for the less soluble forms to develop at the expense of the more soluble and that, therefore, the final crystal form represents the equilibrium adjustment between these two tendencies, namely, toward total minimum surface energy and toward faces of minimum solubility. The same relations should, of course, obtain for vapor pressures over different faces, since vapor pressure may be looked upon as solubility in a vacuum. Experimentally these relations are very difficult to test satisfactorily, partly because of the formation of etch figures. It is probable that accurate vapor pressure meas- urements will furnish results least open to criticism. Field of atomic forces. The distances through which atomic and molecular forces act effectively have been shown by differ- ent methods to be of the order of magnitude of 5 mm- Lehmann observed that small acicular liquid crystals of ammonium oleate on precipitation from solution exert, if sufficiently close to- gether, a mutual orienting influence; and that, finally, after having attained strict parallelism, they coalesce. Certain liquid crys- tals are susceptible, moreover, to the orienting influences of a magnetic field. The analogy between a magnetic field and the field of the atoms and molecules in a crystal is more significant than may appear at first sight. In modern theories on the 4 Zcitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, 76: 584. 1911. weight: crystals and crystal forces 329 constitution of matter the atom is considered to consist of an electrically positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons. The fields surrounding the atoms in a crystal may be electro- magnetic in nature. Influence of a crystal system of forces on other systems of forces, especially light waves. Crystals exert a profound influence on transmitted light waves. The effects which are thereby pro- duced constitute the subject matter of crystal optics, in which light waves are commonly treated from the viewpoint of the electromagnetic theory. It is known that with change in pres- sure or in temperature the distances between the component atoms of a crystal are changed slightly and that these slight changes induce corresponding changes in the optical constants of the crystal. Under these conditions we are dealing with two distinct systems of forces, the crystal system and the light wave system; by measuring quantitatively the differential shifts which these slight changes in the crystal system of forces produce in the light wave system of forces we obtain a relation between the differential changes in the two systems of forces; in short, a differ- ential equation which, if we can integrate it and determine the constants in terms of absolute elastic units, will enable us to determine the form of the force-function of the crystal system and thus to obtain a measure of atomic forces. This problem is now under attack at the Geophysical Laboratory. Apparatus has either been built or is under construction for measuring accu- rately the changes in the crystallographical and optical con- stants of crystals for temperatures ranging from —190° to + 1600°C. and for hydrostatic pressures ranging from 1 to 2000 atmospheres. The fact that in a crystal each of the component atoms is restricted largely to minute translational oscillations about a point, in other words is limited in its degrees of freedom, is exceedingly important from a thermodynamical standpoint. Thermodynamics is a general system of statistical mechanics applied to the energy relations involved in heat and work; because of its generality thermodynamics is applicable to a great variety of problems, but the mode of its application requires nice dis- 330 weight: crystals and crystal forces crimination in problems which are essentially vectorial in char- acter, as are problems involving differences in directional crystal forces. A large number of the minerals which occur in nature are of the monotropic type and many of the reactions are exam- ples of thermodynamically false equilibria and yet these may exist for geologic ages without change. In applying thermo- dynamical reasoning to problems of equilibria between crystals, it is essential that the individuality of the crystals be considered, especially as this introduces factors which may be superior in magnitude to the thermodynamical tendencies toward equi- librium, i.e. a configuration for which at the given temperature the total energy content is a minimum. Thus, to speak of the lack of crystallization in a volcanic obsidian because of an ex- ceedingly slow rate of reaction, does not describe the situation adequately, because in the volcanic glass the internal friction at ordinary temperatures is so high that it is superior to the crystal forces and completely inhibits effective action on their part; the viscosity serves as a brake and may bring the crystallizing tendencies to a stop. Similar conclusions apply to the general application of thermodynamical equations to problems involving the elastic properties of crystals, especially to the deformation of a crystal under load. In the treatment of problems of this nature which involve crystallization it is important to realizje that the influence of certain forces which are grouped under the term " individuality" of the crystal may exceed in importance the thermodynamical tendencies toward equilibrium. In crystal as in other systems thermodynamical relations are fundamental, but equally funda- mental are the vectorial and polar force-relations which hereto- fore have been little regarded because of the difficulty of defin- ing and of measuring them satisfactorily. Many of the prob- lems of crystal equilibria are of such a nature that in order to effect a complete solution neither thermodynamics alone is ade- quate, because of its inherent inability to treat vectorial and polar properties properly, nor is crystallography alone adequate, because it considers chiefly the single crystal. Progress can best be made by bringing to bear on the problem both thermody- WRIGHT! CRYSTALS AND CRYSTAL FORCES 331 namics and crystallography. The recognition and delineation of the fields of application of thermodynamics and of crystallog- raphy in problems of crystal equilibria is an essential step in the solution of such problems ; but before this can be done satis- factorily more quantitative data on interatomic crystal forces are required. The rock-making minerals. As a good example of the kind of problem in which crystal configurations of certain types per- sist over a great range of conditions of formation, the rock- making minerals may be cited. The most remarkable fact in petrology is the relatively few rock-making mineral species, especially in igneous rocks. These few minerals persist the world over and constitute the major part of the rocks of the earth's crust; and yet their number can be counted on the fingers of the two hands — thus quartz, the feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, nephelite, and calcite predominate; mag- netite, zircon, apatite are also common, but their total amount is small. This persistency of a few mineral species, notwith- standing great diversity in conditions of formation and in chemi- cal composition, is fundamental. In magma solutions such fac- tors as temperature, pressure, solubility relations, rates of reac- tion, change in composition by virtue of escape of volatile com- ponents, and crystal nucleation enter the problem; but it appears that, in spite of the great diversity possible in such complex chemi- cal systems, the crystal groupings of the chemical elements, which do result, are exceedingly few in number. These group- ings represent, of course, the resultant of all the forces involved; the problem is in part to ascertain the relative importance of these several factors. It may be inferred that possibly the domi- nating factor in the crystallization of a magma is the stability of certain crystal types or configurations and that these assert themselves notwithstanding tendencies toward other groupings which thermodynamically are more stable. Of crystallographic interatomic forces we know but little. The facts of observation are, however, too patent to be disregarded in any consideration of rock genesis, and are here cited as the kind of problem in which a better understanding of crystal forces and of crystals is 332 eakle: xanthophyllite in limestone essential to an adequate solution. The study of crystals from the viewpoint of crystal forces is an integral part of geophysical and geochemical research. MINERALOGY. — Xanthophyllite in crystalline limestone. Ar- thur S. Eakle, University of California, Berkeley, Cali- fornia. (Communicated by Edson S. Bastin.) The rare brittle mica xanthophyllite has not been reported from any localities other than those in the district of Slatoust in the Ural Mountains, where it, and its variety waluewite, were found. The xanthophyllite described and named by Gustav Rose1 was a wax-yellow mineral in scales and plates, occurring as a constituent of a talc-schist in the Shiskimskaya Mountains, in the Urals, and this yellow color was probably exceptional. Many years later the green variety was found, and named waluewite by Kohscharof.2 The waluewite occurred as a con- stituent of chlorite schist in the Nicolai-Maximilian Mine, near Slatoust. Small veins of calcite which occurred in the schist also contained flakes of the mineral, merely as inclusions, how- ever. The original yellow xanthophyllite and green waluewite were schist minerals; so it may be of value to note the occurrence of the green waluewite in another locality, and as a contact metamorphic mineral in crystalline limestone, in association with monticellite. The isolated hill of crystalline limestone and granodiorite situated at Crestmore, about eight miles west of Riverside, Cali- fornia, is one of the best studies in contact metamorphism that exists anywhere, and upwards of fifty mineral species, among them the recently described new mineral, wilkeite,3 have been found in the same quarry. The white marbleized limestone rests as a capping upon a base of granodiorite, and the general metamorphism of the original limestone beds has probably been 1 Pogg. Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. 50: 654. 1840. Also in his "Reise nach dem Ural," 2: 120, 514, 527. 1842. 2 Zeits. fur Kryst. 2: 51. 1877. Also in his Mineral d. Russ. 7: 346. 3 Eakle, A. S., and Rogers, A. F. Amer. Jour. Sci. 39: 262. 1914. eakle: xanthophyllite in limestone 333 due to intrusion of, and contact with, this igneous mass. Meta- morphism has been repeated, however, in portions of the rock mass by later injection of dikes and hot solutions, and in conse- quence parts of the hill have been mineralogically enriched by further development of lime-magnesia-silica minerals. The Crestmore waluewite was thickly disseminated in some of the sky-blue calcite of the Commercial quarry on the northeast side of the hill, as indicated by the specimens saved from destruction. It is said that tons of the sky-blue calcite containing the walue- wite were quarried and used for road-making, for sugar refining, and for cement, and in consequence, all of it has disappeared. The waluewite occurs mainly as isolated, hexagon-shaped, basal plates of a deep grass-green color. The sizes of the plates vary greatly, some measuring 3 to 4 cm. in diameter and 2 to 3 cm. thick. The average size of the crystals is about 5 mm. in breadth and 4 mm. in thickness. The plates are transparent with a brilliant and somewhat pearly luster, but the edges are dull, rounded and grooved, and the measured angles did not approximate any of the forms given by Kohscharof . The plates are very brittle with a hardness of 4-5. The thicker crystals show polysynthetic twinning like the micas, and under the micro- scope they extinguish in striated sectors and give a confused axial figure. The thinner crystals and cleavage plates give a good biaxial figure with an apparent optic angle of ahout 20? Measurements of the optic angle in sodium light showed a variation from 12° to 18? The optic axial plane is (100) and the mineral is optically negative. The refractive indices j3 and 7 which lie in the basal section are practically the same and were determined as 1.660. Several analyses of the xanthophyllite and waluewite from the Urals have been published and the analysis of the Crestmore mineral agrees with them. The associated monticellite is scattered through the calcite as small masses and grains. It appears to be more segregated along the cleavage planes of the calcite rhombohedrons, and is often in close association with the flakes of waluewite and occa- sionally includes the waluewite. One large specimen shows a 334 eakle: xanthophyllite in limestone wide band of massive monticellite, indicating that it was an abundant mineral. The color is pale brown and luster somewhat greasy. There are no crystal faces visible. The analysis gave: Si02, 36.02; FeO, 2.82; CaO, 34.36; MgO, 24.74; Ign., 1.25; total, 99.19. TABLE I Analyses of Waltjewite from Crestmore and Slatoust l 2 3 Si02 16.74 42.70 2.85 0.41 13.09 20.03 4.49 16.39 43.40 1.57 0.10 13.04 20.38 4.39 16.85 Ti02 tr. A1203 Fe203 FeO CaO MgO 42.33 2.35 0.20 13.30 20.77 Ie:n 4.60 100.31 99.27 100.40 1. Average composition of waluewite from Crestmore, California. Sp. gr. 3.081. 2. Analysis by Nikolajen of waluewite from Nikolai-Maximilian Mine, Dis- trict of Slatoust, Urals. Zeit. fiir Krys. 9: 579. (Abstract). 3. Analysis by Clarke and Schneider of waluewite from Nikolai-Maximilian Mine, District of Slatoust, Urals. Amer. Jour. Sci. 43: 379. 1892. The association of the two minerals is of particular interest, because waluewite may be viewed as having the composition of monticellite with the spinel and alumina hydrate molecules. In the discussion by Clarke and Schneider of the constitution of the members of the clintonite group it was suggested that walue- wite may have the monticellite molecule in addition to its spinel and olivine molecules, although no direct association of the two was then known. The two Crestmore minerals are products of hydrothermal metamorphism of the limestone, and the waluewite has crystal- lized in a lime carbonate solution in which the monticellite mole- cule was the predominating component of the silicate mixture swingle: new citrous genus, pamburus 335 and presumably governed the formation of the waluewite, the small excess of silica and all of the alumina entering into the waluewite which formed somewhat prior to the monticellite. Monticellite occurred in large masses, while the waluewite was quite subordinate in amount. The composition of waluewite suggests a mineral mixture of monticellite + olivine + spinal + diaspore in the respective approximate ratio of 6 : 1 : 5 : 6. The recrystallization of the limestone produced a pure blue calcite with coarse rhombohedral texture. Cleavage rhombo- hedrons several centimeters in diameter can be broken from the mass. The source of the magnesia, alumina and silica is somewhat problematical. The original limestone was not especially dolo- mitic or argillaceous as the main limestone capping averages about 2 per cent magnesia and about the same in insolubles. The blue calcite with its monticellite, waluewite, vesuvianite, diopside, wilkeite, etc., is very localized in its development, occurring in patches and bands or zones. It suggests an occur- rence near the contact with former dikes or apophyses of igneous rock, and it appears highly probable that the assimilation of the magnesian-felspathic constituents of these intrusions with the lime carbonate by the action of hot magmatic solutions had produced these localized occurrences of hydrometamorphic minerals. BOTANY. — Pamburus, a new genus related to Citrus, from India. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1833 Dr. Robert Wight described as a new species Limonia missionis, a small, spiny tree from the sandy coastal regions of southern India. In 1861 this species was referred to the genus Atalantia by Oliver, who notes, however, that it is " rather iso- lated in its general fades as well as by precise characters."1 Subsequent botanical writers have followed Oliver in referring this plant to Atalantia. 1 Oliver, D. Nat. order Aurantiaceae. Journ. Linn. Soc. 5 (suppl. 2) : 12. 1861. . 336 swingle: new citrous genus, pamburus In the course of a revision of the plants related to Citrus it has been possible for the writer to examine much material referred to the genus Atalantia and it has become evident that decidedly diverse plants have been put into this genus. The true Atalan- tias congeneric with the type species, A. monophylla (Roxb.) DC, have fruit resembling miniature oranges, with pulp vesicles somewhat like those of other citrous fruits. Atalantia missionis, on the contrary, has, as noted by Wight in the original descrip- tion, a small fruit with cells "containing a very glutinous muci- laginous fluid." Besides this very significant distinction, A. missionis differs from A. monophylla and its congeners in having the anthers linear-oblong instead of broadly ovoid, and in hav- ing a tall, narrow disk supporting the ovary, instead of a very short, thick one. The leaves differ widely from those of the true Atalantias in texture and venation, being thick, glabrous, with both faces nearly alike, and velvety gray-green when dry, showing only a very few obscure lateral veins and no reticulate veinlets. Because of these numerous points of difference, some of them of much taxonomic value in this group, it seems necessary to create a new genus, Pamburus,2 to include this remarkable species. Pamburus Swingle, gen. nov.3 Much-branched thorny shrubs or small trees; young branches angled, becoming rounded when older, with single stout sharp straight thorns at one side of the bud in the axils of the leaves. Leaves unifoliolate, 2 From the Singhalese name pamburu. 3 Pamburus Swingle, gen. nov., Paramignyae affinis, sed frutex vel arbuscula, foliis crassis, coriaceis, utrinque similibus, venis inconspicuis, petiolis brevibus, rectis, pulvinis carentibus, ovario disco magno innixo. Folia unifoliolata, petiolis brevibus apteris; laminae crassae, siccitate cinereo- virides, superficiebus superioribus et inferioribus similibus, venis secondares inconspicuis, tertiis carentibus; spinae singulae, rectae, axillares. Flores magni- tudine mediocres, odoratae; petala alba, obovata, caduca; stamina libera, filamentis tenuibus, subulatis; stylus tenuis; stigma subglobosum diametro stylo multo majus; ovarium 5-4-loculare, ovulis in loculo binis. Fructus subglo- bosus, cortice ut in Citro carnosa, loculis 1-2-spermis, liquoris glutinosi plenis. Semina subglobosa. Arbusculae vel frutices ramosi, spinosi, ramulis junioribus angulosis. Species typica, Pamburus missionis (Limonia missionis Wight). Habitat in India. swingle: new citrous genus, pamburus 337 thick; lateral veins inconspicuous, not visibly connected by reticulate veinlets; petioles short, more or less margined but not winged, not articulated with the lamina. Flowers small, 5- or 4-merous, borne in short racemes in the axils of the leaves on rather long pedicels. Calyx small, 4-5-lobed; sepals acute. Flower buds globose when young. Petals 5 or 4, white, obovate. Stamens free, 8-10 (twice as many as the petals); filaments free, slender, glabrous; anthers large, erect, linear-oblong. Pistil stipitate, seated on the prominent cylindric disk; style slender, short, ending in the much thicker subglobose stigma; ovary subglobose 5- or 4-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell. Fruits globose, like a small orange in appearance, with the cells usually con- taining a single seed surrounded by a glutinous mucilaginous fluid (lacking true pulp vesicles). Peel rather thick, firm, with numerous oil glands. Seeds subglobose. Germination unknown. Type species, P. missionis {Limonia missionis Wight), native to India. The genus Pamburus differs from Paramignyain having short petioles, lacking the pulvini characteristic of the latter genus, and in the very different character of the leaves which are nearly veinless and very similar on both faces. The spines of Pamburus are straight or nearly so, not recurved as in Paramignya. Pamburus is a tree or shrub, not a perennial woody liane like Paramignya. Pamburus differs widely from Merope in the character of the fruit and seeds, and from Lavanga in having unifoliolate leaves. Hesperethusa, Triphasia, and Severina differ widely in leaf and fruit characters. Pamburus belongs with the genera mentioned above in a group characterized by small soft-rinded fruits having the segments filled with a sticky fluid. The true citrous fruits differ from this group in having soft-rinded fruits, but the segments filled with pulp vesicles. The hard-shelled citrous fruits are again different and have large fruits with a hard, usually woody rind, though likewise cells filled with a sticky fluid. In the peculiar structure of its leaves Pamburus is unique in the tribe Citreae, though possibly showing some analogy with the xero- phytic Eremocitrus4 of Australia. Only one species of Pamburus is known:5 4 Swingle, Walter T. Eremocitrus, a new genus of hardy drouth-resistant citrous fruits from Australia. Journ. Agric. Research, 2: 86. 1914. b. Chilocalyx ellipticus Turcz., cited in Index Kewensis and Hook. Fl. Brit. Ind. (1: 513.) as a synonym of Atalantia missionis, is probably based on Atalantia monophylla. It certainly is not synonymous with the present species. 338 swingle: new citrous genus, pamburus Pamburus missionis (Wight) Swingle, comb. nov. Limonia(?) missionis Wall. Cat. No. 6358. 1832 (nomen nudum). Limonia missionis Wight in Hook. Bot. Misc. 3: 291, pi. 38. 1833. Atalantia missionis Oliv. Journ. Linn. Soc. 5 (suppl. 2): 25. 1861. A much-branched shrub or small tree, armed with stout straight spines, these 2-3 cm. long, arising singly (or rarely in pairs?) on the side of the bud in the axils of the leaves. Leaves oval, oblong-obovate or elliptical, 6-10 cm. long, 2-A cm. broad, very thick, coriaceous, glan- dular-punctate, the tip rounded, sometimes slightly emarginate, the base narrowed rather abruptly into the petiole, the margin entire, becoming gray and apparently crenate in drying; lateral veins incon- spicuous, tertiary ones not apparent, the two faces very similar in appearance, drying to velvety gray-green unlike those of any other member of the subfamily Citratae. Flowers 12-20 mm. in diameter, fragrant, with small pointed sepals and 5 or 4 white obovate caducous petals about 1 cm. long. Pistil about 1 cm. long. Fruit about 2.5 cm. in diameter, orange-colored when ripe, with a thick peel dotted with oil-glands, 5-4-celled, the cells containing 1 or 2 seeds surrounded by a sticky gum. Type locality: Tanjore District, Madras Presidency, Southern India. Distribution: Southern India and Ceylon, in low flat country near the coast. The writer has had opportunity to study authentic cotypes, collected by Dr. Wight, in the Kew Herbarium, as well as other material from India and Ceylon. POSSIBLE UTILIZATION OF PAMBURUS It is possible that Pamburus is closely enough related to the true citrous fruits to serve as a stock upon which they can be grafted. The peculiar leaves of this species, unlike those of any other member of the orange subfamily, make it probable that it will be found to possess climatic or soil requirements different from those of related genera. This species has not yet been introduced into the United States, but it is hoped that it may be secured soon. It is native to southern India and Ceylon and, according to Trimen,6 is rather common in the low country, chiefly in the dry region of Ceylon. « Trimen, H. Handbook Fl. Ceylon, 1: 228. 1893. COOK AND COOK: NAMES OF SWEET POTATOES 339 ETHNOBOTANY. — Polynesian names of sweet potatoes. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry, and Robert Carter Cook. The same word, cumara or kumara, serves as a name for the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) among the Quichua or Inca peo- ple of Peru and in the Polynesian islands. The fact was recog- nized over half a century ago when Seemann recorded the use of the word in Ecuador. In the Urubamba valley of southern Peru, on the eastern slope of the Andes below Cuzco, there are two native names for different classes of sweet potatoes, apichu for the sweet varieties and cumara for those that are merely starchy.1 That an important crop plant should have the same name among the Polynesians as in the interior of Peru might be taken as proof of a recent introduction, just as the Polynesian name pooka was taken at first to demonstrate that pigs were brought by Europeans. Later it was pointed out that the Polynesian pigs could not have come from Europe because they belonged to an Asiatic or Malayan species. The name poaka, in spite of its obvious likeness to the Spanish puerco or the English porker, is accepted by the best authorities as a genuine Polynesian word. To insist that kumara can not be a Polynesian word because it appears in the Quichua language of Peru would be like saying that puaka could not be Polynesian because the Greeks and Romans had porcus. If kumara, poaka, or other words for par- ticular animals or plants reappear in different languages, the fact needs to be recognized and taken into account in tracing the ori- gins of the domesticated species and their relation to the exten- sion of agriculture in prehistoric times. Thus far the word kumara seems not to have been challenged as a foreign element by any student of the Polynesian language. Certainly it does not appear un-Polynesian, in view of the fre- quent occurrence of the sounds and syllables of which it is com- posed. Among such words as kakara (odor), kapura (fire), ka- roro (sea-gull), korora (mussel), mamara (charcoal), marara (fly- 1 Cook, O. F. Quichua names of the sweet potato. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 86. 1916. 340 CCOK and cook: names of sweet potatoes ing-fish), tauama (outrigger canoe), and tamara (palm leaves), kumara seems fairly at home. It is also very widely distributed, with only slight modifications, conforming with the changes of consonant sounds in some of the dialects. The following varia- tions of the word are brought together by Tregear: kumaa (Marquesas), kumala (Tonga), uala (Hawaii), umala (Samoa), umara (Tahiti), uwala (Hawaii), with kumara recorded for New Zealand, Rarotonga, Easter Island, Mangareva, and Paumotu. Hooarra was recorded as the Hawaiian name of the sweet potato in 1778, by Captain Cook's expedition. Possible cognates or derivatives of kumara are numerous in the Maori language, including kumanu, to tend carefully; ku- more, cape or headland; kumete, dish, bowl, or trough; kume, to pull out; kumu, to draw back. Whakakumu is the name of one of the New Zealand varieties of sweet potato, and kumu also means fist, or portions of food squeezed out with the hand. The growing sweet potato crop was called maara in New Zealand, reminding of malla, the Quichua word for a young plant. Ka- mala is a word for thatch in Hawaii, where kumara vines were often used for this purpose. Kalau is another Hawaiian word which means either a thatch of leaves or vines of sweet potatoes, or to work inefficiently, the sweet potato materials being but poorly adapted to the purpose. Kalina is defined by Andrews as "old potato vines that have done bearing," or "a garden of po- tatoes where the old refuse potatoes only remain." Kalina and ilina, the latter meaning burial-place in Hawaii, are suggestive of the Quichua word illuni, meaning to dig for roots. Other Quichua words are cullquini, meaning "to dig with a stick," and culluna, a silo or subterranean storehouse. In New Zealand the words kapuka and kepura are both said to mean "a handful of potatoes." Two native New Zealand plants, Pomaderris elliptica and Quintonia serrata, are called kumarahou, but the relation to kumara is not indicated. Hau is a general name for Paritium tiliaceum, a shrub widely cultivated among the Polynesians for the sake of its fibrous bark. In Hawaii, where the name of the sweet potato is softened into uala, the same word is applied to the large muscles of the upper COOK AND COOK! NAMES OF SWEET POTATOES 341 arm, by an analogy easily understood. In Easter Island, where the full form of the word kumara is used, there is a word, komari, also applied to parts of the human body. Komala means pleas- ant in Hawaii. Dried sweet potatoes are called kao in New Zealand and ao in Hawaii, where the same is applied to dried taro or to Alocasia. Koiri, in New Zealand, means "to plant potatoes," and a variety of sweet potatoes is called koiwi. Other meanings of kao are rib, core, shoot, or terminal bud of a plant. The Hawaiians called the sea-bread or hardtack of the English ships ao when they first saw it. Kao suggests kaya, the Quichua name for dried ocas (Oxalis). Kauno, in Quichua, means withered or dried in the sun; kaunu, dried cane or corn stalks; potatoes after freezing, chuno or chunu; potatoes left behind in the field, koyo. Kaunu and chunu are obviously related, like the German kauen and the English chew. According to Martius the sweet potato is called coundi by two tribes of Indians in Brazil, while in Florida kunti is the native name of the edible cycad Zamia. In the Lucumayo valley of south- ern Peru the rootstocks of Xanthosoma, an aroid closely simi- lar to the taro of the Polynesians, are dried "to make chufws." In the vicinity of Ollantaytambo, Peru, a native medicinal plant with thickened roots, somewhat resembling the dried ocas, is called kayakaya. The Hawaiians had two words, haaweawee and pahulu for second-growth sweet potatoes, or those that spring up from roots left behind at the harvest, just as the Quichuas have koyo, acacha, cachu, and ihua (eewa) for potatoes left in the ground or growing in the old fields. In New Zealand gleanings of root crops are called wairan, but the word kaunga is applied to sweet potatoes that will not grow when planted. Another meaning of kaunga is "smelling unpleasantly," which would be a natural connection if the word related to stored potatoes that had begun to decay. In some of the Polynesian islands kao is not defined as relat- ing to dried sweet potatoes, but is used in the sense of "grabbling," taking a few of the roots from the hill without disturbing the plant. In explaining the connection Tregear states that the im- 342 COOK and cook: names of sweet potatoes mature roots are used to make kao, presumably because they dry better while the flesh is still starchy, before much sugar is formed. Related perhaps, to kao and kaunga, are kauahi, kauati, kau- hure, kaunaki, and kaunoti, which are Maori names relating to the sticks that are used for making fire by friction, the wood for this purpose being kept, of course, very dry. Kauati, in the Paumotu islands, means to make fire; auwaki are fire-sticks in Hawaii, and kahu is fire or to burn. In New Zealand again, kauhuri means "to dig; to turn over the soil." Hurt, in some of the islands, means to dig, but in others seed, suckers, or offshoots used for planting. The Quichua name for a green corn-stalk or sugar-cane is huiro. That kao and kahu may be related words is further suggested by the fact that one of the Hawaiian varieties is called kahe and one of the New Zealand varieties pokerekahu. The Maori name of the yam is uwhikaho. Although in the Maori language kahu is not reckoned as a name of fire, it is the name of the hawk, the god of fire, reckoned as a child of the fire-goddess Mahuika. Moreover, Kahukura was the name of the rainbow-god of the Maoris, and also the name of the man who, according to one tradition, brought the kumara to New Zealand, together with the taro, the bottle-gourd, and the yam. The traditions indi- cate that the dried sweet potatoes had great importance in former times among the Maoris, perhaps as affording their only supplies of food that could be kept over from one season to another. In addition to the drying of sweet potatoes to make kao, the leaves of the plant were eaten, as they are by the Quichuas in South America. The Hawaiian word palula is defined as the leaf of the sweet potato, and as a dish made by roasting sweet potato leaves on hot stones. The word resembles pahulu, de- fined as "potatoes of a second growth," and ponalo, "the dying or drying up of potato tops.'" The status of sweet potato varieties among the Polynesians affords the most definite evidence of long-standing possession and familiarity. While almost nothing in the way of detailed COOK AND COOK: NAMES OF SWEET POTATOES 343 information regarding the Polynesian varieties seems to have been placed on record, the facts that have been noted incidentally by writers on ethnology and language are sufficient to show that numerous varieties of sweet potatoes are recognized and distin- guished by native names, in the same way that large numbers of potato and other root crop varieties are named among the Quichuas in Peru, although very few of these names have been recorded in the published vocabularies of the Quichua language. Although domesticated plants afford significant data for the study of the contacts and relations of primitive peoples, plant names have seldom received much attention from philologists and ethnologists. From New Zealand, however, about 40 na- tive names of varieties of sweet potato have been published, from different districts, the largest list, containing 25 names, sup- posed to represent nearly as many different sorts.2 A similar diversity of varieties might be found in other islands, but from most of the groups no varietal names have been re- corded, while in others a few names have been noted incidentally, such as Manana, "the name of a kind of sweet potato," in Ha- waii. In the same group "very small potatoes with red veins" 2 Three lists of native varieties of sweet potato have appeared in the Journal of the Polynesian Society (2: 102, 3: 144, and 3: 237). Arranged in alphabetical order to facilitate comparison, the names are as follows: List 1. (Locality not given.) Kaihaka, Kaipo, Kanawa, Kaoto, Korehe, Kotepo, Maomao, Taurapunga, Toroamahoe, Tukau, Waina, Waniwani, Whaka- kumu. The variety called Waina is noted as having been introduced early in the nineteenth century. List 2. East Cape district: Anutipoki, Huiupoko, Kawakawa, Kerikaraka, Kokorangi, Koreherehe, Makakauere (Makakauri or Matakauri), Makutu, Mata- waiwai, Moii, Monehu, Xgakaukuri, Paea, Papahaoa, Para-karaka (same as Makutu), Paretaua, Patea, Pokere-kahu, Puatahoe (said to produce flowers), Punuiarata, Tanehurangi, Taratamata, Taurapunga, Toroamahoe, Waiha (or Waniwani) (same as Huiupoko), Wini. All of these varieties are said to have been cultivated in New Zealand before the arrival of Europeans. List 3. West Coast of the North Island: Anurangi, Aorangi, Arikaka, Kahu- toto, Kopuanganga, Kotipu, Monenehu, Pehu, Pokere-kahu, Rangiora, Taputini, Toroamahoe. Other New Zealand varieties mentioned by Tregear are Koiwi, Ruamataki, and Torowhenua, the last name said to be used also in the Marquesas group, where Maori is also the name of a sweet potato variety. 344 COOK and cook: names of sweet potatoes and " water-soaked potatoes" are called kokokooha, koko being the name of the fibers of the leaf-bases of the coconut palm, or a net of braided strings to hold a calabash. One of the Hawai- ian varieties is called Apo, while apoapo means a hill of sweet potatoes, reappearing in New Zealand as apuapu. Other Hawai- ian names for varieties of sweet potatoes mentioned in Andrews' Dictionary are Kahe, Kipawale, and Koloaha. The variety called Kihi is said to be "the ancient potato of Hawaii." Some writers have thought that the sweet potato must be a recent acquisition among the Polynesians, because of the many myths and traditions relating to its introduction. But such evi- dence appears to have a different signification when we consider how much the Polynesians were given to family pride and genealogies. To say that one's forefathers came in the canoe that brought the kumara certainly did not mean that the family was recent, but was the Maori way of claiming a Mayflower ancestry. White has given us a detailed account showing how acutely the subject was debated by the Maoris, and the inten- sity of feeling is reflected in the care taken by that author to report the controversy in such a way as to avoid the appearance of taking sides and thus offending some of his native neighbors. If weight is to be given to traditions of the introduction of sweet potatoes, account must also be taken of the myths and cosmographies that represent the sweet potato as one of the primeval possessions of the human race, the first plant to be recognized among the heavenly gifts. Thus the Maori pan- theon began with Void (Kore) and Darkness (Po) as the parents of Heaven (Rangi) and Earth (Papa). In the third generation of deities came Tane, god of trees, forests, and birds; Tango- tango, god of day and night; and Wai-nui, the goddess of water. Tane figures as the grandfather of sweet potatoes and the bottle- gourd, the former by his oldest child, the latter by his youngest. The passage treating of the sweet potato is as follows: Tane took to wife Hine-rau-a-moa and begat Rongo-ma-Tane, who was the parent, origin, or personification of the kumara (sweet potatoe) and of cultivation and the arts of peace; and Hine-te-iwaiwa, the guardian of motherhood; and Tangaroa, the Polynesian Neptune, who COOK AND COOK: NAMES OF SWEET POTATOES 345 stands in the same relation to the ocean and the fish thereof as does Tane to forests and birds.3 In this, as in many other myths and traditions of the Maoris, the sweet potato has precedence over all other crops and plants, and it may be significant that the bottle-gourd, another plant that the Polynesians shared with the natives of South America, is in this case the second in order of consideration, before the taro or other plants cultivated by the Maoris. Tregear has made a careful study of the ancient religious myths of the Polynesians and finds many that are closely paral- lel to those of the Mediterranean countries. He compares the god Maui of New Zealand with the Egyptian Osiris, and his wife Hina or Pani with Isis, Ceres, Diana, and other goddesses of agriculture and fecundity among the Asiatic and Mediterranean peoples. Maui is associated with the sun and Hina with the moon. Kura-a-Maui is recorded as a poetic name of the sweet potato among the New Zealanders, kura meaning red or royal, or a wreath of red flowers, as worn by the ancient heroes, ac- cording to the traditions. There was also a sacred or priestly name of the sweet potato, kurawhiti. Maui was invoked in planting kumaras, but the formal incantation was addressed to 3 Best, E. Notes on Maori mythology. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 8: 95. The kumara figures in many of the myths of this collection, including several that have to do with the sun and stars, as in the following passages: "The sun has two wives. One wife lives in the south; her work is the culti- vation of food, and her name is Aroaro-a-manu or Raumati (Warmth or Summer). The other wife is Hine-takurua (Winter) ; she dwells on the ocean, and her task is the taking of fish. In the winter the Sun goes to the ocean and dwells with Hine-takurua. In the month O-toru [of the Maori year] the sun returns to land to his wife Raumati, who cultivates the kumara. It is then summer." "Hoko-kumara is a name for Matariki (Pleiades). When Matariki rises in the east the kumara is sown." "When Whanui [the star Vega] is seen flashing above the eastern horizon as autumn approaches, then the cry resounds : 'Ko Whanui E-El Ko Wahnui!' For that is the sign for taking up the kumara crop. If the kumara [sweet potato] be not dug then, the crop will be spoilt and will not keep. Such kumara as are left in the ground become houhunga, good to eat but will not keep. Potatoes are dug in the month Pou-tu-te-rangi. If left too late they will be spoilt, in which state they are termed tauhere or puakiweu." 346 COOK and cook: names of sweet potatoes Pani. Large sweet potatoes of a special form were sacred to Pani and were not eaten. They were called "Pani's canoe" and the finding of them was considered a special omen from the goddess, presaging fertility. Boats were among the symbols of Isis, and one of her names was Pania.4 In New Zealand, elaborate ceremonies were performed when the kumara crop was planted, the seed tubers being selected with the greatest care by a priest, as was also the place in which they were planted. Over each tuber a special incantation was chanted and it was placed in the ground with the head slightly raised and pointed toward the east. One of the legends dealing with the introduction of the kumara tells how those who went to get them traveled toward the rising sun, and how their canoe was kept by enchantment for many days in the same place in the ocean, meaning, perhaps, that no land was sighted for many days. Several times during the growth of the kumara crop religious rites were observed, and when the roots were harvested still an- other series of ceremonies was enacted, the first fruits of the crop being given to the gods of kumara.5 The extent to which the religious precautions were carried is indicated by Tregear's definition of the word whakamahunga: "The ceremony of mak- ing sacred those who planted or dug up the kumara. After the first-fruits had been offered to Pani, the cultivators became com- mon (noa), or no longer under restriction." To judge from the facts noted in this brief review of the sub- ject, the word kumara must still be accepted as the Polynesian name of the sweet potato, notwithstanding that the same word is applied to the same crop among the Quichuas of the eastern valleys of the Andes, below Cuzco. In view of the general dis- tribution of the plant and its name among the Polynesians, the use of the leaves and the dried roots, and their special names, the development and naming of numerous varieties, and finally the many myths and traditions connected with the sweet potato, 4 Teegear, E. Asiatic gods in the Pacific. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 2: 145. 1893. 5 White. Ancient History of the Maori, vol. 3, preface. DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 347 it does not seem reasonable to believe that the introduction of the plant occurred within the period of exploration of the Pacific by Europeans. Nothing need be said of the reports of the early explorers who found sweet potatoes already in the islands. If the sweet potato had come to the Polynesians in recent times from an outside source it is practically inconceivable that the same name should have been distributed and adopted in so many islands. In this respect there is a notable contrast with the many distinct names for sweet potatoes among the native tribes of the American continent. The many traditions or myths regarding the kumara in the Pacific may mean nothing to which any definite significance can be attached, but at least they show how deeply the kumara was embedded in the existence of the islanders. The sweet potato, like the coconut palm, had rela- tively greater importance among the Polynesians than in other parts of the world. PHYSIOLOGY. — The basal energy requirement of man.1 Eugene F. Du Bois, M.D. It is not too much to say that the science of nutrition is founded on the study of the basal energy requirement. Therefore it seems advisable to spend our time today on this aspect of the subject as an introduction to the subsequent lectures of the series. First we shall consider the definition of the term, basal energy requirement, next the manner in which it is studied, and finally the factors by which it is influenced in health and disease. The energy requirement of a man is represented by the number of food calories, or heat units, required to balance the calories of his heat production. The two are equal, because food oxidized in the body gives off just as much heat as food burned outside the body. The basal requirenent is the minimal requirement or lowest heat production, and this condition is found only when an individual is lying down, at complete rest in the morning, 1 A lecture delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences, April 7, 1916. From the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology, in affiliation with the Sec- ond Medical Division of Bellevue Hospital, New York. 348 du bois: basal energy requirement of man fourteen hours or more after his last meal. There are many synonyms for the ierai basal energy requirement, and it has seemed advisable to group them in a list so as to straighten out misunderstandings. Synonyms of Basal Energy Requirement Basal metabolism "Niichtern" metabolism Basal caloric requirement Post-absorptive metabolism Basal caloric production Total energy exchange Basal heat production Total gaseous exchange Minimal metabolism Total respiratory exchange Total metabolism Of all of these synonyms the term basal metabolism is perhaps the best and most scientific. Metabolism includes the absorp- tion of foods, their oxidations and transformations into body constituents, and also the later oxidations of these tissues. Such are the energy exchanges of the body, taking place with the con- sumption of oxygen and the formation of carbon dioxid, these gases being carried to and from the blood by means of the respi- ratory apparatus. On looking over this formidable list of synonyms one gets the impression that scientists have spent much time in coining phrases and have tried to make two words grow where one grew before. Still we can have the recompense of knowing that when we have understood the term basal metabolism we have mastered a con- siderable portion of the dictionary. Lavoisier was the first to make experiments on the respiratory metabolism and to grasp their significance. A long time afterwards Pettenkofer and Voit constructed the famous respiration cham- ber in Munich that gave Voit the data on which he founded our modern science of nutrition. His pupil Rubner with his own hands constructed a respiration chamber which was at the same time a calorimeter. By means of this Rubner was able to prove that foods are oxidized in the animal body in very much the same way that they are oxidized in the bomb calorimeter or the Liebig combustion furnace. The process is slower but just as complete, except for the urea portion of the protein molecule. No heat DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 349 is lost, for the law of the conservation of energy applies to the animal organism. Meanwhile Zuntz and his pupils were making very important contributions to the science, using an apparatus which collected the expired air during periods ten to twenty minutes long. They were the first to grasp the importance of the modern standard conditions used in determining the basal metabolism. Their subjects were studied in the morning before breakfast, lying re- laxed on a couch. Magnus-Levy examined a large number of pa- tients in this manner and made great advances in our knowledge of the metabolism in disease. Zuntz, Loewy, and Durig used a portable apparatus in the study of the physiology of walking and other forms of muscular exercise. America's greatest contribution to the science of nutrition was the Atwater-Rosa calorimeter, devised in Middletown, Con- necticut. This was a small chamber about the size of a ship's state-room, equipped with a folding bed, a chair, a table, and a stationary bicycle. In it a man could live for a week or two, comfortably, but perhaps monotonously. His heat production was measured in two different ways. First, by the method of direct calorimetry, which determined by physical methods the heat of vaporization and of radiation and conduction; second, by analysis of the oxygen consumption and carbon dioxid pro- duction the grams of protein, fat, and carbohydrate oxidized each hour, this being the method of indirect calorimetry. Results obtained by these entirely different methods agreed perfectly. Atwater and his associates, Rosa and Benedict, established the fact that the law of the conservaton of energy applied to man. They also made important contributions to our knowledge of the utilization of foods, and of the dietary requirements under vari- ous circumstances. After the retirement of Atwater two groups of his assistants carried on his work. Langworthy and Milner moved with the famous calorimeter to the Department of Agri- culture in Washington. Benedict and Carpenter built several new calorimeters and established in Boston the Nutrition Lab- oratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Here they have not only made great advances in technique but have also Fig. 1. — Schematic diagram of the Atwater-Rosa-Benedict respiration calorimeter. Ventilating System: 02, Oxygen introduced as consumed by subject. 3, H2SO4, to catch moisture given off by soda lime. 2, Soda lime to remove CO2. 1, H2SO4 to remove moisture given off by patient. Bl., Blower to keep air in circulation. Indirect Calorimetry: Increase in weight of H2C<04 (1) = water elimination ol subject. Increase in weight of soda lime (2) + increase in weight of H2SO4 (3) = CO2 elimination. Decrease in weight of oxygen tank = oxygen consumption of subject. Heat-Absorbing System: A, Thermometer to record temper- ature of ingoing water. B, Thermometer to record temper- ature of outgoing water. measuring measuring V, Vacuum jacket. C, lank for weighing water which has passed through calorimeter each hour. W, Thermometer for temperature of wall. Al, I hermometer for temperature of the air. R, Rectal thermometer for measur- ing temperature of subject. Direct Calorimetry: Average difference of A and B X liters of water + (gm. water eliminated X 0.586) =>= (change in temperature of wall X hydro- thermal equivalent of box) =*= (change of temperature of body X hydrothermal equivalent of body) = total calories produced. Th, thermocouple; Cu, inner copper wall; CU2, outer copper wall; E, F, dead air spaces. 350 DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 351 made experiments on many individuals under a great variety of conditions. Their bed calorimeter in particular has been of great service in the study of the basal metabolism. The most ingenious apparatus constructed for the study of metabolism is the small calorimeter of Langworthy and Milner. In this the temperature control is automatic and small electrical instruments day after day perform work that exhausts an expe- rienced man after a few hours. Most calorimeters require two or three men in constant attendance, but theirs will run accurately all by itself. The small calorimeter constructed by Dr. H. B. Williams for Lusk at the Cornell University Medical College in New York City has given results which are technically perfect even in short experimental periods. Only those who have worked in the subject can appreciate the brilliant planning of Lusk's experi- ments on dogs and their profound significance in the study of the fundamental laws of metabolism. As a result of this work on animals and some work on patients with the small "unit" respiration apparatus devised by Benedict, it seemed advisable to construct a calorimeter for the study of disease. This was made possible by the trustees of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology, who supplied funds to Dr. Lusk sufficient for the construction and maintainence of a calorimeter and metabolism ward in Bellevue Hospital, New York.8 This apparatus, which was built by Riche and Soderstrom, is the latest development of the apparatus of Atwater and Rosa as improved by Benedict, Milner, Williams, and others. It is about the size of the lower berth of a sleeping car and is provided with a comfortable bed, a shelf and a couple of windows. The subject of the experiment lies quietly for three or four hours in the well ventilated box at a comfortable temperature. During this time his heat production is being measured by the inde- pendent methods of direct and indirect calorimetry. The direct method depends on the physical measurement of the heat of radiation and conduction and also of vaporization, about one quarter of the total heat produced being eliminated by evaporation of water from skin and lungs. The indirect 2 Archives of Internal Medicine, 15: 793. 1915. 352 du bois: basal energy requirement of man method is purely chemical. The carbon dioxid production of each hour is measured, also the oxygen consumption. Knowing these and the nitrogen elimination in the urine, we can calcu- late out the grams of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolized each hour, and from their well known caloric values can de- termine the total heat production. In normal controls the two methods agree very closely, if we take the averages of all the experiments made. Even in periods as short as one hour the agreement is usually within 5 per cent. This calorimeter in Bellevue is particularly well adapted to observations on patients. It is situated in a room next to a small metabolism ward where the food can be weighed out ac- curately and complete twenty-four hour specimens of urine collected. The experimental period within the chamber is only three hours, as contrasted with the long periods of one to ten days needed in the old Atwater-Rosa chamber in Middletown. The patient lies on a comfortable bed, breathing pure air at a uniform temperature. Even patients who are seriously ill can serve as subjects of the observation without the slightest harm being done. As a matter of fact they are greatly benefited, be- cause their diets can be arranged scientifically as a result of the information obtained in the calorimeter. In order to understand the results obtained in disease we must first consider the basal metabolism of normal men. With most individuals this is surprisingly uniform from day to day and from year to year. Of course the heat production of a man depends largely on his size, but it is by no means propor- tional to the body weight. A large man gives off more heat than a small man but for each kilogram of weight the small person has the higher metabolism. On the other hand the metabolism of men of various sizes and shapes is rather closely proportional to the surface area of the body. Many years ago Rubner estab- lished this law of surface area and was able to show that mice, rabbits, dogs, men, and horses had almost the same metabolism per square meter of skin. Up to the last few years we were obliged to estimate the sur- face area of men by Meeh's formula which was simple but, unfor- DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 353 tunately, not accurate. Recently a better method was devised by Mr. Delafield Du Bois. This so-called height-weight formula can be expressed in a chart which enables one to find the approxi- mate surface area if the height and weight of the individual be known. Using it to recalculate the results obtained upon nor- mal persons, we find that the average heat production of men between the ages of twenty and fifty is about 40 calories per square meter per hour. There is a normal range of variation amounting to plus or minus 10 per cent from the average, and a few apparently normal individuals may depart as much as 15 per cent from the mean. Curiously enough very fat people and very thin ones have almost exactly the same heat production, measured in this way, while there may be a difference of 30 or 40 per cent between the two groups if we base the calculations on kilograms of body weight. The level of the metabolism varies greatly with age. During the first few days of life it is very low, then rises rapidly during infancy, and reaches its highest level in the almost unexplored period between the ages of two and six years. After this it falls rapidly until about the eighteenth year when the curve flattens out. Between the ages of twenty and forty there is compara- tively little change, but after this a slight fall, so that by the eightieth year the line is about 10 per cent below the average level for the ages of twenty to forty. There seems to be a stimu- lation to the basal metabolism during the period of growth. Women show an average basal metabolism about 7 per cent lower than that of men of the same age. Athletes are about 7 per cent higher than men of sedentary habits. Confinement in- doors or in bed reduces the metabolism, as does cage life for a previously active dog. Prolonged undernutrition can reduce the metabolism 30 or 40 per cent. Benedict's subject Levanzin, who fasted for thirty-one days, showed a marked reduction in basal metabolism, amounting to about 23 per cent after three weeks starvation. The basal metabolism is always measured fourteen hours or more after the last meal, because food stimulates the heat pro- duction. A meal containing 60 grams of protein can increase the 354 du bois: basal energy requirement of man metabolism 10 or 12 per cent for six or seven hours. One hun- dred grams of glucose may cause as great a rise, but for a shorter period. The stimulation from fat takes place much more slowly and does not reach its maximum until six hours after the meal. This stimulation caused by food is the specific dynamic action described by Rubner and studied in detail in the last few years by Lusk at the Cornell Medical College, New York City. Muscular work affects metabolism to far greater extent than all other factors combined. Even walking at a moderate gait may increase the energy consumption threefold, and riding on a bicycle ergostat may increase it sixfold. Work of this type is done with an efficiency of 22 per cent. Only 78 per cent of the energy consumed is wasted, the rest being transformed into me- chanical work. This is better utilization of fuel values than is found in machines that use coal. The body works more econo- mically than a steam engine, but we can see why a lumberman in the Maine woods needs 9000 calories of food a day, which is three times as much as most of us consume and six times as much as our requirement would be were we to maintain it at its basal level by staying motionless in bed all day without food. BASAL METABOLISM IN DISEASE It has been possible at Bellevue Hospital to study in detail a large number of patients with typhoid fever. During the active stage of this disease, when the temperature maintains itself at 104° Fahrenheit, there is an increase in the basal heat production amounting to 40 or 50 per cent above the normal. The signifi- cance of this is appreciated if we remember that most doctors keep their typhoid patients on very small diet for weeks at a time. The result of such underfeeding is a profound wasting away of the patients own tissues, with great loss of weight and the addition of the symptoms of starvation to those of typhoid fever. Shaffer and Coleman, on the basis of studies of the nitro- gen of metabolism, advocated a high calory diet in this disease. Dr. Coleman and the writer have studied the effects of such DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 355 liberal feeding by means of the small Benedict apparatus and of the Sage calorimeter. Curiously enough the taking of food does not stimulate the heat production nearly so much in typhoid fever as in health, and patients on the high calory diet have no greater caloric production than those on the starvation diet. This shows how groundless was the old dread of fanning the fever by giving food. It seems to be well established that there is a toxic destruction of protein in typhoid fever. Even if we give the patient plenty of protein and enough calories in food to meet his caloric output, he will show a steady negative nitrogen bal- ance. This phenomenon indicates that protein is broken down faster than it can be reconstructed. If we wish to maintain a typhoid patient in nitrogen equilibrium we must give him 4000 or 5000 calories a day, whereas his calculated output seldoms ex- ceeds 3000 or 3500 calories. Patients do very well on these large diets if they be carefully administered; and at the end of the fever they are well nourished, instead of starved. The proper food in large amounts does not increase the intestinal symptoms. The disease which has the greatest effect on metabolism is exop- thalmic goiter, sometimes called Graves' disease. This is due to an overactivity of the thyroid gland, situated in the neck. Patients who suffer from this hyperthyroidism usually show some swelling of the gland, protrusion of the eyes, nervousness, large appetite, and warm, moist skin. In severe cases of the disease the resting metabolism may be increased 75 to 100 per cent above the normal level. This explains the great demand for food and the marked loss in weight if the diet be not liberal. It also explains the warmth of the skin, since each square meter of surface has to eliminate 75 to 100 per cent more heat than normal. There is also a disease called myxoedema in which the secretion of the thyroid gland is diminished. Patients with myxoedema are lethargic and have small appetities and cool dry skin. Their heat, production is much below the normal, but if extract of thyroid gland be given them the normal level is at- tained once more and their symptoms disappear. 356 du bois: basal energy requirement of man There are several other diseases in which the metabolism is increased 20 to 40 per cent. Among these may be included se- vere anaemias, cancer, severe cases of heart or kidney disease, high fevers, and perhaps other conditions that have not yet been studied. Patients who are not very ill show little change from the normal in their basal metabolism, and their food require- ments are those of normal men under similar conditions. DIABETES In the very important disease of diabetes there are profound, changes in the metabolism of all the foods. The study of these changes has thrown an enormous amount of light on the transformations of the food-stuffs which take place in normal individuals, and physiology owes a great debt to the study of this pathological condition. In severe cases the body being un- able to oxidize any carbohydrate food, eliminates it in the urine as glucose. Proteins are incompletely oxidized, and about half of the protein molecule is changed into glucose and eliminated as such. Fats are incompletely metabolized, reaching the stage of beta-oxybutyric acid, which circulates in the blood as a poison in diabetics because the tissues are unable to oxidize it beyond this stage as they do in health. The level of the total heat pro- duction is not much changed in diabetes in spite of this disturb- ance of the intermediary metabolism. Direct evidence of the se- verity of the disease can be obtained by the use of the calorimeter or any other form of apparatus which determines the respiratory quotient. It is the respiratory quotient which tells the exact amount of carbohydrate that the patient is oxidizing. Severe cases can oxidize none; mild cases can derive 20 to 40 per cent of their calories from carbohydrates. Quite recently Dr. F. M. Allen, of the Rockefeller Institute, has found that patients with severe diabetes are much bene- fited by periods of fasting and low diet. In almost all cases the sugar can be made to disappear from the urine and stay away as long as the diet is restricted. Several patients so treated have DU BOIS: BASAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF MAN 357 been studied in the calorimeter in association with Dr. Allen, and it has been found that during the period of low diet there is a great reduction in the level of the basal metabolism. The organism adapts itself to the new conditions and seems to straighten out its internal difficulties when living economically. In this short lecture we have been able to discuss briefly a few of the factors which influence the basal metabolism in health and disease. It is only through a study of such factors that we can place dietetics and particularly hospital dietetics on a sci- entific basis. In most institutions the patients are fed accord- ing to customs and habits inherited by trained nurses from pre- vious generations. Perhaps in the course of years the food of sick men may be as scientifically administered as the food of the chickens and cows on a modern farm. • e ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Results of observations made at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory near Honolulu, 1913 and 1914. Daniel L. Hazard. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Serial Publication No. 21. 1916. This publication is in' continuation of the series giving the results obtained at the Honolulu magnetic observatory since its establishment in 1902. It contains a summary of the monthly determinations of the scale-values of the horizontal intensity and vertical intensity variom- eters; the base-line values derived from the weekly absolute observa- tions; diurnal variation tables for the magnetic elements D, H, and I, the total force F, and the rectangular components X, Y, Z; hourly values of D, H, and Z, together with daily and hourly means for each month ; a tabulation of the earthquakes recorded on the seismograph; a list of the magnetic disturbances of considerable magnitude, and reproduc- tions of the magnetograms showing the more marked disturbances. Attention is called to the fact that beginning with 1913 intensity results obtained by this Bureau have been reduced to the international standard of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. Published results for earlier years must be dimin- ished by one part in a thousand to reduce them to that standard. D. L. H. PHYSICS. — Photometry of gas-filled lamps. G. W. Middlekauff and J. F. Skogland. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 264. 17 pp. 1916. The introduction of an inert gas into the bulb of an incandescent electric lamp introduces new uncertainties in photometry by the ordi- nary rotating lamp method. As this method of photometry is still in 358 abstracts: radiotelegraphy 359 common use it was deemed advisable for the Bureau of Standards to investigate the effect of rotation of the gas-filled lamp on current and candlepower, hoping to derive a practical method of photometry free from the errors due to rotation. During the investigation extreme care was exercised in the control and measurement of speed of rotation, and the precision photometer was used in making the photometric measurements. It was found that there was for every lamp investigated a speed at which both current and mean horizontal candlepower had the same values, respectively, as when the lamp was stationary, and that this speed had a value which might be conveniently employed in practice, thus suggesting a practical photometric method. It is pointed out, however, that owing to the unequal distribution of bulb discoloration during the life of the gas- filled lamp an integrating sphere should be used in measurements made during life test. G. W. M. RADIOTELEGRAPHY.— The effect of imperfect dielectrics in the field of a radiotele.gr aphic antenna. J. M. Miller, Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 269, pp. 129-136. 1916. It has been shown by the measurements of C. Fischer and L. W. Austin that the curve which represents the variation of the resistance of an antenna with the wave length of the oscilliation has two character- istic features. Starting from the wave length corresponding to the fun- damental of the antenna, the resistance of the antenna rapidly decreases with increasing wave length and reaches a minimum. As the wave length is still further increased the resistance rises again, but in a linear manner. The initial decrease in resistance is explained by a decrease in the so-called "radiation resistance." It has been difficult, however, to account for the linear increase which takes place at the longer wave lengths and it is the explanation of this feature that is here considered. Austin has explained this phenomenon as caused by dielectric absorp- tion and has concluded that it takes place in the ground. Austin's hypothesis with respect to dielectric absorption is confirmed but it is found that the energy loss is not caused by the ground but by the pres- ence of poor dielectrics in the field of the antenna. This conclusion is based upon measurements of the resistance of an experimental antenna constructed so as to eliminate poor dielectrics from its field and at the same time to increase any effects which may be due to the ground. The linear rise in its resistance at very long wave lengths (even at tele- phone frequencies) was extremely small. It was then found that the 360 abstracts: botany linear increase became considerable when poor dielectrics such as wooden masts, trees, and buildings were in the field and that the resistance of the antenna was also increased at all Avave lengths. It was also found that considerable energy loss may be occasioned by running the lead of an antenna into a building. It is most important to design an antenna so as to minimize these sources of energy loss. J. M. M. GEOLOGY. — Evaporation of brine from Searles Lake, California. W. B. Hicks. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 98-A. Pp. 8. 1916. One thousand grams of brine from Searles Lake, California, were evaporated in stages on the steam bath at 78°C. and the deposited crystals were separated from the solution by filtration. The filtrate was cooled to 30°C. and a second fraction of crystals was obtained. Seven such successive stages reduced the brine to about 55 grams and yielded 14 fractions of crystals — 7 deposited from the hot solution during evaporation and 7 deposited as the solution was cooled from 78°C. to 30°C. Each fraction of crystals as well as the original brine and the final filtrate was analysed. Most of the sulphate was de- posited from hot solution in the first few fractions, and more than 60 per cent of the potassium was deposited as the solution was cooled to 30°C. in the last three fractions. The tabulated results give the percentage composition of the crystals deposited, the percentage of each constituent deposited, and the changes in the composition of the solution during evaporation. W. B. H. BOTANY. — New or noteworthy plants from Colombia and Central America — 5. Henry Pittier. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 18: 143-171, ph. 57-80, figs. 88-97. March 3, 1916. The present paper is the fifth of a series dealing with new or little known species from South and Central America. Besides descriptions of a few species, either old or here proposed as new and belonging to the Myristicaceae, Anacardiaceae, Hippocrateaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Sapotaceae, Symplocaceae, and Verbenaceae, it contains a full discus- sion of the genera Brownea and Browneopsis, based mainly on the au- thor's collections. It includes also a comparison of Bombax and Pa- chira, which has resulted in the establishment of a new and intermedi- ate genus, Bornbacopsis, the two known species of which are natives of Panama and the eastern part of Central America. H. P. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 773d meeting was held on April 29, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. President Briggs in the chair, 43 persons present. The minutes of the 771st and 772d meetings were read in abstract and approved. Mr. C. W. Kanolt presented a paper entitled X-ray spectra. The speaker presented a resume of the subject, including a review of the state of the theories of the X-rays previous to the use by Laue of a crystal as a diffraction grating, an explanation of the theory of the three-dimensional grating presented by a crystal, and an account of the experimental methods employed and the results obtained. These results give information relative to the nature of the X-rays, permit the determination of the arrangement of the atoms in the simpler crystals, and give some information relative to the structure of the atoms. It was pointed out that it is also possible to determine atomic masses by the measurement of the angles of reflection of X-ray beams from suitable crystals, and the determination of the densities of the crystals. A knowledge of the wave-length of the rays is not required. To obtain by this method an accuracy greater than that of the results that have been obtained by chemical methods it would be necessary to make more accurate measurements of spectra than most of those made hitherto. However, in most of the work that has been done great accuracy has not been required or attempted, and it appears that the methods could be improved sufficiently to give atomic-mass determinations of greater accuracy than most of those that have been made by chemical methods. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Crittenden, Bauer, and L. J. Briggs with reference to the highest atomic numbers and the excep- tions found by Moseley in the order of the elements. Mr. F. E. Wright then presented a communication on The analysis of crystal structure by X-rays. In recent years Laue and, especially, W. H. and W. L. Bragg have developed effective methods for using X-rays in the analysis of crystal structure. Laue's method is to send general X-ray radiation through a thin crystal plate and thus to obtain on a photographic plate a diffraction pattern which is an expression of the symmetiy relations of the crystal plate. In the Bragg reflec- tion method characteristic X-rays of definite wave-lengths are used and the intensity of the reflected rays is measured by means of an ionization chamber and an electroscope. The crystal plate is mounted in a spectrometer and for a given wave-length, X, and a fixed distance, 361 362 proceedings: biological society d, between successive layers of atoms parallel with the crystal face, the rays are reflected at maximal intensity at the angle, 5, as defined by the equation n\ = 2d sin5, in which n is a whole number indicating the order of the spectrum obtained. By thus measuring the distribu- tion and relative intensities of the different order spectra, it is possible to determine the relative atomic spacing and the atomic density of the different planes of the crystal space lattice. Models showing the dis- tribution of the atoms in isometric crystals, such as halite, sylvite, fluorite, diamond, zinc-blende, and pyrite were presented; also draw- ings illustrating the relations in calcite and dolomite. Mr. Swann remarked on the regularity of crystals used as gratings and asked whether measurements made before and after magnetiza- tion in substances capable of magnetization to saturation would show different alignment through magnetization of the atoms. Mr. Wright stated that experiments along that line of investigation were proposed. Informal communications. Mr. E. F. Mueller exhibited a fused- silicate tube with a transparent quartz window made by the Thermal Syndicate to replace glass and the more expensive quartz tubes used in the sulphur-boiling apparatus. The new type of tube is very satis- factory. Mr. E. G. Fischer then exhibited a new signal light designed for use in the triangulation operations of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The oxyacetylene lamp heretofore used is costly and expensive to use because of the bulkiness of the apparatus. The new lamp consists of a tungsten lamp so made and mounted that the filament is practically at the focal point of the parabolic reflecting mirror; it is operated by dry cells. The Bureau of Standards after test reported that the new lamp gives for 2 volts at 2 amperes 250,000 candle power in the beam at 100 feet while the old style of lamp gave only 1500 candle power in the beam at the same distance. It will be possible to make observations by the use of the new light on 20 to 30 per cent of the nights now lost in triangulation work. The relative powers of the two lights were effectively demonstrated by throwing the beam from each on the lantern screen. Mr. Bowie congratulated the designer upon the development of the new signal. