JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 12, 1922 ■^••^ .LxJ L I 3 R A R S. F. Blake BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SURVEY E. D. WlIvUAMSON GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIETY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY W. F. Meggers PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY S. A. ROHWER ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY G. W. Stose GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL 80CI8TY PUBLISHED semi-monthly EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. DATES The following Washington. No. 21. (Vol. 11) No OF RECEIPT OF DELAYED JOURNALS table gives the date of receipt of the Journai. in No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 10. No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. IG. No. 17. No. 18. No. 19. No. 20. 1. (Vol. 12), 2 3. 4. o. 6. 7. 8. 9. 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ERRATA Vol. 12, 1922 P. 254, line 24 For kuntzii P. 273, line 28 For Atypus P. 278, line 17 from bottom. . .For Densore read combsii read Pachnaeus read DensmorE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 January 4, 1922 No. 1 MATHEMATICS. — A mathematical note on the annealing of glass. '^ B. D. Williamson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. In a recent paper^ Adams and Williamson have discussed at some length the annealing of glass. It is not the object of the present note to revise the deductions made from the experimental data but rather to show how the mathematical treatment of the equations represent- ing these deducticns may be made more rigorous. The immediate practical aim is to discover whether this course will indicate a possible procedure by which the time spent in the annealing process can be materially shortened. We shall anticipate by saying that this is found to be the case and a fifteen per cent reduction of time can be made. A future communication will give detailed schedules for va- ious types of glass on this new basis. The problem to be solved may be stated as follows. A block of glass is found to be in a condition of internal strain. By holding it at a temperature somewhat below the softening point the strain may be removed at a rate depending on that temperature. Further strain will be added during the cooling process due to temperature differences set up in cooling. It is required to find at what temperature to hold the glass, how long to hold it at that temperature (or, what is the same thing, to what degree of completeness to remove the strain) and how rapidly to cool at every point in the course of cooling so that the least possible time be taken consistent with the final strain being inside the allowable limits. The notation used is that of the paper already cited. ^ = temperature in degrees Centigrade. do = temperature at which glass is held to remove strain. * Received November 15, 192L * L. H. Adams and E. D. Wiluamson. Journ. Franklin Inst. 190: 597-631; 835-870. 1920. 2 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SClENCEvS VOL. 12, NO. 1 /i = cooling rate in degrees per minute. ho = initial cooling rate at 60 . A/^ = total strain allowable in optical units. AA^a = strain left in glass after holding at do. AA/^c = strain introduced by temperature differences in cooling. /a = annealing time = time the glass is held at 60. /c = time spent in cooling. A = annealing constant as found in table 3, op. cit. Ao = value of A at 60. c = constant, depending on the type of glass, defined by equation (10), page 841, op. cit. The last part of the problem will be solved first. That is, if the glass has been held at do till the strain is reduced to AN^ how must it be cooled so that t^ may be a minimum consistent with the final strain being A'', or in other words, having ANc = N— AN J tc= -\ —r- and A^ - AN^ = AAT, = -cM A J w ^ h the latter being the integral of equation 12 in the previous paper which depends on the experimental results set forth there. Applying the calculus of variations to find /j as a function of d yields const — ( — 6h\h h'--^\^ constant = Ao Uo ' - —^ j (1) Now it is shown in the previous paper that e -0o A=Ao.2 10 Therefore (/.- ^'U (^/.o-^^^ 2 ^'. (• c' J V c' Equation (1) shows how the rate may be increased as the temperature drops, and ho, the initial rate, may be found by the condition that ANc = N— AN^. The time consumed will then be the minimum JAN. 4, 1922 WILLIAMSON : ANNEALING OF GLASS possible under the conditions of the problem. An example of how the cooling rate changes is found in table 1. The problem may now be restated. t^ is a function of ^o and ^N^, and t^ can also be expressed in terms of these by means of equation (1) and the proper value of ho , that is, provided the necessary integrations can be carried out. Can values of Ao and AN^ be chosen so that {io + ^c) iii^y t)e a minimum? Now/,= -- huth^ ANJ {'■-'¥) 10 From the latter, taking the logarithm of each side and differentiating 20hdh dd= - (--'-f) In 2 Therefore L = 20 dh 10 c ln2\ _AiV„ ANJn2 In ho h + AN. In actual practice the cooling proceeds over a range of several hundred degrees. By this time h is large compared with ANJc so that the upper limit of the integral may be taken as containing In 1 and hence is zero. The result therefore is t = 10c he AN^ In 2 In c ho — — c in which ho has yet to be determined by the condition V 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 N- AN.=^ -c'X^"^ ^ de. Making the same substitution as before for dd, and remembering 10 that A = Ao 2o , the integration is simple, and yields 20 c^Ao[ho TV - AiV„ = In 2 Taking the value of ho from this and substituting in the value of t, we get c> tr = 10 C AN a In 2 In "(N - aN^) In 2 + 40 cAo AN^ {N- AN,) In 2 We shall assume that the original strain in the glass is so large that 1 its reciprocal is negligible compared with "TT7~ Then by equation {7c) in the previous communication 1 ^^ Ao AN. Therefore t^-h tc = + 10c AoAN. AA^„ln2 In XN - ANg) In 2 + 40 cAo AN, {N - AiVJln2 ] Partial differentiation with respect to ^4© and AN^ yields two equations as conditions for (t, + t^) having a minimum value. After a little simplification these take the form 580 AN^c'^Ao^ = (AT - AN,) In 2 + 40 ANMo and In (A^ - ANg) In 2 + 40 ANMq {N - AA^,)ln2 AA^,ln2 {N - AN,) 10 cA, The form of the second equation makes it necessary to use an approxi- JAN. 4, 1922 WII.LIAMSON: ANNEALING OF GI^ASS 5 mate solution. A sufficiently close one is cAo = 0.075 A^^ = 0.725 N. If, then, we know c, the constant which depends on the elastic prop- erties of the glass, and have a table like table 3 in the older paper showing the values of A for various temperatures, the required prob- lem is completely solved and one can say definitely that the glass must be held a certain temperature for a certain time and be cooled at a predetermined rate at every instant of its cooling in order that the necessary conditions may be fulfilled. The total time necessary for the process is re c + ^ ^, ^^^ . =66.9-- 0.075X0.725 A 0.075X0.275 A N In computing this the value of tc was simplified by means of the second conditional equation. As an illustration the case of a slab of plate glass 2 cm. thick will be treated. This is the same example that was previously used to illustrate four different procedures. In this case c is about 13 and 0.075 we shall suppose A = 5 as in the older work. Then Ao = 13 0.0058, and reference to figure 12, in the original, places this at about 520° C, which is 6° higher than in the fastest previous schedule. ANa will be equal to 3.625. The glass must be held at this temperature for = 47 . 6 minutes, and the total time will be 174 0.0058X3.625 minutes or a little better than 15 per cent less than in the best previous schedule. ^, ..,.,, , 1-7 (iV- ANJ\n2 + 20cAo AN, The initial rate of cooling ho = ^ 20 c~Ao = (in this case) 0.33° per minute. The table shows how that rate increases as the temperature drops. We have been asked recently how long a time is necessary for an- nealing a sheet of glass 25 feet in diameter and 2 feet thick. If the glass be one for which the constants are known the question can be easily answered. Suppose the glass is of the same type as in the previous example, then c will be approximately 13 X 30". The final 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 allowable strain in this particular case was given as A^ = 20. We then find 13 X 30^ *' = 0.075X0.725X20 '"'""'"' = ^°^''° "'""^'^ = ^'^ ^^^^- 13 X 30^ Total time = 66.9 X — — minutes = 39140 minutes = 27.2 days. 0.075 = 13 ^ 3Q2 = 0.0000064. Therefore ^o=419° C. (see table 5 and equation (8), op. cit.), and 30^ ho = 0.33 X ^2 X 1440° C. per day = 2.11° C. per day. The glass should therefore be held at 419° C. for seven and one-half days and then cooled, the initial cooling rate being a little over 2° per day and in- creasing as in the table. TABLE 1. — Schedule According to Which the Cooling Rate Should Be Increased Initial rate 1.00 Rate after 10° cooling 1.12 Rate after 20 ° cool ing 1 .36 Rate after 30 "cooling 1.73 Rate after 40° cooling 2.30 Rate after 50° cooling 3.15 Rateafter 60° cooling 4.36 Rate after 70 ° cooling 6.12 Rate after 80° cooling 8.60 Rateafter 90° cooling 12.15 Rateafter 100° cooling" 17.14 " In the later part of the range the cooling-rate practically doubles every 20 °. SUMMARY From the equations representing the results of experimental work previously described, the most favorable conditions for annealing a given piece of glass can be deduced. Formulas are found which, used in conjunction with tables of the elastic and annealing constants of the glass, show at what temperature to hold the glass, how long to hold it at that temperature, and how rapidly to cool it in order to get any degree of fineness of annealing in the least possible time. Examples are solved to illustrate the processes. JAN. 4, 1922 schaller: gillespite 7 MINERALOGY.— Gille spite, a new mineral.'^ Wai^demar T. Schal- LER, U. S. Geological Survey, A small rock specimen collected from a moraine near his claim near the head of Dry Delta, Alaska range (about 100 miles S. E. of Fair- banks), Alaska, by Mr. Frank Gillespie (after whom the mineral is named) of Richardson, Alaska, was brought to the Chemical Labora- tory of the U. S. Geological Survey by Dr. Philip S. Smith of the Survev. The rock specimen is composed chiefly of a mica-like mineral (gillespite) , with a striking red color, w^hich could not be identified by simple tests. By chemical analysis the mineral proved to be a silicate of ferrous iron and barium with the composition Fe"BaSi40io. Two other minerals, a grayish green diopside and a white barium feld- spar, with the red gillespite, compose the rock. Several other minerals are seen in thin sections but only in very small quantities. The mode of occurrence of the rock is not known but it suggests contact metamorphism with the development of abundant barium minerals. The red gillespite forms thick scaly masses from one to five milli- meters across and nearly as thick. The rock mass is compact and although no crystal faces except the basal plane could be detected, thin sections of the rock suggest an occasional terminal plane on a gillespite. The mineral does not scale off like mica but the basal cleavage is very well developed. The physical properties are : brittle, H. = 4, sp. gr. = 3.33. Luster vitreous, color red, streak pink. The color is close to Ridgway's^ "Pomegranate Purple," PI. XII, hue no. 71, tone i, and to "Spinel Red," PI. XXVI, hue no. 71, tone b. The powder approaches "Geranium Pink," PI. I, hue no. 3, tone d. Trans- lucent. Optically uniaxial, negative, birefringence very low, strongly pleochroic. Refractive indices: e (rose red) 1.619, co (pale pink to nearly colorless) 1.621. In the blow-pipe flame, gillespite fuses easily and quietly to a black non-magnetic globule. Heated in a closed tube, it darkens and as- sumes a deep violet color, the original red color being regained on cooling. Readily decomposed by HCl, without gelatinization, the mineral flakes being changed to glistening flakes of silica which retain the shape of the original mineral. These residues of silica are doubly ^ Received October 24, 1921. Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 2 R. RiDGWAY, Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, D. C, 1912. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 refracting and are being further studied. Sulphuric acid decomposes the mineral with separation of silica and formation of barium sulphate. An analysis of a hand-picked sample of gillespite, with only a few per cent of other mineral present gave the following results : Analysis of gillespite Ratios Si02 50.08 0.831 4.034 or 4 X 1 .01 FeO 14.60 0.203 0.985 or 1 X 0.99 BaO 31.02 0.202 0.980 or 1 X 0.98 AI2O3 0.34 FeaOs 0.56 0.008 MnzOa 0.14 Insoluble 2.20 Water" 0.82 99.76 " Water determined by "ignition loss" corrected for (assumed) oxidation of FeO to Fe203. Selected pure fragments of gillespite give no water when heated in a closed tube. The formula of gillespite is FeO.Ba0.4Si02 or Fe"BaSi40io. If the ferrous iron and the barium be considered as isomorphously re- placing each other, then the formula simplifies to (Fe",Ba)Si20r,. There is, however, no evidence for such isomorphous replacement and as the ratios of ferrous iron and barium in the analysis are sharply 1:1, the formula Fe'^BaSi^Oio is to be preferred. The presence of the small quantity of manganese was definitely determined and it is assumed to be present in the strongly chromatic manganic state; the combination of such manganic manganese with possibly a small quantity of ferric iron yielding the deep red color of the mineral. Titanium is not present. There does not seem to be any group of minerals to which gillespite is closely related, considering its properties and chemical composition. ICHTHYOLOGY. — Notice of a spiral valve in the Teleostean fish Argentina silus, with a discussion of some skeletal and other char- acters.^ William C. Kendall and Donald R. Crawford, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. introduction Distribution.- — -Argentina silus is found rather infrequently along the Atlantic coast of the United States, although it is not rare off the coast of Norway. The flesh is edible, but Argentina silus is not taken in sufficient quantities to be of economic importance. * Received November 19, 1921. JAN. 4, 1922 KENDALL AND CRAWFORD: ARGENTINA SILUS 9 » The following are the only records known to us of the capture of the species on the Atlantic coast of the United States. A specimen was found in the stomach of Physis tenuis taken off Sable Island in 200 fathoms, which is recorded by Goode and Bean as type number U. S. N. M. 21624, "Argentina syrtensium" (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1878, page 261), and in Oceanic Ichthyology, page 52, as Argentina silus. In July, 1891, a specimen 18 inches long (U. S. N. M. No. 43708) was caught by a boy with a hook and line in the harbor of Belfast, Maine. (Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichthyolog}^ page 52.) Another, No. 37801, 15 inches (381.0 mm.) long, was taken at Biddeford Pool, Maine (loc. cit.), March 19, 1886. In 1904, Mr. John R. Neal, of Boston, Mass., sent in for identi- fication by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries a specimen about 13.5 inches (342.9 mm.) long, taken by a fisherman probably on Georges Bank, September 19 of that year. Another specimen in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, No. 55636, was found at Fletchers Neck, near Ocean Beach, Maine, May 7, 1906. In the collection of Mr. W. W. Welsh, of the U. S. Bureau of Fish- eries, are two young specimens collected on the coast of Maine as follows: 1 specimen 49 mm. long, August 14, 1912, in a closing net at a depth of 35 fathoms, 33 miles north from Mt. Desert Rock. Another, 38 mm. long, August 13, 1913, 25 miles N. K. from Petit Manan light, somewhere above a depth of 110 fathoms. In December, 1912, a specimen about 15 inches (381.0 mm.) long was found on Hampton Beach, N. J., and was sent to the Bureau of Fish- eries by Mr. B. F. Smart, of the U. S. Life Saving Service. Early in January, 1914, a specimen nearly 14 inches (355.6 mm.) long was found at Hampton Beach and sent in to the Bureau. These latter specimens form the basis for the observations comprised in this paper. Habits.- — Little is know^n of the habits of this fish. It has been caught in the north Atlantic from Iceland to the coast of Ireland,- in rather deep water. The eggs^ of Argentina silus are 3.0 to 3.5 mm. in di- ameter and are bathypelagic ; that is, they float far below the surface where they have been taken in 50 to over 1,000 meters of water. * JOHS. Schmidt, On the Larvae and Post-larval Development of the Argentines (Argentina silus Ascan. and Argentina sphyraena Linne). Meddelelser Fra Kommissionenfor Hovun- ders gelser, Sene Fiskeri, Kobenhavn. 2: 1-20. Nov. 4, 1906. « Op. cit. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIv. 12, NO. 1 It is known that this fish may be caught on bait of mussels {Mytilus, according to Nilsson), or on pieces of herring.^ According to Holt,^ one specimen caught off the coast of Ireland had in its stomach remains of shrimps and copepods, one of which was identified as Calamus finmarchichus, which is known to inhabit the bottom. VISCERAL ANATOMY Alimentary Tract and Spiral Valve The presence of a spiral valve is of considerable interest since up to the present time but one living adult Teleost was known to possess a true spiral valve in the intestine. Fig. 1. Stomach and intestine of Argentina silus X Vs- — h attachment of liver; s, cardiac limb of stomach; p, pyloric limb of stomach; pc, pyloric caeca; , spiral valve; c, rectum. ^, small portion of spiral valve, with part of the outer wall removed to show internal structure, semi-diagram- matic, X 6. In Argentina silus it has no doubt been overlooked partly because its presence hitherto was unsuspected and also because of the com- paratively few specimens available for study. It is not known from the limited material examined whether or not this structure is as variable in different individuals of Argentina silus as it is known to be in different individuals of some species of rays and sharks. The two specimens at hand were essentially the same, each showing a true spiral cavity wound around a small central canal. Thus, the * F. A. SMifT, Scandinavian Fishes, ed. 2, 2: 916. Stockholm, 1895. ' W. L. Holt, The Great Silver Smelt, Argentina silus, Nilss. An addition to the List of British Fishes. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. N. S. 5: 341-342. 1897-99. JAN. 4, 1922 KENDALL AND CRAWFORD: ARGENTINA SILUS 11 spiral valve in Argentina silus is fully as well developed as it is in the ganoids, among which it is very well developed in Polypterus and the Sturgeon, but vestigeal in Lepidosieous and Amia (Amiatus).^ It is generally believed that the spiral valve is absent in the more specialized Teleostei with the possible exceptions of Chirocentrus and possibly some Salmonidae. In making the latter exception reference is made to Rathke's work published in 1824. In discussing the folds of the mucous membrane lining the intestines of various fishes, Rathke^ mentions crossfolds (Querfalten) and ring- folds (Ringfalten) as occurring in C/zi^eaa/csa, the grayling {Thymallus), whitefish {Coregonus), and Salmo trutta. While Rathke evidently was aware of the presence of these folds, it is clear that he did not interpret them as spiral valves, for he does not use the term "Spiral- falten" in this connection as he does in describing the spiral valve of the Sturgeon. The more exact meaning of the term "vestige" still remains to be determined; but at present such a discussion seems to be extraneous. As a matter of fact, however, the writers have found that in some specimens of "Rainbow" trout {Salmo sp.) there were six or seven well-developed spiral folds in the posterior end of the intestine which will be discussed more fully in a future paper. Of the remaining Teleosts in which there are so-called rudiments or vestiges of spiral valves, Gymnarchus^ apparently possesses a slight spiral valve which disappears 43 days after hatching. How- ever, according to Cuvier and Valenciennes,^ there is a well-developed spiral valve in Chirocentrus, one of the Physostomi. It is described as follows: "Upon opening the intestine, one finds a mucous lining very remarkable for its exceedingly numerous and close-set folds, which, for the whole extent of the canal, form a series of connivant valves, or rather an internal lamina wound in a very compact spiral — une lame sur une spirale tres-seree " The description is sup- plemented by a drawing which differs from other drawings ^° of the spiral valve of Chirocentrus. However, it is apparent that Chiro- « Parker and Haswell, A Text-Book of Zoology, 2: 218. 1897. '' Heinrich Rathke, Uher den Darmkanal und die Zeugungsorgane der Fische, 62-65, 83. 1824. * R. Assheton, The Development of Gymnarchus niloticus. The Work of John Samuel Budgett. Edited by J. Graham Verr. P. 326. » Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, 19: 117; also PI. 565 between pp. 312-313. 1846. 1" E. S. Goodrich, A Treatise on Zoology, fig. 77A. Edited by Sir Ray Lankester. 12 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF* SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 centrus hitherto has been the only Teleost known in which there is a true spiral valve in the adult. The stomach of Argentina silus is siphon-shaped, somewhat like that of a salmon, although the posterior end-curve is conical, suggest- ing a short caecum. The pyloric limb is the shorter, being about half the length of the cardiac limb. The duodenum, as it extends forward, curves downward and then upward. It then passes to one side of the stomach near the median line. In the specimen from which the drawing was made (Fig. 1), there were twenty-five pyloric caeca. Just posterior to the stomach, the intestine bends sharply upward and transversely, then backward, after which it runs in a straight line to the anal opening. This part of the intestine is occupied by a well-developed, though simply con- structed, spiral valve (Fig. lA). The exterior shows eighteen or twenty transverse septa on a little over two-thirds the length of the straight part of the intestine, but there are several incomplete whorls at the anterior end and a few closely folded ones at the posterior end which do not show externally. Back of the spiral valve, the intestine is a straight tube. A specimen ^^ of young Argentina silus 49 mm. long shows a well- developed spiral valve. The air bladder is thick-walled and silvery, with a small aperture in the posterior end which suggests a pneumatic duct connection but which could not be traced. SOME SKELETAL CHARACTERISTICS Cranium.- — ^The most prominent feature in a dorsal view of the cranium is the large frontal bones which extend backward above the eyes and nearly to the posterior margin of the cranium, almost com- pletely covering the parietals. The frontals overlap each other and they are so closely bound together that it is difficult to separate them. When they are removed, the thin and rather narrow parietals are seen lapped underneath these bones. The parietals overlap each other widely and also cover the supraoccipital except for the supra- occipital crest and a narrow posterior margin. The supraoccipital bone is extended foreward into a tongue-shaped process upon which the parietals rest. This process is connected by a cartilaginous bridge " In the collection of Mr. W. W. Welsh, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Grampus station 10027. August 14, 1912. JAN. 4, 1922 KENDALL AND CRAWFORD: ARGENTINA SILUS 13 to the sphenotic bones on each side and a narrower ridge extends upward on the inner side of the alisphenoid. There is a cartilage extending downward between parts of the opisthotic^- and epiotic bones. The parietals extend laterally and cover the large pit on either side which is bounded by the opisthotics, pterotics, and epiotics. This pit is filled ordinarily by the foreward extension of the large lateral muscles of the body. In Salmo, this pit is bounded by the same bones as in Argentina, but it is not covered over by the parietals. In Os- merus, the pit is bounded by the pterotic and epiotic, the parietals not covering it. Neither do the parietals in Osmerus meet in front of the supraoccipital. The preoperculum falls almost perpendicularly from its fascet. Its two limbs form nearly a right angle, the lower limb which extends forw^ard being as long as the upper, and both are connected at the angle by a heavy flange which is roughly quadrate in outline. The metapterygoids are much reduced. The large mesopterygoids extend downward between the metapterygoids and quadrate bones. The symplectic extends from the hyomandibular diagonall}^ down- ward to the top of the lower limb of the preopercle and thence for- ward. A part of the quadrate bone extends backward on top of the lower limb of the preopercle and overlaps the forward extension of the symplectic. The whole apparatus has the appearance of being drawn dow^nward and forward. There are no teeth on the mesop- terygoids,^^ maxillaries, or premaxillaries, but there are small, sharp teeth in single rows on the anterior margin of the vomer and palatines, and a few on the tongue. The preorbital and three suborbital bones extend from the premaxillary backward across the cheek. There is no supplementary maxillary. The premaxillaries are securely fastened to the vomer by connective tissue which makes these bones immov- able. The upper margin of the bones of the lower jaw is strongly arched, the apex of the arch being at the overlapping of the dentary and artic- ular bones. The anterior margin of the dentary is concave and tooth- less, but it is hard and chisel-edged. Between the dentary and artic- ular bones is a splenial bone, which lies on top of the Meckel's car- ^2 Regan did not recognize the existence of the opisthotic bone in the skull of Argentina. It may be seen to best advantage after the f rentals and parietals are removed. ^^ There are teeth on the mesopterygoids of Osmerus. 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 tilage. The upper and outer surface of this bone forms a broad contact with the inner surface of the articular. The articular is heavily reenforced on the inner surface at its articulation with the quadrate. The angular bone is present. Vertebrae. — There are thirty-six abdominal and thirty caudal vertebrae in the vertebral column of our specimens of Argentina silus}"^ In the first twenty-one abdominal vertebrae, the neurapophyses are not fused into neural spines and the neural canal is not closed above in the first twenty. The neural canal is closed in the twenty-first, but there are still two neural spines. The parapophyses of the abdominal vertebrae extend outward as rather broad, rhomboidal platforms which lie nearly horizontal, the ribs being attached to the outer corners. The parapophyses become progressively narrower poste- riorly and gradually merge into the haemapophyses of the caudal vertebrae. There are ribs on all but the last three abdominal para- pophyses. In Salmo, the first two abdominal vertebrae do not bear ribs. Kpipleurals are borne on at least twenty-six of the abdominal vertebrae. These bones are ankylosed with the neural spines and may not be separated from them without breaking them apart. The neurapophyses of these vertebrae are articulated loosely to the centra and each may be lifted off of the centrum with the attached zyga- pophysis and epineural. In those vertebrae which do not bear epineu- rals, the neurapophyses are ankylosed with the centrum. None of the epipleurals of Salmo or Osmerus are ankylosed with the neura- pophyses. In the caudal vertebrae, the haemal arch is closed, but in the first nine, the haemapophyses extend downward separately, but they are bridged across by an arch instead of a solid, straight-edged connection, as in Salmo. They increase in length posteriorly and taper inward toward each other until, in the tenth, there is a single haemal spine. The 45th vertebra is shown in figure 2, E. The last undoubted vertebra is much like that of Osmerus. The caudal stylus is composed of elements extending from the upper and lower sides of the centrum whose axis is directed slightly upward. The upper element of the stylus is the heavier, while the reverse is true in Osmerus. However, there are three rather indistinct vertebrae whose axes are directed " The following numbers of vertebrae in Argentina situs are recorded in various ich- thyological works: Day, 65; Smitt, 65-68; A. Schubberg, 66. JAN. 4, 1922 KENDALL AND CRAWFORD: ARGENTINA SILUS 15 upward posterior to the stylus, while in Osmerus this is not the case. (Fig. 2, D.) Pelvic Bones. — The pelvic bones differ widely from those of other Isospondyli. There is one distal pterygiophore loosely articulated to the basipterygium. Above it, there is a large, spheroidal swelling of hard bone excavated on the inner side to which the first ray is articulated. From this spheroidal swelling, a slender shaft projects A 3 V Fig. 2. A, basipterigium of Argentina silus, X IVal B, basipterigium of Osmenus mordax, X 3; C, basipterygium of Salmo sehago, X 2; D, caudal vertebrae of Argentina silus, X 2; E, 45th vertebrae of Argentina silus, showing the arched connection between the haemopophyses, X 2. forward along the margin and another shaft, originating at the base of the first, runs diagonally forward across the basipterygium. The anterior margin of the basipterygium extends diagonally across the ends of the two shafts, the whole bone being trapezoidal in shape, as shown in figure 2, A. In this respect, it differs from the basip- terygia of other Isospondyli which are roughly triangular in outline. (Fig. 2, B, C.) A lateral process extends inward to meet a similar process on the opposite side. Pectoral Girdle. — There is no postclavical such as that found in a salmonid. The actinosts are thin, but they are connected by webs of bone. The mesocoracoid is present and well developed. The supratemporal is a thin, blade-shaped bone loosely attached to the upper posterior margin of the supraoccipital. Of the two processes of the posttemporal bone, the lower which curves downward is the 16 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI.. 12, NO. 1 longer. It is firmly attached to the base of the exoccipital by tough connective tissue. The pectoral girdle is further attached to the skull and vertebrae by three rod-like ligaments on each side. The upper ligament passes from the posttemporal to the basioccipital. The second is attached to the supraclavical and the first vertebra which is ankylosed with the skull. The third ligament attaches the clavical to the second vertebra, or the first which is not ankylosed with the skull. Scales. — The scales of Argentina silus differ greatly from those of Osmeridae or Salmonidae. In these two families, the scales are smooth and cycloid, but in Argentina silus they are roughened by small spines, and they are ctenoid in a manner similar to certain clupeids and percids (Menhaden and Stizostedion) . The heart-shaped scales as described by Smitt appear only along the lateral line. SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF Argentinidae as INDICATED BY Argentina silus Visceral characteristics Stomach bluntly caecal; intestine with well-developed spiral valve; pyloric caeca much less numerous than in Coregonidae, not much less numerous than in Salmonidae, and much more numerous than in Osmeridae; air bladder thick and silvery; pneumatic duct, if any, connected with its posterior end. Skeletal characteristics Cranium: — Frontals extend backward overlapping parietals, nearly covering them. Parietals overlapping on top of supraoccipital ; opisthotic present; splenial bone present in lower jaw; mesopterygoids and jaws toothless; no supplementary maxillary. Vertebrae: — 66 all told. Double neural spines in first 21, canal being open in first 20. Ribs on all but last three abdominal vertebrae. Osseous epipleurals on at least 26 abdominal vertebrae; these are ankylosed to zygapophyses and neural spines ; haemapophyses of abdominal vertebrae bridged by arch instead of straight-edged piece as in Salmo; pelvic bones with trapezoidal instead of a triangular basipterygium. Pectoral girdle: — With no postclavical process and with thin acti- nosts which are connected by webs of thin bone. JAN. 4, 1922 KENDALL AND CRAWFORD: ARGENTINA SILUS 17 Scales: — Ctenoid. Modified along lateral line. SYNOPSIS AND REVIEW OF THE HISTORY OE THE CLASSIFICATION OP Argentina The statement by Linnaeus that there are teeth on the jaws and tongue^^ {''Denies in maxillis, lingua") is not borne out by Artedi^^ to whom Linnaeus refers, or by subsequent descriptions. Artedi says teeth on tongue and palate {"Denies in lingua & Palate"). Fur- thermore, Linnaeus states the branchiostegal rays as 8. Artedi does not mention the number but all subsequent descriptions state them as 6. While Linnaeus does not mention the number of pyloric caeca it is interesting to note that Artedi says that there are 6 or 7. Both of the foregoing refer to the Mediterranean species Argentina sphyraena. In their discussion of the genus Argentina, Cuvier and Valenciennes indefinitely mention numerous caecal appendages^'' and state that the stomach ends in a cul-de-sac. The genus is included in "Sal- monoides." Gunther^^ says: Pyloric appendages in moderate num- bers. He refers the family to Salmonidae, which includes Salmo, Oncorhynchus, Brachymystax, Luciotrutta, Plecoglossus, Osmerus, Thaleichthys , Hypomesus, Mallotus, Retropinna, Coregonus, Thymallus, Argentina, and Microstoma comprised in the first group Salmonina, in the order named. In recognizing the subfamily Argentininae of Bonaparte, Gill states that it differs from Salmoninae by the stomach ending in a blind sac posteriorly. In this he agrees with Cuvier and Valenciennes. Gill's original observations, however, were apparently on the smelts and allied forms. In the subfamily he recognized two genera, Argentina and Silus, the first with cycloid, the other with spinigerous scales. Later Gill placed the subfamily Argentininae, comprising Mallotus, Osmerus and Microstoma, also by implication, other Osmerids and Argentina, in the family MicrostomidaeJ^ Ten years later, however, Jordan and Gilbert include Argentina in the family Salmonidae, recognizing no subfamilies in the description of the genus, thus follow- ing Gunther. 