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 555th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club Saturday, April 22, 1916; called to order by President Hay at 8.00 p.m. with 24 persons present. On recommendation of the Council George H. Clements, Wash- ington, D. C. was elected to membership. On recommendation of the Council the following resolutions were read: proceedings: biological society 363 Whereas, Prof. Wells W. Cooke, distinguished ornithologist, au- thority on bird migration, Treasurer of the Biological Society of Wash- ington, and an active member of the Council of the Society, has passed from this life, therefore be it Resolved: That the Biological Society of Washington deeply regrets the death of one for many years so keenly interested in the affairs of the Society, one who was a peculiarly efficient officer, a wise counselor, and a charming companion, and extends its warmest sympathy to the family of Professor Cooke. (Signed) N. Hollister ► J. W. Gidley Alex. Wetmore Under the heading Brief Notes, Dr. Howard E. Ames commented upon a question raised at the 553d meeting as to the existence of a South American mammal having the mammae on the dorsal surface of the body. He had ascertained that this condition existed in the coypu (Myocastor coypu). Dr. Ames also offered information in regard to another question propounded at the same meeting as to the ability of camels to swim: According to Dr. E. A. Mearns dromedaries used in Abyssinia were able to swim; and in a book by an English Army officer of experience Dr. Ames had found a statement to the effect that camels were powerful swimmers. Comments followed by the chair and by Dr. L. O. Howard. Under the same heading Dr. F. H. Blodgett discussed the embry- ology of the duck weed, Lemna, and exhibited seeds, remarking that though the plant was common the seeds were seldom found. Dr. Caldwell of Chicago had worked out the development of Lemna to the point of fertilization. Studies made by Dr. Blodgett carried the em- bryology from this point. The talk was illustrated by diagrams. Discussion followed by Mr. W. L. McAtee. The first paper of the regular program was by T. H. Kearney: Native plants as indicators of the agricultural value of land. Mr. Kearney outlined the results of field work carried on with Dr. H. L. Shantz in the semiarid regions of the United States west of the 98th meridian. Typical areas were surveyed in Colorado, the Great Basin, and in the Southwest desert region. Detailed surveys defined the dominant types of vegetation and their distribution, and these were correlated with the varying degrees of salinity, moisture content, and other physi- cal properties of the soil. Areas actually under cultivation gave a check as regards productivity. From these studies it is now possible to predict agricultural possibilities by examination of the original types of vegetation in these regions. Typical plant growths and diagrams showing distribution were illustrated by lantern slides. Mr. Kearney's paper was discussed by Messrs. W. L. McAtee, William Palmer, Alex. Wetmore, and L. O. Howard. The last paper of the regular program was by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt: Comparative study of certain, cranial sutures in the primates. Dr. Shu- 364 proceedings: biological society feldt stated that no other single vertebrate structure had so much written about it or was receiving more attention at the present time than the skull in man and the primates in general. This study was begun over two thousand years ago and certain names of bones be- stowed by Galen in the second century are still retained. In a series of 6000 human and about 1000 ape skulls in the collections of the U. S. National Museum Dr. Shufeldt found that while the bones of the face exhibited but little variation, in the bones' on the lateral aspect of the cranium there were remarkable variations, many of which are not referred to in modern works on anatomy. Frontal, parietal, tem- poral, alisphenoid, and malar articulations show many variations in* sutural lines. These again are varied by the presence or absence of epactal or epipteric bones. By means of lantern slides and diagrams these were illustrated and compared, and the speaker touched upon their value in taxonomy and racial distinction and their pathological significance. Discussion followed by Messrs. L. O. Howard, H. E. Ames, and William Palmer. Alex. Wetmore, Recording Secretary pro tern. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI JUNE 19, 1916 No. 12 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— Further experiments on the vola- tilization of platinum.1 G. K. Burgess and R. G. Wal- tenberg, Bureau of Standards. This is a continuation of an investigation2 undertaken at the suggestion of the Committee on "Quality of Platinum Uten- sils" of the American Chemical Society. Seven platinum cruci- bles of various makes and purity have been subjected to suc- cessive heatings at 700, 1000, and 1200°C. followed by deter- mination of iron and other materials soluble in 1 : 4 boiling- hydrochloric acid. Among the results obtained are the follow- ing: 1. Platinum ware in the form of crucibles of whatever degree of purity behaves, with respect to gain or loss of weight on heating in air at ordinary atmospheric pressure, in a manner characteristic only of the temperature of heating. 2. Each impurity, as iridium, rhodium, or iron, appears to exert its effect on the volatilization of platinum independently. 3. For platinum crucibles of all degrees of purity containing Ir, Rh, Fe, Si (up to a content of at least 3.0 per cent Ir) the loss on heating is negligible below about 900°C. 4. Below this temperature there may even be a slight gain in weight on heating platinum, owing to the iron content diffus- ing to the surface and oxidizing. At higher temperatures the 1 To appear in detail as Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 280 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 365 et seq.). 1916. 2 Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 254 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 26: 289-316. 1915) . This Journal, 5 : 378-380. 1915. 365 366 BURGESS AND WALTENBERG! PLATINUM presence of iron will lower the volatilization loss by amounts depending on the quantity of iron present. There appears to be no platinum made which does not contain some iron. 5. The volatilization of platinum containing rhodium is less than that of pure platinum at all temperatures above 900°C. 6. The volatilization of platinum containing iridium is, above 900°C, very much greater than that of pure platinum, and increases with the Ir content and with temperature. 7. It appears to make no material difference in the volatili- zation results, in the range 700° to 1200°, what is the order of heating, ascending or descending temperatures. 8. In an oxidizing atmosphere at temperatures of the order of 1000°C, platinum, in the presence of but not in contact with silica, will apparently take up small quantities of this substance. 9. The loss in crucible weight due to the solution of soluble matter in HC1, after heating, is variable depending on the cruci- ble and may be large. This loss in relatively greater at low than at high temperatures. 10. All of the above losses, caused by heating, acid treatment, and iron diffusion, apparently continue with undiminished magnitude after the first treatment, which is usually erratic. 11. The following table gives the approximate changes in weight to be expected for heating platinum containing iridium or rhodium but nearly free from iron. The presence of iron in appreciable quantities renders the prediction uncertain but it always acts in the direction of lowering the volatilization loss. Silica, if taken up from the furnace, will also tend to lower the results slightly. Approximate loss in milligrams per hour per 100 square centimeters at temperatures indicated. Platinum nearly free from iron TEMPERATURE PLATINUM CONTAINING Degrees C. Pure Pt 1 per cent Ir 2.5 per cent Ir 8 per cent Rh 900 or less 1000 1200 0 0.08 0.81 0 0.30 1.2 0 0.57 2.5 0 0.07 0.54 WRIGHT: LITHOPHYSAE IN A SPECIMEN OF OBSIDIAN 367 PETROLOGY. — Note on the lithophysae in a specimen of obsidian from California. F. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. In a specimen of obsidian1 from Little Lake, about 40 miles south of Owen's Lake, Inyo County, California lithophysae occur which resemble the lithophysae of the obsidian from Hrafnthmuh- ryggur, Iceland2 and are of interest because of their bearing on the general theory of the formation of hollow spherulites. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the develop- ment of lithophysae : (a) the total effect is ascribed to hydro- static tension or uniform pull resulting from the contraction of the magma during cooling; (b) emphasis is placed on the out- ward pressure of the gases set free during the crystallization of the spherulites. These two hypotheses are not mutually exclu- sive and probably both factors, shrinkage of the cooling magma and pressure of gas liberated on crystallization, play an impor- tant role in the development of most lithophysae. In the case of the Icelandic lithophysae it has been shown that gas pressure was probably the more important of the two factors ; similarly in the present specimen from California the evidence presented below indicates that gas pressure rather than hydrostatic tension was the effective agent. The obsidian. The specimen as a whole is jet black in color and of the characteristic vitreous aspect and conchoidal fracture of obsidian; thin splinters are relatively clear and transparent. The refractive index of the glass is low (n = 1.484) and indi- cates high silica content. Small microlites of a lath shaped mineral showing approximately parallel extinction and negative, rarely positive, elongation are scattered through the glass. The mineral is probably soda-potash feldspar. Minute particles of magnetite are abundant. The total amount of crystallized mate- rial is less than 2 per cent. The specific gravity is 2.353. 1 Collected by Mr. Chas. R. Fletcher of Los Angeles, Cal., and sent by him for examination to Mr. F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geological Survey, who, in turn, presented it to the writer for study. The specimen is now deposited in the U. S. National Museum. Spec. No. 88922. 2 F. E. Wright. Obsidian from Hrafntinnuhyrggur, Iceland: Its lithophysae and surface markings. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 26: 255-286. 1915. 368 WRIGHT! LITHOPHYSAE IN A SPECIMEN OF OBSIDIAN The sphericities and lithophysae. All the larger spherulites are hollow and are lined with minerals similar to those contained in the lithophysae of obsidian from other localities. The predomi- nating mineral crystallizes in fibers arranged radially, is weakly birefracting, extinguishes parallel with positive or negative elon- gation, and has refractive indices: a > 1.520, y < 1.530. Some of the sections extinguish in a manner indicative of submicroscopic twinning. These properties agree with those of a potash-soda feldspar. The size of the fibers is not uniform; near the outer wall of the spherulite the individual fibers are exceedingly fine but toward the center they increase in size, become clearer and are there associated with a second, more transparent mineral, tridymite, which appears in characteristic, small nodules and clusters, studding the cavity walls. Under the microscope the tridymite aggregates are weakly birefracting, and have an aver- age refractive index slightly less than 1.480. Minute octahedra and irregular grains of magnetite are disseminated throughout the crystalline mass of each spherulite. These grains increase also noticeably in size from the wall toward the center of the cavity. In addition to the above predominating minerals well devel- oped, tabular crystals of brown transparent fayalite were observed in some of the cavities. They are identical in optical properties, so far as determined, with the Icelandic and Yellowstone Park lithophysal fayalite. In several of the cavities single, small crystals of a jet black mica of uncommonly high refractive in- dex, apparently slightly above 1.70, were noted. The optic axial angle is small (2E less than 50°) ; the dispersion of the optic axes is noticeable. This mica is interesting because its pres- ence, as a water-bearing mineral, proves that water vapor was among the gases in the lithophysal cavity. This mineral association and the pronounced increase in granu- larity from the margin to the center of a cavity prove that dur- ing the crystallization of the spherulite chemically active volatile components were present and attacked part of the material of WRIGHT! LITHOPHYSAE IN A SPECIMEN OF OBSIDIAN 369 the spherulites; new crystal compounds, such as tridymite and fayalite, were formed which are absent in the solid spherulites and in ordinary rhyolites, and indicate physico-chemical condi- tions of formation different from those which ordinarily obtain during the crystallization of a silicate magma. The pressure of the liberated volatile components aided effectively in the origi- nal formation and subsequent enlargement of the lithophysal cavities; this is evident both from the shape of the outer walls of the cavity whose radius of curvature is not constant and whose thickness varies inversely with the radius of curvature, and also from the fact that segments of the radial spherulite were forced apart as crystallization proceeded. All these phenomena were observed in the Icelandic lithophysae; and the conclusions there drawn are corroborated in detail by the present specimen, although here the lithophysae are less symmetrical and the mechanism of the enlargement of the cavities is less difficult to understand. Additional evidence in support of the gas pressure hypothesis is presented by three parallel bands or planes which traverse the specimen and probably represent contact planes between por- tions of the thick viscous lava which flowed together; flow lines occur in the obsidian parallel to these planes, which are now marked by the crystallization of minute, chiefly solid, radial spherulites. The fact that relatively few of the lithophysae are elongated parallel to these flow planes proves that the cavities are not original vesicles, from which crystallization subsequently spread in the later stages of the flow; the directions of expansion of the cavities bear, moveover, no relation to the structural planes in the obsidian as they should do, were the lithophysal cavities the result solely of contraction of the magma on cooling. In this occurrence, therefore, the evidence is in favor of the hy- pothesis that in the formation of the lithophysal cavities volatile gases set free during the crystallization of the spherulites were the active factor, and not a secondary phenomenon accompany- ing the opening of the cavities by hydrostatic tension. 370 safford: classification of rollinia BOTANY. — Proposed classification of the genus Rollinia, with descriptions of several new species. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry. Among the finest fruits of tropical America are certain custard apples of the genus Rollinia. This genus, belonging to the Annonaceae, is characterized by fruits closely resembling the chirimoya (Annona cherimola Miller), the sugar-apple or pomme- cannelle (A. squamosa L.), and the bullock's heart (A. reticulata L.), but its flowers are very distinct in form from those of the genus Annona. Much confusion exists in the botanical classification of the principal commercial species of this genus. This is owing chiefly to the fact that, in original descrip- tions, either the fruit and not the flower was de- scribed, or vice versa, and that bo- tanical names have been applied to fruits in the mar- kets unaccompanied by leaves or flowers, which are necessary to determine the species. As a re- sult, Martius, in his great work, Flora Brasiliensis, applies the name Annona obtusiflora to a Rollinia sold in the markets of Brazil under the name fructa do Conde, which he imagined to have been introduced into Brazil from the Antilles; and a second species of Rollinia, mentioned by Marcgrave under the name biribd, he places in the genus Duguetia under the name D. Marcgraviana. The only large-fruited Brazilian Rollinia which he mentions under its true generic name he refers to Alphonse De Candolle's R. orthopetala, sl species of British Guiana, the fruit of which was not seen by De Candolle. Fig. 1. Types of Rollinia flowers: a, R. Sieberi; b, R. deliciosa; c, R. laurifolia; d. R. rugulosa; e, R. lan- ceolata; f, R. emarginata. safford: classification of rollinia 371 An examination of herbarium material and of fruits of several species introduced into Florida by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, United States Department of Agricul- ture, shows that certain longstanding errors should be corrected and that the genus needs revision. It may be well to point out, in connection with the plants above mentioned, that Annona obtusiflora was described by De Tussac in 1808 from a cultivated plant growing in an orchard near the western extremity of Haiti, and was regarded by Baillon as a synonym of Rollinia mucosa, a species based on Jacquin's Annona mucosa growing wild and in cultivation on the island of Martinique. The biribd, which Correa, in his recent Flora do Brazil, identifies with Martius's Duguetia Marcgraviana, must be a Rollinia; it cannot possibly belong to the genus Duguetia, since its fruit does not, as in Duguetia, consist of separate carpels borne on the indurated receptacle, but is an edible syncarpium with fleshy pulp from which a fermented drink is sometimes made.1 The only Brazilian species of Rollinia introduced into Florida under the name Rollinia orthopetala which has yielded a large edible fruit .cannot possibly be the true R. orthopetala A. DC, since its flowers are not like the flowers of that species, but have their outer corolla lobes broadly spreading and curving downward, instead of " erect and incurved," as described by De Candolle. Correa, in the work cited, refers the biribd of Pernambuco and Matto Grosso to Duguetia Marcgraviana Mart, and the biribd of Para to Rollinia orthopetala A. DC. FLOWERS OF ROLLINIA The flowers of Rollinia differ from those of Annona in having a gamopetalous corolla composed of three large outer lobes and three minute inner lobes alternating with them. The large lobes, corresponding to the outer petals of Annona, are produced into wings or spurs, the form of which differs so widely that they offer a convenient basis for classification. In the accompany- ing illustration (fig. 1) the principal types of Rollinia flowers are 1 "Os fructos sao comestiveis e submettidos a fermentacao ,dao bebida vinosa." — M. Pio Correa. Flora do Brazil, p. 22. 1909. 372 safford: classification of rollinia shown. The outer corolla lobes may be: (a) compressed, widely 'spreading, and more or less ascending or upcurved, as in Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) BailL; (b) decurved and obtuse or rounded at the extremity, as in Rollinia deliciosa and R. Pittieri, to be described below; (c) erect or ascending and incurved, as in Rollinia orthopetala A. DC. and R. laurifolia Schlecht.; (d) obovate and ascending, as in Rollinia rugulosa Schlecht.; (e) short, thick, and spur-like, as in Rollinia lanceolata R. E. Fries; or (f) suborbicular or broadly obovate and widely spreading, as in Rollinia emarginata Schlecht. FRUITS OF ROLLINIA In the genus Rollinia the fruit is a fleshy syncarpium, composed of a number of one-seeded carpels which become fused into a solid spheroid or ovoid head. In some cases the surface of the fruit is distinctly areolate, as in R. mucosa, the areoles being marked by pentagonal or hexagonal outlines and bearing mamil- late projections. These may point outward, or be recurved toward the stem, or curved toward the apex of the fruit; or the areoles may be gibbous or rounded and very distinct, like those of the sugar-apple, Annona squamosa; or they may terminate in a blunt point. In a few species, as in Rollinia glaucescens, the surface of the fruit is nearly smooth, like that of the common A. reticulata. The species in which the mature carpels are quite distinct and fall off separately from the indurated receptacle, or torus, have been set apart by the writer under the generic name Rolliniopsis.2 BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION The groups suggested above, based upon the form of the flowers, cannot be regarded as subgenera or even as sections, for the line of demarcation is not always sharply drawn. In some species, for example, the corolla lobes may be ascending or nearly erect at first, and at length more widely divergent; while in 2 Rolliniopsis, a new genus of Annonaceae from Brazil. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 6: 197. 1916. safford: classification of rollinia 373 others they may be nearly horizontal when immature and at length more or less decurved. Moreover, the members of a group are not always botanically close to one another. Never- theless the arrangement of the various species into groups accord- ing to the shape of the corolla is a great aid to classification and will . prevent many errors. A striking example of erroneous identification is that of the flower figured by Baillon and repro- duced in Engler and Prantl's Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien under the name Rollinia mucosa. This is certainly, not the flower of Jaequin's Annona mucosa, the cachiman morveux of Martinique, which is the type of the species. The slender, ascending, in- curved lobes place it at once in the same group with Rollinia orthopetala A. DC. and R. laurifolia Schlecht. On the other hand, the widely spreading lobes of Annona obtusijiora, as figured by De Tussac, place that species in the same group with Rollinia Pittieri and R. deliciosa, described below. In some cases two or more species with similar leaves and fruits but with very distinct flowers have been wrongly associated under a single name, as in the case of R. sylvatica, as usually treated by botanists. In a systematic study of any group of plants the desirability of going back to the original description of each species will at once be recognized. In certain monographs more easily acces- sible to the student than the various publications in which the species were first described, amended descriptions are often given, based not on the species itself but upon some allied species mis- taken for it. In many cases the monographer has never had the opportunity of examining the type material. Martius, for instance, in describing Annona obtusijiora and Duguetia Marc- graviana could not possibly have seen the plants on which these species were based; and nothing in De Candolle's description of Rollinia orthopetala indicates that the fruit of the plant he de- scribed was "of the size of a child's head." The plants growing in the inundated forests along the banks of the Amazon, in the province of Para, which yielded the fruits described by Martius, may have been specifically distinct from the type of De Candolle's species, which grew near Demerara, in British Guiana, of whose fruit we know nothing but of whose flower we know certainly 374 safpord: classification of rollinia that the corolla lobes were erect and incurved. To prevent possible mistakes of this kind the exact locality in which a new species was collected should always be indicated. If this is done incomplete type material may possibly be supplemented by future collections from the same plant or at least from a similar plant growing very near it. The present writer has not sufficient material to attempt to monograph the genus Rollinia. In the following notes he has been much aided by herbarium specimens from the Botanical Museum of Copenhagen sent him for study through the kindness of Dr. C. H. Ostenfeld. GROUP A COROLLA LOBES OBLONG, WIDELY SPREADING AND SLIGHTLY ASCENDING OR UPCURVED Rollinia dolabripetala (Raddi) St. Hilaire, Fl. Bras. Merid., 1: 29. 1825. Annona dolabripetala Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. delle Sci. Modena, 18:394. 1820. Rollinia longifolia St. Hil., loc. cit. In this species, the type of the genus Rollinia, the corolla lobes are laterally compressed and shaped like a hatchet or broad-bladed knife (dolabriform), at first ascending, at length broadly spreading. Type Locality: Mount Corcovado, near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Flowering specimens in the United States National Herbarium were collected in the type locality by Messrs. Rose and Russell (No. 20311). Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baillon, Adansonia, 8: 268. 1868. Annona mucosa Jacq. Obs. 16. 1764 (excl. syn. Rumph.). The flowers of this species are described as having oblong corolla lobes spreading outward in such a way as "not inaptly to represent a tricorn hat." The areoles of the fruit are gibbous or convex, not papillose or aculeate. The viscous pulp is edible but of poor flavor. Type Locality: Martinique. Growing spontaneously in the for- rests and very rarely cultivated; known locally as cachiman morveux. This species is described as resembling in habit Annona reticulata L. Specimens in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected by Pere Duss in Martinique, have coarser leaves and larger flowers than Rollinia Sieberi, and the gibbous areoles of the fruit are bounded by raised polygonal outlines. safford: classification of rollinia 375 Rollinia Sieberi A. DC. Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve, 5: 200, pi. 2, fig. B. 1832. This species resembles R. mucosa, from which it differs in its smaller flowers, more slender pedicels, and thinner and more delicately veined leaves. De Candolle, who regarded it as specifically distinct from R. mucosa (which he mentions), figures the flower as solitary, with laterally compressed corolla lobes, rounded at the extremities and curving slightly upward. Type Locality: Island of Trinidad, British West Indies, where it was collected by Sieber (No. 96) and distributed under the name Annona reticulata. The fruit, according to Pere Duss, is usually larger than that of Annona squamosa, which it resembles in its raised, squamose areoles and its pleasantly flavored, sweet, fleshy pulp. A specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium collected in Porto Rico by Sintenis (No. 4170) is referred to this species. Urban3 refers this plant to R. mucosa but adds that the Porto Rico specimens have smaller flowers than specimens of R. mucosa from other localities. To the writer R. Sieberi appears to be a valid species. It is certainly quite distinct from Annona obtusifiora De Tussac, of which Baillon believed it a synonym, and also from the Mexican plants referred by Baillon to R. mucosa, collected by Liebmann at Mecapulco (No. 27) and Mirador (No. 28), the origi- nal specimens of which, with leaves velvety pubescent beneath, are before me. Specimens with flowers and fruit from Trinidad, the type locality of the species, are desired. GROUP B COROLLA LOBES OBLONG OR SPATULATE, HORIZONTAL OR CURVED DOWNWARD Rollinia deliciosa Safford, sp. nov. Figure 2. Rollinia orthopetala Correa, Flora do Brazil, p. 22. 1909, not De Candolle. A medium-sized tree. Blades of the vegetative leaves obovate-oblong or elliptical, rounded or acute at the base, normally acuminate at the apex, 20 to 28 cm. long, 7.5 to 11 cm. broad, membranaceous, when young sparsely canescent-hirtellous above, densely so beneath, espe- cially along the midrib and nerves, at length glabrous above and beneath except along the midrib and primary nerves (18 to 22 on each side), these reddish brown, slender but prominent beneath; petiole about 10 mm. long; blades of the leaves of the flowering branches smaller, the lowermost ones relatively shorter and broader, sometimes broadly 3 Symb. Antill., 4: 242. 376 safford: classification of rollinia ovate or orbicular, 3.5 to 6 cm. long, 3.5 to 5 cm. broad. Peduncles leaf-opposed, often in pairs, sometimes solitary, rarely in 3's, 25 to 40 mm. long, bearing a small ovate sessile bracteole near the middle, strigillose with reddish hairs, like the petioles and nerves of the lower- most leaves (prophylla) beneath. Flowers canescent-puberulous ; corolla lobes compressed laterally, widely diverging and decurved, rounded at the extremity. Stamens numerous, closely crowded, the expanded connectives forming a pavement above the pollen sacs. Carpels numerous; ovaries hairy; styles expanded, glandular-puberulous. Fruit a solid subglobose syncarpium, 8 to 12 cm. in diameter, the areoles distinctly outlined and terminating in an obtuse beak; peduncle straight and woody, about 5 cm. long; flesh white or cream-colored, juicy, fine-flavored; seeds compressed, 15 to 20 mm. long, 8 to 10 mm. broad, rounded at the apex, gradually narrowing to the base; hilum not prominent; testa thin, brown, wrinkled by the inclosed ruminate endosperm. Type material in the U. S. National Herbarium, accompanied by photographs of the flowers and fruit, from a tree growing in the Experi- mental Garden, Miami, Florida, propagated from seed from Para, Brazil, sent by Mr. C. F. Baker in April, 1908 (No. 22512). Flower- ing specimen, sheet No. 865973, collected at Miami, Florida, March 11, 1913; fruiting specimen, sheet No. 865976, from the same tree, August 30, 1912; both collected by Edward Simmonds, in charge of the Miami garden. This plant was introduced into the United States under the name Rollinia orthopetala, but it is readily distinguished from that species by the decurved wings of the corolla. Both flowers and fruit were received by the writer from Mr. Simmonds, through the kindness of Mr. P. H. Dorsett, Plant Introducer, Bureau of Plant Industry, in charge of Introduction Field Stations. Mr. C. F. Baker describes its fruit, known in Brazil as the "biribd of Para," as the finest annona- ceous fruit of Tropical America. The accompanying illustration (fig. 2) is from a drawing of type material by Mrs. R. E. Gamble. Rollinia Pittieri Safford, sp. nov. A forest tree with leaves glaucous beneath and abruptly acuminate. Blades of the vegetative leaves elliptical or obovate, 16 to 20 cm. long, 7 to 8.5 cm. broad, the midrib and primary nerves (16 to 20 on each side) reddish brown beneath; leaves of flowering branches smaller, with 10 to 12 pairs of lateral nerves. Pedicels in clusters of 3 or 4, straight or curved, graduated in length, the longer ones 35 to 50 mm. long, minutely rufous-puberulent, bracteolate near the middle. Flowers minutely puberulent, as though composed of felt; calyx and spheroid base of the corolla rufous; calyx lobes triangular, acute or acuminate, appressed to the corolla, the tips reflexed; corolla wings 15 to 20 mm. long, 6 to 10 mm. broad near the extremity, laterally compressed, safford: classification of rollinia 377 Fig. 2. Rollinia deliciosa Safford. From the type material. Branches with leaves, flowers, and fruit, one-half natural size; a, carpel, and b, stamen, much enlarged. 378 safford: classification of rollinia falcate, horizontally spreading and curved downward, rounded at the apex, narrowed at the base; inner corolla lobes very small, triangular, connivent, almost closing the orifice above the essential parts. Fruit not observed. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 679511, collected near sea level, on the plain of Sperdi, near Puerto Obaldia, San Bias Coast, Panama, September, 1911, by Henry Pittier (No. 4358, in flower.) This beautiful species is remarkable for the pale under surface of its leaves, beautifully veined with reddish brown, and its clustered inflorescence. It differs from R. rufinervis Triana & Planch, in hav- ing the corolla lobes curving downward instead of divergent-ascending. Specimens of the fruit are desired. Rollinia Jimenezii Safford, sp. nov. Figure 3. A small tree of Costa Rica, resembling R. mucosa, but the flowers in clusters of 2 or 3, the corolla wings horizontally spreading and slightly decurved, the fruit when fresh resembling that of the common sugar- apple (Annona squamosa), its component carpels rounded at the tips but when dry more or less beaked. Leaves ovate to oblong-elliptical, acuminate at the apex, those of the vegetative branches 18 to 30 cm. long, 6.5 to 14 cm. broad, obtuse at the base, with 18 to 22 primary nerves on each side, the leaves of the flowering branches smaller, with 12 to 16 pairs of primary nerves, usually rounded at the base; point of acumen usually obtuse or retuse; young branches, petioles, and lower surface of young leaves pubescent with ferruginous hairs, the leaves at length glabrous or- nearly so except along the midrib and nerves beneath. Peduncles extra-axillary, often leaf-opposed, in clusters of 2 or 3, graduated in length, the longest about 2 cm. long, ferruginous- tomentose like the ovate-acuminate calyx lobes. Corolla lobes ob- long, rounded at the tip, slightly narrowed at the base, widely spread- ing and usually decurved, never curving upward and inward, rufous- puberulent. Fruit subglobose, about 6 cm. in diameter, 6 to 10 cm. long, closely resembling that of Annona squamosa, the component carpels loosely adhering, very gibbous, rounded or often retuse at the tip when fresh; pulp white, acidulous, edible, but not so .agreeably flavored as that of Annona squamosa. Type material in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected by Oton Jimenez at Nuestro Amo, Province of Alajuela, Costa Rica; flowers collected March, 1912, (No. 427), and fruit from the same tree, October, 1912 (No. 543). The accompanying figure is drawn from type material and from a field photograph of the fresh fruit. The author takes great pleasure in naming this species in honor of Mr. Oton Jimenez, of San Jose, Costa Rica, an accomplished young- botanist to whom he is indebted for herbarium specimens of the plant, Fig. 3. Rollinia Jimenezii Safford. From the type material. Natural size. 379 380 SAFFORD : CLASSIFICATION OF ROLLINIA field photographs of the fruit, and descriptive notes. In a letter dated September 12, 1912, Mr. Jimenez describes the plant as follows: "At Nuestro Amo it is known as anonillo. The fruits are squamose and are sometimes 10 cm. by 6 cm. when mature. The skin is then yel- low; but while still immature it is of a greenish and somewhat glaucous color. It is edible, with an acidulous pulp and a great quantity of seeds which have a tendency to adhere to the skin when the latter is removed. This fruit is little appreciated by the natives, but when it is kept for some time among the leaves and allowed to become fully ripe, it is rather appetizing. The trees reach a height of 8 meters. On young [vegetative] branches the leaves are often quite large, and of a beautiful green color. I hope to obtain for you fruits fully ripe, but I shall have to send them to you in fragments as I have no facility for sending them entire." In another communication Mr. Jimenez states that all the Rollinia material from Nuestro Amo was obtained from the same tree, and that the specimens of fruits photographed in the field, so remarkably like those of Annona squamosa, were the same as the dried fruit for- warded to the writer, with the individual carpels much more distinctly separated and terminating in many cases in a sharp point. GROUP C COROLLA LOBES LINEAR-OBLONG OR SPATULATE, ASCENDING OR ERECT AND INCURVED Rollinia orthopetala A. DC. Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve, 5: 200. 1832. A shrub or small tree resembling R. Sieberi. Branches and leaves very much as in that species; petioles slightly longer; leaf blades oval- oblong, acute at each end, pilose. Peduncles in pairs; calyx lobes smaller than in R. Sieberi; corolla wings erect and incurved. Type in Herb. De Candolle, collected near Demerara, British Guiana, in 1824, by Charles S. Parker. Martius, in his Flora Brasiliensis, gives an amended description of this species, the fruit of which he describes as "the size of an in- fant's head," with sweet, white, fleshy pulp. It is not certain, however, that the trees producing the fruits described by him really belong to this, species. It is probably owing to Martius's description that the name R. orthopetala has been incorrectly applied to several species of Rollinia with large edible fruit. Of these the principal species, from an economic point of view, is R. deliciosa, described above, which is readily distinguished from R. orthopetala by its widely spreading, decurved corolla wings. safford: classification of rollinia 381 Specimens of R. orthopetala, with photographs of its fruits, from Demerara, its type locality, are much desired. Rollinia laurifolia Schlecht. Linnaea, 9: 319. 1835. A shrub or small tree. Leaf blade oblong-elliptical or oblong-lan- ceolate, acuminate at the apex, obtuse at the base, the upper surface glabrous to the naked eye, the lower surface clay-colored. Corolla lobes ascending-erect, broadened and rounded or obtuse at the apex and incurved; peduncles solitary or in 2's or 3's, graduated in length, the longest about 3 times the length of the petioles. Fruit subglobose, about the size of a horse-chestnut, composed of many distinctly out- lined carpels, and containing an edible white mucilaginous pulp, with a pleasant sweet taste. Type material collected by Sellow in Brazil (Nos. 809, 1190). Known locally as araticu mirim. This species bears a certain resemblance to R. dolabripetala, but dif- fers from it in having the flowers in clusters of 2 to several, while the corolla wings are narrow, ascending, and incurved (instead of broad and widely diverging), and the lateral nerves and midrib are usually (but not always) hairy on the upper surface. A closely allied plant collected by Riedel (October, 1823) in the forest near Mandiocca has been described by R. E. Fries under the name R. laurifolia var. longipes. A specimen with geminate fruits recently collected and pho- tographed at Sitio, Minas Geraes, Brazil, by Messrs. Dorsett, Shamel, and Popenoe (No. 37882) apparently belongs to this variety. Rollinia incurva Moore, Trans. Linn. Soc. II. Bot., 4: 303. 1894. A diffuse shrub with short-petioled leaves resembling those of R. laurifolia, but obtuse at the apex and rounded at the base, glabrous and glossy above and paler beneath. Corolla wings spatulate-oblong, ascending and incurved, clothed with ferruginous tomentum. Type in the British Museum, collected by the Matto Grosso Expedi- tion in Santa Cruz, Brazil; duplicates of the type in the Herbarium of Columbia University, New York Botanical Garden. GROUP D WINGS COMPRESSED, OBOVATE AND ASCENDING Rollinia rugulosa Schlecht. Linnaea, 9: 316. 1834. A shrub or small tree. Leaf blades lanceolate or broadly lanceolate, obtusely short-acuminate at the apex, acute at the base, on both sides subglabrous, beneath glossy; young branchlets, petioles, and midrib appressed-puberulous. Peduncles usually recurved or pendulous and thickened at the apex, warty and puberulous like the calyx, 8 to 10 mm. long. Corolla lobes obovate, ascending, rounded or obtuse at 382 safford: classification of rollinia the apex, narrowed at the base, tomentose-canescent, 8 mm. long, 4 mm. broad. Fruit globose, 2.5 to 3 cm. in diameter, the component carpels forming 20 to 30 slightly raised, rounded areoles. Seeds small, pale brown, conoid, somewhat flattened. Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected in southern Brazil by Sellow. Closely related to R. rugulosa and with very similar fruit but longer and narrower leaves (suggesting those of R. salicifolia Schlecht.) is R. Warmingii R. E. Fries, the type of which was collected on Mount Tijuca, near Rio de Janeiro, by Glaziou (No. 6079). GROUP E COROLLA LOBES SHORT, STRAIGHT AND SPURLIKE, HORIZONTALLY DIRECTED Rollinia lanceolata Fries, Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., 345: 49, pi. 6, fig. 6. 1900. A small tree with small leaves, the blades lanceolate, acute at the apex and base, above glabrous except along the midrib, beneath densely ferruginous-villous along the midrib. Young branches, petioles, and solitary or rarely geminate peduncles ferruginous-tomentose. Flowers ferruginous-hirsute; outer corolla lobes spur-like, short, rounded, and widely spreading. Fruit not observed. Type in Botanical Museum of Copenhagen, collected in Brazil by Glaziou (No. 13509). GROUP F COROLLA LOBES BROADLY OVATE OR SUBORBICULAR AND LATERALLY COMPRESSED Rollinia emarginata Schlecht. Linnaea, 9: 318. 1835. A glabrescent shrub 2 to 3 meters high, growing in marshy places, with slender branches. Leaf blades, thin, membranaceous, oval or ellip- tical, obtuse at both ends or acutish at the base, emarginate or retuse at the apex, on both sides subglabrous and opaque. Peduncles usually solitary, slender, about 25 mm. long, minutely bracteolate at the base. Corolla and calyx silky-hirtellous ; corolla wings obovate-orbic- ular, widely spreading, laterally compressed. Fruit solid, about 25 to 30 mm. in diameter, ovoid globose, the component carpels scarcely at all raised or distinctly outlined. Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, by Sellow. This species is very common in southern Brazil and Paraguay. It is distinguished from most of its congeners by its small smooth fruit and emarginate leaves. safford: classification of rollinia 383 Rollinia glaucescens Sond. Linnaea, 22: 557. 1849. A glabrescent shrub. Leaf blades thinly membranaceous, ovate or lanceolate, obtuse or rarely acute at the apex, acute at the base, 5 to 7 cm. long, 2:5 cm. broad, glaucescent beneath; petioles 6 to 10 mm. long. Peduncles in pairs, one shorter than the other, the longer one bearing a small bracteole below the middle. Flowers canescent-puberulous; corolla wings broadly obovate or suborbicular, widely spreading. Fruit broadly ovoid or subglobose, small (about 2.5 cm. in diameter), solid, and smooth, the component carpels scarcely outlined and not at all gibbous. Type collected in the Province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, by Regnell on his second expedition. This species is closely allied to R. emarginata Schlecht., a species well known to Sonder. From this it differs in its leaves, which are never emarginate, and in its smaller flowers. Specimens in the U. S. National Herbarium were collected and photographed at Sao Joao de Rey, Minas Geraes, in January, 1914, by Messrs. Dorsett, Shamel, and Popenoe (No. 286). Plants have been propagated from the seed of these specimens by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction (No. 37880). Rollinia sylvatica (St. Hil.) Mart. Fl. Bras. IS1: 18. 1841. Annona sylvatica St. Hil. PI. Usuelles, pi. 29; Fl. Bras. Merid., 1: 32. 1825. A medium-sized tree. Leaves large, elliptical, somewhat resembling those of Annona cherimola, but usually acutish at the base and obtuse or very shortly cuspidate, rarely oblong-elliptical and acute or acumin- ate, above usually puberulous, beneath softly pubescent. Peduncles extra-axillary. Fruit usually solitary, edible. Type collected by St. Hilaire in the forests of Minas Geraes, Brazil. Fruit, locally known as araticu do mato (custard apple of the forest), ripening in March. At least two species are usually found in herbaria labelled R. sylvatica: one with elliptical leaves, very much like those of the chirimoya, and suborbicular corolla wings; the other with lanceolate leaves shaped very much like those of R. laurifolia, and with spatulate corolla wings. In both, the leaves are pubescent beneath. The first corresponds more nearly to the type described by St. Hilaire, in which flowers were lacking. Specimens in the National Herbarium recently col- lected and photographed in the field by Messrs. Dorsett, Shamel, and Popenoe at Bom Fim (No. 436) and Lavras (No. 250) are referred to this species. Probably distinct from this is a tree growing to a height of 20 to 25 feet, rarely cultivated in gardens at Sao Joao del Rey, in 384 CLARK : A NEW GENUS OF OPHIURANS which the leaves are lanceolate, acute at the apex, and rounded at the base, very much as in R. incurva Moore. A photograph of a fruit- bearing branch (No. 1571) was secured. The fruit, about 4.5 cm. in diameter, is composed of comparatively few large, pointed carpels. It is yellow when mature and edible, but rather insipid. As no flowers were secured, it is not possible to place this plant in one of the groups here proposed. ZOOLOGY. — Ophiomaria, a new genus of ophiurans from southern South America and the adjacent portion of the Antarctic continent.1 Austin. H. Clark, National Museum. Two new species of ophiurans from the coast of Chile which were dredged by the Albatross on her journey from the Atlantic to the North Pacific represent a type which appears to be inter- mediate between Ophioperla and such species of Ophiosteira as 0. senoqui Koehler and 0. koehleri A. H. Clark, possessing the general structure of the latter combined with the granular disk covering of the former. Together with two other species, de- scribed in 1901 by Professor Rene Koehler these forms appear to represent a logical generic unit which may be known as Ophiomaria, gen. nov. Genotype. — Ophiomaria tenella, sp. nov. Diagnosis. — The disk is pentagonal or more or less stellate. The dorsal surface is beset with fine granules which to a greater or lesser degree conceal the plates. In the central portion of the inter brachial spaces below there are usually numerous granules which surround, or even entirely conceal, the plates. The arms are slender and evenly tapering, in length equal to about four times the diameter of the disk, circular in section proximally, becoming slightly flattened distally, rarely carinate. The arm comb is represented by a narrow band of irregular plates or beadlike granules beyond the radial shields which recall the supple- mentary arm plates in Ophiopholis. At the base of the arm the upper arm plates are usually very wide, narrowly oblong; they rapidly become narrowly fan-shaped, and in the distal half of the arm very small and widely separated from each other. There are from three to five minute spaced arm spines. 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. CLARK : A NEW GENUS OF OPHIURANS 385 The other characters are essentially as in Ophiura (Ophioglypha). Range. — From the Antarctic regions in the vicinity of Cape Horn northward along the coast of Chile to 38° 8' N. lat., in from 260 to 677 fathoms. Remarks. — In addition to the two species described below, this genus includes Ophiomaria carinifera (Kcehler) and Ophiomaria doe- derleini (Kcehler). Ophiomaria tenella, sp. nov. The disk is thin and stellate, the angles continuing uninterruptedly into the arms, which taper very gradually and become very slender distally. The disk is 11 mm. in diameter, and the arms are 40 mm. long. The central portion of the dorsal surface of the disk is covered with a close and regular fine granulation through which, in some specimens, the six small rounded primary plates are visible. Toward the periph- ery of the disk this granulation becomes coarser and more irregular, the granules transforming into small flat polygonal plates. In the center of the strongly excavated interbrachial margin of the disk, as viewed dorsally, there is a transversely oval or semicircular plate, usually about twice as broad as long; between this and the radial shields on either side there is usually a plate about half as large, more or less circular or irregularly polygonal in outline, and a few, very irregular, much smaller plates. Within this interbrachial border, as within the most proximal plates in the columns separating the radial shields, there may be a few irregular polygonal plates bordering the granular covering of the central portion of the disk. The radial shields are irregular rounded triangles, nearly or quite twice as long as wide, about'as long as the width of the arm immediately beyond the disk. The radial shields of each pair are separated interiorly by a series of two or three plates of which the innermost is consider- ably longer than the others; between this last and the granulation of the center of the disk there are usually a few irregularly polygonal plates of various sizes. From the distal end of the outermost plate in the series between the radial shields there runs around the distal borders of the latter a series of two or three or more irregular plates (more rarely a double series) which takes the place of an arm comb. The upper surface of these plates is even both with that of the radial shields and with that of the arm plates beyond them. The interbrachial spaces below are filled with irregular polygonal scales which are largest along the lateral bord?rs, becoming smaller and more or less surrounded by or covered with granules centrally; toward the oral shields they tend to imbricate more or less. The genital slits are long, reaching from a notch in the middle of the sides of the oral shields to the border of the disk as viewed ven- trally; they are bordered with small truncate closely crowded papillae. The proximal edges of the oral shields are straight and' make nearly 386 CLARK : A NEW GENUS OF OPHIURAN3 a right angle with each other; the sides are roundedly incised by the proximal ends of the genital slits; the outer corners are broadly rounded; and the distal border is concave or sometimes convex. The length of the oral shields is equal to, or slightly exceeds, the breadth. The mouth papillae are five in number; the innermost is triangular and sharp pointed, the others lower, truncated distally. Continuing these is a series of five, more rarely six, papillae bordering the first arm tentacle abradially, of which the outermost is broad and triangular, with the apex over the proximal end, the others small, subequal, rounded distally; opposite these on the first under arm plate are two, rarely three, large tentacle scales, of which the outermost is about as large as the outermost in the other series, and twice as large as the inner. The side mouth shields are narrow, about four times as long, as broad, with parallel sides, and incised near their outer ends by the furrows lodging the first arm tentacles. The first upper arm plate distal to the row of plates bordering the radial shields is very narrow, almost bandlike, nearly spanning the arm in dorsal view; the next is longer and wider, with converging sides and a convex distal border; the following ones decrease regularly in width, increasing in relative length, at the fifteenth or sixteenth becom- ing triangular, twice as long as broad, with the distal border strongly convex; beyond the sixteenth each upper arm plate is separated from the preceding by an increasingly greater relative distance, as a result of the increasingly broader union of the side arm plates. The arm spines are very short and slender, on the first ten side arm plates three or four, commonly in two well spaced pairs, beyond these five, toward the end of the arm four, usually in two spaced pairs, and at the tip of the arm three. At first the arm spines are equal in length and size; beyond the basal third of the arm the lowest increases in rela- tive length, soon becoming twice as long as the others. The first under arm plate is fan-shaped, the outer border strongly convex, the very short inner border strongly concave. The second is usually slightly longer, twice as broad proximally, the lateral borders slightly concave, the distal border with a median convexity and two slight lateral concavities; the tentacles on either side are protected by four scales inwardly and three outwardly. The third is similar, but with a much narrower base and more converging sides. The fourth is rhombic. The fifth is rhombic, shorter, in contact with the fourth. The next two are shorter, rhombic, but with the outer angles cut away by the tentacle grooves, widely separated from each other. The fol- lowing ones have a low convex distal border and the outer part of the proximal border cut away by the tentacle grooves. Beyond the middle of the arms the under arm plates lie entirely between the ten- tacle grooves; they become very minute in the distal portion of the arm. Tijpe.— Cat. No. 38580, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station 2785, off the coast of Chile, in 449 fathoms. lusk: food economics 387 Ophiomaria rugosa, sp. nov. In the largest specimen the disk is 16 mm. in diameter, and the arms are about 50 mm. long. The disk is pentagonal with slightly concave sides, less stellate than that of 0. tenella, thick, at the angles of the pentagon curving abruptly downward to the arm bases. It is covered dorsally with fine granules which become coarser toward the margin, where they tend to trans- form into an irregular mosaic of small, very irregular, polygonal plates, especially at the arm bases; the radial shields are covered. The granulation of the disk may cover uniformly all of the plates, but usually one or more of the following series are visible; six widely separated circular or oval primary plates, much swollen and elevated above the general surface; a similar plate at each arm base, with some- times a small one beyond it; between the plates at the arm bases a similar but smaller plate, about the size of the central plate, in the mid- interradial line; a small plate on either side of a line between each pe- ripheral primary plate and the plate at the base of the corresponding arm; a plate in the middle of each interbrachial border, as viewed dor- sally, which sometimes forms the center of a series of very irregular plates between the arm bases. The arms are essentially as in 0. tenella, but the side arm plates and upper arm plates are rather strongly convex in profile, so that the arms appear rugged. The plates in the interbrachial areas below are much smaller than the corresponding plates in 0. tenella, and the granules are more abun- dant, smaller, and more generally distributed. On the ventral surface there appear to be no essential differences between this species and 0. tenella. Very young individuals with the radial shields exposed differ from young specimens of 0. tenella in having smaller and more numerous central plates on the dorsal surface of the disk, and swollen arm plates. Type.— Cat. No. 38579, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station 2791, off the coast of Chile, in 677 fathoms. PHYSIOLOGY. — Food economics.1 Graham Lusk, Professor of Physiology, Cornell University Medical College, New York. The consideration of the food supply from a national stand- point was forced upon Germany at the outbreak of the great war which is now in progress. Eminent scientists combined in a report upon the prospects of the sustenance of the nation. 1 A lecture delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences, April 14, 1916. 388 lusk: food economics Imports from oversea had been restricted. Meat, butter, cheese, and fish formerly obtained from Holland and Denmark were no longer available. The North Sea fisheries which had yielded 179,000 metric tons (1 metric ton = 2200 lbs.) of fish were closed, trained farm hands were fewer, crops in East Prussia and Alsace had been destroyed; the situation appeared serious. It was estimated that the annual amount of food fuel necessary to support sixty-eight million Germans— men, women, and children— was 56,750,000,000,000 calories. This is the equiva- lent of 3000 calories per adult per day. The quantity of protein required in this fuel, if the human machines were to maintain themselves in self-repair, was estimated to be 1,605,000 metric tons per annum. It was calculated that a mixed population of sixty-eight millions (men, women, and children) required the same amount of food as would 51,823,000 adults. In order to increase the production of food and to diminish the waste, the committee recommended increasing the crop of beans, with its large protein content, reducing the unnecessarily large meat supply, and increasing the intake of cheese and skim milk (which latter should no longer be fed to pigs), im- proving the yield of vegetables and fruits, and reducing the quantity of butter and cream produced. A reduction in the consumption of meat, butter, and cream was necessary, because edible grains would be required for human food, and the main- tenance of the usual number of cattle was no longer deemed possible. The estimated savings as above enumerated would result in a total production of 81.25 billion food calories containing 2,022,800 tons of protein. The conditions were summarized as shown in table I. From these data it was concluded that the German people, through cooperation of millions of inhabitants, would be able to prevent suffering for lack of food. There can be no question that respect for the scientific knowledge of specialists, of men like Rubner, Zuntz, Oppenheimer, and Lehmann, was of highest value in the hour of national exigency. Countries in which highly educated men are very slightly esteemed would have lusk: food economics 389 passed over this advice, would have consigned it to the news- paper dung-hill of " highbrow" information, and starved to death in consequence. TABLE I Showing the Annual Food Requirements of 68,000,000 People in Germany Actual requirement Used before the war Available (unchanged habits) Available (under present recommendations) PROTEIN IN 1000 METRIC TONS 1605 2307 1543 2023 CALORIES IN BILLIONS 56.75 90.42 67.86 81.25 It is not unimportant to know something of the cost of these great quantities of food fuel. If one takes the wholesale cost in the United States of food purchased on account of the Commission for Relief in Belgium as a basis, one can estimate, in terms of the cost of various simple food-stuffs, the lowest wholesale cost of the yearly food fuel requirement of the German nation, as follows: TABLE II Wholesale Cost in America of Food Fuel for 68,000,000 People COST PER POUND COST PER 1000 CALORIES COST FOR 56,750,000,000,000 CALORIES $0,016 0.023 0.03 0.033 0.045 $0,011 0.014 0.018 0.02 0.029 $634,000,000 Wheat . 794,500,000 1,022,500,000 1,135,000,000 1,634,000,000 The wholesale cost of sufficient food fuel exclusively in the form of beans to provide the United States for a period of one year would call for a sum of two and a half billion dollars. Beans are more costly than rice and wheat, but have a larger protein content. Contrast the stupendous cost of food fuel for a nation with the living expenses of a poor family in New York City (table III) . 390 lusk: food economics To the man of large affairs the expenditure of twenty-five dollars a month for food appears of little moment, and yet if the 100,000,000 inhabitants of the United States lived as this TABLE III Family, Two Adults, Three Children Wages. Rent.. .$60 per month .00 $15. Food 25 . 00 Coal 4.50 Insurance 2 . 25 Soap, matches, etc 1 .00 Clothing and extras 12.25 $60.00 typical poor man's family lived the cost of food would aggregate $6,000,000,000 per annum. To any man of large affairs the maintenance at Boston of the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, with its budget of $60,000 per annum, appeals impressively to the imagination; yet this work is ac- complished at an annual expense of one-thousandth of one per cent of what the American people would pay for food if each family of five had an income of $720 per annum. Is it not a little sad to think that the expenditure of thousands of millions of dollars annually for food, an expenditure frequently amount- ing to more than half of the income of the poor man, should take place without any real idea as to the nature of what food is? TABLE IV Supplies for a Boarding School Containing 355 Boys Food supply. Waste Food-fuel PROTEIN METRIC TONS FAT METRIC TONS 20.5 3.8 25.6 5.4 20.2 16.7 CARBO- HYDRATE METRIC TONS 60.5 4.2 56.3 Mr. F. C. Gephart, of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology, has made a study into the food consumption of the boys at St. Paul's school at Concord, New Hampshire, one of the largest lusk: food economics 391 private boarding schools in the country. The total annual food supply has been computed as shown in table IV. This amount of nourishment was taken by 355 boys and by about 100 adults (masters and servants). This quantity of food when computed on the basis of the individual meal served appears as follows: TABLE V Food Supply per Meal POUNDS ■ GRAMS CALORIES CALORIES Protein 0.1107 0.1332 0.3717 50.2 60.4 168.8 206 562 692 per cent 14* Fat 39 Carbohydrates 47 1,460 100 * 70 per cent of this is in animal protein. The cost of this food per meal was 20 cents, or 13.8 cents per 1000 calories. The food, which was bought by a purchasing agent in the Boston market and was of the best quality, in- cluded 193 separate varieties. Such a dietary taken by the 100,000,000 inhabitants of the United States would cost per annum 11^ billion dollars, if the German minimum of 3000 calories daily per adult were allowed. This cost is twice what the poor man in New York City pays for his food. These growing athletic boys, however, were not satisfied with 3000 calories daily. They not only took 4350 calories daily at the table, but they bought 650 additional calories in food at a neighboring store, the principal item being chocolate. Data concerning the subjects of the investigation are epito- mized in table VI. The basal requirement of boys is, as Du Bois has shown, 25 per cent above that of the adult. The total fuel intake was three times that of the basal level, which is the heat production when a boy is resting or asleep. The 5000 calories contained in the ingesta is half as much again as a farmer at work would require. The quantity of the calculated intake would certainly not be lowered by excluding the adults who unavoidably entered 392 lusk: food economics into this computation. These results explain the ravenous appetite of boys. Lack of appreciation of this factor and lack of provision for it are the probable causes of much of the under- nutrition seen in children of the school age. TABLE VI Table Showing the Nutrition Conditions at a School Containing 355 Boys The Upper School The School The Lower School AVER- AGE AGE HEIGHT WEIGHT BODY SUR- . PACE BASAL METAB- OLISM (CALC.) FOOD years cm. kg. sq. m. cals. cah. 16 172.7 60.6 1.73 1826 4997 14| 165.1 50.8 1.54 1737 5126 13| 157.5 43.8 1.40 1647 4949 FOOD IN PER CENT OF BASAL per cent 274 295 300 The distribution of the fuel values among the various more common articles taken as food at the school is shown in the following table : TABLE VII Percentage Distribution of the Calories Ingested at a Boys' Boarding School Bacon Beef Bread and flour Butter Cream Eggs Fowl Per cent 1 .8 6.7 13 .3 11 2 1 3 2 3 1 9 Lamb Milk Pork loins . . Potatoes Sugar Other items Per cent 5.3 12. Q 1.1 5.9 11.6 24.5 It is interesting that twelve dietary items yield 75 per cent of the fuel value, and that 181 other varieties yield the remaining 25 per cent. Bread, butter, milk, and sugar together yield 50 per cent of the food fuel. According to the German minimum allowance an average family of five (father, mother, and three children) would re- quire 11,400 calories in food daily. If the family's dietary were based proportionately upon that of the boy's school, it would cost as follows (table VIII), provided its food supplies were pur- chased on Second Avenue, New York City: lusk: food economics 393 TABLE VIII CALORIES COST IN CENTS Total food 11,400 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 Bread 5 Butter 5 Milk 16 Sugar 4 6,000 30 Thirty cents will buy more than half the family's food require- ment at an average cost of 5 cents per thousand calories, instead of 14 cents, the average cost at the school. If $25 is spent each month for food, 80 cents a day is available, or 7 cents for a thousand calories. The margin is narrow. It would be well if the family knew that more than half its food supply could be had for 30 cents a day, and that this bread, butter, milk, and sugar are of equal nutritive value to the best the country affords. The remaining 5400 calories could then be bought at a cost of 9 cents per thousand. This sum will purchase most of the usual foodstuffs, with the exception of meat. As a matter of statistics, the annual consumption of cane sugar in the United States in 1912-13 reached 85.4 lbs. per capita, which is the equivalent of 2000 calories daily for a family of five, or twenty per cent of the energy requirement. This quantity of sugar costs the nation a million and a half dollars daily, and the rich harvest to be reaped by substitution of only a part of this by saccharin, which has no fuel value whatever, is obvious. It has appeared to those at work in the laboratory that it would be of great importance to associate the caloric value of food with cost in dollars and cents. For the understanding of this, table IX has been prepared, showing the cost of 2500 calories, which is the energy requirement of an average adult of sedentary occupation. True food reform demands the sale of food by calories and not by pounds. Professor Murlin has advocated that the 394 lusk: food economics TABLE IX Weights of Various Foods Necessary to Furnish 2,500 Calories, and Cost at Second Avenue and 90th Street, New York City A man at moderate work requires 2,500 calories daily ARTICLES Corn meal Hominy Oatmeal Flour Sugar Rice (broken) Bread Lard Corn syrup Molasses Peanut butter Pork (fat) Beans (dried), pea Oleomargarine Potatoes Dates Olive oil Hickory nuts (unhulled) . . . Raisins (dried) Applies (dried) Cheese, American, pale Butter Brazil nuts (unhulled) Cocoa Lentils (dried) Almonds (unhulled) Apples (fresh) English walnuts (unhulled) Salt cod WEIGHT Pounds Ounces 1 8 1 8 1 5§ 1 8 1 5* 1 81 2 1 91 1 13 1 15 14 1 1 9 11 8 1 1 12 9J 2 0 1 12 1 13 1 o O 11 1 8 1 1 1 8 1 8 11 5 1 13 6 50.04! 0.04| 0.05i 0.06 0.07| 0.08i 0.08A 0.09§ 0.12H 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15H 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21f 0.23f 0.24 ^ 0.27 0.29 A 0.30 0.36 0.38 0.41H 0.90 government compel manufacturers to place upon each can or package of food sold the caloric content of the package. Besides fuel value it must be remembered that the body must have protein. The machinery of the living parts of the body such as muscle is in a constant state of wearing away. The wear and tear is slight, but protein must be taken in the food lusk: food economics 395 to replace that destroyed in the body or the machinery of the cells will wear out and death from lack of protein will ensue. Different proteins have different values for this purpose. Those of meat, fish, eggs, and milk will replace body protein part for part. Such proteins may be classified as proteins of Grade A. Gelatine has practically no power to replace body protein and should be classified as protein of Grade D. Wheat contains a mixture of proteins of Grades A and D in which those of Grade A predominate, so that wheat may be classified as containing protein of Grade B, whereas from analogous reason- ing corn may be said to contain protein of Grade C. An ordinary dietary with a liberal allowance of protein con- tains 15 per cent of its calories in that form. A can containing 15 per cent of its calories in protein should have a star placed with the letter determinative of the grade of protein. For example the label on a can of corn should read, "This can con- tains x calories of which y per cent are in protein of Grade C." A further desirable statement would be as to whether the food- stuff sold contained the natural mineral constituents from the organic source from which it was derived. I have elsewhere emphasized the desirability that the govern- ment should give this information with regard to all foodstuffs sold in packages. The determination of the heat of combustion of a dried sample of food takes fifteen minutes. Probably three hours would suffice to make a complete analysis by a government expert. The manufacturer should send his sample can to the Bureau of Chemistry at Washington, declaring that to be his standard and requesting information regarding his label. He should pay for this analysis as a patentee pays for his patent. If at any time the government should find the manufacturer selling on the market a material of different character than the standard deposited with the government, the manufacturer should be heavily fined. It is not possible to consider the details of the great amount of extremely valuable work accomplished by the scientific departments of the Washington Government and in the individual 396 lusk: food economics Agricultural Experiment stations in this country and abroad. It may, however, be of interest to call attention to the results of a study of the sale of food at Childs' restaurant2 which shows how this principle of caloric feeding, now adopted in hospitals and upon farms, may be worked out in the daily life of the people. The main objection that has been encountered to the sale of food on the caloric basis has been the sensitiveness of the busi- ness world to the introduction of a new and unknown quantity. Why not leave well enough alone? A more highly educated generation will, however, demand that its expenditures of thous- ands of millions of dollars for food shall not continue to take place in unfathomable depths of darkness. 2 Gephart and Lusk. Analysis and cost of ready-to-serve foods. Pub- lished by Am. Med. Assoc, 1915. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Results of observations made at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory near Tucson, Arizona, 1913 and 1914- Daniel L. Hazard. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Serial Publication No. 23. 1916. This publication is in continuation of the series giving the results obtained at the Tucson magnetic observatory since its establishment in 1909. It contains a summary of the monthly determinations of the scale-values of the horizontal intensity and vertical intensity variom- eters; the base-line values derived from the weekly absolute observa- tions; diurnal variation tables for the magnetic elements D, H, and I, the total force F, and the rectangular components X, Y, Z; hourly values of D, H, and Z, together with daily and hourly means for each month; a tabulation of the earthquakes recorded on the seismograph; a list of the magnetic disturbances of considerable magnitude, and repro- ductions of the magnetograms showing the more marked disturbances. Attention is called to the fact that beginning with 1913 intensity results obtained by this Bureau have been reduced to the international stand- ard of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. Published results for earlier years must be dimin- ished by one part in a thousand to reduce them to that standard. D. L. H. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Solar radiation and terrestrial mag- netism. L. A. Bauer. Terr. Mag., 20: 143-158. 1915. Comparisons have been made between the records of magnetic varia- tions and those of the solar constant as determined by Abbot. If the local magnetic constant G be defined as (H- + \ Z-)h, where H and Z are horizontal and vertical magnetic intensities respectively, it is found 397 398 abstracts: physics that the 1913 results from 8 magnetic observatories indicate on the average an increase of about 0.002 of a per cent in G, and a decrease of about 1 per cent in the magnetic diurnal range for a decrease of 1 per cent in the solar constant. It is shown further that the eclipse magnetic effects are of the same sign, and of the same order of magnitude as the magnetic effects which are, apparently, to be associated with about a 10 per cent decrease in the value of the solar constant. It is found that on consecutive quiet days the magnetic constant is, on the average, larger on the second day than on the first by an amount equal to that which would be caused by the average daily change in the solar constant. If the quiet day magnetic effect were to persist through- out the year, it would cause a secular variation fully 10 times that gen- erally observed. However, the quiet days are in the minority, and on the unquiet days the effect is in a direction opposite to that for the quiet days. Since there is not a complete compensation between the two opposing effects when integrated throughout a period of a year, part of the observed secular magnetic change should be of a type related to the annual change in solar constant. W. F. G. S. PHYSICS. — On the ionization of the upper atmosphere. W. F. G. Swann. Terr. Mag., 21: 1-8. 1916. If the sun is taken as a black body, and if in accordance with the experiments of Hughes, ionization does not set in below wave length 135 nn, it appears that only about 1.6 X 10-5 of the total solar radiant energy is available for atmospheric ionization. The results are applied to an example cited* by Schuster in connec- tion with his theory of the diurnal variations of terrestrial magnetism. Schuster concludes that if the upper atmosphere is treated as a shell 300 kilometers thick, at a pressure 1 dyne per square centimeter, a con- ductivity of 10-13 e. m. u. would have to exist in it in order to account for the necessary magnetic effects. The author finds that only about 10~3 of this amount can be accounted for in such a shell, by the ultra- violet radiation, and even if the whole of the sun's energy could be absorbed in producing ionization, the conductivity accounted for would yet be far too small. The above conclusion is not intended as a criticism of Schuster's theory, however, since the ultra-violet light is not the only source of ionization in the upper atmosphere. Further, it is shown that if the calculation is not limited to a shell, but if account is taken of the infi- abstracts: spectroscopy 399 nite extent of the atmosphere, the magnetic effects which result as the ultimate consequence of a feeble source of ionization may be very much greater than those calculated on the basis of a shell of finite thickness. W. F. G. S. PHYSICS. — Protected thermoelements. Arthur W. Gray. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 276. Pp. 3. 1916. The mounting described in this paper has been found to be very convenient for protecting laboratory thermoelements from damage by contamination or by mechanical strains. The closed tube which covers the temperature determining end of the thermoelement has its open end cemented into one end of a flexible copper tube, through which the wires, properly insulated, pass to a head at the other end. Projecting downwards, from this head is a glass tube which contains the ice junction. The head is provided with neutral binding posts for receiving the leads to the apparatus employed for measuring the electromotive-force by which the tem- perature is determined, and contains phosphorus pentoxide to prevent moisture films from being deposited within the protective covering. The ice-bath is contained in a vacuum jar which is protected by a metal case. By means of a bayonet joint this is suspended from the cover, which is fastened to a rod fitting the standard laboratory clamps. The head of the thermoelement telescopes with moderate friction into a split tube which projects upward from the top of the ice- bottle cover. When it becomes necessary to renew the ice, a slight turn of the case containing the vacuum jar frees the bayonet joint and per- mits lowering of the ice-bath without disturbing anything else. A. W. G. SPECTROSCOPY. — Interference measurements of wave lengths in the iron spectrum (3233A-6750A). Keivin Burns, W. F. Meggers, and Paul W. Merrill. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 274, pp. 245-272. 1916. The wave lengths of 403 iron lines have been measured by means of interferometers in an effort to determine standards at intervals of about 10 angstroms. This has been accomplished in the greater part of the spectrum between 3233A and 6750A, the region in which the In- ternational secondary standards exist. As far as possible, lines of all intensities were measured. 400 abstracts: geology The arc spectrum of iron was used in accordance with the recommen- dations of the International Wave-Length Committee. The method of procedure was that of Buisson and Fabry (Journal de Physique, 7: 169. 1908). Most of the wave lengths were determined by means of three or more interferometers in which the orders of interference ranged from 15 to 60 thousand waves. The International secondary standards were used in this comparison instead of the fundamental cadmium standard. The mean difference between the present observations and the International standards is about one part in four million. Comparisons with all the grating observations of iron lines which have been made on the LA. system prove that more secondary stand- ards were needed to obtain the highest accuracy in grating interpola- tions. Some of the grating observations show a difference in wave length which is a function of the intensity of the line. The measure- ments with' the interferometer appear to be quite free from this effect. In the course of the investigation over 600 lines were examined by means of several interferometers in order to discover the limiting or- ders of interference. This gave an idea of the width or sharpness of each line. The data on sharpness were then correlated with intensity, pole effect, and pressure shift. K. B. GEOLOGY. — Geology and oil prospects of the Cuyama Valley, Califor- nia. Walter A. English. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 631 M, pp. 191-215. 1916. The Cuyama Valley area lies within the California Coast Ranges, south of the important oilfields which border the San Joaquin Valley along its southwest side. Although written primarily as a discussion of the oil possibilities the report also brings out certain features of the complicated Coast Range structure and stratigraphy. The rocks outcropping are a thick Cretaceous formation of dark shale, and Tertiary clayey and diatomaceous shales and sandstones. The Cretaceous beds are quite uniform in lithologic character and vary little from beds of the same age in other parts of the Coast Ranges. The Tertiary formations, however, are of extremely variable lithology. During parts of Tertiary time the shore line probably crossed the Cu- yama area, for in going from west to east within this area the lower and upper Miocene rocks are traceable from marine beds typical of Coast Range deposition into non-marine beds of the type of the Ter- tiary formations present in the Mojave and Tehachapi regions to the abstracts: botany 401 east. Lithologic variations within the marine beds are due to local differential uplifts which occurred during Tertiary time, and which formed long island ridges in the sea which then covered the present Coast Ranges. These Tertiary differential uplifts also served to com- plicate the structural features of the region. The present Coast Ranges are made up of a series of long northwestward trending ridges, the indi- vidual ranges of the system, separated by wide valleys. These ranges and valleys are of structural origin, having been formed by the pro- nounced folding and faulting of early Pleistocene time. The structure resulting from the comparatively recent folding is superimposed upon structures formed by similar earlier movements. An interesting result of this combination of structures is that, although the general trend of the major lines of structure produced by the earlier movements was northwest, and thus parallel to the later structure, the blocks subjected to differential uplift during the earlier part of the Tertiary were not always the same as those most recently uplifted. An area which formed a range during the Tertiary and from which many thousand feet of beds were eroded may now form the bottom of a structural valley, and another area which was a structural trough during parts of the Tertiary may now form a recently uplifted range. W. A. E. BOTANY. — Studies of Tropical American 'phanerogams — No. 2. Paul C. Standley. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, 18: 87-142. 1916. The paper consists of descriptions of new species and of taxonomic notes upon various groups of plants, chiefly the Amaranthaceae, Alli- oniaceae, Malvaceae, and Rubiaceae, and the association of families formerly known as the Leguminosae. Most of the new species are based upon material obtained in Panama by Mr. Henry Pittier. A large number of species published in the genus Pisonia are transferred to Torrubia. A new genus of the Malvaceae, Wercklea, based upon a showy-flowered tree of Costa Rica, is published jointly with Mr. Pit- tier. Peltaea, a new genus of Malvaceae, embracing 4 species, is pro- posed and Lopimia, of the same family, is restored. There are included descriptions of three new species of persimmons (Diospyros) from Mex- ico, and 11 species of Psychotria from Panama. Two genera of Rubia- ceae, Cassupa and Stachyarrhena, are reported from North America for the first time. P. C. S. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 774th meeting was held on May 13, 1916, at the Cosmos Club, President Briggs in the chair; 53 persons present. The minutes of the 773d meeting were read in abstract and approved. After discussion the following resolution recommended by the Executive Committee was unanimously carried: Resolved: That the Philosophical Society of Washington most heartily approves of House o£ Representatives bill No. 528 (known as the Johnson bill) for the adoption of the Centigrade temperature scale in Government publications with the amendments as approved by the National Academy of Sciences. Mr. C. W. Hewlett of the Johns Hopkins University presented a communication on The analysis of complex sound waves and exhibited and demonstrated the apparatus used in the investigation. The speaker first gave an example to show what is meant by the analysis of a complex sound wave. Suppose we have three tuning forks whose frequencies are related to one another as are the numbers 1, 2, and 3, and let us consider the sound waves passing through a point at some distance from the forks. If each of the forks were excited separately we should observe at the point in question three simple harmonic trains of waves of definite intensities with frequencies corresponding to the frequencies of the forks. If all the forks were excited together we should observe a complex train of waves passing through the point, and by a proper arrangement of apparatus this complex wave could be analysed. If our analysis led to the conclusion that the complex wave was composed of the three simple harmonic trains which we ob- served when the forks were excited separately, then we should say that the analysis was correct. But, as is well known, a Fourier analysis could be carried out which would lead to an entirely different result, and it would also be a correct analysis in the sense that the portion of the complex wave analysed could be reproduced by the combination of the components found by the analysis. Again suppose that the three forks had frequencies whose relations to one another were the same as the numbers 1, 2.1, and 3.5. The complex wave from these three forks could again be analysed, and the analysis would be again re- garded as correct if it gave us three simple harmonic trains of waves with frequencies corresponding to those of the forks and intensities which we would observe with the forks vibrating separately. But a Fourier analysis in general would give us an entirely different result, 402 proceedings: philosophical society 403 and this analysis would also be correct in the sense that the portion of the wave analysed could be reproduced by combining the compo- nents found by the analysis. We thus see that a Fourier analysis does not necessarily tell anything in regard to the physical apparatus giving rise to the complex sound wave. If, however, the complex wave be explored by a system of tunable resonators the analysis so found does give information in regard to the source. The apparatus exhibited consisted of such a series of resonators. The detecting de- vice is a Rayleigh disc suspended in the opening of the resonator and deflections are measured by a beam of light reflected from the disc. Discussion. Mr. Swann raised questions regarding what was really of importance to the ear and whether a physical analysis can be of the same nature as that of the ear's system. In experimental work the mounting and operation of a musical instrument is entirely mechani- cal and without any of the effects due to a player's skill when using the same instrument. The ear apparently appreciates the energy. Mr. C. A. Briggs said that the mechanical receipt of sound by the ear might be explained by the reed frequency indicator. Mr. Curtis suggested that an improvement might be obtained by using a model of the ear's system for experimental work. Mr. Wead called atten- tion to the fact that a large part of detail of the ear's system as gener- ally described is due to handling in cleaning and cutting, and does not correspond to anything in the living ear. In music fixed pitch is not wanted. Mr. Hewlett stated that he hoped to take up later experi- mental work in connection with mechanical playing. By invitation, Mr. J. A. Anderson of Johns Hopkins University then presented a paper on Diffraction gratings; their preparation and use. A reflecting diffraction grating consists of a polished plane or spherical metallic surface on which are ruled a great number of lines or grooves, all of which must be straight, parallel, and equidistant from each other. In practice these conditions are never satisfied ab- solutely, and the question arises as to what deviations from ideal con- ditions may exist without impairing the quality of the grating. A dis- cussion shows that the lines should not have a radius of curvature of less than 3 kilometers, and the distance between them should be so nearly constant that the deviation of the last line from its ideal posi- tion should not exceed one-quarter of a wave-length. The design and construction of a machine for ruling perfect gratings is a very difficult problem, but it was solved so completely by Professor Rowland that by following him intelligently it does not now present any insurmountable difficulties. The parts of the machine must be carefully tested; methods for doing this were explained. The machine is finally tested by the method of "cross rulings," a method devised by Prof essor Row- land, and Which is so sensitive that errors in spacing as small as o Qrvr. r>An inch can be detected with ease. j| Discussion. Following the exhibit of a number of gratings and cutting tools Mr. Abbot asked regarding the life of a ruling tool and 404 proceedings: geological society largest gratings made. Mr. Anderson stated that all of the gratings were made on speculum metal. This is crystalline and therefore, owing to occasional pitting, subjects the tool to slight falls with the result that the diamond may chip ; the natural edges of the diamond are used for cutting; with care one tool will rule from 6 to 10 miles. The diamond would stand indefinite use on soft metals such as silver; if soft metals could be given as high a polish as speculum metal it would be possible to rule large gratings. Messrs. Humphreys and Wright cited a number of examples of diamonds that cannot be cut by the lapidary; they are designated as "knots." Mr. Bauer asked what is the largest number of lines ruled to the inch. Mr. Anderson stated that he had himself ruled 15,000 lines to the inch and was building a machine to rule 30,000; Professor Rowland had ruled one grating with 86,000 lines per inch but that grating had been lost; among the gratings ex- hibited was one with 43,000 lines per inch by Professor Rowland. The chair extended to Messrs. Anderson and Hewlett the thanks of the Society for their very interesting papers. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 308th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on April 12, 1916. REGULAR PROGRAM J. S. Diller: Geologic history of Lassen Peak. Lassen Peak is an ancient volcano at the southern end of the Cascade Range and fills the gap between the northern end of the Sierra Nevada and the Klamath Mountains composed largely of old sedimentary rocks. Its volcanic activity began near the close of the Eocene, was great- est during the Miocene and Pliocene and decreased in the Quaternary to near extinction. Lassen Peak is a volcano of large type surrounded by many smaller ones of later date, the whole being built up by many explosive and effusive eruptions of a notable variety of lavas. The earliest lavas are andesite, but the differentiated magma appeared later on the one hand as dacite and rhyolite, and on the other hand as basalt and quartz basalt. In developing the peak the great volcanic vent migrated nearly 4 miles to the northwest, erupting first andesite, then dacite, which built up Lassen Peak to its present height, 10,460 feet. Later, only a few centuries ago, dacite was erupted at the northwest base of the peak forming Chaos Crags, but finally activity began again May 30, 1914, erupting dacite in the old crater of the highest summit. The basalts are mainly in the peripheral region. In the discussion Diller asserted that the flashes of light, cloud glows and rocket-like incandescent bombs shot from the crater prove that at least some of the new lava erupted was hot enough to be luminous, and PKOCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 405 the flow structure in some of the breadcrusted bombs shows them to have been viscous. Arthur L. Day: Volcanic phenomena at Lassen Peak. Since the outbreak in 1914, Lassen Peak has shown four phases of activity which may be called volcanic. The first phase began on May 30, 1914, with a series of sharp explosions in the old summit crater, which developed an opening in the scoriaceous debris at the bottom of the crater some 25 by 40 feet in size and perhaps 30 feet deep. These explosions were followed by others with increasing violence for several weeks, until the new opening reached a length of 900 feet or more. No fresh lava or other evidences of heat or chemical action appeared during this phase of the activity. On May 21, 1915, the most violent explosion thus far noted took place, and was accompanied by a horizontal blast down the northeast flank of the mountain (phase 2), a mud flow (phase 3) following the blast, and a summit upheaval (phase 4) of much greater magnitude than any which had preceded it. The lateral blast was similar in its charac- ter and effects to the "Nuees Ardentes" of Mont Pelee, so accurately described by Lacroix. The temperature, however, though sufficient to melt the vast accumulations of snow on this flank of the mountain, and thus to cause the mud flow, was nevertheless insufficient to start a general conflagration of the kind which was visited upon Saint Pierre. The only evidences of combustion were confined to a single small area where local conditions interrupted the path of the blast and increased the time of exposure to its heat. A similar blast occurred on May 23. That the mud flows were caused by the melting snow on the outer flanks of the mountain, rather than by an outflow of mud from the crater, as at first reported, is plainly established by the observation that no mud is found within some 1500 feet of the summit. The devas- tation caused by the mud flow was, nevertheless, of considerable mag- nitude, and involved some 5 million feet of standing timber, much of which was swept away, root and branch. The upheaval at the summit, lifting a considerable portion of the bottom of the old crater, including sections of the east and west rims, but not being sufficiently powerful to hurl it completely off from the mountain top, produced the appearance of an area which has been effectively dynamited. At the east end, where the lateral blast found vent, some large boulders were split off and were carried by the mud flow into the valleys below. The remaining upheaved matter fell back in a wild chaos of boulders, the summit of which is now 200 feet or more above the lowest point of the old crater bowl. A visit to this upheaved area about 4 weeks after the occurrence re- vealed a few cracks, adjacent to the center of explosive activity, from which hot gases were still escaping. Except for the rocks and ash adjacent to these cracks, all the upheaved matter was cold. From this and other surface indications, it seems impossible to conclude that any fresh lava reached the surface, nor could any considerable evidence of chemically active gases be found. 406 proceedings: biological society On the northeast flank of the mountain, a mile or more from the crater, a few breadcrust bombs were found, but these are angular in contour and are deemed to have acquired their breadcrust surface from superficial rather than from initial plasticity. Proof of this is found in the fact that some of the breadcrusted material is nothing more than scoriaceous tuff. No evidence was discovered that the breadcrusting was associated with the May outbreak. The absence of convincing evidence of very high temperatures, or of chemically active gases, suggests the conclusion that the activity may have been caused by explosions of superheated steam resulting from the approach of meteoric water to the volcano hearth. Carroll H. Wegemann, Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 556th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 6, 1916; called to order by President Hay at 8 p.m., with 45 persons present. On recommendation of the Council Victor J. Evans, Washington, D. C, was elected to active membership. The President announced the recent deaths of Charles A. Davis and S. M. Gronberger, members of the Society. The first communication of the regular program was by M. W. Lyon, Jr., Longevity of bacteria. Dr. Lyon described a culture of Bacillus paratyphosus B. which had been hermetically sealed in a glass tube in ordinary culture medium for the past ten years, and exhibited a living subculture which had been made from it. He called attention to the short life of certain organisms and the long life of others, espe- cially those producing spores. This communication was discussed by Dr. L. 0. Howard and Mrs. E. M. Enlows. The second paper was by Dr. L. Stejneger: The amphisbaenoid lizards and their geographic distribution. Dr. Stejneger called attention to various theories that have been advanced to account for the distribu- tion of animals, and explained how the amphisbaenoid lizards, with their peculiar morphology and habits, were particularly adapted to show former connections with now separated land masses and islands. The distribution and relationships of these lizards clearly showed a former land connection between South America and Africa. Dr. Stejneger's paper was illustrated by charts, diagrams, and maps showing the classification, the structural taxonomic characters, the probable evolution, and the geographic distribution of the amphis- baenoid lizards. The Chair, Dr. L. 0. Howard, Dr. C. H. T. Town- send, Gen. T. E. Wilcox, and others took part in the discussion. The last paper of the evening was by W. L. McAtee: Sketch of the natural history of the District of Columbia. Mr. McAtee gave a very interest historical account of the study of the natural history of the District of Columbia from the earliest accounts of Capt. John Smith proceedings: anthropological society 407 who ascended the Potomac River as far as Little Falls and made notes on the fauna of the region, and the accounts of other early explorers and travellers, down to recent times. The speaker gave many enter- taining quotations from the writings of these early naturalists, told about the early societies interested in the natural history of the District, and described the faunal and floral lists that have appeared, mention- ing the number of species in each and calling attention to the fact that the District of Columbia is the type locality for many species. Mr. McAfee's communication was discussed by the Chair, and by Messrs. L. O. Howard, D. E. Lantz, and William Palmer. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON At the 496th meeting, held March 7, 1916, Dr. C. L. G. Anderson read a paper on Old Panama. After reviewing the voyage of Colum- bus along the Panamanian coast and incidents of the early history of the Isthmus, especially the settlement of Balboa, Pizarro, and others on the Gulf of Darien in 1510, he spoke particularly of early accounts of the aborigines. West of the colony of Darien came the Indian Province of Cueva, and west of that the province of Coiba, which ended at Limon Bay and the Chagres River. Darien or Cueva is a better name than Cuna for the Indians commonly known as San Bias, Mandin- gas, etc. These, of course, do not include the Chocos of Columbia. The natives of Uraba, east of the Gulf of Darien, were always called Caribes; they fought with bows and poisoned arrows. The Dariens, at the time of the Conquest, did not poison their weapons or make war with bows and arrows, but with wooden swords, long lances, and jave- lins hurled by the use of throwing sticks. Unlike the Mexicans and Peruvians, they had no belief as to the coming of the white Messiah, and fought the Spaniards from the start. Oviedo mentions the following among the tongues between Uraba and Cape Gracias a Dios: Cueva, Coyba, Burica, Lengua de Paris, Lengua de Veragua, Chondales, Nicaragua, Chorotegas, Oroci, Orotina, Giietares, and Maribios. There were four kinds of houses: (1) quadrangular, (2) circular, (3) communal dwellings similar to those among the San Bias today, and (4) dwellings in the tops of trees. The first whites exaggerated the nudity of the natives, for pages are devoted to descriptions of their clothing. They possessed both ordinary and ceremonial garments. Females wore a short skirt and often added a shirt. Chiefs wore long white robes on ceremonial occasions. According to the same early chroniclers the tribes believed in a supreme being, and worshipped the sun, moon, and many spirits. They had medicine men and priests who told the people what they should do. Puberty was attended with ceremonies. There was much drinking of chicha at weddings and a house was built for the young man by his friends. After confinement a woman bathed herself and babe in the river and the newborn was 408 proceedings: anthropological society fumigated with tobacco. When not warring, the bands bartered dry- fish, sea-salt, shells, pottery, etc., among themselves. Slaves were branded or had a particular tooth pulled out. Graves were covered level with the ground, although the Chibchas constructed burial mounds. The bodies of chiefs were desiccated over a slow fire. All undertakings began with drink, singing and dancing. The best recent description of the Chocos is by Mr. H. Pittier. There is much discussion over the classification of the Indians of western Panama. A memorial of 1606 A. D. mentions among the tongues in Chiriqui Province those of the Cothos, Borisques, Dorasques, Utelaes, Bugabaes, Zunes, and others. The Bureau of American Ethnology was urged to study the Isthmian tribes before their primitive customs are lost. Mr. Pittier said, in discussing the paper, that it had been deter- mined that Columbus was at Limon, and that the blowpipe, as well as the bow and arrow, was used by certain tribes of the region. Dr. Anderson agreed that Panama Indians used the bow and arrow to some extent, but stated that they were not employed in warfare. Following Mr. Pittier's statement concerning slaves farther north, Dr. Swanton pointed out that there was no true slavery in North America north of Mexico, excepting on the North Pacific Coast. The so-called slaves of the Pawnee or the Green Bay tribes mentioned by others were nothing more than war captives. At its 497th meeting, held March 21, 1916, Miss Frances Dens- more, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, addressed the society on Mandan Music. The songs and legends presented by the speaker were collected among the Mandan Indians on the Fort Berthold Reser- vation, in North Dakota, during two visits to that reservation, the first in 1912, the second in 1915. A few facts concerning the history of the tribe were given by way of introduction. The Mandan are of Siouan stock and first appear on the page of history in 1738. About ten years later they are said to have been living near the mouth of the Heart River, in North Dakota, and remains of their villages at that point were found by Lewis and Clark in 1804. An epidemic of smallpox almost obliterated the tribe in 1837, the number of survivors being estimated at about 125. Lewis and Clark give the number of Mandan previous to this epidemic as 1600. Since that time the tribe has increased and the report of the Indian Office for 1914 gives the number of full-blood Mandan as 220. Some of these are sturdy old people who have kept their tribal tradi- tions, and from such men and women the material comprised in this paper was collected. To the minds of the Mandan their country was peopled with spirit beings who lived in the trees and the buttes. From the spirit women who lived in Eagle Nose Butte, about 30 miles south of the present site, of Bismarck, they say they received a society called the Creek Women Society, with its ceremonial songs. Some details concerning proceedings: anthropological society 409 this society were given by the speaker, who also outlined the legend of the Terrible Snake who lived in Thunder Butte. After describing briefly the life in the old Mandan village the speaker passed to the principal subject of the paper, which was the custom of eagle catching. The tradition of the origin of this custom, as well as of the wolverine fetish owned by every leader of the eagle catchers, had been secured from the last Mandan who owns such a fetish and has the inherited right to sing the songs connected with it. These songs comprised those taught to the first eagle catcher by a wolverine, and include songs given to the wolverine by the buffalo, black eagle, coyote, and snake, as well as songs to be sung when the eagle trap was constructed and the bait prepared, the cord for securing the eagle made ready, and the sweat lodge built in the eagle camp. Other songs were connected with eagle catching, which was an undertaking having a deep significance and a somewhat ceremonial character. Several of these songs were sung by the speaker, who also gave a song said to have been learned from the Moon. A song connected with the legend of the origin of the flute was given in connection with the narrative. Charts were presented giving a comparison of Chippewa, Sioux, and Mandan-Hidatsa songs, as studied by the speaker. In these dia- grams were included certain songs of the Hidatsa, who for many years have lived in the same villages with the Mandan, and other songs which cannot be accredited with exactness to either tribe. The musi- cal material obtained on this reservation is therefore considered as Man- dan-Hidatsa when placed in comparison with that of other tribes. Comparison of tonality with Chippewa and Sioux shows the Mandan to contain a larger percentage of major songs than either of these tribes, the percentages of major songs being 57 among the Chippewa, 40 among the Sioux, and 65 among the Mandan-Hidatsa. Compari- son of structure showed the percentage of harmonic songs (those whose contiguous accented tones bear a simple chord-relation to each other) to be 24 per cent among the Chippewa, 12 per cent among the Sioux, and 35 per cent among the Mandan-Hidatsa. These comparisons are based upon the analysis of 70 Mandan-Hidatsa songs, while the number of Chippewa and Sioux songs examined is much larger. Fur- ther investigation may somewhat change the results of the comparative analysis. The paper was illustrated throughout by lantern slides, and was fol- lowed by two musical numbers under the direction of Mr. Heinrich Hammer, showing the adaptation of Indian themes in musical composi- tion. One of these was a fantasie for violin and piano, composed by Mr. Hammer on a theme collected by Miss Densmore and presented for the first time on this occasion. At the 498th meeting, held April 4, 1916, Miss Adela C. Breton, Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, read a paper on A ustral- asian museums and their work. The natives are becoming absorbed 410 proceedings: anthropological society into the white community and in many places are semicivilized and losing their former crafts. Nowhere except in the museums can the ethnologist get a thorough understanding of what they accomplished. The Australian Museum at Sydney has immense series of all Aus- tralian weapons, arborglyphs, etc., and a magnificent New Guinea collection, including pottery, and bone daggers. Among American things are Arkansas pottery; Peruvian figure pots, throwing sticks, and celts with lance heads; and shell beads from Yucatan (received from A. Bastian). The bone daggers are like those in the ear piercing ceremony in the Mexican picture codices. They are said to be for dispatching an enemy and are usually made from the tibia of a casso- wary. The Perth Museum collection includes native string knotted bags, stone implements of an early type, glass spear heads, spear throwers, bull roarers, and the only known spear head of pottery; also pottery from Zuni, Chiriqui, and Nicaragua, sent in exchange by the Smith- sonian Institution; and ancient Patagonian arrow points, stone borers, incised pottery, etc. The serrated glass spear heads of Australia exhibit the highest skill and are still made for sale by natives imprisoned at Broome on the northern coast. The Adelaide Museum has rare, rudely made native canoes, axes, quartzite daggers in sheaths, stone picks used for fighting at close quarters, and big stone axes a foot long; also native skulls, a Pacific Islands collection with models of houses, and metal bomerangs from India and West Africa. The unwieldy stone axes are very heavy and were set in short handles of pliant wood split for the stone to pass through and fastened with resin, as in the case of tomahawks. The Melbourne Library and Museum contains Australian ceremonial objects of painted wood and feather decorations somewhat similar to those of the Hopi, on which Baldwin Spencer is an authority; also petroglyphs, boomerangs, lillil (or waggera), shields, axes, and wedges. The Kenyon and Mahony collection has 10,000 stone implements, showing a great variety of types from different places. At Portland, paleolithic types were found; on the Gouldbourne, chipped river peb- bles; in the interior, where brittle stone implements were scarce, they were used and re-used to make pigmy types. The Hobart Museum has the skeleton of the last Tasmanian. This state, like the others, prepared interesting handbooks that contained much information about the natives for the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which met in Australia in 1914. The Auckland Museum of New Zealand has much Maori ornamentation. An entire house has been re-erected in the great hall, the interior walls finely carved in panels. Still finer are some panels and long pieces of carved wood from an old house that was taken down and the carved parts buried for safety during a war. Small wooden coffins shaped like fetishes and painted are shown and there is a skeleton and the unfinished stone axes buried with it. There are many carved ceremonial clubs, and all show evidence of a high state of art formerly prevailing among . the Maori. proceedings: anthropological society 411 Dr. R. W. Shufeldt (a member of the Royal Society of Melbourne), Drs. S wanton, Michelson, and Folkmar, and others took part in the discussion. Special mention was made of a skull, probably pleisto- cene, recently discovered in the Darling Downs, this being the oldest of human remains so far found in Australia. Many photographs brought from Australia were shown by Miss Breton, including views of a settlement of aborigines 40 miles from Melbourne ; also arrow heads and other artifacts. Miss Breton also read printed and manuscript accounts of the natives as seen about 1830 by her father, a naval officer, who considered the Australians the lowest race he had met in any part of the world. Daniel Folkmar, Secretary. At the 499th regular and 37th annual meeting held April 18, 1916,, Dr. John R. Swanton, President of the Society, read a paper on The influence of inheritance on human culture. The speaker stated that he would apply the term heredity to the inalienable things which the individual receives in body and mind through ancestors, and the term inheritance to alienable ideas and things which have been trans- mitted to him by the entire social body into which he was born. The environment which one inherits is of two kinds, the environ- ment of unaffected nature and the environment which previous genera- tions have brought into being by their action upon nature. The direct action of nature has been much dwelt upon and would appear at first sight fundamental, but, on inquiring what environment is, we find that all depends upon the amount of environment which a people is able to grasp. Thus the same area may include tribes of very different planes of development, and the culture of succeeding generations in the same area may be wide apart. The history of man exhibits a constantly greater grasp of environment by most peoples of the earth, a grasp which extends farther and farther into the past, owing to improved methods of recording, and brings humanity more and more in touch with the future. Speaking in economic terms this heaped-up wealth is the capital of humanity, with which more capital is created in the present, to be again transmitted. All of it is not, however, of social value. The ideas which come to us down the stream of time may be false and the institutions and other creations may be injurious. There is a conservative instinct which tends to preserve what is of no real utility, an instinct comparable in many ways with that biological conservatism which tends to preserve vestigial organs in animals. Many such elements seem to have resulted from the perversion of what was once of value, bat others appear never to have had any excuse for being. One of the most pernicious of all appears to be that which permits the ownership of a disproportionate share of world capital to limited or privileged classes. Monopoly in learning, however, has been gradu- ally destroyed by the multiplication of books, journals, and other means of education, while monopoly in things still continues. We are 412 proceedings: anthropological society "the heirs of all the ages," but too many of us are younger sons, and the owners of privilege always endeavor to transmit to their blood or business descendants as much advantage as possible. One set of privileges consists in patents of nobility and governmental privileges attached thereto. Another is the ownership of some economic neces- sity, such as land, mineral or oil deposits, power sites, franchises in- volving control of means of communication or the furnishing of articles of general necessity or utility, the control of industrial establishments, and so on. In connection with these various types of control it must not be forgotten that the value of each, as a money making proposition, de- pends without exception on society, because if society did not endorse privileges and purchase commodities there would be no value in owner- ship. To this must be added the service which society performs in defending and preserving the source of income. Such considerations limit very much our estimate of the service which even the most cap- able beneficiary of privilege performs; and when, under the action of our laws of inheritance, the source of income passes to another, the moral right of the heir, measured in terms of service, becomes much less. Nevertheless, it is possible that sources of income of the several kinds enumerated may descend indefinitely in particular strains of blood, and under such circumstances there appears to be little differ- ence in position between those who enjoy titles of nobility and those who enjoy titles to industrial sources of income. The fact that control of income-yielding property may be ended by sale or bankruptcy does not alter the fact, so long as the general condition exists, any more than the banishment of a single nobleman and the confiscation of his possessions alters the fact of the existence of a titled nobility. The ultimate solution of this question appears to involve one of two courses of action: either some method of binding together use and ownership so tightly that he who uses a thing will not be excluded from at least partial ownership in it, or ownership vested in the state or some other collective and immortal body, use being granted individ- uals during the limited period of their lives. The accumulations of human society, its capital, are primarily collective accomplishments and, therefore, society has a prior right to them. Whatever service the individual may perform, he cannot properly maintain a vicarious right to compensation after his death in the persons of his descendants or successors. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Dr. John R. Swanton; Vice-President, Mr. William H. Babcock; Secretary, Miss Frances Densmore; Treasurer, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt; Councillors, Dr. Truman Michelson, M*\ Neil M. Judd, Mr. Francis LaFlesche, Dr. C. L. G. Anderson, and Dr. Edwtn L. Morgan. Frances Densmore, Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI JULY 19, 1916 No. 13 OCEANOGRAPHY. — On the temperature of the water below the 500-fathom line on the west coast of South and North America.1 Austin H. Clark, National Museum. A critical examination of the temperature observations taken by the Albatross in water of over 1000 fathoms in depth between California and the Hawaiian Islands2 appears to indicate that in the oceanic abvsses of the north Pacific there is a distinct, though slight, rise in temperature along this line from east to west. A similar study has been made of all the Albatross records for temperatures below 500 fathoms, 417 in number, from Chile to and including the Bering Sea. The most striking feature of the abyssal temperatures of the eastern Pacific is the very small range of maximum variation (see last column of table), which is much less than in the east Atlantic. For water of over 2000 fathoms in depth we have no records south of Mexico; on the southern coast of Mexico the water below the 2000-fathom line is +0.65° (that is, 0.65° above the average temperature for the whole ocean at that depth as given by Murray and Hjort); off central Mexico it is slightly cooler, + 0.17°; off northern Mexico there is almost the same drop, to —0.30°; the next reading, roughly between the Columbia River and southern Alaska, is warmer again, —0.09°, while in the Gulf of Alaska the temperature is nearly intermediate between that off northern Mexico and that off the northwestern 1 Published with the permission of the Commissioner of Fisheries. 2 Journ. Wash. Acad. ScL, 6: 175-177. 1916. 413 414 CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES United States and British Columbia, -0.21°; in Bering Sea, where depths greater than 2000 fathoms occur only in the western part, the temperatures below 2000 fathoms are intermediate between those off the northwestern United States and British Columbia and those in the Gulf of Alaska, —0.15°. The temperatures between 1500 and 2000 fathoms show a maximum of +0.80° off northern South America and southern TABLE I DEPTH (FATHOMS) Off Chile (45° 35' to 3S°0S' S.) Galapagos Islands. . . South and Central America to Mexico West coast of Mexi- co to 16° 46' N.... Mexico ; 18° 23' N. to the Gulf of Cali- fornia Gulf of California. . . Gulf of California to 32° N California; 32° to 33° 42' N 33° 42' to 45° N 45° to 55° N 55° to 59° 19' N Bering Sea Maximum range in Temperature 500-750 -0.20 (1) 750-1000 +0.9S (9) +0.92 (4) +0.75 (6) + 1.10 (1) +0.50 (3) +0.22 (16) -0.40 (13) -0 97 (17) -1.72 (8) -1.71 (20) 3?27 +0.93 J- 1.22 +0.75 +0.80 +0.50 (3) (8) (2) (2) (3) +0.42 (4) + 1.51 +0.38 -0.46 0 85 0.91 (12) (5) (10) (8) (12) 1000-1 500 +0.40 (3) +0.62 (4) +0.66 (17) 1500-2000 over 2000 +0.25 (2) + 1.40 (3) -0.04 (5) +0.70 (1) -0.36 .8) -0.37 (7) -0.69 (25) 2?36 9° ?09 — +0.80 (19) +0.66 (3) +0.13 (14) + 1.10 (1) -0.10 (4) -0 03 (12) -0.09 (20) -0 23 (20) 1?33 +0.65 (2) +0.17 (9) -0.30 (5) -0.09 (10) 0.21 (20) -0.15 (26) 0?95 Central America, and a second more strongly marked maximum of +1.10° in the pocket-like Gulf of California. North of the Gulf of California the readings are all below normal, varying from -0.03° between 45° and 55° N. lat. to -0.23° in the Bering Sea. It is interesting that the temperature off northern Mexico and the southwestern United States (—0.10°) is approximately identical with that from 55° to 59° N. lat. (-0.09°), though the two localities are separated by a region showing a deficiency only one third as great (—0.03°). CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES 415 The temperatures between 1500 and 2000 fathoms correspond closely with those below 2000 fathoms; but while south of the Gulf of California the excess is the same for both levels, north of that point the deficiency in the shallower water is approxi- mately only one third of what it is in the deeper, excepting in the Bering Sea, where it is half again as great. The series of temperatures between 1000 and 1500 fathoms is interesting in showing an excess of warmth off the Chilean coast (+0.40°) increasing to off northern South and Central America (+0.66°), where we noted the maximum in the pre- ceding series, and decreasing again off central Mexico (+0.25°), as in the 1500-2000 fathom level. In the Gulf of California there is, as before, a second, higher, maximum (4-1.40°). Off southern California there is apparently a considerable excess, but this is based on a single record which is very likely erroneous. Except for this the deficiency increases from the region north of the Gulf of California ( -0.04°) to the Gulf of Alaska ( -0.37°), becoming nearly twice as great again ( — 0.69°) in the Bering Sea. The points of especial interest are the maximum off northern South and Central America, and the uniformity between 45° and 59° 19' N. lat., the latter contrasting with what we found to be the case at the two preceding levels. Between 750 and 1000 fathoms the points of interest are: (1) A well marked maximum (4-1.22°) off northern South and Central America; (2) a relatively low excess (+0.50°) in the Gulf of California, which is continued to 32° N.; and (3) an excess, instead of a deficiency as everywhere below 1000 fathoms, as far as 33° 42' N. Between 500 and 750 fathoms the chief excess is in the Galapa- gos Islands ( + 1.30°) and in the Gulf of California ( + 1.10°). There is a deficiency off Chile, and a progressively increasing deficiency from 33° 42' N. to the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. If we except for the moment the pocket-like Gulf of California, which is comparable to the Red Sea or the Adriatic, the abyssal temperatures along the west American coast are found to fall into two classes, one capable of further subdivision, as follows: 416 CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES (1) Temperatures all above the average (South and Central America to the Gulf of California) (2) Temperatures all below the average (southern California and northward to and including the Bering Sea) (a) Temperatures considerably below normal (south- ern California and the Gulf of Alaska) (b) Temperatures slightly below normal (central California to Alaska) (c) Temperatures intermediate (Bering Sea) The regularity in the rise in the temperature of the abyssal water from Chile to the Panamic region and the subsequent drop in temperature along the Mexican coast suggests that the temperature of the deep water in the vicinity of the coast is influenced by the volume of warm water delivered in the region of Panama and southern Central America by the Equatorial Counter Current which, unable to extend to the northward because of the strong California Current which acts as a barrier, is exerted to the southward along the South American coast, within the region dominated by the Humbolt Current. There is no need in this connection for assuming any ex- tensive flow of water southward along the South American coast, for a relatively slight amount of water delivered in the upper layers on the northwestern South American coast would suffice to depress the isotherms sufficiently to give the figures observed. The Gulf of Alaska is essentially a backwater or cul-de-sac, and the marked coldness of its abysses appears to indicate that this condition extends to its greatest depths ; that is to say, that the coldness of its abysses is due to local causes, chiefly the chill- ing of its upper layers in winter. It is probably this chilled water from the Gulf of Alaska moving southward which causes the deficiency in the temperature of the deeper levels (as well as of the upper layers), all the way to the region just north of the Gulf of California. x It would appear that the water off southern California in the well known region of up-welling is colder than in the region between southern California and the Gulf of Alaska. There is no reason why this should be so unless the cold water along CLARK: ABYSSAL TEMPERATURES 417 this coast is supplied, as I have already suggested (basing my conclusions on biological data) may be the case, from the Antarc- tic regions through the medium of an offshore abyssal current which is drawn shoreward by the upwelling off southern Cali- fornia and in the Gulf of Alaska. But the observations on the bottom temperatures between California and the Hawaiian Islands seem to cast serious doubt on the existence of such a current. The biological data are adequate, and point to a definite conclusion; but since animals readily pass from water of a certain origin to water of quite a different origin, if the two have the same biological coefficient (temperature, food value, salinity, and silt in approximately the same relative proportions) , biological data are always unreliable. The physical data are far from exact, and we have no chemical data. Thus the true explanation of this phenomenon, if it be real and not merely the result of inaccurate thermometer readings, must be left to the future. In the Bering Sea there are 103 temperature observations in water of over 500 fathoms in depth which may be regarded as approximately accurate. Between 500 and 750 fathoms the average temperature for the Bering Sea as a whole is —1.71° below that of the entire ocean. There is an appreciable, though small, difference be- tween the regions east and west of the 180th meridian, the former being 0.63° warmer than the latter. But below 750 fathoms there is no appreciable difference east and west of 180° — only 0.02° between 750 and 1000 fathoms, with the lower reading in the east, and 0.01° from 1500 to the deepest readings, with the lower reading in the west. Between 750 and 1000 fathoms we find an average tempera- ture — 0.91° below that of the ocean as a whole at that depth; between 1000 and 1500 an average of —0.69°; between 1500 and 2000 an average of —0.23°; and below 2000 an average of — 0.15°. This is in interesting contrast to the conditions in the Gulf of Alaska where the temperature of the water is approxi- mately the same as in the Bering Sea as a whole between 500 and 1000 fathoms, less cold between 1000 and 2000 fathoms, more cold again below 2000 fathoms. 418 COBLENTZ: BLACK BODY RADIATION PHYSICS. — Constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly heated inclosure or so-called black body, II? W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of Standards. A knowledge of the exact value of the constants which enter into the mathematical equation which represents the distribu- tion of energy in the spectrum of a black body is necessary in many physical problems, especially in extending the tempera- ture scale higher than is possible by means of thermocouples. Spectral energy curves have been obtained by means of a vacuum bolometer, a mirror spectrometer, and a fluorite prism; and the constants of spectral radiation of a black body have been published in a previous paper.2 The present paper gives the result of a recomputation of these constants. This recomputation was necessitated by the adoption of a new and apparently more reliable calibration curve of the fluorite prism used in the work, and by the discovery of a small error which was found in the previous computations. Although these errors are small (and would have been considered negligible four years ago) they happen to be of the same sign and, hence, have an appreciable effect upon the final result. The results of the present computations give a mean value of C = 14369, which is close to the mean value of all the published data. When the data of other investigators are summarized, it is found that they lie close to C = 14350. From a consideration of the data now available it appears that the values of the constants of spectral radiation are close to C = 14350 micron deg. A = 2890 micron deg. and that the coefficient of total radiation is of the order of and the cieavage pianes Gf the fashioned itself to the calcite crystals. 424 troxell: fossil birds eggs surfaces of the calcite crystals. On the other hand the space within the calcite may have been left when the growth of the crystals had reached its limit, or it may have been occupied by the desiccated resi- due of the egg ma- terial. The inner surface of the geode is lined with minute crystals of quartz. SECOND SPECIMEN The second speci- men of fossil egg was flattened to about three fourths its former diameter; be- cause of this distor- tion and because of the total absence of silica it presents some added points of interest. The dimensions are: Length 61 mm., width 48 mm., thickness 34 mm. The hump, as shown in figure 4, appears to be a result of rigid opposition in the center while the edges were forced down. In reality it is simply the normal arch displaced. There was pliable re- sistance within the egg ; the strain, therefore, which shortened the vertical diameter re- sulted in an increase in the horizontal di- mensions ; quite probably the volume did not change appreciably. Except for this there would have been real crushing or caving in without a corresponding increase in size laterally. Fig. 3. Fossil egg; second specimen. Top view, about natural size. The very rough surface is un- like that of most modern eggs. The cracks in the edge as well as the change in form indicate the ex- tensive crushing. v. IIS*! Fig. 4. Side view of specimen shown in figure About natural size. troxell: fossil birds eggs 425 The flattening and consequent increase in circumference caused a series of perpendicular cracks around the edge, just such as might be formed by flattening a mud ball. Although fracturing occurred, the pressure within was sufficient to pre- vent the entrance of clay or other solid material. It is quite probable, therefore, that the egg was fresh when buried and that the surrounding mud, after settling, solidified before the removal of the animal matter and before the deposition of calcite began. Fig. 5. Same as figures 3 and 4, showing the crystalline interior. About natural size. The large amber crystal of calcite in the center seems to have taken the place of the yolk, while the white crystals surround it. This similarity is only an interesting coincidence, for the parts, except the shell, bear no relation to the original egg. Calcite is the only mineral occupying the cavity of this speci- men; beneath the shell there is a 5 mm. layer made up of small crystals and within this, occupying the center but not entirely filling it, is a large double crystal of amber hue. One is struck at once with the great similarity in appearance to a modern egg in which are found the shell, white, and yolk in the same position and relative proportions. It is an unusual case of mimicry on the part of inanimate nature, for it is incredible that the soft part of an egg should exert such an influence on crystallizing calcite as to impose its form and color. 426 swingle: new genus pleiospermii \m BOTANY. — Pleiospermium, a new genus related to Citrus, from India, Ceylon and Java. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1834 Wight and Arnott described1 as a new species Limonia alata, putting it with Limonia missionis in a section Limoniae spuriae, in contrast to Limonia acidissima, which constituted a section Limoniae verae. All subsequent authors have retained it in the genus Limonia. It has been shown2 that the name Limonia is untenable, so it becomes necessary to find another name for L. alata. The Limonia acidissima of writers on Indian botany is the type of the genus Hesperethusa, the oldest valid name being H . crenu- lata (Roxb.) Roem.; but a comparison of these two plants, both formerly put in the genus Limonia, has convinced the writer that they are not congeneric. The genus Hesperethusa has minute black fruits, usually 4-celled, with only a single seed in each cell; the leaves are pinnate, with a broadly alate rachis; the margins of the leaflets and of the wings of the rachis are crenate. The plant in question, Limonia alata, has fruits about an inch in diameter, usually with two seeds in each cell, the seeds surrounded by a glutinous fluid. The leaves are usually trifoliolate and the leaflets are entire. These differences are of much taxonomic significance in this group of plants and in consequence it seems necessary to create a new genus to include Limonia alata and its little-known con- gener, L. dubia Blume. In 1896 Engler created under the genus Limonia a new section, Pleiospermium,3 with a single species, Limonia alata. This being the oldest name for the group, it may be retained as the generic designation.4 1 Wight & Arnott. Prodr., 1: 92. 1834. 2 Swingle, Walter T. The name of the wood-apple, Feronia Limonia. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 325-328. 1914. 3 Engler & Prantl. Nat. Pflanzenfam., 34: 189. 1896. 4 Pleiospermium Swingle, gen. nov. (Limonia §Pleiospermium Engl.). Genus Pamburo affine, foliis 3-foliolatis (vel 1-2-foliolatis), tsnuibus, venis conspicuis, disco parvo, parietibus ovarii vesiculis brevibus instructis. Folia 3-foliolata vel 2-foliolata vel 1-foliolata, pi'tiolis plus minusve alatis, swingle: new genus pleiospermium 427 Pleiospermium (Engler) Swingle, gen. now Small trees with glabrous branchlets, sometimes with a single stout spine (or two spines) at the side of the bud in the axil of the leaf, some- times spineless, especially the fruiting branches. Leaves typically trifoliolate with the lateral leaflets much smaller than the terminal one, sometimes bifoliolate or unifoliolate (very often so in P. dubium), of medium thickness, glossy above, finely netted-veined beneath; lateral veins slender, not very conspicuous, making a very obtuse angle with the midrib; margin entire, the apex obtuse or subacute, rarely acuminate, bluntly rounded at the very tip, the leaflet blade abruptly narrowed to a cuneate base; petiole variable in length, nar- rowly winged (in P. dubium sometimes nearly apterous), articulated with the blade. Flowers small, about 12 to 15 mm. in diameter, 4-5-merous, borne on rather short, finely pubescent pedicels, in clus- ters in the axils of the leaves or in a terminal much-branched hoary panicle. Flower buds cylindric, rounded at the tip, more or less pubes- cent; calyx small, 4-5-lobed; sepals deltoid, finely pubescent. Petals oblong or ovate, obtuse, entire, sparingly covered with fine pubescence on the outer surface. Stamens free, 8 or 10 (twice as many as the petals); filaments free; anthers large, erect, linear-oblong or oblong. Pistil subsessile, seated on a low annular disk; style slender, gradually merging with the tip of the ovary, ending in the somewhat thicker capitate stigma; ovary ovate, 4- or 5-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell. Fruits globose, like a small orange in appearance, the cells con- taining one or two seeds surrounded with an aromatic, mucilaginous fluid, and, at least in P. dubia, having short, slender pulp vesicles scattered on the inner ovary wall. Peel rough, dotted with numerous oil glands. Seeds oval, flattened; germination unknown. Type species, P. alatum {Limonia alata Wight & Arm), native to southern India and Cejdon. Geographic range: India, Ceylon, Java, and adjacent islands (?). The genus Pleiospermium is most closely related to Pamburus and Merope, having soft-rinded fruits resembling very small oranges or lemons in appearance but having only 4 or 5 cells, filled with a glutinous fluid, each cell containing 1 or 2 seeds. All three of these genera are laminis articulatis; laminae tenues superne nitidae subtus reticulatae. Spinae rectae axillares solitariae vel binae vel carentes. Inflorescentiae pubescentes, 5-15-florae; flores mediocres, 4- vel 5-merae ; petala alba oblonga; stamina libera, 8 vel 10, filamentis tenuibus; stylus tenuis, ovario paulo longior; stigma capita- turn diametro stylo paulo majus; ovarium 4-5-loculare, ovulis in loculo binis. Fructus parvus, subglobosus, cortice ut in Citro carnosa, parietibus ovarii vesi- culis brevibus instructis, loculis 1-2-spermis, liquore glutinoso aromatico re- pletis. Semina complanata, ovalia. Arbusculae ramosae spinosae vel inermes, ramulis junioribus tenuibus plus minusve angulosis. Species typica, Pleiospermium alatum {Limonia alata Wight & Arn.). Habitat in India, Zeylona, et Java. 428 swingle: new genus pleiospermium small spiny trees. Paramignya and Lavanga have similar fruits, but are woody lianes with recurved spines and aberrant leaf charac- ters. The genus Pleiospermium differs from Pamburus in having thinner, netted-veined, usually trifoliolate leaves, with the lamina articulated with the petiole, instead of thick, nearly veinless, unifolio- late leaves and the lamina not articulated with the petiole ; furthermore, Pleiospermium has the ovary seated on a small annular disk, while in Pamburus the disk is prominent and cylindric. The flower, fruit, and seed characters of Pleiospermium are very different from those of Merope. Pleiospermium is only rather remotely related to Hes- perethusa, Triphasia, and Severinia, which all have very small red or black berry-like fruits and the leaves also very different. Pleiospermium (or at least P. dubium) differs, so far as known, from all its relatives among the small, soft-rinded, gummy-celled group of citrous fruits in having short and slender pulp vesicles arising from the inner wall of the ovary. In this respect it resembles the sub- genus Rissoa5 of the genus Atalantia, belonging to a different subtribe, but it differs from that and from the other true citrous fruits in having the cells of the fruits filled with an aromatic, sticky fluid. A thorough study of the anatomy and morphology of the fruits of all of these genera is urgently needed in order to classify them in natural groups. Pleiospermium seems to be a primitive genus, showing analogies with many rather diverse groups. It even shows a certain analogy in its leaf characters with the Philippine Chaetospermum,6 one of the hard- shelled citrous fruits belonging to another distinct subtribe. Two closely related species of Pleiospermium are known, one from southern India and Ceylon, the other from Java. KEY TO THE SPECIES Leaflets usually 3, obtuse; ovary glabrous 1. P. alatwm. Leaflets 1, 2, or 3, acute or acuminate; ovary pubescent. . 2. P. dubium 1. Pleiospermium alatum (Wight & Arn.) Swingle Limonia alata Herb. Madr. Wall. Cat. no. 6363. 1832 (nom. nud.). Limonia alata Herb. Madr. Wight Cat. no. 324. 1834 (nom. nud.). Limonia alata Wight & Arn. Prodr., 1: 92. 1834. Illustrations: Wight, 111. Ind. Bot., 1: pi. 41 (1840); Beddome, FL Sylvat., Outlines Bot., pi. 8, fig. 3. Type locality: "Foot of the Neelgherries," Madras Presidency, southern India. 5 Swingle, Walter T. Atalantia, in Bailey, Standard Cycl. Hort., 1:426. 1914. 6 Swingle, Walter T. Chaetospermum, a new genus of hard-shelled citrous fruits. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 99-102. 1913. swingle: new genus pleiospermium 429 Distribution: Southern India and Ceylon; common in the hot, drier parts. The writer has seen an authentic flowering twig of this species col- lected by Wight unde^ his number 324 and now in the Kew Herbarium ; on the same sheet are two twigs from Wallich's set under his number 6363. There is also in Kew Herbarium a sheet of three twigs with full grown fruits, collected by Wight (No. 370) at Palagantcherry in 1850. In the Berlin Herbarium there is a sheet of material from Wight's Herbarium distributed by Kew in 1866-7 under No. 370, Peninsula Indiae orientalis, which has 7 twigs, 3 of them in flower. This species is called Tumpat-kurundu in the Singhalese language of Ceylon. 2. Pleiospermium dubium (Blume) Swingle. fLimonia diphylla Houttuyn, Natuurl. Hist., II. 2: 440, pi. 9, fig. 2. 1774; [Christman] Linne Pflanzensystem nach. . . . Hout- tuynisch. Werks Ubers., 1: 615, pi. 9, fig. 2. 1777. Limonia? dubia Blume, Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind., 1: 133. 1825. Paramignia Blumei Hasskarl, Tijdr. Nat. Gesch., 10 : 137-138. 1843. Paramignya Blumei Hasskarl, Cat. PL Hort. Bogor., 216. 1844. Type locality- "In collibus calcareis prope Kuripan, Provinciae Buitenzorg," Java. Distribution: Western Java. Hasskarl in 1843 transferred this plant to the genus Paramignya, at the same time changing the specific name to Blumei. Hochreutiner in Plantae Bogorienses Exsiccatae, under No. Ill, Limonia dubia Blume, says that the plant growing in the Buitenzorg Garden is undoubtedly the original of Hasskarl and probably the same as that seen by Blume, though the absence of Blume's type makes it difficult to be certain.7 Fortunately there is in the herbarium of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle at Paris an authentic specimen of this species from Blume. The original label reads "Limonia dubia M. Blume 1836." This specimen consists of a spineless twig of three seasons' growth with 19 nodes bear- ing 1-, 2-, or 3-foliolate leaves, very like the specimens distributed by Hochreutiner from the type plant of Paramignya Blumei Hasskarl.8 7 "Cette plante est sans aucun doute 1' original de Hasskarl qui a complete tres exactement la diagnose de Blume. Quant a affirmer que c'est bien la 1'espece que Blume avait en vue, cela est plus difficile en l'absence d'un type de cet auteur; cependant c'est probable." — Hochreutiner, B. P. G., loc. cit. 8 Probably Blume planted in the Buitenzorg Botanic Garden the tree from which the branch now in the Paris Herbarium was cut and upon which later on, Hasskarl based his description of Paramignya Blumei. In this event all the specimens cut from this tree (III. G. 64, in the Buitenzorg records) are merotypes of HasskaiTs species. 430 swingle: new genus pleiospermium It is possible that this plant is identical with the enigmatic Limonia diphylla published in 1774 by Houttuyn, who received a twig collected by Richter at Batavia, where it is said to produce fruits resembling limes ("regte Limmetjes of Lemisjes"), the size of a pigeon's egg, on spiny twigs. The leaves are said to be paired on the same petiole. Houttuyn's plate shows a twig with 3 binate leaves with obtuse leaflets, one small unifoliolate leaf, and a small terminal flower with 4 petals and 8 stamens. The figure seems to be diagrammatic and was probably drawn from poor material. The plant is said to be called Crandang by the Javanese. It may be that Houttuyn's species was founded in part on Richter's account of a true lime, Citrus aurantijolia (Christm.) Swing., and in part on a twig which he brought to Holland from Batavia, possibly from some very different plant, such as a Bauhinia. It seems impos- sible to decide the matter unless Houttuyn's type can be found. Pleiospermium dubium seems to be rather close to P. alata, but has the leaflets acute, instead of obtuse, and many leaves with only 1 or 2 leaflets instead of 3-, as is common in P. alata; also it has the ovaries pubescent instead of smooth, as figured in the Indian species. It is said to be a small tree 3.5-4 meters high, with a twisted trunk branch- ing at 1.5 meters and suckers from the base. It is called Kidjeroekan in Java. In its foliar characters this is one of the most polymorphic species among all the relatives of Citrus. The leaves are simple or 2- or 3- foliolate, sometimes all three forms occurring on the same branch. The petioles are sometimes very short and sometimes rather long, sometimes plainly winged, often nearly wingless. The spines are sometimes single, sometimes paired, and often entirely wanting. It is undoubtedly one of the most primitive of all the citrous plants, showing as it does striking analogies with plants belonging to at least three distinct subtribes. The fruits of this species show small and slender pulp vesicles aris- ing from the inner ovary wall 2 to 3 or even 4 mm. long. It is not known whether P. alatum also has such rudimentary pulp vesicles. Both species have fruits filled with dark-colored, strong-smelling, mucilaginous gum. POSSIBLE UTILIZATION OF PLEIOSPERMIUM From the fact that Pleiospermium alatum grows abundantly in the dryer parts of Ceylon it would be desirable to test it as FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 431 a stock on which to graft Citrus for culture on the dryer types of soil. The other species, Pleiospermium dubium, was dis- covered growing on limestone hills in western Java and may perhaps be able to endure more lime than the stocks now com- monly used in citrous culture. Certainly both species of Pleio- spermium should be introduced into this country and tested as stocks. In view of its primitive and polymorphic nature it is possible that P. dubium may hybridize with Atalantia or with some other true citrous fruit. PHYSIOLOGY. — Studies on the mineral elements in animal nutrition.1 E. B. Forbes, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. As agricultural scientists, our interest in the mineral elements lies in that larger intermediary metabolism between the soil and the sea which begins with the weathering of the rocks, includes the whole of plant and animal metabolism, and ends with the formation of new rocks. Throughout this vast sweep of chemical change the mineral elements occupy a unique and dominating position, entering in essential ways into every process and exerting an influence in metabolism entirely out of proportion to the amounts in which they are involved. In a large and general way life may be regarded as a coordinated system of responses to electrical stimulation. The ions, and especially the inorganic ions, are the bearers of this electricity, and it is because of this fact that they are able to play a leading role in the direction of the whole process of metabolism. Gus- tav Mann says, " So-called pure ash-free proteids are chemically inert and in the true sense of the word, dead bodies. What puts life into them is the presence of electrolytes." This, then, is the basis of our interest. More specifically, this subject concerns us because the mineral elements of soil fertility — of plant nutrition — supply the mineral nutrients of animals. All of those conditions of growth of plants, as to 1 A lecture delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences, April 21, 1916. 432 FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION soil fertility, heat, light, and moisture, which affect their mineral content affect the food value of these products for animals. Similarly all of those processes of treatment of foods, as to con- ditions of harvesting, storage, manufacture, preservation, and preparation which affect their mineral content have a bearing on the nutrition of animals. Further, the almost unlimited freedom of choice of foods afforded by our markets and our prosperity, a freedom which may profoundly affect the mineral content of the diet, furnishes a basis of interest and an obli- gation to understand. Finally, the mineral requirements of men and animals in their various conditions and stages of life, growth, health, and activity differ greatly in such ways as to demand our attention, since the whole range of success and profit in practical animal nutrition lies close, and ever closer, to maxi- mum possibilities. As this subject relates to stock feeding, we find that modern tendencies give it a special importance that it had not in times past. The forced feeding of our early-maturing meat animals and the selective improvement of our poultry and our dairy cows for greater productive capacity call for a higher percentage of mineral nutrients in foodstuffs than was necessary in the old days of less intense production. The requirement of mineral nutrients for mere maintenance is slight in amount, compared with the requirement for the production of flesh, eggs, and milk; hence, the more efficient the producer, the higher must be the ash content of the food. My own investigations in this field consist of studies of the chemistry of foods, and metabolism experiments with swine and milch cows. I shall review briefly some of the conclusions from this program of work. Our studies on foods comprise a series of complete ash analyses, with computations of the elements to normal solutions, these data being considered in relation to the balance of base and acid in the organism; also a study of the mineral nutrients of blue- grass, and factors which affect the quantities present; and a study of the iodine content of foods in relation to the prevalence of goiter. FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 433 It is an established fact of animal physiology that the vital processes require the maintenance of a state of approximate neutrality in the blood and lymph. Henderson has done much to show how this balance of acid and base is maintained by self-adjusting chemical and excretory equilibria. The mineral elements of the food contribute to one side or the other of this base and acid balance; and the extent and nature of this con- tribution are matters of importance in relation to acid intoxica- tion, even though this condition is not commonly caused by the food. Our extensive series of ash analyses show that cereals, meats, and eggs have acid ash, while fruits, roughages, vegeta- bles, milk, and most legumes have alkaline ash. While healthy animals have means of neutralizing all ordinary excesses of acid in the food it is safest that the bases should predominate, since we do not know that the neutralization of acids is always accomplished without expense, and since in any such physiologi- cal state as causes acid intoxication (and there are many such) an excess of mineral acid to mineral base in the food is undoubt- edly a matter of positive disadvantage. Acid intoxication is met with most commonly in the feeding of infants and older children suffering from fever, undernourish- ment, or indigestion especially involving the fats of the food. In these cases the use of whey in the diet furnishes mineral nu- trients of value; and the administration of sodium citrate (1 to 2 grains per ounce of milk) is also a beneficial practise in that it furnishes a readily oxidizable alkali salt. The presence of this citrate is also favorable to the digestion of casein. Many a so-called idiosyncrasy against milk protein has disappeared under the influence of sodium citrate and a low-fat diet. Our study of the mineral nutrients of bluegrass touches a subject of deep significance. Through its habit of growth grass is the great conserving factor in agriculture. As the basic requirement of livestock breeding it makes for all the benefits of this system of farming, especially the maintenance of the fertility of the land and the maintenance upon the land of the presence of the family of the owner. The permanent prosperity of an agricultural community is assured by the excellence of its grass lands. 434 FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION Now we have shown that the mineral nutrients of bluegrass vary more than 100 per cent in accord with the fertility of the soil. The skeletons of growing animals respond readily to the mineral nutrients of the food. There is no definite upper limit of phosphate deposit in the bones. The quality of the grass must affect the quality of the bones; and strength and sound- ness of bone favor long-sustained efficiency. Probably the greatest strain to which the bones of animals are subjected is in the service of our large, early-maturing horses on hard-sur- faced roads and pavements. The most famous horse-breed- ing center of the United States is a region of limestone soils and luxuriant bluegrass which our analyses show to be unusually rich in bone food. We have always bowed while the Kentuckian asserts that his state produces the most beautiful women and the finest horses in the world, and now we know that in so far as these claims depend upon a superior quality of bluegrass they rest on a substantial basis of fact.