15 Systema Natura: 315. 1758. ^^ Ichthyologia, 5: 8. 1738. 1' Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, 21: 299. 1898. '* Catalogue of the Physoslomi, British Museum, p. 202. 1866. " Catalogue of the Fishes of the East Coast of North America. Smith.Misc. Coll. 1873:11-32. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 Without stating any additional characters, Gill, in 1884, established the family Argeniinidae}^ By inference the family distinction is that of the caecal stomach. Smitt^"^ retains Argentina, as well as the Osmerids, etc., in Sal- monidae. In his diagnosis of the genus, no character of more than generic value is mentioned. In expressing the relationship of Ar- gentina to other forms, however, he says that the odor and few pyloric appendages point to the Smelt and the stiff but fragile fin rays and the singular shape of the scales are reminders of the Scopelids. Also that the peculiarity of the scales suggests the extinct genus Osmer aides, which, however, in its numerous branchiostegals and dentition was more like the salmon. Jordan and Evermann accept Argentinidae, of Gill, comprising the Osmerids, etc., as well. Their characterization is largely composed of the generic characters of the Osmerids. They state that the stomach is a blind sac, and the pyloric caeca few or none. Following the family diagnosis, the statement is made that there are about ten genera and perhaps a dozen species which are reduced Salmonidae smaller and in every way feebler than the trout, but similar to them in all respects except in the form of the stomach. More recently Regan separated the Osmerids from the Argen- tinidae making for them the family Osmeridae, the latter differing from the Argentinidae in having toothed mesoptery golds. Both the Argentinidae and Osmeridae he supposed to differ from the Sal- monidae in the absence of opisthotics and upturned vertebrae at the posterior end of the vertebral column. Unless the ensemble of previously designated generic characters of Argentina is considered of family rank, no one prior to Regan has enunciated a valid family character, and even he was mistaken concerning the absence of the opisthotic in Argentina. However, its presence in Argentina and absence from the Osmerids strengthen the family rank of the latter. The fact that Argentina possesses opisthotics and vestigial or rudimentary upturned vertebrae, as previously indicated, might be construed by some to show that the genus represents an intermediate between the Osmerids and Coregonids, and even the shape of the stomach as represented by our specimens of Argentina silus would support this view. However, there are ^^ Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 188-4 (1885), p. 619. ^^ Scandinavian Fishes, 2:912. 1895. JAN. 4, 1922 abstracts: geology 19 other characters in which they diverge but in which they should inter- grade if they represent true intermediates in a direct line of develop- ment. Most of the characters, as well as those mentioned by Smitt and others enumerated in the classifications of Argentina, show re- semblances merely, rather than actual indications of relationship. And those resemblances represent some of the Salmonoid tendencies of characters possessed by the generalized ancestral form, Argentina being a highly specialized terminal product of an early divergent. The fact that it is a comparatively deep water group, of apparently wide distribution, possessing an intestinal spiral valve, considered together with its general structure, would support this view. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — The New Salem lignite field, Morton County, North Dakota. Eugene T. Hancock. U. S. Geo! Surv. Bull. 726-A. Pp. 39. 1921. The Nevv Salem field is part of the great lignite region of western North Dakota and adjacent regions. The history, commercial geography, and surface features of the area are summarized in two pages. Six pages are given to the discussion of the geologic section which includes the I,ance and Fort Union formations. Within the Lance is the Cannonball marine member which has been the subject of much recent discussion and is named from the Cannonball River traversing this field. One bed of lignite was found in the Lance below the Cannonball member, but the valuable beds are con- fined to the upper 200 to 300 feet of the Fort Union. The beds in most of this field have a very gentle dip (5 to 10 feet to the mile) toward the northwest, with minor folds; in the northwest part of the field they form a gentle syncline. About three pages are given to physical and chemical data and graphic sections of the coal in considerable detail. The heating value ranges about 6,000 to 7,000 calories for coal as mined. Fourteen pages are devoted to a description by townships of the occurrence of the coal in the seventeen townships examined. Marcus J. Goldman. GEOLOGY. — Ground water in the Southington-Granhy Area, Connecticut. Harold S. Palmer. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 466. Pp. 213. 1921. This paper is the fourth to appear of a series of detailed reports on the ground-water resources of selected areas in Connecticut. The first part is of a general character and treats of the water-bearing formations, occur- rence and recovery of ground water, and its quality. This is followed by descriptions of the eighteen towns included in the area, which is partly in the Central Lowland and partly in the Western Highland of Connecticut. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 Almost everywhere water may be obtained in small quantities from fissures and joints in the bed rocks which include crystalline rocks of pre-Triassic age and sandstone, shale, and trap of Triassic age. The till that mantles the bed rock of the hills and upper valley slopes yields in general satisfactory domestic supplies. The stratified drift or glacial outwash deposits of the lowlands yield abundant supplies of water except in the more unfavorable topographic situations. Maps show the distribution of the water-bearing formations, the distri- bution of woodlands, and the locations of the wells and springs referred to in the tables in the text. HYDROIyOGY. — Ground water for irrigation near Gage, Ellis County, Okla- homa. David G. Thompson. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 500-B. Pp. 21. 1921. This paper contains a brief description of the geology and occurrence of ground water in a part of Ellis County in western Oklahoma. The region is in the semi-arid belt and in years when the precipitation is deficient crops may fail. In August, 1918, in a well that was being drilled for oil near Gage a large flow of artesian water was struck, which it was hoped could be used for irrigation. Investigation showed that the water comes from the Permian "Red Beds" and, although in sufficient quantity, it is generally so highly mineralized that it cannot be used for irrigation. Water of good quality can be obtained from the Tertiary rocks, but these rocks do not yield enough water to provide for irrigation. The conclusion is reached that water can be obtained for irrigation only along the floodplains of the larger streams in the area. D. G. T. ORNITHOLOGY.— MMtowcfa ornithologica. IX. H. C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. vSoc. Wash. 33: 83-84. 1920. Preoccupied names of five species of birds cause the following nomen- clatural changes. The bird commonly known as Dendrocitta sinensis (Latham) is renamed D. celadina. The name of the wagtail now called Motacilla longi- cauda Riippell is changed to M. rhadinura. The South African warbler, Eremo- mela flaviventris (Burchell), is hereafter to be called E. griseoflava perimacha. The Indian babbling thrush that has long been known as Crateropus griseus (Gmelin) is renamed Ttirdoides polioplocamus , since in addition to the pre- occupation of its specific name, the generic name Turdoides Cretzschmar must supersede Crateropus Swainson. Furthermore, Arrenga cyanea (Hors- field) will henceforth be known as A. glaucina (Temminck). H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Unusual types of apparent geographic variation in color and of individual variation in size exhibited by Ostinops decumanus.* F. M. Chapman. Proc. Biol. vSoc. Wash. 33: 25-32. 1920. Study of Ostinops decumanus shows that there are great individual differ- ences in size apparently attributable to age, and this involv^es a remarkable variation not only in the length but in the shape of the wing chiefly in males. Furthermore, an interesting geographic color variation in which there appear wholly or partly yellow feathers scattered throughout the plumage of the body and wing coverts indicates an undescribed race in Bolivia, which is described as Ostinops decumanus mactdosus. H. C. Oberholser. JAN. 4, 1922 proceedings: philosophical society 21 ORNITHOLOGY. — Food habits of seven species of American shoal-water ducks. Douglass C. Mabbott. Bull. U. S. Dept, Agric. 862. Pp. 67, pis. 7. 1920. The food of Chaulelasmtis streperus to a large extent consists of leaves and stems of water plants, and, with the exception of that of Mareca americana, includes a larger percentage of vegetable matter than any other species. The food of Mareca americana is almost the same as that of the previous species. As many as 64000 seeds of the spike rush {Eleocharis) have been noted in a single stomach. The diet of Mareca penelope and Nettion carolinense is made up principally of water plants and their seeds. The blue-winged teal (Querquedtda discors) feeds to a large extent on the seeds and other parts of water plants, although nearly one-third of its food is animal matter, mostly mollusks, insects, and crustaceans. The food of Querquedula cyanoptera is very similar. Vegetable matter comprises about seven-eighths of the diet of Dafila acuta tzitzihoa, and this is chiefly seeds and other parts of plants, principally those growing in or near water. Individual birds have been known to consume for a single meal 28000 seeds of Salicornia amhigua. The remaining portion of the food of this duck consists of animal matter, such as mollusks, crusta- ceans, and insects. The well-known Aix sponsa feeds mostly on the seeds and other parts of water plants, on acorns, grapes, berries, and the seeds of trees and shrubs. From a single stomach 10000 seeds of lizard's tail {Saururus cernuus) have been taken. About one-tenth of its diet is animal matter, chiefly insects and spiders. In all, 2888 stomachs of the seven species have been examined, and the various items of food identified in each species are shown in an extended table which closes this bulletin. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Records of several rare birds from near Washington, D. C. B. H. Swales. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 33: 181-182. 1920. The following interesting birds are here recorded from the region about Washington, D. C., all except one from specimens obtained: Colymbus hol- boellii, Oceanites oceanicus, Phalaropus fulicarius, Numenius americanus, Pluvialis dominica dominica, Coragyps urubu urubu, and Aquila chrysaetos. H. C. Oberholser. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 856th meeting The 856th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium, Nov. 19, 1921. It was called to order at 8:20 p.m. by President Faris with 49 persons present. The first paper of the evening, on Dip-needle errors arising from minute pivot defects, 'was presented by Mr. H. W. Fisk, and was illustrated. It was discussed by Messrs. L. A. Bauer and L- J. Briggs. After all compensating reversals of instrument and needle have been made in determining the magnetic inclination or dip, with a dip circle, there will 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 be outstanding characteristic differences between results obtained at the same station with two or more needles. These are probably due to irregu- larity of general form of pivot and are eliminated by applying corrections derived from least square reductions where data are available, or from em- pirical graphs otherwise. Occasionally a needle will give a result differing widely from the mean of the others used at the same station, and a critical study of several cases of this kind derived from results of field work in widely separated regions, shows that when not purely accidental, these differences vary with the varying dip as they would if they were caused by a small particle adhering to the pivot of the needle. A method was presented of analyzing the results de- rived from a series of stations at each of which the dip had been obtained by use of four needles, so that such deviations from the normal value could be readily recognized. Cases illustrating the results of such analysis were presented. Theory was developed by which it was shown that the occasional differ- ences under investigation could be produced by a very minute particle of rust, and an equation was given by which the diameter and thickness of the particle could be determined. By this method it was found that a minute patch of rust 0.02 millimeter in diameter and 6 X 10~^ millimeters thick, on the pivot of an ordinary Dover dip needle, would produce an error of 6 minutes in arc in the determination of dip at a place where the total mag- netic force is 0.55. An example was given to show that the rust particle might later become detached so that the needle would behave normally at the value of dip. Also it was shown that particles of this kind develop very quickly. From these examples it is concluded that the correction for a dip needle cannot be relied upon permanently at any one place nor be safely transferred to a place where the field has a different direction or intensity without a comparison with such a reliable standard as is afforded by the latest type of portable earth inductor. In case a dip circle must be used, not less than four needles should be employed in order to furnish an improved mean, and to better detect such errors as arise from minute pivot defects. (Author's abstract.) The second paper on The latitude of Ukiah and the motion of the Pole was presented by Mr. Walter D. Lambert and was illustrated. It was dis- cussed by Messrs. I,. H. Adams and L. A. Bauer. Prof. A. C. lyawson in support of his explanation of certain earth move- ments in California brings forward the evidence afforded by the astronomic latitudes at Ukiah, California, one of the stations of the International Latitude Service. These latitudes show an apparent increase of about 0.01 a year, which is explained as an actual shifting northward of the crust at Ukiah relative to its substratum. Ukiah is somewhat outside of the region in which the existence of large earth movements has been proved by the evidence of triangulation executed at different dates. The attempt is made in this paper to see whether the astronomical evidence at Ukiah may properly be interpreted otherwise than as indicating a creep of the surface strata. It is found that the other stations of the International Latitude Service show increases or decreases of the same order of magnitude as that of Ukiah, the general tendency being toward an increase, a feature especially noticeable toward the end of the period of observation. At Gaithersburg, Maryland, the rate of increase even exceeds that at Ukiah. The universality of these JAN. 4, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 23 changes and their apparent dependence on the longitude of the station make it natural to seek an explanation in a displacement of the Earth's Pole toward those stations showing the most rapid increases. It is found that the ob- served rates of change may be satisfied within reasonable limits by a shifting of the North Pole toward the Equator along the meridian of 77° West of Greenwich at the rate of about 0.0050 second a year combined with a cumu- lative correction to the average declination of the stars used, a correction varying with the time as the program of stars varies. A brief discussion is given of the geophysical aspects of such a shifting of the Pole. Certain incidental results of the investigation are also mentioned, in par- ticular a rough confirmation of Helmert's work on the figure of the Earth and its moments of inertia as deduced from gravity observations. Even a rough confirmation is of value on account of the presence in the observed values of gravity of systematic influences due to local geological and topo- graphic conditions, and also on account of the fact that good determinations of gravity are possible only on one-fourth of the earth's surface, that is, on land. The results on the moments of inertia, etc., as deduced from the ob- servations of the International Latitude Service are subject to a correction, probably small but not yet precisely evaluated, for the mobility of the ocean waters. (Author's abstract.) H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Mr. A. A. Baker has been appointed geologic aid in the U. S. Geological Survey, and has been assigned to the Alaskan Division. Mr. W. N. BramlETTE, assistant geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, has been furloughed from the Survey for several months to take up work with the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. Mr. David I. Bushnell, Jr., is preparing for the Bureau of Ethnology a short account of the Cahokia and other mounds in Illinois, near East St. Louis, Missouri. A unique feature of his report will be aero-photographs of the whole group, the first attempt to obtain bird's-eye views of North American prehistoric mounds from an aeroplane. Mr. W. O. Clark has resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey, effective Januar}^ 1, to accept a position as water-supply geologist with a firm in Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. Dr. Arthur L. Day, director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, gave an illustrated public lecture, at the Institu- tion on the evening of November 29, on The eruption of Mount Lassen. Prof. Charles Moureu of the College de France and president of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and Prof. A. MayER of the University of Strasbourg, are in Washington as chemical advisers to the French delegation to the Conference on Limitation of Armaments. Mr. Wilson Popenoe, agricultural explorer for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, returned to Washington in November after a two years' absence in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. 24 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 1 Mr. Paul C. vStandlEy of the National Museum left Washington early in December for a botanical collecting trip to Central America under the auspices of the Museum, Harvard University, and the New York Botanical Garden. He will spend several months in Guatemala and Salvador. Mr. R. W. vStonE has been appointed assistant state geologist of Pennsyl- vania and has resigned from the U. S. Geological vSurvey, the resignation to be in effect January 1. His headquarters will be at Harrisburg, Pennsyl- vania. Dr. George I^. StreETER, director of the Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, gave an illustrated public lecture at the Institution on the evening of November 22, on Recent studies on the ear as an organ determining equilibrium. Dr. H. U. SvERDRUP, physicist of the Roald Amundsen Arctic Expedition, which recently completed the passage by water north of Siberia, is spending several months as research assistant at the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. He is taking part in reduction of magnetic observations already taken and also preparing for new series of magnetic, oceanographic, meteorological and other observations to be taken on the continued expedition across the north Polar Sea to be begun by the Amundsen party in the spring of 1922. Secretary CD. Walcott of the Smithsonian Institution has been elected a corresponding member of the Societe Geologique de Belgique, of Liege, Belgium. Mr. Chung Yu Wang, consulting mining engineer and geologist, is one of the technical councilors with the Chinese delegation to the Conference on Limitation of Armaments. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 January 19, 1922 No. 2 ZOOLOGY. — The evolution of the animal body} Austin H. Clark, U. S. National Museum. In a recent number of this Journal^ I gave a brief synopsis of the steps in the evolution of animals based upon the progressively increasing complexity of structure correlated with increased economic efficiency. The subject was treated in much greater detail in a later paper. ^ Superposed upon this evolutionary line there is another having to do with the development of the body as a whole instead of with the refinement of its internal organization, and to a large extent the two are quite independent. All the higher animals are ultimately derived from an attached animal colony within which the component zooids are more or less differentiated for the better performance of certain more or less definite functions, this animal colony being in general comparable to the colony of phytons known as a flowering plant. In the sponges the colonial nature of the animal is evident, but there are no definite organs or tissues, and the mass is imperfectly or not at all divided. The sponges are thus comparable to certain of the so-called thallophytes. The coelenterates have a definite body structure and are funda- mentally colonial, the colony being produced asexually by budding and the component individuals usually showing more or less differentiation into (a) nutritive, {h) reproductive and (c) excretionary ("defensive") types, the latter bearing numerous cells containing a secretion and also a coiled tubule. Free living coelenterates occur, and these arise (1) through the assumption of a free floating existence by the colony as a whole (siphonophores), or (2) through the partial (medusae of hydroids) or complete {Aurelia, Trachomedusae, most actinians, etc.) dissociation of the units of the colony. ^ Received December 16, 1921. 2 This Journal 11: 207-208. May 4, 1921. 3 Bull, de ITnstit. Oceanographique (Monaco), 400: 1-24. 20 septembre, 1921. 25 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 The jointed cestodes represent the strobila stage of Aurelia, but are somewhat more completely unified, the proglottides sharing a common nervous and excretory system and their detachment being greatly retarded. The pronounced bilateral symmetry of most ces- todes and the marked difference in the two sides of the proglottides seen in others together with certain features connected with the budding of the scolex suggest their relationship with the graptolites of which they are possibly the recent representatives. By a further consolidation and unification of the jointed cestode body correlated with a loss of the individuality of the component segments the annelid body type was evolved, and a further consolida- tion gave rise to the crustaceans, within which group the tendency is to compress all of the functions of the body within the compass of a few anterior segments, and the insects, in which there are three small groups of segments each with a definite function, (a) the head, most unified, controlling and directing, (b) the thorax, less unified, loco- motor, and (c) the abdomen, largest and least unified, enclosing the digestive, reproductive and other organs. Most crustaceans are more or less, and many are conspicuously, asymmetrical, while in all there is noticeable a great development of the dorsal surface as compared with the ventral. Both of these fea- tures are especially characteristic of certain barnacles, become greatly accentuated in the Pelmatozoa, and reach an extreme development in the unattached echinoderms in which the body consists of five half segments only arranged in a circle and enclosed entirely by the dorsal surface, the ventral having almost completely disappeared.^ The evolution of solitary animals through the progressive consolida- tion of a colony correlated with increasing loss of individuality by the component units can thus be traced from the coelenterates through the cestodes to the arthropods and echinoderms. Closely allied to the cestodes are the trematodes, and from them or from very similar organisms another very different line of develop- ment has arisen. The development of the liver fluke, like that of the tapeworm, in the division of the sporocysts and the subsequent development of cercariae from sporocysts and rediae is comparable in its essential features to strobilization, but the budding takes place, so to speak, within a closed scyphistoma; that is, the sporocysts and rediae undergo * Smith. Misc. Coll. 27: No. 11, 1-20. July 20, 1921. JAN. 19, 1922 CLARK: EVOLUTION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 27 a sort of invaginated strobilization, the larvae (cercariae, correspond- ing to ephyrae) finally escaping by the disintegration of the nurse. The unsegmented cestodes bear approximately the same relation to the tapeworms that Lucernaria does to the scyphistoma of Aurelia, and the turbellarians in their relations to the liver flukes and their allies are comparable to the Trachomedusae as compared with the colonial coelenterates ; that is, they are solitary animals ultimately derived through the dissociation of the units of a primarily colonial type. Of the remaining acoelomate Kumorphozoa the Polyzoa and Calysso- zoa are clearly comparable to colonial coelenterates ; the rotifers in their asexual and direct development suggest a fragmented colony while the round worms and the Acanthocephala are solitary, like the Tracho- medusae, some cestodes, and the turbellarians. All other animals agree in the possession of that structure known as a coelome. The coelome, which arises by budding from the enteron, consists of three sections, (a) the perivisceral, forming a body cavity, (b) the gonadial, and (c) the nephridial. There is thus a curious correspondence between the three divisions of the coelome and the three classes into which the polyps of the coelenterates naturally fall, and this suggests the possibility of coelomate animals having arisen through a gastruloid structure resembling a redia by the budding off from the enteron of three units which remained within the gastruloid and there became differentiated into the three types characteristic of the externally budded coelenterate polyps, subsequently undergoing further development. The priapulids, sipunculids, molluscs, nemerteans, phoronids, brachiopods, chaetognaths, enteropneusts, tunicates, cephalochordates and vertebrates would thus be explained as colonial animals derived from a coelenterate-like colonial type through a process of invagination by which the additional units were produced within the original gastruloid ancestor by budding from the enteron instead of externally as in the coelenterates and polyzoans. Such an interpretation would account for (1) the entire absence in these groups of that external segmentation so characteristic of the cestodes, the annelids, the arthropods and the echinoderms; (2) the entire absence, except in the enteropneusts and tunicates, which stand quite apart from the other phyla, of all forms of asexual repro- duction, this being here represented by internal budding; (3) the al- most complete absence of parasitism (occurring only in a very few molluscs and nemerteans), since the transference of the asexual bud- 28 JOURNAL OF the: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 ding to the interior prevents that proHfic asexual reproduction by budding and fission, by parthenogenesis, or by polyembryony always present in those groups in which parasitism is a prevalent condition; and (4) the almost complete absence of attached forms which, except for secondarily attached molluscs, are found only among the brachio- pods and the tunicates. The annelids, in addition to their dominant external segmentation, also possess a coelome, but this becomes greatly reduced in the crusta- ceans and insects. In the echinoderms, however, the curious distortion leads to a relatively considerable average length for each of the five segments represented, and with this annelidan feature the coelome reappears in a highly perfected form. The development of the annelids indicates a very close relationship with the molluscs. These two groups thus carry onward the essential, differences, as well as the essential similarities, between the cestodes and the trematodfes. Similarly the arthropods and the echinoderms appear to be structurally parallel to the nemerteans, phoronids, brachiopods and chaetognaths, the former representing the cestode- annelid, the latter the trematode-priapulid-sipunculid-moUusc type. The enteropneusts, the tunicates, the cephalochodates {Amphioxus, etc.) and the vertebrates are quite unrepresented in the externally segmented line, which culminates in the arthropods and echinoderms. They differ from all other animals in the possession of gill slits or pores. These structures represent the final step in the organization and centralization of the respiratory function and its connection with the endoderm. This is obviously a minor structural detail, presumably of late origin, and as such it suggests that while the other major animal types probably all appeared almost or quite simultaneously the evolution of the forms with gill apertures was considerably delayed. GEOPHYSICS. — The latitude of Ukiah and the motion of the pole.'^ Walter D. Lambert, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In January, 1921, Professor A. C. Lawson of the University of California published an article on earth movements in California.^ 1 Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, November 19, 1921. Re- ceived December 7, 1921. The substance of this paper was also presented at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society at Swarthmore, Pa., December 29, 1921. This paper is based on a longer article by the author entitled An investigation of the latitude of Ukiah, California, and of the motion of the Pole, which will appear as a Special Publication of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ^ The mobility of the Coast Ranges of California, an exploitation of the elastic rebound theory. Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol. 12: No. 7. Jan. 11, 1921. JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT: LATITUDE OP UKIAH 29 His thesis is that there are slow movements of the surface as a result of stresses arising from a subcrustal flow that carries the surface with it. In time these stresses increase to the breaking point; there is then rupture with attendant seismic shocks and a rebound toward the original position. In support of this thesis Professor Lawson adduces the triangulation executed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey^ in California at various times before the earthquake of 1906 and during the months immedi- ately following. He adduces also the observed astronomic latitudes at the Ukiah latitude station, one of the stations of the International Latitude Service maintained for the study of the variation of latitude and the motion of the Pole. It should be stated that Ukiah lies outside of the area that was treated as potentially movable in the discussion of the triangulation. The line of greatest disturbance during this earthquake runs along the San Andreas fault ; the nearest point of this fault is some 30 miles from Ukiah and not far from the point where the fault itself runs out to sea in a northwesterly direction. It is not the purpose of this paper to interpret the evidence from the triangulation, but solely to consider the meaning of the astronomic latitudes at Ukiah, which constitute a problem quite independent of the problem presented by the triangulation. The latitude of Ukiah appears to be increasing with some regularity at a rate not much smaller than 0.01 second per year, that is, a dis- placement of almost 1 foot or 30 cm. per year. This deduction was made by Professor Lawson from curves given in an article by Sir Frank Dyson, ^ Astronomer Royal of England. It should be said that the curves are used by Dyson for quite a different purpose, and that this increase in latitude is not mentioned by him, nor would its exis- tence affect his results to any perceptible degree. It should be said on the other hand that an apparent increase of this sort is very evident from a mere inspection of the curve for Ukiah, which is shown in figure 1 . As is well known, the two principal periodic terms in the expression for the variation of latitude have periods of one year and of about 14 months. The curve shows the observed variation of latitude with the effect of the annual term removed by computation. The annual term was deduced by harmonic analysis from the observed latitudes at Ukiah only and is therefore independent of any assumption as to the ^ J. F. Hayford and A. L. Baldwin, The earth movements in the California earthquake of 1906. U. S. Coast and Geod. Surv. Ann. Rept. 1907, App. 4. * F. W. Dyson. Month. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 78: 452. 1918. 30 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 motion of the Pole other than the mere lengths of the periods concerned. If the variation of latitude conformed to the simplifying assumptions that we often make, the curve would be a simple sine curve with constant amplitude and with its phase changing at a uniform rate. There is, however, a marked increase in the amplitude although the phase change is nearly uniform. The ordinate represents, not the observed latitude itself, but the difference, A<^, between the observed latitude and an arbitrary but fixed initial latitude. The initial latitude is such that near the beginning of the period this conventional zero line of A(j) coincides very nearly with the true zero line, or line running midway between the points of maximum and minimum. Towards the end of the period the curve has shifted so much that most of it lies above the conventional zero line. The angle between the true zero line and the conventional zero line represents the rate of increase of the mean latitude, that is, of the latitude freed from the effects of all known periodic terms. This slope or rate Professor Lawson determined by a graphic adjustment ; he drew a straight line passing as near as possible Fig. 1. The latitude of Ukiah, California, from Dyson's curves, with lines drawn by Lawson to show the progressive increase of latitude. to the maxima of the curve and a similar line for the minima, and then drew a line bisecting the angle between the two lines just found. This bisector may be taken as representing the true zero line. The slope of this true zero line referred to the conventional one is, as found by Professor Lawson, 0'^0094 or 0.29 meter a year. His method does not use all the information afforded by the curve, but merely the maxima and minima; the lines drawn to fit these are necessarily affected by personal idiosyncrasies. The following method is free from these objections. The curve supposedly contains only the effect of the 14-month component and of a possible progressive shifting of the zero line. The former effect will be eliminated from the mean of 14 successive calendar months,^ leaving in the mean only the progressive shift ^ The exact period is 432.5 days rather than 14 calendar months (426 days), but the error arising from the substitution of one period for the other is negligible. JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT : LATITUDE OP URIAH 31 of the zero. Table 1 shows the result of taking these means. They are also shown graphically in figure 2. Instead of adjusting a straight line to the means by eye we may do it by the method of least squares. The observation equations would then be written in the form A(f) = x -\- yt, TABLE 1. — Mean Value op A for Ukiah Middle of 14-month Mean Middle of 14-month Mean period A(j> period A0 1900, Aug. 1 +0".001 1908, Oct. 1 +0".047 1901, Oct. 1 -0 .040 1909, Dec. 1 +0 .058 1902, Dec. 1 +0 .001 1911, Feb. 1 +0 .070 1904, Feb. 1 +0 .047 1912, Apr. 1 +0 .063 1905, Apr. 1 +0 .054 1913, Jun. 1 +0 .055 1906, Jun. 1 4-0 .068 1914, Aug. 1 +0 .118 1907, Aug. 1 +0 .066 1915, Oct. 1 +0 .152 +.1.=^ L ■ i i i - 1 ! i 1 ! ) . i :: : ■ ! '; * i " i -i 1 I 1 . i ! i ■ 1 1 . :;: - 1 1 1 1 1 ; • •; ■ i ■j' 1 ■■" 1 1 1 I ■-i ■' ! i T " i ; ■ r ;• r . 1 i ■ 1 i i j ■ i i : I !■■ i* >:^ +.10 1 I ■ 1 i I ■ 1 ■ i i . '■^ :r j 1 i I 1 1 " ■ 1 i ■■ J '"^ 1 j 1 j 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 i '^ i ■ j - i I 1 1 I I a - ! ■■ ::.- ■ 1 ■ ; i 1 i 1 --•r W ^.^ - I- /■I--- 9 ■] }: ■: +.05 .00 : i 1 ■ i • ! i ! -^ ■ e 1 , i: . • ^ ' 1 t e i ^'^ \ ® -1 - - r 1 ; ■ ! i ___j__ '-'I , 1 • ■ 1 . r. . i ■' .1 i 1 '1 ■ 1 • •■ : 1 •: ■ . -J 1- 1 i 1 1 ■'i -• •'i "-: :^.:j: . ':. : \ ^ 1 1 - Tj , 1 ■ i • ..j-:;- ; - ■ 1 ; . • . ■ i ■ ; 1 ■ I 1 ^ \' 1 i - i ■ ' -l' - ; 1 ! . i " i 1 ' 1:: 1 -:- ::-• •.' :;:t--- . I 'i : ! i ! ; 1 i. :;;!;,: , ..;.. .:;t:; i 1 r ; 1 1 1 -■' 1- ..,-.. "..-1- -O'l , i ; 1 1- •■'i .-■(.:- '. i 1 ; . 1 ; i 1 1 j 1 1000 190.5 1910 1915 Fig. 2. The latitude of Ukiah, California, means by 14-month periods and line showing adjusted rate of increase; derived from Dyson's curves. where t is the time reckoned from some convenient epoch, x is the adjusted value of A^ at the epoch, y is the adjusted rate of change of the mean latitude, and the A<^ represents one of the values of A<^ in the table. The result of the adjustment gives for the equation of the 32 JOURNAI, Olf THS WASHINGTON ACADKMY OS SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 true zero line A4>= +0".0590 + 0".0081/, where t is the time in years reckoned from the epoch, Oct. 1, 1908. This line is the one shown in figure 2. The slope +0".0081, with a probable error =i=0".0010 per year, is somewhat smaller than the +0".0094 found by Professor Lawson but still quite large enough to be of interest, and if taken at its face value, it is large enough to render probable Professor Lawson's thesis of a northward movement of the superficial crust at Ukiah. Before reaching definite conclusions in the matter it is desirable to see what is happening at the other stations of the International Lati- tude Service. These stations all use the same program of stars and any errors in the declinations used affect all stations alike except insofar as bad weather may cause the stars observed to be different at the different stations. It is to be supposed, however, that the difference in the effect at different stations of errors in declination due to the different stars actually used may be considered as causing accidental errors in the result rather than systematic ones. The observatories of the Latitude Service are all close to the paralleP of 39° 8'; they are: Mizusawa in Japan, still running; Tschardjui (or as more simply spelled Charjui) in Russian Turkestan, closed at the end of 1914 ; Carloforte on a little island off the larger island of Sardinia, still running; Gaithersburg, Maryland, closed at the end of 1914; Cincin- nati, Ohio, work for the International Latitude Service discontinued at the end of 1915 ; Ukiah, California, still running. It was the original intention to have all the observatories constructed on exactly the same plan and equipped with zenith telescopes of the same pattern. It proved impracticable, however, to live up to this plan and the instruments at Tschardjui and Cincinnati are smaller than those at the other stations. This fact and perhaps also the vagaries of their climates, which are more markedly continental in character at these stations than at the other four, have caused the probable errors of the results from Cincinnati and Tschardjui to be relatively large. Furthermore, the Tschardjui results are complicated by the removal of the observatory in 1909 to a new location, a removal forced by the wanderings of the Amu Darya River, the ancient Oxus. The old site was threatened and finally inundated and the latitude connection between the old and new sites is rather weak. All these 8 For longitudes see table 2 on p. 36 JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT: LATITUDE) OF UKIAH 33 circumstances combined have made the results at Tschardjui relatively so inaccurate that they have very little weight in the final results of this discussion. To a less degree the same holds good of Cincinnati. The observations at the four remaining stations are about equal in quality. Sir Frank Dyson did not give curves like that at Ukiah for all the six stations and there appeared to be some uncertainty about the declinations used in the latter part of the period that he treats, a matter important for the present purpose but not very important for his purpose, so it was decided to start afresh and to derive curves for all six stations, utilizing all the observed latitudes available; these ex- tended from 1900 through 1917, a year beyond the time covered by Dyson. The new curves were based on the definitive latitudes of the International Latitude Service'^ and the provisional results published from time to time in the Astronomische Nachrichten.^ These results are all on a common declination system, that of Vol. 3 of the Resultate, not the ideal system perhaps, but one consistent with itself. On ac- count of the precession some of the stars necessarily drop out of a star program as time goes on. In the provisional results these discontinued stars have not been replaced by others. The provisional results therefore depend on a smaller number of stars, thus reducing the weight of the results to about Ve oi that of the definitive ones. The latitudes of the several stations were plotted, curves were drawn to smooth out the worst roughnesses in the plotted values, and these curves were analyzed harmonically to obtain the amplitudes and epochs of both the annual and the 14-month components. Each station was treated by itself. Some refinements not found in all harmonic analyses were introduced and seemed to justify their intro- duction by the better agreement thus obtained between the various determinations of the same quantity. The details will be given in my longer publication on the subject. By taking out the annual term from the curve of observed latitudes it would have been possible to draw curves like Dyson's, containing, presumably, only the effects of the 14-month term and of a possible shift in the true zero line. At least, if other effects were present, they would be treated as accidental errors. By reading these new " Zentralbureau der Internationalen Erdmessung (Berlin). Resultate des Internationalen Breitendienstes. 3: 1909. 5: 1916. »Astr. Nachr. 198: No. 4749. 1914. 201: No. 4802. 1915. 203: No. 4855. 1916. 206: No. 4908. 1917. 208: No. 4969. 1918. 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 curves at uniform intervals and taking the mean of the readings over a period of 14 months, the effect of the 14-month term would be made to 1 1 ■ : [ ; ; 1 1 1 I j 1 1 i ! ' i i 1 1 . 1 i 1 1 lO.iiS ' ! " j ... i i i ■ i "1 j_ 1 - •j - 1 : :■ i I i: ! ■ ' 1 1 ;■ :i 1 1 1 1 - 1 ■ ! r ■ 1 ■ 1 i ; i I ■ i- i 1 : i ' j "" i ; ■ — -j 1 1 1 10.80 ■ 10.75 10.70 lo.*;.^ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 I ! ! . - 1 1 i ! i ■ 1 i / ! ■j i 1 .■ i i 1 t" ■ i . f-- : 1 r 1 1 ! ! - i _ ! i i i ! 1 1 1/ 1/ . ' r ! ' ! ! i i - -i 1 ■ 1 j 1 / ' i I ' 1 . ! 1 j 1 i - 1 t /: i i 1 1 i 1 i 1 1 . ■1 - !.: i 1 .1 i _. I . i 7 j 1 ' 1 i 1 i ! 1 i i >• ' _ ■ j 1 1 . i \ 1 ' 1 i '^A ' 1 ■ ■ — -i — i . i 1 I 1 ■" 1 1 . ! ^ j 1 1 i 1 1 ; ! r. ■■■! 1 1 ' ^ ^^\ 1 i i .1 ■ 1 j ! i 1 . ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 y -'i I i 1 ■ ! I i 1 1 ^ .•^ 4 7p i i. ; : 1 .^1 j [ 1 / 1 .L- i . t ! i T 1 1 i *-- ! f !_, 1 [ " 1 1 4 ■ i 1 i 1 y'r' ! 4^ —4-^ 1 1 ■ ' i i_ ■ i 1 y i i i : i i ! . J . i * ^ -"T^ i i ! 1 " r ! i 1- 1 i 1 ^ — - '^''^ 1 ; 1 . 1 t 1 1 1 .1. ; i r '' 1 1 j i 1 I ■ i ■ ■•■; :. i 1 1 ^ i - I i 1 1 1 , j r - " : i ' : ■i ^ ■ -^ 1 .... i 1 : .1 ■" 1 . 1 ^ - . 1 . I ::: .'- . '■' F" t , ' ' ] 1 . i :: .... .1 ..;. . 1 - lOfiO 1 .■ -r ■ • - 1 -■ ..:-!:;" 10.55 I ; I ■ 1 _i_ ■ 1 : 4 . . 1 . . .j; :. 1- 1 f 1 1 1 i " ! - 1:- i : ' _ . -.: .:;, .- ! - — j__ - — i : i - 1. ■ 1 ■ \ .. 1 ■ : ■ i 1 i 1 '■' ! i ::. j 1 ( ■ ' 1 _ , 1 y-' .:■. : :!■: ...: . ':■';■ ■ : . 1 1 1 ■ 1 i . 1 :J~. ■..■'■I -..I- . ; ■ • j 1 ■ . -- • ' "■ ': ■:: . •;r': ■" t- ■ 1 ;■■.' ::-:(...'. : 1 .;■ ::■ :.r .:-' ■ :: r:; •:*: i- iT-t z:i ; :.'„ :i f" :: , ■',■■ .:; ■;:•.• .•ili '■'':• i^. i ;■••- ■^— -'•- '■r~ -'■^- I'::. -:■•! 10..50 : ... :: i:;. -:■. ii-' • ■- 1 '±: t;..- (' '". ;".:i . ., - :-.: -:- :-"r '-:- . :.. ;:iJi 1900 1805 1910 1915 Fig. 3. The latitude of Tschardjui, Russian Turkestan: means by calendar years and lines showing adjusted rates of change; derived from the latitudes of the International Latitude Service. disappear from the mean, leaving only the effects of a shifting of the zero line, that is, of a progressive change in the mean latitude. JAN. 19, 1922 I^AMBHRT: LATITUDE OF UKIAH 35 It would be equally legitimate to interchange the processes by which the two periodic portions of the latitude variation were eliminated. Instead of taking out the effect of the annual portion by computing from an assumed expression for it in the form of an harmonic term, we could take out the 14-month component by assuming it to be ex- pressed by a harmonic term and computing the necessary values. The remaining periodic portion of the variation would be the annual portion and could be eliminated by taking means over the period of a year. These means, being free from the effects of periodic terms, should bring to light the progressive variation. Both methods were employed and the two rates thus obtained for the progressive change of latitude at a station agreed well in all cases. There appeared to be some reason for thinking that the rate of change might be different for the later years ; with this in mind the experiment ass 1900 1905 1910 191S Fig. 4. The latitude of Mizusawa, Japan ; means by calendar years and lines showing adjusted rates of change; derived from the latitudes of the International Latitude Service. was tried of fitting two straight lines to the mean latitudes instead of only a single line, the two lines to show the same latitude at a pre- determined epoch. This epoch was taken not far from the end of 1911. The considerations governing this choice were in part the general appearance of the plotted mean latitudes and in part the change in the star program at the end of 1911 already referred to and due to the dropping of certain stars. 36 JOURNAL OF THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 The closeness of the fit of the two lines or of the single lines may be judged from figures 3 and 4. Figure 3 shows the results for Tschardjui, the means being taken by calendar years. It has been said that this station has been subject to great irregularities and this appears plainly from the diagram. The only thing that clearly appears is a tendency for latitudes to increase very sharply towards the end of the period. Figure 4 shows Mizusawa, perhaps the most regular station, though the other stations except Tschardjui and Cincinnati are not greatly inferior to it. Even the most regular of stations shows considerable departure from a perfectly uniform progressive increase, although the irregularity is somewhat exaggerated to the eye by the large vertical scale used for the latitudes. The probable error of the mean of a single year or of a single 14-month period is about ±0".010 at Mizusawa as determined from the residuals arising from attempting to fit the two straight lines to the successive means. The probable error is rather larger when only a single line is used, a fact which tends to prove the reality of the assumed change in rate. Similar results hold for the other stations except Tschardjui and Cincinnati, the probable errors being about ±0".015 for the two lines and about ±0".018 for one line. The mean rates of increase are shown in table 2. They represent the mean results of the two methods of procedure already referred to, mean latitudes being taken by calendar years and by 14-month periods. The fitting of the straight lines to the means was done by the method of least squares. TABLE 2. — Mean Annual Rates op Change "op Latitude Observations Annual rates of change Station Longitude end with year 1900-11 1912-end 1900-end Mizusawa, Japan 141° 08' E .. -0".0025 +0".0096 +0".0008 Tschardjui, Russian Turkes- tan 63 29 E 1914 +0".0036 +0".0597 -1-0".0115 Carloforte, Sardinia 8 19 E .. +0 .0002 +0 .0182 +0 .0053 Gaithersburg, Maryland.... 77 12 W 1914 +0.0087 +0.0206 +0.0105 Cincinnati, Ohio 84 25 W 1915 +0 .0029 +0 .0404 +0 .0099 Ukiah, California 123 13 W .. +0.0075 +0.0194 +0.0106 The first two columns under the general heading "Annual rates of change" give the slopes or rates of change of latitude when two lines are used. The last column gives the slope when only one line is used. The rate of change may vary with the period of time covered so that only in the first column are the rates for all stations strictly comparable with one another. In the second and third columns the rates of Mizusawa, Carloforte, and Ukiah are comparable in this way. The JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT: LATITUDE OF UKIAH 37 rates in the second column, particularly the rates of stations now dis- continued, depend on only a few mean latitudes, and offer only an insecure basis for conclusions. The rates of change at Ukiah are not very different from the rates found from Dyson's curves, namely, +0".0094 by Lawson and +0".0081 by the author.^ The striking fact, however, is that a rate of this size is no longer a solitary phenomenon. There are many rates of this order of magnitude and with one exception all rates are positive. Before seeking an explanation I think it will be wise to rule out the results for Tschardjui altogether. If results were weighted according to their probable errors, the Tschardjui results would get weights only from 1/10 to 1/20 as large as those of other stations, and would thus have little effect on our final conclusions. We might explain the positive rates at all stations by a northward creep of the surface strata, as Professor Lawson has done for Ukiah, but such an explanation is scarcely satisfactory when it must be made to apply to so many stations. A better partial explanation is decli- nations. The so-called observed latitudes are also computed ones to a certain extent, and errors in the declinations of the stars used appear with practically full effect in the so-called observed latitudes. It would appear from the table as if the average declinations became increasingly erroneous with the lapse of time; an error of this kind would naturally be looked for in the adopted values of the proper motions. But even an error in the proper motions and the consequent declinations does not explain all the rates in the table. An error in the star places would affect all stations alike, except insofar as bad weather might cause the stars actually observed to vary from station to station. It is clear that latitudes are increasing much faster on the American continent than elsewhere, and for a while in the opposite quarter of the world, as at Mizusawa from 1900 to 1911, they were actually decreasing. An obvious explanation of an increase in latitude on one side of the earth accompanied by a decrease in the other is a shifting of the Pole. I believe that the explanation of the changes of latitude set forth in the table will be found in a shifting of the Pole combined with an in- creasing error in the declinations. This hypothesis may be tested by a least-square adjustment. Let u and v denote the components ^ The number in the table most nearly corresponding to the result for Ukiah found from Dyson's curves is the -f0".0106 in the last column. The difference is probably due in great part to the declination system used. See below. 38 JOURNAL OF TH© WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 of the assumed annual shift of the North Pole towards the Equator along the meridians of Greenwich and of 90 ° W, respectively ; let w denote the annual increase in latitude common to all stations and due to erroneous declinations; then the observation equations have the form u cos \ -{- V sin \ -{- w = observed annual rate, where X is the west longitude of the station in question. Various least-square solutions were tried with different weights for the several stations and different sets of annual rates. Full details will be given in the longer publication. The results were fairly con- sistent and the adopted result was a motion of the North Pole southward along the meridian of 77° West of Greenwich at a rate of about 0".0050 a year. The values of w depend on the star program and represent mean cumulative corrections to the declinations for the period covered; they might therefore be expected to dififer according to the set of rates used, even if the components of the polar motion remained constant. This was found to be the case, the values of w ranging from +0".0013to+0".0050. This then is the interpretation I would offer of the apparent increase in latitude at Ukiah; cumulative errors in the declinations combined with a shifting of the North Pole towards the American continent. There might be also the surface creep which Professor Lawson offers as the all-sufficient explanation, but I believe that if this creep exists, its contribution to the increase in latitude is quite subordinate to the contributions of the other causes. The suggestion of a displacement of the Pole towards the American continent has been made before. Wanach,^° the successor to Albrecht in the work of the International Latitude Service, found from the observations of the Service from 1900 to 1911, inclusive, a displacement of the North Pole at the rate of not more than 0".0030 a year and in the general direction of Newfoundland, say along the meridian of 56 ° West. The period of time covered is different, likewise the method of treatment and the weights assigned to Tschardjui and Cincinnati. The differences doubtless explain the differences in the results, differ- ences not particularly large in view of the difficulties of the subject. It is evident that the burden of proof for this explanation of the change of latitude at Ukiah by a shifting of the Pole rests chiefly on the results at Gaithersburg, for Ukiah is suspected of being on unstable " B. Wanach. ResuUate des Internationalen Breitendienstes 5: 219. 1916. JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT: LATITUDE OF UKIAH 39 ground and Cincinnati is subject to a large probable error. A little consideration will show, however, that an explanation of the kind supposed that is numerically adapted to fit Gaithersburg as well as the other stations except Ukiah must be a passable fit for Ukiah also. The deduced shifting of the Pole must be considered as limited to the period discussed, the years 1900-1917, inclusive. No examination has been made of earlier records to see whether such a shifting might have taken place in the past, and until the causes of such a shifting have been found it is unwise to predict the future. In regard to the past, it is interesting to note that a polar shifting of this sort and about this magnitude might have gone on during the whole historical period without changing the climate perceptibly. If we put the historical period at 10,000 years in round numbers, the maximum change of latitude during that time is less than a mile. It might perhaps be possible for a change of this particular sort, namely along the meridian of 77 ° West, to have gone on since the beginning of modern astronomy of precision — ^say since Bessel's time — ^without being noticed, simply because the longest series of accurate records are in central or western Europe, regions which are on meridians nearly at right angles to the line of displacement and which therefore undergo a relatively small change of latitude. It is of interest to consider the possible causes for such a displacement of the Pole. A little calculation shows that the shifting of mass due to erosion and deposition of all sorts, even on the most favorable hypotheses, is quite insufficient to produce a shifting of 0".0050 a year in the direction of the earth's axis within its mass. Theories postu- lating large departures of the Pole from its present position have been much in favor with certain geologists but seem fantastic to mathema- ticians and astronomers. An interesting criticism of these theories is to be found in an article by the late Professor Barrell.^^ The classic paper on this subject from the mathematical point of view is by Darwin. ^2 ^ shifting of the Pole may be brought about by wide- spread though slight elevations and subsidences of the Earth's crust. On the most favorable assumption that seemed in any way plausible from a geological point of view, Darwin found a possible displacement of from 1° to 3° in any one geological period. The term "geological period" is conveniently vague as a unit of time, but if we take a geolog- ^^ J. Barrell. The status of the hypothesis of polar wanderings. Science 40: 333. 1914. '^ G. H. Darwin. On the influence of geological changes on the Earth's axis of rotation, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. I. 167: 271. 1877. Or Scientific Papers 3: 1. 40 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 ical period as meaning a million years/^ which corresponds to one estimate of the duration of the entire glacial epoch, including all the various periods of glaciation and the interglacial periods between them, then a shift of 0". 0050 a year would mean a change of 1 ° 23' in the posi- tion of the Poles during the glacial epoch, a quantity within Darwin's limits. Now the fact that the shifting of the North Pole towards the Amer- ican continent appears to have continued for the 18 years from 1900 to 1917, inclusive, does not oblige us to suppose that it has continued in the past or will continue in the future. Indeed, very recent observations at Ukiah would indicate, if taken at their face value, that the mean latitude of Ukiah is decreasing, that is, that the Pole is moving back again. No satisfactory conclusions can be reached, however, until the observations at the other latitude stations become available. There is some evidence of certain periodic effects in the variation of latitude other than those represented by the annual and the 14-month terms, effects whose periods are three years or more and which may be connected with the periods of the still obscure meteorological and climatic cycles. The shifting of the Pole may represent chiefly the combined effect of meteorological causes running their courses in periods of a few years or a few decades and be due only in very small part to elevations or subsidences of the crust. Some of the by-products of the investigation may now be men- tioned. The calculations necessary to derive the foregoing conclusions were quite extensive and made it possible to obtain with but little additional labor other results of interest in connection with the general problem of the variation of latitude. Fuller details will be given in the larger publication already referred to. An examination was made with a view to detecting terms in the variation with periods of three and six years. Terms of these periods in the distribution of barometric pressure over the earth were found by Angenheister;^^ the magnitudes of the fluctuations of pressure appeared to be probably sufficient to affect the motion of the Pole perceptibly. Harmonic constants were deduced from the observations 13 Cited by M. P. Rudzki in his Physik der Erde (Leipzig, 1911), p. 552, as the estimate of Penck and Bruckner for the duration of the glacial epoch. 1* G. Angenheister. tjher die dreijdhrige Lujtdrnckschwayikung und ihren Zusamtnen- hang mit Polschwankungen. Nachr. kon. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, Math-phys. Kl. 1914: 1. The paper is described as a preliminary communication but nothing further from Angen- heister on the subject has come to the author's attention. JAN. 19, 1922 LAMBERT: LATITUDE OF UKIAH 41 for terms of these periods, but the amplitudes and epochs thus found differed considerably according to stations used and the period of time covered by the observations. Probably there are perceptible terms of this sort, but the mathematical expressions for them are still quite uncertain. Expressions in harmonic form were found for the annual portion of the polar motion and of the Kimura term. For corresponding periods of time these expressions were in excellent agreement with similar expressions deduced by the International Latitude Service, although the methods of deduction were quite different. Similar expressions in harmonic form were found for the 14-month portion of the motion of the Pole. In deducing these terms the motion of the pole of rotation was not assumed to be uniform and circular, as it would be if changes in position of the pole of figure were strictly periodic and if the two principal equatorial moments of inertia of the Earth were equal. If, however, the assumption of uniform circular motion is made in this discussion, as it is in the work of the Inter- national Latitude Service, the expressions for the 14-month motion of the Pole agree well with the corresponding ones deduced by the Lati- tude Service, in spite of the difference in methods. Without the as- sumption of circular motion the observations always give an elliptical 14-month path for the Pole, but one so nearl}' circular that the exact direction of its major axis is not very certain. The major axis should coincide in direction with the meridian of the larger principal equatorial moment of inertia^'' if there is any perceptible difference in the principal equatorial moments, and it is for this reason that it is of interest to determine the position of the major axis of the ellipse of polar motion. Wanach of the International Service speaks discouragingly of the results obtained, ^^ but in the present investigation the results for different six-year periods show a fair degree of agreement, perhaps 1^ This statement is subject to a correction for the effect of the yielding of the ocean waters to the forces arising from a change in position of the Pole. If the ocean covered the Earth, its yielding would prolong the period of the latitude variation as compared with that of an otherwise similar earth without an ocean, but the position of the major axis of the ellipse of polar motion would be the same for both earths. On account of the unsymmetrical dis- tribution of land and water on the actual Earth the position of the axis of the ellipse of polar motion is affected, but the amount of the correction appears not to be sufficient to change the general character of the observed results. The subject has been investigated by A. Brill in his doctor's thesis entitled Uber die Elastizitdt der Erde (Gottingen, 1908). His conclus- ions do not appear to be in a form immediately applicable to the problem in hand. The question is being further investigated. 1^ ResuUate des InternaUonalen Breitendienstes. 5: 220, footnote. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 on account of the refinements in harmonic analysis already referred to. In table 3 X is the west longitude of the meridian along which the major axis lies. TABLE 3. — Direction of the Major Axis of the Elwpse of Polar Motion (432.5 Day Period) Years, inclusive Number of stations Direction of major axis X 1900-05 6 59° W 1906-11 6 90 W 1912-17 3 117 W 1910-15 4 75 W 1900-11 6 81 W 1900-17 3 110 W The first three lines give results for each of the three six-year periods^^ into which the time covered by the observations is divided. The fourth line represents a series cutting across two other series and serves as a check. Other check results, not given here, were obtained and were all to the same general effect. The last two lines are mean results for the periods specified. A mean for the result of the entire discussion might be taken, somewhat arbitrarily perhaps, as 90° West. Helmert^^ has determined the same quantity from gravity observations, his result being 107 ° West. Since gravity can at present be observed satisfactorily only on land, that is, on one-fourth only of the Earth's surface, and since the influence on gravity of local topo- graphic and geologic conditions is considerable, it is satisfactory to have even a rough agreement of the results from the two methods. The amount of the difference between the principal equatorial moments, A and B, may be specified by giving the ratio {B-A)^[C-y2{A+B)], the letter C denoting the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation. Helmert finds for this ratio 1/46. The same ratio may be deduced from the eccentricity of the ellipse of polar motion ; the results of this investigation point to a value of the same order of magnitude but apparently somewhat larger, perhaps 1/30 or 1/20, ratios which would follow from some of the gravity formulas which Helmert derives only to reject in favor of the formula leading to 1/46. From the ratio (B—A^[C — }4{A-\-B)] we may deduce the difference between the greatest equatorial radius of the Earth and the least. For Helmert's ratio 1/46 this difference is 230 meters; for larger or smaller ratios the difference between the equatorial radii varies proportionally. 1^ The six-year length of series is particularly suitable for harmonic analysis. ^^ F. R. Helmert. Neue Formeln fiir den Verlauf der Schwerkraft ini Meeresniveau beim Festlande. Sitz.-Ber. kon. preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1915: 676. JAN. 19, 1922 abstracts: ornithology 43 Since this ratio, like the direction of the major axis, is subject to a correction for the yielding of the ocean waters under the centrifugal force arising from the variation of latitude itself, no precise results are stated in this connection as the definitive results of the investiga- tion until this correction can be investigated and applied. The important points are (1) that, contrary to Wanach's implied opinion, there is some prospect of getting information regarding the moments of inertia and the figure of the Earth out of the observations of the variation of latitude; and (2) that the results so far obtained confirm in a general way the results of Helmert from gravity observations. The principal results of this investigation may be summed up as the prospect just mentioned of getting data on the figure of the Earth out of the latitude observations, and the conclusion previously discussed that the increase in latitude at Ukiah is due partly to the declinations used, being to that extent unreal, and partly due to a shifting of the North Pole towards the American continent. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts preferably prepared, and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to these appearing in this issue. OCEANOGRAPHY. — Tidal observations off the entrance to Delaware Bay. H. A. Marmer. Journ. Franklin Inst. 191: 819-821. 1921. This paper discusses the results of a forty-hour series of offshore tidal observations made on Five Fathom Bank, about 18 nautical miles off the entrance to Delaware Bay, by a hydrographic party of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Special interest attaches to this series of observations, because of its being made at some distance from the coast and also because of the simple and inexpensive tide gauge used. At present our knowledge of the time and range of the tide away from the coast is extremely meager, since tidal observa- tions have been confined almost wholly to the immediate vicinity of the coast. A description of the tide gauge inprovised for observing the height of the tide is described and the results compared with simultaneous tidal observations at Breakwater Harbor, Delaware, about 23 miles west of Five Fathom Bank. The cotidal hour as determined from these observations agrees well with the cotidal lines for this region constructed by Harris from theoretical consider- ations. H. A. M. ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region [February and March, ig2o]. H. C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 22: 167. 1920. Notwithstanding a backward spring, birds appeared about Washington in about their usual numbers and at about their usual time during February and March, 1920. The European Starling {Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris) has become thoroughly established in the vicinity of Washington. Without 44 JOURNAL OF THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIFNCFS VOL. 12, NO. 2 doubt the outstanding feature of interest was the astonishing number of ducks that frequented the Potomac River. The species most abundant were Marila marila, Marila affinis, Anas ruhripes, and Glaucionetta dangula americana. Flocks of geese, Branta canadensis canadensis, and swans, Olor cohinibianus, were also present. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Birds of the Clear Creek District, Colorado. F. C. Lincoln. Auk 37: 607. 1920. Systematic investigations in the region about Clear Creek near Denver, Colorado, during a period of five years have resulted in a list of 182 birds, including a number of rare species. ' H. C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Relative abundance of wild ducks at Delavan, Wisconsin. N. HoLLisTER. Auk 37: 367-371. 1920. Records of ducks obtained at Delavan, Wisconsin, during the years 1892 to 1899 give an interesting indication of the relative abundance of species during that period. A list is given showing the species observed in the order of their abundance. H. C. OberholsER. ORNITHOLOGY. — Four new birds from the Philippines and Greater Sunda Islands. J. H. Riley. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 33: 55-58. 1920. The following subspecies of East Indian birds are described: Anthreptes malacensis paraguae, from Palawan, Philippine Islands, A. m. bornensis, from British North Borneo; Enodes erythrophrys centralis, from Celebes; and Munia punctulata particeps, from Celebes. H. C. Oberholser. GEOLOGY. — Oil prospects in Washington County, Utah. Harvey BasslER and John B. Reeside, Jr. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 726-C. Pp. 87-107. 1921. Washington County, in extreme southwestern Utah, is drained by Virgin River, one of the larger tributaries of the Colorado. Exploratory drilling for oil has not been extensive in Washington County. Drilling near Virgin City resulted in several small wells as early as 1907. The rocks of the region range in age from Mississippian to Tertiary, but those of greatest importance as possible sources of oil are the older rocks, beneath what is known as the Shinarump conglomerate. These older rocks are included in the Moenkopi formation, the Kaibab limestone, and a sand- stone formation which represents the Coconino sandstone and Supai formation of the Grand Canyon area. The region may be considered structurally as two districts separated by the Hurricane fault, which runs north and south on a line 15 miles east of St. George. East of the fault the rocks are relatively little disturbed. Some smaller faults and some low anticlines are present, but as a whole the district is one of low monoclinal dips without any large modifications. West of the Hurricane fault folds and smaller faults of various sizes have so greatly changed the original attitude of the rocks that the district is structurally complex in comparison with that east of the fault. Nothing more was done in the field near Virgin City east of the Hurricane fault until 1918, when the three producing wells were cleaned out and shot, pumping was started, and a small local refinery was built. A new well was drilled near the old wells and has a production of 4 or 5 barrels a day. The total production from the four wells, which are uncased holes 550 to 600 feet JAN. 19, 1922 proceedings: botanical society 45 deep, is about 20 barrels a day (September, 1920). The bulk of this amount is coming from one well, the other wells pumping much more water than oil. The refinery will handle 800 gallons of crude oil per 8-hour shift, and the products find a ready local market. The oil is reported to range in gravity from 25° to 35° Baume, to have a paraffin base that includes some asphalt, and to contain some sulphur. The oil comes from a 1-foot bed of limestone which is at the top of the basal Rock Canyon conglomeratic member of the Moenkopi. It seems most probable on the evidence presented that terraces, or areas of low dip, are favorable to the accumulation oil in this field and that the steep slopes are unfavorable. There are no anticlines, faults, or other features closely enough associated with the producing field to offer an ex- planation for the accumulation of oil, so that the only likely factor left is that of accumulation on a terrace. The value of the region west of Hurricane fault as a possible producer of oil it is impossible, of course, to gage in advance of drilling. The region near St. George contains favorable structural features, and there are rocks in them capable of serving as reservoirs for oil. At certain places, there is evidence favorable to the assumption that these rocks carry some oil. Whether oil is actually present in these rocks in the anticlines and domes remains for the drill to determine. The report closes with recommendations for drilling, H. W. Stone. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY The 152nd regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, May 3, 1921. There were 32 present. The meeting was called to order by President Chambliss, after which the minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. The executive com- mittee presented the names of Mr. A. J. Bruman, Mr. Frank G. O'DonnELL and Robert Claude Wright as candidates for membership. Dr. Robert F. Griggs of the National Geographic Society, Mr. Charles G. Woodbury, Director of the Bureau of Raw Products Research, National Canners' Association, and Mr. John W. Taylor of the Office of Cereal Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry, whose names were presented at the April Meeting, were voted into the Society. A letter from the Commission of Fine Arts to the Society in regard to the establishment of a National Botanic Garden on the Mount Hamilton tract was read. Mr. PicTER moved that the Chair appoint a committee to represent the Society in furthering the Botanic Garden project. This was seconded, the motion put and carried. President Chambliss later appointed on this com- mittee the following: Mr. David G. Fairchild, Chairman Prof. L. G. CORBETT Mr. F. V. CoviLLE Mr. Walter T. Swingle Mr. George B. Sudworth 46 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 The regLilar program of the evening followed: Peter Bisset: Roses for Garden Decoration (illustrated). The conditions suitable for best results in growing roses may be summarized. The location should be open to the sun from the East and vSouth and protected from the West and North by trees, preferably evergreens. The soil must be well drained and should be enriched b}'^ the application of well-rotted manure, which should be thoroughly spaded in. Four pounds of bone meal should be added to each wheelbarrow load of soil. Concerning varieties; the tea roses are very popular. The hybrid tea is probably the rose of the future for American gardens. Maman Cochet, a hardy tea rose, is well adapted to the climate of Washington. Of the hybrid perpetuals, Baroness de Rotheschild, Mrs. John Laing, Mad Gabriel Luzett, Ulrich Brunner, Paul Neyron and Frau Karl Druschke are among the most beautiful. The ramblers have their use and can transform an ugly fence or unsightly place into an attractive picture. Among the Rugosas, which come to us from China, the most attractive are Mrs. George Bruant, Blanch double de Coubert, with its semi-double flowers, and Alba semi-plenarj'- and the hybrid Conrad F. Meyer. Hugonis is one of the latest arrivals — a new yellow rose. Twenty-four varieties of roses are recommended for general garden culture : Augustine Guinoisseau Mme. Abel Chatenay Caroline Testout Mme. Hoste Cecile Brunner Mme. Jean Dupuy Dean Hole Maman Cochet Fabvier Marie van Houtte Fisher Holmes Mrs. John I.aing Florence Pemberton Mrs. R. G. Sharmon-Crawford Frau Karl Druschki Rosette de la Legion d'Honneur Gustave Grunerwald Souvenir du President Carnot Gustave Regis Ulrich Brunner Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Victor Hugo La France White Maman Cochet Dr. C. D WIGHT Marsh: Poisonous Wkorled Milkweeds (illustrated). Asclepias galioides, the whorled milkweed, is one of the most poisonous plants which has been investigated. This species is confined to Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Utah. Two to three ounces of a fresh plant of A . galioides will kill a sheep. The effects from eating are violent spasms, then death. High temperatures are reached in some animals in acute stages. This species is equally poisonous to sheep and horses but is not so poisonous to cattle, that is, with equal doses per hundred weight. There are at least two toxic substances in plants: (1) a narcotic glucoside, (2) a spasmodic principle. These have been separated. Capillary congestion is caused in the organs of the animal, also degeneration in the organs. This is so serious that recovery rarely occurs. Asclepias pumila is found on the plains in Eastern Colorado. Eating of these plants caused same symptoms in the animal as A. galioides, but the plant is not so toxic. The dosage is 4 times as great. A. verticillata geyeri — Missouri Valley, Iowa. Animals eating this plant show same symptoms, but plant is still less toxic. Dosage 10 times as much. It is of little importance as a poisonous plant. Dosage 2 pounds per 100 lbs. plants. JAN. 19, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 47 A. mexicana is found in Nevada and California extending south into Mexico. Same symptoms — not as toxic about like pumila — dosage 4 times galioides. All produce same effect on animals. Galioides — a dry land plant — spreads by seed and by roots — cultivation spreads plant. Dr. Arno ViEhoever: Edible and Poisonous Beans of the Lima Type. — Phaseolus hinatus L. (illustrated). Beans of the lima type {Phaseolus lunatus) are rich in food essentials, carbohydrates, protein and fat. All varieties contain, in addition, the glucoside linamarin, yielding, like the amygdalin of bitter almonds, hydro- cyanic acid when macerated with water. In domestic cultivated forms the amount of hydrocyanic acid is so small that the beans can be considered safe for consumption. The majority of samples obtained from tropical countries, however, were found to yield excessi\^e amounts of the poisonous acid in dif- ferent samples as well as in individual beans of the same sample. The amount of hydrocyanic acid found in the domestic lima beans ranged from a trace to the maximum of 10 mg. per 100 g. of beans. We obtained from the tropical beans quantities of hydrocyanic acid amounting to as much as 300 mg. and more in 100 g. of the material. The large, uniformly white lima bean, grown on an extensive scale in California, and also imported from Madagascar, has been found harmless. Small lima beans cannot be considered as coming from a different species than the large lima beans. The most poisonous forms found were, however, beans of the small type. The color does not diflFerentiate the harmless from the poisonous forms, neither do the morphology or structure of the beans give safe means of separa- tion and differentiation. There are, however, morphological and anatomical characteristics which permit the ready differentiation of beans of the lima type from beans of other types, one of the most striking means being the general absence of calcium oxalate in the seedcoat of Phaseolus lunattis. Cooking of the poisonous beans does not render them harmless, although the boiling water will extract a portion of the compound yielding hydrocyanic acid. The name "Lima Bean" should be limited to the edible forms. Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Forty-one Federal Government periodicals suspended publication on December 1, for lack of specific authorization from Congress for their con- tinuance. Among the scientific and technical periodicals suspended are: Experiment Station Record; Journal of Agricultural Research; Monthly Weather Review; and Public Roads. The Petrologists' Club met at the home of H. G. Ferguson on December 20, and discussed the following topics: E- B. Sampson: Origin of serpentine in the lime type of asbestos deposits; S. H. Cathcart: Review of W. N. Benson's ''Origin of serpentine;" C. S. Ross and E. V. Shannon: Iddingsite as a deuteric mineral. The National Museum reports the receipt of a fragment of a heretofore unknown meteorite (a pallasite) from Cold Bay, western Alaska. The entire mass as found was in the form of a badly oxidized mass of but a few pounds weight, which was at once broken up by the finders and in large part lost. The find is the second from Alaska proper, the first having been that of Chilkat (an iron). 48 JOURNAL Olf THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 2 The Bureau of Standards announces that a considerable improvement has been noted in the quaHty of American analytical weights. A number of sets have been received recently in which every weight was within the prescribed tolerances, while four recent sets of foreign weights showed 20 to 32 per cent of the weights outside the tolerances. A dinner was given at the Cosmos Club on Friday night, December 16, by the officers of the Academy and the Chemical Society in honor of Prof. Jacques Cavalier, recteur of the University of Toulouse and Exchange Professor at a group of American universities. The dinner followed a lecture by Prof. Cavalier at the Bureau of Standards in the afternoon, on Les in- dustries chimiques en France pendant la Guerre. Dr. Barton W. EvErmann, at one time with the U. S. Fish Commission in Washington, and a former editor of the Proceedings and of the Journal of the Academy, has been appointed director of the new Steinhart Aquarium of the California Academy of Sciences at San Francisco, California. A course of ten lectures on applied anthropology is being given by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the National Museum, under the joint auspices of the Educational Department of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Institute of Vocational Research of Washington. Dr. W. J. Humphreys of the Weather Bureau lectured before the Physics Club of the Bureau of Standards on November 28, on The temperature and other conditions of the free air. Dr. Franz August Richard Jung, a practicing physician in Washington, and a resident member of the Academy since 1902, died at his home at 1868 Columbia Road on December 16, 1921, in his fifty-third year. Dr. Jung was born in Thuringia, Germany, October 9, 1869. He came to the United States in 1896, and took up the practice of his profession in Washington in collabora- tion with his wife. Dr. SoEiE A. Nordhoff-Jung. They were in Munich when the War began in 1914, and opened there an American Red Cross Hospital, which was closed in 1917 when the United States entered the War. Dr. Jung was a member of the Academy and the Medical Society, and was a frequent contributor to the medical journals, especially on subjects related to digestion and assimilation. Mr. S. Kruse, associate electrical engineer at the Bureau of Standards, who has been engaged in radio development work at the Bureau, has been granted a year's leave of absence and has accepted a position with the Ham- mond Radio Research Corporation, Gloucester, Massachusetts. Mr. A. A. Stevenson, chairman of the American Engineering Standards Committee, spoke before the Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on December 9 on The significance of standardization to industry and the Federal Government. Dr. Raymond W. Woodward has resigned as physicist and chief of the sec- tion of mechanical metallurgy of the Bureau of Standards, to becomec hief met- allurgist for the Whitney Manufacturing Company of Hartford, Connecticut. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 February 4, 1922 No. 3 MINERALOGY. — Tschermigite {Ammonium Alum.) from Wyoming. E. Theodore Erickson.^ U. S. Geological Survey. INTRODUCTION A sample of mineral to be tested for potash was received from Mr. C. R. McGregor of the firm of McGregor Brothers Company, contrac- tors and builders, Ogden, Utah. The mineral was identified as tscher- migite, natural ammonium alum, and as far as known is the first re- ported occurrence of this mineral in America. Mr. McGregor has kindly furnished information regarding the deposit of the mineral; it is located about 5 kilometers (3 miles) south of Wamsutter, and 65 Km. (40 miles) west of Rawlins, Wyoming, both places being on the Union Pacific Railroad. The mineral occurs in a 2 meter ledge of black shale and is traceable along the brink of the hills for nearly 5 km. (3 miles). The writer wishes to express his thanks to Dr. W. T. Schaller for his cooperative interest in the work and preparation of this paper. ASSOCIATION AND PROPERTIES In the specimens received by the Geological Survey, tschermigite forms the cementing material holding together seams of pure tscher- migite, fragments of brown bituminous shale, nodules of yellow jarosite and a few scattered gypsum crystals. The cementing tschermigite is intimately mixed with the shale fragments and asso- ciated minerals. Many of the smaller pieces of shale are rudely rec- tangular in shape and where these have fallen away, cubic cavities re- main in the compact tschermigite. An abundance of pure material suitable for analysis, could readily be obtained from the seams. The jarosite coats, and in places is inclosed in, the alum, and also forms small pure nodular masses. It is. pale yellow in color and very 1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Novem- ber 3, 1921. 49 50 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 fine grained, the individual crystals and their rhombohedral character being recognized only under the highest magnifying power of the pet- rographic microscope. The probability of this jarosite containing ammonia was suggested. A carefully selected sample was obtained, largely from the small nodular masses. Treatment with water at room temperature (near 25° C.) yielded 0.87 per cent soluble matter, consisting of some tschermigite, together with a small quantity of jarosite, and a trace of organic matter. If it be considered that the water-soluble content of the jarosite is practically all tschermigite the 0 . 87 per cent soluble matter would contain only 0.05 per cent am- monia as (NH4)20. The jarosite sample was found to contain 1 .30 per cent (N 114)20, which when corrected for the ammonia in 0.87 per cent of admixed tschermigite, gave 1.25 per cent for the pure jarosite. A lack of suitable material prevented further work being done other than to establish quantitatively the presence of consider- able potash and a slight amount of soda. As far as know this is the first recorded occurrence of an ammoniacal jarosite. The small amber colored gypsum crystals are not very abundant and do not present any evidence of unusual composition. The tschermigite is colorless or white in thick masses and has a clear glassy appearance in small pieces. The mineral is isotropic and the broken pieces do not show any cleavage. The refractive index was found to be 1.457 and the density 1.645. Cornu- found the density of the Dux, Bohemia, tschermigite to be 1.636. The arti- ficial ammonium alum has the density 1.626. The value 1.50 given for tschermigite in Dana's System of Mineralogy is obviously too low. In some of the cavities are small incomplete crystals of tschermigite and some of the columnar masses have a large number of minute facets of the same crystal form along their side. Crystal faces are also present on top of parts of the seams, but nowhere were complete crystals evident. The incomplete crystals were seldom larger than one or two millimeters. The forms noted are a (100), o(lll) and d(llO), all developed nearly equally, but with a very nonequal devel- opment of the different faces of a form on the same crystal. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION The mineral readily fuses in its own water of crystallization below the boiling point ot toluene (105° C). It is easily soluble in cold water and gives the usual reactions for ammonium alum. The ^ Reference given under analysis III. FEB. 4, 1922 ERIckson: tschermigite 51 quantitative analyses were made on a uniform sample of carefully se- lected material which was practically free from associated mineral and gangue. The average results obtained are tabulated below (I) , together with the theoretical composition of ammonium alum [AI2 (804)3- (NH4)2S04.- 24H2O] (II), and analyses of the mineral from Bohemia (III, IV). TABLE 1. — Analyses of Tschermigite I II III IV Average analysis of tschermigite from Wyoming Composition of [Al2(S04)3. (NH4)2S04.24H20] Tschermigite from Dux, Bohemia Tschermigite from Briix Bohemia A1003 11.57 11.28 11.40 11.39 (NH4)20.... 5.23 5.74 5.86<^ 5.62 NaaO K2O 0.21 Trace [0.06 [0.17 MgO 0.13 SO3 35.11 35.33 34.99 35.14 H2O 47.82 47.65 [47.69''] [47.59^] Insol 0.06 0.08 FezOg.CaO.Cl Trace O.Ol'^ Total 100.13 100.00 100.00 100.00 ** Given as 3.83 per cent (NH4)20, but obviously an error, the 3.83 per cent representing NH3. The value has been changed to its equivalent (5.86) for (NH4)20. The water con- tent given as 49 .72 has been correspondingly corrected to 47 .69. ^ Given as 3.67 per cent NH3 which has also been changed to its equivalent value of 5.62 per cent (NH4)20. A correction has likewise been made of the reported water per- centage, 49.54 obtained by difference, to 47.59 per cent. ' FeaOs. Analysis III; Deichmiiller, J. V., Neues Vorkommenvon Ammonium-alaun. Sitzb. d. n. Ges. Isis, Dresden, 1885, 33. Analysis by Geissler. Locality, Vertrau auf Gott mine near Dux, Bohemia. This occurrence is also described by Cornu, F., Tschermigite von Schellenken bei Dux in Bohmen. Centr. Min. Geol. 1907, 467-468. Analysis IV; Sachs, A., Uber ein neues Tschermigitvorkommen von Briix in Bohmen, etc. Centr. Min. Geol. 1907: 465-467. Locality, Guidoschacht in Nieder-Georgental near Briix, Bohemia. A set of four earher analyses, by Gruner, Pfaff, Lampadius, and Stromeyer, showing similar results, are given by Rammelsberg, in his Handbuch d. Mineralchemie, p. 285 (1860). Natural ammonium alum also occurs at Tschermig, Bohemia (from which place the mineral is named); and has been reported from Tokod near Grau, Hungary; Saalfeld in Thuringia; in crater of Mt. Etna with other sulfates; and at Solfatara at Pozzuoli. 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 The ammonia was determined by the direct distillation of the sam- ple in the customary Kjeldahl apparatus. A gram sample was dis- solved in a 500 cc. Kjeldahl flask with 150 cc. of distilled water, an excess strong NaOH solution was then added witb the usual precau- tions and 75 cc. of distillate were slowly received into 25 cc. N/10 H2SO4. The excess of acid in the distillate was titrated with N/10 NaOH solution, using methyl orange indicator, the neutralization value of the distilled ammonia being obtained by difference and its percentage computed. Duplicate determinations agreed closely and were cor- rected for a blank test made on all reagents used. The mineral was dried to constant weights at temperature intervals between 105° C. and 410° C. inclusive, with the following results. At 105° C. a loss of 36.48 per cent was obtained, which is slightly over three-fourths of the total percentage of water. At 200° C. the remain- ing water, excepting about one per cent of the total, was given off. At 350° C. a few tenths of one per cent of water are still retained in the residue. Losses in excess of the actual percentage of water com- menced near 360° C. and became about three per cent at 410° C. Evidently ammonium sulfate in the double compound commences de- composition near 360° C. which is about 80° C. higher than the decomposition temperature of pure ammonium sulfate. TABLE 2. — The Loss Obtained by Heating Tschermigite Temperature Percentage of loss Toluene bath (105° C.) . . . 36.48 Air bath 125° C. 38.07 200° C. 47.10 215° C. 47.18 250° C. 47.26 ' 310° C. 47.26 350° C. 47.58 ] Percentage of water in 360° C. 47.93 J mineral 47 . 82 410° C. 50.62 The strongly ignited residue gave a total loss of 88.06 per cent. This loss consisted of the water and ammonia [(NH4)20] content to- gether with nearly all of the sulfuric anhydride, a slight amount (0.10) being retained. In order to interpret correctly the function of the small quantity of substances besides AI2O3, retained in the ignited residue, some com- parative experiments with a prepared sodium alum were carried out. The percentage of strongly ignited residue from sodium alum was found to be nearly identical with the sum of the percentages of Na20 FEB. 4, 1922 ERICKSON : TSCHERMIGITE 53 plus AI2O3. The average results on the prepared sodium alum are as follows : TABLE 3 Partial Analysis, Theoretical Composition and Ignition Results of Sodium Alum Partial analysis of the prepared so- dium alum Theoretical per- centage of NazO -f AI2O3 Residue obtained by strong igni- tion Theoretical per- centage of Na2S04 + AI2O3. NasO AI2O3 Total 6.96 11.07 17.76 17.91 17.78 26.64 Although the ignited residue from the sodium alum contained a small quantity of sulfate which compensates for the loss of a small quantity of volatilized alkali, the result seems to indicate the forma- tion of a sodium aluminate, since in the ignited residue practically all of the sulfate radical is volatilized. The partial elimination of SO3 from Na20 in the ignited residue of tschermigite is thus explained. It is possible that the small amount of MgS04 in the tschermigite residue reacts in a similar way with the AI2O3. However MgS04 alone in small quantities will dissociate con- siderably into MgO and SO3 in the temperature of the ordinary strong blast. The percentage of water was obtained by subtracting the sum of the (NH4)20 and the volatilized SO3 (the total percentage of SO3 cor- rected for SO3 retained in the ignited residue) from the total loss on ignition. The average results for tschermigite are tabulated below. Table 4. — Total Water Content of Tschermigite (NH4)20 5 .23 Total SO3 35.11 SO3 retained in the ignited residue. . . 0 . 10 Volatilized SO3 35 .01 40.24 Total loss upon ignition 88 .06 Subtracting the total of (NH4)20 and volatilized SO3 40 .24 Water by difference 47 .82 Ignited Residue of Tschermigite Residue upon ignition 11 .94 per cent Sum of constituents other than AI2O3 0 . 50 AI2O3 by difference 11 .44 per cent AhOb by direct determination 1 1 . 57 per cent 54 JOURNAL OF THE) WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 The percentage of residue obtained was corrected for the minor non- volatile constituents, as follows: Na20, 0.21 per cent; MgO, 0.13 per cent; nonvolatile insoluble matter, 0.06 per cent, and SO3 retained in the residue, 0.10 per cent; the sum of which is 0.50 per cent. BOTANY. — On the species of Dalbergia of Mexico and Central America. H. PlTTlER.