- It is also true that in many localities in this country, on im- poverished soils, we find horses and cattle suffering from mal- nutrition of the bones. This ailment is most common during periods of rapid growth or milk production, especially during and immediately after seasons of drouth and restricted food supply. This condition responds readily to treatment with calcium phosphate. Among the several mineral elements present in foods in minute quantities especial interest attaches to iodine, because of its importance in metabolism. The only tissue in the bodies of vertebrate animals which contains iodine in apparently essen- tial relations is the thyroid gland. The iodine content of the thyroid may be increased by the administration of iodine; one of the active principles of the thyroid is its iodine-containing constituent; and goiter in certain stages responds favorably to iodine treatment. Further, there is a marked and continuous local prevalence of goiter in many regions. These facts furnish sufficient basis for our interest in the iodine content of foods. In our study iodine was estimated in 927 samples of animal and vegetable products. These products were in part common FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 435 foods from the market; a large number were from the fertilizer plots of the experiment stations of the country; others were from regions of interest because of the extreme prevalence or rarity of goiter; still others were products from an extensive metabolism experiment with milch cows. The method of esti- mation used was accurate to three-millionths of a gram of iodine. About one food sample in five contained iodine. The amounts present were usually too small for expression otherwise than as traces. In 18 samples each of cow's milk, urine, and feces no iodine was found. Iodine was found in considerable quantity only in agar and in Irish moss (from which blanc mange is made) . No other seaweeds were examined. No iodine was found in 16 samples of table salt or in any one of seven kinds of nuts. It is very rarely present in spices and condiments. Among the animal products the only one containing iodine in more than traces was hair and hoof, from swine, a sample prepared in the course of a complete chemical accounting for the bodies of some experimental subjects. Traces were found in butter, in eggs, and in several kinds (but by no means in all samples examined) of meat, fish, and Crustacea (shrimp and lobster) . Among the cereals iodine was found as an uncommon con- stituent, usually in traces only. None of the fruits contained more than the smallest recognizable traces of iodine, and very few contained even so much. Among the garden vegetables and root crops beets rather commonly contained traces of iodine (9 samples out of 25), and in one case a larger amount. Two out of three samples of cucumber contained iodine; also one out of three samples of celery. Iodine was found in single samples of endive, kohl rabi, and lettuce. Among onions five samples out of 15 contained iodine, and in parsnips two out of six. Six samples of potatoes out of 21 contained iodine; it was also found in spinach and in rhubarb. We found iodine in one sample of turnips out of 11, but none in tomatoes, pumpkin, and squash. Of the hays, silage, and forage crops about one sample in four contained iodine. Among leguminous seeds iodine was 436 FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION found in 11 samples out of 32, more commonly among beans, peas, and cowpeas than among soy beans. The manufactured foods, and milling and manufactory by- products contained iodine in 13 samples out of 25; of those con- taining iodine 10 were made from cereals. The offal portions of the grains are apparently richer in iodine than the more starchy parts. The more important sources of iodine in the human dietary, then, are the garden vegetables, though some is also found in the cereal foods and in several foods of animal origin, mostly of the sorts less commonly used. Among the foods used by livestock the more important sources of iodine are the hay, silage, and forage crops, and also the mill- ing and manufactory by-products, comparatively little being found in the natural grain foods. No consistent or orderly geographic distribution of iodine in foods was revealed; nor were there noticeable effects of the type of soil or method of fertilization on the iodine content of foods. We found nothing characteristic in the iodine content of foods from regions where goiter was especially prevalent. The iodine content of samples of the same crop from different plots of the same field sometimes varied greatly. The general conclusion from this study was that iodine is a comparatively unusual food constituent and that its presence is commonly accidental in the sense of standing in no essential relation to the growth of the food products. Variations in the iodine content of foods were not successfully correlated with any associated conditions. It is possible that the total iodine requirement of the organism is gleaned from foods containing so little of this element that its presence would escape detection by our best methods of esti- mation. It is also possible that the iodine content of the drink- ing water is of greater importance in relation to the cause of goiter than is the iodine content of the foods. The general effect of this study is to direct us elsewhere, especially toward the metabolism of the organism, in our search for the cause of goiter. FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 437 We shall now consider the results of mineral metabolism studies with swine. This subject is of especial importance in this con- nection because no other animals are so grievously sinned against in the provision of their mineral requirements. Several fac- tors unite in bringing about this state of affairs. Among these are the extreme rapidity of growth of improved hogs, the great weight of fat carried, the early age at which reproduction and lactation occur, the custom of rearing hogs in comparatively close confinement, and the feeding of too little else than corn. This combination of conditions often results in the crippling of hogs during shipment to market, the breaking down of sows while suckling pigs, and a general abbreviation of the period of usefulness of breeding stock. Our studies with swine have been on the specific effects of corn and of supplements to corn, and a comparison of the nu- tritive values of several pure compounds of phosphorus, these studies having been conducted by feeding, slaughter, and car- cass analysis experiments, and by metabolism investigations. In these feeding and carcass analysis experiments the specific effects of corn as an only food for growing swine were shown to be, in general, a retarded development of proteid and bony tissues and an over-development of fatty tissue. This results in the production of fine-boned, poorly muscled, undersized, and over-fat animals, which reach their limit of growth pre- maturely and which are characterized by less than normal breed- ing capacity. Impaired fecundity seems to result from dis- couragement of proteid increase generally and from the lessened circulation of blood in the female reproductive organs, this last being caused b}^ pressure of the excessive amounts of internal fat which accumulate about these parts. With hogs fed on corn alone, the bones, muscles, liver, kidneys, lungs, heart, and spleen all compose an abnormally small proportion of the in- crease in weight, and fat composes an abnormally large part of the increase. The bones are lacking both in density, as indi- cated by ash content, and in breaking strength. Many of the specific effects of corn as an only food for grow- ing- animals are due to its insufficient content of protein and to 438 FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION the incomplete character of its largest protein constituent, zein. The only effects which can safely be attributed to the mineral constituents of corn are those affecting the skeleton. In one experiment corn alone was compared with corn supple- mented by soy beans, linseed oilmeal, wheat middlings, tankage, and skim milk. The rations of corn alone and of corn and soy beans produced the least bone. The rations of corn supple- mented by tankage and skim milk produced the most bone. Rations of cereals or other seeds will not produce normal growth of bone in swine. These facts depend directly on the content of these foods in the chemical elements which compose bone. The proportion of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in the bones tends strongly to remain constant, but may be modi- fied to a certain extent by the limitations of the food. The amounts of these elements in the bone, however, are susceptible of much greater modification through the composition of the food. Bone meal, when added to a ration which is low in cal- cium and phosphorus, will greatly increase the ash and strength of the bones. The change in external dimensions is slight, but increase in the density and thickness of the walls of the bones may proceed indefinitely. The readiness with which minerals may be deposited in the bones, the lack of a definite upper limit of such deposit, and the readiness with which these minerals may be withdrawn constitute the skeleton a true store of min- eral nutriment. We have not been able by any method of feeding, in confine- ment, to produce bones as strong as are the bones of pigs raised on pasture. It seems quite possible that exercise, as well as food, has its effect to strengthen the bones through inducing an added avidity of the osteogenic cells for bone salts. In a metabolism investigation with swine five pigs, all from the same litter, were taken through eight 10-day collection periods separated by 7-day intervals. The feeds, as in the experiment last mentioned, were corn alone, compared with corn supplemented by soy beans, linseed oilmeal, wheat middlings, tankage, and skim milk; also one ration was composed of rice polish and wheat bran. The pigs grew normally, and stored FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 439 nitrogen and sulphur liberally in each period, though, naturally, less of these elements was stored from the ration of corn alone than from rations containing more protein. Potassium was stored in all periods except one; strange to say, the ration composed of rice polish and wheat bran was the one in which this element was supplied in the greatest amount. Animals have no means of storage of large amounts of potassium salts. The large excretion of potassium on this maximum in- take may be considered as a protective measure. In this case the negative balance did not signify insufficiency. Sodium and chlorine balances were much affected by the water drunk. The intake of these elements would have been insuffi- cient had not the amounts present in the foods been supplemented by the use of salt. Those individuals which drank the least water retained the most sodium and chlorine. The more significant results of this experiment have to do with calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. These elements are closely associated in metabolism. In the two rations where the corn was supplemented by skim milk and by tankage (contain- ing a considerable amount of bone scrap) the calcium retention was 9 to 10 times as great as in any of the rations composed of grains and other seeds and seed products. On rations of corn alone, of corn and soy beans, and of rice polish and wheat bran the calcium balances were negative; that is, more calcium was given off* in excreta than was received in the food. This result emphasizes the fact that the cereals are very poor bone-foods. The negative calcium balances from the ration of corn and soy beans call attention to the fact that the phenomenally high cal- cium content of legumes is true of the plants as a whole and not of the seeds. This emphasizes the value of leguminous rough- age as bone-food. In these rations the retention of calcium was closely related to the intake of the same, and not appreciably affected by the excess of mineral acid. Physiologically, calcium and magnesium are balanced opposites. An excess of magnesium in the blood causes a counter-active liberation of calcium; but the propor- tion of these elements in the blood does not follow closely their 440 FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION proportions in the food, and we did not find the calcium reten- tion to be limited by an excess of magnesium in the food except perhaps in one ration, composed of rice polish and wheat bran and containing 12 times as much magnesium as calcium. In this case the great excess of magnesium seems to have been unfavor- able to calcium retention. This proportion seems not to be a matter of practical importance in ordinary rations. The phosphorus balances in these rations were always posi- tive, but the retention was much below normal on the ration of corn alone. The more important reason for this deficient stor- age of phosphorus from corn was the lack of calcium, since calcium was more deficient than phosphorus, and since neither can be stored in large quantity except as they are combined in the calcium phosphate of the bones. There were large excesses of inorganic acid elements in these rations. They were neutralized by ammonia. We observed no evidence of acid intoxication. We do not have knowledge of any such prevalence of acid intoxication in domestic animals as that with which we are familiar in human beings. The urinary ammonia excretion was found to vary in the same order with the excess acid of the ration, providing that the protein remained about the same in amount; but any consider- able increase in the food protein also increased the urinary ammonia. Another series of experiments with swine dealt with phos- phorus metabolism. Considering the phosphorus compounds of plants and animals the most obvious distinction among the various groups is that in certain of these the phosphorus is organically combined, as part of the living tissue, while in others it is present as simple salts of the mineral bases, either in solu- tion, or deposited in supporting structures (in animals), or as crystals or incrustations (in plants). Our object was to learn whether organic and inorganic phosphorus in the food could serve equally well all of the purposes for which the animal needs phosphorus. Our practical interest in the problem is due largely to the relative availability of organic and inorganic phosphorus. Inor- FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 441 ganic phosphorus may be had in unlimited quantities as pre- pared from old bones and rock phosphate, and the inorganic phosphorus content of foods may be greatly increased by the fertilization of the soils upon which they are grown. Organic phosphorus we get from such expensive foods as milk, eggs, and beef, and from cereals. The organic phosphorus content of foods is not susceptible of important modification by treatment of the soil. In this study we included orthophosphates because of their cheapness and availability, hypophosphites because they are so much used in human medicine, phytin as an especially abund- ant phosphorus storage compound of vegetable foods, glycero- phosphates because of their relation to lecithin, a universal cell constituent, and nucleic acid because it is found in the nuclei of all cells. These compounds in the pure form were added to a low- phosphorus basal ration in amounts contributing equal quanti- ties of phosphorus. The subjects were growing pigs. Results were obtained by the method of the metabolism experiment and by the analysis of the carcasses of the animals. It would seem, at first glance, that this problem should readily yield to careful experimental investigation, but intimate ac- quaintance has shown it to be extremely complicated and dif- ficult. Many investigators have studied it, and the problem has been finally answered many times but in many different ways. If this problem is settled, in the end, as many such subjects of controversy have been, most of those who have studied it will be at first surprised, then chagrined, and then gratified that so much of truth was found on both sides of the discussion. Recent evidence has been mostly with those who believe that inorganic phosphorus can serve all of the purposes for which animals need phosphorus, but there is still much un- controverted evidence that there are differences in the metabo- lism of some organic and inorganic phosphoric compounds which imply at least a greater usefulness of some organic compounds for some purposes with some animals. 442 FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION In our work orthophosphates, glycerophosphates, hypophos- phites and yeast nucleic acid, when added in the pure form to rations which are low in phosphorus but capable of maintaining phosphorus equilibrium, were all to some extent absorbed and retained. Prominent differences were observed in the tolerance of the pigs for these pure phosphorus compounds. The limit of toler- ance for glycerophosphates was not reached in any of our tests, but the other compounds were not so well taken. These drugs, when taken into the alimentary tract in quantity, in readily soluble condition, produced marked specific therapeutic effects which were, at least to a large extent, unrelated to fundamental nutritive values, and were likewise different from the effects of the same compounds as occurring in their natural physical and chemical relationships in foods. It is, therefore, impossible to state, from investigations of this sort, on pure compounds, what may be their nutritive values in common foods. That the particular organic compounds used in this investi- gation (nucleic acid, phytin, and glycerophosphates) have nutritive values, to growing swine, superior to simple inorganic phosphates was not shown. No fundamental differences in the methods of usefulness of the phosphorus compounds studied were established, though, under our experimental conditions, they differed greatly in the extent of their usefulness; for in- stance, glycerophosphates were acceptable and useful in large quantities, the limit of which was not reached in our work; orthophosphates were distinctly less acceptable; phytin and nucleic acid were tolerated in still smaller amounts; while hypo- phosphites were the least acceptable of all. Still, so far as our results indicate, these compounds were all useful in the same way. No basis was discovered for a differentiation between the nutritive values of organic and inorganic phosphorus compounds generally. It should be borne in mind, however, that no repre- sentatives of the two classes, phosphoproteins and lecithins, were included in this investigation, and results obtained under conditions of such rigid experimental control may not accurately represent the facts under optimum, normal conditions of life. FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 443 These results are not considered to controvert evidence as to specific therapeutic effects of these phosphorus compounds in relations other than those considered in this study. Even granting the debated superior nutritive value of organic or inorganic compounds of phosphorus, however, it is undoubted- ly a fact that the organic phosphorus content of the animal body is a very small part of the total phosphorus, and as certainly true that a very much larger proportion of organic to inorganic phosphorus prevails in the diet of all omnivora and herbivora than in the bodies of these animals; and as for carnivora, the consumption of flesh and bones together would give them ap- proximately the same proportion of organic to inorganic phos- phorus in the diet as in their own bodies. It would seem, there- fore, that for purposes of growth, the usual diet of animals must contain a sufficiently large proportion of organic to inorganic phosphorus. In this relation, then, the important considera- tion is simply one of the total phosphorus of the ration, and any such supplemental phosphorus as is to be added to the diet of the healthy, growing animal may be added as inorganic phosphate. The amount of phosphorus which an animal will tolerate, when added to the ration in readily soluble form, is definitely limited at an amount much less than will be acceptable in its natural relationships in foods. It seems unlikely that, with grown or growing animals, any ration composed from natural foods, and supplying the nitro- gen requirement, will fail to furnish enough total phosphorus to maintain phosphorus equilibrium. That many such rations are lacking in the amount of phosphorus essential to maximum retention and growth, however, is as certainly true. The results of our experiments indicate that the possibility of influencing, to a practical extent, the relative development of tissues and organs of livestock by the addition of isolated com- pounds of phosphorus to the ration is probably limited to the density and strength of the bones; but this is not saying that we may not be able by the use of these same compounds profoundly to influence physiological functions. 444 FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION Throughout these studies of the influence of foods upon the nutrition of swine numerous effects of the mineral constituents of the rations on minor details of qualitative composition of the tissues have been noted, but the importance of such effects, as related to the functions of the parts, has not been demon- strated. Our latest study in mineral metabolism was with cows. The milch cow greatly excels any of the other farm quadrupeds in the rapidity and efficiency with which she produces proteid and mineral nutriment. This unrivaled productive capacity calls for as unusual supplies of the kinds of nutriment involved. So far as protein is concerned this requirement is amply recog- nized; but, with almost no evidence on the subject, we have assumed that the cow's mineral requirements are fully met with- out any attention being given to the matter. Our results show this assumption to be unwarranted and untrue. Six cows were used in this study, in two groups of three each. Each cow was taken through three experimental periods, usually of 19 or 20 days' duration, separated by 10-day intervals. The excreta were caught by attendants sitting behind the cows. Complete ash analyses, as well as ordinary proximate analyses, were made on foods, milk, urine, and feces. We found that liberal milk production, on common practical winter rations fed in quantities sufficient to maintain the live- weight and to cause regular and extensive nitrogen and sulphur storage, caused large and consistent losses of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus from the skeleton. These losses occurred in spite of liberal supplies of these nutrients in the food. The very limited response of the cows to large increase in the intake of these elements suggests that the selective improvement of the milch cow, for milk production, has outrun her capacity to digest mineral nutrients. A further study is in progress in which we hope to learn whether under any circumstances it is possible to protect the cow from loss of minerals during heavy milk production. An extensive metabolism of silicon was demonstrated ; and an excess of inorganic acids over inorganic bases in the ration, due FORBES! MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION 445 largely to the silicon of timothy hay, caused an acid reaction and an increase in the ammonia of the urine. From this study it appears that a failure to maintain mineral equilibrium must be so common among cows of the more profit- able sort that it may be considered a normal condition during the time of larger production, at least if this occurs during the winter, that is, while the cows are off from pasture. A common failure of cows to maintain exceptionally high production during consecutive periods of lactation may be due to mineral depletion, as may also be a frequent failure of cows to breed after having been subjected to a period of forced pro- duction, as in the establishment of records. Since extensive milk production is sustained, in part, by drafts upon the mineral reserves of the body; since this process can not continue indefinitely; and since there is in cows a gradual shrinkage and final cessation of milk production coincident with this depletion of nutrient reserves, it is believable that this mineral exhaustion may be among those factors which cause the gradual shrinkage of milly, and that by preventing, as largely as possible, these losses from the body we may be able to lessen the shrinkage and to extend the duration of the production of milk. The results of this study indicate that especial attention should be given to the calcium, magnesium and phosphorus contents of the rations of heavily-producing cows, in order that the loss of these elements from the skeleton may be kept as low as pos- sible; and a liberal supply of foods rich in these elements should be allowed after a cow has ceased to produce heavily, during the latter part of the period of lactation, in order to refund pre- vious overdrafts before the birth of the next calf. It is impossible, of course, to draw any one conclusion which will express the full significance of so varied a program as that which I have reviewed with you, but to me the results of these studies have appealed, more than in any other way, as related to the service of lime and legumes in agriculture. Calcium is very much the most abundant mineral in the ani- mal body. Physiologically it is the great mineral stabilizer. 446 FORBES: MINERAL ELEMENTS IN NUTRITION Practically, it is much more frequently lacking in the food of men and animals than is any other mineral nutrient. Lime as applied to the soil liberates organic nutriment and enriches the grass in calcium. It stimulates the growth of grass and makes it a better food for animals. In a sense, "All flesh is grass." Lime also maintains in the soil conditions favorable for the growth of legumes. The legumes draw heavily upon this lime and furnish it to animals in quantities not approached by any other food plants. Through the activity of the bacteria which cause their root-nodules they are enabled not only to store nitrogen in abundance but also to feed the grasses with which they are associated. Thus the lime in the soil favors the growth of le- gumes. Lime and legumes favor the growth of grass. Grass and legumes control the breeding of livestock. Grass, legumes, and livestock control the destinies of nations. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — Distribution of energy in the visible spectrum of an acety- lene flame. W. W. Coblentz and W. B. Emerson. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 279 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 355-364). 1916. Data on the distribution of energy in the visible spectrum of a standard source of light are frequently needed in connection with inves- tigations in physiology, in psychology, and in physics; especially in photoelectric work, in photography, and in the photometry of faint light sources. Frequent requests for such data have come to this Bureau. The acetylene flame appears to be a promising source of light having a high intensity and a white color. The present paper gives data on the distribution of energy in the visible spectrum of a cylindrical acetylene flame, operated under specified conditions. In the region of the spectrum extending from the yellow to the violet the spectral energy distribution of all the flames examined appears to be the same, within the limits of observation. On the other hand, in the region of the spectrum extending from the red toward the long wave lengths the emissivity is greatly affected by a variation in thickness of the radiating layer of incandescent particles in the flame. Hence, in and beyond the red part of the spectrum the data apply only to cylindrical flames which are operated under specified conditions. w. w. c. PHOTOMETRY. — An interlaboratory -photometric comparison of glass screens and of tungsten lamps, involving color differences. G. W. Middlekatjff and J. F. Skogland. Bureau of Standards Scien- tific Paper No. 277 (Bull. Bur. Stds. 13: 287-307). 1916. In 1911 the Bureau of Standards and the National Physical Labo- ratory of England, in cooperation, established groups of 1.5 wpc tung- 447 448 abstracts: photometry sten standards, using Lummer-Brodhun contrast photometers in step- ping from corresponding groups of 4 wpc carbon standards. Although the agreement between the two laboratories was very satisfactory and subsequent measurements of the new standards at the Bureau checked the original values, it was realized, in view of the small number of observers in each laboratory, that if other groups of observers had made the measurements or if some other photometric method had been used the results might have been different. Therefore, in order to obtain information as to the agreement which might be reasonably expected among different groups of experienced observers working by the same and by different methods, the Bureau invited the Nela Research Laboratory, the Electrical Testing Labora- tories, and the Physical Laboratory of the United Gas Improvement Company to cooperate in an intercomparison of photometric measure- ments of blue glass screens and tungsten lamps involving color differ- ences such as were encountered in the establishment of the new stand- ards. The first two laboratories, like the Bureau, used Lummer- Brodhun contrast photometers, while the third used a special flicker photometer, and in no laboratory were the screens and lamps measured at the same time. The results of the intercomparison show that each observer, regard- less of the kind of photometer used, maintained a fairly definite cri- terion with respect to the mean of his laboratory, and that each labo- ratory likewise consistently maintained its relation to the mean of all, as judged from the measurements on the screens and those made on the lamps some months afterward. Considering the difficulties involved in the measurements, the differ- ent characteristics of observers, and the wide difference in illumina- tion employed, the agreement among the laboratories was remarkably good. It is true, however, that although the differences are small they are not negligible in precision photometry. It is evident, there- fore, that measurements to establish standards involving color differ- ence should be left as much as possible to the standardizing laboratory, where the observers must be carefully selected and a considerable number employed, and the kinds of instruments and other conditions definitely fixed. An examination of the Bureau's observers who took part in this intercomparison and who were included in a group of 114 observers tested at the Bureau by Crittenden and Richtmyer, using a special abstracts: geology 449 flicker photometer, shows that their mean characteristic is very approxi- mately the same as that of the average of the 114. Furthermore, the flicker values found in this intercomparison and also by Crittenden and Richtmyer for the tungsten lamps at 1.5 wpc are in agreement with the Bureau's values. Hence it is concluded that the values which were originally assigned to the new 1.5 wpc tungsten standards as a result of the intercomparison with the National Physical Laboratory can be considered as average eye values. G. W. M. GEOLOGY. — Economic geology of the North Laramie Mountains, Converse and Albany Counties, Wyoming. Arthur C. Spencer. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 626, pp. 46-81, with 2 plates and 4 figures. This report includes a description of the broader geological features of the North Laramie Mountains and detailed notes on localities where prospecting work has been done in the search for copper ores. A colored geologic map of the general region, contributed by N. H. Darton, shows a central belt of pre-Cambrian rocks, flanked by areas of stratified rocks ranging in age from Carboniferous to late Cretaceous. With one exception the metalliferous deposits examined occur in the old crystalline rocks, which comprise granite, serpentine, and schists of various kinds. In general the copper deposits of the region are not promising, though it is possible that in a few places small deposits will be profitably worked. Deposits of chromite and of asbestos occmring in the western part of the region appear not to be of economic impc rtance. A. C. S. GEOLOGY. — Geology and underground water of Luna County, New Mexico. N. H. Darton. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 618. Pp. 188, colored map, 12 other plates, 15 text figures. 1916. A large part of Luna County consists of a desert plain underlain by sand, gravel, and clay of Quaternary age. Rising from this plain are narrow rocky ridges which contain a thick succession of sedimentary and igneous formations resting on pre-Cambrian granite, the whole consider- ably flexed and faulted. The sedimentary rocks include formations of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic (?), Cretaceous, and Tertiary age but only a portion of each period is repre- sented. Most of the formations present features similar to those in 450 abstracts: geology and engineering other parts of southern New Mexico and western Texas but some of them are local or present peculiarities. The Tertiary rocks consist of thick accumulations of agglomerate, tuff, and ash and thin sheets of various kinds of lava. The principal mineral resource is underground water, which occurs in large quantities in the deposits underlying the plain, and is pumped for irrigation. It is supplied by percolation from Mimbres River and by local rains. Tests of five wells by A. T. Schwennesen gave yields ranging from 122 to 603 gallons per minute, or from 14.5 to 88 gal- lons per minute for each foot of drawdown. 0. E. M. GEOLOGY AND ENGINEERING.— Contributions to the hydrology of the United States, 1915. Nathan C. Grover. U. S. Geologi- cal Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 375. Pp. 131, 9 plates, 31 text figures. 1916. This volume includes the following papers: Ground water for irrigation in the Sacramento Valley, California. Kirk Bryan. Sacramento Valley, 150 miles long, 40 miles wide, and con- taining more than 3,000,000 acres of agricultural land, is remarkable for its great supply of ground water, the rapid recharge of this supply in the rainy season, and the large area in which the water table stands close to the surface. More than 80 per cent of the valley has a depth to water of less than 25 feet. In 1913, water was drawn from wells at 1664 pumping plants for the irrigation of 40,859 acres. Ground water in Paradise Valley, Arizona. O. E. Meinzer and A. J. Ellis. Paradise Valley affords an example of "stream escape," in contrast to "stream capture." Cave Creek, entering this valley from the side, formerly discharged through it, but built up its alluvial fan until it found an exit through a pass in the opposite mountain wall. It now crosses the valley and still furnishes most of its ground-water supply. The relation of stream gaging to the science of hydraulics. C. H. Pierce and R. W. Davenport. This paper emphasizes the modernness of stream gaging as a science and coordinates it with the science of hy- draulics and the still more comprehensive science of hydrology. The evolutio n of stream gaging to its present status has involved in a high degree that balancing of practice against abstract theory which has made hydraulics to so large an extent an empirical science. The im- portance of analytical studies and of utilizing the established facts of the science of hydraulics in the practice of stream gaging is illus- trated by examples. Stream gaging, or, in a broad sense, hydrometry, abstracts: geology and engineering 451 has a steadily expanding field in the collection of stream-flow data, both for statistical purposes and as a basis for the design of various kinds of hydraulic works, in drainage investigations, in the operation of irrigation systems in the arid regions, in the determination of hydrau- lic constants and coefficients, in the testing and operation of water- power plants, and in other directions. Ground water in Big Smoky Valley, Nevada. O. E. Meinzer. Big Smoky Valley is a typical desert valley occupying a closed basin of 3250 square miles. Numerous beach ridges and embankments, 50 feet in maximum height, show that in the Pleistocene epoch this valley contained two lakes — Lake Toyabe, which covered 225 square miles, and Lake Tonopah, which covered 85 square miles. The alluvial slopes are broken by fault scarps, indicating maximum displacements of more than 100 feet. Nearly 50 small mountain streams discharge into the valley, 10 of which, according to measurements made in October, 1914, contribute 7000 acre-feet a year to the ground-water supply. Ground water is discharged into the atmosphere from two areas which together cover about 205 square miles. These areas were mapped on the basis of (1) soil moisture and position of the water table, (2) soluble salts at the surface and in the soil, and (3) native plants that feed on ground water. A method of correcting river discharge for a changing stage. B. E. Jones. When a river is rising fast it has a greater velocity and a greater discharge than it has at the same height when its stage is con- stant. This is caused by the increase in slope due to the rising stage. Likewise, when it is falling fast it has a lower velocity and a lower discharge. A formula is obtained for comparing the discharge under changing stage conditions with that under constant stage conditions, as follows: The change in slope is assumed equal to the change in stage per second divided by the distance the water travels per second. Then as the discharge varies as the square root of the slope, the relation of the discharge under constant stage conditions (Qi) to the discharge under changing stage conditions (Q2) would be ^2 ^ / c u ra^e °f cnan9e °f s^aQe ^S1 velocity Si in the equation is the surface slope under constant stage conditions. 452 abstracts: geology As it is shown that a flood travels nearly at the rate of the surface velocity, the velocity used in the formula is the surface velocity which is obtained by dividing the mean velocity of the stream by 0.90. If K stands for the change of stage per second, V for the mean ve- locity determined during the changing stage, and N for the coefficient for obtaining mean velocity from surface velocity, the formula may be written : Qi VSi Q2 I „ ~ NK V ^£1 Tables and curves are given showing the results obtained by this method on streams varying in size from a canal carrying 50 second- feet up to the Ohio River carrying 365,000 second-feet. Conditions requiring the use of automatic gages in obtaining records of stream flow. C. H. Pierce. In 1913-14 the U. S. Geological Survey maintained 1741 gaging stations of which 325 were equipped with automatic gages. The conditions which require the use of auto- matic gages are (1) regulation of the stream by power developments; (2) operation of canals and ditches delivering water for irrigation; (3) fluctuations due to variation in run-off under natural conditions (a) caused by rain and '(b) caused by melting ice and snow; (4) inac- cessibility of gaging station or lack of reliable observer; (5) continuous record needed for legal purposes; and (6) human fallibility of most gage observers. Ground water in Lasalle and McMullen counties, Texas. Alexander Deussen and R. B. Dole. (Abstract in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 6: 224-225. 1916.) O. E. M., R. W. D., B. E. J. GEOLOGY. — Geology and water resources of Tularosa Basin, New Mexico. O. E. Meinzer and R'. F. Hare. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 343. Pp. 317, with maps, sections, and views. 1915. Tularosa Basin is a closed drainage basin in south-central New Mex- ico covering about 6,000 square miles. Its central plain is in part underlain by sediments to depths of more than 1 ,000 feet and is bordered on both sides by fault scarps several thousand feet high. Features of special interest are: (1) basaltic lava sheets of two ages, both Quaternary, with three volcanic cones; (2) recent fault scarps and shore features; abstracts: mineralogy 453 (3) steep-walled alkali flats, covering 165 square miles, formed chiefly by wind erosion ; (4) dunes of gypsum sand, covering 270 square miles, on the leeward side of the alkali flats; (5) sink holes developed in the gypseous valley fill; and (6) numerous large mounds produced by springs. The basal granite is unconformably overlain by Carboniferous rocks which comprise Mississippian limestone at the bottom and limestone, red beds, gypsum, etc., of the Magdalena and Manzano groups at the top. Cretaceous deposits, chiefly of the Dakota to Montana groups, are well represented; also younger intrusive rocks. Coal was observed in Carboniferous as well as in the Cretaceous strata. Water occurs in valley fill and in Cretaceous and Carboniferous rock. About 150 analyses were made. The waters differ widely in chemical character and concentration, several distinct types being recognized and correlated with different rock formations. Various relations of alkali in soil and of zones of vegetation to water supplies are described. O. E. M. MINERALOGY. — Mineralogic Notes, Series 3. Waldemar T. Schal- ler. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 610. Pp. 164, with 5 plates and 99 figures. 1916. New minerals described are as follows: Koechlitiite, bismuth molybdate, Bi203Mo03, from Schneeberg, Germany, as small greenish-yellow rectangular plates, orthorhombic, simple and twinned. Inyoite, from Inyo County, California, as white rhombic-shaped monoclinic crystals, 2CaO3B203-13H20, largely altered to meyer- hofferite. Meyerhofferite, alteration of inyoite, colorless to white, prismatic, triclinic crystals, 2CaO3B203-7H20. Lucinite, dimorphous form of variscite, A1203-P205-4H20, from Lucin, Utah. Very small green, octahedral-shaped orthorhombic crystals, directly associated with variscite. Yelardenite, from Velardena, Mexico, 2CaOAl203-Si02, tetragonal, is an essential component of the "gehlenites" and enters into the com- position of the "melilites." Fremontite is the name proposed to replace the objectionable term natramblygonite for the hydrous sodium aluminum phosphate member of the amblygonite group, found in Colorado. Triclinic crystals of fremontite are described. 454 abstracts: botany The other mineralogic papers treat of: (1) The crystallography of variscite, extending the crystal forms to 14 and noting several different habits. (2) The composition of schneebergite is definitely fixed as 2CaOSb204. The paragenesis of the schneebergite specimens from Schneeberg, Austrian Tyrol, is fully described and illustrated. (3) Ro- meite from Italy and from Brazil is analyzed and its composition de- termined as 5CaO3Sb205. The romeite from Brazil has been erron- eously called atopite. (4) The natural antimonites and antimonates are listed. (5) The melilite group is studied and it is concluded that all melilites and gehlenites may be considered as isomorphous mixtures of the tetragonal minerals, velardefiite, 2CaOAl203-Si02, sarcolice, 3CaOAl203-3Si02, and akermanite, 4MgO8CaO9Si02. (6) Thau- masite crystals, from West Pater son, N. J., are hexagonal, c{0001), rajlOlO}, p{1011}, the c-axis being 1.09. (7) The water in tremolite is held to be essential and not "as dissolved water .... not chemically combined . . . . " Analyses suggest the formula, 8Si02-5MgO2CaOH20; (8) Massive guanajuatite was identified from Salmon, Idaho, brilliant yellow to orange greenockite from Topaz, California, and well-crystallized jarosite from Bisbee, Arizona. (9) Gigantic crystals of spodumene (one 47 feet long) from the Etta mine, South Dakota, are described and illustrated. (10) Mariposite from California, and alurgite from Italy probably represent the same mineral species. The bulletin also includes reprint's of papers on cebollite, nephelite, bloedite, alunite, custerite, hodgkinsonite, pisanite, strengite, and a note on the calculation of a mineral formula. W. T. S. BOTANY.— The genus Espeletia. Paul C. Standley. American Journal of Botany, 2: 468-485, pi. 17, f. 1-6. 1915. The genus Espeletia is a member of the family Asteraceae. Its rep- resentatives, natives of the high mountains of northeastern South America, are conspicuous among the composites because of the dense woolly covering of their leaves and inflorescence, and the peculiar habit of many of the species. The present study is based chiefly upon mate- rial from Venezuela received recently by the U. S. National Herbarium. Seventeen species are recognized, six of which are described as new. Six of the species previously described are represented in the National Herbarium by recent collections. P. C. S. REFERENCES Under thia heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, reierences to all scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal. PALEONTOLOGY Knowlton, F. II. Description of a neiv fossil fern from the Judith River forma- tion of Montana. Torreya, 15: 67-70, figs. 1-5. June 15, 1915. Knowlton, F. H. Seed-bearing ferns. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 83-87. July, 1915. BOTANY Babcock, E. B. A new walnut. Journ. Heredity, 6: 40-45, figs. 16-19. January, 1915. Bartlett, H. H. Systematic studies on Oenothera,—}'. (E. robinsonii and (E. cleistantha, spp. now. Rhodora, 17: 41-44, pi. 111. March 17, 1915. Belling, J. The Georgia velvet bean. Journ. Heredity, 6: 290. June 25, 1915. Bose, J. C. Plant-autographs and their revelations. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rep. 1914, pp. 421-443, 'figs. 1-18. 1915. Chase, Agnes. Impressions of the ferns of Porto Rico. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 79-83. July 1915. Chase, Agnes. A teretologieal specimen of Panicum amarulum Hitchc. & Chase. Rhodora, 17: 72. April 2, 1915. Cook, O. F. Dale palm allies in America. Journ. Heredity, 6: 117-122, figs. 8-10. February 25, 1915. Coville, F. V. Grossularia marcescens. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28: 181. November 29, 1915. Crandall, W. C. The kelp beds from Lower California to Puget Sound. U. S. Dept. Agr. Soils Rep. 100, pp. 33-49. April 10, 1915. Eggleston, W. W., Kirk, G. L., and Underwood, J. G. Flora of Vermont. Yerniont Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 187, pp. 145-258. 1915. Fairchild, D. Green leaf in a cherry blossom. Journ. Heredity, 6: 262-263, fig. 7. May 25, 1915. Frye, T. C. The kelp beds of southeast Alaska. U. S. Dept. Agr. Soils Rep. 100, pp. 60-104. April 10, 1915. Garle, C. H. The wild tomato. Journ. Heredity, 6: 242, frontispiece. May 25, 1915. Greene, F. C. A preliminary list of the ferns of Rolla, Missouri. Amer. Fer. Journ., 5: 105-107. December, 1915. Griffiths, D. Hardier spineless cactus. Journ. Heredity, 6: 182-191, figs. 15-19. March 25, 1915. 455 456 references: botany Hitchcock, A. S. New or noteworthy grasses. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 299-310. June, 1915. (Includes descriptions of»7 new species in the genera Stipa, Danthonia, Campulosus, Gymnopogon, Eragrostis, and Agropyron. — W. R. M.) Hitchcock, A. S. Note on a New Zealand grass. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28 : 182. November 29, 1915. Hitchcock, A. S., and Chase, Agnes. Tropical North American species of Panicum. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 17: 459-539, figs. 11-149. July 24, 1915. Johnson, D. S. The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1914, pp. 383-406. 1915. Johnson, D. S. Sexuality in plants. Journ. Heredity, 6: 3-16, figs. 1-10. Janu- ary, 1915. Mackenzie, K. K. Two new sedges from the southwestern United States. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., 657: 1-3. April 9, 1915. (Describes as new: Carex wootoni and C. rusbyi.—W. R. M.) Maxon, W. R. The North American species of Psilogramme. Bull. Torrey Club, 42 : 79-86. March 2, 1915. (Includes descriptions of the new species Psilogramme chiapensis, P. glaberrima, P. villosula. — W. R. M.) Maxon, W. R. Notes on American ferns: IX. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 1-4. March, 1915. Maxon, W. R. Note upon Polypodium subtile and a related species. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 50-52. May, 1915. (Proposes the new name Polypodium cretatum for a Jamaican species. — W. R. M. ) Maxon, W. R. Notholaena aschenborniana and a, related new species. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 4-7. March, 1915. (Describes as new Notholaena hyalina. — W. R. M.) Maxon, W. R. Polypodium marginellum and its immediate allies. Bull. Torrey Club, 42 : 219-225. April, 1915. (Notes on the peculiar morphology of this group, with description of 2 new species: P. hessii and P. ebeninum. — W. R. M.) Maxon, W. R. Report upon a collection of ferns from western South America. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 658: 1-12. May 3, 1915. (Includes descriptions of six new species in Polypodium, Cheilanthes, Notholaena, and Dryopteris. — W. R. M.) Moore, A. H. Two Philadelphus combinations. Rhodora, 17: 121-123. June 18, 1915. Nash, G. V., and Hitchcock, A. S. Poaceae (Pars). North Amer. Fl., 17: 197- 288. December 20, 1915. Piper, C. V. Andropogon halepensis and Andropogon sorghum. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28: 25-44. March 12, 1915. Pittier, H. On the characters and relationships of the genus Monopteryx Spruce. Bull. Torrey Club, 42: 623-627, figs. 1, 2. December 11, 1915. (Describes Monopteryx jahnii, sp. nov.— W. R. M.) Rigg, G. B. The kelp beds of Puget Sound. U. S. Dept. Agr. Soils Rep. 100, pp. 50-59, fig. 2. April 10, 1915. Rigg, G. B. The kelp beds of western Alaska. IT. S. Dept. Agr. Soils Rep. 100, pp. 105-122. April 10, 1915. references: phytopathology 457 Rose, J. N. Edward Lee Greene. Bot. Gaz., 61: 70-72, with portrait. January 15, 1915. Rose, J. N. Exploration in western South America. Journ. N. Y. Bot. Gard., 16: 172-174. August, 1915. Safford. W. E. An Aztec narcotic (Lophophora williamsii). Journ. Heredity, 6: 291-311, figs. 1-11. June 25, 1915. Shear, C. L. Charles Edwin Bessey. Phytopathology, 5: 200. June 4, 1915. Smith, C. P. Carex tuckermani niagarensis; a neglected sedge. Rhodora, 17: 57-59, figs. 1, 2. April 2, 1915. Standley, P. C. The genus Espeletia. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 468-486, pi. 17, figs. 1-6. December 16, 1915. Standley, P. C. Hepaticae of New Mexico. Bryologist, 18: 81-83. November, 1915. Standley, P. C. A new species of Achyranthes from Tobago. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28: 87-88. April 13, 1915. (Describes Achyranthes ingramiana, sp. nov.—W. R. M.) Standley, P. C. A new species of Iresine from the United States. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28: 171-173. November 29, 1915. (Describes Iresine rhi- zomatosa, sp. nov. — W. R. M.) Standley, P. C. Two plants new to the flora of Louisiana. Torreya, 15: 9-11, fig. 1. January 25, 1915. Standley, P. C. Vegetation of the Brazos Canyon, New Mexico. Plant World, 18: 179-191, figs. 1-3. July, 1915. Thom, C., and Turesson, G. W. Penicillium avellaneum, a new ascus-produc- ing species. Mycologia, 7: 284-287, figs. 1-3. September, 1915. Van Eseltine, G. P. An abnormal specimen of Citrullus vulgaris. Torreya, 15: 44-45, figs. 1, 2. March, 1915. Wooton, E. O., and Standley, P. C. The ferns of New Mexico. Amer. Fern Journ., 5: 65-78, pis. 5, 6. July, 1915. Wooton, E. O., and Standley, P. C. Flora of New Mexico. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 19: 1-794. 1915. FORESTRY Humphrey, H. B., and Weaver, J. E. Natural reforestaion in the mountains of northern Idaho. Plant World, 18: 31-47, figs. 1-9. February, 1915. PHYTOPATHOLOGY Appel, O. The control of cereal and grass smut and the Helminthosporium disease in Holland and Germany. Phytopathology, 5: 230-232. August, 1915. Appel, O. Disease resistance in plants. Science, II. 41: 773-782. May 28, 1915. Appel, O. Leaf roll diseases of the potato. Phytopathology, 5: 139-148. June 4, 1915. Appel, O. The relations between scientific botany and phytopathology. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard., 2: 275-285. May 17, 1915. Carleton, M. A. A serious new wheat rust in this country. Science, II. 42: 58-59. July 9, 1915. 458 references: plant physiology Harter, L. L. Notes on the distribution and prevalence of three important sweet potato diseases. Phytopathology, 5: 124-126. April, 1915. Harter, L. L., and Field (Tillotson), E. C. Experiments on the susceptibility of sweet potato varieties to stem rot. Phytopathology, 5: 163-168. June 4, 1915. Hartley, C, and Brunner, S. C. Notes on Rhizoctonia. Phytopathology, 5: 73-74. February, 1915. Hartley, C, and Merrill, T. C. Storm and drouth injury to foliage of orna- mental trees. Phytopathology, 5: 20-29, figs. 1-3. February, 1915. Hawkins, L. A. Some effects of the brown-rot fungus upon the composition of the peach. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 71-81. February, 1915. Hedgcock, G. G. Notes on some diseases of trees in our national forests, — V. Phytopathology, 5: 175-181. June, 1915. Jones, L. R. Problems and progress in plant pathology. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1914, pp. 407-419. 1915. Norton, J. B. S. Tomato diseases. Ann. Rep. Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. 27, pp. 102-114. 1914. Potter, A. A. The loose kernel smut of sorghum. Phytopathology, 5: 149-154, pi. 10, figs. 1, 2. June 4, 1915. Scales, F. M. Some filamentous fungi tested for cellulose destroying power. Bot. Gaz., 60: 149-153. August 14, 1915. Shear, C. L. Mycology in relation to phytopathology. Science, II. 41: 479- • 484. April 2, 1915. Shear, C. L. The need of a pure culture supply laboratory for phytopathology in America. Phytopathology, 5: 270-272. October, 1915. Smith, E. F. A conspectus of bacterial diseases of plants. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard., 2: 377-401. May 17, 1915. Townsend, C. O. Sugar beet curly-top. Phytopathology, 5: 282. October, 1915. Townsend, C. O. Sugar beet mosaic. Science, II. 42: 219-220. August 13, 1915. Weir, J. R. Razoumofskya tsugensis in Alaska. Phytopathology, 5: 229. August, 1915. Weir, J. R. Telial stage of Gymnosporangium tubulatum on Junipernus sco- pulorum. Phytopathology, 5: 218. August, 1915. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Appleman, C. O. Biochemical and physiological study of the rest period in the tubers of Solanum tuberosum. Ann. Rep. Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. 27, pp. 181-226, figs. 1-17. May, 1915. Hasselbring, H. Effectos de la sombra sobre la transpiracion y la asimilacion de la planta del tabaco en Cuba. Cuba Estac. Exp. Agron. Bull. 24, pp. 1-38, February, 1915. Hawkins, L. A. The utilization of certain pentoses and compounds of pentoses by Glomerella cingulata. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 375-388. October, 1915. Schreiner, O., and Skinner, J. J. Specific action of organic compounds in modi- fying plant characteristics; methyl glycocoll versus glycocoll. Bot. Gaz., 59: 445-463, figs. 1-4. June 17, 1915. references: evolution 459 Skinner, J. J. The antizymotic action of a harmful soil constituent: salicylic alde- hyde and mannite. Plant World, 18: 162-167. June, 1915. Skinner, J. J. Effect of vanillin as a soil constituent. Plant World, 18: 321-330, figs. 1-5. December, 1915. True, R. H., and Bartlett, H. H. The exchange of ions between the roots of Lupinus albus and culture solutions containing one nutrient salt. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 255-278, figs. 1-13. June, 1915. True, R. H., and Bartlett, H. H. The exchange of ions between the roots of Lupinus albus and culture solutions containing two nutrient salts. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 311-323, figs. 1-3. July, 1915. EVOLUTION Bartlett, H. H. Additional evidence of mutation in Oenothera. Bot. Gaz., 59: 81-123, figs. 1-17. February 16, 1915. Bartlett, H. H. The experimental study of genetic relationships. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 132-155. April 23, 1915. Bartlett, H. H. Mass mutation in Oenothera pratincola. Bot. Gaz., 60: 425-456, figs. 1-15. December 16, 1915. Bartlett, H. H. Mutation en masse. Amer. Nat., 49: 129-139, figs. 1-9 March, 1915. Bartlett, H. H. The mutations of Oenothera stenomeres. Amer. Journ. Bot., 2: 100-109, figs. 1-4. February, 1915. Belling, J. The chromosome hypothesis of heredity. Journ. Heredity, 6: 67. January 25, 1915. Belling, J. Prepotence in plant breeding. Journ. Heredity, 6: 45. January, 1915 Cockerell, T. D. A. The marking factor in sunflowers. Journ. Heredity, 6: 542-545, figs. 5, 6. November 26, 1915. Cook, O. F. Two classes of hybrids. Journ. Heredity, 6: 55-56. January 25, 1915. Dorsey, M. J. Pollen sterility in grapes. Journ. Heredity, 6: 243-249, figs. 1-6. May 25, 1915. Earle, F. S., and Popenoe, W. Plant breeding in Cuba. Journ. Heredity, 6: 558-568, figs. 10-15. November 26, 1915. Francis, M. S. Double seeding petunias. Journ. Heredity, 6: 456-461, figs. 6-8. September 27, 1915. Gardner, V. R. Sweet cherry breeding. Journ. Heredity, 6: 312-313. June 25, 1915. Gates, R. R. On the nature of mutations. Journ. Heredity, 6: 99-108, figs. 1-7. February 25, 1915. Hayes, H. K. Tobacco mutations. Journ. Heredity, 6: 73-78, figs. 12, 13 and frontispiece. January 25, 1915. Jones, D. F. Illustration of inbreeding. Journ. Heredity, 6: 477-479, figs. 10, 11. September 27, 1915. Kraus, E. J. The self -sterility problem. Journ. Heredity, 6: 549-557, figs. 7-9. November 26, 1915. Kraus, E. J. Somatic segregation. Journ. Heredity, 7: 3-8, fig. 1 and frontis- piece. December 29, 1915. 460 references: entomology Lewis, C. L. Plant breeding problems. Journ. Heredity, 6: 468-470. Septem- ber 27, 1915. Marshall, C. G. Per jugate cotton hybrids. Journ. Heredity, 6: 57-64, figs. 1-5. January 25, 1915. Norton, J. B. Inheritance of habit in the common bean. Amer. Nat., 49: 547- 561. September, 1915. Perkins, L. S. The pomerange. Journ. Heredity, 6: 192. March 25, 1915. (Discusses a natural hybrid between the orange and pomelo. — W. R. M.) Richardson, A. E. V. Wheat breeding. Journ. Heredity, 6: 123-141, figs. 11- 19. February 25, 1915. Vincent, C. C. Apple breeding in Idaho. Journ. Heredity, 6: 453-455. Sep- tember 27, 1915. ENTOMOLOGY Banks, Nathan. A new ortalidfly. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 138. Sep- tember, 1914. (Describes Pseudotephritis approximata from Virginia. — J. C. C) Busck, August. New Microlepidoptera from Hawaii. Insecutor Inscitiae Men- struus, 2: 103-107. July, 1914. (Describes the new genus Petrochroa and five new species. — J. C. C.) Cockerell, T. D. A. Australian bees of the family Prosopididae. Insecutor In- scitiae Menstruus, 2: 97-101. July, 1914. (Five new species and one new variety are described. — J. C. C.) Cockerell, T. D. A. A new carpenter bee from California. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 101-103. July, 1914. (Describes Xylocopa libocedri. — J. C. C.) Crawford, J. C. Notes on the chalcidoid family Callimomidae. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 122-126. September, 1914. (Gives a table of subfamilies, describing one new subfamily, Erimerinae, the new genera Erimerus, Idiona- cromerus, Antistrophoplex, and Zaglyptonotus, and three new species. — J. C. C.) Crawford, J. C. Some new Chalcidoidea. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 180-182. December, 1914. (Describes three new species and gives notes on two others. — J. C. C.) Cushman, R. A. A revision of the North American species of the braconid genus Habrobracon Johnson (Ashmead) . Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 99-108. September, 1914. (Gives a table of the American species of the genus and describes two new species. — J. C. C.) Dyar, H. G. Report on the Lepidoptera of the Smithsonian Biological Survey of the Panama Canal Zone. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 139-350. May 20, 1914. (Describes the new genera Otacustesis in the Nym- phalidae; Gaudeator, Palaeozana, Serincia, Abrochocis, Geridixis, Anaene, Dixanaene, Saozana, in the Litosiidae; Ablita, Dymba, Araeopterella, Charo- blemma, Gelenipsa, Via, Prodosia, Egchiretas, Pogopus, Cola, Hopothia, Crambophilia, Tineocephala, in the Noctuidae; Unduzia in the Megalopy- gidae; Ca in the Dalceridae; Parambia, Homophysodes,. Escandia, Eobrena, Gephyrella, Restidia, Zamanna, Craftsia, Chenevadia, Torotambe, Deop- teryx, Replicia, Ocoba, Passelgis, Conotambe, Dismidiea, Chalcoelopsis, references: entomology 461 Taboga, Cenopaschia, Pocopaschia, Stenopaschia, Glossopaschia, Difun- della, Anypsipyla, Drescoma, Zamagiria, Cabima, Chorrera, Homalopalpia, Illatila, Anthopteryx, Bema, Relmis, Moerbes, Harnocha, Eurythmasis, Har- nochina, Hypermescinia, Calamophleps, Comotia, Strymax, Microphycita, Microphestia, Micromescinia, Tinitinoa, Schenectadia, in the Pyralidae; together with 474 new species, 6 new subspecies and 5 new varieties, a few being extra-limital, coming from Brazil, British Guiana, Argentina and Ecuador. J. C. C.) Dyar, H. G. A new sturnian from Mexico. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 107-108. July, 1914. (Describes Copaxa mannana. — J. C. C.) Dyar, H. G. A new syntomid from Cuba. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 111-112. July, 1914. (Describes Zellatilla Columbia, a new genus and new species. — J. C. C.) Dyar, H. G. A new phycitid injurious to pine. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 112. Ju'y> 1914. (Describes Pimipestis erythropasa, injuring pine cones, from Arizona. — J. C. C.) Felt, E. P. New gall midges (Itonididae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 117-123. August, 1914. (Describes the new genus Konisomyia and 6 new species. — J. C. C.) Fisher, W. S. A new species of Callichroma from Texas. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash- ington, 16: 97-98. September, 1914. (Describes C. schwarzi and gives a table of the species found in America (north of Mexico. —J. C. C.) Gahan, A. B. Descriptions of new genera and species, with notes on parasitic Hymenoptera. Proc. U. S. Nat.Mus., 48: 155-168. December 16, 1914. (De- scribes the new genera Liodontomerus and Trimeromicrus in the Chalcidoi- dea, together with three new species of Ichneumonoidea and 10 new species of Chalcidoidea; gives a table of the North American species of the genus Te- trastichus having only one bristle on the submarginal vein. — J. C. C.) Girault, A. A. Descriptions of new chalcid-flies. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 109-119. September, 1914. (Describes the new genera Paranaphoidea and Ufensia, together with 12 new species. — J. C. C.) Heidemann, Otto. A new species of North American Tingitidae. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 136-137, fig. 1. September, 1914. (Describes Garga- phia solani. — J. C. C.) Hopkins, A. D. List of generic names and their type-species in the coleopterous super f amily Scolijtoidea. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 48: 115-136. December 16, 1914. (An alphabetical list of the genera of this subfamily, together with the original reference, the type species, indication of whether the genus is monobasic or not and if not the authority for the type designation, together with the locality from which the type species was described. — J. C. C.) Jones, T. H. Some notes on the life history and habits of Lauron vinosa Drury. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 108-111. July, 1914. (Describes the im- mature stages as well as the adult, giving a note on the length of these stages and a brief sketch of the life history. — J. C. C.) Knab, Frederick. Ceratopogoninae sucking the blood of other insects. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 139-141. September, 1914. (Additional obser- vations.— J. C. C.) 462 references: entomology Knab, Frederick. Two North American Syrphidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Men- struus, 2: 151-153. October, 1914. (Describes Syrphus diver sifasciatus, sp. nov.— J. C. C.) Knab, Frederick. New ydata and species in Simuliidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 177-180. December, 1914. (Describes Simulium pulverulen- tum from British Honduras and S. rubicundulum from Mexico. — J. C. C.) Knab, Frederick. A new Cuterebra from Panama. Insecutor Inscitiae Men- struus, 2: 187-188. December, 1914. (Describes Cuterebra maculosa. — J. C. C.) Malloch, J. R. The early stages of Metriocnemus Lundbecki Johannsen. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 132-136, fig. 9. September, 1914. Malloch, J. R. Forcipomyia propinquus Williston, a correction. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 137-138. September, 1914. Phillips, W. J. Further studies of the embryology of Toxoptera graminum. Jour- nal of Agricultural Research, 4: 403-404, pis. 59-60. August, 1915. Pierce, W. D. A new interpretation of the relationships of temperature and humid- ity to insect development. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1183-1192, figs. 1-2. March 20, 1916. Pierce, W. D. Descriptions of two new species of Strepsiptera parasitic on sugar cane insects. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 126-129. September, 1914. (Describes the new genera Stenocranophilus and Pyrilloxenos and two new species. — J. C. C.) Rohwer, S. A. Descriptions of two parasitic Hymenoptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 141-142. September, 1914. (Describes Sympherta mne- monicae from Virginia and Podogaster evetrivorus from New Mexico. — J. C. C.) Townsend, C. H. T. New muscoid flies, mainly Hystriciidae and Ptjrrhosiinae from the Andean Montanya. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 133-144 (con- tinued). September, 1914. (Describes the new genera Trichosaundersia and Saundersiops, together with 12 new species and 2 new subspecies. — J. C. C.) Townsend, C. H. T. Note on a classification of sexual characters. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 138-139. September, 1914. Townsend, C. H. T. New muscoid flies, mainly Hystriciidae and Pyrrhesiinae from the Andean Montanya. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 153-160 (con- tinued). October, 1914. (Describes the new genera Quadratosoma, Mela- nepalpus, Trichoepalpus, Xanthoepalpus, and Chromoepalpus, together with 8 new species. — J. C. C.) Walton, W. R. A new tachinid parasite of Diapheromera femorata Say. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 129-132, with one plate. September, 1914. (De- scribes Euhallidaya severinii, a new genus and new species. — J. C. C.) Walton, W. R. Neocelatoria ferox Walton a synonym of Chaetophleps setosa Coq. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 138. September, 1914. Walton, W. R. Report on some parasitic and predaceous Diptera from northeast- ern New Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 48: 171-186, plates 6-7. December 16, 1914. (Describes the new genera Websteriana and Neodichocera to- gether with three new species. — J. C. C.) Wolcott, G. N. The cotton boll weevil in Cuba. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 16: 120-122. September, 1914. (A brief account of the status of Anlhonomus grandis in 1914. — J. C. C.) references: technology 463 PHYSIOLOGY Langworthy, C. F., and Milner, R. D. An improved respiration calorimeter for use in experiments with man. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 299- 348, pis. 30-36. November 22, 1915. Ross, E. L., Keith, M. H., and Grindley, H. S. Phosphorus metabolism of lambs fed a ration of alfalfa hay, corn, and linseed meal. Journal of Agri- cultural Research, 4: 459-474. August, 1915. PATHOLOGY Eichhorn, Adolph. Experiments in vaccination against anthrax. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 340. Pp. 1-16. December 27, 1915. Ransom, B. H. Effects of refrigeration upon the larvae of Trichinella spiralis. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 819-854. January 31, 1916. Rommel, G. M., and Vedder, E. B. Beriberi and cottonseed poisoning in pigs. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 4S9-494. December 13, 1915. TECHNOLOGY Boughton, E. W. The effect of certain pigments on linseed oil. Bureau of Stand- ards Tech. Paper No. 71. Pp. 16. 1916. Boughton, E. W. The determination of oil and resin in varnish. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 65. Pp. 32. 1916. Brand, C. J., and Merrill, J. L. Zacaton as a paper-making material. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 309. Pp. 1-28. November 4, 1915. Bureau of Standards. Notes on the Baume scales in use in the United States. Circular No. 59. Pp. 9. 1916. Bureau of Standards. The testing of glass volumetric apparatus, 8th ed. Cir- cular No. 9. Pp. 32. 1916. Cone, V. M. A new irrigation weir. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1127- 1144, figs. 1-16. March 13, 1916. Goldbeck, A. T. Apparatus for measuring the wear of concrete roads. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 951-954, fig. 1, pi. 66. February 14, 1916. Holler, H. D., and Peffer, E. L. The relation between composition and density of aqueous solutions of copper sulphate and sulphuric acid. Bureau of Stand- ards Sci. Paper No. 275, pp. 273-281. 1916. Hubbard, Prevost, and Pritchard, F. P. Effect of controllable variables upon the penetration test for asphalts and asphalt cements. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 805-818. January 24, 1916. Hubbard, Prevost, and Jackson, Jr., F. H. Relation between the properties of hardness and toughness of road-building rock. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 903-908, fig. 1. February 7, 1916. Lewis, W. S., and Cleary, C. J. Standardization of automobile tire fabric test- ing. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 68. Pp. 18. 1916. McCullom, B., and Logan, K. H. The leakage of current from electric railways. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 63. Pp. 31. 1916. Merrill, J. L. Utilization of American flax stratv in the paper and fiber-board industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 322. Pp. 1-24. January 7, 1916. 464 references: technology Miller, R. C. Milling and baking tests of wheat containing admixtures of rye, corn cockle, kinghead, and vetch. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 328. Pp. 24. December 30, 1915. Miller, R. F., and Tallman, W. D. Tensile strength and elasticity of wool. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 379-390, figs. 1-3, pi. 57. August, 1915. Rabak, Frank. The utilization of cherry by-products. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 350. Pp. 24. March 10, 1916. Reeve, C. S., and Pritchard, F. P. A new penetration needle for use in testing bituminous materials. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1121-1126, pi. 82. March 13, 1916. Shefard, E. R. Modern practice in the construction and maintenance of rail joints and bonds in electric railways. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 62. Pp. 123. 1916. Wenner, Frank. General design of critically damped galvanometers. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 273, pp. 211-244. 1916. Wise, F. B., and Broomell, A. W. The milling of rice and its mechanical and chemical effect upon the grain. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 330. Pp. 31. January 8, 1916. Woodworth, C. W. A new spray nozzle. Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 1177-1182, fig. 1, pis. 85-86. March 20, 1916. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI AUGUST 19, 1916 No. 14 PHYSICS. — Recent improvements in the petrographic microscope. F. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. 1. Sliding objective changer. In modern microscopes two forms of objective changer are in common use. On ordinary, non- polarizing microscopes (biological, etc.) the revolving nose piece is universally favored and serves the purpose well. In case exact centering is required, however, the revolving nose piece is me- chanically inadequate and for this reason has never proved satis- factory in petrographic microscope work. In its place some form of objective clamp is usually adopted in polarizing micro- scopes; but with such a clamp each change from one objective to another involves a number of different operations which together require from 10 to 30 seconds to accomplish; in the course of a day's work, especially with fine grained and artificial preparations, this may consume 5 and even 10 per cent of the observer's available time. From an efficiency standpoint such a procedure cannot be considered satisfactory; but it can fortu- nately be remedied by a simple arrangement such that the time involved in changing objectives is of the order of half a second with the result that the total time is reduced to a fraction of 1 per cent of the day's working hours. The new device has been in constant use for nearly a year and has proved its usefulness. The device is shown in figure 1 and consists simply of a sliding brass carriage in which are mounted two objectives in excentric conical steel rings, so cut that there is no change in focus in passing from one objective to the second. Each objective is 465 466 WRIGHT: PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE centered, once for all, in a vertical direction by rotation in an excentric steel supporting ring and in a horizontal direction by one of the hardened steel screws A or B; against the flanges of these screws the hardened steel face-plates of the carriage strike. Mechanically the bearing surfaces are wide and the objectives return to exact center and focus on changing. For most petro- graphic work two objectives only are re- quired (high power, E. F. = 4 mm., and low power E. F. = 16 mm.) and one carriage suffices for the purpose. But occasionally ob- jectives of other focal length are desired; these are then mount- ed on a second slider which is slipped into the mount in place of the first car- riage. In this operation the semi-circular flange of the stop screw B (fig. 1) is first turned through 90° to allow the slider to pass. 2. The removal of the astigmatism introduced by the analyzer. It has long been known that the introduction of the analyzer into the optical system seriously disturbs the optical quality of the image by introducing into it astigmatism and other defects. Fig. 1, Petrographic microscope with new accessories: A, sliding objective changer; B, lens system for removal of astigmatism caused by analyzer; C, prism for observation of interference figures; D, device for use in the accurate measurement of extinction angles. WRIGHT: PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE 467 Tissot and Pellin1 sought to remove the astigmatism by means of a cylindrical lens placed above the eye lens of the ocular, but this arrangement proved to be only partially successful. Recently S. Becher2 has studied the question in detail and suggests that the astigmatism can best be obviated by converting the micro- scope lens system into a telecentric system such that the rays pass through the analyzer as parallel beams. He proposes to accom- plish this by using objectives specially corrected for image plane at infinity and to employ a weak positive lens above the analyzer to focus the parallel beams emerging from the nicol on the image plane of the eyepiece. Experience has shown that Becher's plan to remove astigma- tism by means of the telecentric lens system is feasible ; but that other arrangements in the optical system are better adapted from a practical standpoint to accomplish the same purpose. In the first place it is not convenient to require a specially computed objective for the observations in polarized light. Such objectives would have to be computed and made specially, and would serve only a special purpose, On taking up this matter with the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company it was suggested to the writer by Dr. H. Kellner3 that a weak negative lens may be used below the nicol in conjunction with an ordinary objective, the negative lens to be of such focal length that the rays con- verging toward points in the image plane are converted into parallel beams and pass as such through the nicol. After emer- gence from the nicol they are rendered again convergent by means of a weak positive lens. The new plan was tried out nearly a year ago and has been regularly introduced since then on all research model microscopes constructed by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company. For observations in parallel polarized light the new scheme works well and is satisfactory, but for observations in convergent polarized light it is useless, as is also the plan suggested by Becher. 1 Comptes Rendus, 145: 866-877. 1907. 2 Siegfried Becher. Uber den Astigmatismus des Nicols und seine Beseitigung im Polarisations Mikroskop. Ann. d. Physik: 4 Folge, 47: 285-364. 1915. 3 Letter of September 18, 1915. 468 WRIGHT: PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE Some of the most important measurements in petrologic micro- scopic work are made in the interference figure (optic axial angles and angular distances of isochromatic curves), and it is highly desirable that a method be available for eliminating the astig- matism and distortion from the interference figure,4 as this seriously affects the degree of attainable precision. The inter- ference figure is formed in the upper focal plane of the objective and the rays from its points are imaged, after passage through the analyzer and Bertrand lens, in the image plane of the eye- piece. In order to fulfil the condition that these rays enter the nicol as parallel beams, a weak positive lens must be introduced below the analyzer in such a position that the lower focal plane of the lens coincides with the plane of the interference figure. The rays after emergence from the analyzer are focussed by means of a weak positive lens in the image plane of the eyepiece. In effect this arrangement is that of two astronomical telescopes in series, the objective and lens below the nicol forming the first system, the lens above the polarizer and the eyepiece the second. The practical problem, to .combine the arrangement for elimi- nating astigmatism in parallel polarized light with that for con- vergent polarized light, is being met on the writer's microscope as follows: The negative lens and the positive lens required for the correction in parallel polarized light are fitted below and above the nicol respectively. To pass to convergent polarized light a positive lens is introduced in a slider in a slot between the analyzer and the objective; the focal length of this lens is such that its combination with the negative lens functions as a positive lens whose lower focal plane coincides with the plane of the interference figure. By this arrangement the interference figure is imaged slightly magnified (magnification approximately equal to the ratio of the focal length of upper positive lens to that of combination positive and negative lens below the analyzer) in the image plane of the eyepiece. In the case of small sections it is essential that all extraneous light from adjacent sections be excluded from the field ; this can only be done by means of a stop 4 See, F. E. Wright. Methods of petrographic microscope research. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 157, pp. 53-56. 1911. WRIGHT: PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE 469 in the image of the object plane. To accomplish this a sliding stop or iris diaphragm is introduced just beneath the sliding posi- tive lens; by raising the objective the object is imaged in the plane of the stop, which allows only light from the particular section to pass. In the writer's microscope the correct position of focus is determined by means of the Bertrand lens which together with the ocular constitutes a weakly magnifying micro- scope focussed on the plane of the stop. For most petrographic microscope work relatively low magnifi- cations are used and the astigmatism introduced by the nicol is not a serious factor either in parallel or convergent polarized light. It would seem, therefore, that except in work of precision the above changes are in a sense refinements which add to the complexity of the instrument. The assertion of Becher that the telecentric system permits the use of the oblique end type of nicol prism as analyzer is not borne out either by theory or by practice, because the oblique ends of such a prism rotate the plane of vibration of the emergent rays and are under all conditions inferior to the square end type such as the Glan-Thompson prism. 3. The prism method for the observation of interference figures. In 1906 the writer described5 a simple method for the observa- tion of interference figures by the Lasaulx method; the method consisted essentially in reflecting, by means of a prism mounted in a slider, the rays of light from the axis of the microscope out to a path outside the tube of the microscope, thus obviating the necessity of removing the eyepiece each time an interference figure is observed by the Lasaulx method. Improvements in this device have been made by replacing the two reflecting prisms by a single doubly reflecting prism; in reducing the size of the prism so that it cuts out a small part of the center of the field and thus serves as an effective stop sufficiently small to include only one section or grain of ordinary size; and in placing the prism slider directly beneath the field lens of the ocular so that the part of the field covered by the prism can be viewed directly 5 Am. J. Sci. (Series 4), 22: 19. 1906. 470 WRIGHT: PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE (fig. 1, C). These improvements have greatly extended the use- fulness of this device, which experience has shown to save an appreciable amount of the observer's time in routine work. 4. A device for use in the accurate measurement of extinction angles. The measurement of an extinction angle involves two operations: (a) the setting on the position of darkness, and (b) the placing of some definite crystallographic direction, as a cleav- age line or a line of crystal growth, parallel with one of the cross hairs in the eyepiece. The precision of the second operation depends largely on the quality of the crystallographic direction which is used as line of reference; in case this is sharply devel- oped there is no difficulty in setting with a precision of 1' of arc. The first operation, on the other hand, depends on a number of factors, one of the most important of which is the sensitiveness of the eye of the observer and his personal equation. The eye is sensitive down to a certain value (threshold value) below which the field appears dark. Under ordinary conditions of illumina- tion in microscope work there is a legion of 1° to 2° within which the average birefracting plate between crossed nicols can be rotated and yet appear to be dark. The common practice in measuring extinction angles is to ascertain the position of maxi- mum darkness on rotation of the crystal plate a number of times to the right and stopping at the position judged to be the darkest; this operation is repeated a certain number of times; and similarly for an equal number of rotations to the left. The average of these readings is then considered to be the most probable position of darkness. In principle this method is ex- cellent, especially if the half shade principle be introduced to increase the precision of each setting; but in practice there is a tendency, which is exceedingly difficult to correct, for the observer unconsciously to attach special importance to the first reading and thus to give it undue weight. In all measurements of this type, where settings of relative intensity are made, it is essential for accurate work to eliminate this element of the undue weighting of first readings and to make each setting without knowledge of its agreement or lack weight: petrographic microscope 471 of agreement with foregoing readings. Only in this way can a proper random distribution of errors be obtained which will fur- nish a good probable value. To apply this principle to the measurement of extinction angles a simple flexible arm of brass was cut out and attached by means of tightly fitting plugs into the clip holes on the microscope stage (fig. 1, D). At the other end of the arm a needle point is sol- dered. To record a setting, a mark by the needle point is made in a sheet of millimeter cross section paper mounted in proper position on a block of wood (shown greatly foreshortened in fig. 1). A convenient length of radius to use is 28.66 cm; each degree on the arc of the circle ^s then 5 mm. and readings can readily be made to tenths of a degree and even to fiftieths. Experience with this simple device which can easily be made, in an hour has shown that much time can be saved by its use. Settings are made by simply pressing down the needle and no readings are required. A number of settings are made with clockwise rotation of the stage, and an equal number with counter- clockwise rotation. By reference to the graduated circle on the microscope stage the angular position of the average position of the points punched in the paper can be read off directly and with it the most probable extinction position. Experience has shown that the eye can estimate the average center of a series of points grouped about the center with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. The actual angular position of each point can, of course, be ascertained and an arithmetical average then taken, but for most purposes this is unnecessary. It is of interest to note that the mean position of clockwise rotation may be situated a whole degree away from the mean position of counter-clockwise rotation, thus showing the import- ance of making measurements by approaching the position of extinction from the right and from the left as well. The above device is useful also in enabling the observer, especially if he be a student, to ascertain the probable error of the single settings and at the same time to increase the precision of his measure- ments without extra labor. 472 dellinger: planck's constant c2 PHYSICS. — The calculation of Planck's constant C2.1 J. H. Dellinger, Bureau of Standards. This constant, which is of great importance in high tempera- ture measurements and in atomic theory, has heretofore been obtained from radiation data by processes involving the use of a graph. It may be calculated directly and very simply from any two observations. A solution of Planck's equation for C2 in terms of the ratio of energies at any two wave lengths and temperatures is readily obtained, C2 appearing in a correction term in the solution. The various relations which have been used for obtaining C2 from radiation data are deducible as special cases. The equation for two observations of wave length at constant temperature is of special interest; the following approximate expression is sufficiently exact for most cases. 2 = X2 — Xl - log — + 5 Jog — — e \20 J] Xi J An approximate value of C2 always suffices for the last term. This general method of solution is superior to the method of equal ordinates. No curve has to be drawn, and the calculations are not limited to particular pairs of points. The method is more powerful in determining whether an observed curve fits the Planck equation. In fact, curves which give normal values for C2 by the method of equal ordinates were found to give very high values when calculations were made by this method for two points both on the same side of the maximum. Points on the Planck curve for which Wien's displacement law holds, in particular the maximum of the curve, have been con- sidered as furnishing additional ways of determining C2. Such methods are debarred by lack of accuracy, and in fact these special points may themselves be obtained most accurately and conveniently by the same process of using two observations which is used for obtaining C2. Substantially the same simple equation suffices to determine C2 and all the special points. 1 Detailed paper to appear as Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 287 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 535-545). 1916. * COBLENTZ: NEW DESIGNS OF RADIOMETEES 473 PHYSICS. — Some new designs of radiometers. W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of Standards. In continuing the improvement of stellar radiometers several new designs of instruments were considered and some of the pre- liminary tests of their efficiency appear to be of sufficient impor- tance to warrant publication. When a very thin strip of blackened metal, e. g. a bolometer strip, is exposed to radiation it becomes warmed and it in turn emits radiation. In previous investigations of the diffuse reflect- ing power of various substances1 and of the behavior of an abso- lute thermopile2 it was found that this warming of the receiver is quite appreciable, and that this receiver can be a very efficient secondary source of radiation which, in turn, can be used to operate a radiometer. The utilization of this secondary source of radiation can be accomplished by placing the receiver at the center of an accurately ground hollow sphere having an opening to admit radiation. In this case one would utilize the "re- radiation" which has to be very carefully excluded in diffuse reflection measurements.3 Another logical method for utilizing this radiation is the em- ployment of multiple receivers, one being placed back of another ; for example, a thermopile receiver back of a bolometer strip, or one bolometer strip (or thermopile receiver) back of another. It is with this method that the present paper is chiefly concerned. 1 Bull. Bur. Stds., 9: 283. 1913. 2 Bull. Bur. Stds., 11: 157. 1914. 3 Paschen (Ber. Berliner Akad., p. 409. 1899) appears to have been the first one to use a hemispherical mirror in front of a bolometer in order to "blacken" it. The device has been used extensively by the writer (Bull. Bur. Stds., 4: 392. 1908). In spectral radiation work care must be exercised to avoid reflec- tion of radiation from the adjacent parts of the spectrum upon the bolometer strip. In investigations where it is unimportant whether some of the incident beam of radiation falls upon a reflecting surface at the rear of the receiver before it falls upon the receiver (i.e. in cases where it is unimportant whether the com- plete beam of incident radiation is completely intercepted by the receiver) it is possible to place the receiver at the center of an accurately made hollow sphere as just mentioned. Pfttnd (Phys. Rev. 34: 288. 1912) claims a very large increase in sensitivity as the result of using a thermoj unction at the focus of a spherical mirror. 474 COBLENTZ: NEW DESIGNS OF EADIOMETERS The efficiency of such a device was tested in the following manner. Two strips of very thin platinum, such as is used in bolometers (thickness about 0.001 mm.), about 6 by 20 mm. in area were mounted over slits cut in cardboard which was 0.45 mm. thick. Both sides of these strips were painted with a thin coat of lamp black and covered with soot from a sperm candle. The thermopile receiver was 1.8 by 16 mm. Slits of bright aluminum, 0.85 mm. thick, were placed in front of the thermo- pile or in front of the blackened platinum strips when they were in front of the thermopile. The distance between the thermo- pile receiver and the platinum strip (and between the two plati- num strips) was 0.45 mm. When the thermopile was exposed directly to a standard of radiation the deflection was 12.15 cm.; when one platinum strip intervened the deflection was 5.88 cm. ; and when the two platinum strips were in front of the thermopile the deflection was 3.57 cm. The multiple bolometer receiver. Since there is but little differ- ence between the radiation sensitivity of a bismuth-silver ther- mopile and a bolometer, the above tests show that the radiation sensitivity of a bolometer can be increased by 50 per cent by having the receiver (the arm of the bridge) consist of two strips, one back of the other, the front strip being exposed to radiation. By using three strips placed one back of another the galvanom- eter deflection would be increased by about 80 per cent, and by using four strips (joined in series, or a single strip folded three times) the deflection will be double that produced by the front strip. The sensitivity of the whole combination would be further increased by placing this multiple receiver at the focus of a hemi- spherical mirror. The bolo-pile. This is a combination of a single bolometer strip, close back of which is placed the receiver of a thermopile. The latter is so constructed that the pairs of receivers are in two rows corresponding to the two bolometer strips. In this manner the heating produced by the current passing through the bolome- ter strips will produce no deflection in the thermopile circuit. The manner of connecting the bolometer and the thermopile COBLENTZ: NEW DESIGNS OF RADIOMETERS 475 circuit to the galvanometer will depend upon the relative change in voltage of the two circuits when the receiver is exposed to radiation. If the error due to shunting is too great when the two circuits are joined to the same binding posts, the bolometer current can be passed through one galvanometer coil and the thermopile current through another coil. The simplest and probably the most useful arrangement is a bolometer consisting of two branches of thin narrow strips of platinum close back of which is placed a thermocouple. In measuring the heat from stars a gain of only 50 per cent in sen- sitivity is worth considering. The multiple thermocouple receiver. The use of two thermo- couples, joined in series, with the receivers one back of the other, has not yet proved to be so efficient, because of the greater heat capacity of the thermocouple receiver used as compared with a bolometer. The comparison of this combination with the two preceding instruments, and with a single thermocouple (or bo- lometer) in the focus of a spherical inclosure, in which all the parts are reduced to the dimensions which would be used in measuring stellar radiations, is in progress. In conclusion it may be added that as a result of the writer's previous measurements of stellar radiation4 the conclusion was arrived at that, in order to do much successful work in stellar radiometry, it will be necessary to have a 100-fold greater sensi- tivity than that previously employed. This gain in sensitivity was to be attained by increasing the light-gathering power of the telescope 5 times, the sensitivity of the galvanometer 10 times, and the radiometer sensitivity 2 times. In a paper5 just published data are given showing an increase of more than 10 times in the galvanometer sensitivity, while the present paper indicates the way to double the radiometer sensitivity. Appar- ently then it remains to find a suitable mirror and funds to operate it. * Bull. Bur. Stds., 11: 613. 1914. 6 Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 423. 1916. 476 nutting: gray radiation PHYSICS. — Criteria for gray radiation. P. G. Nutting, Roches- ter, New York. (Communicated by N. E. Dorsey.) If the logarithm of the energy radiated from a body within a short range of wave lengths be plotted against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature, the result is known to be a sensibly straight line over a wide range of temperatures. These logarith- mic isochromatic lines pass through a common point in some cases, not in others. Benedict1 concludes that this stigmatic condition is characteristic of gray radiation, while the lack of it means that the radiation is selective. Hyde2 from his own data on lamp filaments concludes that the stigmatic condition is insufficient as a criterion for grayness. Foote and Fairchild3 have shown further that the stigmatic condition may hold even for a body known to be strongly selective. The mathematical side of the problem appears to have been neglected, although capable of rather simple treatment. Let the equilibrium radiation from a "black body" be represented by J = Bi X-5 e-xr (1) in which Bx and B2 are independent of wave length and tem- perature. Also let E = d X-»e-X? • (2) represent radiation from some body, but not in equilibrium with it. log J = logCBiX-5) - — (3) hence for any fixed wave length, log J" is a linear function of 1/T. Writing (3) ' y = a — bx (4) it is seen to represent a family of straight lines whose Y inter- cept is a and whose direction tangent is b. But the general representation of a stigmatic pencil of lines passing through the point (x0) y0)) is V - 2/o = -b (x - Xo), (5) 1 E. Benedict. Ann. d. Physik, (4) 47: 641. 1915. 2 E. P. Hyde. Ann. d. Physik, (4) 49: 144. 1916. * Foote and Fairchild. This Journal, 6: 193. 1916. nutting: gray radiation 477 hence the necessary and sufficient condition that the pencil of lines represented by (4) be stigmatic is that a be a linear func- tion of b, a = ijo + bx0 (6) x0 and y0 being constants independent of both wave length and temperature. This condition however is not satisfied even for equilibrium radiation, for a = log {Bi A-5 ) and b = B*/\, and neither of these expressions can be a linear function of the other. Over but a moderate range of wave lengths the expression holds to a fair approximation (probably to within the limits of experimen- tal error). For, let X = X0 (1 =•= 5) where 8 is so small that its square may be neglected in comparison with its first power. In this case a and b are both linear functions of 8 and hence of one another. Consider now the free radiation represented by (2) whether gray or selective. The parameters Ch n and C2 vary not only from surface to surface but (in general) with both wave length and temperature; in other words, the equation is too simple to represent free radiation. However, the stigmatic condition may be applied even though no parameters are constant. If the data indicate that a number of logarithmic isochromatic lines pass through a common point, then an equation similar to (6) must hold over the range of wave lengths covered by the data. Hence, for any variation da = x0 db; for example, da/d\ = x0 db/dX. The linear relation (6) requires log CiX— = 7/o + — - (7) A Hence, by substitution in (2), in any region within which the stigmatic condition holds, even though d, n and C2 vary, E CJl 1\ ^ Er i:\rr t) (8) where E0 and T0 are fixed constants such that log E0 and 1/T0 are the coordinates of the point of stigmatism. This is of the same form as the Paschen-Wanner equation, used so much in monochromatic pyrometry, but with a some- 478 ROSA and vinal: silver voltameter what different interpretation. Imposing the stigmatic condition has eliminated both n and d with their possible variations. It is well known from experimental data that this form of equation holds well and that the stigmatic condition is frequently fulfilled. For gray radiation \og(E/J) is by definition independent of wave length. In case C\, n and C2 are all constant, as with equilibrium radiation, the stigmatic condition can hold for but a limited range of wave lengths. The gray condition in the general case with varying parameters gives , d \-"+5 C2 - B2 log = constant + — — — jDj A/ This is consistent with the stigmatic condition (7) for free radia- tion, but either may be true without the other. We have shown that the logarithmic isochromatic lines repre- senting equilibrium radiation do not form a stigmatic pencil except for a limited range of wave lengths. For free radiation, the stigmatic condition gives an equation known to be of wide validity. The stigmatic condition and the condition for gray- ness may both be satisfied, but either may hold without the other. PHYSICS. — Summary of experiments on the silver voltameter at the Bureau of Standards.1 E. B. Rosa and G. W. Vinal, Bureau of Standards. The investigation of the silver voltameter at this Bureau was first begun by the late Dr. K. E. Guthe in 1904. His results were published in two papers about a year later. In 1907 the work was again taken up by Dr. N. E. Dorsey in cooperation with the present authors, but the results obtained at this time did not confirm the newly published experiments of the National Physical Laboratory, and new difficulties arose which were not understood. These experiments were not .published. In the following year the work was resumed and preparations were made for a very thorough study of the silver voltameter. The voltameter received added importance when the ampere was adopted by the London Electrical Congress as the second funda- 1 A more detailed summary will appear as Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 285 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 479-514. 1916). ROSA AND VINAL: SILVER VOLTAMETER 479 mental electrical unit, so that the investigations which the pres- ent authors began in the summer of 1908 have passed beyond the original plans in scope and duration. This has also been due, in large measure, to the numerous and intricate sources of error which were discovered in the course of the work, all of which required painstaking investigation. Other experimenters who have cooperated with us at various times during the course of the work are Dr. A. S. McDaniel, Prof. S. J. Bates, Prof. G. A. Hulett, and Mr. Wm. M. Bovard. The results of these investigations have been published in a series of eight papers.2 A few of the principal results may be summarized as follows: 1. The effect of filter paper on silver nitrate solutions (whether the paper is used in the voltameter itself, as has been commonly done, or whether it is used in the preparation of the silver nitrate solution) was shown to be serious and to result in the formation of colloidal silver. This effect of the filter paper is due to the formation of reducing agents from the oxycellulose of the paper itself and is not due to impurities. 2 E. B. Rosa and G. W. Vinal. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 194 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 9: 151. 1913); summaries in this Journal, 2: 451. 1912; Elec. World, 60: 1261. 1912; Elektrotech. Zs., 34: 232. 1913. E. B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal, and A. S. McDaniel. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 195 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 9: 209. 1913); summaries in this Journal, 2: 509. 1912; Elec. World, 60: 1262. 1912; Elektrotech. Zs., 34: 233. 1913. E. B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal, and A. S. McDaniel. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 201 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 9: 493. 1913); summaries in this Journal, 3: 40. 1913; Elec. World, 61: 84. 1913; Elektrotech. Zs., 34: 1168. 1913. G. W. Vinal and S. J. Bates. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 218 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 10: 425. 1914) ; Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 916. 1914; summary in this Journal, 4: 69. 1914. E. B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal, and A. S. McDaniel. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 220 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 10: 475. 1914); summaries in this Journal, 4: 52. 1914; Elec. World, 63: 373. 1914; Elektrotech. Zs., 35: 789. 1914. G. A. Hulett and G. W. Vinal. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 240 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 11: 553. 1915); Journ. Phys. Chem., 19: 173. 1915; summary in this Journal, 4: 593. 1914. G. W. Vinal and W. M. Bovard. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 271 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 147. 1916); Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 38: 496. 1916; see also this Journal 6: 222. 1916. E. B. Rosa and G. W. Vinal. Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 283 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13:447. 1916); see also this Journal, 6: 500. 1916. 480 ROSA and vinal: silver voltameter 2. The appearance of the deposit is altered by the presence of impurities in the solutions (such as those resulting from filter paper). Pure solutions give crystalline deposits of very pure silver, but colloids, if present, break up the crystals and produce striated deposits which are too heavy to represent accurately the amount of electricity which passed through the voltameter. 3. Many forms of voltameter have been compared. The Bureau has found that the most satisfactory are the porous cup voltameter and the new form devised by Mr. F. E. Smith of the National Physical Laboratory. 4. The Bureau has devised means of preparing pure silver nitrate and suitable tests for it, so that an electrolyte of a uni- formly high state of purity can be prepared. These tests are for acidity and for reducing agents. The Bureau has also found that the agreement between the results obtained from large and from small sizes of voltameters, used simultaneously, is a valu- able test of purity; impure solutions (except for acid) invariably give heavier deposits in the large size voltameters. This phe- nomenon we have called the volume effect. 5. The temperature coefficient of the voltameter is found to be zero. 6. Tests of the purity of the silver deposits show that when made from pure electrolyte, the impurities included with the silver crystals represent on the average only 0.004 per cent of the weight of the deposit. 7. The absolute electrochemical equivalent of silver was found to be 1.11800 mg. per coulomb and the voltage of the Weston normal cell was found to be 1.01827 volts at 20°C. 8. Comparisons with the iodine voltameter were made and the ratio, the amount of silver deposited to the amount of iodine deposited by the same current, was found to be 0.85017, which, corrected for the inclusions in the silver deposits, gives 0.85013. The electrochemical equivalent of iodine in absolute measure was computed to be 1.31507 mg. per coulomb. The value for the faraday on the basis of the absolute electro- chemical equivalent of • silver and of iodine and their atomic weights is as follows: LUBS AND CLARK: HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS 481 On the silver basis (Ag = 107.88) 96,494 On the iodine basis (I = 126.92) 96,512 Mean 96,503 The best round value which can be assigned to this constant appears to be 96,500 coulombs. A brief history of the specifications for the voltameter, as well as revised specifications proposed by the Bureau of Standards, will be given in the detailed paper.3 As no adequate specifica- tions have been adopted since the London Conference of 1908 it is hoped that the carefully drawn specifications whicl^ the Bureau will present may be adopted as a whole or in part, whenever it is possible to reach an international agreement. In any case, for the present, these specifications will be available for the guidance of such investigators as may wish to use the silver voltameter. An appendix to the paper will contain an extensive bibli- ography of the subject. CHEMISTRY. — A note on the sulphone-phthaleins as indicators for the colorimetric determination of hydrogen-ion concentra- tion.1 Herbert A. Lubs and William Mansfield Clark, Bureau of Animal Industry. In a previous paper2 from this laboratory there were described several new indicators of the sulphone-phthalein series and an improved method for the preparation of those previously made by others. In .our subsequent work on indicators suitable for the colorimetric determination of hydrogen-ion concentration, we have investigated other compounds of this series and have found another that promises to be particularly useful for this pur- pose; namely, dibrom-o-cresol-sulphone-phthalein. We have also found that slight modifications in the methods of preparation of some of the indicators described in our earlier paper will insure 3 Shortly to appear as Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper No. 285 (Bull. Bur. Stds.,13: 479-514. 1916). 1 From the research laboratories of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. Published by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 2 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 5: 609. 1915. 482 LUBS AND CLARK : HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS better products. These modifications will be discussed under the indicators in question. At the end of the article will be found a list of the sulphone-phthaleins which have been investigated in this laboratory, with their color changes and the r«anges over which the changes occur. An account of our investigations of the more useful indicators will shortly appear in the Journal of Bacteriology. O-CRESOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN Ten gramsof the chloride of o-sulphobenzoic acid, 10 grams of freshly fused zinc chloride, and 15 grams of o-cresol were heated for 6 hours at 110°-120°, instead of at 165°-170° as previously recommended. At the lower temperature a purer product was obtained. DIBROM-O-CRESOL-SULPHONE-PHTHALEIN This indicator was prepared practically as described by Sohon.3 Two grams of o-cresolsulphone-phthalein was suspended in 10 cc. of glacial acetic acid and 2 cc. of bromine was added. The flask was allowed to stand over night and the reddish-white crystals were filtered off the next morning. These crystals can be recrystallized by dissolving in boiling toluol and allowing the solution to cool. The color changes are from yellow to a brilliant purple and occur over the range Pj 5.2 to P+ 6.8. A 0.04 per cent aqueous solution of the mono-sodium salt is satisfactory for the indicator solution. THYMOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN This compound can be prepared more satisfactorily by heating the mixture of the chloride of o-sulphobenzoic acid, zinc chloride, and thymol at 100°-110°for 6 hours, instead of at 140° as recommended in our previous paper. DIBROMTHYMOL-SULPHONE-PHTHALEIN In our earlier paper this compound was described simply as brom- thymol-sulphone-phthalein. Subsequent analyses have shown that it is the dibrom compound. 3 Amer. Chem. Journ., 20: 257. 1898. CLARK AND LUBS: INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA 483 ANALYSES I. 0.1456 gram gave 0.0881 gram AgBr. II. 0.1865 gram gave 0.1158 gram AgBr. Calculated for C27H2sBr205S, 25.6 per cent Br. Found, I, 25.8 per cent; II, 26.4 per cent. TABLE 1 Color Changes and Approximate Ranges of the Various sulphone-phthaleins INDICATOR Thymolsulphone-phthaleinf Tetrabrom-phenolsulphone-phthalein. Tetrachlor-phenolsulphone-phthalein* Dibrom-o-cresol-sulphone-phthalein . . Dibromthymol-sulphone-phthalein.. . . Phenolsulphone-phthalein o-Cresolsulphone-phthalein Phenol-nitro-sulphone-phthalein* a-NaphthoIsulphone-phthalein Thymolsulphone-phthalein Thymol-nitro-sulphone-phthalein* Carvacrolsulphone-phthalein* COLOR CHANGE RANGE PH Red — yellow 1.2-2.8 Yellow- -blue 2.8-4.6 Yellow- -blue 2.8-4.6 Yellow- -purple 5.2-6.8 Yellow- -blue 6.0-7.6 Yellow- -red 6.8-8.4 Yellow- -red 7.2-8.8 Yellow- -red 6.8-8.4 Yellow- -blue 7.4-9.0 Yellow- -blue 8 0-9.6 Yellow- -blue 8.0-9.6 Yellow- -blue 8.0-9.6 * These compounds were prepared only in small amounts. Upon investiga- tion we found that they showed no advantage over compounds more easily pre- pared. On this account we did not attempt to find the best conditions for their preparation, and for this reason the details of methods for their preparation are not given. t This indicator shows color changes in both alkaline and acid solutions. Between P "£ 3 and P ^ 8.0 its solution is yellow in color. CHEMISTRY. — The colorimetric determination of the hydrogen- ion concentration of bacteriological culture media.1 William Mansfield Clark and Herbert A. Lubs, Bureau of Ani- mal Industry. In a previous note2 we described some new indicators which are especially useful in colorimetric determinations of hydrogen- ion concentrations. In the present number of this Journal we present some further notes. 1 From the research laboratories of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. Published by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 2 Ltjbs, H. A., and Clark, W. M. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 5: 609. 1915. 484 CLARK AND LUBS: INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA The chief object of these studies has been to assemble a set of indicators which may be used from about PH = 1.0 to PH = 10.0 and which will have such brilliancy and such reliability that they may be used in the colored and turbid solutions handled by the bacteriologist. Preliminary tests had shown the value of some of the indicators of the methyl red and sulphone-phthalein types. We have now concluded a more extensive investigation in which over four hundred electrometric measurements were made of the hydrogen-ion concentrations of a variety of culture media and cultures with simultaneous measurements by the colorimetric method. In these studies we have had to test the applicability of the indicators upon a heterogeneous collection of solutions such as are used in bacteriological work and, in order to subject the method to the severe conditions which it will have to meet if applied to many bacteriological problems, we have devoted most of our attention to measurements of colored and turbid solutions. The material was therefore not favorable for any systematic study of the so-called "protein and salt errors." Furthermore, since we consider the colorimetric method to be only supplementary to the more precise electrometric method, we confined our attention to very simple and rapid colorimetric procedures, such as are avail- able to all and such as are convenient for handling the enormous number of tests which certain classes of research and routine bacteriological work require. The electrometric measurements, on the other hand, were made with care and with the improved equipment described by Clark3 and by Clark and Lubs.4 The details of these extensive comparisons between the elec- trometric and the colorimetric determinations are beyond the scope of this brief article. They will be published elsewhere, to- gether with a discussion of the applications of the colorimetric method in bacteriology. The main results may be briefly sum- marized as follows. Since the colorimetric method, if applied extensively in routine, should be made as convenient as possible, we devised and carefully 3 Clark, W. M. Journ. Biol. Chem., 23: 475. 1915. 4 Clark, W. M., and Lubs, H. A. Journ. Biol. Chem., 25: 479. 1916. CLARK AND LUBS I INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA 485 studied a new set of standard buffer solutions which has several advan- tages over those formerly used. The details of this part of our investi- gation have recently been published.5 A new set of indicators has been assembled. Each of them has been studied sufficiently to enable us to make a selection of the most promis- ing. The selection is listed in table 1, together with the short names we suggest for laboratory parlance. In this table are included the apparent dissociation constants. These constants, which are, of course, not the true dissociation constants, were determined by the method of Salm.6 While they are only approximate, they are probably accurate enough to be used by those who may wish to apply them to titrimetric problems (see Bjerrum).7 We have used them in our more detailed paper merely to illustrate some points in the discussion and to deter- mine the approximate theoretical limits of PH within which the several indicators may be used. The limits so found are in substantial agree- ment with those found empirically. They are given in table 1. TABLE 1 Selection of Indicators K AS USEFUL CHEMICAL NAME SHORT NAME ?h RANGE PH Thymolsulphone-phthalein (acid range) . . Thymol blue 1.7 1.2-2.8 Tetrabrom-phenolsulphone-phthalein Brom-phenol blue 4.1 2.8-4.6 Ortho-carboxy-benzene-azo-dimethyl- aniline Methyl red 5.4 4.4-6.0 Ortho-carboxy-benzene-azo-dipropyl- aniline Propyl red Brom-cresol purple 5.1 6.3 4.8-6.4 Dibrom-o-cresol-sulphone-phthalein 5.2-6.8 Dibromthymol-sulphone-phthalein Brom-thymol blue 7.0 6.0-7.6 Phenolsulphone-phthalein Phenol red 7.9 6.8-8.4 o-Cresolsulphone-phthalein Cresol red 8.3 7.2-8.8 Thymolsulphone-phthalein (alk. range) . Thymol blue 8.9 8.0-9.6 o-Cresolphthalein Cresol-phthalein 9.4 8.2-9.8 The confusing effect of the natural color of most culture media, vegetable extracts, etc., can be overcome to a large extent by using brilliant indicators such as the sulphone-phthalein indicators are, and by using the compensation method of Walpole.8 The simple comparator 5 Clark, W. M., and Lubs, H. A. Journ. Biol. Chem., 25: 479. 1916. 6 Salm, E. Zeitschr. physik. Chem., 57: 471. 1906. 7 Bjerrum, N. Sammlung chem. u. chem. -tech. Vortrage, 21: 1. 1915. 'Walpole, G. S. Biochem. Journ., 5: 207. 1910. 486 CLARK AND LUBS : INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA of Hurwitz, Meyer, and Ostenberg9 has been found useful for this pur- pose. We have also developed the dilution method, which consists in diluting about 2 cc. of the tested solution to 10 cc. with distilled water and measuring the PH of this comparatively clear dilution. As is well known, this degree of dilution of solutions such as those tested has so small an effect on the PH value that it can seldom' be detected by the crude colorimetric method. TABLE 2 Deviations of Colorimetric from Electrometric Ph Determinations of Beef Infusion Media NO. OF DETER- MINA- TIONS 7 6 4 4 2 10 5 14 5 12 8 6 3 3 5 3 3 3 INDICATOR Brom-phenol blue . . . Methyl red. Methyl red Propyl red Propyl red Brom-cresol purple . . Brom-cresol purple. . Brom-thymol blue . . Brom-thymol blue . . Phenol red Phenol red Cresol red Cresol red a-Naphtol-phthalein Thymol blue Thymol blue Phenol-phthalein. . . . o-Cresol-phthalein . . comparator comparator dilution comparator dilution comparator dilution comparator dilution comparator dilution comparator dilution comparator comparator dilution comparator comparator AVERAGE MEAN MAXIMUM -0.05 0.16 -0.38 +0.10 0.11 +0.28 +0.08 0.08 +0+8 +0.08 0.08 +0.18 ±0.00 0.00 ±0.00 -0.01 0.04 , ±0.07 -0.03 0.05 -0.14 -0.10 0.15 -0.25 -0.10 0.12 -0.26 -0.04 0.04 ±0.07 -0.06 0.06 -0.12 -0.03 0.03 -0.07 -0.06 0.06 -0.11 -0.06 0.06 -0.12 -0.04 0.09 +0.14 -0.01 0.03 -0.06 +0.03 0.07 +0.14 +0.03 0.07 +0.14 MINIMUM -0.01 ±0.00 ±0.00 ±0.00 ±0.00 ±0.00 -0.01 +0.03 +0.01 -0.01 -0.02 -0.01 -0.02 -0.02 -0.02 -0.01 -0.01 -0.01 The confusing effect of turbidity has been found to be more serious in many instances than the coloration usually encountered. This has been especially noticeable when either brom-phenol blue or brom-cresol purple was used. These indicators arc red in thick layers of their solutions but blue in thin layers (at. the proper PH) . The impossibility of establishing with such indicators a good comparison between a turbid solution, which can not be effectively viewed in any great depth, and a clear comparison standard of the same PH is quite evident. With 9 Hurwitz, S. H., Meyer, K. F., and Ostenberg, Z. Hospital, 27: 16. 1916. Bull. Johns Hopkins CLARK AND LUBS : INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA 487 such meagre aid as a small hand spectroscope afforded we were able to trace the nature of this " dichromatism" and to devise a light source with which the effect may be avoided. This source is simply a bank of ordinary electric lights from which the shorter wave lengths are screened by a translucent paper coated with an acid solution of phenol- sulphone-phthalein. With this screen fairly good measurements could be made with brom-phenol blue and excellent measurements with brom- cresol purple. To illustrate the accuracy attained we may quote two tables. Table 2 'summarizes some measurements made upon ordinary beef infusion media, some samples of which were quite dark or else turbid from addition of the acid or alkali used to bring the PH value within the range of the indicator used. In table 2 "comparator" indicates that the determination was made by the compensation method of Walpole. "Dilution" indicates that the tested solution was diluted five times with distilled water before measurement. "Average" deviation is the average of the positive and negative deviations when the electrometric value was subtracted from the colorimetric value in each case. "Mean" deviation is the average of the deviations, neglecting sign. Table 3, which gives a few determinations made on urines is self- explanatory. In regard to each indicator the following points may be noted: Thymol blue, which was previously described for use in alkaline solutions, exhibits very brilliant color changes at high acidities. Al- though we have made only a comparatively few determinations in the acid range, the indicator seems to be reliable and promises to be useful in a zone of PH for which there has been no very satisfactory indicator. It is hoped that others will try it in studies of the gastric contents. It should be useful for vinegars and for cultures of yeast and moulds. Brom-phenol blue has not proved reliable when used in turbid solu- tions without a properly screened light, but for many approximate measurements it is useful. One may show, for instance, that material such as silage which is fermented by organisms of the bidgaricus type has about the same PH as pure cultures of B. bidgaricus. Methyl red has given some irregular results, for instance in Dunham's solutions, where frequently errors of 0.2 PH were found. In media such as those used in the differentiation test of Clark and Lubs10 methyl red has been found to give excellent results. 10 Clark, W. M. and Lubs, H. A. Journ. Infect. Diseases, 17: 160. 1915. 488 CLARK AND LUBS : INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA Propyl red we have used chiefly to cover a zone between the ranges of methyl red and brom-thymol blue. This zone may now be studied with the aid of brom-cresol purple. The latter indicator is "dichro- matic" like brom-phenol blue, but lends itself well to use in the screened light. It may be noted especially that this indicator is useful in that PH zone within which the reactions of most urines fall. TABLE 3 COLORIMETRIC AND ElECTROMETRIC DETERMINATIONS OF THE PH OP URINES INDICATOR Methyl red. Propyl red. Brom-cresol purple. Brom-thymol blue. Phenol red. COLOHIMETRIC ELECTROMETRIC 5.5 5.54 5.3 5.38 5.5 5.55 5.3 5.33 5.7 5.77 5.6 5.62 6.0 6.01 6.4 • 6.39 5.9 5.88 6.5 6.67 6.1 6.01 6.0 6.04 6.4 6.36 5.7 5.62 5.7 5.77 5.5 5.54 6.8 6.80 6.5 6.67 6.5 6.43 6.4 6.38 6.8 6.80 With both thymol blue (alkaline range) and its dibrom derivative discrepancies between the colorimetric and electrometric determina- tions appear more like uncertainties' in judgment than like consistent errors. In general, good agreement was found, but it is the unfavorable nature of the colors which we believe may lead to error. Phenol red and cresol red are undoubtedly the most reliable indica- tors of the series. In regard to phenol-phthalein we may say in the first place that neither it nor its homologue, ortho-cresol-phthalein, is as useful in the CLARK AND LUBS I INDICATORS FOR CULTURE MEDIA 489 solutions we have studied as the two-colored indicator thymol blue. In our experience a two-colored indicator is generally to be preferred for hydrogen-ion determinations, especially when the solution itself is colored. On the other hand these phthaleins can be used at slightly higher PH than thymol blue and consequently must be used in certain instances. Of the two we prefer the cresol compound, because of its greater brilliancy. Indeed we now use the cresol compound in place of phenol-phthalein in ordinary titrations. Determinations with whey, banana juice, unfiltered extract of cow feces, thick green silage juice, overheated bouillons containing sugar decomposed to a dark brown solution, and vegetable extracts such as that of the potato which had oxidized till it appeared perfectly black in bulk are samples of the material we have handled with errors in PH which seldom were as great as 0.3 Ph and generally much less. A consideration of certain broad principles involved in bacteriologi- cal studies has led us to believe that in general the order of accuracy which may be attained with these indicators when using simple and rapid procedures is quite adequate for the testing of acid and alkali fermentations, for the study of the effect of PH upon the stability or decomposition of culture media, for studying the effect of PH upon the filterability of toxins, enzymes, etc., for determining the effect of PH upon bacterial metabolism in general and enzyme activity in particular, and for controlling the reaction of solutions during the study of various processes. One of us11 has already called attention to the inadequacy of the titrimetric method of adjusting the so-called degree of reaction of bacteriological culture media. For adjusting to various PH values the indicators are quite adequate. It may be mentioned that many of the criticisms which we have urged against the use of titration methods by the bacteriologist apply with equal force to many tests of the so-called titratable acidity of natural products or extracts thereof. To maintain that the analytical content of acid in some of these solutions can be determined by titra- tion to a given tint of phenolphthalein is untrue. The differences which are determined and which often are of great practical value may fre- quently be observed with greater clarity by colorimetric PH determina- tions. The indicators we have described should therefore be useful in a wide variety of instances. 11 Clark, W. M. Journ. Infect. Diseases, 17: 109. 1915. 490 swingle: Chinese teee of heaven BOTANY. — The early European history and the botanical name of the Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry. The story of the first introduction of the Tree of Heaven from China into Europe presents some features of interest which seem to have been overlooked by botanists and arboriculturists of recent times. INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE FROM CHINA The seeds of the Tree of Heaven were first sent from China to the Royal Society of London in 1751 by Pierre dTncarville, a French Jesuit missionary then residing at Peking. He sent the seeds under the impression that they were secured from the lacquer or varnish tree at Nanking. These seeds were turned over to Philip Miller at Chelsea Gardens and to Philip Carteret Webb at Busbridge near London. About four years later, on March 18, 1755,1 Philip Miller, writing to the Royal Society from Chelsea, notes that "the seeds, which were sent to the Royal Society some years ago, for those of the true varnish-tree, by the Jesuits at China, prove to be of this wild sort;" .... [Kaempfer's "Fasi no ki. A rbor verni- cifera spuria, sylvestris, angustifolia" =Rhus succedanea L.]. John Ellis, afterwards famous for his discovery of the Venus fly trap, Dionaea muscipula, sent to the Royal Society on Novem- ber 8, 1756, an illustrated paper2 on the lacquer or varnish tree in which he contends that the trees raised at Busbridge and Chelsea from seed sent by Pierre dTncarville are not the spurious varnish tree of Kaempfer, but a new species of sumac of which he says: "As it has not been yet described, I shall call it ... . 'Rhus sinense foliis alatis, foliolis oblongis acuminatis, ad basin subrotundis & dentatis.'"3 He mentions that in Mr. Webb's greenhouse the foliage developed an odor so intensely disagree- 1 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 491: 163. 1756. 2 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 492: 870-871, pi. 25, fig. 5. 1757. 3 The Latin term alatis, in English winged, was used by both- Ellis and Miller to denote what we now call pinnate. SWINGLE: CHINESE TREE OF HEAVEN 491 able that he frequently got headache and a sickness at the stom- ach by remaining too long near it. In the summer of 1755 he measured a leaf 3 feet in length and also notes that the tree "throws out a great number of suckers." The base and tip of a leaf are figured and the leaflets show near the base the promi- nent dentation characteristic of the Tree of Heaven and quite unlike the lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera DC.) or the false lacquer tree (Rhus succedanea L.). Philip Miller replied to Ellis, in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions two years later,4 attributing the dis- crepancies between the leaf characters of Kaempfer's spurious varnish tree, the "Fast no hi" of Japan, and the tree grown from the seeds sent from China by Pierre dTncarville to the differ- ence in situation of the leaves, those of Kaempfer's figure being supposed to be on fruiting branches, while those figured from the tree in Mr. Webb's garden were taken from lower branches. He goes on to cast doubt on the idea of the tree belonging to Rhus, as the seeds he planted "were shaped like a wedge, being thicker on one edge than the other, and not unlike those of the beech-tree."5 Ellis, in turn, replied to Miller's criticism in the same number of the Philosophical Transactions (pp. 441-456, pis. 17-18), de- fending his view that the American poison sumac, the Japanese true varnish tree, the Japanese false varnish tree, and the so- called Chinese varnish tree are all different species, and in par- 4 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. GO1: 430-440. 1758. 5 This would indicate that the seeds had been removed from the indehiscent winged fruit. Perhaps this unusual method of treating the seeds may have been to deceive dTncarville, who supposed he was sending seeds of the lacquer or varnish tree from Nanking when in reality he was sending seeds of the Tree of Heaven, disguised by having been removed from the fruits. The herbarium of dTncarville, now in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle at Paris, contains speci- mens of Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. collected at Peking, with a note: "Cet arbre resemble au Frene, mais le fleur ny le fruit conviennent point au Frene, son fruit resemble plus tost a l'Erable." (Franchet. Les plantes du pere d'lncarville dans V herbier du Museum d'histoire naturelle de Paris. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 29: 7. 1882.) As dTncarville noted the similarity of these fruits to those of the maple he would doubtless not have been deceived by the Ailanthus seeds had they not been taken out of the fruit. 492 swingle: Chinese tree of heaven ticular insisting that d'Incarville's supposed China varnish tree was distinct from the Japanese false varnish tree. To sub- stantiate his claim he figured side by side a leaf from d'Incar- ville's tree grown in Mr. Webb's garden and one of Kaempfer's false varnish tree from the Sherardian herbarium at Oxford. He also examined Kaempfer's specimens in the British Museum. It is but just to say that in this contention Ellis has been fully justified by later botanists. In neither of his articles did Ellis adopt the Linnaean trivial names introduced in the Species Plantarum, published in 1753 (only two to four years before) , and so did not publish a name for the Tree of Heaven valid under our present rules of nomenclature. This appears to have been done for the first time in 1774 when Houttuyn in his Natuurlyke Historie reprinted Ellis's Latin diagnosis with the second word set off in parentheses and printed in italics, thus: "Rhus (Sinense) Foliis alatis, Foliolis oblongis acuminatis, ad basin subrotundis et dentatis." This is a method of publishing trivial names adopted by Linnaeus in editing the works of travel written by his pupils and also used a few years previously by Philip Miller in the 8th edition of his Gardeners' Dictionary, published in 1768. As Ellis had in the meantime adopted the Linnaean nomenclature,6 it was perfectly proper for Houttuyn to make effective Ellis's vigorously expressed view that the Tree of Heaven constituted a new species of Rhus dis- tinct from the Chinese lacquer or varnish tree and from the Japanese false varnish tree.7 Owing to the delay in the publication of Ellis's name it was, unfortunately, antedated by Toxicodendron altissimum, published by Philip Miller in the eighth edition of his Gardeners' Dictionary 6 In 1708 he wrote an account of the famous Venus fly trap, naming it Dionaea muscipula. 7 The fact that this tree was not listed as a separate species by Houttuyn, but was merely referred to incidentally in his account of Rhus Vernix L., does not invalidate this publication, since he refers in the same way on a preceding page to Rhus succedanea published by Linnaeus, whom he professes to follow. Fur- thermore, though he refers to Ellis's species under Rhus Vernix L., he could not have meant it as a synonym, since he says it seems to be more nearly related to Rhus javamca L., which he describes in another place. SWINGLE! CHINESE TREE OF HEAVEN 493 (1768). Without a knowledge of Miller's previous papers it might easily be assumed that this name was applied to the false varnish tree of Kaempfer, which is cited as a synonym after a very short description. However, a closer study shows unmis- takably that the name is based on the plant grown in England from the seeds sent by d'Incarville. The specific name altissi- mum, explained in the English paraphrase as the " tallest Poison- tree," is significant, since the wax tree of Japan (the spurious varnish tree of Kaempfer, Rhus succedanea) is not taller than the oriental lacquer tree, Rhus vernicifera DC, or the American poison sumac, Rhus Vernix L., which two latter species were held by Miller to be a single species, Toxicodendron pinnatis. The note in the body of the text referring to the new species is still more explicit. It reads as follows: "The tenth sort came from China. This grows to a large size, sending out many branches on every side, which are garnished with very long winged leaves, each leaf having fourteen or sixteen pairs of lobes, which stick close to the midrib; as this has not produced flowers in England, so we are at a loss where to place it, but it is hardy enough to live in the open air in winter. This propagates fast enough by the many suckers sent out from the roots." There can be no longer any doubt that Miller is basing his new species on the plants grown by him in England. The tall growth, the very long leaves, the abundant suckering, all apply to the Tree of Heaven and not to the Japanese wax tree. Further- more, his doubts as to the botanical position of the new species, which he puts as the last of the species of Toxicodendron, are doubtless based on his memory of the unusual shape of the seeds he planted in 1751 and would not be justified by anything to be found in Kaempfer's description or figures. We must, then, conclude that Miller's Toxicodendron altissimum was based on the Tree of Heaven grown in England from seeds sent from China by Pierre d'Incarville in 1751 and that the validity of his species is in no way impaired by his citing of Kaempfer's Fdsi no Ki", Arbor vernicifera spuria, etc., Amoen. Exot. 5: 794, as a syno- nym, but merely proof that he persisted in his mistaken notion that these two were the same species. 494 swingle: Chinese tree of heaven In September. 17S2. Friedrich Ehrhart. in the course of a journey in Holland, visited the commercial nurseries of a Mr. Brakel in the outskirts of Utrecht just in front of the Kermis- Waterpoortje. Here he found many rare plants, among them, growing in the open, a tall tree looking something like Juglans nigra and having a trunk a foot thick. He named it Rhus Cacodendron,* basing his diagnosis on leaf characters alone, as he had no flowers or fruits. His article was dated Herrenhausen, 23 Nov., 1782. In an article dated Herrenhausen. 4 Aug.. 17S3. published in 17SS. Ehrhart reprinted his diagnosis of Rhus Cacodendron. which he calls the large-leaved sumac {"Der grossblattrige Sutnac"),9 adding that it is a native of 'Xorth America and occurs in the Dutch gardens and also at Harbke. In the Memoir es de V Academic Roy ale des Sciences for 1786, published at Paris in 17SS. Rene Louiche Desfontaines described the Tree of Heaven as Ailanthus gla?idulosa. new genus and new species. This excellent description, accompanied by a good cop- per plate drawn by L. Freret. is based on a fertile tree growing, presumably at Paris, in the garden of M. le Monnier, first physi- cian-in-ordinary to the king. In the following year. 1789, William Ait on in Ms Hortus Keiven- recognized Rhus Cacodendron as a synonym of Ailanthus gland- ulosa Desf.. in spite of Ehrhart 's error in assigning a Xorth American origin to his species. Up to within a very few years Desfontaines' name has been almost universally applied to the Tree of Heaven, but recently (In 1912) Ehrhart ?s older name, Rhus Cacodendron, was taken up by Schinz and Thellung and transferred to the genus Ailanthus. as A. Cacodendron, on the supposition that this was the oldest valid name for this species. As has been shown above, this is not the case, there being at least two older trivial names applied to this species. ! Ehrhart, Friedrich. Meine Reise nach der Graff-shaft Bentheim, und von da rtach Holland, nebst der Retour nach Herrenha Hannoverisches Magazin, 21: 225-226 No. 15. Feb. 21), 1783; reprinted in Ehrhart. Beitrage zur Natur- kunde, etc. 2: 111. 1788. 9 Ehrhart. Friedrich. Be?timmung einiger Baume und Strduche aus unsern Lustgebuschen. Beitrage zux Xaturkunde, 3: 20. 1788. SWINGLE: CHINESE TREE OF HEAVEN -490 The oldest valid name applied to the Tree of Heaven was Toxicodendron altissimum; consequently its synonomy becomes s follows:10 Ailanthus altissima Miller) Swingle, comb. nov. Toxicodendron Altissimum Miller. Gard. Diet., ed. 8. 1768. Rhus Sinense Ellis: Houttuyn. Xatuur. Hist.. II. 2: 212. 1774. Rhus Cacodendron Ehrhart, Hannov. Mag.. 21: 225-226. Feb., 178 Beitrage. 2: 111. 1788. Ailanthus glandidosa Desf. Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris. 1786: 265. pi. 8. 17SS: LHeritier. Stirp. Nov.. 179-1S1. pi. 84. 1791. Ailanthus procera Salisbury, Prodr. 171. 1796. Pongelion glandulosum Pierre, Fl. Cochinchin., 4: text pi. 294. 1893. Ailanthus Cacodendron Sehinz -^tj and — Or, without stopping to U~ L) p establish the complete relation, we can at once determine rela- tive viscosities by comparing observations taken under dynami- cally similar circumstances; for, as long as the above arguments are kept constant, n = W = \dJ Finally, by observing the transit time r per unit length, between two points for which the speed is sensibly constant, the three arguments above may be coalesced into two, leaving F (x, y) = 0 (5) in which .t denotes r \DglPo -l J and y denotes v \D3g( ° -lj. 528 hersey: viscosimeters An experimental determination of this function F affords the desired calibration equation for viscosity in terms of roll time. Experimental test of the theory. Equations (4) and (5) were verified in the course of a series of experiments in which the behaviour of the tubes was minutely studied, and the linear relation y = a + bx (6) was found to hold over the range from y = 0.0001 to y = 0.1, the constants having the values a = — 0.0009 and b = +0.00027, (subject to accidental errors of several per cent due to tempera- d ture uncertainties); provided a = 15° and j: = 0.63, and that the ball and tube are of ordinary smoothness. The experiments on which the above generalized equation is based were made with a glass tube about 1 cm. in diameter, containing a \ inch (0.635 cm.) steel ball. Since x, y, a, and b are dimensionless, the numerical values given are common to all systems of normal units. Construction for use under pressure. The foregoing details were duplicated, except for small corrections, in the steel tube used under pressure. This tube was fitted with electric contacts, and with pressure-tight plugs of the type developed by Bridg- man, in whose laboratory the work was carried on. It was connected to the pump and gage by a considerable length of copper tubing, and swivelled so that either end could nstantly be thrown up to a prescribed angle. This steel tube was cali- brated for different densities by reference to equation (6). Residts on two lubricating oils. Lard oil and minera machine oil were selected for testing, because of the well known differ- ence in their behaviour as lubricants, although, under atmos- pheric conditions, they have nearly the same viscosity. Express- ing the results in the form ix = Mo (1 + «P) (?) and measuring pressure in atmospheres, (kg. /cm.2), the value of the pressure coefficient of viscosity, a, at 20°C, was found to be 0.0023 for lard, and 0.0032 for machine oil, over a range of hersey: viscosimeters 529 200 atm. The lard oil was later carried to 500 atm., and its viscosity found to increase much more rapidly than at the lower pressures. These results point to the advisability of now map- ping out the n, p, t surfaces of all lubricants in a systematic manner. In doing so, it is possible that both the above method and the free discharge method suggested below will be found simpler than the immersed capillary tube under differential pres- sure, used by Faust in some recent experiments not embracing lubricants. The extension of Poiseuille's law to high pressures. Various equations relating to lubrication might well be generalized to include the effect of pressure. Thus Poiseuille's law may be rewritten Q=l~r*C (8) o Ho in which Q is the volume discharged in unit time, by steady isothermal stream line flow, through a tube of radius r under a pressure gradient G; fi0 being the viscosity at the outlet pressure, and C a dimensionless coefficient depending on the viscosity- pressure curve of the liquid. Thus C= Mo FJP- (9) P-Pj?»f(p) P0 being the outlet, and P the inlet values of the pressure p, and ju = f{p) being some empirical formula for the viscosity. By postulating a particular form for /, we could, in theory, eval- uate the coefficients therein (such as a of equation (7) ), by observing the discharge from a high pressure reservoir through a long water-jacketed tube into the free air. To determine how nearly isothermal such flow could be made, note that, when K is constant, the final temperature rise of any incompressible viscous fluid, during steady (unaccelerated) adia- batic flow, is rigorously given by the formula Ap JK in which Ap is the total pressure drop, P -- P0, J the mechanical At = -5* (10) JK 530 JACKSON: ROTATION OF DEXTROSE equivalent, and K the thermal capacity of the liquid per unit volume. Thus the temperature rise depends solely on Ap and K; it is independent of the shape, diameter, or length of the tube, the viscosity of the liquid, or the rate of discharge. CHEMISTRY. — The saccharimetric normal weight and the spe- cific rotation of dextrose.1 Richard F. Jackson, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.) Pure dextrose was prepared from starch conversion products and from invert sugar solutions. After a preliminary purging had removed a great portion of the adhering impurities, the sub- stance was dissolved to form a 60 per cent solution in water and the crystals allowed to form slowly during continuous agitation. Two or three recrystallizations were sufficient to produce dex- trose of high purity. A portion was subjected to a fractional crystallization and another portion precipitated by ethyl alcohol. The various purified samples showed essentially identical prop- erties. Dextrose crystallizes from water solution with one molecule of water of crystallization which it loses very readily at 60°C. The residual moisture was removed by heating in a vacuum at 60°-80°C. for several hours. To prepare the solution for polarization, approximately the quantity required was weighed and dried in a weighed volu- metric flask, and the solution was made up to the graduation mark of the flask at 20°C. From the data obtained the den- sities of dextrose solutions were calculated and found to corre- spond to the formula: D 20o = 0.99840 + 0.003788 p + 0.00001412 p2 where p is per cent anhydrous dextrose by weight in vacuo. The formula is valid for values of p between 5 and 30. The solution was allowed to stand over night at room temper- ature in order to destroy the mutarotation. Twelve independent measurements were made to determine the weight of substance which, contained in 100 cc. of solution, 1 To appear in detail as a Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards. JACKSON: ROTATION OF DEXTROSE 531 would cause a rotation of 100°$ on the scale of the quartz-wedge saccharimeter. If the latter is controlled by the conversion fac- tors determined by Bates and Jackson,2 namely, 34?620 for X = 5892.5 A or 40?690 for X = 5461 A or by the rotation of 26.000 gm. of pure sucrose in 100 cc, the normal weight of dex- trose is 32.231 gm., weighed in air with brass weights. If the saccharimeter is calibrated by the Herzfeld-Schonrock factor, 34?657, which Bates and Jackson have shown to be in error, the normal weight of dextrose is 32.264 gm. For solutions more dilute than normal the rotations deviate from proportionality. It is, therefore, necessary to apply cor- rections, to make the scale reading indicate the per cent of sub- stance. These corrections are given in Table 1. TABLE 1 Reading: 90°S 80°S 70°S 60°S 50°S 40°S 30°S 20°S 10°S Correction: +0.20 +0.35 +0.46 +0.53 +0.55 +0.53 +0.46 +0.35 +0.20 The rotation of the normal solution (32.231 gm.) for X = 5461 A is 40?898. Since the normal quartz plate rotates 40?690, it is evident that there is a considerable divergence between the rotary dispersion curves of dextrose and of quartz. Thus, when the quartz-wedge saccharimeter is set for a photometric match, the field is slightly heterochromatic and the degree of repro- ducibility of the setting is necessarily less than that of sucrose, whose dispersion curve coincides more closely with that of quartz. This difficulty is only overcome by an increased number of set- tings and by some preliminary experience on the part of the observer. The specific rotation, which is a function of the concentration of dextrose, corresponds to the formula W2M6°i a = 62.032 + 0.04257 c where c is grams of anhydrous dextrose weighed in vacuo and contained in 100 cc. of solution, or to the formula MS a = 62-032 + 0.04220 p + 0.0001897 p2 where p is per cent dextrose by weight in vacuo. 2 Journ. Wash. Acad., 6: 25. 1916; Bull. Bur. Standards, 13: 67. 1916. 532 SOSMAN AND MERWIN: LIME: FERRIC OXIDE CHEMISTRY. — Preliminary report on the system, lime: ferric oxide. R. B. Sosman and H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory. Previous work. Apart from various isolated observations on the calcium ferrites, the only extensive investigation of the system calcium oxide: ferric oxide has been by Kohlmeyer.1 He observed the melting and freezing temperatures of 44 mixtures, containing from 5 up to 95 molecular per cent CaO. The density and external crystal form, as well as the chemical behavior toward water, carbon dioxide, etc., of the products, were also determined. Unfortunately no optical examinations were made, and no optical properties measured. Experience has shown that in the study of such systems as the silicates and ferrites the assistance of the petrographic micro- scope is almost indispensable; false conclusions may easily be reached from thermal data alone. Such was the case with Kohl- meyer's study. We have proved the existence of only one out of his five supposed compounds, while we have found one new compound, the existence of which was not shown by his thermal data. Dissociation of the ferric oxide. A certain amount of ferrous iron is formed in all melted mixtures of CaO and Fe203. Between 50 and 100 molecular per cent CaO the percentage of ferrous oxide is small in mixtures heated to 1400°-1500°; but in melts containing from 0 to 50 per cent CaO the amount of ferrous oxide increases rapidly with the temperature and with the pro- portion of Fe203, so that some of the melting and solidifying points observed may actually belong in the three component system : lime-iron-oxygen. The completion of the diagram from 0 to 50 per cent CaO will therefore have to await experiments under oxygen at pressures higher than atmospheric. Since apparatus for such experiments is not immediately avail- able, and since the results already obtained are of some interest, particularly in connection with certain problems of Portland 1 Diss., Berlin 1909. Ber. Don. Chem. Ges., 42: 4581-4594. 1909. SOSMAN AND MERWIN : LIME: FERRIC OXIDE 533 cement, we are publishing this preliminary report in order to make these results accessible to those interested. It is possible that work on three component systems in which Fe203 and CaO are components, especially on the system Si02 — CaO — Fe203, in which quenchings can be made, will indicate changes that should be made on the accompanying CaO — Fe203 diagram, which, however, represents satisfactorily the facts so far obtained. Method and materials. For the thermal data we depended almost entirely upon thermal curves (temperature-time curves). The method of quenching in mercury is of little avail in the system CaO — Fe203, for the reason that the products crystallize so easily and so rapidly that undercooled "glasses" are not obtained as in the case of the silicates, and the primary phase cannot, therefore, be always identified. Heating curves com- bined with optical examinations are, however, sufficient for the working out of the diagram. The optical properties are not as readily determinable as those of the silicates, on account of the deep colors and high indexes of refraction of the compounds, but the use of high refracting immersion glasses makes it possible to identify the phases with certainty. Thermal curves and optical examinations were made on vari- ous mixtures of CaO and Fe203, made up initially from chemically pure CaC03 (J. T. Baker, and Baker and Adamson) and Fe203 (Baker and Adamson, and Kahlbaum). Charges of from 1.0 to 2.5 grams were used, in small platinum crucibles in a platinum- wound furnace. The carbonate-oxide mixtures were first melted down and then ground and re-melted for the determination of the thermal breaks. The mixtures containing less than 50 molec- ular per cent CaO were not heated above 1250°, to avoid, as far as possible, dissociation of the Fe203. Temperatures were measured by the platinum-platinrhodium thermoelement and potentiometer. The composition-temperature diagram. We find only two binary compounds in the system CaO — Fe203. These are: (1) the 1 : 1 compound, CaO . Fe20 ; (2) the 2 : 1 compound, 2CaO . Fe203. Both of these appear to be dissociated at their melting points. 534 SOSMAN AND MERWIN: LIME : FERRIC OXIDE The melting point of pure CaO is 2570°, according to Kanolt.2 Its properties have been published elsewhere.3 The " transition temperature" at which the compound 2CaO. Fe203 dissociates and is in equilibrium with CaO and liquid is 1436°. All mixtures from about 64 molecular per cent (about 38 weight per cent) of CaO up to pure CaO liquefy in part at this temperature, leaving pure CaO as the solid phase in excess. This 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 WOO CaO + Liquid \ CaO + 2.CaO.Fe203 CaO ECaOFe203 Fe203 + Liquid \^CaO.Fe203 + Liquid / +i,qUjd zCaO.Fe203 + CaO.Fe203 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Molecular Percentage CaO 0 Fig. 1. Composition-temperature diagram of the system CaO-Fe203. Circles represent observed thermal breaks. forms relatively large, rounded, clear grains, which dissolve as the temperature is raised, until they disappear completely at the temperature of the liquidus curve. The corn-pound 2CaO . Fe203 crystallizes well, giving black crys- tals which are of a yellowish brown color by transmitted light under the microscope. The liquid can be undercooled to 1385° 2 This Journal, 3: 31.5-318. 1913. 3 Rankin and Wright. Am. Journ. Sci., 39: 3. 1915. SOSMAN AND MERWIN: LIME : FERRIC OXIDE 535 or lower. The crystallized product then shows traces of free CaO and CaO . Fe203, which are due to dissociation, and which have not combined during cooling. The compound forms from a finely powdered mixture of CaC03 and Fe203 at a temperature considerably below its liquefying point; under our conditions a considerable quantity of the compound formed during 30 min- utes heating at 1000°, although none was visible in a mixture heated rapidly to 950°, at which temperature most of the carbon dioxide had been expelled. The optical properties of the compound 2CaO . Fe203 are : biax- ial, positive, with a moderate optic axial angle. aLi = 2.200 ± 0.005, |8Li = 2.220 ± 0.005, yLi = 2.290 ±0.005. The opti- cal dispersion of a is the same as of the immersion medium, therefore aNa is about 2.25; /3 and y have lower dispersion, a is absorbed considerably through the red as well as for shorter wave-lengths. /3 and y are absorbed little at wave-lengths longer than 620mm, and are transmitted considerably at 550mm- There is no optical evidence of solid solution either of CaO or of CaO.Fe203 in the compound. The transition temperature at which the compound CaO . Fe203 dissociates, and is in equilibrium with liquid and with 2CaO . Fe203 is 1216°. All mixtures between about 48 and 65 molecular per cent of CaO (about 24.5 to 38 weight per cent) liquefy in part at this temperature, forming liquid and leaving excess of 2CaO . Fe203 as the crystalline phase, which dissolves with rising temperature and disappears at the liquidus curve. The compound CaO.Fe203, after dissociating and nearly all liquefying at 1216°, becomes completely liquid at about 1250° by the disappearance of the solid 2CaO.Fe203 formed by dis- sociation. The liquid crystallizes with less undercooling than does the compound 2CaO.Fe203, and the temperature of the thermoelement sometimes rises to within a few degrees of 1216°. The crystallized product contains an appreciable amount of 2CaO.Fe203, and dark dusty ferric oxide. When powdered and reheated at 1190°, these dissociation products recombine com- pletely, forming a homogeneous product of red CaO.Fe203; the powder also sinters together. 536 sosman and merwin: lime: ferric oxide The compound forms from a finely powdered mixture of CaC03 and Fe203 at a temperature well below the melting point, just as the 2 : 1 compound does. It crystallizes well, giving black crystals. The crystals are frequently in the form of long needles,4 but no evidence of prismatic habit is visible in the powdered preparation under the microscope. The optical properties of the compound CaO.Fe203 are as follows: Color: deep red, about like hematite; optical character: nearly or quite uniaxial, negative; indexes of refraction: coLi = 2.465 ± 0.005, eLi = 2.345 =±= 0.005. For sodium light co is about 2.58 and c about 2.43. These values were determined by observ- ing that throughout the red and orange the dispersion of the compound was not noticeably different from that of the immer- sion medium, e is absorbed slightly more than co in the orange and at shorter wave-lengths, but not noticeably more in the red. Grains 0.01 mm. in thickness show scarcely any absorption at wave lengths longer than 610mm; at wave lengths shorter than 580mm they are very dark. There is no optical evidence of solid solution either of 2CaO . Fe203 or of Fe203 in the compound. There is a eutectic at 1203° between CaO.Fe203 on the one hand, and ferric oxide (hematite) on the other. The mixture containing 10 molecular per cent CaO shows clearly an excess of hematite. The mixture with 25 molecular per cent CaO con- sists almost entirely of a deep red, apparently homogeneous, material, which is probably an intimately intergrown eutectic of CaO.Fe203 and Fe203; the mixture contains also a little excess of red CaO . Fe203. The eutectic composition is therefore between 10 and 25 per cent CaO, and probably near the latter. The melting point of pure Fe2Os is unknown, as it dissociates under atmospheric pressure of oxygen before the melting point is reached into oxygen and a solid solution of Fe304 in Fe203.5 Its optical properties have been published elsewhere.6 4 See photographs by Hofman and Mostowitsch, Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 39: 628-653. 1909. 5 Sosman and Hostetter. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 38: 807-833. 1916. 'Merwin. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 38: 830. 1916. cook: morphology and evolution of leaves 537 The Fe203 fragments in the preparation containing 10 molecu- lar per cent CaO, which had been heated to 1250° but was not completely melted, had a variable and lower refractive index than pure hematite (w as much as 0.05 lower). This is due to solid solution either of CaO . Fe203 or of Fe304. co was measured in an amorphous mixture of selenium and arsenic selenide(As2Se3), by means of which, with the addition of tellurium, a refractive index of about 3.15 for red can be reached. We have found no evidence as yet of a 3 : 1 compound anala- gous to tricalcium aluminate. Samples of this composition quenched7 after 15 minutes at 1575°, 15 minutes a„t 1525°, 15 minutes at 1325°, and 3 hours at 1375° all consisted only of CaO and 2CaO . Fe203. Thermal curves on this mixture showed only the melting at 1434-1436°. Chemical analogy has naturally led several authors to expect a phase rule diagram for the system CaO — Fe203 similar to that for CaO — A1203. Campbell,8 for instance, assumed the exist- ence of the compound 5Ca0.3Fe203, analogous to the 5 : 3 com- pound of lime and alumina, and claimed to have found chemical evidence for its existence. We find no evidence of such a com- pound. Instead of being analogous to CaO — A1203, the dia- gram of the system CaO - Fe203 resembles that of MgO - Si029 much more clearly than it resembles that of any other of the silicate systems with which we are familiar. PLANT MORPHOLOGY.— Morphology and evolution of leaves. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. In seedlings of many palms, grasses, and other plants the first leaves are simple, bladeless sheaths, or the blade appears as an appendage or expanded outgrowth from the rim of the sheath. Leaves with larger blades are produced as the plant grows, until the adult degree of specialization is attained. The essential fea- ture of the primitive leaf is the basal sheath, in the form of a 7 Quenchings by G. A. Rankin. 8 E. D. Campbell. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 7: 835-837. 1915. 9 N. L. Bowen. Am. Jour. Sci., 37: 487-500. 1914. 538 cook: morphology and evolution of leaves cylinder. Each sheath in turn encloses the terminal bud of the shoot, and later encircles the stem. Three elements of leaf structure — blade, petiole, and stipules — are recognized generally in manuals and textbooks. These are convenient for purposes of description, but for understanding the structure and evolution of leaves it is better to begin with the sheath or with the sheath and the blade, the two elements that appear to have been differentiated in advance of the others. Sheaths have been looked upon as expanded petioles or united stipules, instead of being considered as a primitive element. It has seemed reasonable to suppose that the petiole and the stip- ules have been derived from the blade, which in most plants is the largest and most important part of the leaf, but a general interpretation in accord with evolutionary facts is needed in the study of structural variations of plants. THE PRIMITIVE FUNCTION OF LEAVES In plants like Equisetum, Ephedra, and Casuarina the inter- nodes perform the vegetative functions. Leaves are represented only by sheaths or scales which are mere appendages of the inter- nodes, apparently of little use except for protecting the buds. Palms and many other plants afford examples of internodes and sheaths that have chlorophyll and stomata in the epidermal tis- sues and share the vegetative functions with the blades of the leaves. Cacti and specialized desert plants of other families have very small or rudimentary leaves, thus reducing transpiration. It is customary to think of bud scales and similar organs as leaves that have been specialized by reduction, but it may be more correct morphologically to think of foliage leaves as enlarged bud scales that have assumed the vegetative functions formerly discharged by the internodes. The function of the bud scales is older than are the present forms of leaves, and may date back to the stage when the sheaths were simple cylinders, before the development of more specialized forms of leaf structure. It is unnecessary to suppose that the early types of seed plants lacked bud scales. cook: moephology and evolution of leaves 539 the course of specialization in leaf-forms Other specialized forms of leaves, such as sepals, bracts, and scales of subterranean rootstocks, may also be considered as representing primitive sheaths or bud scales, rather than as reduc- tions from the fully developed type of foliage leaves. From this point of view the foliage leaves appear to be the most specialized. Yet in developing the foliage leaves plants have not lost the ability to produce the simpler organs — sheaths, bud scales, or bracts. The plant body is a succession of different kinds of internodes, or metamers, bearing different kinds of leaves. At one end of the series are the cotyledons or seed-leaves, at the other the carpels or fruit-leaves, with many intermediate stages between the different kinds of foliar and floral organs. As stamens are often transformed into petals, so we may think of cotyledons and foliage leaves as sterile carpels performing vegetative functions. Some of the species of Sterculia have broad leaflike carpels that persist and remain green long after the seeds have been shed. That the stamens and carpels of the different families of plants are generally more alike than the leaves or other parts of the plant body is more easily understood when we con- sider the evolution of plants as a process of intercalation of more numerous and more specialized forms of metamers. Plants like the junipers, pines, and eucalypts have two distinct kinds of foliage leaves, showing clearly that a double evolution of these organs has taken place. The succession of different kinds of leaves, the classical exam- ple used by Goethe in presenting the idea of evolutionary changes in the forms of the same organ, may not be less significant for the strictly morphological purpose of understanding the origin and homologies of the structural elements of the leaves. The changes that take place in passing through the succession of leaf- forms, during the development of the plant, are also of interest for the study of heredity.1 1 Cook. O. F. Dimorphic leaves of cotton and allied plants in relation to heredity. U. S. Dept, Agric, Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 221. 1911. Heredity and cotton breeding. U. S. Dept, Agric, Bur. PL Ind., Bull. 256. 1912. 