^ As considered in the light of modern taxonomy, the genus Dal- bergia includes the former genera Amerimnon and Ecastophyllum. There is no generic difference between Amerimnon, established by Browne in 1756 to include Dalbergias with samaroid pods, and Ecastophyllum of the same author and date, containing the species with nummular pods. On the other hand, on the evidence of the generic definition, the species of Amerimnon do not fit into Ecasto- phyllum, and species of Ecastophyllum cannot come under Amerimnon. In 1781, Linnaeus filius described his new genus Dalbergia, which under both the International and the American Rules would not be valid, but for the fact that neither of the two names having the priority really represents a generic entity, but only one part of a single genus, while the later name was intended to apply to both parts. In this paper, therefore, in accordance with the well founded con- clusions given by Prain^ in his extensive monograph ''The Species of Dalbergia of South Eastern Asia," the name Dalbergia is retained to designate the genus; Amerimnon becomes the name of a subgenus, while the species of Ecastophyllum are transferred to a single section of the same. This is the view accepted by all European botanists and, I believe, by the majority of those on this side of the Atlantic. In all the recent literature on the subject, including the description of a large number of species old and new, the same name is used, so that the resuscitation of Amerimnon as a substitute for Dalbergia would cause a great and useless confusion, even omitting the fact that it cannot be applied to the genus as understood today. In its original form, the present paper included full descriptions of all Mexican and Central American species. Circumstances now have made it necessary to suppress the descriptions of old species and to re- duce the paper to a simple enumeration of them , with their known dis- tribution, and to descriptions of only the proposed new species. In addition, the following key has been prepared. ^ Received December 15, 1921. 2 Ann. Bot. Gard. Calc. 10: 10-11. 1904. FEB. 4, 1922 PITTIER: DALBERGIAS of MEXICO 55 1. D. cuhilquitzensis . 2. D. tucurensis. 3. D. melanocardium. KEY TO THE MIDDLE AMERICAN SPECIES OF DALBERGL.\ Standard blade straight or hardly reflexed; style short and thick (Sissoa). Leaflets ovate or oblong-lanceolate, rather large (3 to 11 cm. long); stamens 9. Flowers about 5.5 mm. long, the standard obovate, subauriculate at the base ; leaflets 3 to 8 cm. long, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. broad. Flowers about 3.5 mm. long, the standard ovate or oblong, attenuate at the base; leaflets 4 to 11 cm. long, 2 to 5 cm. broad. Leaflets ovate or ovate-long, rather small (seldom over 4 cm. long) ; stamens 9 or 10. Stamens 9. Inflorescences loose, dichotomous-panicu- late; flowers about 4 mm. long; leaflets ovate, obtuse or subacumi- nate. Ovary 1 -ovulate; standard suborbiculate. Inflorescences congested, cymose-panicu- late. Flowers 3 to 3.5 mm. long; ovary gla- brous, 2 or 3-ovulate; leaflets 3 to 5 cm. long. Flowers about 5.5 mm. long; ovary hairy, 1 or 2-ovulate; leaflets 0.5 to 3 cm. long. Stamens 10. Pistil glabrous. Ovary 4 or 5-ovulate; wings narrow, elongate, the base of the blade truncate, 2-auriculate ; leaflets ob- long or obovate, whitish and rufo- reticulate beneath. Ovary 1 or 2-ovulate; wings oblique, obovate, 1-auriculate; leaflets ovate, emarginate, ferruginous-pubescent beneath. Pistil more or less hairy. Ovary 2 or 3- ovulate. Flowers 5 mm. long, the pedicels 1 mm. long or less; ovary minutely pubes- cent; standard subauriculate. Flowers 10.5 mm. long, the pedicels 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long; ovary hairy on the margins; standard attenuate at the base. Standard blade reflexed (with one exception, D. hrownei, but then leaves 1-foliolate) ; style slender, often subulate (Amerininon). 4. D. glomerata. 5. D. congestiflora. 6. D. tahascana. 7. D. cibix. 8. D. mexicana. 9. D. campecheana. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 Flowers not over 12 mm. long; style geniculate, short and straight; legume orbicular and 1 -seeded, or ovate-oblong and 1 to 3- seeded {Ecastophyllum) . Legume ovate-oblong, rounded at the apex, 1 to 3-seeded; flowers about 11 mm. long; standard obov'ate, straight; leaves 1-foliolate; stamens 10. Legume orbicular, 1 - seeded ; standard orbic- ulate, reflexed. Leaves 1-foliolate; flowers about 10 mm. long; stamens 10. Leaves 3 to 5-foliolate; flowers about 6 mm. long; stamens 9. Flowers not less than 14 mm. long; style long and strongly arcuate ; legume more or less lanceolate, 1 to 5-seeded. Stamens 10 (Miscolobium) . Leaves entirely glabrous, 5 to 7-foliolate, the leaflets 3 to 4 cm. long. Leaves more or less pubescent, 7 to 15- foliolate. Leaves and pods hardly changing color in desiccation; leaflets 7 to 11, ovate, glaucous beneath; legume 1 to 5- seeded, rounded-obtuse at the apex. Leaves and pods turning black in desic- cation. Leaflets suborbiculate or broadly ovate, not over 5 cm. long, the margin not re volute. Leaflets ovate or oblong, up to 10.5 cm. long, the margins re volute. Flowers about 15 mm. long, the ped- icels 4 to 5 mm. long; standard suborbiculate, more or less emar- ginate at the base. Flowers about 16 mm. long, the ped- icels about 5 mm. long; standard ovate or oblong, attenuate at the base. 10. D. hrownei. 11. D. ecastophyllum. 12. D. monetaria. 13. D. calycina. 14. D. hypoleuca. lb. D. granadillo. 16. D. retusa. 17. D. lineata. ENUMERATION OF SPECIES 1. Dalbergia cubilquitzensis (Donn. Smith) Pittier. Dalbergia variabilis var. cubilquitzensis Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 57: 417. 1914. Type Locality : Cubilquitz, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, altitude about 350 m.{von Tuerckheim 4091). Other Specimens Examined: Guatemala: Los Amates, Department Izabal, 1905, Kellerman 4789. This species, considered by Mr. Donnell Smith as a mere variety of D. variabilis Vogel, differs from this in the pubescence, the shape and size of the FEB. 4, 1922 PITTIER: DALBERGIAS of MEXICO 57 calyx lobes, the shape of the petals, the number of stamens, the shape and size of the leaves and leaflets, etc. 2. Dalbergia tucurensis Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 46: 111. 1908. Type Locality: Concepcion near Tucuon, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala (von Tuerckheim II. 1712). 3. Dalbergia melanocardium Pittier, sp. nov. Medium sized tree; branchlets terete, ferruginous pubescent, later glabrate and grayish. Leaves 7 to 11-foliolate, the rachis terete, minutely pilosulous, 4 to 13 cm. long. Leaflets subcoriaceous, the petiolules sparsely ferruginous-pubescent, 3 to 4 mm. long, the blades ovate, rounded or subacute at the base, obtuse and subretuse at the apex, 1.5 to 4.5 cm. long, 1.3 to 2.5 cm. broad, dark green and pilosulous above, paler or rufescent, ferruginous-pubescent and reticulate beneath, the very slender veins prominent on both faces. Inflorescences paniculate, axillary and terminal, congested, shorter than the leaves, the branched rachis ferruginous-pubescent. Bractlets small, ovate or orbiculate, ferruginous-pubescent. Flowers sessile or short pedicel- late, about 4 mm. long. Calyx subbilabiate, broad, fulvous-hairy, about 2.5 mm. long, the two vexillar lobes broad and rounded, the 2 lateral ones equally long and obtuse, but narrower, the carinal one about tw^ice longer, obtuse or bilobulate. Petals glabrous; standard suborbiculate, the claw oblique, 0.8 to 0.9 mm. long, the blade subbiauriculate at the base, emarginate at the apex, about 3 mm. long and broad; wings free from the keel, auriculate on both margins at the base, obtuse at the apex, about 4 mm. long (including the claw) and 1.4 mm. broad; carinal petals broader than the wings, ovate, auriculate on the vexillar side, obtuse, about 3.8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Stamens 9, monadelphous, the staminal tube glabrous, open above. Pistil 4.5 to 5 mm. long, the ovary stipitate, 1-ovulate, ferruginous-villous, the style thick, arcuate, glabrous, the stigma inconspicuous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 258410, collected at Ojo de Agua, Department of Santa Rosa, Guatemala, altitude about 900 meters. May, 1892, by He3^de and Lux (J. D. Smith 3295). Known among the natives under the name of "Ebano," and distributed as Dalbergia variabilis Vogel. Like this species it has a calyx with two broad more or less connate upper lobes, and three narrower lower lobes, the middle (carinal) one about twice longer, but obtuse or retuse. But the flowers are sessile, shorter and broader, there are 9 stamens, the ovary is densely villous-hairy and the congested inflorescence is not cymose. 4. Dalbergia glomerata Hemsl. Diag. PI. Nov. 1:8. 1878. Type Locality: Sangolica, Mexico (Botteri 1027). 5. Dalbergia congestiflora Pittier, sp. nov. Small tree, 3 to 4 m. high; branchlets terete, striate, sparsely lenticel- late, at first minutely grayish-pubescent. Leaves 7 to 13-foliolate, the rachis slender, sparsely pubescent, 4 to 11 cm. long. Leaflets subcoriaceous, the petiolules pilosulous, 2 to 3 mm. long, the blades ovate-oblong, broadly cuneate at the base, rounded, slightly emargi- nate and sometimes mucronulate at the apex, 0.5 to 3 cm. long, 0.3 to 2.3 cm. broad, sparsely pilosulous on both faces, reticulate and with the venation prominulous above, beneath lineate-reticulate, the costa and veins prominent. 58 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 Inflorescences paniculate, cymose-branched, axillary or terminal on defoli- ate branchlets, congested, not over 3 cm. long, the rachis densely ferrug- inous-hairy. Bracts and bractlets oblong, ferruginous-hairy, very small, caducous. Flowers pedicellate, 5.5 mm. long, the pedicels 1 to 1.5 mm. long. Calyx subcampanulate, 2 to 2.5 mm. long, sparsely pubescent, the 2 vexillar lobes broad, rounded and adnate, the lateral lobes narrower and acute, the carinal lobe apiculate and longer. Petals glabrous; standard ovate or oblong, more or less attenuate at the base, emarginate at the apex, 3.6 mm. long, 1.4 to 1.6 mm. broad; wings elongate, oblique, more or less attenuate at the base, rounded at the apex, about 3 mm. long, 0.9 to 1.1 mm. broad; cari- nal petals ovate, auriculate on the vexillar side, obtuse at the apex, the claw about 0.8 mm. long, the blade about 2.5 mm. long, 1.5 to 1.8 mm. broad. Stamens 9, glabrous. Pistil 2.5 to 3 mm. long, hairy, ciliate on the margins, the ovary 1-ovulate (?), the style short and thick, the stigma inconspicuous. Type in the U. S. National Hebarium, no. 381855, collected on lava fields near Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico, altitude about 1650 m., March 17, 1899, by C. G. Pringle (no. 6981). Distributed as Dalbergia glomerata Hemsley, but the leaves are much smaller, the leaflets less numerous, more than half smaller, pilosulous on both faces, the flowers are larger, the standard is sensibly longer than the wings and keel and not suborbiculate but ovate or distinctly oblong, the ovary is apparently 1-ovulate, etc. 6. Dalbergia tabascana Pittier, sp. Shrub (?); branchlets grayish, sparsely lenticellate, at first minutely grayish-pubescent. Leaves 6 or 7-foliolate, the rachis slender, minutely pilosulous, 3 to 3.5 cm. long. Leaflets subcoriaceous, the petiolules minutely pubescent, 1 to 1.5 mm. long, the blades oblong or obovate, rounded at the base and apex, 1 to 2.5 cm. long, 0.5 to 1 cm. broad, dark green and glabrous above, whitish or rufescent, rufo-reticulate and minutely pilosulous beneath. Inflorescences few-flowered, subcymose, axillary or paniculate at the end of the branchlets, the rachis branched, sparsely gray-pubescent. Bracts and bractlets ovate-oblong, pubescent, not over 1 mm. long, caducous. Flow- ers pedicellate, about 9 mm. long, the pedicels minutely gray-pubescent, 2 to 4 mm. long. Calyx tubular-campanulate, 3.5 to 4 mm. long, sparsely pubescent or glabrescent at the base, pubescent on the lobes, subbilabiate, the carinal lobe apiculate, not much longer than the vexillar ones, these ob- tuse, the lateral ones smaller and acute. Petals glabrous; standard obovate- oblong, straight, attenuate and subauriculate at base, rounded and slightly emarginate at apex, the claw about 2 mm. long, the blade 5.5 mm. long, 1 .6 mm. broad; wings elongate-oblong, auriculate on the vexillar side, subauriculate on the carinal side, rounded at apex, the claw 2 mm. long, the blade about 5.5 mm. long, 1.6 mm. broad; carinal petals falcate, auriculate on the vexillar side, obtuse at the apex, the claw 2.2 mm. long, the blade about 4 mm. long and 1.8 mm. broad. Stamens 10, monadelphous, glabrous, alternately short and long. Pistil about 6 mm. long, glabrous, the ovary long-stipitate, 4 or 5-ovulate, the style oblique, straight, the stigma subcapitellate. Type in the John Donnell Smith Herbarium, collected in inundated places near Mayito, Tabasco, Mexico, August 17, 1889, by J. N. Rovirosa (no. 583). FEB. 4, 1922 PITTIER: DALBERGIAS of MEXICO 59 The tvpe specimen is labelled Dalbergia campecheana Benth., but the leaves are small, with few, distinctly petiolulate leaflets, the inflorescences are few- flowered, the ovar}^ is 4 or 5-ovulate, etc. 7. Dalbergia cibix Pittier, sp. nov. Scandent shrub or vine, ascending to 20 m. above the ground; branchlets terete, grayish, more or less lenti'cellate, at first densely ferruginous-pubescent. Leaves 7 to 9-foliolate, the rachis terete, slender, ferruginous-hirtous, 4 to 5 cm. long. Leaflets submembranous, the petiolules ferruginous-pubescent, about 1.5 mm. long, the blades ovate, rounded at the base, rounded and slightly emarginate at the apex, 1 to 2 cm. long, 0.6 to 1.3 cm. broad, sparsely pilosulous and minutely reticulate above, beneath densely ferruginous-pubes- cent, the costa prominent and the veins impressed; margins re volute. Inflorescences paniculate, many-flowered, axillary, terminal or more or less fasciculate on defoliated nodes, the rachis branched, ferruginous-hair}^ Bracts and bractlets suborbiculate, pubescent, 1 mm. long or less, caducous. Flowers pedicellate, white, about 7 mm. long, the pedicels 1 to 1.5 mm. long. Calyx subtubular, bilabiate, 2.5 to 3 mm. long, sparsely pubescent, the 2 vexillar lobes broad, rounded and adnate, the 2 lateral lobes small andacute, the carinal lobe narrow, acute, twice as long as the others. Petals pink (?), glabroas; standard oblong, hardly auriculate at the base, emarginate, the lobes rounded at the apex, the claw 1.2 mm. long, the blade 5.5 mm. long, 3.3 mm. broad; wings oblique, obovate, auriculate on the vexillar margin at the base, obtuse at the apex, the claw about 1.5 mm. long, the blade 4.5 to 5 mm. long, about 2 mm. broad; carinal petal subfalcate, auriculate on the vexillar side, subacute, the claw as in the wings, the blade 3.2 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Stamens 10, monadelphous, alternately long and short, glabrous. Pistil about 5 mm. long, glabrous, the ovary stipitate, 1 or 2-o\'u- late, the style slightly arcuate, truncate at the apex. Legume ovate-oblong, membranous, attenuate at the base in a short, slender stipe, rounded at the apex, 1-seeded, 4.5 to 6 cm. long, 1.5 to 1.7 cm. broad, glabrous. Seeds immature. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 571750, collected at Yaxcaba, Yucatan, Mexico, 1895, by G. F. Gaumer (no. 721). According to a communication of Dr. Millspaugh, the fruits just de- scribed, which bear the no. 57934, were collected at a different place by Dr. Gaumer but referred to the above species, under no. 721. The Maya name of these pods is "Kuxub-tooch," that of the type speci- mens "cibix." 8. Dalbergia mexicana Pittier, sp. nov. Branchlets terete, finely striate, ferruginous-puberulous, glabrate. Leaves 9 to 11-foliolate, the rachis terete, slender, sparsely ferruginous- pubescent, 5 to 7 cm. long. Leaflets subcoriaceous, the petiolules ferryginous- hairy, about 2 mm. long, the blades ovate, or sometimes suborbicular or obcordate, rounded at the base, rounded-emarginate at the apex, 1 to 4 cm. long, 1 to 2 cm. broad, dark green, lustrous, reticulate, glabrous or sparsely ferruginous, reticulate and sparsely pubescent beneath, the costa subimpressed on both faces, the veins prominulous above, obsolete beneath. Inflorescences axillary, ven.' short (not over 2 cm. long), few-branched, the ramifications subcymose, the rachis ferruginous-hair^^ Bractlets ovate, acute, hairy, not over 0.5 mm. long. Flowers pedicellate, about 5 mm. long, 60 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 the pedicels hairy, 1 mm. long or less. Calyx cupulate, 2 to 3 mm. long, sparsely hairy at the base, more so on the lobules ; vexillar lobules subacute and broad, lateral lobules small, acute, close to the carinal one and separated from the former by deep sinuses; carinal lobule subulate, twice as long as the vexillar ones. Petals glabrous; standard obovate, subbiauriculate at the base, slightly emarginate at the apex, the claw 1.2 mm. long, the blade 4.2 to 4.6 mm. long, 3 to 3.3 mm. broad; wings obovate, rounded-auriculate on the vexillar side, subauriculate on the carinal side, rounded at the apex, the claw 1.2 or 1.3 mm. long, the blade about 4 mm. long, 1.7 or 1.8 mm. broad; carinal petals obovate, auriculate on the vexillar side, rounded at the apex, the claw 1.3 to 1.5 mm. long, the blade about 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Stamens 10, monodelphous, the tube open above, glabrous. Pistil 4.8 mm. long, the ovary minutely pubescent on the margins, 2 to 3-ovulate, the style arcuate, glabrous, the stigma inconspicuous. Type in the John Donnell Smith Herbarium, collected in Mexico, without definite locality, by E. Kerber (no. 434). 9. Dalbergia campecheana Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 37. 1860. Type I^ocality: Campeche, Mexico. vSpecimens Examined : Guatemala: Aquascalientes, 1909, Deam 6125. Mr. J. Donnell Smith identified these specimens with Bentham's above named species. This, however, seems to have larger leaves, with 7 to 19 almost sessile leaflets, while in Beam's specimens these are 9 to 11 and petiolu- late. The other characters seem to agree. 10. Dalbergia brownei (Jacq.) Urban, Symb. Antill. 4: 295. 1905. Amerimnon brownei Jacq. Enum. PI. Carib. 27. 1760. Dalbergia amerimnum Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 36. 1860. Type Locality : Jamaica. Specimens Examined: Venezuela: Puerto Cabello, 1874, Kuntze 1721. Columbia: Negiiangue, on the coast between Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, 1898, H. H. Smith 1750. Dagua Valley, Cauca, altitude 25 meters, Triana 1130. Panama: Providence Island, Bocas del Toro, 1885, Hart 182. Beach between Fato and Playa Damas, 1911, Pittier 3834. Rio Grande swamps, near Panama City, Hayes. La Palma, southern Darien, 1914, Pittier 6613. Coiba Island, Seemann 626. Costa Rica: Ceibo River near Buenos Aires, altitude 200 meters, 1892, Tonduz 6675. Santo Domingo de Osa, 1896, Tonduz 9892. Nicaragua: San Juan del Norte, 1895, Pittier 9658. Guatemala: Boca del Polochic, Department Izabal, 1889, /. D. Smith 1708. Livingston, 1906, von Tuerckeim II. 1216. Mexico: Veracruz, 1910, Adole (?). Tampico, 1898, Pringle 5764, 6809. Rincon Antonio, Oaxaca, 1910, Orcutt 3263. Several species may be included under this name. According to Bentham, it is a tree; Tonduz describes it as a shrub (arbrisseau) ; while H. H. Smith says it is a "twining plant, reaching 30 feet, with a prickly main stem and 2 inches or more in diameter." In my own notes, no. 3834 is described as "a shrubby vine, with white flowers," and no. 6613, as a small tree branching from FEB. 4, 1922 pittier: dalbergias of mexico 61 the base." The only fruits at hand differ a Httle from Bentham's description, and in Donnell Smith no. 1708, from Guatemala, I find the petals narrower, the standard auriculate, the ovary 5-ovulate and other small differences. Although distinctly characteristic of the strand formation, Dalbergia hrownei is sometimes found far above sea-level. H. H. Smith observed it, for instance, up to about 700 meters in Santa Marta. 11. Dalbergia ecastophyllum (Iv.) Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3^: 335, 1894. Hedysarum ecastophyllum L. Syst. ed. 10, 2: 1169. 1759. Ecastaphyllum brownei Pers. Syn. 2: 277. 1807. Type Locality: West Indies. Specimens Ex.\mined: Trinidad: Port of Spain, 1874, Kuntze 764. Venezuela: Paparo, mouth of Rio Grande del Tuy, Barlovento, Miran- da, 1913, Pittier 6349. COLOMBL^: Santa Marta, 1914, Sinclair. Panama: Chagres, 1854, Fendler 315. Colon, Hayes 155. Without definite locaHty, 1874, Kuntze 764. Costa Rica: Boca Banano, 1895, Tondiiz 9156. Diquis River, 1891, Tondiiz 4014. Punta Mala, in the Diquis delta, 1892, Tonduz 6775. Santo Domingo de Osa, 1896, Tonduz 9892. Guatemala: Puerto Barrios, 1905, Deam 59. Honduras: Puerto Sierra, 1903, Wilson 248. Ruatan Island, 1886, Gaumer. British Honduras: Manatee Lagoon, 1906, Peck 463. Dalbergia ecastophyllum has also been reported from many localities from Rio de Janeiro northwards and including the Guianas on the Atlantic sea- board of South America, from all over the West Indies, and from Florida. It is worthy of notice that this shrub does not seem to have been recorded from Mexico. 12. Dalbergia monetaria L. f. Suppl. 317. 1781. Type Locality: Surinam. Specimens Examined: French Guiana: Karouany, Sagot 159. Venezuela: Bosque de Catuche, above Caracas, 1913, Pittier 6297. Panama: Rio Sirri, Trinidad Basin, province of Colon, near sea-level, 1911, Pittier 4029. Honduras: Tela River, near Puerto Sierra, 1903, Wilson 77. Laguna Quemada, Atlantic Coast, 1903, Wilson 627. Guatemala: Puerto Barros, 1905, Deam 70. This species is scarcer in Central America than either D. brownei or D. ecastophyllum. It does not figure in the Biologia Centrali- Americana, and, since the publication of this work, has been reported only from a few localities as shown above, all on the Atlantic seaboard, from Guatemala southeast- wards. It is found also in the West Indies and on the eastern watershed of South America as far south as the Amazon basin. It penetrates far into the interior along the main rivers, and in the vicinity of Caracas reaches an altitude of about 1200 meters. 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 Unless it has been incorrectly stated, the habit of this species is very varia- ble. Some report it as a shrub or small tree up to 3 meters high; Bentham^ says "caulis lignosus vulgo scandens;" and the notes corresponding to my no. 6297 from near Caracas are as follows: "a large vine, often 15 cm. in diam. at the base and climbing to the top of the highest trees." The shape of the fruit is also different inspecimens from different localities, although I have never seen the oblong type reproduced in plate 63 of the work just cited. With reference to this plate it may be opportune to mention that although Bentham indicates only 9 stamens, as always found by myself, he gives two illustrations of the androecium of D. monetaria, each with 10 stamens. 13. Dalbergia calycina Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 35. 1860. Type Locality: Guatemala (Friedrichsthal) . 14. Dalbergia hypoleuca Pittier, sp. nov. Tree; young branchlets ferruginous-pubescent. Leaves 7 to 11-foliolate, the rachis terete, pubescent, glabrescent, 10 to 20 cm. long. Leaflets coriaceous, often opposite or subopposite, the petiol- ules canaliculate, grayish-pubescent, 5 to 7 mm. long, the blades ovate or ovate-oblong, rounded at the base, obtuse and subretuse at the apex, 3 to 7 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. broad, glabrous and finally reticulate with the venation prominulous above, beneath grayish or whitish, minutely pubescent, with the costa very prominent and the veins slightly so ; margins strongly revolute. Inflorescence axillary or terminal. Flowers not known. Legume coriaceous, glabrous, long-stipitate, rounded-attenuate at the base, rounded and mucronulate at the apex, 1 -seeded and then 8 cm. long and 2 cm. broad, or 2 to 5-seeded and up to about 16 cm. long, the breadth varying between 1.7 and 1 cm. Type in the John Donnell Smith Herbarium, collected at El Escobal, near Atenas, Costa Rica, by Federico Golcher. Represented also in the U. S. National Herbarium (no. 716263) by the same collection, without date, and numbered 1747, which probably corresponds to the series of the Instituto fisico-geografico. This is the Costa Rican Cocobola, equal in value to that of Panama, but even scarcer. It is probably a close relative of the latter, but the leaflets are less numerous, and the pods much narrower. 15. Dalbergia granadillo Pittier, sp. nov. Tree. Leaves 7 to 13-foHolate, the rachis terete, at first pubescent, 9 to 17.5 cm. long. Leaflets submembranous, often subopposite, the petiolules sparsely pubescent or glabrescent, canaliculate, 4 to 5 mm. long, the blades suborbiculate or ovate, broadly rounded at the base, obtuse or subacumi- nate at the apex, 3 to 5.5 cm. long, 2 to 4 cm. broad, glabrous and reticulate with the venation prominulous above, glabrous except on the prominent, sparsely pubescent costa, and the veins prominulous, beneath, margins not revolute. Inflorescence paniculate, axillary or terminal, the rachis few-branched, ferruginous-pubescent. Flowers few. Calyx cupulate, ferruginous-pubes- cent, persistent. Other floral details not known. 3 In Mart. Fl. Bras. 15': 229. 1862. FEB. 4, 1922 pittier: dalbergias oe mexico 63 Legume lanceolate, long-stipitate, attenuate at the base, acute at the apex, glabrous, lustrous, 1-seeded and about 9 cm. long and 1.8 or 2 cm. broad, or 2 to 4-seeded and then up to 17.5 cm. long. Seeds oblong-reniform, not mature. Type in the Gray Herbarium, collected at El Tibor, in the valley of the Balsas River (between the States of Guerrero and Michoacan), Mexico, Au- gust 22, 1898, by E. Langlasse (no. 294). Like D. retusa and D. hypoleuca, this species furnishes a precious wood, which is hard, fine, and red- veined, and is known locally as granadillo. The specimens at hand are hardly satisfactory for a description, but they belong to a section heretofore not known to be represented in Mexico, and differ from the other Middle American species of the group in the shape, consistence and indument of the leaflets, and in the shape and appearance of the pods. It is consequently pretty safe to consider them as correspond- ing to a type specifically distinct. 16. Dalbergia retusa Hemsl. Diagn. PI. Nov. 1: 8. 1878. Type Locality : Paraiso, Panama {Hayes 642) . Specimens Examined : Panama: Penonome, Code, 1908, Williams 425. Chagres River above Alhajuela, 1911, Pittier 3511. Vicinity of La Palma, southern Darien, 1914, Pittier 6606. Costa Rica : Salinas Bay, between the littoral plain and La Cruz de Guan- acaste, 1908, PiUier 2737. This is the Panama "cocobola," a hard wood very well known commercially and obtained probably from several species of the same genus. I have seen no specimens from the type collection, but ours agree generally with the description. The leaflets, however, are more numerous and not usually retuse and the flowers seem to be smaller. In Panama this tree has been exploited with such diligence as to have be- come very scarce in the central and western districts. In 1914 the more im- portant logging camps were at Sumacate and Rio Congo in Darien. 17. Dalbergia lineata Pittier, sp. nov. Large deciduous tree with rounded crown; young branchlets minutely fuliginous-pubescent. Leaves 8 to 15-foliolate, the rachis 8 to 20 cm. long, more or less fuliginous- pubescent. Leaflets petiolulate, at first membranous, often opposite or subopposite, the petiolules grayish -hairy, about 7 mm. long, the blades ovate or oblong, cuneate or attenuate at the base, obtuse at the apex, 4 to 8 cm. long, 2 to 3.5 cm. broad, glabrous above, with the costa and veins prominent, densely grayish-pubescent beneath. Stipules ovate, acute, fuliginous-pubescent without, up to 7 mm. long and 3 mm. broad, very cadu- cous. Inflorescences paniculate, axillary or terminal, few-flowered, the rachis fuliginous-pubescent, 4 to 15 cm. long. Bracts and bractlets fuliginous- hairy, very caducous, the latter oblong, obtuse, not over 1 mm. long, inserted in pairs close to the calyx. Flowers about 16 mm. long, the pedicels densely fuliginous-hairy, about 3 mm. long. Calyx cupulate, 5 to 6 mm. long, densely pubescent, the vexillar lobes broader, equal in length to the lateral ones, the 64 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 carinal lobe linear-apiculate and longer. Petals white, delicately purple- lined, glabrous; standard strongly reflexed, ovate, attenuate at the base, emarginate at the apex, the claw 3 mm. long, the blade 10 mm. long, 8.5 mm. broad; wings obovate, oblique, auriculate on the vexillar side, the claw 3.5 mm. long, the blade 11.5 mm. long, 4.5 mm. broad; carinal petals falcate, auriculate on the vexillar side, obtuse at the apex, the claw as in the wings, the blade about 10 mm. long, 4 mm. broad. Stamens 10, monadelphous, alternately long and short. Pistil about 13 mm. long, glabrous, the ovary long-stipitate, linear, 4 to 6-ovulate; style strongly arcuate; stigma capitel- late, inconspicuous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 577918, collected at Nicoya, Costa Rica, April, 1900, by A. Tonduz (no. 13969). A specimen (Inst, fis.-geogr. n. 13887), obtained by the same collector from the forest of Nicoya, is probably the same species. However, the specimens are leafless and floral panicles larger and many -flowered. Mr. Tonduz says that the tree they proceed from is a preponderant one in the forests of the peninsula, being gregarious and giving a characteristic bluish-gray color to the forests in April, the flowering time. The affinities of this species are evidently with Dalhergia retusa Hemsley. EIvKCTRIClTY. — Electromotive force of cells at low temperatures.^ G. W. ViNAL AND F. W. Altrup, Bureau of Standards. The practical importance of a knowledge of the electromotive be- havior of dry cells and storage batteries at low temperatures has arisen from their use in the Arctic and at high altitudes. In June, 1921 the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, of Washington, through Dr. S. J. Mauchly, requested the Bureau of Standards to furnish information in answer to the following questions : (a) What is the open circuit voltage of dry cells at approximately 0° Fahrenheit and below? (b) Are dry cells fit for use after they have been frozen and thawed out again? Since there was no reliable in- formation available on this subject, experimental work was under- taken which included observations on storage batteries also. In the first experiment the temperature range was extended to — 72° C. and as the open circuit voltage of the cells was not materially changed by cooling them to this temperature, the work was extended to — 170° C. because of the theoretical interest in the application of the Gibbs-Helmholtz and Nernst equations to these cells. Two methods of cooling the cells were employed. For the range +25° to —72° C, the cells were submerged in a gasoline bath to which small amounts of carbon dioxide snow were added gradually until the ^ Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards. Received Jan- uary 6, 1922. FEB. 4, 1922 VINAL AND ALTRUP: CELLS AT LOW TEMPERATURES 65 lowest temperature attainable by this means was reached, when an excess of the snow was packed around the cells. For the range + 20 ° C . to — 1 70 ° C . liquid air was used for cooling . The dry cells were placed in a double walled glass jacket similar to a Dewar vessel, but having air at atmospheric pressure between the walls. This was submerged in liquid air contained in a larger Dewar flask. The stor- age cell, contained in a glass test tube, was similarly arranged with the addition of a ground-cork packing to protect it from breakage. By this means the cooling was gradual, about 2 hours being required for the cells to fall from room temperature to the lowest temperature available. The temperature was measured by a thermocouple of standardized constantan and copper wire. Since it was not practicable to insert the thermocouple in the dry cells of which the e.m.f. was measured, the thermocouple was placed at the center of a similar dry cell which was grouped symmetrically with the other cells. The temperature of the storage cell was measured by placing the thermocouple, protected by a thin-walled glass tube, in the electrolyte between the positive and negative plates of the cell. The electromotive forces of the thermocou- ples were read on a high resistance potentiometer. The dry cells measured were "^ I ^ inch diameter X ^2} 1% inch high, taken from flashlight batteries of a well known make. A few experi- ments on silver chloride dry cells were made also. The storage cells were made by cutting strips of suitable size from the pasted plates of an automobile starting and lighting battery. These were placed in test tubes about 1 inch in diameter with perforated hard rubber sep- arators and a few glass beads. The electrolyte was adjusted to a spe- cific gravity of 1.275 to 1.280 at the end of 5 days of continuous charg- ing at 0.4 ampere. The voltage of the cells during test was measured by 3 different methods but the open-circuit measurements at the lowest tempera- tures could be made only by an electrometer. This instrument was loaned to us by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. The open circuit voltages were also measured on a 20,000-ohm potentiometer which afforded a very sensitive method before the cells were frozen although after this it was nearly useless. A voltmeter having a scale of 2.5 volts and a resistance of 25,000 ohms was used for some of the measurements. The results of experiments with dry cells of the ordinary type are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Curves A and B represent the open- 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI^. 12, NO. 3 circuit voltages as measured for two different cells by the electrom- eter and the potentiometer. Curves C, D, E and F represent the terminal voltage when the cells were discharging through 25,000, 100, 25 and 4 ohms, respectively. The curves indicate the existence of a critical point at about —21° C. The open-circuit voltage curves indicate that changes in the temper- ature coefficient occur at certain temperatures. Between +26° and 0° C. the coefficient was found to be constant and somewhat less than a millivolt per degree. The coefficient is positive, that is, increase in temperature is accompanied by increase in voltage. Between 0° TerTjocrK/Zar-G. c/efir^as Ce/^;^5<^-oofe> Fig. 1. Effect of temperature on the voltage of dry cells. and -20° C. the coefficient is still positive, but larger. At -20.4° C. a break occurs. The temperature coefficient becomes much larger during the next few degrees and then changes to negative at about — 24°. At —54° the coefficient again becomes positive. It is inter- esting to note that at — 54° C. the voltage is higher than at ordinary temperatures. Curves C, D, E and F show that the ordinary dry cell can deliver current down to about —20° C, below which the voltage falls off rapidly to zero. FEB. 4, 1922 VINAL AND ALTRUP: CELLS AT LOW TEMPERATURES 67 Silver chloride dry cells were measured in a similar manner, and the open circuit voltages are given in Table 1. When the voltage was measured by the 25,000-ohm voltmeter, however, the terminal voltage began to fall rapidly fromO° C. downward. At —10° it was 0.9 volt, and from this point it decreased nearly linearly to 0.05 volt at —50°. Experiments were also made to determine the voltage of storage cells within the range +25° to —72° C, using the electrometer, the potentiometer and the voltmeter to measure the voltage. As freezing did not occur within this range, the potentiometer gave the most ac- curate results and these are given in Table 1, but the results of all TABLE 1. Open Circuit Voltages of Cells for Values Below —70° C. See Fig. 2 Temperature Ordinary* dry cell Storage* cell Silver** chloride cell °c. Volts Volts Volts 20 1.540 2.116 1.06 10 1.537 2.113 1.05 0 1.533 2.111 1.04 -10 1.523 2.107 1.03 -20 1.512 2.103 1.02 -30 1.508 2.100 1.01 -40 1.530 2.096 1.00 -50 1.540 2.092 0.99 -60 1.540 2.087 0.98 -70 1.526 2.081 0.97 * Based on potentiometer readings. ** Interpolated values based on electrometer readings. methods were in good agreement. The temperature coefficient was small and constant. This fact permitted an accurate estimate of the temperature coefficient to be made since the cell had sufficient time for thermal equilibrium to be established at the beginning and end of this range. The temperature coefficient was found to be 0.000398 volt per degree C. It is interesting to compare this result with the value computed from the available thermochemical data and the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation. This equation is usually written 2=^-T«^ (1) where Q is the heat of the reaction; W the available work and T the absolute temperature. This equation is applicable to a reversible cell in which the passage of current does not involve any appreciable 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 3 change in volume. If E denotes the open circuit voltage of the cell W equals 96500 E volt-coulombs- for 1 equivalent. Q expressed in calories may be converted to voltcoulombs by multiplying by 4.183 and the equation becomes: dE 1 — = - (E- 0.000021674 Q). (2) Both E and Q are dependent on the concentration of the electrolyte which for this experiment was of 1.280 sp. gr. The value of E cor- responding to the initial value T was observed directly. The value for Q may be calculated from published thermochemical data. The commonly accepted reaction of the lead accumulator during discharge may be described by the following equation: Positive plate, Pb02+H2S04 +W.H2O -^ 2PbS04+(n+2)H20 Negative plate, Pb+H2S04 J where n is the number of molecules of water to 2 molecules of sulphuric acid in the original solution. The corresponding thermochemical equation is PbOo + Pb + 2H2SO4 + W.H2O = 2PbS04 + (w + 2)H20 + Q„ where Q„, the heat of the reaction, depends on the dilution of the acid, which is fixed by n. Since the chemical reaction must take H2SO4 from the dilute electrolyte, the energy represented by Q„ for other strengths of acid will be less in amount by the quantity of heat evolved by dilution of the acid, or Q„ will be greater if the concen- tration is greater. Values for Q have been determined by Streinz^ and Tscheltzow^ to be 87000 and 88600 calories, respectively. The mean of their determi- nations is 87800 calories. Dolezalek^ states that these values apply to dilute sulphuric acid (1 molecule of H2SO4 to about 400 molecules of H2O) and hence a correction for the heat of dilution is necessary. The heat of dilution^ of the acid solution from a specific gravity of 1.280 as used in our experiment to the concentration equivalent to 1 molecule of acid to 399 mols.of water is 2210 calories per gram mole- cule. Two gram molecules are involved and hence the value for 2 The value 96500 coulombs is based on recent determinations with the silver and iodine voltameters by Vinal and Bates at the Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 218. 3Wied. Ann. 53: 698. 1894. * Comptes Rendus 100: 1458. 1885. * Theory of the Lead Accumulator, p. 29. ' Thomsen's data, Landolt and Bornstein tables, ed. 4, p. 885. FEB. 4, 1922 VINAL AND ALTRUP : CELLS AT LOW TEMPERATURES 69 the heat of the reaction for an electrolyte of 1.280 specific gravity is 87800 4- 4420 = 92220 calories. The value for K at 25° C. and electrolyte of specific gravity 1.280 was 2.120 volts. The temperature, 25° C, corresponds to 298° abso- lute. Substituting these values for T, E and Q in equation (2) the value for the temperature coefficient dE/dT is found to be 0.0004.07 The results of the experiment showed a decrease in the open circuit voltage of 0.0386 volt when the temperature was decreased 97° from which dE/dT = 0.000398. Open O/rcuj/ \/b//t^tBS of/^^^ Cg// onc/S/or^c^e Ce/J a/JLow '^rBjO'sr-cf/iir^s _ an G/ec^oin€;Mn Ce//s /n cr cfoiziJc CLKi/h were known, either of these equations could be used as it stands for the determination of absolute viscosity from observations on the resistance and speed. But for the purpose of relative determinations, the form of the function need not be known, as will presently appear. For suppose that the apparatus, when sup- plied with a standard sample of viscosity ^o, gives an observed re- sistance Ro at the speed Vo, while the sample under test gives some different resistance i? at a speed v; then if . R Ro (4) 2 This Journal 6: 154-155. 1916. APR. 4, 1922 HERSEY : PROPERTIES OF MATTER 1G9 the unknown function 0 will be numerically the same in the two experiments, so that Equation 3 gives - = - (5) Mo "-"o If the condition for dynamical similarity expressed by Equation 4 above could be realized at the first trial, then a single experiment on the test sample would be sufficient. In practice two or more experi- ments should be made and the observed values of R plotted as ordinate against v- as abscissa. Draw a straight line from the origin through the point whose coordinates are Ro and Vo -. Suppose this line inter- sects the empirical curv^e for the test sample in some point P. Then the condition for dynamical similarity (Eq. 4) is exactly realized at the point P, although this is a fictitious point and not a real observa- tion. Therefore, the abscissa i', of the point P satisfies Equation 5 and is to be substituted for v in that equation when using it as a work- ing formula. If the size of the body which is towed through a fluid, or the density of the fluid, are not constant. Equation 2 can be employed instead of Equation 3, and for this purpose Equation 2 may be rewritten ti = x \p{y) (6) in which x denotes Dvp while y stands for the dimensionless variable R/p D-v~. Using subscript zero hereafter to refer to the standard substance, Equation G gives for the standard viscosity Mo =Xo\p(yo) (7) Now plot experimental values of .1' j'o as ordinate, against x/Xo as abscissa, and call rci/r^o the abscissa of the point where the empirical curve crosses the horizontal straight line j/j'o = 1. Dividing (6) by (7) the final formula becomes ^ = 2^ (8) Mo Xo of which (5) above may be considered a special case. Thermal conductivity. — Let it be required to determine relative thermal conductivity X/Xo by successive observations of the tempera- ture rise A on the sample under test and on a standard sample which is geometrically similar to it. When the steady state has been reached, the heat input H will be just equal to the heat carried off from the exterior of the sample by the convective action of some cooling agent such as a vigorously stirred water bath. If the specific heat of this 170 JOURNAL OP THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 medium is denoted by 5 and its rate of flow in mass units per unit of time by M, then the temperature elevation will be given by an equa- tion of the type A = F{\,H,D,M,S) (9) in which D denotes some linear dimension of the sample. (This equation is only approximately complete; while serving well enough as it stands for the purpose of illustration, it can in practice be made more exact by introducing the additional variables p, fx and X' to denote, respectively, the density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity of the cooling agent, which will have some influence on the rate of heat transfer, though not so much as the quantities M and 5.) Equa- tion 9 can be further developed by dimensional theory, and then solved for the conductivity X, whereupon it goes over into the form In the second part of this equation x has been written for H/D A and y for MS A/H. Plot observed values of y/yo as ordinate against x/xo as abscissa, and denote by Xi/xo the abscissa of the point where simi- larity occurs ; that is, the point where the empirical curve crosses the line y/yo = l. Referring therefore to Equation 10, the relative conductivity will evidently be given by the formula X .^1 , , - =- (11) Ao Xq In the more exact solution suggested above, the consideration of p will introduce an additional argument p^-HD^M^ into Equation 10, while the recognition of ^ will add an argument of the form ixD/M, and so on if additional correction terms are included. In order to apply the routine reasoning above, which was based on Equation 10, these new arguments must now be held constant, which may or may not be experimentally practicable, although possible in principle if suitable facihties are provided. For example, to keep the argument p'^HD'^/M^ constant, it is sufficient to increase the mass flow in pro- portion to the cube root of the heat input, whenever the latter is changed. General formulation. — The procedure illustrated above may be outlined in more general terms as follows: 1. Develop the appropriate dimensionless equation for some chosen APR. 4, 1922 HERSEY ; PROPERTIES OF MATTER 171 phenomenon which exhibits the desired property of matter Q. This can be done by the Il-theorem method^ and requires first of all a complete list of the physical quantities which would influence the phenomenon if they were to vary. Solve this equation for Q and let the result be written Q^X-^{Y,Z,..) (12) in which Q/X, Y , Z, .... are dimensionless variables, ^ being an unknown function. 2. The experimental facilities must now be so arranged that all dimensionless variables other than QIX and F, for example Z (if any such appear), shall be kept constant. Under these conditions (12) reduces to Q=AXr). (13) 3. If any of the individual physical quantities entering the di- mensional factor X or the dimensionless argument Y are known to be constant during the experiment, they can be left out, so that X and Y degenerate respectively into the dimensional factors % and y, and (13) takes on the more simple form Q=^(>0. (14) Equation 14 could have been deduced at the start in place of (12) by utilizing Buckingham's recent method of suppressed dimensions.^ 4. Take observations of the phenomenon in question when the apparatus is supplied with a standard sample, for which Q (whether numerically known or not) may be written Qo . Denote the values of X and y which prevail during this experiment by Xo and jo, respec- tively. 5. Proceed next to observe the same phenomenon with the new sample, for which Q is constant but unknown. It will be sufficient to confine the experimental variation of x to that vicinity for which the resulting value of y is found by trial to be of the same order of magnitude as To . 6. Plot the observed data on coordinate paper with y lyo as ordinate against xjxo as abscissa. Let the abscissa of point P where the experi- mental curve crosses the line y lyo = 1 , be denoted by X\lxo . This point represents a fictitious case of dynamical (or physical) similarity, 3 E. Buckingham, This Journal 4: 347-353. 1914. Phys. Rev. 4: 345-376. 1914. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 37: 263-296. 1915. * E. Buckingham. Notes on the method of dimensions. Phil. Mag. 42: 696-719, § 11. 1921. 172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 obtained by interpolation^ between adjacent points at which the conditions for similarity were not exactly fulfilled. All of the infer- ences appropriate to physically similar systems are immediately applicable to the coordinates of the point P. 7. In particular, when v/3'o = l, Equation 14 leads at once to the final working formula for determining the relative value of any property of matter Q. This formula is theoretically exact under the conditions stated, regardless of the complexity of the fluid motions, heat transfer, or electrical distributions involved in any given experiment. GEOLOGY. — The major tectonic features of the Dutch East Indies} H. A. BrouwER, Delft, Holland. CONTENTS Introduction. The older trend lines studied in plan. The older overthrusts studied in profile. Regions with simpler structure. The main trend lines of the younger stage of mountain-building. Tertiary strikes cut obliquely by the present geanticlinal axis. The fractures during the youngest stage of mountain-building. Literature and maps. INTRODUCTION Although the geology of parts of the East Indian Archipelago was studied in detail during the past century by several geologists, a great many of the islands, particularly those in the eastern part of the Archipelago remained almost unknown geologically. But within the last twenty years so much new information has been obtained by expeditions to the more eastern islands that it is now possible to sum- marize the tectonic features of the entire region — one of unusual inter- est to geologists and geophysicists. Here two great lines of crustal weakness, the Alpine and the circum- Pacific orogenic systems, meet or are interlaced. Although it is convenient to speak of two stages of deformation in the East Indies, it is our opinion that the latest 5 Instead of interpolating graphically, cases might arise where it would be of advantage to employ the relation connecting derivatives; cf. This Journal, 6: 620-629. 1916; or Bur. Stds. Sci. Paper 331. 1920. ^ Address delivered before Geological Society of Washington. Feb. 2, 1922. APR. 4, 1922 brouwer: tectonic features dutch east indies 173 crustal movements in the East Indian region are only a younger stage and a direct continuation of the Tertiary crustal movements. The Tertiary folds and overthrusts which were formed at relatively great depth are now visible at the surface, but the fissured and faulted crust that once lay above them has been removed by erosion. On the other hand, the tectonic features due to late deformation near the earth's surface during the younger stage of mountain-building have re- mained visible and are manifested in the fissured and faulted crust, while the accompanying folds and overthrusts remain invisible at greater depths. Thus, we believe that the displacements, evidence of which is now seen at the surface, are in part the result of the continua- tion of movement at greater depths and that the visible traces of the different stages of crustal movement since Tertiary time are mutually complementary. A comparison of these stages affords a better under- standing of the mountain-building process. The evolution of the region during Paleozoic and Mesozoic time is not well known, but the widespread occurrence of Mesozoic deposits, which resemble in nearly every lithologic respect the recent deep-sea oozes, proves that already in Mesozoic time deep-sea basins were present in the region. Thus certain red clay shales with radiolaria and radiolarian hornstones are the lithologic equivalents of the Recent red clay and radiolarian ooze formed in deep seas of the present day. The hornstones in places contain nodules of manganese, some of which have a concentric structure, and teeth of sharks have been discovered in places. These deposits prove that very important movements of the earth's crust must have taken place since Mesozoic time; movements sufficiently great to bring deposits formed at depths of 5,000 meters or more to heights of more than 1,000 meters above the surface of the sea. It is permissible to conclude that the process of mountain-building in the East Indian Archipelago bears much resemblance to that of other Alpine mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas and the Alps. In the Mediterranean region of Europe it has been possible to recon- struct theoretically different Mesozoic geanticlines and geosynclines, with the aid of stratigraphic data, when it was once realized that great over-thrust sheets had been pushed forward long distances from their original sites. The study of the Recent crustal movements in the rows of islands of eastern Asia and Oceania suggests what may have been the embryonic stage of Alpine mountain ranges when (in earlier periods) a somewhat similar distribution of land and water prevailed.^ 2 E. Argand. Sur I'arc des Alpes occidentales . Eclog. Geol. Helv. 14:145. 1916. 174 JOURNAI. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 In the Western Alps we find that the formation of the geosyncHnes and geanticlines was accentuated in the Lower Jura ; in Middle Jurassic time these folds disappear below sea level ; and in the Upper Jura there followed a further moderate submergence. In Cretaceous time, strong horizontal movements began and reached their maximum in the Ter- tiary period. As the overthrust sheets moved at greater depth, the sea-basins became narrower and the masses of the geanticlines were pushed forward in a nearly horizontal direction. Oscillations, such as these in the Alps during the Mesozoic period are also known to characterize the younger movements in the East Indian Archipelago, and it is possible that the region adjoining the present Australian continent will in the future reach the same stage as that reached long ago in the Alps. Horizontal movements of the curving rows of islands are proved by several features now observable on those islands and as these movements proceed the sea-basins will be narrowed and eventually the masses of the present geanticlines may be pushed over the Sahul shelf of the Australian continent. Viewed thus the Archipelago may be conceived as representing an embryonic stage of an Alpine mountain range. In zoology many of the results obtained through a study of comparative anatomy were later confirmed by the results derived from studies of embryology. The development of geology, however, naturally followed lines other than those of zoology because the embryonic mountain ranges lay outside the regions studied by early geologists, but it was possible deductively to reach conclusions regarding the embryonic conditions of a mountain range by studying the anatomy of a mountain range and by applying the ontological method, a method which much more than the comparative one, has controlled geological work. It is probable that the embryonic stages of different mountain ranges bear much resemblance to each other, as do the early stages of animal ontogeny. Such a conception leads to the recognition of un- expected relationships between types, which because of mature age show important differences. The question arises, whether persistent embryonic types occur among the mountain ranges. In the Timor row of islands deep sea-basins occurred in Triassic time, while they appear in the embryonic Alps in the Upper Jura. It is possible that in the southeastern part of the Malay Archipelago a more or less embryonic stage has persisted since Mesozoic times, while the Alps reached the mature stage in Tertiary time. In my opinion the solution of many tectonic problems will be found by a careful study of compara- APR. 4, 1922 brouwer: tectonic features dutch east indies 175 tive tectonics, embryotectonics, and comparative embryotectonics, as in zoology comparative anatomy and ontogeny are essential parts of morphology. The tectonic features of the East Indian Archipelago as they now exist are the result of orogenic forces which have been acting during long periods of time and which have caused movements in a horizontal direction at many places. Where the lands were high above the strand-lines of the surrounding seas, the ranges were cut down and the deeper parts were uncovered by erosion; where at the same time the crust was moving below sea-level no denudation took place and no un- conformities or disconformities in the succession of strata are found. In the parts of the earth's crust, which are now visible on the different islands the erosion intervals are not found at the same place in the geological time-table. In Sumatra a striking unconformity is found between the late Mesozoic and the early Tertiary, in Timor between the middle Tertiary and the Plio- Pleistocene. In order to give a detailed account of the tectonic features it would be necessary to de- scribe the many islands separately but for the major tectonic features it is sufficient to describe the visible traces of two stages of crustal movements, the late Mesozoic and Tertiary stage and the youngest stage, which still continues. The youngest stage is definitely known to he limited to certain parts of the present Archipelago, while the dis- tribution in time and place of the older stage is not exactly known. THE OLDER TREND LINES STUDIED IN PLAN Digitate forms, such as those represented by the islands Celebes and Halmaheira have been considered as produced by a broad side- and end- on conflict of Tertiary folded ranges. See Fig. 1 . Yet it can be shown that the present morphology is the result of the youngest stage of crustal movements, since the known strike of the Tertiary folds is in places very different from the direction of the present geanticlines. In the eastern peninsula of Celebes a northwest-southeast or north northwest-south-southeast strike is found in strongly folded marls and limestones with associated layers and nodules of hornstone. In the eastern part of this peninsula the central range consists of nearly horizontal limestones of Eocene and Oligocene age. On the northern and southern slopes more or less pronounced dips to the northwest have been found. In the central part of the island the main Tertiary strike seems to be northwest-southeast. The tectonic features of the south- eastern peninsula of Celebes are but little known, its northern part 176 JOURN/>L OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 APR. 4, 1922 BROUWER: tectonic features dutch east liNDlES 177 consists principally of basic eruptive rocks and in the southern part crystalline schists, whose main strike is insufficiently known, are of widespread occurrence. In the narrow portion of the island, which connects the northern peninsula with the central part, some authors have presumed that there exists a main strike from south to north, which would bend to an east-westerly direction in the northern penin- sula. But the region consists principally of crystalline schists and eruptive rocks and no folded Tertiary rocks are known, while a north- west-southeast strike seems to prevail. It is possible that the pro- longation of the parallel ranges in the adjacent projecting part of Borneo crosses this part of Celebes obliquely and that the supposed bending of the Tertiary strike does not exist. Thus viewed, the Tertiary mountain-plan of the island may be thought of as comprising two strongly diverging trend lines of which the northern recurves to the north in the direction of one of the trend lines of the Philippine islands. To repeat, particularly in that part of the Archipelago which is occupied bv the Island of Celebes there are important differences between the Tertiary strike and the direction of the present geanticlinal axes. The geologic plan of Borneo in many respects resembles that of Celebes in that it is not well explained by a "side and end-on" conflict of folded ranges, but on the contrary suggests the existence of a system of branching trend lines similar to that of the present Philippine islands. From the northeastern part, where the highest elevations of the island occur and where the folded ranges with a main trend north-northeast to south-southwest are closely crowded together, the main strikes diverge to the southwest. The eastern trend lines bend to the south- west in the direction of Celebes, those more to the west first have a direction from north to south, but bend to the southwest, while the central and western ranges recurve to the northwest, almost at right angles to their general course in the northeastern part of the island. The plan of vSumatra is similar to that of Borneo, although the branching of the trend lines is not so distinctly pronounced. The high- est altitudes of the older rocks occur in the northwestern part of the island and the main trend lines diverge to the southeast. The reconstruction of the main older trend lines in the eastern part of the Archipelago cannot be made complete, because that part of the region is mostly covered by the sea and older folds in many places are cut off by the present coast lines. There are, however, some indications that virgations also occur here. In the islands of the Kei 178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 group a NNE-SSW strike is found on Great Kei, while farther west a NNW-SSE strike in the direction of Ceram has been observed. The strike on Great Kei is in the direction of western New Guinea, where the strike is parallel to the coast line (NNW and NW). As far as known the main strike in different parts of Halmaheira Island does not greatly differ from the longer axes of the present penin- sulas. But as the island has been crossed at only a few places and as eruptive rocks are of widespread occurrence, positive opinions on the tectonic relations are not warranted. THE OLDER OVERTHRUSTS STUDIED IN PROFILE The great deformation that took place during late Mesozoic and Tertiary time, and now so well exhibited on many of the islands was caused by strong pressure exerted from several different directions and the structures that were developed show the imbrication and the dif- ferent degrees of overthrusting characteristic of Alpine mountain ranges. This structural type is probably of widespread occurrence, since it has already been proved or rendered highly probable that it is present on Sumatra and on many islands of the Timor-Ceram range. It has been suggested that the highest and the lower eastern parts of the Barissan mountains in Djambi (Sumatra) are parts of an overthrust sheet, between which the autochthonous phyllitic slates have been uncovered by erosion. An erosion relict has been found in the Bukit Raja. In the Highlands of Padang the walls of Carboniferous or Permian limestone in places continue uninterruptedly without any trans- gression-conglomerates and without veins of granite or contact phe- nomena over the contact between granites and surrounding sediments, whereas part of the granites is post-Carboniferous in age. These limestones give to the landscape a peculiar character similar to that of the "Klippen" of the Alps and the Carpathian mountains and the "fatus"=^ of Timor. On Timor the majority of the isolated rock peaks consist of coral reefs of Upper Triassic age, but Permian crinoidal and fusulina lime stones are common. Groups of deposits of the same age, but of different paleontological, and petrographical character, occur one on top of the other and "fatus" of older rocks are found resting on younger oceanic deposits, as is clearly visible along the deep ravines cut in the recently elevated island. The structure is as a rule chaotic and is similar to that of the higher overthrust sheets of eastern Switzerland, ^ Isolated rocks or groups of rocks in Timor are called "fatu" by the natives. APR. 4, 1922 BROUWER : TECTONIC FEATURES DUTCH EAST INDIES 179 which were moved in the near-surface zone where the rocks yielded to pressure not by flow but mostly by fracture. The comparative method of study leads to the supposition that on Timor the deeper complicated, but less chaotic overthrust structures, such as are found in the Western Alps, have not here been uncovered by erosion, and the absence of rocks older than those of Permian age points to the same conclusion. Simpler structures are found only in the southern coast-range of the island, where an imbricated structure with a fairly uniform dip to the north-northwest prevails. On Babber, an island to the east of Timor, crinoidal Hmestone has been found as isolated "fatus," which rest on folded Jurassic sediments. In the eastern part of Ceram Triassic sediments are thrust over limestones and marls, which are partly of late Mesozoic age and which show a rather regular dip to the southwest. In the central and western part of the island several remarkable suc- cessions of crystalline schists, phyllitic slates, and Mesozoic rocks point to the existence of important overthrusts between these three forma- tions. In the western part of the island the horizontal movement of the overthrust seems to be less than that on the southern islands of the Timor-Ceram row, because groups of deposits of the same age, but of different paleontological and petrographical character, are not found one on top of the other and in close proximity in the same degrees as on Timor. The expeditions from the south coast to the Snow Mountains of the central range of New Guinea found strata with a fairly uniform dip to the north over long distances and it does not seem improbable, that recumbent folds, imbricated structures, or overthrusts, with a move- ment in the direction of the Australian continent may occur in these mountains. This chain bears towards the lowland to the south and to Australia beyond a relation somewhat similar to that borne by the Himalayas towards India. REGIONS WITH SIMPLER STRUCTURES In Sumatra the overthrusts are older than Tertiary, in Timor they were formed in Miocene time. The Tertiary rocks of Sumatra up to the Pliocene generally have been folded, often in more or less regular broad anticlines and synclines, such as those of the oil-bearing strata in the eastern part of the island. Similar relations prevail in other regions where in Neogene time there were" geosynclinal belts per- sistently and fairly well filled with an accumulation of sediments, as in parts of Java and Borneo and also on some islands in the eastern part of ISO JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 the Archipelago. In some parts of the Archipelago the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks both show simpler structures. In western New Guinea to the south of the Gulf of the Mac Cluer normally folded Tertiary rocks occur, and farther west, in the Misol-Obi-Sula row of islands in places the Jurassic strata are but slightly folded or are nearly horizontal. On Borneo crustal deformation of the late Mesozoic stage is clearly visible, but at many places the dip of the Cretaceous strata is not