540 cook: morphology and evolution of leaves differentiation of the ligule In the development of foliage leaves the ligule was probably the first structure to be added after the sheath and the blade. The ligule may be described as a thickened rim of the leaf sheath, bearing the weight of the blade or holding the sheath in place around the stem. In Serenoa and related genera of fan-palms the ligule is supplemented by a ligule-like expansion of the rim that supports the bases of the segments on the under side of the leaf. Although these subligules, as they may be called, appear in only a few palms, they are not without general interest as organs that are closely parallel in structure and function with the true ligules.2 The sheaths of most palms are thickened on the side that sup- ports the petiole, and are split on the opposite side, allowing the leaf to diverge more widely from the trunk, but the more primi- tive condition of closed sheaths with nearly uniform texture is also found, as in Calamus, Desmoncus, and Chamaedorea. Even in the large royal palms and many others the sheaths are not split until the leaves are ready to fall. In palms like Desmoncus and Pyrenoglyphis, as in many mem- bers of the family Polygonaceae, the sheath, instead of being specialized at the mouth to form a ligule, is prolonged far above the insertion of the petiole, forming what is known as an ocrea. A similar prolongation of the sheath beyond the point of attach- ment with the petiole is found in the bud scales of Magnolia and Ficus. Some writers have taken it for granted that the ocrea, or the entire sheath, has been formed by the union of stipules, but the indications point rather to the formation of stipules by reduction and specialization of the sheaths of the more primi- tive forms of leaves. Whether we consider that the blade arose simply as an expan- sion of the upper portion of the sheath or as an outgrowth from the rim of the sheath, the ligule may be considered as marking 2 My attention has been called by Mr. H. Pittier to illustrations of the sub- ligule of Trithrinax campestris published by C. De Candolle, Bull. Soc. Bot. Geneve, II. 5: 106, pi. 3. 1913. cook: morphology and evolution of leaves 541 a line of separation of the two portions of the primitive leaf that became specialized. Even this indication of definite spe- cialization of parts is lacking in many plants, as among the lilies, orchids, and plantains, where the leaves still appear as simple sheaths with a gradually broadened distal portion to serve as a blade, but no distinct separation of special parts. The idea of leaf blades arising as outgrowths from leaf sheaths appears more probable, or at least less fantastic, when we consider such a case as the leaf of Smilax, where the end of the sheathing base produces a pair of slender tendrils several inches in length, in addition to the blade of the leaf. It may not be without sig- nificance that rudimentary blades of abnormal or reduced leaves often assume very slender, tendril-like forms. THE EVOLUTION OF STIPULES It has been supposed that stipules were developed from basal lobes of leaf blades. This interpretation was suggested by Ward and later adopted by Berry on the basis of evidence drawn from fossils and abnormal leaf-forms of Liriodendron, but these can be understood as intermediate stages between normal leaf-forms and bud scales. It seems unnecessary to suppose that stipules began with Liriodendron, or that the stipules of Liriodendron are not homologous with those of other genera and families.3 The very general occurrence of stipules or stipular structures is in itself a fact that must make it difficult to credit the idea of recent development or independent derivation of such organs, either in the family Magnoliaceae or in the many and widely different families of plants that have stipules. The stipules of Liriodendron may be more primitive than those of other Magno- liaceae in retaining more of the vegetative functions of the primi- tive sheath, but their nearly complete separation from the petiole and from each other may be considered as a specialization, since partially united stipules occur. Union between the stipules and the petiole is shown in many of the reduced leaves or the large floral bud scales that have small petioles and blades. Union 3 Berry, E. W. The origin of stipules in Liriodendron. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 28: 493. 1901. 542 cook: morphology and evolution of leaves between the stipules on the side opposite the petiole is some- times shown in very large stipules of strong shoots. Another line of evidence tending to throw doubt on this idea of stipules as specializations of leaf blades might be drawn from bracts and other organs that take the form of sheaths, even in families whose normal foliage leaves are without stipules. Thus, in the genus Hicoria the outer scales of lateral buds have the form of a closed sheath, carinate on each side, somewhat similar to the prophylla of grasses and palms. The large membranous bud scales that precede the leaves on new shoots of Hicoria also represent sheaths and sometimes appear in modified form as stipular wings of the petiole, on abnormal leaves of shoots devel- oped late in the season. Considerations drawn from the study of "nodal anatomy" have been used recently by Sinnott and Bailey as the basis of interpretation of leaf morphology. Stipules, sheaths, and ligules are classed together as " modifications of the base of the petiole," the final conclusion being that " a leaf with two distinct stipules is more ancient in type than one with a sheathing base."4 Stipules have also been considered as "accessory leaves," or as a specialized development of the basal portion of the "true petiole."5 In the present view, stipules, bud scales, and various forms of bracts appear to have been derived not from the blade or the petiole of specialized leaves, but from the primitive sheath. The ligule and even the blade itself are considered as specializa- tions from the distal end of the sheath ; but scales and stipules as specializations of the basal portion. Petioles are not all homolo- gous, but are of two kinds, some derived from the sheath, and others from the blade. THE TWO KINDS OF PETIOLES Taking account of the ligule or the ocrea as marking the end of the primitive sheath makes it possible to distinguish very 4 Sinnott, E. W., and Bailey, I. W. Investigations on the phylogeny of the angiosperms. 3. Nodal anatomy and the morphology of stipules. Amer. Journ. Bot., 1: 441-453, pi. 44. 1914. 6 See, Tyler, A. A. The nature and origin of stipules. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 10: 1-49, pis. 1-111. 1897. cook: morphology and evolution of leaves 543 clearly the two kinds of petioles. Both kinds are represented among the palms. In fan-palms the so-called petiole is below the ligule, whereas the part described as petiole in some of the pinnate-leaved palms certainly is above the ligule or ocrea. In the fan-palms it is plain that the petiole is a narrowed, elongated portion of the leaf sheath, ending at the ligule, whereas the petiole of the Cocaceae and Chamaedoreaceae represents a naked basal portion of the rachis or midrib.6 That the petioles are of two kinds is apparent also from the fact that in the fan-palms the petioles agree in structure and are entirely continuous with the leaf sheath, while in the pinnate- leaved palms there is equally complete agreement and continuity with the rachis. But the leaf structure is not the same in all of the pinnate-leaved families. There appear to have been sev- eral independent derivations of pinnate leaves from fan-leaved ancestors. The Geonomaceae are a pinnate-leaved family in which the petiole appears to be a part of the sheath, the same as in fan-palms. The magnolia family affords another example of double differ- entiation of the petiole, the lower part of the organ being formed by a thickened segment of the leaf sheath, while the upper part is a narrowed base of the blade, as shown by the decurrent margins which run down to the ligule. In such species as Mag- nolia virginiana the lower portion of the petiole is marked very distinctly by the scar of the deciduous leaf sheath, with a minute hairy prominence at the end, which may be considered as a thick- ened base of the ligular prolongation that forms the apex of the sheathing bud scale. It is conceivable that a petiole formed originally from the sheath element might become separated from the remainder of the sheath, which would account for the evolution of such organs as the deciduous bud scales of the Artocarpaceae. But all petioles formed from sheaths would remain essentially different morphologically and developmentally from those that were formed originally as basal elongations of the midrib of a simple 6 Cook, O. F. Origin and evolution of angiosperms through apospory. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9: 174. 1907. 544 cook: morphology and evolution of leaves leaf, or by moving the pinnae farther up the rachis of a com- pound leaf, as in the pinnate palms. SHEATH PETIOLES AND BLADE PETIOLES The recognition of the two kinds of petioles as representing distinct morphological elements makes it necessary to have more convenient ways of designating the two classes of organs to which the word petiole has been applied indiscriminately. The use of such terms as sheath petiole and blade petiole would afford a way of indicating the distinction. Sheath petioles would be understood as those that represent specializations of the primi- tive sheath, and blade petioles as specializations of the blade or midrib of the leaf. Other terms that might be used are infraligular for the sheath petioles and ultraligular for the blade petioles, in allusion to the differences of position in relation of the ligule. It might be objected that ligules are confined to a few families, but the terms would still serve to indicate the homologies of the parts to those of plants whose possession of ligules gives the most definite basis for the distinction between the two kinds of petioles. THE FOOT AS A NEW ORGAN For general descriptive purposes and especially for dealing with plants in which the resemblance to the primitive sheath has entirely disappeared, it may be simpler to treat the petiole- like sheath element as a new organ not formally distinguished hitherto. On this basis instead of sheath petiole or infraligular petiole, a single word like foot, in Latin descriptions pes, might be used. This would have the advantage of leaving the term petiole as nearly as possible in its present signification, which would need to be modified only in those cases where the so-called petiole might be found to represent the sheath element. No doubt there are many plants where not only the stipules are lack- ing, but also the foot. From this point of view it would be possible in dealing with different families of plants to define the foot in any way that might be most convenient, as a thickened segment of the primi- tive sheath, as the element of the primitive sheath that supports cook: morphology and evolution of leaves 545 the blade, as the element that is between the petiole and the internode, or as the element to which the stipules are attached. Thus in the peaches, almonds, plums, and other members of the family Amygdalaceae, the petiole is articulated at its base to the foot, to which the stipules are attached. The petiole is deciduous with the blade, but the foot persists for another season and functions as a bud scale. The foot is present also in apples, pears, and roses, but falls with the leaf, there being no joint at the base of the petiole.7 The joint is present in Oxalis and in many leguminous plants. Objection might be taken on etymological grounds to using the word foot for an element that in many plants is smaller than the petiole, which term means a small foot. It does not seem, however, that this is likely to cause confusion, since the obvious signification of foot is in relation to the lowest, most truly basal portion of the leaf. Absence of the foot is to be considered as a specialization of leaf structure, and it will be interesting to deter- mine the status of the organ in the different families. Even though not present in the foliage leaves, the foot may still be represented in the bud scales, bracts, or other organs which from our present point of view appear to be more primitive and less specialized than the foliage leaves. That the cotyledon is some- times called the nursing foot, or simply the foot, hardly con- stitutes an objection to the use of this word, with other leaves, for the element that corresponds to the cotyledons and primitive bladeless sheaths of seedlings. pulvini and articulations Pulvini and articulations represent special forms of tissue con- nected with the ligule or base of the blade in grasses and palms, and found in corresponding positions in other families of plants. The chief function of pulvini is to control the position of the leaf blade, which is accomplished by varying the turgidity or water pressure in the rather loose cells of which the pulvini are composed. A flexible pulvinus is in the nature of a joint. 7 Cook, O. F. Jointed leaves of Amygdalaceae. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci.,2: 218-220. 1912. 546 cook: morphology and evolution of leaves Many leaves have a basal pulvinus, with a layer of absciss tissue to form an articulation with the internode, when the leaf separates at maturity. In other leaves the joint that provides for the detachment of the leaf is between the foot and the petiole, as in the case of the peaches, plums, cherries, and related plants. In Magnolia virginiana there is a pronounced development of the entire upper surface of the foot as a pulvinus, which has a special function in lifting the winter bud scales in the spring. The organ that is usually described as a true petiole may prove to be a foot in cases where there are pulvini at both ends, as in cacao. In the patashte tree, a relative of cacao, the petioles of the leaves of the fruiting branches have the structure of pul- vini for their whole length.8 In the cotton plant also there are pulvini at both ends of the petiole. Other reasons for consider- ing the cotton petiole as a foot may be found in the fact that while the margins of the leaf blade never show any tendency to become decurrent, the petiole is often united with the margins of enlarged stipules like those that form the involucral bracts. The suppression or extreme reduction of the blade in the for- mation of the involucral bracts of the cotton plant might also be considered as an indication that the blade, in spite of its much greater size, still behaves in some respects as an appendage of the sheath. That the general course of evolution has been in the direction of enlarging the blade and reducing the sheath element may be considered as at least a partial explanation of the fact that enlargement of the stipules is almost invariably accompanied by reduction of the blade of the leaf. If only one stipule is enlarged, a lobe is likely to be wanting on the same side of the blade.9 SUMMARY The leaves of angiosperms show a primary division into two morphological elements, (1) a basal sheath supporting (2) an expanded blade, as represented in the leaves of palms, grasses, and many other plants. The organs that are usually described 8 Cook, O. F. Branching and flowering habits of cacao and patashte. Contr. U. S. Nat, Herb., 17: 609-625, pis. 44-54. 1916. 9 Cook, O. F. Brachysm, a hereditary deformity of cotton and other plants. Journ. Agric. Research, 3: 387-400, pis. 53-62. 1915. safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 547 as petioles are of two kinds, (1) some that appear to have arisen through a narrowing of the base of the blade, and (2) others through a narrowing of the primitive sheath. The name foot is suggested for a specialized portion of the leaf sheath that serves as a petiole. Both the petiole and the foot are represented in many plants, in such families as the Amygdalaceae, Rosaceae, and Magnoliaceae. Stipules, bud scales, bracts, ligules, and pul- vini are other specializations of the primitive sheath element, and the blade also appears to have arisen as an outgrowth or expansion of the sheath. ETHNOBOTANY. — Identity of cohoba, the narcotic snuff of ancient Haiti.1 William Edwin Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry. The natives of Hispaniola, or Haiti, at the time of the Dis- covery made use of a narcotic snuff, which they inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated tube. This snuff induced a kind of intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions, which were regarded by them as supernatural. While under its influence the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutter- ings were regarded as prophesies or revelations of hidden things. The same practice was also followed by their physicians in treat- ing the sick, in order to ascertain the cause of maladies and to determine remedies which should be used for their cure. This snuff was called in the language of the islanders "coxoba" (the sound of the x approaching that of the German ch, or the gut- tural Spanish j) . In Spanish orthography the word was written "cojoba," and in Italian "cogioba," a form which has been incorrectly transcribed "cogiba" and "cojiba." These various forms of the word might lead to confusion, were it not for the fact that Las Casas clearly indicates its pronunciation, as follows: "These powders and these ceremonies, or acts, were called cohoba, the middle syllable long in their language, in which they pronounce as in the Arabic, or like the Germans confusedly."2 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 2 Las Casas. Apolog. Hist, de las Indias, Chapt. 166, pp. 445-446, ed. Serrano y Saenz, Madrid. 1909. Fig. 1. Cohoba, Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth., the source of the narcotic snuff of Hispaniola. Natural size. 548 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 549 By nearly all authors who have written of ancient Haiti or on the history of tobacco, cohoba snuff has been confused with tobacco, and the bifurcated snuffing tubes have been mistaken for nose pipes used for smoking. This confusion can be traced to Oviedo, whose account of tobacco is misleading and incorrect. Oviedo, indeed, is responsible for many mistakes that have been handed down from writer to writer. His statements are often contradictory, and not infrequently he confesses that he writes from memory or from the testimony of others. In his first work, De la natural hystoria de las Indias (1526), he does not mention either cohoba or tobacco, in connection with the natives of His- paniola. In his Historia general de las Indias (1535) he says nothing of snuff but speaks of the evil custom of taking certain fumigations, which the Indians call tobacco, in order to lose their senses; "and this they did with the smoke of a certain herb, which, according to what I have been able to learn, is of the quality of hen-bane [Hyoscyamus] but not resembling that plant in form and habit;"3 and he further states that the smoke was in- haled through certain canes with two tubes, of which he presents a Y-shaped figure, which, like his description of the method of using them, was certainly drawn, not from his personal observa- tion, but from the descriptions of others. Oviedo, unfortunately, has been quoted by many authors, and his Y-shaped figure, with its branches so diverging that they could not possibly have been simultaneously inserted in the nostrils of a human being, has been copied again and again.4 EARLIEST ACCOUNTS OF COHOBA The ceremonial use of cohoba is described in the very first work which treats of the ethnology of the New World, written in 1496 3 "Usavan los indios desta isla entre otros sus vicios uno muy malo, que es tomar unas ahumadas que ellos llaman tabaco para salir de sentido : y esto hazian con el humo de cierta yerva, que a lo que yo he podido entender es de calidad del velefio: pero no de aquella hechura o forma a la vista." Oviedo, op cit., fol. xlvii. 1535. 4 Among the earliest writers to cite Oviedo was Purchas, who states that the natives of Hispaniola "had tobacco in religious veneration, not only for sanity, but for sanctity also, as Oviedo writeth; the smoke whereof they took into the nose 550 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba by Ramon Pane, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage. This paper, originally in Spanish, is best known through an Italian translation published as an appendix to the Historie of Fernando Colombo (1571), now a rare work, a copy of which is in the Library of Congress. The author, whose name appears in the introduction as "Frate Roman, povero Eremita del Tor- dine di San Gieronimo," wrote, in obedience to the command of the illustrious Lord Admiral and Viceroy, what he was able to learn concerning the beliefs and idolatry of the Indians. In describing their snuff he calls it in one place cohoba and elsewhere cogioba (Italian orthography, like "Gieronimo" quoted above). Writing in the present tense, he says: "This powder they draw up through the nose, and it intoxicates them to such an extent that when they are under its influence they know not what they do."5 In striking contrast to Oviedo, Fra Ramon wrote only what he had actually seen, and he confined the field of his obser- vations to the natives of the island of Hispaniola, stating: "Color, de' quali cio scrivo, son dellTsola Spagnuola; percioche delle altre Isole io non so cosa alcuna, non haven do mai veduto."6 Peter Martyr's account of the inhabitants of Hispaniola, in his De Orbe Novo, is simply a paraphrase of Fra Ramon's paper, in Latin. It adds nothing to his description of cohoba, but on the other hand it is misleading, since it refers to it as "an herb which they pound up and drink;" and though it states that the natives "absorb the intoxicating herb called cohobba, which is the same as that used by the bovites to excite their frenzy," it fails to with a forked pipe fitted to both nostrils, holding the single end in the smoke of that herb burning in the fire until they became senseless. Their priests most used this, who, coming to themselves after this sleepy fume, delivered the oracles of their zemes or devils, which sometimes spake by them." — Purchas, His Pil- grimage, 5: 957. 1626. Among the latest authorities to be misled by Oviedo is H. Ling Roth; see his account of tobacco in The aborigines of Hispaniola, in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. 16: 258. 1887. See also, Bourne, Edward Gaylord, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society of Worcester, n. s., 17: 327. 1906; and Fewkes, J. W., in Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 630. 1907. 6 "Una certa polvere, chiamata Cohoba, tirandola a se per il naso, la quale gli imbriaga de tal maniera, che non sanno quel, che si fanno." — Ramon Pane, (1496), in appendix to Fernando Colombo's Historie, cap. XV, f. 134. 1571. 6 Ramon Pane, op. cit., f. 126. 1571. safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 551 specify that they breathed it through their nostrils by means of a forked tube. Nothing is said of the apparatus by which the snuff is taken, and indeed Ramon Pane himself neglects to give a description of it. Fernando Colombo, however, in the work already cited, states that for holding the snuff the natives had a finely wrought table of a round form, resembling a trencher {come un tagliere) , and that they took it by means of a bifurcated tube: "con una canna di due rami, che si mettono al naso." The description of Las Casas, who was an eye-witness to the ceremony of the cohoba, is even more precise. The snuff-tray he describes as "a plate, not flat but slightly concavish or deep, made of wood, so handsome, smooth, and pretty, that it could not be very much more so, were it made of gold or silver; it was almost black and polished like jet" (cuasi negro y lucio como de azabache). The tube, he says, was fashioned the size of a flute and was quite hollow like a flute. From two-thirds of its length onward it divided by means of two hollow canes, just as we open the two middle fingers, leaving out the thumb, with the hand extended. The ends of these two canes inserted into the windows of the nostrils, and the base of the flute, let us say, into the powder on the plate, they would draw in their breath and snuffing up, would receive through the nostrils as much of the powder as they wished to take, which, when taken, would go at once to the brain, almost as though they had drunk strong wine; for they would become drunk or almost drunk It was their custom, in coming together to decide difficult matters, such as the manoevures of one of their war parties, or the performance of other things which they deemed important, to make their cohoba and with it intoxicate themselves or nearly so to do. ... . . I saw these people on several occasions celebrate their cohoba, and it was an interesting spectacle to witness how they took it and what they spake. The Chief began the ceremony, and while he was engaged all remained silent. When he had taken his cohoba (that is, when he had snuffed up the powder through his nostrils, as I have described), they being seated on certain handsomely carved low benches which they called duohos (the first syllable long), he remained silent for a while with his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then he raised his face heavenward uttering certain words which must have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God; after which all responded, almost as we do when we say Amen; and this they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them his vision, saying that the Cemi had spoken to 552 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba him and had predicted good tunes or the contrary, or that children were to be born or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors, and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed with that intoxication; or if perhaps without it, what the devil, to deceive them and win them to his worship, had brought to them.7 The snuff itself was described by Las Casas as " finely ground and of the color of cinnamon or powdered henna" (de color de canela 6 de alhena ?nolida).8 THE COHOBA TREE STILL PERSISTS IN HAITI That a substance with the intoxicating effects of cohoba should have been identified with tobacco seems strange; but if not tobacco, what could have been its origin? Is the custom of tak- ing a narcotic snuff by means of a bifurcated tube still in exist- ence in any part of America? If so, from what plant is the snuff prepared, and is this plant to be found growing on the island of Haiti? These questions may be answered as follows: The cus- tom of taking a narcotic snuff still prevails in various localities of South America, showing that at one time it must have been widely spread. In inhaling it some tribes used bifurcated tubes which correspond very closely with the descriptions of those used in Hispaniola. The plant from which the snuff is derived is Piptadenia peregrina, a tree which grows both spontaneously and in cultivation on the banks of the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers and their tributaries. This tree does grow on the island of Hispaniola, or Haiti, as well as upon the neighboring island of Porto Rico and several other of the Antilles; and — most inter- esting and convincing of all facts connected with it — it still bears the name cohoba, which was applied in ancient times both to the snuff itself and to the ceremonial practice of using it. 7 Las Casas. Apol. Hist, de las Indias, Chapt. 166, pp. 445-446, ed. Serrano y Saenz, Madrid. 1909. 8 Alhena is the name of the so-called Egyptian privet, Lawsonia inermis, the powdered leaves of which, called henna, were used by the Egyptians for coloring their finger-nails. The fragrant flowers of this plant are the principal source of the perfume wafted by the breezes of "Araby the Blest." safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 553 narcotic snuffs of south america It was in connection with his studies of the economic plants and plant products of the aborigines of America that the writer came upon a description of the custom of snuff-taking by certain tribes of Indians inhabiting the tributaries of the Orinoco, in Padre Gumilla's El Orinoco Ilustrado, printed in Madrid in 1741. In describing the customs of the Otomaco Indians this venerable missionary bewails their use of inebriants, as follows: They have another most evil habit of intoxicating themselves through the nostrils, with certain malignant powders which they call yupa, which quite takes away their reason (que les quita totalmente el juicio) , and furious, they grasp their weapons; and if the women were not adept at seizing and tying them, they would commit cruel havoc every day; this is a tremendous vice. They prepare this powder from cer- tain pods of the yupa (unas algarrobas de yupa) from which the name is derived, but the powder itself has the odor of strong tobacco. That which they add to it, through the ingenuity of the devil, is what causes the intoxication and the fury. After eating certain very large snails which they find in the inundated areas along the river they put their shells into the fire and burn them to quicklime whiter than snow itself. This lime they mix with the yupa in equal quantities, and after reducing the whole to the finest powder there results a mixture of diabolical strength; so great, that in touching this powder with the tip of the finger, the most confirmed devotee of snuff cannot accustom himself to it, for in simply putting his finger which touched the yupa near to his nose, he bursts forth into a whirlwind of sneezes. The Saliva Indians and other tribes of which I shall later treat also use the yupa, but as they are people gentle, benign, and timid, they do not become maddened like our Otomacos, who, even on account of this, have been and still are formidable to the Caribs; for before a battle they would throw themselves into a frenzy with yupa, wound themselves, and full of blood and rage (llends de sangre y de sana) go forth to battle like rabid tigers."9 Shortly afterwards (1743) M. de la Condamine, while explor- ing the Marafion River, found the Omagua Indians living at a village near the mouth of the Rio Napo making use of two narcotic plants: One called by the Spaniards floripondio [Datura arborea], with flowers shaped like a drooping bell, which has been described by Pere Feuillee ; the other in the native vernacular called curupa, both of them purgatives. They cause intoxication lasting 24 hours, during which it is pretended that they have strange visions. The curupa is taken 9 Gumilla, Joseph. El Orinoco Ilustrado, pp. 117-118. 1741. 554 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba in the form of powder, as we take tobacco, but with more apparatus. The Omaguas make use of a cane tube terminating in a fork, of a Y- shaped form, each branch of which they insert into one of their nostrils. This operation, followed b}^ a violent inspiration, causes them to make diverse grimaces.10 This snuff, called curupa and also, according to Gilii, curuba.11 was afterwards identified by Humboldt with the yupa or nupa of the Otomac Indians, described by Gumilla, and the paricd of Brazil,12 and* traced to a tree, which he called Acacia Niopo. Humboldt states that the missionaries on the Orinoco commonly call it tree-tobacco (tabac en arbre) to distinguish it from the ordinary herbaceous tobacco (Nico- tiana) . humboldt's description Humboldt, who observed a party of Otomac In- dians at Urana, a mission on the Orinoco River, says of them: . they throw themselves into a peculiar state of intoxication, one might almost say of mad- ness, by the use of the powder of niopo. They gather Fig. 2. Bifur- the long pods of a Mimosacea, which we have made cated tube for known under the name Acacia Niopo, cut them to pieces, snuffing pow- moisten them, and cause them to ferment. When the dered seed of softened seeds begin to turn black they are ground Piptadenia pere- into a paste, and after having mixed with them some grina. Used by flour of cassava and some lime made from the shell of Otomac Indians an Ampullaria, they expose the whole mass to a very of the Orinoco brisk fire, on a gridiron of hard wood. The hardened River. Berlin paste is given the form of little cakes. When wanted Museum. Scaled for use it is reduced to a fine powder, and placed on a dish five or six inches wide. The Otomac holds this dish, which has a handle, in his right hand, while he inhales the niopo by the nose, through a forked tube of bird's bone. This bone, 10 See, Relation abregee d'un voyage fail dans I'interieur de V Amerique merid- ionale, etc. par. M. de la Condamine, in Mem. de l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, Annee 1745, p. 428. Paris, 1749. 11 Gilii, F. S. Saggio de storia Americana, 1: 201-202. 1780. 12 Humboldt & Bonpland. Voyage aux regions equinoxiales, 2: 620. 1819. safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 555 without which the Otomac believes he could not take this kind of snuff, is seven inches long: it appeared to me to be the leg-bone of a sort of plover. A snuffing tube of the Otomac Indians, corresponding to this description of Humboldt and now in the Berlin Museum, is shown in the accompanying illustration, drawn by Mrs. R. E. Gamble after Max Uhle (fig. 2). Its form is closely similar to that of the polished wooden tubes of the Tamos of ancient Haiti, as described by Las Casas. RUBBER SYRINGES OF THE OMAGUAS De la Condamine, after describing the use of narcotic snuff by the Omagua Indians of the Maranon, tells of their peculiar use of syringes of rubber (Cahuchu). It was from these Indians, he says, that the Portuguese of the Para learned to make rubber "pompes ou seringues" which do not require a piston. They have the form of hollow pears, pierced with a little hole at their end, in which a tube of wood is fitted .... This instrument is much used by the Omaguas. When they assemble together for some fete the master of the house does not fail to present one, as an act of courtesy, to each one of the guests, and its use always precedes, among them, the repasts of ceremony.13 Why such a peculiar custom should have become established among these Indians seems at first inexplicable; but the testi- mony of other travellers shows that similar practices exist, or did exist, among other tribes inhabiting the shores of tributaries of the Amazon; and that for these injections not water was used, but an extract of the same narcotic seeds as those from which snuff was made. ACCOUNT OF SPIX AND MARTIUS After describing the use of paricd snuff by the Mura Indians of the Rio Negro, Spix and Martius, in the narrative of their travels, tell of a custom of these people, during their strange annual assemblies which last eight days and are accompanied by all sorts of debauchery, of taking a decoction of paricd in the 13 De la Condamine, in Mem. de l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, Annee 1745, pp. 430-431. 1749. 556 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba form of an enema: "Ein anderer Gebrauch des Paricd ist, einen Absud da von sich selbst als Klystier zu geben." Administered in this way, they say, the narcotic effect of the paricd is similar but weaker than when taken in the form of snuff. Commenting upon the custom, they continue: Man kann nicht umhin, durch diese viehische Lustbarkeit an die eckelhafte Sitte der Ostiaken und Kamtschadalen erinnert zu wer- den, welche sich bekanntlich durch den Genuss des Fliegelschwammes [Amanita muscaria] . . . . zu einer ahnlichen Wuth erhitzen.14 ROBERT SOUTHEY's ACCOUNT OF PARICA SNUFF The Mura Indians of the Rio Negro, instead of Y-shaped tubes, made use of tubes of another form, by means of which the men, in pairs, blew the snuff into each other's nostrils. The following description, published in 1819 by Robert Southey, was taken by him from the MS. of P. Joam Ribeiro: Some of the Rio Negro tribes have an extraordinary and tremendous ceremony, for which a large house is set apart in all their villages. It begins by a general flogging, the men in pairs scourging and lacerating one another with a thong, and a stone at the end: this continues eight days, during which the old women, who, among the American savages, officiate at most works of abomination, roast the fruit of the Parica tree, and reduce it to a fine powder. The parties who had been paired in the previous discipline are partners also in the following part, each in turn blowing this powder with great force through a hollow cane into the nostrils of his friend. They then commence drinking; and the effect of the drink and the deleterious powder is such, that most of them lose their senses for a time, and many lose their lives. The whole ceremony continues sixteen days: it is observed annually, and is called the feast of the Parica.15 IDENTITY OF TREES YIELDING SNUFF In early descriptions of cohoba snuff of Hispaniola there is nothing to indicate the nature of the plant producing it. Oviedo, as we have seen, confused it with tobacco. On the other hand nearly all the descriptions of similar snuff used by South Ameri- can Indians pointed to a mimosaceous tree bearing algaroba-like pods as its origin. Humboldt, as cited above, described the yupa, or niopa, as an Acacia; Spix and Martius, in the narrative 14 Spix und Martius. Reise in Brasilien, 3: 1075. 1831. 15 Southey, Robert. History of Brazil, 3: 722-723. 1819. safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 557 of their travels, referred to the parted tree as a species of Inga; specimens collected by Schomburgk were described by Bentham under the name Mimosa (?) acacioides; Lieutenant Herndon, U. S. Navy, in the report of his exploration of the valley of the Amazon (1853) called it Acacia angico. Finally Bentham made a careful study of all the botanical material he could lay his hands on, and came to the conclusion that all the South Ameri- can trees above referred to as the source of narcotic snuff were • probably one species, and were identical with Linnaeus' Mimosa peregrina, which was first described in 1737 from a seedling grow- ing in the celebrated Clifford Garden in Holland. In studying the flowers of this tree Bentham came to the conclusion that it could be regarded neither as a true Mimosa nor as an Acacia, but that it must be placed in a closely related genus, which he called Piptadenia, and consequently, in accordance with the rules of priority, be called Piptadenia peregrina. In his synonymy he made no reference to the cohoba tree of Haiti and Porto Rico. In Martius's Flora Brasiliensis this and several very closely related species are set apart as a section of Piptadenia, called Niopo. It is quite possible that some other of these species, especially Piptadenia macrocarpa Benth., are also a source of narcotic snuff; and it is either this species or P. peregrina itself from which the Quichua Indians derived their intoxicating huillca, or vilca, with which, according to Acosta, they used to get glori- ously drunk (emborrachanse bravamente) . SEBIL AND HUILLCA SNUFF OF ARGENTINA AND PERU Still another very closely allied species of Piptadenia was described by Grisebach from specimens growing in the vicinity of Cordova, Argentina. A careful study of Grisebach's description inclines the writer to believe it possible that the plant in ques- tion, described by Grisebach first under the name Acacia Cebil and afterwards as Piptadenia Cebil, is a variety of P. peregrina, or of P. macrocarpa. Grisebach does not indicate the narcotic properties or indeed any uses of this plant, but in his first descrip- tion he gives its vernacular name in Tucuman as cebil.16 Of the 16 See Grisebach, in Abhandl. der konigl. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. zu Got- tingen, 19: 136. 1874; ibid., 24: 121. 1879. 558 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba use of the fruit of this same tree for snuff we have an early account, written about the year 1583. In Pedro Sotelo Narvaez's Relation de las Provincias de Tucuman, he says of the Indians living in the vicinity of Cordoba: They do not make such great use of azua (fermented chicha) as the Indians of Peru. They take through the nostrils the sebil, which is a fruit like the vilca; this they pulverize and inhale through the nostrils (hdcenla polvos y bebenla por las narices).17 Vilca, also written huilca, or huillca, described by certain writers as lit tie beans (frisolillos que llaman vilca), remained un- identified until very recently, although, as cited above, it was mentioned at a very early date by Acosta as an intoxicant used by the Quichuas. Specimens were secured by Mr. O. F. Cook, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from an Indian drug-vender in southern Peru, in 1915. They were labeled huillca, and proved to be seeds of a Piptadenia, if not identical with P. peregrina, at least very closely allied to that species. Huillca, like cohoba, nopa, and cebil, was snuffed c i f ii UP ky means of tubes. Max Uhle obtained a re- bone from Tiahu- markable snuff tube, in all probability used in anaco, Bolivia, the process by the ancient Quichuas, at Tiahu- PhiladelphiaMu- anaC0) Bolivia, in June, 1895. This tube (fig. Uhle Scale A ^) is now in the Philadelphia Museum of Sci- ence and Art (No. 36095). It resembles closely a specimen, recently discovered in a burial cave at Machu Picchu by the Peruvian Expedition sent out under the aus- pices of Yale University and the National Geographical Society. ls The fork of the snuffing tube is formed by the bifurcation of the distal end of the metatarsus or leg-bone, of a llama. The Tiahuanaco specimen, finished and ornamented by incised carv- ing, has been slightly chipped at the lower end; the Machu Picchu specimen, in the first stages of manufacture, has a trans- 17 Relacioncs Geograficas, Peru, 2: 152. 1885. 18 See, Eaton, (Ikorge F., in Mem. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 5: 58, pi. 4, fig. 8. May, 1916. safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 559 verse cut across the bifurcation; this in all probability was in- tended to be cut off, so that the ends might fit the nostrils. The Tiahuanaco specimen is described at length by Max Uhle, who published a photographic illustration of it,19 from which the figure here shown was drawn. Uhle believed that this tube was used for snuffing tobacco; but this I think doubtful. Humboldt, as already quoted, says that Piptadenia was commonly called "tree-tobacco," and the custom of snuffing its powdered seeds was common among many tribes inhabiting the banks of the tributaries of the great rivers of South America, which extended to the boundaries of Peru and Bolivia; and we have the definite statement that the snuff made from the seeds of P. Cebil was quite similar to the vilca (or huillca) of the Peruvians. In the paper above cited, Uhle recognized that cohoba snuff and tobacco had been confused bjr various authors, and even sug- gests the possibility of the common origin of the names cohoba and curupa, but he says nothing of the actual presence of Pipta- denia peregrina, the true "tree-tobacco," in Hispaniola. It was not until the writer consulted Urban's recent work on the flora of the Antilles that he found mention not only of the tree itself but of the ancient name by which it was known to the aborigines of Hispaniola.20 Urban, however, gives no hint of its former use as a source of snuff, or of the narcotic properties of its seeds. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF COHOBA Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth. Journ. Bot. Hook., 4: 340. 1842. Mimosa peregrina L. Sp. PL, 1504. 1753. (Mimosa inermis, etc. Hort, Cliff. 209. 1737.) Inga Niopo Willd. Sp. PL, 4: 1027. 1806. Acacia peregrina Willd. Sp. PL, 4: 1073. 1806. Acacia microphijlla Willd. Sp. PL, 4: 1073. 1806. Mimosa Niopo Poir. in Lam. Encycl. SuppL, 1: 48. 1810. Acacia Niopo Humb. & BonpL, Relation Hist., 2: 620-623. 1819; H. B. K., Nov. Gen. et Sp., 6: 282. 1823; Kunth, Synop. PL, 4: 20. 1825. Acacia angustiloba DC. Prodr., 2: 470. 1825. Mimosa (?) acacioides Benth. Journ. Bot. Hook., 2: 132. 1840. Piptadenia Niopo Spruce, Notes of a Botanist, 2: 426. 1908. 19 See, Bull. Mus. Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, Vol. 1, No. 4. 1898. 20 Urban, I. Symbolae Antillanae, 4: 269. 1905. 560 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba Piptadenia peregrina is a Mimosa-like shrub or a tree reaching the height of about 60 feet, with a trunk about 2 feet in diameter. The bark is often more or less muricated, but the branches and leaves are unarmed. The leaves are bipinnate, resembling those of many Acacias and Mimosas, with 15 to 30 pairs of pinnae and very numerous minute leaflets (30 to 80 pairs), these linear in shape and apiculate at the apex. On the petiole at some distance from the base there is a conspicuous oblong nectar-gland and on the rachis, between the last pair or last two or three pairs of pinnae, there is usually a minute gland, as in many of the Mimosaceae. The inflorescence is in the form of spherical heads of minute white flowers, borne on long slender peduncles in ter- minal or axillary racemose clusters. As seen under the lens the calyx and corolla are both 5-toothed, the former campanulate, the latter connate to the middle. The 10 stamens are free, much exserted, the anthers at anthesis bearing a minute stipitate gland. The ovary con- tains several to many ovules, and develops into a broadly linear, flat, leathery, or woody 2-valved legume, rough on the outer surface and thickened along the sutures, and resembling that of an Inga, but without pulp surrounding the seeds. The seeds are flatfish and orbicular, greenish at first, at length black and glossy. So far as the writer can ascertain, no figure of this species has hitherto been published. The accompanying illustration (fig. 1) is from a photograph of a specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium (No. 847320), collected on a hillside near Mayagiiez, Porto Rico, in March, 1906, by John F. Co well (No. 630). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Piptadenia peregrina has a most appropriate specific name, for it has a wide geographical range. This has undoubtedly been increased by human agency. Various travellers have noticed it planted near villages, as well as growing spontaneously in the forests bordering the great rivers of South America. It was in all probability carried to Haiti and Porto Rico by the ancestors of the Tainos, whom Columbus found inhabiting those islands. Including with it the very closely allied Piptadenia macrocarpa Benth. and P. Cebil Griseb., its distribution may be roughly indicated as follows: Haiti, or Hispaniola, where according to Ramon Pane and Las Casas, it was called cohoba, or cogioba; Porto Rico, where it is still called cojoba or cojobo (Urban), or cojobana (Cook and safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba 561 Collins) ; Venezuela, where it is called curuba, ?Tupa, fiopa, niopa, niopo (Gumilla; Gilii; Humboldt); Northeastern Peru, on the Maranon, where it is called curupa (de la Condamine); Southern Peru, where it is called vilca, villca, huillca (Acosta; O. F. Cook) ; Argentina, where it is called cebil, or sebil (Grise- bach; Sotelo Narvaez); Guiana, where two varieties are found, paricd and black parted (Schomburgk) ; Brazil (many parts), where it is generally known as paricd (Spix and Martius; Lieu- tenant Herndon; Spruce). CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION The most remarkable fact connected with this narcotic is that its chemical properties are still unknown. An exhaustive search through literature, in a vain attempt to find something bearing upon the subject, indicates that it has never been studied chemi- cally or therapeutically. The only authority who mentions it is Dragendorff, who dismisses it with the statement: "Der Same zu Schnupftabak (Niopo, Nupa), der stark aufregen soil, ver- wendet." No authority is quoted, except for the botanical name and its synonyms. This may have been in consequence of the remark Humboldt made in connection with the snuff: La famille des Legumineuses varie singulierement dans les proprietes chimiques et medicales de ses graines, de ses sues et de ses racines; et quoique le sue du fruit du Mimosa nilotica soit tres-astringent, on ne peut croire que ce soit principalement la silique de V Acacia Niopo qui donne la force excitante au tabac des Otomaques. Cette force est due a la chaux fraichement calcinee.'21 That Humboldt was mistaken is indicated by Spruce's obser- vations. Moreover it is not so strange, as Humboldt would indicate, that the seeds of certain Leguminosae have narcotic properties. The red seeds of Sophora secundiflora of Texas and northern Mexico are very narcotic and are still used by certain Indian tribes to cause intoxication. They are used in certain secret ceremonies by the "Red Bean Society" of the Iowa Indians, which takes its name from them. Spruce witnessed the prepa- ration of fiopa snuff without the addition of lime, in June, 1854, by a party of Guahibo Indians from the Rio Meta, temporarily 21 Humboldt & Bonpland. Voyage aux regions equinoxiales, 2: 621. 1810. 562 safford: narcotic snuff, cohoba encamped near the cataracts of the Orinoco. In his account of it he says: "In the modern niopo, as I saw it prepared by the Guahibos themselves, there is no admixture of quicklime, and that is the sole difference [from the method of its preparation described by Humboldt]." He describes the process of roasting and powdering the seeds, and the snuff-tube made of the leg bones of birds, shaped somewhat like a tuning fork, with the forked ends tipped with small black knobs (the endosperms of a palm). This instrument, which he secured and deposited in the Museum of Vegetable Products at Kew, is almost identical in form with that of the Otomac Indians in the Berlin Museum (fig. 2), and also very much like the one used in ancient Haiti, so accurately described by Las Casas and incorrectly figured by Oviedo. SUMMARY Cohoba, a narcotic snuff which the aboriginal inhabitants of Haiti took by means of a bifurcated tube, has hitherto been regarded by most writers as a form of tobacco. It was, how- ever, prepared from the seeds of a Mimosa-like tree, Piptadenia peregrina. This tree is widely spread in South America, and by several tribes of Indians its seeds are used, or have been used until recently, as a source of snuff, the effects of which are highly intoxicating. Among several of these tribes the snuffing tubes are bifurcated and very similar to those of the ancient Haitians. The source of the snuff on the island of Haiti has remained unknown for so long a time on account of the early annihilation of the aborigines and their replacement by Africans, who did not adopt the habit of snuffing. The most remarkable fact con- nected with Piptadenia peregrina, or " tree-tobacco," is that, though its fruit has been reported by many explorers and botan- ists as highly narcotic, it has never been studied chemically or therapeutically, and the source of its intoxicating properties still remains unknown. Abundant material may be obtained from the island of Porto Rico, where the tree is common, and it is hoped that a careful study may be made of the seeds, the peculiar properties of which were noticed in the very first work which treated of the ethnology of the New World. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — Wheatstone bridges and accessory apparatus for resistance thermometry. E. F. Mueller. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 288 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 547). 1916. A type of Wheatstone bridge, suitable for use in resistance ther- mometry, has been developed, in which plugs or dial switches are used, and the circuits so arranged that the errors due to contact resistances are no greater than with the mercury contact bridges heretofore used. With a comparatively simple and inexpensive type of apparatus it has been possible to attain the high degree of precision and accuracy de- manded in modern work with resistance thermometers. A method of measuring potential terminal resistances by the Wheat- stone bridge method is also given, and the necessary accessory appa- ratus for this purpose is described. E. F. M. PHYSICS. — The damping of waves and other disturbances in mercury. M. H. Stillman. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 289 (Bull. Bur. Stds., Vol. 13). 1916. In instruments involving the use of mercury, the waves and other disturbances, produced by the unsteadiness of the containing vessel, are a frequent source of trouble. If the mass of mercury be subjected to a strong magnetic field, the direction of the field being approxi- mately at right angles to the direction of motion of the mercury, these motions will be strongly damped. The substitution of a non-magnetic metallic container for a glass container greatly increases the magnitude of the damping. It is suggested that this method might sometimes be used when it is desired to obtain accurate adjustments of mercury surfaces at sea and in other places where unsteadiness of the mercury container is unavoidable. M. H. S. 563 564 abstracts: geology GEOLOGY. — The flora of the Fox Hills sandstone. F. H. Knowlton. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 98-H. Pp. 8, with one illustration. 1916. The known flora of the Fox Hill sandstone includes only thirteen forms. Of these it appears that only four of the species have been previously known, the remainder being new to science or so fragmentary as not to merit specific designation. This little Fox Hills flora shows distinctly Upper Cretaceous affinities, being, as might be presumed from its stratigraphic position, intermediate between the older floras of the Montana group and the younger flora of the overlying Laramie, but having a preponderance in its resemblances to the Montana. Ecologically this flora appears to indicate a much more abundant supply of moisture than now exists in the region, though this should naturally follow from the fact that it must have been growing near the sea and not far above sea level. The meager data appear to indicate a warm-temperate climate. Descriptions of the species are given to- gether with illustrations. R. W. S. GEOLOGY. — The fauna of the Chapman sandstone of Maine, including descriptions of some related species from the Moose River sandstone. H. S. Williams, assisted by C. L. Breger. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 89. Pp. 347, 27 plates, 3 figs. 1916. The Chapman sandstone is exposed over a small area in Chapman Township, Aroostook County, Maine. It includes at least 500 feet of medium, fine grained, brown to gray sandstone, much of it thick bedded, with some fine grained shaly layers separating the beds. In these shaly sandstones occur most of the fossils which are marine. Here and there fragments of plants appear in the sandstone. In the supposedly overlying Mapleton sandstones only plant fossils have been discovered. A detailed study of the fauna described in this volume demonstrates its general affinity with the later phase of the American Helderbergian fauna. Several species from the Moose River sandstones are mentioned and figured, from which it is evident that this Moose River sandstone is roughly equivalent to the Oriskany sandstone of New York and the York River of Gaspe Peninsula. The evidence is clear that the Chap- man forms, closely related to the Moose River species, are earlier repre- sentatives of the evolutional lines to which they belong than the Moose River forms. This report contains, besides the detailed descriptions of many genera, 27 plates depicting hundreds of fossils. R. W. S. abstracts: geology 565 GEOLOGY. — Revision of the Beckwith and Bear River formations of southeastern Idaho. G. R. Mansfield and P. V. Roundy. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 98-G. Pp. 9, with illus- trations. 1916. It has been found necessary to apply new names to strata hitherto referred to the Beckwith and Bear River formations or to portions of the Laramie as mapped by the Hayden Survey. The formations dis- cussed extend from the northeastern part of the Montpelier quadrangle northward through the eastern part of the Wayan quadrangle and thence northward an undetermined distance, possibly including a con- siderable part of the Caribou Range. They include about 17,000 feet of strata, unless there are unrecognized repetitions by folding or fault- ing. The strata in this area that were formerly called the Bear River are here assigned to the Wayan formation, of Cretaceous, possibly Lower Cretaceous, age, and the so-called Beckwith is divided into seven formations, of which the lower two are marine formations of Jurassic age, and the remaining five are nonmarine formations assigned to the Ganett group, of Cretaceous (?) age. This paper gives a statement of the stratigraphic problems involved and a description of the formations. R. W. S. GEOLOGY.— The Yukon-Koyukuk region, Alaska. H. M. Eakin. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 631. Pp. 85, with maps, sec- tions, and view. 1916. The Yukon-Koyukuk region lies in central Alaska and is drained by the two rivers from which it takes its name. Most of its relief is low, but locally there are northeasterly trending mountain ranges (5000- 6000 feet). The predominant type of topography consists of rolling, maturely dissected uplands of moderate relief broken by extensive low- lands. The timber is chiefly spruce and birch, and timber line is at an altitude of about 2000 feet. Meadows of luxuriant growths of grass break the timbered areas. The bed rock consists of metamorphic sediments (Paleozoic or older), greenstones (Post Devonian?), and more extensive areas of conglom- erates, sandstones and shales probably chiefly of Upper Cretaceous age. Two epochs of granitic intrusion are recognized. The older granites cut the metamorphic series and are more or less altered while the j^ounger granite is intruded into the Cretaceous and is in most places entirely massive. There is some auriferous mineralization along the margins of the younger intrusive masses. The Quaternary is repre- 566 abstracts: geology sented by the alluvium of the lowlands and valleys, by high gravel and silt terraces, and in the higher mountains by local glacial deposits. The metamorphic series is intensely deformed and the Cretaceous strata also exhibit complex structures. There is clear evidence that very extensive changes of drainage have taken place during Quaternary times. This is believed to have been due to the advance of glaciers from the mountains which bound the central Yukon region. The terraces are believed to have been formed in lakes caused by ice damming. A. H. B. GEOLOGY. — Natural gas resources of parts of North Texas. E. W. Shaw, et al. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 629. Pp. 129, with maps, sections and illustrations. 1916. The examination on which this report is based was instigated by the citizens of Dallas and Fort Worth, for the purpose of getting informa- tion as to the sufficiency and the prospective duration of the gas re- serves within reach of these cities. The two reports contained in this volume describe not only the geology of several gas fields but also discuss the original quantity of the gas, the present capacity and the probable life of the fields. Areas that are worthy of prospecting with the drill are pointed out and it is concluded that the Petrolia field from which the present supply is being drawn would last the cities only 3 or 4 years. The other known pools of Texas being small it becomes necessary either to discover new gas pools or to lay pipe lines to those of Oklahoma. E. W. S. GEOLOGY. — Petroleum withdrawals and restorations affecting the public domain. Max W. Ball. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 623. Pp. 427, with 9 maps. 1916. This bulletin contains true and accurate copies of orders of with- drawal, restoration, modification and classification and of the more important correspondence leading to changes of policy regarding these; an index to the orders, township by township ; a short statement of the purpose of the withdrawal policy; and a brief review of the history of oil withdrawals. In addition, it includes a chapter on oil-land law, giving the statues and decisions, judicial and departmental, which may be of most interest to the oil operator on the public domain. It is accompanied by maps showing the areas withdrawn in each state — Arizona, California, Colorado, Louisiana, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming — where oil withdrawals were outstanding January 15, 1916). R. W. S. ' abstracts: geology 567 GEOLOGY. — The physical conditions indicated by the flora of the Calvert formation. E. W. Berry. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 98-F. Pp. 12, with illustrations. 1916. This paper gives a summary of the small flora preserved in the Mio- cene diatomaceous beds of the Calvert formation in the District of Columbia and Virginia, and discusses its bearing on the physical con- ditions of the Calvert epoch. It is concluded that the Calvert flora was coastal flora of strikingly warm-temperate affinities, comparable with the existing coastal floras of South Carolina and Georgia, or with those along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from western Florida to eastern Texas. The climate of the Chesapeake Miocene epoch, cooler undoubtedly than that of the Apalachicola or preceding epochs, was neither cold nor cool-temperate. The age indicated by the Calvert flora is middle Miocene. R. W. S. GEOLOGY. — Antimony deposits of Alaska. Alfred H. Brooks. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 649, Pp. 64, with maps. 1916. Stibnite is widely distributed in Alaska having been found in 67 localities. In many of these it occurs simply as an accessory mineral, but lodes have been found in the Fairbanks, Kantishna, Innoko, Idi- tarod, Nizina, and Port Wells districts and on the Kenai and Seward peninsulas in which stibnite forms the principal metallic mineral. The country rock of the stibnite lodes is sedimentary as a rule, but differs greatly both as to age and lithology in the different districts. Some deposits have been found in highly metamorphosed schists of pre-Cambrian age. Others are found in little-altered elastics, as young as Upper Cretaceous. Practically all the antimony lodes occur in association with granular acidic intrusive rocks, among which the domi- nating lithologic types have been described as quartz diorite and monzonites. The Alaska antimony deposits may be classed in three principal groups — siliceous gold-bearing stibnite lodes, stibnite-cinnabar lodes, and stibnite-galena lodes. Of these the first two can be further divided according to structure as fissure veins, shear-zone deposits, and stock- works. The evidence at hand indicates that most of the stibnite deposits were formed at a later time than the widespread epoch of Mesozoic mineralization to which so many of the gold deposits have been assigned. Formerly it was generally believed that nearly all the metalliferous deposits of Alaska were associated with Mesozoic intrusives. It is 568 abstracts: technology only in recent years since the metalliferous deposits of the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim regions have been studied that the importance of the Tertiary period of mineralization has been recognized. Localities in this general province as widely separated as the lower Kuskokwim and northern British Columbia are now known to have been mineralized in Tertiary time, but between these localities there are mining districts in which the metallization is of Mesozoic age. Thus there seems to be here an overlapping of the two metallogenetic provinces. Like the Mesozoic mineralization, that of Tertiary age is genetically connected with granular acidic intrusive rocks, but the later intrusives seem to have been less widely distributed than the earlier. It should be noted that though mineralization accompanied the Ter- tiary intrusives, no metalliferous lodes have been found in the Tertiary sediments. It appears that the conditions for the formation of the metalliferous veins necessitated a deeper cover than that furnished by these beds. A. H. B. ENGINEERING.— Surface water supply of the United States, 1914. Part III. Ohio River Basin. Nathan C. Grover, et al. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 383. Pp. 121, with two illustrations. 1916. This volume is one of a series of reports presenting results of measure- ments of flow made on streams in the Ohio River Basin during the year ending September 30, 1914. It includes also a list of the stream gag- ing stations and publications relating to water resources in this Basin. O. E. M. TECHNOLOGY. — The correlation of the mechanical and magnetic prop- erties of steel. Chas. W. Burrows. Bureau of Standards Sci- entific Paper No. 272, pp. 173-210. 1916. This paper is a review of the work done in correlating the magnetic and mechanical properties of steel with special reference to the commer- cial application of the magnetic data as criteria of the mechanical fit- ness of a given steel and of magnetic changes under stress as indications of the state of strain. C. W. B. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI OCTOBER 4, 1916 No. 16 PHYSICS. — The theory of the stiffness of elastic systems.1 By M. D. Hersey, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by Louis A. Fischer.) Introduction. The stiffness of a body, or of a system of bodies, we define as the ratio of the force2 applied to the deflec- tion produced. It is. not, of course, an intrinsic property of the body or system itself, but depends also on the manner of apply- ing the force, and on the point whose displacement is to be ob- served. The stiffness of a body under given conditions is, how- ever, its most important elastic property. The conception is useful in dealing with the vibrations of structures; the yielding of the supports of instruments; the design of aneroid barometers, pressure gages, torsion meters,2 etc.; and with springs wherever they occur. But the tendency in elasticity, as in other branches of physics today, appears to be to desert the obvious and to court the remote. Instead of treating stiffness directly, writers on elasticity make a detour, first determining the strain distri- bution throughout the interior of the body; a procedure which, besides being laborious, limits the validity of the result to cer- tain rather simple geometrical shapes. This detailed analysis is indispensable for some purposes but not for all, as the theorems presented in this paper will show. All of these theorems have 1 This work was done at the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard Uni- versity. It is expected that it will be published in more detail upon the com- pletion of a series of experiments on the subject recently begun at the Bureau of Standards. 2 The reader interested in galvanometer suspensions or other torsion prob- lems can readily modify the formulas of the present paper so as to make them apply to couples instead of to translational forces. 569 570 hersey: stiffness of elastic systems applications to the aneroid barometer, which will be treated elsewhere, but their applicability is not confined to that par- ticular elastic system. The stiffness of coupled systems.3 Having given the individual stiffness sa and sb of two systems A and B (ordinarily but not necessarily single bodies) which are coupled together, let it be required to find the stiffness, S, of the coupled system. It is understood that sa and sb refer to forces and displacements at the coupling, while S refers to a displacement at the coupling, but to a force applied anywhere. The desired general relation is found to be4 S = \(sa + sb) . (1) where X is a dimensionless characteristic of the component to which the external force' is applied, and denotes the ratio of its stiffness with respect to that force, to its stiffness (sa or sb) with respect to a force at the coupling. If the external force is itself applied at the coupling, X = 1, and the stiffness of the coupled system equals the sum of the stiffnesses of the compo- nents. This can be shown by a simple experiment. Make a rigid frame about a foot square and cut off two five-inch lengths of the same helical spring. Fasten the two springs, respec- tively, each by one end, to two opposite sides of the frame, in 3 In treating coupled systems, the displacements are assumed small. This restriction does not apply to the subsequent discussion of a single body. 4 Let x be the displacement of a reference mark at the fraction r of the dis- tance along the coupling piece from A toward B, while xa and xb are the respec- tive displacements necessary for coupling the two members, t being the tension in the coupling, and F the particular external force, applied to A, with respect to which we seek the stiffness of the coupled system, S. Then, by definition, F . . S = — , while the conditions of equilibrium and constraint are expressed by the x four equations x =(l — r)xa — rxb xa + xb = constant F t t xa = -| h const. xb = h const. Xsa sa sb in which the forces and displacements are interpreted vectorially. Eliminating the three quantities xa, xb, and t gives F = \(sa + sb)x + K in which K denotes a term involving r, sa, and sb, but obviously vanishing if the system is so adjusted that x = 0 when F = 0. Dividing through by x now gives the result (1). dS dsa . M v dsb - rj + (1 - r)) S sa sb Sa hersey: stiffness of elastic systems 571 such a way that the springs fail to meet by about an inch. Holding the frame vertical, hang a weight to the free end of the upper spring, and note the deflection. Then couple the two springs together. The same weight will now cause but half that deflection. The experiment can readily be extended to show the effect of using springs of unequal stiffnesses, or of weights hung not at the coupling. Influence of temperature and elastic after-effect on coupled sys- tems.5 Differentiating (1) gives for the fractional change in the stiffness of the coupled system, in terms of the fractional changes in the stiffnesses of the components, due to any cause whatever, (2) , and Sa ~\~ Sb depends evidently on the two components but not on X, and, therefore, not on the manner of applying the external force. The changes dsa and dsb may equally well be interpreted as temperature effects, or elastic after-effects. In either case (2) shows that the relative contributions of the two components are fixed by the single factor r\ and are proportional to the respec- tive stiffnesses. We therefore pass to the consideration of the stiffness of a single body. General expression for the stiffness of a body. The treatment of non-homogeneous or anisotropic bodies will be simplified by the conception of generalized shape. Two bodies may be said to have the same generalized shape when not simply linear magnitudes, but all physical quantities associated with points in the bodies, are similarly distributed in the two bodies; that is, distributed so that the ratio of the two magnitudes of any one such quantity is the same at all pairs of corresponding points. Thus two pieces of rolled sheet metal of different sizes and materials have the same generalized shape if they have been cut out to the same geometrical shape, similarly oriented with respect to the direction of rolling, and if the rolling has pro- 5 The displacement due to temperature or to elastic after-effect at constant load is assumed so small that, in differentiating (1), \ may be regarded as constant. 572 hersey: stiffness of elastic systems duced in each case the same relative variation of elastic con- stants over the cross section. When any elastic constant of a series of bodies is represented by a single symbol, it is to be understood that this refers to its mean value, or to its value at a particular point and in a particular direction, and that all bodies in the series are of the same generalized shape. Fin- ally, if the bodies in such a series, although not violating Hooke's law at any point within the material, are so greatly deformed that there is no longer a direct proportionality between load and deflection, it is to be understood that the bodies remain geo- metrically similar to each other while being deformed. With this understanding, it may be shown by dimensional reasoning that the stiffness of any of a series of perfectly elastic bodies of different sizes or materials but of the same generalized shape is given by S = LE-4>{a) = LM^(a) = L-f(E^) (3) in which L denotes any chosen linear dimension, E Young's modulus, ij, the rigidity (i.e., shear modulus) and o- Poisson's ratio. The functions 4>, \p, and / are to be found, if they need to be known at all, by detailed calculations employing the conventional theory of elasticity, or by model experiments. Thus to find

(10) = 1 + — approx. \ Numerical results in particular cases. For pure stretching or bending, C = 0; for pure twisting or shearing, C = — 1. For a thin flat circular disc deflected at the center by a so- called concentrated load, while freely supported at the rim, we may take the deflection formula readily available in treatises on elasticity,6 and, by recasting it into the form of (3), just as if it were the result of model experiments, and then applying (8), obtain the expression c _ 2 (1 + ( a ) = ; • (3+1.04 >260 >59 0.0052 0.78 151 39 T n. Hcrit. = 200 at 2°K 1.6 0.0143 0.0143 1.0 8.0 70 560 430 coil 240 st. wire Lead. Hcrit = 600 at 4?2 K 4.25 0.025 9.0 680 385 st. wire 0.014 >4.0 >300 >110 in vacuo 0.014 0.6 41 375 coil 1.7 0.014 0.84 60 550 coil 0.014 11.10 790 330 st. wire In the last column is given the maximum value, within the conductor, of the magnetic field due to its own threshold current, that is, the field at the surface of a straight wire or at the inner turns of a coil (the computations for the latter case being cnly ,; Comm. Phys. Lab. Leiden, No. 133. 602 silsbee: conduction at low temperatures approximate). It is seen from the table that at each tempera- ture this magnetic field is much more nearly a constant of the material than either the current or the current density. In the case of mercury the effect of a magnetic field on the resistance in the superconducting state has not been measured. For tin the threshold value at 2°K is about 200 gauss, which is in good agreement with the slightly larger values computed from the threshold current corresponding to a slightly lower temperature. In the case of lead the agreement of the observed critical field (600 gauss at 4°K) with the computed values is not so good, par- ticularly in the case of the straight wire. Any discrepancy here, however, is easily explained by the possibility (frequently re- ferred to by Onnes) of the existence in the wire of thin spots where the field intensity would be much greater for a short length. Further experiments immediately suggest themselves. The critical magnetic fields for mercury should be determined. The relation here advanced would indicate a critical field of only about 15 gauss at 4? IK and less than 100 gauss at 3?6K. It would also be of interest to observe the threshold value of current when the material is in very thin films. In this case, for a given section of material the magnetic field resulting from a given current density is less than in the case of a straight wire, and the threshold current density would consequently appear larger. The theories thus far proposed by Onnes,7 Lindemann,s and Thomson9 to account for superconductivity do not specifically in- dicate the existence of a critical magnetic field, and only the latter (by assuming a saturation effect) accounts for a threshold current density. If it is true, as indicated in this paper, that the magnetic effect is the more fundamental, it would seem that this fact might afford a valuable clue leading toward a more satisfac- tory theory of the superconducting state and perhaps of metal- lic conduction in general. 7 Onnes. Comm. Phys. Lab. Leiden, No. 119. 8 Lindemann, F. C. Phil. Mag., 29: 127. 1915. 'Thomson, J. J. Phil. Mag., 30: 192. 1915. clarke: early forms of life 603 BIOLOGY. — Geochemical evidence as to early forms of life.-1 F. W. Clarke, Geological Survey. When life began on earth the conditions favorable to its devel- opment were, generally speaking, somewhat different from what they are today. Rocks derived from the remains of living or- ganisms did not, of course, exist; and the only sediments were those due to erosion, increased, doubtless, by volcanic dust and other ejectamenta. The surface of the land was made up of primitive rocks, and among them the specifically lighter varieties probably predominated. By erosion these rocks were gradu- ally decomposed, and their more soluble constituents were taken up by the primeval waters, whose character gradually changed as the process of erosion went on. At first, silica and alkalies passed into solution, with lime and magnesia in much smaller proportions. A large part of the lime and magnesia in the waters of today is derived from the solution of limestones of organic origin, which came into existence later. Possibly algal and foraminiferal limestones were among the earliest to form large masses, but of that it is not well to be too positive. We can only assume that the simplest forms of life came first, even though their remains have since been obliterated. In geologic time the complex forms are relatively modern. So far as we are able to judge from anything like positive evi- dence, the earliest living organisms were aquatic, and their physical constitution was determined by the character of their environment. Whether the waters were warm or cold we do not know, and speculation upon that subject is hardly profitable. Whether the primeval ocean was fresh or saline is also uncertain, but we can assert that the composition and concentration of its dissolved salts have undergone great changes and are still chang- ing. The enormous load of saline matter annually poured into the ocean by rivers is evidence that can not be ignored. Part of that load remains in solution, part is precipitated, either di- rectly or through the agency of plants and animals, and so the changes are brought about. These changes in the environment 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 604 CLARKE: EARLY FORMS OF LIFE of life must have affected the course of evolution, although with exceeding slowness. Every variation in the composition of the fluviatile or oceanic salts modified the conditions under which life developed. As living organisms multiplied, they in turn altered the composition of the waters, by just so much as they withdrew lime, or magnesia, or phosphoric oxide, or silica from solutions and used them in building up the sedimentary cherts, phosphorites, and limestones of today. To trace these changes in detail would be difficult, if not impossible, but some of the ancient conditions can reasonably be inferred. The chemical reactions involved in the discussion are the same now as at the beginning, although the results produced by them have varied from time to time and place to place. The chemical elements are not uniformly distributed; at one point there is more silica, at another more lime; and organisms with siliceous, calcareous, or phosphatic shells or skeletons developed in accordance with their surroundings. Where the primeval waters were relatively rich in silica, siliceous organisms were most readily evolved; where lime predominated, the development of calcareous organisms was favored. So much seems to be clear. It has already been stated that the land surface of the earth was at first composed of rocks such as form only one fourth of it today; that is, of igneous, plutonic, or crystalline rocks with no sedimentaries of organic origin. At present persilicic rocks of granitic or granitoid type are the most abundant of these, and they are relatively poor in lime. In this respect it is highly prob- able that the earliest rocks followed the same rule. Many analyses of river waters have been made, some of them with reference to their geological relations. Waters emerging from areas of sedimentary rocks, or from basaltic regions, are quite unlike those which issue from granite and its congeners. The meteoric waters act differently upon different kinds of rock, and take up dissimilar loads of soluble substances. Waters from limestone or from certain ferromagnesian rocks are relatively rich in lime; those from dolomite contain a larger proportion of magnesia, and so on; the waters varying in composition as the rocks themselves vary. Each water at its point of origin has its own chemical characteristics, which are fixed by its Jithologic CLARK : NEW GENERA OF CRINOIDS 605 parentage. This fact, which is almost self evident, has been verified by numerous analyses, which, however, have received less attention than they deserve. Persilicic rocks, as I have already stated, are now the most abundant plutonics and, in all probability, have been so from the beginning. There is no reason for supposing that in this respect any important change has occurred. Such rocks consist mainly of quartz and feldspar, with only minor accessories. Waters issuing from them are low in salinity but relatively rich in silica and alkalies, the proportion of silica being especially high and much in excess of lime. The silica often approaches 40 per cent of the total inorganic matter in solution, and in some tropical rivers exceeds 50 per cent. Such waters offer a most favorable environment for the growth of siliceous organisms, all of which are low forms of life, like the radiolarians, diatoms, and siliceous sponges. They, or their ancestors, were probably among the earliest organisms to develop inorganic skeletons, and were in greater abundance than the calcareous forms. Doubt- less there were local areas, basaltic for example, in which the waters carried much lime in solution, and here the conditions would be reversed. In every case, however, the chemical char- acter of the environment determined the chemical character of the plants or animals which appeared. I speak now, of course, only of those organisms which built skeletons to support their tissues, or shells to house them; the simplest, earliest forms of life were hardly more than aggregations of protoplasm. How that originated and how it became endowed with life, that is, the ability to move about, to assimilate food, and to reproduce its kind, are questions on which only speculation is possible. Such problems I must leave to ,others. ZOOLOGY. — Six new genera of unstalked crinoids belonging to the families Thalassometridae and Charitometridae.1 Austin H. Clark, National Museum. A recent survey of the comatulid families Thalassometridae and Charitometridae has shown that the following six system- atic units are worthy of recognition as genera: 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. 606 CLARK : NEW GENERA OF CRINOIDS Oceanometra, new genus Genotype. — Thalassometra giqantea A. H. Clark, 19 33. Diagnosis. — A genus of Thalassometrinae (Thalassometridae) in which the dorsal surface of the ossicles of the division series and of the arm bases is covered with numerous prominent spines, which become stouter and more prominent on the proximal and distal borders; there are from 15 to 28 arms; the IIBr series are all, or mostly, 4(3+4); the ossicles of the division series and first four brachials are strongly and evenly rounded dorsally, appearing' relatively narrow; one or both of the elements of each of the pairs of ossicles in the division series, and of the first brachial pair, bears a more or less prominent median keel; the distal borders of the brachials are evenly rounded and very spinous ; the centrodorsal is large, more or less conical, the cirrus sockets arranged in ten columns, two in each radial area; the cirri are of variable length, composed of from 55 to 79 segments. Range. — Moluccas to the Philippine and Hawaiian Islands. Bathy metrical Range. — From 54 to 858 meters. Included Species. — Oceanometra gigantea (A. H. Clark), Oceanometra magna (A. H. Clark), and Oceanometra annandalei (A. H. Clark). Crossometra, new genus Genotype.- — Pachylometra investigatoris A. H. Clark, 1909. Diagnosis. — A genus of Charitometridae in which the centrodorsal is more or less conical, with the cirrus sockets arranged in ten definite col- umns, two in each radial area; the cirri are XX-XL, 19-23, stout; there are from 26 to 33 arms 125 mm. to 150 mm. long; the IIBr series are 4(3+4); the IIIBr series are 2(1+2), or 2, internally developed in 1-2-2-1 order; IVBr series, if present, resemble the IIIBr series; the ossicles of the division series and lower brachials are in close apposition and sharply flattened against their neighbors, evenly rounded dorsally, with the dorsal surface usually more or less uneven; the brachials are evenly rounded dorsally; the oral pinnules are more slender than those succeeding, though not appreciably longer; the genital pinnules are only slightly expanded, the expansion involving a considerable number of segments and dying away gradually distally. Range. — Kei Islands to the Malay Archipelago, the Philippine Islands, and southern Japan. Bathy metrical Range. — From 54 to 403 meters. Included Species. — Crossometra investigatoris (A. H. Clark), Crosso- metra helius (A. H. Clark), and Crossometra septentrionalis (A. H. Clark). Perissometra, new genus Genotype. — Antedon flexilis P. H. Carpenter, 18S3. Diagnosis. — A genus of Charitometridae in which the centrodorsil is more or less conical, with the cirrus sockets arranged in ten definite columns, two in each radial area; the cirri are usually large and stout, CLARK : NEW GENERA OF CRINOIDS 607 XX-L (usually XX-XXX), 15-31; the arms are from 10 to 20 in num- ber, from 75 mm. to 250 mm. (rarely less than 150 mm.) in length; the IIBr series, when present, are 4(3+4) or, less commonly, 2; the ossicles of the division series and the lower brachials are in close apposition and are sharply flattened against their neighbors; their dorsal surface is smooth or coarsely rugose, raised more or less sharply into a broad or narrow regular or irregular median tubercle, which may be longitudi- nally elongate; the division series usually make a relatively small angle with the dorsoventral axis, so that the lower part of the animal is rela- tively narrow; the brachials are evenly rounded dorsally, and the more proximal may bear a small rounded dorsal tubercle; the oral pinnules, though more slender than those succeeding, are not appreciably longer; the genital pinnules are only slightly expanded, the expansion always involving a number of segments and gradually tapering away distally. Range. — Laccadive and Andaman Islands to Timor and the Kei Islands, and northward to the Philippines and southern Japan. Bathymetrical Range. — From 73 to 1289 meters. Included Species. — Perissometra angusticalyx (P. H. Carpenter), Peris- sometra patula (P. H. Carpenter), Perissometra robusta (P. H. Carpenter), Perissometra selene (A. H. Clark), Perissometra gorgonia (A. H. Clark), Perissometra timorensis (A. H. Clark), Perissometra crassa (A. H. Clark), Perissometra lata (A. H. Clark), Perissometra flexilis (P. H. Carpenter), Perissometra invenusta (A. H. Clark), and Perissometra macilenta (A. H. Clark). Monachometra, new genus Genotype. — Pachijlometra frag His A. H. Clark, 1912. Diagnosis. — A genus of Charitometridae in which the centrodorsal is thick-discoidal or more or less columnar, with the cirrus sockets ar- ranged in fifteen crowded columns; the cirri are XXX, 19; ths arms are from 15 to 19 in number, 145 mm. long; all the division series are 2; the ossicles of the division series and the first two brachials are sharply flattened laterally, with the dorsal surface rising rather sharply into a blunt keel; the IBri are produced inwardly, so that their inner apices nearly meet in the center of the calyx; the visceral mass rests on the ossicles of the IIBr series and first two brachials, and on the sharply flattened and almost horiz ntal inner face of the IBr2 (axillary); the synarthrial articulations (between the elements of the division series and between the first two brachials) are extraordinarily brittle; the brachials have a faint and obscure median carination; the oral pinnules are of approximately the same length as those succeeding, though more slender; the genital pinnules are. rather stout, but without a localized expansion. Range. — Philippine Islands and the Moluccas. Bathymetrical Range. — From 118 to 243 meters. Included Species. — Monachomstra fragilis (A. H. Clark). 608 CLARK: NEW GENERA OF CRINOIDS Calyptometra, new genus Genotype. — Charitometra lateralis A. H. Clark, 1908. Diagnosis. — A genus of Charitometridae in which the proximal por- tion of the animal is robust, very broad, and well rounded, the profile of the division series and arm bases strongly convex ; the ossicles of the division series and first four brachials which are in close apposition and sharply flattened against their neighbors, have the lateral borders strongly, the proximal and distal borders less strongly, everted, un- modified, finely tubercular, or crenulate, and possess each a narrow blunt median keel; the brachials are rounded dorsally, each usually with a prominent, though low, small rounded median tubercle, which beyond the middle of the arm gradually becomes obsolete; the 10 or 11 (only exceptionally more than 10) stout arms are 160 mm. to 180 mm. in length; the IIBr series, when present, are 2; the proximal pinnules are somewhat longer and more slender than their successors; the fol- lowing pinnules are very stout in the basal half, thence tapering gradu- ally to a slender tip, the expansion of the basal segments becoming less and less marked distally; the cirri are about XXX, 15-21 (usually 16-19), the component segments slightly constricted centrally with prominent ends. Range. — Hawaiian Islands. Bathy metrical Range. — From 574 to 812 meters. Included Species. — Calyptometra lateralis (A. H. Clark). Chondrometra, new genus Genotype. — Chlorometra robusta A. H. Clark, 1911. Diagnosis. — A genus of Charitometridae in which the 10 arms, from 75 mm. to 211 mm. in length, are stout at the baser becoming narrow and strongly compressed laterally in the outer portion ; the mid-dorsal line of each brachial is elevated into a broad, high and blunt overlap- ping spine or tubercle; the ossicles of the division series and the first two brachials, which are in close apposition and are sharply flattened against their neighbors, have the central portion elevated in such a way that their dorsal surface is in the shape of a broadly V-shaped gable; the proximal pinnules are about as long as those succeeding, or at any rate no longer; the genital pinnules are only slightly expanded, the expansion involving a number of segments and tapering away evenly distally; the centrodorsal is large, sharply conical to more or less columnar, the cirrus sockets arranged in one irregular or two regular columns in each radial area; the cirri are XV-XXX, 18-28, stout, varying from short to very long.- Range. — Timor to the Meangis and Philippine Islands. Bathymetrical Range. — From 520 to 1314 meters. Included Species. — Chondrometra rugosa (A. H. Clark), Chondrometra robusta (A. H. Clark), and Chondrometra aculeata (P. H. Carpenter). swanton: siouan tribes of the east 609 ETHNOLOGY. — Some information from Spanish sources re- garding the Siouan tribes of the East. John R. Swanton, Bureau of American Ethnology. The discovery of a group of tribes of the Siouan linguistic stock in the southeastern part of our country was in its day one of the great surprises in American Ethnology. The number and names of these, together with the relationships existing between them and the ethnological information regarding them furnished by early writers, were made the subject of a special study by Mr. James Mooney and the results appear in Bulletin 22, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, entitled Siouan Tribes of the East. Not much additional information bearing upon these peoples has since come to light and but very few alterations would be required in a new edition, so far as the Siouan tribes themselves are concerned. Nevertheless, as information regard- ing them is scanty it becomes proportionately more valuable, and for this reason I desire to call attention to one or two additional sources of information among Spanish writings. The first of these, in a work long well known to students of American history but unfortunately overlooked by the ethnolo- gist, is Peter Martyr's account of the province of Chicora, and the customs of its inhabitants, in his De Orbe Novo. The reason for this neglect is, no doubt, due in part to the dependence of investigators on Gomara's transcription of Peter Martyr's nar- rative, particularly because they were acquainted only with faulty translations of the latter, which contain grotesque and exaggerated statements tending to throw discredit upon the entire account, a discredit moreover which has ancient support from the historian Oviedo. The greater part of the information was derived by Peter Martyr from an Indian of Chicora, named by the Spaniards Francisco, who was carried to Spain and taught the Spanish language, but taken back as interpreter for Ayllon's colony which came to such an inglorious end in 1526. The origi- nal narrative is contained in the Seventh Decade of Peter Mar- tyr's work, where it occupies all of the third book and parts of the second and fourth; and if one goes back to this, instead of trying to depend on later transcriptions and translations, he 610 swanton: siouan tribes of the east will find little in it that can not be accounted for without im- pugning the honest intentions of the writer or his Indian inform- ant. A close examination of the Ayllon narratives leads to the belief that Francisco of Chicora came from that part of the Atlan- tic coast of the Carolinas occupied by Siouan tribes, and in all probability from the neighborhood of the present Winyaw bay. Among several reasons for this belief may be cited the charac- teristic r sounds in the words, as in the name Chicora itself, which is so conspicuous among the Siouan dialects of this region. The material recorded by Peter Martyr contains some informa- tion regarding the economic lives of the people and their cus- toms, some notes touching upon their myths, medical practice, etc., and particularly accounts of three of their ceremonies. Some trees also are mentioned and the native names borne by them. It should be noticed that most of this information con- cerns, not Chicora, but a neighboring province called Duhare or Duache. A little further light is let in upon these people by documents in the Lowery collection, preserved in the Manuscripts Division of the Library of Congress, particularly by the narratives of two expeditions from St. Augustine under the command of Francisco Fernandes de Ecija, sent in search of an English colony reported to have been established somewhere to the north. The first of these was in the year 1605. The explorers passed along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina until they came to the "barra de Cayegua," now Charleston harbor. Not far beyond was the bar of Joye, and twelve leagues beyond that a sandy point near which was the river Jordan. This latter (placed by the explorers in N. Lat. 33° 11') was, as we know well, the Santee, and the sandy point near by was evidently Cape Romain. It must be observed that the Cape San Roman of the Spaniards is not the Cape Romain of today, but probably Cape Fear, and we must not be surprised, therefore, to read immediately afterward that it was about 20 leagues from the River Jordan to Cape San Roman. We are informed that the chief of Joye ruled over all the land at the mouth of this river. The Indians told Ecija that it was large and that" the interior people came down it in canoes swanton: siouan tribes of the east 611 with cloaks (huapiles) and many other things, including copper and silver, to exchange for fish and salt. They stated also that pearls were found near the mountains in a place* called Xoada, described as very populous. The explorers met a Christian In- dian in this region named Alonso, who acted as interpreter; his father-in-law, whose name was Panto, was head chief of the town of Sati (sometimes spelled Hati). One of these Indians had been as far on the trail to Xoada as a town called Guatari. On the direct road thither they said the following places were en- countered: Guatari, Coguan-Guandu, Guacoguayn-Hati, Guaca- Hati-Animache, Lasi, Guasar, Pasque, Cotique. From the mouth of the Santee to Xoada was thirty days, "as Indians travel." Ecija entered the Jordan on his second expedition July 8, 1609, and found some small houses and fields sowed with corn. He heard of a Frenchman living in the town of Sati and sent the Indians to fetch him. The Frenchman then told Ecija that he had heard from one of the natives that there was a town called Daxe four days' travel beyond Sati, and one and a half days' travel beyond that another, called Guandape, on an island near which the English had established themselves. One of the Indi- ans from whom the Frenchman had derived this information was from a town called Guamuyhurto, the other two from a town called Quixis, a.nd one had acted as interpreter for the English. It would seem that the settlement referred to must have been the Roanoke colony and not that at Jamestown, then only two years old. Four leagues up the Jordan Ecija met three chiefs, Sati, Gaandul, and Guatari. Another town in the interior was known as Ypaguano, and still another, five days' journey from Alonso's village, was called Guano. A river ten leagues from Cape San Roman [Cape Fear] was called by the natives the river Barachoare. Somewhere east of the Jordan and Santee was a province known as Amy. With the exception of the interesting note regarding trade there is little direct ethnological information in all this. It does, however, yield some important facts regarding the tribes of the section. In the first place there can be little doubt that the Sati of Ecija are identical with the Santee of the English. In 612 swanton: siouan tribes of the east native speech the n was probably nasalized, and the English chose to make a full n out of it while the Spaniards preferred to ignore it. It m equally evident that Guatari is the later Wateree, gua being a common Spanish equivalent of English wa. Joye is spelled in another place Suye and in still another Xoye or Xoya. As x was often employed by Spanish writers of this period to designate the sh sound, it is evident that the initial sound was either sh or s; and when we add to this the fact that the chief of Joye is represented as ruling over all of the land at the mouth of the Santee, the identity of Joye, Xuye, or Suye with the later Sewee becomes almost certain. If the name of one of the tribes mentioned by Ayllon and his chroniclers should be spelled Duache, as it appears in some places, instead of Duhare, it may be identical with Daxe, but no such tribe appears in later times. Xoada, the town near the mountains, is, as Mooney has shown, the tribe known to the English as Saraw, then living at the head of Broad river. If there has been a mistake in copy- ing, Lasi may be intended for Issi, the old name of the Catawba. At any rate Guasar is undoubtedly Waxaw, while Pasque, al- though not found as a tribal name in the English period, is the Pasqui of Francisco of Chicora. On the authority of Lederer and some others Gregg and Mooney have expressed an opinion that in the latter part of the seventeenth century the Wateree were not on the river which now bears their name, but upon the Pedee or Yadkin.1. Unless we suppose there were two divisions to the tribe, however, the statements just quoted indicate that this is a mistake, and that at least part of the Wateree were in their later well known historic seats almost at the beginning of the seven- teenth century. In fact Ecija's testimony throughout is to the comparative permanence in location of the tribes in the area in question. The Sewee, Santee, Waxaw, and possibly Catawba are where the South Carolina settlers found them more than sixty years later. If there be an exception it is in the case of the Chicora, who may have been the Sugeree or the Shoccoree, found later by the Carolina colonists a considerable distance inland. 'Gregg, A., Hist, of the Old Cheraws, p. 7; Mooney, James, Bull. 22, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 81. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. ELECTRICITY. — The international system of electric and magnetic units. J. H. Dellinger. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 292 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 599-631). 1916. A complete and distinct system of electric and magnetic units is in use, based on the international ohm and ampere, the centimeter, and the second. While these international units differ in their derivation from the electrostatic and electromagnetic units, they nevertheless repre- sent very closely decimal multiples and submultiples of the theoretical electromagnetic units. The very slight differences are determined by absolute measurements made from time to time. One of the reasons why the international system is the most convenient and the most used elec- trical system is because it is centered around the phenomena of electric current. Electric current is more familiar and of vastly greater practi- cal importance than electrostatic charges or magnetic poles, upon which the other two familiar systems are based. Another fortunate aspect of the international system is the convenience of its dimensional expres- sions. They are very simple, and directly suggest the ordinary rela- tions of electrical theory and practice. Other systems, involving the definition of new units of certain quantities in such a way as to redis- tribute the factor 4x in the equations, have been proposed from time to time and some of these are now used to a limited extent. An attempt to redistribute the 47r's in an advantageous manner has been called a "rationalization" of the units. A careful study has been made to determine whether the advantages of these proposed systems are such as to justify the trouble and confusion incident to a general change of units. No such advantage has been found. A strong reason against a general change of units for the purpose of rationalization is the fact that a rationalized system is obtained merely by using the ampere- turn as the unit of magnetomotive force. D. J. M. 613 614 abstracts: electricity ELECTRICITY. — A system of remote control for an electric testing lab- oratory. P. G. Agnew, W. H. Stannard, and J. L. Fearing. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 291 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13:581-597). 1916. This paper describes a system of remote control which was developed primarily for use in testing electrical measuring instruments. Small multiple lever controllers, which may be operated in any one of several laboratory rooms, give complete control of the output of a group of motor-generator sets. For example, in testing a wattmeter, or an a.c. watthour meter on low power factor, the five levers of a controller give both a coarse and a fine adjustment of frequency, current, voltage, power factor, and an auxiliary d.c. voltage, respectively. The field rheostats are very long slide-wire resistances. They are tubular in form and are wound helically with the resistance wire. They are 32 mm. in outside diameter, and as much as 12 meters in length. When necessary they are cooled by circulating water through the tube. Spe- cial laminated brushes, which bear directly on the winding, are oper- ated by small worm-geared motors which pull them along the tubes by means of cord and pulley. The phase relation of current to voltage is controlled by a motor-operated worm drive. A large, motor-oper- ated, low voltage rheostat for currents up to 10,000 or 12,000 amperes is included in the system. P. G. A. ELECTRICITY. — A variable self and mutual inductor. H. B. Brooks and F. C. Weaver. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 290 (Bull. Bur. Stds., 13: 569-580). 1916. The instrument consists of two pairs of fixed coils held in stationary hard rubber disks between which a third disk carrying two coils is arranged to be rotated. The form and the spacing of the coils were determined so as to secure the following advantages: (1) high ratio of inductance to resistance; (2) scale divisions of uniform length reading directly in units of inductance; (3) astatic arrangement of the coils, which reduces the liability of errors caused by the proximity of other instruments or of conductors carrying currents. Diagrams and data are given from which instruments of this type can be designed for given uses. Comparison is made of the new instrument and of some other older forms of variable inductor, including the Ayrton-Perry. H. B. B. abstract: engineering 615 GEOLOGY. — Contributions to economic geology, 1915. Part I. Metal and non-metals except fuels. F. L. Ransome, et al. U. S. Geo- logical Survey Bulletin 620. Pp. 361, with illustrations. 1916. This bulletin is made up of short reports by a number of different authors as listed herewith: A gold-platinum-palladium lode in ' southern Nevada. Adolph Knopf. Gold deposits near Quartzsite, Arizona. E. L. Jones, Jr. A reconnaissance in the Kofa Mountains, Arizona. E. L. Jones, Jr. A reconnaissance of the Cottonwood- American Fork mining region, Utah. B. S. Butler aND G. F. Loughlin. Notes on the fine gold of Snake River, Idaho. J. M. Hill. Preliminary report on the economic geology of Gilpin County, Colo- rado. E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill. The Aztec gold mine, Baldy, New Mexico. W. T. Lee. Iron Ore in Cass, Marion, Morris, and Cherokee counties, Texas. E. F. Burchard. Iron-bearing deposits in Bossier, Caddo, and Webster parishes, Louisiana. E. F. Burchard. Some cinnabar deposits in western Nevada. Adolph Knopf. Quicksilver deposits of the Mazatzal Range, Arizona. F. L. Ransome. Potash in certain copper and gold ores. B. S. Butler. Recent alunite developments near Marysvale and Beaver, Utah. G. F. Loughlin. Nitrate deposits in southern Idaho and eastern Oregon. G. R. Mansfield. A reconnaissance for phosphate in the Salt River Range, Wyoming. G. R. Mansfield. Cassiterite in San Diego County, California. W. T. Schaller. E. S. B. ENGINEERING.— Surface water supply of the United States, 1914. Part IV. St. Lawrence Basin. Nathan C. Grover, et al. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 384. Pp. 128, with 2 illustrations. 1916. This volume is one of a series of reports presenting results of meas- urements of flow made on streams in the St. Lawrence River Basin during the year ending September 30, 1914. It includes also a list of the stream gaging stations and publications relating to water resources in this Basin. 0. E. M. REFERENCES Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to ail scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that Puthors cooperate with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal. ASTRONOMY Abbot, C. G., Fowlb, F. E., Aldrich, L. B. Confirmatory experiments on the value of the solar constant of radiation. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1: 331-333. 1915. Becker, G. F. A possible origin of some spiral nebulae. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 2: 1-8. 1916. Burton, H. E. and Watts, C. B. Observations of Comet 1913 f (Delavan). As- tronomical Journal, 29: 172, No. 693. 1916. EiChelberger, W. S. The distances of the heavenly bodies. Journal Washing- ton Academy of Sciences, 6: 161-175. 1916; Science, 43: 475-483. 1916. Hall, A., Burton, H. E., Watts, C. B., and Bower, E. C. Occultations of stars by the moon. Astronomical Journal, 29: 128-132, No. 688. 1916. Hoogewerff, J. A. Actual time of signals from the U. S. Naval Observatory. Published each month in Popular Astronomy. 1916. Littell, F. B. and Hill, G. A. Determination of difference of longitude be- tween Washington and Paris, 1913-1914- Reprint of Publications of the United States Naval Observatory, Second Series, vol. 9, Appendix. 1916. Peters, George H. Observations of asteroids with the photographic telescope. Astronomical Journal, 29 : 147-148, No. 690. 1916. Ross, F. E. The Sun's mean longitude. Astronomical Journal, 29: 152-156, No. 691. 1916. Ross F. E. Investigations on the orbit of Mars. Astronomical Journal, 29: 157- 163, No. 692. 1916. ENGINEERING Marshall, R. B. Spirit leveling in Louisiana, 1903 to 1915, inclusive. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 634. Pp. 101, with one illustration. 1916. Marshall, R. B. Primary traverse in Alabama and North Carolina, 1913-1915. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 644-A. Pp. 12, with one illustration. 1916. Marshall, R. B. Triangulation in Arizona and New Mexico, 1913-1915. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 644-B. Pp. 24, with one illustration. 1916. Marshall, R. B. Triangulation in California, 1913-1915. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 644-C. Pp. 84, with one illustration. 1916. 6X6 JOURNAL ^ OF THK WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI NOVEMBER 4. 1916 No. IS MATHEMATICS.— Note on an integrating device. M. D. Her- sey, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by Louis A. Fischer.) This note offers an approximate method for evaluating the integral / = P f(y) dx (l) in which f(y) is stated analytically but in which the relation between y and x is available in the form of a curve only. yl yZ When f(y) takes the form y, — , or — , the integral becomes, respectively, the area, the statical moment, or the moment of inertia, about the .r-axis, of the plane figure bounded by the curve, the z-axis, and the limiting ordinates at xl andrr2. These three problems are familiar ones in machine design and naval architecture. They are frequently solved, with sufficient accu- racy for the purpose, by plotting an auxiliary curve of squares or cubes if the case requires it, and then determining an area by cutting up the figure into strips of equal width, and applying some average ordinate rule. The present device is offered as a substitute for the latter method. It is equally accurate and more convenient. The applicability of the device is not limited to these particular functions. The device consists of a templet, or plane figure, to be cut out of stiff paper, celluloid, or German silver. In its simplest form, the templet is bounded by two perpendicular lines and a curve. Call the two straight lines respectively the back and the base, 617 618 hersey: an integrating device and call the curve the front of the templet. The templet is to be placed on the drawing board right over the (x, y) curve so that it can be slid along with its base on the x-axis. Starting with the back at xx, make a mark where the front of the templet crosses the (x, y) curve. Then slide it along until the back comes to the mark and make a second mark where the front now crosses the curve, and so on. Let n be the number of steps necessary to travel across from xx to x2 in this manner. An approximate numerical value of the integral I will then be I = nC (2) in which C is a known constant for a given templet. In order to obtain the simple result (2), it is necessary only that the front of the templet be cut to the curve f(Y)-X = C (3) Here X and Y are respectively the abscissa and ordinate of any point on the templet curve, relative to the back and the base as axes. To prove (2), let the variable Ax denote the width of each step along the x-axis. When the templet is in any one of the suc- cessive positions marked on the (x, y) curve, X = Ax and Y = y. Hence by (3) f(y) ■ ax = c (4) Integrating (1) between x and x + Ax gives for the contribution which the strip of width Ax makes to the integral/, approximately Al=f{y)'Ax (5) Comparing (4) and (5), Al = C (6) Thus every strip contributes the same amount C; therefore the whole integral is / = 2AJ = nC (7) The accuracy of the result is enhanced if the device be made up of two such templets, back to back in one piece. The work- ing formula will then be I =nK (8) hersey: an integrating device 619 in which K =2C (9) Any number may be chosen for K, and the templet cut accord- ingly. It is desirable that K be a multiple of 10, provided this does not make the device inconveniently large or small. It is immaterial where the extremities are cut off. Further expedi- ents for simplifying the work, such as the use of templets of graded sizes, or auxiliary base lines for the (x, y) curve, will sug- gest themselves upon examining each particular problem. The equilateral hyperbola has the property that the rectangle formed under any point has a constant area. This property has been utilized in various ways for determining the areas of plane figures. One such device is known as Beauvais' hyperbolic tri- angle.1 The present contribution is nothing other than a gen- eralization of the hyperbolic triangle so that it will determine any function, and not simply areas. The statical moment and moment of inertia have been cited as functions which can be evaluated by the new device. Another function, which the writer has met both in barometric altitude calculations and in studying the effect of pressure on viscosity, is the integral of the reciprocal of the ordinate of an empirical curve, ■*■ dx 5' >xi y The templet needed for stepping off this integral is simply an inverted triangle. To integrate any function F{x) which can be written f[^{x)], it is necessary only to evaluate J*f(y)dx along an auxiliary curve y = (x). The result will be J*F(x)dx. For example, let it be J™X2 | e~x'dx. Here ji F 0) = e~x* 4>{x) = x* (10) / (y) = e~y 1 Engineering News, 66: 340, 628. 1911. 620 hersey: derivatives of physical quantities Cut out a double faced templet to the curve e~ 'X = const., i.e., to the curve F=log|+logX (11) in which K is chosen at pleasure. If n is the number of steps needed for traversing the curve y =x> . (12) from Xi to x2 with this templet, . X2 e-xidx = nK (13) The device therefore is not limited to problems involving empiri- cal curves to start with. It is applicable also to cases in which the integrand is given analytically. It will be practically useful in such cases, whenever F(x) is sufficiently complicated to warrant the trouble of dealing separately with the two functions 4>(x) and /(?/). PHYSICS. — Note on a relation connecting the derivatives of physi- cal quantities.1 M. D. Hersey, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by E. Buckingham.) Statement of the problem,. Given the fact that some relation of unknown form Qo = / (Qi, Q„ • . . . Qn-i) (1) subsists between N physical quantities Q0, Qi, Q2, . • • Qn-u no others being involved, it is required to deduce a relation of known form 0Q1 XoQo / (2) such that at any point whose generalized coordinates, Q0, Qi, Q2, etc., are given, the value of any one of the N-l partial deriva- tives of Q0 can be computed from any other. Thus, it is required to calculate one of the component slopes of the generalized sur- 1 This work was done at the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard Uni- versity. hersey: derivatives of physical quantities 621 face (1) from a knowledge of another, although the equation of the surface is not available. The interest of the problem to the physicist lies in the fact that he may wish to learn the value of a derivative not readily accessible to experiment, in a case where some other derivative of the same quantity can easily be observed. It will be shown that a definite solution can always be obtained, provided certain dimensionless products of the N quantities are held constant. Other classes of relations among derivatives. The proposition, that relations may be found connecting the derivatives of quan- tities in the absence of a primitive equation, is not new. There are two other classes of such relations. One consists of mathe- matical identities, applicable to any set of related quantities, whether physical or not. To this class belongs the identity d dQ0 d dQo as well as the triple product relation dQ0 DQt bQ, (3) dQi dQ2 dQc = - 1 (4) The other class comprises relations requiring the explicit use of physical laws, such as the two laws of thermodynamics, or Hamilton's principle. To this class belong Maxwell's four ther- modynamic relations, and the reciprocal relations of generalized dynamics.2 The relations to be presented here are of a nature intermediate between the other two classes, in that they require a knowledge only of the dimensions of the quantities. Derivation of the new relation. The present result depends upon and is a corollary to Buckingham's n-theorem,3 according to which any complete physical equation is reducible to the form funct.(n1, n2, . . . TU) = 0 (5) 2 J. J. Thomson, Applications of dynamics to physics and chemistry, Chap. V. 3 This Journal, 4: 347-353. 1914; Phys. Rev., 4: 345-376. 1914; Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 37: 263-296. 1915. Any one who can sufficiently visualize the meaning of the n-theorem will be able to treat each concrete problem by itself, dispensing with the formulas of the present paper save as a check. 622 hersey: derivatives of. physical quantities in which the n's are all the independent dimensionless products which can be built up by combining in any way the N physical quantities involved. Further, the total number of such prod- ucts, or dimensionless arguments, will always be the same, no matter how the quantities are grouped. This number will be i = N -k (6) if k is the number of fundamental units needed for measuring the N quantities.4 Let LT0 and LT designate any two of the i products in (5) which contain between them the three quantities Q0, Qi, and Q2 in which we are interested. Let Q0 appear to the first power in n0 and not at all in any other product. This can always be done, for Buckingham has shown that a certain standard arrangement is possible in which each product contains to the first power some one quantity of type P which occurs nowhere else.5 We shall then have n„ = #•(n) (9) in which the form of is unknown. The restriction to constant products can always be fulfilled in theory, but it may lead to difficulties in practice; it will be discussed in a later section. Differentiating (9) and then (8) gives in succession dllo __ dcf> dn _ dct> all ,-^v From (7) dlTo _ dQ0 lip apllo .--. dQi = = dQi Q0 Qi 4 The question of the number of fundamental units needed has been discussed by Riabouchinsky, Rayleigh, and Buckingham; see Nature, 93: 396-397. 1915. • 5 Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 37: 291-292; note eq. (11) and its discussion. hersey: derivatives of physical quantities 623 Comparing (10) and (11) udcf> _ QiH0/ 1 5Qp a0\ (12) du~ a \Q0dQ1 QJ K Similarly ud _ Q2U0/ 1 dQo j30\ , . du" p \Q0bQ2 QJ ) Comparing (12) and (13) <>Qo _ foe \ Q0 a Q2 bQQ n.. Hence the desired relation (2) has the linear form ^=a + b^ (15) in which the coefficients .-(=*-«.)§ (16) and b = «9l (17) involve none of the N quantities save Q0, Qlf and Q2. Evidently (14) can be written also dlogQo (<* R \ adlogQo nQN ___^0-aoj + ___ (18) in which the coefficients are independent of the coordinates. Thus the relation connecting the logarithmic derivatives is the same all over the generalized surface. , Extension to higher derivatives. Differentiating (14) with re- spect to Qi and using the identity (3) gives ^=A+B^+C^-° (19) cQl dQ2 dQl in which the coefficients are ■ A-Sfefc— )&*— '-1) (2P) 624 hersey: derivatives of physical quantities B"Sffe'-Oa+sw (21) and C = -V (22) 1/3/ Thus the curvature with respect to Qi can be calculated from the slope and the curvature with respect to Q2. Integral form of the relation.6 Integrating (14) at the point (Qo = go, Qi = <7i, Q2 = Qi) over an interval so short that — ^° may be treated as constant, and denoting its value by the symbol - , gives for the primitive equation of an element of the surface oq2 in which On _ a fq2 bq (23) h = - l^^ + Po -«• (24) 0 \q0 dq2 / The use of (23) would permit a direct comparison of any new results obtained by the present method with empirical results previously published in one-term, constant-exponent formulas. Discussion of the constant-product restriction. Let ITC denote any one of the i — 2 arguments which we have agreed to hold constant, and let Q stand for either Qi or Q2. Then, unless nc can be so chosen that it does not contain Q, it must be so chosen that it will contain some additional quantity Qc not occurring 6 If instead of an isolated value of ^—^ we were furnished with the entire curve OQ, Qo = f-i (Qi), the direct use of the n-theorem would be preferable, and would give the whole curve Qo = /i (Qi)- If successively furnished with additional curves, Qo= JiiQz) and so on, we could gradually build up generalized cross sections of the surface (1) until, when N-k independent curves had been given, we should have the whole of it. The problem of developing empirical equations syntheti- cally has not been treated in the available papers. That problem is a general one, of which the problem of the present paper is a special case; this situation is illustrated by the fact that our final result (23) applies only to an infinitesimal piece of the curve Qo = fi(Qi)- hersey: derivatives of physical quantities 625 in any other product. The rule for keeping nc constant will then be: Vary Qc simultaneously in such a manner as to com- pensate the changes due to Q. If Q enters nc to the nth power and Qc enters it to the first, the derivatives in (15) and elsewhere are subject to one or more conditions of the type Qc «= Q~n. For such a derivative let us adopt from now on the notation (^tt) _„• There are two experimentally independent methods for getting its numerical value: First, by directly observing the change in QQ with Q while simultaneously changing Qc in the prescribed manner; second, by calculating it from separate observations on the change in Qo with Q at constant Qc, and the change in Q0 with Qc at constant Q. Expanding the conditioned derivative into the form ( --£ ) + ( ~ ) ,° and taking account of the fixed \oQ/Qc \oQc/Q uQ relation between Qc and Q leads to the working formula /5QA /&Qo\ _wQ.7aQ.\ (25) VaQA^-n \?>Q/qc Q\^Qc/q for the second method. In the most general case where there are i — 2 arguments to be kept constant, the second term on the right of (25) will be replaced by — ^ times the summation of i — 2 terms of the type nQ, ( dQ0\ ZQc/q' While the procedure outlined in this section is always possible and sufficient, it is not always necessary or even desirable. For example: if the number of quantities, N, does not exceed the number of fundamental units, k, by more than 2, there will be no other arguments than n0 and II; again, if the remaining i — 2 arguments do not involve Q (i.e., Qi or Qo), their constancy will not be disturbed at all by the fact that Qi and Q2 do vary. Further expedients for simplifying the work will suggest them- selves upon examining each particular case by itself. Some illustrative examples. For reference in solving problems it is convenient to rewrite (5) in the form 626 hersey: derivatives of physical quantities Q?Q2° ■■■QKk- Qo=funct. (Q? Qf.--Q£- Qk+1, and other n's) (26) The values of a, (3, etc, can now be read off directly by identi- fying them with the corresponding numerical exponents in the equation, of type (26), afforded by the particular example in hand. I. In the case of a journal bearing, under certain restrictions, we may expect a relation of type (1) to connect the coefficient of friction /, with the viscosity of the lubricant n, the revolutions per unit time n, the bearing pressure p, the journal diameter D, and the volume of oil V forced through the bearing in unit time. Let it be required to calculate the effect of altering the size of the machine from a test in which nothing is varied but the rate of pumping oil through the bearing. By the Il-theorem, / = funct. (®^, ^, shape) (27) \ V p / Let*/, D and V serve respectively as Q0, Qi, and Q?.. Compar- ing (27) with (26), «o = 0, /So = 0, a = 3, 0 = - 1; hence, by (16) and (17), a = 0 and b = — 3 — , or D y = -ziy ' (28) dD DdV K Also, by (20) and (22), A = 0, B = 12 —^ and C = 9 (-Y; there- fore w.uZ^Wnvay (29) Equations (28) and (29) enable us to predict the bearing losses of any slightly larger or smaller machine in the same geometri- cally similar series. This requirement of geometrical similarity is an instance of the constant-product restriction. The products in this case are the length ratios fixing the shape. II. Let it be required to find the effect of gravity on a rolling ball viscosimeter in terms of the effect produced by changing hersey: derivatives of physical quantities 627 the size of the instrument. Let D, I, and 0 denote, respectively, the diameter and length of the tube and its angle of inclination to the horizontal, d and p0 the diameter and density of the ball, p and p the density and viscosity of the liquid, and t the roll-time7 in a locality8 of gravity g. Assuming that a complete relation does subsist among these quantities, the n-theorem shows that any equation describing that relation, whether ob- tained theoretically or experimentally, must be reducible to the form M PD - 1 = f unct. fe g-^-, shape) (30) 2 \p n2 / the shape, in turn, being fixed by the arguments y^, jz, and 0. Taking t, g, and D respectively for Q0, Qif and Q2 gives a0 = 0, /So = - 2, a = 1, and /3 = 3; so that by (18) tdg 3 3 t dD An interesting check on (31) is afforded by differentiating the empirical equation for such an instrument.9 The equation has been presented in the form y = a + bx, in which x denotes -V*(?-i) and y denotes vl\D*g[- 1 ), r being the roll j • time per unit length — , v the kinematic viscosity — , and a and I p b particular numerical values fixed by a particular choice of — and 0. Recast in the form (30) it becomes 7 That is, the time required for the ball to roll down. This instrument, pro- posed by Flowers (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat., 14: 565. 1914), is further discussed by the writer in this Journal, 6: 527. 1916. 8 Having set up such a viscosimeter in Cambridge, the question arose whether there would be any sensible change upon taking it to Washington, where gravity is 0.3 per cent less. The conclusion is that the roll-time in a very viscous liquid will be 0.3 per cent greater in Washington; and that the effect of gravity dimin- ishes when the fluidity of the liquid increases, falling to 0.2 per cent for water. 9 This Journal, 6: 528, eq. (6). 1916. 628 hersey: derivatives of physical quantities p or t = — (l+BVgDs) (33) gD in which A and 5 (both intrinsically positive) do not involve g at all, nor D except in a shape factor. The values of — — and t bg D <:t — — — found by differentiating (33) do satisfy (31). III. Without knowing the empirical equation let it be required to predict the change in roll time due to any small change in liquid density, such as would occur upon using the tube under pressure, by reference to an observation on the effect of chang- ing the ball density. Since an expression for — in terms of — dp bPo is sought, t, p, and p0 are selected for Q0, Qh and Q2 respec- tively. If (30) were to be used as it stands there would be a restriction on the derivative — , which is hardly to be desired. Op An equivalent result in a more convenient form can evidently be obtained by confining p to a smaller number of arguments. This is done by replacing (30) by one of the alternative forms provided by the n-theorem, such as \k * = funct. h, g-fJ^, shape) (34) ~D \p p? / Comparing this with (26), «0 = 0, /?0 = 0, a = 1, (3 = - 1; hence by (14) bt po/dl\ or by (25) = - £-° (^L ) (35) Op p \C)po/Mccpo op 1 / bt . bt\ ,QA; = --(po — + p— ) (36) p \ Opn bp/ stand ley: new genus of allioniaceae 629 In the last transformation ft took the part of Qc and p0 of Q, while n had the value — 1. The following observations afford an experimental illustration of (36). They were made with a tube 59 em. long and 1 cm. in diameter, containing a \ inch (0.635 cm.) ball, ordinarily of steel (p0 = 7.7 g./cm.3). The tube was filled with lard oil (p. = 0.74 c. g. s. units, p = 0.92 g./cm.3). The slope — was found to be OjJ. 31 c. g. s. units. Substituting now a brass ball (p0 = 8.6 g./cm.3) for the steel one, the roll-time dropped from 27.9 to 24.7 seconds, making — equal to — 3.6 c. g. s. units. From these data, in Opo conjunction with (36), the value — = 5.2 c. g. s. units would Op be predicted. From (32), the actual value is found to be 5.7 c. g. s. units. Since — is itself a correction term, the agree- Op ment is sufficient. BOTAXY. — Ammocodon, a new genus of Allioniaceae, from the southwestern United States.1 Paul C. Stand ley, National Museum. The genus Selinocarpus was proposed by Gray, in 1S53,2 in a paper dealing with the plants of the family Allioniaceae3 col- lected by Charles Wright during his explorations of western Texas, southern Xew Mexico and Arizona, and northeastern 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. - Amer. Journ. Sci. II. 15: 262. 3 Dr. Gray used the family name Xyctaginaceae. a term more widely employed by botanists than the earlier Allioniaceae. The designation of this family is not based, as some suppose, upon the genus Nyctaginia, but upon Nyciago, an early name for the four-o'clocks, to which Linnaeus assigned the generic term Mirabilis, which is universally used today. Consequently the term Xyctagi- naceae is objectionable, as applied to a family, since it is based upon a generic name nowhere accepted as valid. An example of mistaken ideas concerning the source of the word Xyctaginaceae and certain related forms is found in Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut (Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 14, p. 172. 1910). In explanation of the specific name of Oxybapkus nyctagineus (Michx.) Sweet 630 stand ley: new genus of allioniaceae Mexico, which extended from 1849 to 1852. Two species were described, S. diffusus and S. chenopodioides. There is no indi- cation that the genus was based primarily upon either species; consequently the first, S. diffusus, may be taken as the type. Selinocarpus is related to the large genus Boerhaavia, being dis- tinguished chiefly by the broad, thin wings of the fruit. In the latter, it is true, the fruit is sometimes winged, but the wings are narrow, thick, and usually veined. No one, apparently, has questioned the claims of Selinocarpus to generic rank, for the plants are decidedly different in their general aspect from the group of species comprised in Boerhaavia, as restricted by the present writer.4 Since 1853 five species of Selinocarpus have been published, the genus now being known to range from Nevada and southern Utah to western Texas and southward to Coahuila, Mexico. Upon close inspection of the seven species it is evident that one of the two original ones, S. chenopodioides, differs in certain floral characters from the genotype and the five subsequent addi- tions to the genus. Its perianth is campanulate and conspicu- ously constricted above the ovary, while in S. diffusus and the other species the perianth is tubular-funnelform and not at all constricted. In the case of the latter group of species the perianth varies markedly, however, in shape and size, being only 1 cm. long and with a short tube in S. angustifolius Torr., and 2.5 to 4.5 cm. long, with a slender, elongate tube, in the other species. In S. chenopodioides the perianth is 4 to 5 mm. long. In the last, moreover, the stamens are 2 or rarely 3, their fila- ments free from the perianth, while in S. diffusus and its allies the stamens are 5 or 6, their filaments adherent to the perianth tube. These striking differences in the perianth and androecium are accompanied by habital differences, also : In S. chenopodioides the flowers are aggregated in many-flowered, umbelliform cymes, (Allionia nyctaginea Michx.) the statement is made that it signifies "like Nycta- ginia, a genus of this family." As a matter of fact, Michaux's species was pub- lished many years before the generic name Nyctajinia. His specific name doubt- less alludes to the resemblance of the leaves of the Allionia to those of the com- mon four-o'clock, Mirabilis jalapa, the Nyctajo of pre-Linnaean botanists. 4 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 12: 372-387. 1909. standley: new genus of allioniaceae 631 each flower subtended by one or rarely 2 bracts, while in the other species the few flowers are solitary or geminate in the leaf axils, each subtended by 2 or 3 bracts. In 1913 Dr. Anton Heimerl, an eminent Austrian botanist well known for his studies of this family of plants, pointed out5 these differences and used them as a basis for the division of Selinocarpus into two sections, Breviflori and Tubiflori. To the writer, however, it seems that the section Breviflori deserves generic rank, and the name Ammocodon is accordingly proposed for it. The primary characters upon which the genus is based are those of the flower and androecium, and they are certainly of greater significance than the quantitative fruit characters which are used to separate Selinocarpus and Boerhaavia. Ammocodon Standley, gen. nov. Erect or decumbent perennial herbs with thick roots and dichot- omous pubescent stems. Leaves opposite, petiolate, those of a pair often unequal, the blades succulent. Flowers umbellulate, the um- bellules in open cymes, each flower subtended by a minute subulate bract, or a second smaller bract rarely also present; perianth campanu- late, purplish red, constricted above the ovary, shallowly 5-lobed, the lobes plicate. Stamens 2 or rarely 3; filaments filiform, short-connate at the base, free from the perianth. Ovary narrowly oblong; style filiform, exserted; stigma peltate, smooth. Fruit a compressed antho- carp, broadly 5-winged vertically, the wings hyaline. Testa of the seed adherent to the pericarp; embryo conduplicate, the cotyledons enclosing the farinaceous endosperm; radicle elongate, descending. Type species, Selinocarpus chenopodioides Gray. Ammocodon chenopodioides (Gray) Standley. Selinocarpus chenopodioides Gray, Amer. Journ. Sci. II. 15: 262. 1853. The type was collected by Charles Wright in valleys from Providence Creek to the Rio Grande, western Texas. The species ranges from western Texas through southern New Mexico to southeastern Arizona, and southward into Chihuahua. It is very abundant in the region about El Paso, growing chiefly in the loose sandy soil of the mesas, usually along with creosote bush (Covillea glutinosa). The flowers are not very showy, but bright-colored and borne in great profusion. Like those of most, if not all, of the herbaceous members of the family, they open late in the evening and close about noon or earlier the fol- lowing day. 5 Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., 63: 354-355. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TECHNOLOGY. — An investigation of cartridge enclosed fuses. Report of the Bureau of Standards in the case of Economy Fuse and Manu- facturing Co. vs. Underwriters' Laboratories (Inc.) concerning the fire and accident hazard of the Economy Refutable Fuse as compared with approved fuses. E. B. Rosa, H. B. Brooks, B. McCullom, W. J. Canada, and F. W. Gladding. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 74. Pp. 199. 1916. This report represents the results of the investigation carried out by the Bureau of Standards acting as referee on the joint request of the Economy Fuse and Mfg. Co. and Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., on the question of the relative fire and accident hazard of Economy Refillable fuses and fuses at present listed as standard by Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. The evidence on which the finding of the Bureau was based includes a large number of tests of fuses under widely differ- ent conditions, as well as inspections of numerous fuse installations in practice, personal interviews with many fuse users, evidence and argu- ments submitted by the Economy Fuse and Mfg. Co. and Under- writers' Laboratories both at a public hearing and by correspondence, and evidence and arguments submitted by a number of manufacturers of fuses at present listed as standard by Underwriters' Laboratories. The investigation disclosed that the experience with the present type of Economy fuse is not yet sufficient to determine whether the total hazard is greater or less than it is with approved fuses as they are actually used in practice. The report contains numerous tables and 110 oscillographic records showing the performance of both Economy and approved fuses under various short circuit conditions. B. McC. 632 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 775th meeting was held on May 27, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. President Briggs in the chair; 47 persons present. The minutes of the 774th meeting were read in abstract and approved. The evening was devoted to a symposium on the atom. Mr. H. L. Curtis presented a paper on The atom as a miniature solar system. The author briefly sketched the history of atomic theory from Dalton's work in 1803 to the recent work of J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Nichol- son, Bohr, Van der Brock, Zeeman, and others. Two types of nucleus atom are possible, viz, the planetary type and the Saturnian type. In the planetary type each electron has an orbit different from that of any other electron, as is the case of the planets rotating about the sun, but different from this in that they repel each other while the planets attract. In the Saturnian type, which is most generally ac- cepted, the electrons rotate in rings around the nucleus. Bohr's assumptions of the laws holding at atomic dimensions and the results from his hypothesis were given in detail. The present trend of thought is towards accepting the Saturnian type of the nuclear atom. It is generally conceded that the forces which bind the parts of the atom together are different from those with which we are accustomed' to deal. The radiation giving the lines of the visible spectrum is con- cerned with the outer rings of the atomic system, while X-rays are produced by vibrations of the inner rings of electrons. Radioactive phenomena and chemical affinity appear to be concerned with the nucleus. Discussion. Mr. Agnew referred to experiments in magnetization which indicate the validity of the Saturnian or planetary-type theory. Bohr's theory predicted that certain lines of the spectrum of helium were due to hydrogen. Mr. Bauer referred to the looseness of terms found in writings on the atomic theories; for example, 8 out of 10 will use "rotation" instead of "revolution." In many theories of astronomy it is not necessary to take account of rotation, but no astronomer would attempt to explain all facts and phenomena only by revolution; it, therefore, appears that the time may come when it may be necessary to consider both rotation and revolution in connec- tion with atomic theories. Mr. Sosman referred to the recent work on the valence of atoms in chemical compounds. Mr. Wright re- ferred to studies in crystal structure in which particular directions within an atom find expression in atomic arrangement of crystals. 633 634 proceedings: philosophical society Mr. Swann referred to conflicting theories between the chemist and the physicist with reference to the structure of the atom. He thought that perhaps some part of the apparent excellent agreement of con- stants might be due to a juggling of the 27r-factor in the computations. Mr. Dellinger thought that Mr. Swann's last remark explained some agreements found in recent contributions. Mr. W. J. Humphreys presented a paper on The magnetic field of an atom. Recent investigations by Weiss, Ritz, Humphreys, Oxley, and Merritt of atomic phenomena and structure were reviewed. These investigations all give varied evidence in favor of the assumption that atoms have powerful magnetic fields which are of the order 108 gauss, and which are due, presumably, to orbital revolutions of electrons. It might seem that atoms with such strong magnetic fields would collapse; the author's calculations, however, show that the electric forces between the portions of atomic models of the Saturnian type would be more than sufficient to prevent collapse through the interaction of their powerful magnetic fields. Mr. Swann thought the indicated order of magnitude of the atomic fields is large, judging, for example, from computations, assuming a field of 108 gauss, of the moment of the equivalent magnet and of the deflection that would be produced in shooting a-particles through a thin piece of magnetic iron. The 776th meeting was held on October 14, 1916, at the Cosmos Club. Vice-President Buckingham in the chair; 65 persons present. The minutes of the 775th meeting were read in abstract and approved. Mr. A. L. Day presented a communication, illustrated by lantern slides, on Do volcanoes offer evidence in regard to the interior of the earth? Recent studies are helping to emphasize more and more sharply the conclusion that volcanoes are local phenomena of very limited signifi- cance in affording information concerning the interior of the earth. This view is supported by the differences in chemical composition between lava outflows in different parts of the world, by the differences in altitude of the points of outflow even in neighboring volcanoes, by the apparently complete independence of one another of volcano vents which are immediately contiguous, as at Stromboli, Hawaii, and other places, and by the fact that most of the volcanic phenomena appear to derive their energy from gas reactions in which only the gases appear to be of deep-seated origin. The formation of vertical conduits, under this view, is then simply the result of gas reactions ("gas fluxing") which generate sufficient heat to melt the adjacent rock masses and to form more or less vertical outlets for gaseous or liquid products. Neighboring conduits of this kind often show complete independence of action in time, in pressure (as shown by the lava level), and in character of explosive or other activity at the mouth, all of which point to the independence of the local supply chambers to which the vents serve as outlets. Of course, a great rift like the one on the south flank of Mauna Loa, from which two lava streams recently proceedings: philosophical society 635 flowed to a distance of 8 miles, indicates a basin of much larger magni- tude than those at Stromboli, but still vanishing^ small when com- pared with the magnitude of the earth or even with the magnitude of the volcanic island (Hawaii) of which it forms a part. In fact, the complete absence in the geological record, of any really great outpour- ing of lava, and the absence of evidence of extreme temperatures in those outlets which have been accessible to study, point to the con- clusion that all are local and probably not even deep-seated phenomena. Discussion. Mr. Washington called attention to the characteristics of the volcanic rocks from the continent of Africa which are quite different from those, for example, from Vesuvius and Etna. Mr. Clarke referred to the pioneer work of Herbert Spencer regarding the condition of the interior of the earth. Mr. Farquhar made inquiry regarding the temperature gradients determined from borings and the relation of such gradients to Chamberlin's hypothesis. Mr. Day stated that, judging from the temperature gradient determined from borings, the interior temperature may reach 20,000° which Chamber- lin admits in his hypothesis. He stated that bore-hole temperature records must alwa}^s be carefully used since conditions are generally not typical; determinations of temperature gradients from different sources vary by 100 per cent. Mr. L. A. Bauer presented a communication, illustrated by lantern slides, entitled Concerning the origin of the earth's magnetic field. The various recent theories regarding the origin of the Earth's magnetic field were reviewed with particular reference to their bearings on the general topic of the evening: the constitution of the earth's interior. The hypothesis of chief interest in this connection, namely, that of an iron core being the cause of terrestrial magnetism, has inherent in it many difficulties, which, however, may not be insuperable. Should experiments decisively show that increased pressure elevates the criti- cal temperature of magnetization, then the depth of 10 to 12 miles, now supposed to limit the presence of materials in the magnetic stage, would be increased. However, the few experiments available indicate that increased pressure lowers the critical temperature of magnetiza- tion. The various hypotheses as to the earth's magnetic field being caused by electric currents within the earth's crust, or as to its con- nection in some manner with the speed and direction of rotation of the earth, were briefly discussed. The exceedingly small effect to be observed renders conclusive laboratory experiments, if not a hopeless task, certainly a very difficult one with present appliances. The author reiterated a belief, already expressed on a former occasion, that our chief hope at present of determining the origin of the earth's magnetic field appears to lie in the direction of determining what causes the field to vary in the remarkable manner it does. The definite limita- tions imposed by the variations in the earth's magnetic field, both of the periodic and aperiodic kind, and the departures of the field from the simple uniform type, are too frequently overlooked by theorists. Most theories, for example, are found inadequate when the attempt is 636 proceedings: botanical society made to explain, besides the origin of the field, the secular variation as it is actually observed. In conclusion it was pointed out that the solution of some of the questions entering into the problem of the origin of the earth's magnetic field must be deferred until the completion of the magnetic survey of the earth now in progress under the auspices of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. Discussion. Mr. Burgess discussed the question of the effect of pressure on magnetic properties of iron. Our knowledge of variations in the magnetic conditions of ferrous materials is at present insufficient to give much help. Mr. Swann referred to the difficulty associated with the assumption of electric currents as the origin of the earth's magnetic field primarily in the explanation of the e. m. f. to which these currents owe their origin; this difficulty is not, however, as great as may appear, for it is not improbable that the state of equilibrium in the rotating earth might involve relative motion between the elec- trons and the ordinary matter as a condition for the absence of degra- dation into heat of such motion as exists. It is a known fact that the intensity of magnetization produced in a sphere of infinite permeability when placed in a magnetic field is only four times the intensity which would be produced were the permeability only two; the reason for this is to be found in the demagnetizing force which a magnetic sphere produces in its own substance. It appears that the principle inherent in the phenomenon is not limited to the case where the magnetizing influence is an ordinary magnetic field but is of wide application, so that we may say in general that it is impossible to produce, no matter what the material of the sphere may be, an appreciable magnetization in a sphere by feeble influence. J. A. Fleming, Secretary. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 112th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, April 4, 1916. Fifty-two members and five guests were present. Harry R. Fulton, George L. Keenan, Lester A. Round, J. F. Clevenger, C E. Temple, A. E. Aldous, Victor Birckner, and Forrest S. Holmes were elected to membership. The following papers were presented. Botanical explorations in South America: J. N. Rose. Plants domesticated in Peru: 0. F. Cook. Mr. Cook gave a brief account of the agriculture of the Incas, with their wonderful terraces and system of irrigation. Among the plants domesticated by them were maize, beans, lima beans, peanuts, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), red peppers {Capsicum), mandioca, tomatoes, passion fruits, sweet potatoes, tuberous Tropaeolum and Oxalis, arracacha (a celery-like plant), squashes and pumpkins, gourds; and among the fruits were chirimoyas, lucuinas, and pepinos. The narcotic coca, from which cocaine is now prepared, was also grown. Mr. Cook's paper is embodied in an article since published in the National Geographic Magazine, 29:474-534. June, 1916. W. E. Safford, Corresponding Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI NOVEMBER 19, 1916 No. 19 GEOPHYSICS. — A theory of terrestrial volcanoes and the geog- raphy of the moon.1 Stanislas Meunier, Museum of Natural History, Paris. (Communicated by Arthur L. Day.) Long-continued studies have led me to develop a new theory in regard to the phenomenon of volcanoes, a theory which, it seems to me, harmonizes with the best-established facts of geo- dynamics, differing therein from all preceding theories. A necessary sequel has been a study of the consequences to which the theory leads as regards the future of eruptive activity itself. In making that study, I adopted the method of the mathe- matician, who proceeds to the solution of a given problem by varying the elements of the problem in order to discover the corresponding special cases. Accordingly I have assumed hy- potheses regarding the geologic consequences that result from modifying the variables of the problem. I shall not try to con- ceal the satisfaction I felt on finding that one of the supposi- tions examined explains completely the circumstances of lunar economy. The discussion involves three main consequences: 1. It tightens in an unexpected manner the geologic bonds existing between the earth and the moon. This result is so con- formable to the ingenious cosmologic conception of Laplace as to constitute a veritable confirmation of it, by furnishing defini- tive proof of the similarity of the physical constitution of our 1 Translated from the French. 637 638 . meunier: theory of volcanoes globe and its satellite, as well as of the identity of their be- havior in the course of sidereal evolution, in which they repre- sent two successive stages. 2. In the second place, the relation of the history of the moon to the history of the earth, so different at first sight as regards the phenomena of volcanism, includes the verification, the tan- gible verification so to speak, of the eruptive theory, although the latter had been established on purely geologic considerations at the very moment when I felt compelled to postpone the selenographic study, which seemed to require a combination of special conditions. 3. Finally, by means of a correlation which a priori seemed hazardous, my results furnish a new support for that great chapter of science which is yet far from being fully understood, but which nevertheless has so often and so strongly fascinated me from the very beginning of my career, namely, the chapter of comparative geology. This may seem a bold program, and in laying it before the reader I feel that it may arouse a certain skepticism. Never- theless I feel confident that my undertaking will benefit the work on which I am engaged, namely, the building-up of a body of arguments which will naturally group themselves into one of the chapters of the geologic harmonies of the physical uni- verse. In order readily to understand the bearing of the statements just made, it is necessary to call briefly to mind the nature of the proposed volcanic theory and what, in my opinion, it is capable of explaining. According to this theory, volcanic activity is a normal and therefore inevitable result of the regular evolution of our globe. It therefore determines, on the one hand, all the details of the earth's constitution, that is to say, of its anatomy, and, on the other, all the details of its activity, that is to say, of its physi- ology. According to this theory, also, volcanic activity is a natural and frequent result of the formation of mountains, being in fact its' epiphenomenon, so to speak. We have to recall the circumstances accompanying the be- meunier: theory of volcanoes 639 ginning of planetary history and to assume, with Laplace, that the earth is but a drop of the chaotic substance separated from the sun, like the other globules of the same nature, which, be- fore or after it, have taken on the condition of autonomous bodies. The sun represents the enormous residue of primordial matter from which these successive products were derived. The globular form assumed by the mass that was to be our planet results from the dominant property possessed by the molecules of all mobile matter to attract one another and thus to become grouped around their common center of gravity. La- place has shown how this attraction causes the heating of the whole mass and at the same time its general movement of rota- tion around its own axis. We need add nothing to the concep- tion of the author of the Exposition du Systeme du Monde in order to understand in outline the successive stages of our globe, all due to the spontaneous cooling caused by its position in space, the temperature of which is far below that of the earth itself. The first effect of cooling was to deprive the chaotic matter of any homogeneity which it might have had at the start, the result being a solid crust forming a partition between the un- cooled fluids that constitute the nucleus of the globe and the far less dense fluids forming the ocean and the atmosphere. Ever since the crust began to form and to grow thicker by additions on the inside, owing to the progressive solidification of the nucleus, it has tended to accommodate itself to the ever- changing conditions arising from the steady diminution in vol- ume of the enclosed mass. While that mass contracts during cooling without changing its form, which remains spherical while its diameter decreases, the crust, which is not contractile, responds in a different way. As the support furnished by the fluid nucleus is withdrawn because of its contraction, the crust has to follow it and hence becomes increasingly corrugated, with attendant faults (geoclases) and tangential thrusts. This is the well-known cause of topographic relief, the cause of continents and oceanic basins. The water, instead of cover- ing the globe as a uniform sheet, has collected in the oceanic 640 meunier: theory of volcanoes basins, to which, by a ceaseless circulation, it always returns after falling as rain and flowing over the land as storm water and running water — aside from the large amount that seeps into the ground, of which we will speak later on. Without entering into details which every one knows, I will merely add, for the sake of clearness, that the deformations of the earth's crust, constantly diminishing the diameter of the planet, consist essentially in the transformation of a centripetal action into a tangential compression, as is shown by the great mountain ranges, whose natural escarpments so often and so clearly reveal to us the internal structure. In these mountain ranges beds of a great variety of rocks are seen resting one on the other, which may be correlated with the strata of the plains, but which have been modified in their mineral composition by metam'orphism and in their relative position by orogenic forces. As regards the last-mentioned point, the essential fact is that geologically old strata commonly rest on geologically younger strata, which is exactly the reverse of what prevails in undis- turbed sedimentary regions. When, for example, we climb the Alps we first pass over very recent beds, such as the Tertiary conglomerates of the Righi, next over Mesozoic deposits, " such as the Cretaceous and Jurassic marbles of Mount Pilatus, next over Paleozoic sediments, such as the Carboniferous shales of the Mcede, etc., and only when we arrive at the top do we find the primitive rocks, such as the gneisses of the Jungfrau. There can be no doubt that these strata were pushed along nearly horizontal planes of fracture, with the result that they now occupy a much smaller area than they did originally, while their thickness has increased by superposition, as has just been pointed out. Thus there has been a transfer of deep-seated material over younger strata. It is necessary to recall this commonplace notion, because it suffices to give us the viewpoint needed for the present subject as regards everything relating to the structure of mountain ranges, which for that matter varies widely. Summarizing this first point, we see that the spontaneous cooling of the globe gives rise to a tangential compression of the meunier: theory of volcanoes 641 crust, which at any given moment is too wide for its contentSj and that this is the sole cause of the characteristic superposi- tions observed in mountains. This, however, does not yet suffice to explain completely the origin of mountains, and it is proper to note that the process just described is strictly confined to the underground regions. In order that a mountain may be formed another thing is neces- sary: the block that has been compressed in the underground region has to be raised by tangential reactions, causing a pro- tuberance that rises above the general surface of the planet. The gigantic tuberosity of Thibet, in the heart of the Asiatic continent, is a type. Space will not admit of presenting the arguments which prove that the compression and transfer on the incline planes of geo- clases can take place only in a certain portion of the crust. The deeper portions are still too hot to admit of the production and maintenance of gliding planes in their plastic substance, while in the outer parts the porosity and compressibility of the rocks constituting the substratum, opposing their inertia to the propa- gation of vibrations, protect the superficial strata against exces- sive mechanical shocks, which would constitute an insuperable obstacle to the development of external phenomena, such as the manifestations of organic life. Without dwelling on this subject let us note merely that the mechanical deformations of the crust are not the only inevitable consequences of the spontaneous cooling of the globe. Another fact of equal importance, and without which vol- canism would be impossible, develops parallel with the first. We have already noted that the lowering of the surface temper- ature has led to the condensation of water, the fall of rain, and the development of rivers, whose waters accumulate in the ocean basins. Part of the water penetrates into the crust not only by constant infiltration but by the burial of wet sediments under later sediments, whereby water and other volatilizable matter are imprisoned in the solid mass at constantly increasing depths and are incorporated in a large part of the thickness of the crust. This being premised, we must next observe that the over- 642 MEUNIER:. THEORY OF VOLCANOES .thrusting :just described, whereby the rock masses are super- posed (often in inverted order) acquires a new meaning from the very presence of water. The water-soaked zone thus forms an envelope around the deeper zone which is as yet too hot to ad- mit the entrance of water. At many points the orogenic com- pression, taking advantage of geoclases, carries hot waterless strata over less hot water-soaked strata. The latter are thus subjected to reheating under circumstances which are particu- larly, interesting. We know the effects that are likely to be produced by such reheating under the influence of water incor- porated in deeply buried rock masses having no communication with the surface. On this point Senarmont has made experi- ments of which I am unable for lack of space to mention more than the results. He has shown that in superheated water, as .he called it, that is to say, water subjected to a temperature of several hundred degrees in a closed vessel, the ordinary rocks take on all the characters of metamorphic and volcanic rocks. The water, strongly compressed and having reached the condi- tion when it assumes the mineralizing function, becomes in- corporated with the rock particles, and thus in the state of occlu- sion it endows them with the expansive property. '. Suppose next that a mass of rocks thus charged with occluded water under high pressure is put into communication with the atmosphere through a fissure, for example. The occluded vapor, no longer held back by a resistance equal to its expansive force, will seek to attain equilibrium of pressure with the atmos- phere; it will issue from its confinement and carry with it the rock magma in which it is dissolved, ejecting it through the vent, and thus will produce the volcanic phenomenon in all its details. Without attempting any detailed proof, let us note that this line of reasoning explains all the incidents of the volcanic phenomenon, from the ejection of ashes, vesicular pumice, and scoriae to the rise and overflow of lava and even the formation and reaction of fumaroles. : Volcanism as a whole, as has just been found to be the case V' 19.4 22.350 ^0.010 Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling 900 19.7 17.5 23.100 20.510 0.000 -0.400 910 19.4 10.8 22.940 12.770 -0.050 -0.040 920 16.6 10.9 19.800 13,000 — 0.575 +0.010 930 11 4 11.1 13.710 13.350 -0.023 +0.017 1,000 1: !6 16,030 +0.017 requiring a length of the material in question to have a tempera- ture distribution extending from the maximum to the. lowest temperature. There may then be ambiguity or superposition of thermoelectric effect- U-ing a length of pure iron wire (Fe =99.968 per cent) of some 7 cm. length and 0.05 cm. diameter and joined between the hot 1 To appear in detail as Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper Xo. 296 (Bull. Bur. Stds., vol. 14). swingle: seyerixia euxifolia 651 junctions of two Le Chatelier thermocouples within a furnace 60 cm. long, several series of accurate observations in vacuo of the thermoelectric power of the couple iron-platinum have been taken, at 2° intervals, over the temperature range 0° to 1000°C. In the thermoelectric power vs. temperature curve the critical point A3 is marked by a discontinuity of considerable magnitude at about 915°C. on heating, and at 900CC. on cooling. At A2 there is a change in shape of the curve. The thermal effect at A2 is superimposed upon the thermoelectric and manifests itself as a slight protuberance or dent at 768°C. In Table 1 are given the thermoelectric power (dE di), Peltier effect (TdE di), and Thomson Effect (d2E dt-) for iron-platinum from 0° to 1000°C. These thermoelectric observations give further evidence of the distinct character of the critical points A2 and A3 delimiting the regions of alpha, beta, and gamma iron. BOTANY. — Severinia buxifolia, a Citrus relative native to southern China. Walter T. Swingle. Bureau of Plant Industry. In southern China, Tonkin, and Annam, and in the adjacent islands of Formosa. Hongkong, and Hainan, there occurs not uncommonly a much-branched thorny shrub which has shiny box-like leaves aDd small, black, berry-like fruits. 1-1.5 cm. in diameter. This plant is commonly called Atalantia bilocularis (Roxb.) Wall., or Atalantia buxifolia (Benth.) Oliv. in recent bo- tanical works. In connection with a survey of the plants re- lated to Citrus this plant has been studied, with the result that it seems necessary to recognize it as constituting the type of a distinct genus, for which, fortunately, there is a valid name. Severinia. established in 1S40 by Tenore. The nomenclatorial history of this plant has been a checkered one. The earliest reference to it by a European botanist seems to have been in 1757. when Osbeck. one of Linnaeus 's pupils, published the original Swedish edition of his diary of a voyage to the East Indies. On October 20. 1751. he found on Danish Island, near Canton. China, a plant of which he says "Buxoides aculeata. what the Chinese call Sau-pann-gipp. is like our box- 652 swingle: severinia buxifolia tree, but thorny. I did not see its parts of fructification."1 Al- though a Latin binomial name is apparently assigned to this plant, it is very unlikely that it was intended as a true botani- cal name, inasmuch as Osbeck's teacher, Linnaeus, strongly objected to generic names ending with -oides.2 At any rate the description is insufficient to identify the plant, of which Osbeck did not see the flowers or fruits. So far, the Cantonese name Sau-pann-gipp cannot be traced, but Loureiro gives for his Limonia monophylla a similar Cantonese name, Sao peng lac,3 "lac" being perhaps the common Cantonese word lak, meaning thorn. In 1798 Poiret described in the Encyclopedie methodique of Lamarck, as Citrus buxifolia, a plant which had been found in China by Sonnerat. The latter had forwarded specimens of it to Citizen Lamarck, in whose herbarium Poiret had examined them. Already in 1790 Loureiro in his Flora Cochinchinensis had described this same plant, but had referred it erroneously to Limonia monophylla L. In 1825 David Don in his Flora of Nepaul described, as a new species, Limonia retusa. Although the description is very short and the writer has had no opportunity of examining Don's specimens, it seems very probable that Don's diagnosis refers to the plant in question. Another obscure name, Limonia microphylla, published in 1828 by Voigt, would seem to belong here. Voigt's article is a descrip- tion of the plants cultivated in the Jena Botanic Garden and the descriptive phrase following the name reads merely " folia Buxi apice emarginata, crenata." This phrase, however, seems to warrant considering Voigt's plant identical with the one in ques- tion. 1 Buxoides aculeata. Obs. kallas pa Chinesiska Sau-pann-gipp; och liknar war Buxbom; men ar taggig. Fructificationen blef jag aldrig warse. — Osbeck, Pehr. Dagbok ofwer en Ostindisk Resa, p. 242. Stockholm, 1757. 2 "Nomina generica in oides desinentia, e foro Botanico releganda sunt." Linnaeus, C. Philosophia Botanica, §226. 1751. 3 Loureiro, J. Flora Cochinchinensis, 1: 271. 1790. swingle: severinia buxifolia 653 Desfontaines, in the third edition (1829) of the catalogue of plants of the Paris Botanic Garden, describes as a new species Citrus emarginata, which is undoubtedly the same plant. While Don seems to have been the first to record this species from India, Wallich and Roxburgh again report it from that country (1832), but under a different name. This time it fig- ures as Limonia bilocularis Roxb. or Atalantia? bilocularis Wall. In 1834 Wight and Arnott described this species as Sclero- stylis atalantioides, referring to it as synonyms Atalantia? biloc- ularis Wall, and Limonia bilocularis Roxb. These authors add that no one except Dr. Berry, who had sent it to the Botanic Garden in 1807, seemed to have found this plant in India. The first botanist to recognize this plant as belonging to a distinct genus was Tenore, who in 1840 published anew genus Severinia, transferring to it Citrus buxifolia of the gardeners as Severinia buxifolia. Tenore seems to have overlooked the fact that Citrus buxifolia was no mere gardener's name, but had been properly published by Poiret in 1798. In the following year Tenore submitted this and two other of his new genera to the Third Convention of the Italian Scientists held at Florence in September, 1841, for their approval. The President of the Sec- tion, Professor Moris, appointed three distinguished foreign bot- anists— Robert Brown, Heinrich Link and Charles Morren — present at the meetings, on a committee to report on the mat- ter. Robert Brown, chairman, reported a few days later that Severinia seemed to the committee to be a good new genus of the orange family.4 However, George Bentham, in 1851, took exception to Ten- ore's new genus, stating that specimens sent him by the latter had enabled him to identify this as "a not uncommon Chinese plant," and transferring Tenore's species to Sclerostylis as Sclerostylis buxifolia Benth. Ten years later Bentham in- 4 "Che la Severinia, pianta della famiglia delle Auranziacee sembragli ancor essa poter con buona ragione formare un genere nuovo. Per i suoi caratteri somigliare essa la Bergera, ma da questa differirne per avere le foglie semplici, mentre che quella le ha impari pennate. Esser poi ben distinta in grazia del suo ovario biloculare dalla Limonie, le quali lo hanno uniloculare." Brown, Robt., in Atti della terza rinuione degli scienzati ital., p. 533. 1841. 654 swingle: severinia buxifolia eluded this plant in his Flora Hongkongensis under the name Atalantia buxifolia Oliv. MS., and in the same year Oliver him- self described it in his treatise on the Aurantiaceae. In his paper he doubts the Indian station for this plant, saying [Introd. p. 11]: " Atalantia buxifolia I believe to be an Eastern Asiatic species only, and not a Coromandel plant, as stated in Rox- burgh's 'Flora Indica,' " and [p. 26] "I consider this alleged In- dian station to have originated in some garden mistake . . ." Roemer,5 the indefatigable but uncritical compiler, described the plant in 1846 under three different names: (1) Atalantia Loureiriana, based on the Limonia monophylla of Loureiro, not of Linnaeus; (2) Helie atalantioides, based on Sclerostylis ata- lantioides W. & A., and having Limonia bilocularis Roxb. as a synonym; and (3) Citrus buxifolia Poir. Under the latter name, he remarks that this may be a variety of Citrus sinensis Risso. The best and fullest account of the plant as yet published, giving both the morphological and anatomical characters, is that by Penzig.6 As it was the only species of Atalantia studied by him, he did not have opportunity to note how widely it dif- fers from the typical species, Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC, and its congeners. As a matter of fact it is very unlike the true Atalantias, dif- fering in having a berry-like fruit becoming very dark red or nearly black, as it ripens, through the softening and darkening of the ovarial walls. The pulp vesicles remain very rudimen- tary, mere blunt papillae lining the ovary walls, quite unlike the pulp vesicles of the true Atalantias. Two or three large oil glands develop in the mesocarpic tissues of the young ovary. The leaves are shiny above, very strongly veined below and emarginate (see fig. 1). The flowers are smal and the stamens are free, with rather broad filaments. The seeds are green, large and subglobose, with thin teguments, and germinate from buried cotyledons; the first post-cotyledonary leaves are cata- phylls, as in Eremocitrus and Poncirus (see fig. 2). 5 Roemer, M. J. Fam. Nat. Reg. Veg. Syn. Monogr., Fasc. 1, p. 37, 42, 52. 1846. B Penzig, Otto. Siudi hot. sugli agrumi, in Annal. di. Agric. 1S87, no. 116, p. 149-163; Atlas, pi. 11, figs. 6-17, pi. 12, figs. 1-21. 1887. swingle: severinia buxifolia 655 The fruit characters are so different that the plant cannot be considered to be a congener of Atalantia and must be considered to be a distinct genus, for which the oldest available name is Severinia of Tenore. The oldest name for this plant becomes, therefore, Severinia buxifolia, with the following synonyms: Severinia buxifolia (Poir.) Tenore,. Ind. Sem. Hort. Bot. Neapol., 1840, p. 3 (?) [not seen]; Atti della terza riunione degli scienzati ital., 501-3. 1841. (?) Buxoides aculeata Osb. Dagbok Ostindisk Resa, p. 242. 1757 [nom. subnud.]. Limonia monophylla Lour. FL Cochin. 1: 271. 1790. [err. det.] Citrus buxifolia Poir. in Lam. Encycl. 4: 580. 1798. (?) Limonia bilocularis R. Hort. Bengal. 32. 1814. [nom. nud.] (?) Limonia retusa Don. Prod. Fl. Nepal. 224. 1825. (?) Limonia microphylla Voigt, Syll. PL Ratisb. 53. 1828. Citrus emarginata Desf. Cat. Hort. Paris, ed. 3, 235, 406. 1829. Atalantia? bilocularis Wall. Cat. no. 6356. 1831. [nom. nud.] Limonia bilocularis Roxb. Fl. Indica, 2:377. 1832. Sclerostylis atalantioid.es Wight & Arn. Prodr. 1: 93. 1834. Atalantia Loureiriana Roem. Syn. Hesperid. 37. 1846. Helie atalantioides Roem. Syn. Hesperid. 42. 1846. Sclerostylis buxifolia Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 3: 326. 1851. Atalantia buxifolia Oliv. Proc. Linn. Soc. 5, Suppl. 2:26. 1861 (ex Benth. Fl. Hongkong. 51. 1861). Illustrations: Seeman, Bot. Voy. Herald, pi. 81, 1852-7; Penzig, O., Studi bot. sugli agrumi, Atlas, pi. 11, figs. 6-17, pi. 12, figs. 1-21, 1887. Type Locality: "Cette plante est originaire de la chine, & y a ete observe par Sonnerat" [in the vicinitv of Canton, China]. Distribution: Southern China (Hongkong, Kwangtung, Hainan), Tonkin, Annam, Formosa. The writer examined in 1911 the type specimen in Lamarck's her- barium in the Museum d'histoire Naturelle at Paris. It consists of a single leafy twig about 20 cm. long with three short branches. The branch still bears a few flower buds. There can be no possible doubt of its being the plant common in southern China. The original label in Lamarck's handwriting reads: "Citrus — de la chine." A later label in Poiret's handwriting reads: "Citrus buxifolia, Diet. No. — ." In the Kew herbarium is a flowering branch of Severinia buxifolia collected by Tenore in the botanic garden at Naples and probably a merotype of the plant upon which the genus Severinia was based. This specimen is undoubtedly congeneric and doubtless conspecific with the type specimen of Citrus buxifolia Poir. 656 swingle: severinia buxifolia In the Rijks Herbarium at Leyden there is an apparently authentic specimen of Citrus emarginata Desf., possibly a merotype, which is undoubtedly Severinia buxifolia. RELATIONSHIPS Severinia, in spite of its being referred to Atalantia by all recent botanical writers, is not at all closely related to the typical species of that genus. In its fruit characters it resembles Tri- Fig. 1. Severinia buxifolia. Twig bearing flowers and fruits, and showing emarginate leaves and sharp spines. Scale §. phasia, but it has very different flowers, leaves, and twigs. Pos- sibly Severinia may prove to be related to the aberrant Ata- lantias, A. disticha (Bl.) Merr., A. linearis (Bl.) Merr., A. mari- tima Merr., etc. Its affinities are certainly with Triphasia and other members of the tribe Citreae, rather than with Claucena or Micromelum. It is, however, distinctly not one of the true citrous fruits constituting the subtribe Citrinae, — Citrus, For- tunella, Microcitrus, Eremocitrus, Poncirus, and Citropsis. lamb: the moreh oak 657 USES OF SEVERINIA The Severinia is a handsome shrub, readily propa- gated from cuttings and suitable for hedges, if care be taken to select for multiplication the very thorny forms which are common in this species. Some forms have sharp spines two to three inches long. Severinia has proved useful in Lou- isiana for hedges. Experiments have shown that Sev- erinia can withstand unusually large amounts of salt in the soil. It may prove of interest as a stock for cit- rous fruits in regions having alkali in the soil or having salty irrigation water Fig. 2. Severinia buxifolia. Seed- ling, showing the cataphylls suc- ceeded by foliage leaves. The scar of one of the coty- ledons shows near the base. Natural size. BOTANY. — Moreh oak, a new name for Quercus morehus Kellogg.1 W. H. Lamb, Forest Service. The name Moreh oak is proposed as a standard common name for Quercus morehus Kellogg, a tree of the Sierra Nevada foot- hills and the north coast ranges of California. The tree is one which has presented many problems to the botanist. It is most frequently regarded as a form of hybrid origin, one parent being the California black oak (Quercus calif ornica or Quercus kelloggii), the other the canyon live oak (Quercus wislizenii) .2 The discoverer, Dr. Albert Kellogg, called the tree Abram's oak, giving it at the same time the scientific name of Quercus morehus. For many years, however, the meaning and derivation of the scientific name and the signifi- cance of the common name were matters of much futile specula- tion among botanists, and although the species was described 1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 2 Greene, E. L. Illustrations of West American oaks from drawings by the late Albert Kellogg, M.D., pi. 2. 1889. Sargent, C. S. Manual of the trees of North America, p. 255. 1905. Jepson, W. L., Silua of California. Memoirs of the University of California, 2 : 46-^9. 1910. 658 KLEIN : CONSTITUTION OF PORCELAIN in 18633 it was not until 18874 that the derivations of the names were fully understood. It was the custom of Dr. Kellogg to ex- press his veneration for Biblical characters and places by nam- ing his botanical discoveries in their honor, just as other writers have sought to commemorate the name of friends or localities intimately associated with their experiences. In this instance it was desired by the author to recall the dwelling place of Abram, by honoring the newly discovered tree with its name. Anticipating perhaps that Moreh might not be recognized as the inspiration of his name, he called the tree "Abram's oak." But notwithstanding his precaution, the name "morehus oak" has appeared in forestry literature as the common name of this interesting tree.5 This name has no meaning, is grammatically incorrect, and only perpetuates the fact that Dr. Kellogg's name has not been understood. The name "Abram's oak" is some- times used;6 but on account of the fact that the erroneous name "morehus oak" has been so widely circulated, it seems advis- able to replace it with the correct English equivalent of the scientific name. It is proposed, therefore, that Quercus morehus Kellogg be uniformly designated as Moreh oak. CERAMICS. — The constitution and microstructure of porcelain.1 A. A. Klein, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.) A petrographic microscopical study of porcelains prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, of commercial por- celain, as well as of various combinations of the raw materials which enter into porcelain, has led to results which are interest- ing and important both scientifically and technically. Bodies and mixtures of the following types were examined: kaolin, feldspar-kaolin, feldspar-quartz, and feldspar-clay-quartz. 3 Proceedings of the California Academy of Science, 2: 36. 1863. 4 Greene, E. L. Biographical notice of Dr. Albert Kellogg. Pittonia, 1: 145. 1887. 6 Sudworth, G. B. Nomenclature of the arborescent flora of the United Stales. Bull. 14, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry. 1897. 6 Britton, N. L. North American Trees, p. 308. 1908. 1 To appear in detail as Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 80. KLEIN: CONSTITUTION OF PORCELAIN 659 These were burned at various known temperatures. The com- mercial bodies investigated represented the practices of the fol- lowing countries: United States, England, Germany, France, Austria, Denmark, and Japan. The end in view was to obtain data concerning the changes involved by burning porcelain at various temperatures; for bodies whose composition lay within the limits of whiteware and hard fired porcelains it was found possible to correlate to a certain degree the constitution and microstructure with the burning temperature. The result of this investigation leads to the following conclu- sions : Kaolin appears homogeneous microscopically when heated up to 1200°. At about this temperature a trace of dissociation occurs. As the temperature is raised above 1200° the dissocia- tion increases very slowly at first, then at an increasing rate until at 1400° it seems to be complete. The products of dissociation are silica and aluminium silicate. The latter compound has been identified as an amorphous phase of sillimanite from the following facts: it shows no crystalline form, has an index of re- fraction above 1.60, and by heating at a higher temperature (about 1450°) it inverts to minute needle crystallites corre- sponding to sillimanite in all determinable optical properties. Up to 1340°, in mixtures of quartz and feldspar, the quartz dissolves to only a small extent in the feldspar glass. At 1460° the quartz is practically completely dissolved in specimens having as high a quartz content as 50 per cent quartz to 50 per cent feldspar. In specimens containing kaolin and feldspar the kaolin dis- sociates entirely at 1340°. The amount of crystallized and amorphous sillimanite increases with an increased content of kaolin, at least to a concentration of 50 per cent kaolin to 50 per cent feldspar. At 1460°, apparently 10 per cent kaolin is entirely soluble in the feldspar glass. With higher concentrations of kaolin the amount of crystallized sillimanite increases. The needle crys- tals are well developed and comparatively large. At 1310°, in quartz-clay-feldspar bodies, the feldspar is present as a glass; the clay shows almost complete dissociation with the 660 KLEIN: CONSTITUTION OF PORCELAIN formation of amorphous sillimanite mainly and but little crys- tallized sillimanite, while the quartz is undissolved and the grains may still be of considerable size, up to 0.2 mm. or more, depending upon the fineness of grinding. By burning these bodies at 1380° to 1400° the feldspar glass dissolves considerable quartz, there being only a comparatively small amount of residual quartz remaining. The quartz grains are much rounded and etched and they seldom show a length over 0.06 mm. The clay is dissociated with the formation of crystallized sillimanite, although an extremely small amount of amorphous sillimanite may be present. The changes involved by burning commercial bodies are identical with those of laboratory prepared bodies. The quartz grains observed in whiteware and in low-fired vitreous ware are large and angular, showing a size of 0.2 mm., or more, whereas in the hard porcelains, due to solution, the quartz grains are rounded and etched, and seldom exceed 0.05 mm. in length. The constitution and the microstructure of porcelain depend upon the temperature of burning, and change as this temperature changes. This has served as a basis for the estimation of the probable burning temperatures of the commercial bodies, a fact which was accomplished with success, the error involved being within 25°. It appears that the time-of-burning factor is by no means as important as that of the burning temperature in determining the constitution and microstructure of the ware. No cristobalite or tridymite has been definitely observed in any of the laboratory or commercial bodies examined. It ap- pears that the quartz dissolves in the feldspar glass more readily than it inverts to the oMier modifications of silica. In conclusion, it may be stated that the petrographic micro- scopic study of porcelain has led to interesting and, it is to be hoped, important technical results. It has placed the chemical and physical processes involved in the formation of porcelain on a more quantitative thermal basis. Furthermore it has offered a means of estimating the burning temperature of a ware by an examination of a fragment much too small in size to be satisfactory for even a chemical analysis. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM— On the results of some magnetic observations during the solar eclipse of August 21, 1914- L. A. Bauer and H. W. Fisk. Journ. Terr. Mag., 21 : 57-86. 1916. In response to a circular letter issued by the Director of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, several observatories made observa- tions during the eclipse of August 21, 1914, and forwarded their data to Washington. The present paper comprises a compilation of ab- stracts of the reports of the various institutions which supplied data, and a discussion of the results. At the four stations, Eskdalemuir, Stonyhurst, Kew, and Rude Skov, the maximum phase of the eclipse occurred at about the time when the declination needle was approaching its maximum westerly position for the day, and on examining the curves for these stations it appeared that at each one of them a bay occurred a few minutes before the time of maximum obscuration. As the result of this bay the customary progression towards a westerly extreme was inter- rupted, and a retrograde movement occurred, which continued for some time. Of the above stations, the bay was most developed at Rude Skov, the nearest one of the four to the belt of totality. On plotting a vector diagram for Rude Skov, with the north and west components of the field as derived from the observed declinations and horizontal intensities, it was found that during the eclipse the regular course of the curve was interrupted and a loop was described. The occurrence of this loop, which appeared also in the vector dia- grams for Eskdalemuir and Kew, is in harmony with the similar effect found at Rocky Mount, North Carolina, during the total eclipse of May 28, 1900. Atmospheric-electric observations were furnished by Kew, Eskdale- muir, and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. The conduc- 661 662 abstracts: geology tivity gave no reliable evidence of any effect attributable to the eclipse, and, while the diurnal variation curves for the potential-gradient showed depressions at the time of maximum obscuration, this effect was not sufficiently pronounced, in relation to other variations, to render its connection with the eclipse a certainty. W. F. G. S. GEOLOGY. — Notes on some mining districts in eastern Nevada. James M. Hill. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 648. Pp. 207, with 6 plates and 18 figures. 1916. This reconnaissance report describes 29 mining districts in eastern Nevada, extending from the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad to the Colorado River and comprising parts of Elko, White Pine, Lincoln, Nye, Clark, and Lander counties. Details of the mining development in the various camps are given, as well as information concerning the production of those districts for which figures are available. The re- port discusses briefly the grouping of the copper, lead, gold, and silver deposits about or near masses of granitic rocks which are intrusive into Paleozoic sediments ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian, and of gold veins in the probably pre-Cambrian schists near the Colo- rado River. It includes notes on the tungsten deposits in the Kern Mountains of northeastern White Pine County, and on gold deposits associated with Tertiary volcanic rocks at Atlanta, Lincoln County, in which carnotite is found. Most of the deposits discussed are either replacements or veins. Contact metamorphic deposits, though of some importance, are not as common in this region as would be expected from the wide distribution of intrusive rocks. J. M. H. GEOLOGY. — Geology and ground waters of northeastern Arkansas, with a discussion of the chemical character of the waters. L. W. Stephenson, A. F. Cruder, and R. B. Dole. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 399. Pp. 315, with 11 plates and 4 figures. 1916. The report describes the physiography, geology, and ground water resources of that part of Arkansas lying northeast of Arkansas River and east of the Ozark hills. Much information compiled from scattered previously published sources is incorporated, together with a large amount of new data gathered by the authors in the field and by corre- spondence. Emphasis is laid on the availability of the vast quantities of water contained in the Pleistocene alluvial deposits for the irriga- tion of the extensive tracts of land that are suitable for rice culture. abstracts: geology 663 The section on geologic history describes the interesting succession of events that resulted in the formation of the alluvial lowlands compos- ing the greater part of the area treated. The chapter of the chemistry of the waters contains in addition to the discussion of the character of the Arkansas ground waters, much general information on the min- eral constituents of water, the character of water suitable for boiler use, irrigation, and domestic use, and methods of purifying water. L. W. S. GEOLOGY. — The Pliocene Citronelle formation of the Gulf coastal plain and its flora. George Charlton Matson and Edward Wilber Berry. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 98-L. Pp. 167-208, with 16 plates and 3 figures. 1916. This report describes the character and areal distribution of the Pliocene deposits, chiefly non-marine, occurring near the seaward mar- gin of the Gulf coastal plain from Florida to eastern Texas. These are called the Citronelle formation, which is made to include portions of the deposits formerly classified as "drift," "Orange sand," "Lafay- ette," and "Grand Gulf." The fossil plants, by means of which the age determinations are made, are represented by 18 species. Three of these are Pleistocene and Recent forms and 15 are extinct, the latter embracing 2 West Indian and one non- American type. The plants are, without exception, coastal forms and they indicate climatic condi- tions very similar to those prevailing at the present time along the Gulf coast, and a physiography of barrier beaches and coastal lagoons, with gum swamps and cypress ponds near the coast. It is concluded that this flora flourished in the latter half of the Pliocene. E. W. B. GEOLOGY. — The Lower Eocene floras of southeastern North America. Edward Wilber Berry. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 91. Pp. 481, with 117 plates and 16 figures. 1916. This report describes a small flora of early Eocene age from Texas, tentatively referred to the Midway formation, and gives an exhaustive discussion of the large flora of the Wilcox Group. The character, succession, areal distribution, and stratigraphic relations of the Wilcox deposits are described, and it is shown that the Wilcox is separated by a hitherto unrecognized time interval from the underlying basal Eocene, or Midway, and from the overlying middle Eocene, or Clai- borne. The Wilcox flora, which comprises over 300 species, is fully described and figured, and its composition, distribution, relations, and environ- * * • \ t» 664 abstracts: technology ment are discussed in great detail. The Wilcox flora is one of the most extensive American fossil floras known from a single horizon in a single area, and it includes a large number of types hitherto unknown from North America and more than 200 species new to science. It contains ]arge numbers of figs, lauraceae, and leguminosae and is prevailingly a strand flora, subtropical in character, which invaded southeastern North America from the equatorial region at a time when the Missis- sippi Gulf reached northward to southern Illinois and covered nearly all of the states of Mississippi and Louisiana as well as a large area in Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas. The Wilcox deposits are definitely correlated with the Sparnacian and Ypresian stages of the European lower Eocene section. E. W. B. GEOLOGY. — The Catahoula sandstone and its flora. George Charl- ton Matson and Edward Wilber Berry. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 98-M. Pp. 209-259, with 13 plates and 7 figures. 1916. The Catahoula sandstone is redefined and its lithology, topography, structure, thickness, origin, and stratigraphy are discussed. It is shown that in central Louisiana this formation is interbedded with lower Oligocene limestones and marls of the Vicksburg formation, while near the Texas line it replaces all of the marine lower Oligocene. Across Mississippi the Catahoula lies above the Vicksburg, and east- ward in Alabama and western Florida it merges into the marine beds of the Chattahoochee formation. TECHNOLOGY. — The density and thermal expansion of American petroleum oils. H. W. Bearce and E. L. Peffer. Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 77. Pp. 26. 1916. This paper gives an account of the experimental work on which are based the expansion tables of Bureau of Standards Circular No. 57, United States standard tables for petroleum oils. It gives a detailed description of the methods and apparatus employed in the determina- tion of the density and thermal expansion of petroleum oils from the various oil fields of the United States. H. W. B. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. VI DECEMBER 4, 1916 No. 20 MATHEMATICS. — Note on relativity: The geometric potential. Edwin Bidwell Wilson, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. (Communicated by Arthur L. Day.) 1. In our treatment1 of the principle of relativity Lewis and I introduced as fundamental the extended (i.e., four-dimensional) vector m of which the space and time components, when once a time-axis has been arbitrarily selected, are the ordinary re- tarded vector potential a and the retarded scalar potential p Faces 4> p 0 p 1 111 4 60° 17' 43° 37' 4 59° 51' 43° 20' 60° 18' 43° 37' 2 133 2 30° 07' 28° 35' 4 30° 22' 28° 52' 30° 19' 2S° 40' 3 011 2 0°35' 25° 51' 0° 25° 16' 4 . 021 1 0° 10' 43° 2 0° 20' 43° 28' 0° 43° 21' 5 103 2 89° 37' 15° 26' 90° 15° 26/ 6 101 1 89° 55' 39° 40' 1 88° 55' 39° 30' 90° 39° 36' 7 201 1 89° 29' 59° 04' 90° 58° 52' 8 670 3 56° 19' 89° 32' 56° 22' 90° 9 120 4 40° 42' 90° 4 40° 49' 89° 19' 41° 15' 90° 10 5.11.0 1 38° 44' 90° 38° 33' 90° 11 130 3 29° 34' 90° 4 29° 13' S9° 05' 30° 53' 90° 12 3.11.0 1 25° 48' 90° 25° 34' 90° 13 160 1 16° 02' 89° 55' 16° 20' 90° 14 010 1 0°05' 90° 0° 90° 15 100 2 90° 89° 42' 90° 90° The principal faces are shown in figure 1, while all the forms observed appear on the gnomonic projection in figure 2. Hopeite has been found in the zinc mines near Aix-la-Chapelle and at the Broken Hill mine in Rhodesia. The occurrence at the H. B. mine near Salmo, B. C, is the first recorded for the American continent. INDEX TO VOLUME VI An * denotes an abstract of a printed paper. A f denotes an abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washing- ton. Proceedings: 130, 312, 407. Biological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 24, 78, 104, 159, 228, 256, 311, 362, 406, 519. Botanical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 99, 158, 191, 636, 683. Chemical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 302. Geological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 21, 155, 189, 251, 309, 404, 516. Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 51, 73, 128, 150, 187, 298, 361, 402, 633. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey — 100th anniversary. Proceedings: 260. Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings: 226, 296, 516. AUTHOR INDEX Abbot, C. G. fNew proofs of the solar variability. 152. Adams, L. H. "("Thermoelectric power of pure metals. 299. Agnew, P. G. *A system of remote control for an electric testing lab- oratory. 614. Alden, W. C. fThe lowan stage of glaciation — a review of the evi- dence based upon field studies, in 1914 and 1915, by the United States and Iowa Geological Sur- veys. 519. Allen, E. T. fChemical studies in copper sulphide enrichment. 21. Alsberg, C. L. Biochemical analysis of nutrition. 269. fChemical analysis of nutrition. 227, 305. Anderson, C. L. G. fOld Panama. 407. Anderson, J. A. fDiffraction grat- ings: their preparation and use. 403. Appleman, C. O. fRelation of cata- lase and oxidases to respiration in plants. 101. Ashley, G. H. *Rhode Island coal. 94. Austin, L. W. Quantitative experi- ments with the audion. 81. Babcock, W. H. "("Certain pre-Colum- bian notices of American aborig- ines. 314. Baekeland, L. H. f Chemistry in re- lation to war. 227. Bailey, R. K. lntumescent kaolin- ite. 67. Bailey, Vernon. fGame and other mammals of the Yellowstone Park region. 160. Baldwin, A. L. *Triangulation in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. 17. Ball, M. W. *Petroleum withdrawals and restorations affecting the pub- lic domain. 566. 689 . Entered as second-class matter July 14, 1911, at the post office (it Baltimore, Maryland, under the Aot of July 16, 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will b© made for'printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each, lleprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 1 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 10 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should Invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Mo., or to the European Agents. Europeari Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. \ Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is madt within thirty days after date of the following issue. ^ • Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for 83.00. Special rate* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Saturday, February 19: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: William Bowie : Determination of the intensity of gravity on land in the United States. Illustrated, 30 minutes. L. J. Briggs: Measurement of the acceleration of gravity at sea. Illustrated, 30 minutes. i- Saturday, February 19 : The Medical Society of the District of Colum bia is invited to meet with the George Washington University Medi cal Society, at the Medical Department of George Washington Uni- versity, 1325 H Street N.W., at 8 p. m. Program: Dr. John B,. Williams, of Rochester, N. Y.: Recent developments in the study and treatment of diabetes mellitus. Illustrated. Wednesday, February 23: The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: Charles Butts: Faults of unusual character in central Pennsylvania . Illus- trated, 20 minutes. Laurence La Forge : Resume of the geology of southeastern New England in the light of field work done since 1908. Illustrated, 20 minutes. A. H. Brooks: Physiographic provinces of Alaska. Illustrated, 15 minutes. Note: The meeting of February 9, for which this program was originally an- nounced, assembled and immediately adjourned out of respect to the memory of C. Willard Hayes, former President of the Society. Wednesday, March 1 : The Washington Society of Engineers, at the New Willard Hotel Ball Room, at 8 p. m. Program: William Barclay Parsons, Consulting Engineer, New York City: The Engi- neer Reserve Corps. Saturday, March 4: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Address of the retiring president, W. S. Eichelberger. !The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. rpo Original Papers Page Electricity. — Quantitative experiments with the audion. L. W. Austin.. . 81 Paleobotany. — Notes on two conifers from the Pleistocene Rancho La Brea asphalt deposits, near Los Angeles, California. F. H. Knowlton 85 Ethnobotany. — Quichua names of sweet potatoes. O. F. Cook Abstracts Chemistry 91 Geology 92 Re FEB 96 Tech no1! i 98 Engi i 98 Proceedings The Botanical Society . . 99 The Biological Society 104 Vol. VI No, 5 March 4, 1916 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dobsbt RATIONAL vrCSEUM GEOLOGICAL BORVET BUBSAU OT 9TAXDABM PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BT THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS CO. BALTIMORE, MD. Entered a3 second-claas matter July 14, 1911, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Aot of July 16. 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences f This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge,will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. "Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 50 copies 100 copies Additional copies, per 100 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences." and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I, however, from July 19, 1011 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rate* axe given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. 4 pp. 8 pp. "PP. 19 pp. $1.05.... .. $1.00.... ,.. $2 85.... .. $3 70 1.25.... .. 2.30.... .. 3.45.... .. 4.50 .40.... ... .80.... ... 1.20.... ... 1.50 ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Tuesday, March 7: The Anthropological Society, in the west study- room of the District Public Library, at 8 p. m. Program: C. L. G. Anderson: Old Panama. Wednesday, March 8: The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program : C. F. Bowen: Review of the stratigraphy and structure of the Hanna Basin, Wyoming. 20 minutes. C. H. Wegemann: The discovery of Wasatch fossils in the so-called Fort Union beds of Powder River Basin, Wyoming, and its bearing in the stratigraphy of the region. 20 minutes. C. J. Hares: Stratigraphic relation of some of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiavy formations of the Hanna and Powder River Basins, with those of the Wind River Basin. 25 minutes. Saturday, March 18: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. Program: H. C. Dickinson: Thermal conductivity through air spaces. 30 minutes. L. H. Adams: The thermo-electric power of pure metals. 20 minutes. Asaph Hall : The micrometer screws of the equatorial telescope of the U. S. Naval Observatory. 15 minutes. 'The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if seat (o the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mineralogy. — A peculiar intergrowth of phosphate and silicate minerals. Edgar T. Wherry 105 Paleobotany. — A Lower Cretaceous flora in Colorado. T. D. A. Cockerell 109 Botany. — Inophloeum, a new genus of the mulberry family. Henry PlTTIER 112 Zoology. — Seven new genera of echinoderms. Austin H. Clark 115 PREFERENCES Chemistry 123 Geology 123 Ornithology 123 Proceedings The Philosophical Society 128 The Anthropological Society 130 Vol. VI No. 6 March 19, 1916 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Basttn N. Ernest Dorse* NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OP STANDARDS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS CO. BALTIMORE, MD. Entered aa second-olass matter July 14, 1911, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act oi July 16. 1S94 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this ' end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- berg of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. VolumeB correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may_ call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 18 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 , .80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should Invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences." and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume T, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rate* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. ANNOUNCEMENT' OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Tuesday, March 21 : The Anthropological Society, in the lecture rpom of the District Public Library, at 8 p. m. Program: Miss Frances Densmore: Mandan music. Mr. Heinrich Hammer will play some of his compositions based upon Miss Densmore's records. Wednesday, March 22 : The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: R. B. Sosman and J. C Hostetter: Zonal growths in hematites and their bearing on the origin of certain iron ores. Illustrated. 20 minutes. R. W. Pack : Structural features of the San Joaquin Valley oil field, California. Illustrated. 20 minutes. 'i C. T. Lupton: Notes on the stratigraphic and structural relations in the southern and portions of the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming. 20 minutes. Thursday, March 23 : The Washington Academy of Sciences, in the Auditorium of the New National Museum, at 8.30 p. m. Program: Dr. L. H. Baekeland, member of the Naval Consulting Board. Chemistry in relation to the war. Illustrated. Saturday, April 1 : The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 81.5 p. m. Program: R. S. Woodward: The extraction of square roots of numbers. 20 minutes. Wm. W. Fraser: Vectors and Quaternions: What has been done and what can be done. 20 minutes. W. J. Spillman: A graphic method for the determination of the average interval between departures from the mean greater than a given departure. 15 minutes. 'The programs ol the meetings ot the affiliated societies will appear on this ^age if sent to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Botany. — A remarkable new Eysenhardtia from the west coast of Mexico. William E. Safford 133 Ethnobotany. — Note on the aboriginal name "aje." John R. SwanTon.. 136 Taxonomy. — Determining types of genera. O. F. Cook 137 Zoology. — A new starfish (Lydiaster aniericanus) from the Gulf of Mexico, representing a section of the subfamily Goniasterinae hitherto known only from the Indo-Pacific region. Austin H. Clark 141 Anthropology. — The Greenland Eskimo: Pastor Frederiksen's researches. James Mooney 1-44 Anthropology. — An archaeological note. Truman Michelson 146 Abstracts Physical Chemistry 147 Geology 147 neralogy 149 Proceedings The Philosophical Society 150 The Geological Society 155 The Botanical Societ 158 The Biological So. .159 Vol. VI No. 7 April 4, 1916 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL BORVET BUREAU OF STANDARDS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE of publication WILLIAMS & W1LKINS COMPANT BALTIMORE, MD. Entered as second-elate matter July 14, 1911, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act of July 16. 1894 Journal of the Washington Acadenry of Sciences al organ of the Washington Academy of Scien aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To thii end it publishes: (1.) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- ber« of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific article? published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short -abstracts of certain of 3e articles: (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and Hated Societies; (5rnotes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ton. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of h month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. umee correspond to calendar jrears. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of I nth will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of thfc Journal Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes, The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor erro References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. Tt is urgea that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will seive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: < pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 18 pp. BO copies §1.05 SI. 00 $2.85 $3.70 lOOcopies. 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 SO 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of'issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should Invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers. , 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty di r dote of the following issue. ilurae I, however, from July 19, 1011 to December 19, 1911, will be sent tor $3.00. Special rntei are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS » BALTIMORE. U. 3. A. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE. ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 The Washington Academy 0f Sciences announces a series of illustrated lectures on nutrition open to the public to be given on Friday after- noons in April 1916 at 4 :45 o'clock in the auditorium of the new National Museum (Tenth street entrance). The lecturers are men distinguished for their contributions to this important subject in which great advances have recently been made. The lecturers and the subjects of their addresses are as follows: April 7: Dr. Eugene F. DtjBois, Medical Director, Russell Sage Institute of Pathology, New York : The basal food requirement of man. April 14: Dr. Graham Ltjsk, Professor of Physiology, Cornell University Medical College: Nutrition and food economics. April 21 : Dr. E. B. Forbes, Chief, Department of Nutrition Ohio Agricul- tural Experiment Station : Investigations on the mineral metab- ' olism of animals. April 28: Dr. Carl Voegtlin, TJ. S. Public Health Service, Washington: The relation of the vitamines to nutrition in health and disease. Wednesday, April 12: The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: J. S. Diller: The geology of the Lassen Peak region, California. Illustrated, 20 minutes. Arthur L. Day : The volcanic phenomena of Lassen Peak. Illustrated, 40 minutes. Friday, April 14 : The Washington Society pf Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: Lieut. -Col. George P. Howell, Corps of Engineers: The selection, laying out and preparation of camps and cantonments; the service of general construction, and the special services, including all public work of an engineering nature which may b.e required in a territory under military control. Tuesday, April 18: The Anthropological Society, in the west study- room of the District Public Library, at 8 p. m. Program: Annual meeting for the election of officers, etc. Address of the President John R. Swanton: The influence of inheritance on human cidlure. Wednesday, April 19: The Washington Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: John F. Hayford, Dean of the Engineering School of Northwestern University : Engineering Education. ■The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent io the editors by the first and fifteenth days oi each month. COXTEN Original Papebs p««« :ronomy. — The distances of the heavenly bodies. W. A. Eichelbebgeb 161 Oceanography. — On the temperature of the water below the 1000-fathom line between California and the Hawaiian Islands. Attstln* H. Clabk 175 Physics. — Plastic flow. E. C. Bixghav . . 177 Geolog e on a recent discovery of fossil plants in the Morrison for- mation. F. H. Y. .exalogy. — The lorenge-shaped cavities in the First Warchung Moun- tain zeolite deposits. Edgae T. Whebby. 181 Abstb. Chemi: .185 Paleontolc zy 186 thropology ... 186 Pboceedlt The Philosophical Societ; 187 TV .189 The Botanical Society. . 191 Vol. VI No. 8 April 19, 1916 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Baste* X. Ehnest Dosbxt x(Tii"«nd-ci.aas master July 14. 1911, at the poet o5ae at Baitiiaora, Maryland, uader tc< July 16. IS9* Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. IS pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 lOOcopies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.60 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive oagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume T, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rate* are c'ven Ugmembera of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 The two remaining lectures of the series on nutrition previously an- nounced by the Washington Academy of Sciences will be given on Fri- day afternoons at 4:45 o'clock in the auditorium of the new National Museum (Tenth street entrance) as follows: April 21: Dr. E. B. Forbes, Chief, Department of Nutrition, Ohio Agricul- tural Experiment Station : Investigations on the mineral metab- olism of animals. April 28: Dr. Carl Voegtlin, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington: The relation of the vitamines to nutrition in health and disease. Thursday, April 20: Special meeting of the Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. Program: Dr. R. A. Millikan, Professor of Physics in the Universisy of Chicago: On some recent aspects of the radiation problem. Saturday, April 22: The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Wednesday, April 26 : The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m., jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences. The program will consist of a symposium on limestone deposition. Papers will be presented by Karl F. Kellerman, John Johnston, and H. E. Merwik. Saturday, April 29: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. The program will consist of a symposium on X-rays and crystal structure. Papers will be given by C. W. Kanolt and F. E. Wright. Tuesday, May 2: The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. 1 The programs of the meetings of the affiliated socities will appear on this page if sent to the edi- tora by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Physics. — A misconception of the criterion for gray body radiation. Paul D. Foote and C. O. Fairchild 193 Botany. — Eolliniopsis, a new genus of Annonaceae from Brazil. W. E. Safford 197 Plant Physiology. — A field auxanometer. G. N. Collins and J. H. Kemp- ton 204 Anthropology. — Ritualistic origin myths of the Fox Indians. Trtjmax Michelsox 209 Archeology. — The relation of Sun Temple, a new type of ruin lately ex- cavated in the Mesa Verde National Park., to prehistoric "towers." J. Walter Fewkes 212 Abstracts Physics 222 Geology 224 Engineering 225 Technology 225 Proceedings The Washington Academy of Sciences 226 The Biological Society 228 Vol. VI No. 9 May 4, 1916 JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edsox S. Babtin N. Ernest Dorset RATIO* AL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SCKVKT BCBKAU or STAJTDABM PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST. AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY E.T THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE of publication WILLIAMS A WILKIN'S COMPANY BALTIMORE. MB. Entered aa seoond-ciaas matter July M. 1911. at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act at July 16. 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 13 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences." and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Mo., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume T, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rat*e are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U.S.A. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Wednesday, May 10: The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: W. C. Alden: The Ioioan stage of glacialion; a review of the evidence, based on field studies in 1914 and 1915 by the U. S. Geological Survey and the Iowa Geological Survey. 25 minutes. Illustrated. F. C. Schrader: Ore deposits of the Rochester district, Nevada. 20 minutes. H. S. Washington: The Persistence of the volcanic vents at Stromboli, Italy. 15 minutes. Illustrated. Thursday, May 11: The Washington Society of Engineers. ^Members of the Society and their friends, with ladies, will visit the plant of the Newport News Ship Yard and Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Va., on Friday, May 12. The party will leave on the regular Norfolk boat at 6.45 p. m., Thursday, May 11, reaching Old Point Comfort Friday morning. Breakfast will be served at Hotel Chamberlain, after which the party will go by trolley to Newport News and visit the plant during the forenoon by invitation of the Com- pany. After luncheon at Hotel Warwick in Newport News, the party will disband, to return by the regular boat on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday night, as desired. Orders for tickets should be in the hands of the Treasurer not later than May 4. Saturday, May 13 : The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. Program: C. W. Hewlett (Johns Hopkins University) : An apparatus for the analysis of sound waves. J. A. Anderson (Johns Hopkins University) : Diffraction gratings, their prepa- ration and use. « 1 The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if ssnt to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — Polarized skylight and the petrographic microscope. W. S. Tan- gier Smith 229 Paleontology. — The uropods of Acanthotelson stim-psoni. T. D. A. Cock- erell 234 Botany. — Comparative notes on the floras of New Mexico and Argentina. Paul C. Standley 236 References Physics 246 Chemistry 245 Soils 246 Botany 246 Horticulture 246 Forestry 247 Agronomy 247 Bacteriology 248 Phytopathology 248 Plant Physiology 249 Evolution 250 Animal Husbandry 250 Proceedings The Geological Society 251 The Biological Society 256 The Celebration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Organization of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survej' 260 Vol. VI No. 10 May 19, 1916 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorse* WATJCHAL MUBEtJil CHOI or.IC »■ SCBV8Y IHTBEAU OF 8TAMDABDS PUBLISHED SEMI- MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST. AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BT THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE of publication WILLIAMS & WILKIN3 COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered as ^eeond-class matter July 14, 1011, at the poet offica at Baltimore. Maryland, under the Act of / 16. 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouKNAii, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific "articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly., on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be UBed only when necessary and will be confined to text fig- ures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 50 copies $1 .05. 100 copies 1 .25. Additional copies, per 100 40. Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra_ copies or reprints should Invariably be attached to the first page of hia manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences." and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. Cv, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is mad* within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911 to December 19. 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rate* ero given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. 8 pp. 13 pp. lflpp. SI. 90 . $2.85.... .. $3.70 2.30 . 3.45.... ,.. 4.50 80 . 1.20..., ... 1.50 ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Saturday, May 20: The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at ' 8 p. m. Wednesday, May 24: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 :15 p. m. The program will consist of a symposium on the atom : H. L. Curtis: The atom as a miniature solar system. 35 minutes. (Discussion will be led by P. G. Agnew.) W. J. Humphreys: The magnetic field of an atom. 25 minutes. (Discussion will be led by W. F. G. Swann.) 1 The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papebs Page Biochemistry. — The biochemical analysis of nutrition. Carl L. Alsberg 269 Phytogeography. — The eastern and the western migrations of Smilax into North America. J. B. Norton 281 Botany. — Agriculture and native vegetation in Peru. 0. F. Cook 284 • Abstracts Geology 294 Botany. 296 Proceedings The Washington Academy of Sciences 296 The Philosophical Society 298 The Chemical Society. 302 The Geological Society 309 The Biological Society . 311 The Anthropological Society 312 Vol. VI No. 11 June 4, 1916 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVBT BUMAU OF STANDARDS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST. AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered a* 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional cover* $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should Invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash* ington, D. C. to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is mads within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for^.OO. Speoial rata* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A. CONTENTS Original Papers Pago Physical Chemistry. — Further experiments on the volatilization of plat- inum. G. K. Burgess and R. G. Waltenberg 365 Petrology. — Note on the lithophysae in a specimen of obsidian from Cali- fornia. F. E. Wright 367 Botany. — Proposed classification of the genus Rollinia, with descriptions of several new species. W. E. Safford 370 Zoology. — Ophiomaria, a new genus of ophiurans from southern South America and the adjacent portion of the Antartic Continent. Austin H. Clark 384 Physiology. — Food Economics. Graham Lusk 387 Abstracts Terrestrial Magnetism 397 Physics 398 Spectroscopy 399 Geology 400 Botany 401 Proceedings The Philosophical Society 402 The Geological Society 404 The Biological Society 406 The Anthropological Society 407 Vol. VI No. 13 July 19, 1916 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset RATIONAL MCSKUM GEOLOGICAL BUBVBT BUBEAU OF STAMDABDfl PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST. AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered aa seoond-olaas matter July 14, 1911, at the poet office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act of July 16. 1804 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made 'for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that -manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies SI. 05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is. $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Oceanography. — On the temperature of the water below the 500-fathom line on the west coast of South and North America. Austin H. Clark. 413 Physics. — Constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly heated inclosure or so-called black body, II. W. W. Coblentz 418 Physics. — A study of the inductance of four-terminal resistance standards. Francis B. Silsbee 419 Chemistry. — The determination of aluminium as oxide. William Blum .... 421 Paleontology . — Oligocene fossil eggs. Edward L. Teoxell 422 Botany. — Pleiospermium, a new genus related to Citrus, from India, Cey- lon, and Java. Walter T. Swingle 426 Physiology. — Studies on the mineral elements in animal nutrition. E. B. Forbes 431 Abstracts Physics 447 Photometry . . .' 447 Geology 449 Mineralogy 453 Botany 454 References Paleontology 455 Botany 455 Forestry 457 Phytopathology 457 Plant Physiology 458 Evolution , 459 Entomology 460 Physiology 463 Pathology 463 Technology 463 Vol. VI No. 14 August 19, 1916 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset M ATIOHAL MTJ8BDW GEOLOGICAL BUBVBT BCRKAO OF BTAKDiBM PUBLISHED SEMI- MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT TBI WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES office of publication williams & wilkins compant baltimore, md. Entered aa second-class matter July 14. 1011, at the post office at Baltimore. Maryland, under the Act of July 16. 1394 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C., to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — Recent improvements in the petrographic microscope. F. E. Wright 465 Physics. — The calculation of Planck's constant C2. J. H. Dellinger 472 Physics. — Some new designs of radiometers. W. W. Coblentz 473 Physics. — Criteria for gray radiation. P. G. Nutting 476 Physics. — Summary of experiments on the silver voltameter at the Bureau of Standards. E. B. Rosa and G. W. Vinal 478 Chemistry. — A note on the sulphone-phthaleins as indicators for the colori- metric determination of hydrogen-ion concentration. Herbert A. Lubs and William Mansfield Clark 481 Chemistry. — The colorimetric determination of the hydrogen-ion concentra- tion of bacteriological culture media. William Mansfield Clark and Herbert A. Lubs 483 Botany. — The early European history and the botanical name of the Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Walter T. Swingle 490 Abstracts Physics 499 Metrology 500 Electro-Chemistry 500 Paleontology 501 Geology 502 Technology 506 References Terrestrial Magnetism 508 Physics 508 Physical Chemistry 513 Geology s 514 Entomology 515 Engineering 515 Proceedings The Washington Academy of Sciences 516 The Geological Society 516 The Biological Society 519 Vol. VI No. 15 September 19, 1916 JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset WATlnie \L MU8F.OM GEOLOGICAL 8CBVEY BUREAU OF 6TAMDARD8 PUBLISHED SEMIMONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BI THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS A WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered aa second-elase matter July 14, 1011, at tbe post office at Baltimore. Maryland, under the Act of July 16. 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors ; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and aa many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Miiller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will bo sent for $3.00. Spocial rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE. U. S. A. CONTENTS Original Papers Pace Mathematics. — A precision projection plot. F. E.|Wright 521 Physics. — The theory of the torsion and the rolling ball viscosimeters, and their use in measuring the effect of pressure on viscosity. M. D. Hehsey 525 Chemistr}-. — The saccharimetric normal weight and the specific rotation of dextrose. Richard F. Jackson 530 Chemistry. — Preliminary report on the system, lime: ferric oxide. R. B. Sosman and H . E. Merwin 532 Plant Morphology. — Morphology and evolution of leaves. O. F. Cook. . . . 537 Ethnobotany. — Identity of cohoba, the narcotic snuff of ancient Haiti. William Edwin Safford 547 Abstracts Physics 563 Geology 564 Engineering 568 Technology 568 Vol. VI No. 16 October 4, 1916 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastir N. Ernest Dorset NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SCRVBT 8UBEAU CP STANDARDS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST. AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT TH1 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered as second-class matter July 14, 1911, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act of July 16, 18&4 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at 4heir discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article wilt receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6 . 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special ratei are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. S. A. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — The theory of the stiffness of elastic systems. M. D. Hersey. . 569 Physiology. — The importance of vitamines in relation to nutrition in health and disease. Carl Voegtlin 575 Abstracts Meteorology Vol. VI No. 17 October 19, 1916 JOUKNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin N. Ernest Dorset NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF STANDARDS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT TBI WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered as second-class matter July 14, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act of July 16, 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientificwork in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. ( Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.05 $1.90 $2.85 $3.70 100 copies 1.25 2.30 3.45 4.50 Additional copies, per 100 40 80 1.20 1.50 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. , European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Pririz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. 8. A. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Saturday, October 21: The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Wednesday, October 25: The Geological Society, at Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Wednesday, October 25: The Medical Society, at the Medical De- partment of George Washington University, 1325 H Street N. W., at 8 p. m. Saturday, October 28 : The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Program: E. C. Crittenden, F. K. Richtmyer, and A. H. Taylor: A normal eye for the photometry of lights of different colors. Illustrated. 30 minutes. W. W. Coblentz and W. B. Emerson: The relative sensibility of the average eye to lights of different colors. Illustrated. 30 minutes. Wednesday, November 1 : The Medical Society, at the Medical De- partment of George Washington University, 1325 H Street N. W., at 8 p. m. Thursday, November 2 : The Entomological Society, at the Saenger- bund Hall, 8 p. m. Saturday, November 4: The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page If sent to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Pa* Physics. — A note on electrical conduction in metals at low temperature. F. B. Silsbeb 597 Biology — Geochemical evidence as to early forms of life. F. W. Clarke . . 603 Zoology. — Six new genera of unstalked crinoids belonging to the families Thalassometridae and Charitometridae. Austin H. Clark 605 Ethnology. — Some information from Spanish sources regarding the Siouan tribes of the East. John R. Swanton 609 Abstracts Electricity 613 Geology 615 Engineering 615 References Astronomy 616 Engineering 616 Vol. VI No. 18 November 4, 1916 JOUENAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon N. Ernest Dorset Adolph Knopf NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD. Entered as second-class matter July 14, at the post office at Baltimore, Maryland, under the Act of July 16, 1894 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) a complete list of references to current scientific articles published in or emanating from Washington; (3) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (4) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (5) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Wash- ington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the next issue of the Journal. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors' unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be^ submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at five cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 50 copies $1.05. 100 copies 1.25. Additional copies, per 100 40. Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $1.50 for the first 100. Additional covers $.50 per 100. As an author may not see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6. 00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to William Bowie, Treasurer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C, to Williams & Wilkins Company, 2419-2421 Greenmount Ave., Baltimore, Md., or to the European Agents. European Agents: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, and Mayer and Muller, Prinz Louis-Ferdinand Str., Berlin. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. • Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911 to December 19, 1911, will bo sent for $3.00. Special rate* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. $1.90.... . . $2.85.... .. $3.70 2.30..., . . 3.45.... .. 4.50 80.... ... 1.20.... ... 1.50 THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, U. 8. A. REPRINT OF NUTRITION LECTURES A series of four public lectures by Dr. E. F. DuBois, Dr. Graham Lusk, Dr. E. B. Forbes, and Dr. Carl Voegtlin, dealing with various phases of human and animal nutrition, was given under the auspices of the Washington Academy of Sciences during April, 1916, at the New National Museum, Washington, D. C. In view of the wide-spread in- terest in the lectures and the importance of the subject, and in response to numerous requests, the Academy has reprinted in collected form a limited edition of the lectures as published in the Journal. It has seemed desirable also to include, as a fitting introduction to the series, the address of the retiring president of the Chemical Society of Wash- ington, Dr. C. L. Alsberg, which was presented in January, 1916, before a joint meeting of the Chemical Society and the Academy. Copies of the brochure, substantially bound in flexible cloth covers, may be purchased of the Treasurer, Mr. William Bowie, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C, at fifty cents each (postage included) . Lyman J. Briggs, Chairman, Committee on Meetings. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES1 Tuesday, November 7 : The Anthropological Society, at the Public Library, at 8 p. m. Tuesday, November 7 : The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Wednesday, November 8 : The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club , at 8 p. m. Thursday, November 9: The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. Saturday, November 11: The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. Saturday, November 18: The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p. m. »The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the first and fifteenth days of each month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mathematics. — Note on an integrating device. M. D. Hersey 617 Phjsics. — Note on a relation connecting the derivatives of physical quan- tities. M. D. Hersey 620 Botany. — Ammocodon, a new genus of Allioniaceae, from the southwestern United States. Paul C. Standley 629 Abstracts Technology 632 Proceedings The Philosophical Society 633 The Botanical Society 636 Vol. VI No. 19 November 19, 1910 JOUKNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS William R. Maxon N. Ernest Dorset Adolph Knopf NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OP STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL. 8UBVT5T PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION WILLIAMS