very pronounced. The tectonic structure may be more complicated in the northeastern part of the island, where the folded ranges are closely crowded together. Sumba, is usually considered as the western prolongation of the Timor row of islands, but the Tertiary is not dis- tinctly folded. On Celebes the ages of the dififerent strata are not yet exactly known. It has been supposed that even Tertiary sediments occur amongst the metamorphic sediments, which are of widespread occur- rence on the island, but as yet there is no proof of this supposition. In the central part of the island large anticlines and synclines with an approximately northwest-southeast strike were formed in post Eocene time. In the eastern peninsula nearly horizontal Eocene limestones occur, but at other places, as in the western part of the eastern peninsula, rocks of the same age are intensely folded. Although sim- pler structures with large anticlines and synclines certainly prevail in a large part of the island, we cannot gain an adequate picture of the late Mesozoic and Tertiary tectonic features of the whole island until the stratigraphy is more completely known. THE MAIN TREND LINES OF THE YOUNGEST STAGE OF MOUNTAIN-BUILDING The main trend lines of the latest stage of mountain-making are accurately known, because uplifts of the land relatively to the sea level are clearly demonstrated by the presence of elevated fringing reefs and because the positions of the deep-sea basins are given on the deep- sea chart of the "Siboga" expedition. The deep-sea basins have proved to be elongated more or less precisely parallel to the adjoining rows of islands and the main trend lines of the youngest stage of moun- tain-building nearly coincide with the longer axes of the islands. The deep sea basins and the strongly elevated islands are confined to the eastern part of the Archipelago, whereas within the western area there prevails a slight and uniform depth of the sea with smooth outlines of a land that rises with a gentle slope from the coast. Only the southern part of the Archipelago which is bounded by the Indian Ocean, shows APR. 4, 1922 brouwBr: tectonic features dutch east indies 181 proof of recent upheaval of the land, while the deep-sea chart shows a complicated topography to the south of Java and Sumatra. That these movements still continue is proved by the distribution of earth- quakes in the Archipelago. In the region including eastern Sumatra, the southern China Sea, northern Java, and Borneo, heavy tectonic earthquakes are practically absent. The shocks felt in this area have their origin in the mobile areas, which are as a rule submarine, as shown by the seismic epicenters. The large bendings in the mountain chains of recent age in the southern and eastern parts of the Archipelago are clearly visible on the deep sea chart of the region. But if considered in detail it is obvious that important bendings of smaller amount are numerous. They are not always clearly visible in the present topography, because many of the bending-points, which are the loci of considerable transverse fractures, are covered by the sea. Examples of this kind are the narrow Manipa Strait between Ceram and Buru, nearly 5,000 M. deep, the strait be- tween Timor and Rotti, the strait between Timor and the Sermata islands, and Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. In the row of islands from Nias to Enggano, to the west of Sumatra, several examples of this kind also occur. tertiary strikes are cut obliquely by the present geanticeinal AXES The establishment of the fact that Tertiary strikes are cut obliquely by the present geanticlinal axes is of great importance for a precise understanding of the mountain-building process. Several exam-ples are known in the Dutch East Indies. On the south coast of Timor the strike of the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of the Amanuban mountain chain differs about 12° from the general trend of the coast line. The high mountain range of central Ceram, in which the Meso- zoic and Tertiary strata strike about NW-SE, is cut off abruptly at the coast with a general E-W trend. The abnormal strike in the eastern peninsula of Celebes and in the narrow portion which connects the central part of the island with the northeastern peninsula have been already mentioned. Another noteworthy example is on the island Babber to the east of Timor, where the strike is NNE-SSW, nearly perpendicular to the main trend of the present row of islands. Similar facts are well known from Japan. Von Richthofen believed the formation of the arcs to be due to a rupture (Zerrung) caused by the subsidence of the oceanic side, and denied the existence 182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 of the zonal structure that characterizes folded mountains of the Alpine type. Japanese geologists have already pointed out that many of the dislocations are only recurrent movements on the arcs of folding, which are of essentially the same type as the Himalayas and the Alps in their fundamental structure. The abnormal strike can be explained in a simple manner by the action of compressional stress, if we suppose that the rows of uplifted and fragmented island blocks indicate the places where at greater depths folding continues and that there is motion in a vertical direction as well as considerable motion in a horizontal direction. The vertical movement will cause gradual erosion and the exposed surface of the geanticline will in time consist of rocks which were in the zone of flow during an earlier stage of mountain-building. The rate and direction of the movement of the deeper-lying rocks as they approach the earth's surface may differ more and more from the rate and direction of the motion of the rocks that lie at still greater depths on the same vertical line. The forces that cause movement near the surface will generally differ in intensity and direction from the forces that cause movement at greater depths. Furthermore, the rate of transmission of the forces will decrease from the surface to the zones of greater plas- ticity at greater depth. If during the elevation the rate of horizontal movement is different for neighboring parts of the geanticline, the differences between the directions of the geanticlinal axes and of the older strike may be considerable, as in the central part of Ceram. The strong bending of the geanticlinal axis between Ceram and Buru points to important differences in the rate of horizontal movement for neigh- boring parts of the geanticlines. A bending-point existed in this region already in Tertiary time and near strong bendings, as near Babber Island, the Tertiary strike may locally even be at right angles to the present geanticlinal axis. It is particularly in such places that the movement at or near the surface may differ considerably in rate and direction from the movement of greater depths. THE FRACTURES DURING THE YOUNGEST STAGE OF MOUNTAIN-BUILDING The tension hypothesis of von Richthofen has been applied by some authors to the East Indian Archipelago, but the numerous fractures, which are known to exist, are in our opinion the surface expression of vertical and horizontal movements which are the result of compressional stress. Important fractures occur near the surface at those places where there are important differences in rate of move- APR. 4, 1922 brouwer: tectonic features dutch east indies 18-3 ment. If the forces which cause the movement are deep-seated and if the crust near the surface does not respond to the direct influence of the compressional stress, displacements near the surface will result from the more plastic deformation at greater depth. While important horizontal movements are taking place in the zone of plastic deforma- tion, the superficial parts may move with much less velocity. If the superficial parts are bent, whether in a vertical or horizontal plane, there is a tendency to produce gaping fissures upon the convex side of the bend, while there is compression upon the concave side. Some of the fissures in the Archipelago may be of this origin, and many have been explained in this way, such as the basins of central Celebes, which are arranged in straight lines, more or less parallel to the geanti- clinal axes. If studied in plan, the same principles are applicable and perhaps some of the straits between the islands of an arc have been formed in this way. Considerable transverse fractures, however, which occur at many places near the bending-points of the geanticlinal axis, can be explained by difference in velocity of horizontal movement for neighboring parts of the fold along the axis. In the same way important longitudinal fissures can be explained by the difference in velocity of neighboring parts of the geanticline considered in a vertical plane at right angles to the geanticlinal axis. The morphological aspect of the surface will be controlled chiefly by the more or less horizontal movements on transverse fault planes, the gaping transverse fissures on these planes the more or less vertical movement on longi- tudinal faults, and the gaping longitudinal fissures on these faults. The movements along more or less horizontal fault-planes will not be of much importance for the major morphological structure and will receive no further consideration. Typical examples of transverse fractures near the bending-points of a geanticlinal axis where it has moved forward horizontally are Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, the strait between Timor and Rotti, and the narrow strait between the main island of Rotti and the peninsula of Landu. To the east of Timor the small Island of Kisser which is surrounded by deep seas and is in the neighborhood of a bend- ing point between east Timor and the Sermata Islands occupies a northern, non-harmonic position. Farther to the east the Babber group, which consists of small islands with high reefs, is separated by a considerable gap from the islands of the Tenimber group. The narrow strait between Muna and Buton and the straits between other 184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 islands of the same group are near the bending-point of the geanticlinal axis of the Tukang Besi Islands and southeastern Celebes. The narrow Manipa Strait, nearly 5,000 meters deep between Ceram and Buru is another example of an important gap where there is strong bending of the geanticlinal axis in a horizontal plane, while the strait between Halmaheira and Morotai and the important gap between Halmaheira and the islands to the southwest of the Pelew group may in part be the result of fractures near a bending-point, which possibly exist between Halmaheira and those islands. Of course in large bend- ings of the geanticlinal axis the submarine parts of the axis may be due to a pitch of the axis, but for relatively short bendings this ex- planation of submarine portions alone is not applicable. The fracture- movement may be more or less parallel to a fault-plane or the move- ment may have an important component normal to the fracture-plane The bending-points of the surface of the geanticline, considered in a vertical cross section of the geanticline at right angles to the geanti- clinal axis, are between the deep sea-basins and the elevated islands, where longitudinal faults may cut away the land at the coast as has been mentioned for many islands of the Archipelago. If two more or less parallel rows of islands are developing as two secondary geanticlines with an intermediate secondary geosyncline, longitudinal faults may exist on both sides of the secondary geosyncline and on the outer sides of the secondary geanticlines. The duration, speed, and place of the fracture-movements will in large measure depend upon the evolution of the mountain-building. If the plane of movement is not constant and the traces of older fracture-movements are elevated "above the sea, they will usually disappear rapidly through erosion on the outer side of the geanticline. If the secondary geosyncline during its slow subsidence constantly remained fairly well filled with an accumulation of sedi- ments and if in a later stage of evolution a general elevation of the secondary geosyncline and geanticlines takes place, the filling of the central basin w411 serve as evidence of older fracture-movements on both sides of the original secondary geosyncline. Different stages in this evolution are represented in the Timor-Ceram row of islands.^ The islands of the Tenimber group consist of two rows with elevated reefs, which are separated by a zone in which during the latest stage of the mountain-building process positive movements have prevailed. At Timor the geanticline may have already passed through the stage of * H. A. Brouwer. The horizontal movement of geanticlines and the fractures near their surface. Journ. of Geol. 29: 566. 1921. APR. 4, 1922 brouwer; tectonic features dutch east indies 1S5 development represented by Tenimber Islands. Flexures and faults of considerable horizontal magnitude occur at the walls of a central basin which has been formed and filled with sediments in Plio-Pleisto- cene time. Later a general elevation of the island has produced the large anticline of the present island, with the highest reefs in the central part. We suppose that in this later stage of evolution the rate of horizontal forward progression of the deeper parts was greater than that of the superficial parts and that the parts which were near the surface and originally were above the downward moving secondary geosyncline were in a following stage of evolution above rising parts at greater depth and were, therefore, elevated above the sea. A fine example of parallel rows of islands which are developing as geanticlines with intermediate geosynclines are the Tukang Besi Islands southeast of Celebes. They consist of four rows — two of which bear elevated reefs and mark the geanticlinal axes; while the other two are characterized by reefs and atolls, and mark the geosynclinal axes. Only a limited number of the general t^^pes of fracture-movements have been described. The position of the fissures and faults is con- trolled by a great many factors, the discussion of which would exceed the scope of this paper. But the types mentioned sufficiently illustrate the thesis, that the majority of the fractures in the East-Indian Archi- pelago are the surface expression of differences in velocity of horizontal and vertical movements, which are the result of compressional stress. That these movements still continue is proved by the position of the epicenters of modern earthquakes, of which we will mention those along the southwestern prolongation of the transverse dislocation in Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. LITERATURE AND MAPS A bibliography of the more important publications on this subject to 1917 is given in the Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen in Ned. Indie, Verhand. 1917, II, with Atlas. Our map is compiled from the maps in this atlas with additional information. Since 1917 there have appeared other publications for which see the annual bibliography of geological publications on the Dutch East Indies by R. D. M. Verbeek in Verhand. Geolog. — Mijnbouwk. Genootschap voor Nederland en Kolonien. 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 858th MEETING The 858th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium, December 17, 1921 and was called to order at 8.15 p.m. by President Crittenden, with thirty-nine persons present. The program was as follows: W. W. CoBLENTz: The effective temperature of stars as estimated from the energy distribution in the complete spectrum (illustrated). The paper was discussed by Messrs. Priest, Hawksworth, Foote, Humphreys and Crittenden. The object of the present investigation was: (1) to test new stellar ther- mocouples; (2) to verify previous measurements of stellar radiation; (3) to measure the radiation intensities of bright stars in the region of 0 hours to 12 hours of right ascension, not previously measured; and (4) to determine the feasibility of the method of obtaining the spectral energy distribution of stars by means of transmission screens which, either singly or in combination, are placed in front of the vacuum thermocouple. By means of vacuum thermocouples, measurements were made on the total radiation intensities of 13 bright stars not observed in 1914, thus completing the survey of the whole sky. A total of 30 celestial objects were measured, including Venus and Mars. By means of a series of transmission screens (of yellow and red glass, of water, and of a thick plate of quartz), wide spectral regions were isolated and the radiation intensities in the spectrum from 0.3/x to 0.43ai; 0.43/^ to O.Gai; 0.6/x to 1.4/x; lAyi to 4.1yu; and 4.1/i to lO/x were determined. In this manner the distribution in energy in the spectra of 16 stars was determined, thus obtaining for the first time an insight into the radiation intensities in the complete spectrum of a star. By means of these transmission screens it was found that in the B and A- class stars, the maximum radiation intensity lies in the ultra-violet (0.3^i to 0.4/i) while in the cooler, K and M-class stars, the maximum emission lies at 0.7ai to 0.9/i, in the infra-red. A calculation is made of the spectral component radiations of a black body at various temperatures, using the spectral transmission data on these screens. From a comparison of the observed and the calculated spectral rediation components, it appears that the black-body temperature {i. e., the temperature which a black body would have to attain in order to emit a similar relative spectral energy distribution) varies from 3,000° C. for red, class M stars (6,000° for the yellow, solar type) to 10,000° or perhaps even higher for blue, class B stars. The observing station being much higher than that previously used (7,300 feet as compared with 4,000 feet), the atmospheric scattering of light was greatly reduced ; consequently, when the water cell was interposed the trans- missions in the violet were somewhat higher than previously observed. How- ever, all the data verify previous measurements showing that red stars emit 3 to 4 times as much infra-red radiation as blue stars of the same visual mag- nitude. Moreover, observations made on the same night (same weather conditions) are consistent in showing small gradations in the infra-red radia- APR. 4, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 187 tion component that correspond with the small gradations (say B2 and B8) in spectral classes. For binary stars having companions of low luminosity the water-cell transmissions are low, indicating that the companion stars emit considerable infra-red radiation. Among the subsidiary investigations made with a view to the improvement of stellar radiometers, the complete paper gives data on the radiation sensitiv- ity of thermocouples of alloys of gold-palladium, platinum-rhodium, bismuth- tin, bismuth-antimon}^, and also of pure bismuth. In conclusion, it is relevant to note that in comparison with the photo- electric cell the thermocouple is far less sensitive, and hence the number of stars that can be measured by it is more limited. Neither instrument can tell us the size or distance of stars. The thermocouple enables one to obtain information not obtainable by other instruments. Combined with an ab- sorption cell (of water) one can detect the presence of dark companions of binary stars. This device also gives us a new means for studying planetary radiation and temperature conditions. If the surface of a planet becomes warmed by the sun's rays, and in turn emits radiation (which will be entirely of long wave-lengths) the amount of radiation transmitted through the water cell will be less than when the reflecting surface remains cool. Data of this type were previously obtained on the moon. Applied to the planet Mars, if the polar cap is snow, then the transmission of reflected sunlight should be higher than that observed from the dark areas, if the latter are bare ground. On the other hand, if the dark areas contain green vegetation (similar to that of our earth) the temperature rise will be small, the water-cell transmission will be high, and the results may be difficult of interpretation. Paltl D. Foote, F. L. Mohler and W. F. Meggers: "A significant ex- ception to the principle of selection" (presented by Mr. Foote and illustrated). The paper was discussed by Mr. Hawksworth. The pair Is — 3d of sodium and potassium, in Sommerfeld's theory necessi- tates an interorbital transition where the change in azimuthal quantum num- ber is two units. The presence of this pair has always been attributed to the incipient Stark effect of the exciting field. In the present paper an ex- perimental arrangement is described wherein the radiation is completely shielded from the applied field, itself only 7 volts. The pair may then be produced at will by increasing the exciting current until it is one of the strong- est lines of the spectrum. It therefore is an exception to the selection prin- ciple which cannot be explained away by a Stark effect. Its explanation is of deeper origin, possibly requiring a reconsideration of the method whereby single azimuthal quantum numbers have been assigned to each of the s, p, d and b terms. Walter P. White: Some precision pendulums (illustrated). The paper was discussed by Messrs. Pawling, Press, Tuckerman and Silsbee. Pendulums are practically always driven by a push in the direction of motion. This may take two forms : (1) A direct push is given symmetrically about the middle of the stroke. This is usually done by force applied at right angles to the direction of motion, acting on an inclined surface (pallet). This method involves considerable friction and consequent possibility of irregularity. (2) The pendulum meets and pushes against a pallet which acts on an opposing weight or spring, and which follows the pendulum in the return to a point beyond that at which it was picked up. The opposing pallet 188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 is then brought back to the original position by the driving train of wheels. This arrangement is equivalent to a push over the distance between the two points, those of meeting and leaving the pallet. Here friction is less, but is not completely absent, since there is friction in unlocking the train each time it moves. If electric working is introduced friction can be entirely avoided. An impulse can be given magnetically at the middle point of the swing, but the difticulty of keeping this impulse constant and applying it at exactly the right time seems to make this method less satisfactory than an electrically-operated form of the second type of drive, which is now exceedingly simple. The pendulum merely lifts a small pallet, contact with which causes a current to flow, which by means of a magnet shifts the stop of the pallet. Contrary to some rather positive statements, it has been found by several experimenters that the contact in this form of drive can be operated without any friction and with pressures less than 1 gram. Some very simple equations were developed for determining the magnitude of the errors with this arrangement, and hence the best practical dimensions to give it in any particular case. These equations are applicable to the other forms of drive, and show: (1) A light and long pallet is preferable as long as the pressure is sufficient for proper contact. This is because the errors due to friction, or to displacement, or wear of the stops, become less as the length increases. (2) The error from displacement of the stops, that is, from im- proper timing of the driving pressure, is a minimum when this pressure ex- tends over half the swing. Contrary to much received opinion, therefore, an instantaneous impulse at the middle of the swing may be a relatively disad- vantageous method of driving. (3) It is possible, and sometimes probably advantageous, with the second form of drive, to arrange to compensate for the circular error of the pendulum, that is, the error caused by variation in arc of swing. (4) In the Riefler mechanism, which belongs to the second type of drive, the driving pressure acts over an arc which is dependent on the speed with which the escapement wheel revolves when unlocked. This is really a disadvantageous element in the design, against which, however, are to be set the efficiency of the unlocking arrangement and the general good workman- ship of this make of pendulum. Adjournment at 10 p.m. was followed by a social hour. H. H. Kimball, Recordin'g Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 627th meeting The 627th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club, May 14, 1921, at 8.00 o'clock. President HoLLisTER was in the chair, and 28 persons were present. The minutes for the 62()th meeting of April 80 were read and approved, and the following were elected to membership: Dr. Rudolph Kuraz, Mr. E. C. Leonard and Robert F. Griggs. It was announced that the present meeting was the last before the summer recess. Informal Communications: Dr. T. S. Palmer stated that doubt rests upon the native origin of oppossums in California. There is a record ninety years old of oppossums on the California-Mexico border. Dr. Grinnell shows, however, that oppossums were introduced in the San Jose neighborhood in APR. 4, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 189 1910, and these have flourished. 200 skins have been marketed in the last two years. Dr. R. W. Shufeldt exhibited two new books, (1) Early Annals of Ornitholog}^ by John H. Gurney, containing quotations from early literature. (2) Life of Samuel White, by his son, Capt. S. A. White. Mr. F. C. Lincoln stated that one of a hundred common tern which were banded in Eastern Rock, Maine, on July 3, 1913, was found floating upon the Nile River, Africa, in August, 1917. This record points to the possible identity, which has been •questioned, of the European and American Common Tern. Dr. R. E. Coker announced a 3 day conference to be held in June at Fairport, Iowa, on con- servation of life in inland waters, under the chairmanship of Dr. S. A. Forbes. Great interest and appreciation of the problems involved is already apparent. Mr. Libbey stated that during the da}^ Bicknell's Thrash had been seen, and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks were feeding upon oak galls. Dr. T. S. Palmer stated that while Bicknell's Thrush undoubtedly passes through the District of Columbia, it had never before been seen. It was described from Colombia many years before Bicknell was born. Dr. Palmer made a minute upon the death of Mr. William Palmer, born in England in August 1S56, died in New York City, April 8, 1921. He was appointed taxidermist in the National Museum at the age of 18, where much of his work exists. He was on many extended tours, and was a member of the Council of the Society at the time of his decease. Formal Comnninicatiofis: F. G. Ashbrook, Recent notes on the Jur trade in the United States. He said in part: Prior to the World W^ar the world's fur market was in London. St. Louis and New York now are the fur centers. The value of the raw skins ranges from 1-7 millions annuallv. In 1920 the finished value was $84,000,000; exports were $34,000,000'. The turnout during the 1920 fur sale in 1921 will be $352,000,000 in which the taxes will be $1.5,000,000. Thus the growth of a once neglected industry: Fur bearing animals are little protected by general agitation among the public. It re- quires legislation which preser^^es the game without destroying the trade. vSince 25% of the skins are unprime, the seasons should be properly limited and trappers licensed. Reports should be made under oath, and licenses should be denied or cancelled upon occasion. Certain regions should at times be closed, with proper protection to farmers against enemies. The laxity of enforcement of laws in some states is to be deplored. Rearing and stocking is to be encouraged; it is successful when intelligently done. There are 500 persons in the LTnited States breeding animals for their skins. Mr. Ashbrook's paper was discussed by Mr. Doolittle and Dr. Palmer. Mr. S. a. Rohwer: Injurious and beneficial insect galls. He said: A gall is a malformation in plant tissue made in course of the development of insect larvae. Galls may be due to the irritation of oviposition or to some enzyme or both. In either case the insect has abundant nourishment. The galls made by different insects are characteristic. Galls have furnished topics for poems and other literature. Their use in medicine is based largely upon supersti- tion, but they are a source of astringents. As related to man some galls are slightly or not at all injurious to plants in which he is interested. vSuch are the Cynipid galls on oak leaves, and many others on roots and twigs. The beneficial aspect of galls is recent. They are the basis of some dyes, and all permanent black inks of United States and Europe. The superiority of London seal skins over Paris skins was due to the Aleppo gall from Turkey. A Chinese gall produced by aphids on Rhus 190 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 is a fair substitute for the Turkey product. One firm uses $150,000 worth in one year. The Cahfornia Oak Apple is large, contains 30% tannic acid, and makes satisfactory ink. The Texas Ball also has high content. There are two types of tannin, the iron-green and the iron-green-blue. The chemistry of galls still requires investigation, as not all galls produce tannin of equal value. Some galls are injurious. In 1917 galls destroyed in a large area all the acorn catkins, destroying the acorns and the hog forage in that region. Other galls kill growing tissues, causing a second growth. An internal gall occurs in California. No damage is observable until the insect emerges and no defensive measures are possible. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides of various galls and gall insects, and tables showing the tannin content of many fresh and cured galls. Mr. E. A. Goldman discussed the paper. The Society adjourned at 9.55. A. A. DooLiTTLE, Recording Secretary. 628th meeting The 628th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Lecture Hall of the Cosmos Club, October 29th, 1921, with Vice President GiDLEY presiding, and 36 persons present. The minutes of the 627th meeting of May 14th were read and approved, and Messrs. Frank E. Ashbrook and J. Wade were elected to membership, and Mrs. Julius ParmaleE and Miss Erma Brown. Informal Commtinications: Dr. T. S. Palmer announced the annual meeting of the American Ornithological Union at Philadelphia on the 8th, 9th and 10th of November. Dr. H. M. Smith gave some records of the Kamchatka Sea Eagle. The bird had been seen at Urangel in 1905, at Unalaska in 1906 by Austin Clark and by Professor J. V. vSnyder, seen also in Juneau in 1909. Specimens have been taken by Dr. Hansen at the Priblofif Islands, and again a specimen was taken at Kodiak Lake August 10 of this year. This is not a marine bird, but rather of forests and rivers. Formal Communications: Dr. R. S. BasslER: Sex characters in fossils. The speaker said that sex is recorded plainly in vertebrate skeletons, and thus easily recognized in fossils, but a similar condition does not occur generally among invertebrates. However among Bryozoa and Ostracoda found as fossils sex organs are present. Recent Ostracods are without external sex structures, but paleo-species have little swellings which careful study proves to be brood pouches, thus distinguishing the sexes. The form, size and arrangement of these pouches assist in their classification. Silurian and Paleozoic species are found with these pouches, earlier and later species are without them. The general structure of Bryozoa was described and the relation of the brood pouch or ovisac to the rest of the anatomy was shown. The transition from a very simple type to a more complicated type was traced, and the taxonomic value of this character was shown. It is only in the form or position of the brood pouches or ovisacs that distinction between many species is found. Many species formerly regarded as identical are now differentiated. All previous classification has thus been rendered obsolete; only those species are classified in which the distinctive character appears as shown in the ovicell. APR. 4, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 191 The paper was illustrated by numerous lantern slides and was discussed by- Messrs. Gidley, Rohwer, Oberholser and Doolittle. Dr. W. E. Safford: TJie Dahlia, its origin and development. Dr. Safford stated that the botanical relationships of the cultivated Dahlia are difficult to trace, having been crossed and recrossed under cultivation before they were known to Europeans. They were first described and figured in 1791, from specimens of Mexican origin by Cavanilles. Descriptions of some Dahlias antedate the technical descriptions some 200 years in a study of the resources of New Spain. At that time Hernandez describes varieties in form and color showing that types thought to be modern were already developed. Many of the interesting and remarkable modern forms have been developed by crossing with a distinct type. Dahlia juarezii. Wild species have been found in the mountains of Mexico and Central America by Maxon and Popenoe which bear their discoverers' names. The roots of the Dahlia are clustered and fleshy, containing not starch but inulin, from which levulose or fructose is obtained. Owing to a bitter flavor the roots are rejected by cattle and pigs. The levulose, however, is 60% sweeter than sugar, and, since it crystallizes with difficulty, has great possi- bilities as a syrup in sweetening drinks and desserts and preserves. Dr. Safford's paper was illustrated with many beautiful colored slides of the various types of Dahlias, including reproductions of the earliest drawings. The paper will appear in another connection in the Journal of the Washington Academy of vSciences. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Rohwer, Ober- holser and others. The Society adjourned at 10.00. A. A. DooLiTTi^E, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Executive Committee of the Institute for Research in Tropical America held its first meeting Saturday, January 14, at the rooms of the National Research Council, for the purpose of organizing. A. S. Hitchcock, representing the Smithsonian Institution, was elected Chairman; H. E. Crampton, of the American Museum of Natural History, Vice-Chairman; and A. G. Ruthven, University of Michigan, Secretary-Treasurer. The Institute now includes 19 members. Arrangements have been completed for enlarging the scope of the Journal of the Optical Society of America. Beginning Januar}^, 1922, the publication will be known as the Jotirnal of the Optical Society of America and Review of Scientific Instruments. In addition to the papers on all branches of optics heretofore carried, about three eighths of the total space will be devoted to instruments other than optical. Beginning with May, 1922, the Journal will be issued monthly instead of bi-monthly. The new Journal has been placed on a strong financial basis and has the support of the Optical vSociety, of the Association of Scientific Apparatus Makers of the United States of America, of the National Research Council, and of several philanthropic individuals interested in making the plan a success. Authors will welcome this new feature as it affords almost the only source for the publication in this country of papers describing instruments. Dr. Paul D. Foote of the Bureau of Standards is editor-in-chief and Dr. F. K. RichTmyer, Cornell University, is assistant editor-in-chief and business manager. Among recent accessions by the Division of Plants are the following: 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 7 692 specimens of West Indian plants, chiefly from Trinidad, received as an exchange from the New York Botanical Garden; 8-36 specimens from Brazil, collected many years ago by Gardner and containing a large number of duplicates of types, received as an exchange from the British Museum; .593 Panama ferns presented by Mrs. 1,- R. Cornman, San Diego, California; 400 specimens from the French Congo, received as an exchange from the Jardin Botanique de I'Etat, Brussels; 277 African grasses collected by Dr. H. ly. ShanTz, received as a transfer from the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture; 300 Panama plants presented by Brother Her- IBERTO, Panama City; 167 Cuban ferns, received as an exchange from the New York Botanical Garden, and 126 Philippine orchids, largely cotypes, received as an exchange from Mr. OakES Ames, Boston, Massachusetts. A series of specimens showing the complete working of the "Manul" process of reprinting sent by the Polygraphic Company of Laupen-Berne, Switzerland, is on exhibition in the Division of Graphic Arts, vSmithsonian Institution. This process eliminates all resetting of type or the use of a camera. The page is placed in contact with a sensitized transparent film and exposed to the light. The light reflecting from the white parts of the original affects the sensitized film while no reflection of light from the blacks leaves the film unaltered. This film is used as a negative after being treated with coloring matter and transfers the image to the zinc or aluminum plate which is printed on a lithographic press in the customary manner. In this process any work, written, drawn or printed, can be reproduced at an obvious saving over older methods involving resetting all type matter or making photographic negatives by the use of a lens and camera. The ex- hibit includes the original pamphlet, the "Manul" film, the zinc lithographic plate and a finished print. Dr. C. G. Abbot, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, re- turned to Washington January 4 from a trip of inspection to the Institution's solar radiation station at Montezuma, near Calama, Chile. Captain Roald Amundsen, the well-known polar explorer, visited the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington on January 16, in order to complete arrangements with regard to cooperative work in terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity be- tween the Department and his forthcoming expedition to the Arctic Regions. During the Northeast Passage, 1918-1921, the Amundsen Expedition made a series of highly valuable magnetic observations at somewhat over 50 differ- ent points. Captain Amundsen's chief scientific assistant. Dr. H. U. Sverd- RUP, has been associated with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism since last October in order to complete the reduction and publication of the mag- netic observations thus far obtained by the Expedition. He will rejoin the Maud, Captain Amundsen's vessel, early in March at Seattle. It is expected that Captain Amundsen will resume his arctic expedition about June 1. During his brief stay in Washington, Captain Amundsen also paid a visit to the non-magnetic ship Carnegie. In the evening he met at the Cosmos Club a number of the scientific men of Washington with whom he discussed the plans of his arctic expedition, the chief object of which is to obtain scien- tific data relating to geography, oceanography, meteorology, gravity, terres- trial magnetism and atmospheric electricity. August Busck has recently returned from an extended trip in the West APR. 4, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 193 Indies, where he was investigating the pink boel worm of cotton for the Bureau of Entomolog^^ IMr. Fuller Clarkson resigned from the Fixed Nitrogen Research Lab- oratory December 1, 1921, to accept a position in the research laboratories of the Procter and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, returned on Decem- ber 23 from a trip to the Orient where he went to study the grasses, especially the bamboos. He visited the Philippines, Japan, central and south China, including the island of Hainan, and Indo-China. Representative Albert Johnson of Washington was appointed a regent of the Smithsonian Institution on January 4 by Speaker Gillett of the House, and Representatives Lemmel Padgett and Frank L. GrEENe were re- appointed as regents. Adolf Tonduz, the well-known botanical collector in Central America, died at Guatemala City, Guatemala, in the latter part of 1921. Mr. Tonduz was a native of Switzerland, who received his early botanical training under Alphonse De Candolle, and emigrated to Costa Rica in early manhood. He was for many years connected with the Instituto Fisico-Geografico of San Jose, of which H. Pittier was director, and was associated with Mr. Pittier in a natural history survey of Costa Rica. His specimens are well represented in the U. S. National Herbarium and in the other large botanical establish- ments of the world. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 April 19, 1922 No. 8 MINERALOGY. — Sincosite, a new mineral. (Preliminary note.)^ Waldemar T. SchallEk, Geological Survey. The name sincosite is given to a green hydrous calcium vanadyl phosphate, CaO.V2O4.P2O5.5H2O, occurring in a black carbonaceous shale near Sincos, Peru. The mineral forms rectangular plates and is uniaxial negative. Some of the crystals are biaxial. Sincosite be- longs to the uranite group of minerals (autunite, torbernite, carnotite, etc.) and illustrates the unexpected "equivalent valency" of quadri- valent vanadyl -vanadium with sexivalent uranic-uranium. Analysis of sincosite: CaO, 12.1 (calc. 12.33); V2O4, 36.3 (calc. 36.57); P2O5, 31.7 (calc. 31.28); HoO, 19.9 (calc. 19.82); Insoluble, 0.3; total, 100.3. The full description of the mineral and a discussion of the relationships of all the minerals of the uranite group, will be published soon. MINERALOGY. — Cristobalite from the Columbia River Basalt of Spokane, Wash.- Earl V. Shannon, United States National Museum. Recently while engaged in studying the minerals contained in gas cavities in the Columbia River Basalt from Spokane, Washington, the writer has identified the rare mineral cristobalite in a number of specimens. Although all of the minerals of these specimens will be described in detail in the final paper, to be published in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, it is desired here to call attention to this new occurrence of this rare mineral and to outline, briefly, the mineralogic features of the locality as indicated by the work thus far completed. The specimens were donated as a carefully selected series to the Museum by Mr. Henry Fair of Spokane, to whom grateful acknowledgment is here tendered. The rock containing the minerals is the ordinary monotonous basalt of the vast Columbia River lava plateau and came from various street and railway excavations in the City of Spokane. The rock 1 Received January 20, 1922. 2 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 195 196 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO, 8 contains scattered cavities varying up to several inches in diameter, the first lining of which consists of small blade-like crystals of a plagio- clase identified by its optical properties as oligoclase-andesine. Upon this crust rest the disseminated white crystals of cristobalite and mi- nute octahedrons of magnetite following which was deposited siderite ("sphaerosiderite") in small spherical masses. Later successive deposits include, in the order named, pyrite, iron opal, second genera- tion sphaerosiderite, calcite, white opal, and hyalite. Weathering has converted some of the nodules of siderite to secondary pseudomorphs of limonite and goethite. The cristobalite forms sub-translucent white crystals 0.5 mm. or less in diameter irregularly scattered over the interior of the cavities. These have a feeble luster and a white porcelain-like appearance. It was possible to detach several of the cristobalites from the matrix and to measure them on the 2-circle goniometer with sufficient accuracy to identify the forms and to indicate isometric symmetry. Most of the crystals are cuboctahedrons with the faces of the cube and octahe- dron equally developed. The faces are commonly concave or divided by sutures so as to give several signals while the cube faces often show a confusion of slightly re-entrant angles suggesting complex twinning and grading toward the spherulitic forms characteristic of the mineral. Rarely a crystal is observed which shows no indication of this twinning and which has the exterior form of a simple isometric crystal. The best of these measured was a cuboctahedron with its edges beveled by narrow faces of the trapezohedron. The latter form has not previously been observed on crystals of this mineral. Under the microscope the material has a feeble birefringence and has a refractive index of 1.485=*= .003. The crystals are unchanged by boiling in hydrochloric acid and are volatilized without leaving any residue by evaporation with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. Although cristobalite has recently been described from several locali- ties in the United States this is the first locality in this country to furnish measurable crystals of this mineral. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. — Review of the optical-crystallographic prop- erties of calcium oxalate monohydrate} Edgar T. Wherry, Bureau of Chemistry. The mineral whewellite, calcium oxalate monohydrate, was dis- covered in 1840, and has subsequently been the subject of considerable * Received Dec. 3, 1921. APR. 19, 1922 wherry: calcium oxalate monohydrate 197 crystallographic and optical investigation. The literature contains, however, contradictory statements as to its optical properties. Definite data upon these properties being desired for use in the study of this compound as it occurs in plant tissues, the various papers have been critically reviewed. Crystalline fragments have also been studied by the immersion method, and the final conclusions as to the optical- crystallographic properties of the substance are here presented. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Calcium oxalate monohydrate crystallizes in the holohedral class of the monoclinic system; its axial ratio a:b:c and axial angle /3have been determined as follows. Authority Date a b c ff Miller^ 1840 0 .8696 1 1 .3695 72° 42' Becke^ 1907 0 .8628 1 1 .3677 73 00 Ungemach^ 1909 0 .8620 1 1 .3666 73 02 Kolbeck, Goldschmidt & Schroder^ 1918 0 .8696 1 1 .3695 72 42 The elaborate study of the mineral made by the last three authors appears to have definitely established the correctness of the Miller axial values. The crystals are usually highly modified, but on the whole the base, the clinopinacoid and the unit prism are the dominant forms. A wide variety of habits has been noted. See figure 1 . The most frequent appears to be prismatic, elongated on axis c, but elongation in the direc- tions of axis a, axis 6, and the zones of the pyramids (112) and (121) have also been observed. Tabular habits on the base, the clinopinacoid, and the dome (101) occur as well. Twinning is frequent on the nega- tive unit orthodome (101). At all of its seven known localities the mineral is stated to be associated with some carbonate mineral, calcite, siderite, dolomite or ankerite, so that these habits represent the result of crystallization in an alkaline environment. OPTICAL PROPERTIES The values of the refractive indices for D light, a, (3, y, and optic axial angle 2 E given by different authors are tabulated here. 2 Phil. Mag. (3) 16: 450. 1840. 3 Min. petr. Mitth. 26: 391. 1907. * Bull. soc. franc, min. 32: 20. 1909. sBeitr. Krvst. Min. 1: 199. 1918. 198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 y — e > — a a a d I A I I a - h \-(3 /3 3 e T - '73 - J / \ Fig. 1. Outlines of crystals of calcium oxalate monohydrate. l |C -^ I APR. li), 1922 wherry: calcium oxalate monohydrate 199 Authority Date a ff y y — a 2E Schubert^ 1899 ... 1 .549 ... ... 89° Becke" 1907 1.490 1.555 1.650 0.160 84° 40' Jezek* 1908 1 .490 1 .555 1 .649 0 . 159 83° 42' Jezek9 1911 1.491 1.555 1.650 0.159 83° 55' Average 1 490 1 .555 1 .650 0 . 160 84 o The values given by Becke and by Jezek agree within the limits of error of measurement, and the rounded average in the last line may be accepted as characteristic of the substance. Examination by the immersion method confirmed them completely. The material breaks into angular fragments without definite crystallographic orientation, so that values intermediate between the several indices are usually obtained, but the indices as given appear with sufficient frequency to show their correctness. The value of 2 E, as calculated from 2 V, is so high as not to be measurable under the microscope, but partial figures are often seen in the fragments studied by the immersion method, and on them the optical sign can be determined as positive, by the use of the selenite plate. The greatest discrepancies in the literature upon whewellite concern the optical orientation, the following different descriptions of which are given: Authority Date Position of axial plane Position of acute bisectrix Becke^" 1907 Perpendicular to (010) In obtuse angle /329 ° from axis c. Jezekio 1908 Winchell" 1909 " - 1 1 1/2 ° from axis c. Groth'2 1910 Parallel to (010) In acute angle /364 ° from axis c. Jazek'o 1911 Perpendicular to (010) In obtuse angle i330 ° from axis c. Study, by the immersion method, of a number of samples, represent- ing fragments of the mineral whewellite, crystals in the tissues of vari- ous plants, and crystalline precipitates prepared by boiling together dilute solutions of the constituent ions, has indicated that the data of Becke and Jezek are correct. In accordance with this interpretation of the orientation, the following features correspond to the more frequent habits: « Min. petr. Mitth. 18: 251. 1899. ' Loc. cit. 8 Bull. int. Acad. vSci. Bohemia 13: 1; 22: 1. 1908; through Z. Kryst. Min. 46: 610. 1909. « Rozpr. Ceske Akad. TI, 20: 1. 1911; through Z. Kryst. Min. 54: 191. 1914. '° Loc. cit. '1 Elements of optical mineralogy, . 391, 1919. '- Chemische Krystallographie 3: 152. 1910. 200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 Sign of Extinc- Twinning Inferred Refractive indices elonga- tion plane habit — Lengthwise Crosswise tion angles may show elongated on « 1.490 /3 1.555 7 1-650 .. 0° Lengthwise axis 6 0 1.555 « 1.490 7 1.650 ± o-13° Cmsswise or lengthwise axis a 7 1.650. a 1.490 /3 1.555 + 0-30° Diagonally axis c 7 1.650 a 1.490 /3 1.555 + 0-6 1/2° Lengthwise zone of e : 6 These data are being applied to the study of the crystals of calcium oxalate occurring in official crude drugs and other plants, a report on which will appear elsewhere. BOTANY. — Twc new species of Acanthospermum from the Galapagos Islands} S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry. Several months ago I published- a revision of the genus Acantho- spermum, a small group of Asteraceae closely related to Melampodium, from which it is distinguished technically by the presence of spines or hooked prickles on the indurated phyllaries which envelop the ray achenes. Of the eight species there described the most aberrant is Acanthospermum lecocarpoides Robins. & Greenm., the sole member of the Section Lecocarpopsis, which is distinguished from the two other sections of the genus by its pinnatifid leaves, plump trigonous-turbin- ate fruit bearing spines only around the broadly rounded apex, and comparatively large rays.^ The species, seen by me only in two collections from Hood Island, Galapagos Archipelago, is remarkable for its rather close resemblance in every feature but the fruit to the monotypic genus Lecocarpus Decaisne, which is confined to Chatham and Charles Islands of the same group. After the paper above referred to had been turned in for publication, 1 found at the Gray Herbarium two sheets of Acanthospermumy collected by Alban Stewart on Chatham and Gardner-near-Hood Islands, which appeared to represent two new species of the Section Lecocarpopsis. Through the kindness of Miss Alice Eastwood, I was able to supplement these two sheets by the extensive series of mounted and unmounted duplicates of the same two numbers in the herbarium of the California Academy of Sciences. vStudy of this material, amounting in all to 42 sheets, shows that it unquestionably represents two new forms of the Section Lecocarpopsis. Since these 1 Received March 5, 1922. 2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 383-392, pi. 23. 1921. ' The extreme corky-woody thickening of the fruiting phvllaries at maturity is also characteristic of this section of the genus. APR. 19, 1922 BLAKE: acanthospermum i^rom gai^apagos islands 201 forms, although closely related, are not connected by intermediates, they are here treated as species. Since the days of Darwin's voyage on the Beagle, the Galapagos Archipelago has been a classical region for the study of the evolution of closely allied forms of both plants and animals. The three species of Acanthospermum here discussed make an interesting addition to the list of plant groups represented on different islands by distinguishable forms so closely related that their origin from a common ancestor, and presumably at no great distance in the past, is incontestable. The abundant material representing two of these forms, moreover, affords a basis for a greater degree of assurance as regards their prob- able distinctness than has often been the case previously. As already mentioned, Acanthospermum is closely allied to Melampo- dium. Melampodium is an American genus of about 43 species ranging from Kansas to Brazil, and represented by one introduced species in the Philippine Islands, but not known from the Galapagos Islands. Acanthospermum includes, with the two species here described, ten species, native in the West Indies, South America, and the Galapagos Islands, and introduced in North and Central America and in the Old World. In both genera only the ray flowers are fertile, and each achene is closely enveloped and hidden by the corresponding subtending phyllary. The compound structures, called "fruits" for the sake of brevity, are armed in Acanthospermum with several or many spines or hooked prickles. In Melampodium the achene-enclosing, phyllaries are smooth or merely tuberculate, and are in one section developed at apex into a cup or hood which may be prolonged into a single short or long often recurved horn on the apical outer margin. The most remarkable character of the three species of Acantho- spermum here considered is the variability in the armament of the fruits, a feature quite without parallel in the other species of the genus. In this respect A. leptolobum is by far the most variable. Although this species happens to be represented by far more material than the others (34 sheets, as opposed to 8 of A. brachyceratum and 2 of A. lecocarpoides) , this cannot be considered the explanation of the varia- bility, since the extremes represented in figure 1, d-], are sometimes found in a single head. Especially noteworthy is the type of fruit represented in figure 1, /. Technically this fruit by itself would be referred to Melampodium. The absence of spines in this type of fruit seems to be due to a loss of vigor or nourishment, as indicated by the comparatively small size, and not to infertility, for the seed is quite 202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 Fig. 1. hea-ves and iruits oi Acanthospermum. — a,d-j, A. leptolobum; b, k-m, A. brachy- ceratiim; c, n-p, A. lecocarpoides. a-c, X 1; d-p, X about 2. All drawn from the types or specimens of the type collections. The ventral side of the fruits faces left in each case. APR. 19, 1922 BLAKE : ACANTHOSPERMUM FROM GALAPAGOS ISLANDS 203 ' as well developed in such fruits as in normal ones. One is tempted to explain the variability of these three forms of Acanthospermum by the supposition of a very recent origin. The suggestion may also be made that the absence in the Archipelago of native mammals whose fur would provide a means of transport for the spiny fruits may be in some way correlated with the tendency to loss of spines. This tendency toward abortion of spines in the fruits of various unrelated genera of plants of the Galapagos Islands has already been mentioned by Robin- son,^ and considered explicable by the paucity of indigenous mammals. The three species of the Section Lecocarpopsis may be separated by the following key. Leaves usually divided about half way to midrib, the rachis 4 to 20 mm. wide; body of fruit 4 to 5 mm. deep; horns usually subequal, or the outer longer or rarely obsolete. Leaf blades 4.5 to 9 cm. long, 2.2 to 4.-5 cm. wide; peduncles 2.3 to 4.5 cm. long; horns of fruit 3 to 7 mm. long, usually subequal; Hood Island. A. lecocarpoides. Leaf blades 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long, 1.7 to 2 cm. wide; peduncles about 1 cm. long; horns of fruit 1 to 3 mm. long, the outermost the longest ; Gardner- near-Hood Island. A. hrachyceratum. Leaves divided nearly to the midrib, the rachis only 1 to 2 mm. wide; body of fruit 2.2 to 3.5 mm. deep ; inner horns of fruit usually much longer than the outer; Chatham Island. A. leptolobum. Acanthospermum hrachyceratum Blake, sp. nov. Figure 1, b, k-m. Base not seen; stem indurated, 60 cm. high, dichotomous, densely spreading- hispidulous; leaves opposite, hispidulous and gland-dotted above and chiefly on the nerves beneath; petioles 8 to 12 mm. long, connate at base, narrowly margined; blades oval-ovate, 1.5 to,2.5 cm. long, 1.7 to 2 cm. wide, obtuse, cuneate at base, lobed about to middle, the lobes 5 to 7 pairs, cuneate or oblong, revolute-margined, and toward apex 2 to 5-lobed with short obtuse densely hispidulous lobes; peduncles solitary, terminal, densely sordid-hispidulous, about 1 cm. long; heads 1.5 cm. wide; phyllaries 4, deltoid-ovate, obtuse, entire, hispidulous, 6 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; rays about 8, yellow, oval, tridenticulate, the lamina joined in a ring at base without proper tube, hispid- ulous and stipitate-glandular dorsally, 5.5 mm. long, 2.8 mm. wide; disk corollas numerous, yellow, the slender tube 1 mm. long, glandular, the cam- panulate throat 0.8 mm. long, the triangular acute recurved teeth 1 mm. long; pales acuminate, lanceolate, dentate at apex, stipitate-glandular above, about 3 mm. long; fruit turbinate, slightly compressed laterally, densely stipitate- glandular throughout and somewhat hispidulous, the body 4.5 to 5.5 mm. high, 4 to 4.5 mm. deep, bearing around the rounded apex 5 to 7 subulate horns usually grooved on the inner side, the 2 to 4 inner ones shorter, spread- ing or slightly ascending, 1 to 2 mm. long, the outermost one erect, with broadened base, 2 to 3 mm. high, the one or two lateral ones similar to the shorter inner ones. Type in the Gray Herbarium, collected on Gardner-near-Hood Island, Galapagos Islands, September 28, 1905, by Alban Stewart (no. 701). Dupli- es. L. Robinson. Flora of the Galapagos Islands. Proc. Amer. Acad. 38: 238. 1902. 204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 cates in the herbarium of the CaHfornia Academy of Sciences and the U. S. National Herbarium. Gardner-near-Hood Island, on which this species is found, is a tiny islet only 2 km. or less from Hood Island, the locality of A. lecocarpoides Robins. & Greenm. The two forms are very closely related, but A. brachyceratum may be distinguished by its much smaller, more finely lobed leaves, its shorter peduncles, and its shorter-spined fruit. It is described by the collector^ as a common bush two feet high. Acanthospermum leptolobum Blake, sp. nov. Figure 1, a, d-j. Annual, dichotomous, about 1 m. high, the stem and branches slender, woody, grayish, densely tuberculate-hispidulous ; leaves opposite, rather densely hispidulous on both sides; petioles about 8 mm. long, connate at base, narrowly margined, about 1 mm. wide; blades ovate, 2.5 to 4 cm. long, 1.3 to 4 cm. wide, pinnatifid nearly to midrib, the leaf rachis 1 to 2 mm. wide, the lobes about 5 pairs, mostly opposite, irregularly 2 to 8-lobed with linear obtuse segments or the uppermost entire, the segments again sometimes toothed; peduncles terminal, solitary, densely spreading-hispidulous with subglandular hairs, 1.3 to 2.5 cm. long; heads about 3 cm. wide; phyllaries 4, ovate, obtuse or acute, usually serrulate, hispidulous chiefly beneath, 8 to 10 mm. long, 4.5 to 6 mm. wide; rays 10, yellow, oval, tridenticulate, merely closed in a ring at base without proper tube, about 9-nerved, stipitate-glandu- lar dorsally, 10 mm. long, 4.5 mm. wide; disk corollas numerous, yellow, the slender tube sparsely glandular, 1.5 mm. long, the campanulate throat 1 mm. long, the five recurved triangular teeth 1 mm. long; stamens cordate-sagittate at base; pales acuminate, lacerate-dentate above, stipitate-glandular, about 3 mm. long; fruit compressed-turbinate, densely stipitate-glandular and more or less hispidulous, whitish at maturity, the body 2.8 to 3.5 mm. high, 2.2 to 3.5 mm. deep at apex, bearing at apex 1 to 5 horns, the 1 to 3 inner subulate or lance-subulate, 1 to 4 mm. long, divergent-spreading, when large excavated at the base, or sometimes wanting, the 1 to 3 outer triangular to subulate, erect or curved-ascending, 1 to 4 mm. high, at least the central one excavated at base, the latter sometimes represented only by its deeply excavated base and without free portion, or all the horns entirely wanting. Type in the Gray Herbarium, collected in woodland at Sappho Cove, Chatham Island, Galapagos Islands, altitude 240 meters, February 10, 1906, by Alban Stewart (no. 700). Duplicates in the herbarium of the California Academy of Sciences and the U. S. National Herbarium. Chatham Island, on which this species occurs, is about 50 km. from Hood Island. Its representative of Acanthospermum, A. leptolobum, is so different from that of Hood Island that its specific distinctness is likely to be confirmed by future collecting, while the form found on Gardner-near-Hood Island, A. brachyceratum, is so much closer to A. lecocarpoides that it may prove to be only a variety. Stewart*^ describes his no. 700 as a common bush, 3 to 4 ft. high, in woodland at 800 ft., and says: "Except for the presence of spines on the achenes [fruits] the specimens from this island are more like Lecocarpus 5 A. Stewart. Botanical survey of the Galapagos Islands. Proc. Calif. Acad. IV. 1: 148. 1911. ^ Loc. cit. APR. 19, 1922 HITCHCOCK: PERENNIAL SPECIES OF TEOSINTE 205 foHosus than an Acanthospermum." T have not been able to verify his state- ment that some of the material from Gardner-near-Hood Island (A. hrachy- ceratum) has "some of the leaves deeply cut, as do the specimens from Chat- ham Island." In this species the slender stem is so woody that I was inclined to consider it frutescent, until a specimen was found among the unmounted material collected by Stewart which showed clearly that the plant was an annual. In conclusion, it may be well to mention that the data for the specimens collected by Mr. Stewart on the 1905-06 Galapagos Expedition of the Cali- fornia Academy are in an unfortunate state of confusion. The 33 unmounted sheets of A. lepiolobum, for example, are not accompanied by data, but they are so clearly identical in every feature with his no. 700 as represented in the Gray Herbarium and the herbarium of the California Academy of Sciences that I have no hesitation in considering them a portion of the same collection. BOTANY. — A perennial species of teosinte^ A. S. Hitchcock, Bureau of Plant Industry. In a recent article^ entitled Teosinte in Mexico, Mr. G. N. Collins reviews our knowledge concerning teosinte in Mexico. Up to the present all the forms of teosinte have been referred to one species, Etichlaena mexicana Scbrad. There are two forms of this, both annual, one from Durango, where it was collected by Dr. Edward Palmer, and one grown in Florida, the origin of which is uncertain. The latter form hasbeen grown in France and mayhavecome originally from Guatemala. At present the only known localities for the annual teosinte in the wild state are Durango and the State of Mexico near Chalco, where it was recently collected by Collins. The origin of the specimens described by European botanists is unkown. The botanical history of the annual species is as follows: Euchlaena mexicana vSchrad. Ind. Sem. Hort. Goettingen. 1832 ; reprinted in Linnaea 8 : Litt. 25. 1833. I have not seen the original publication, an ephem- eral seed list, but fortunately the reprint is accessible. Schrader describes the genus and species together, "Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. Nov. Gen. e Gra- minearum Olyrearum tribu," and so on. He describes the staminate spike- lets as 1 -flowered instead of 2-flowered and the genus is placed with the Olyra group. As to locality he says, "Mexico, Dr. Miihlenfordt." Nothing further concerning the history of this is known. Reana giovanninii Brign. Ind. Sem. Hort. Mutin. 1849. The publication cited is also an ephemeral seed list which I saw at the Botanical Garden of 1 Received March 20, 1922. - Journ. Hered. 12: 3.39. 1922. 206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 Padua, Italy. Because of the rarity of the original pubhcation the description is here reproduced. Reana Genus Novum (Gramineae) (Zeinae) Flores monoici. Mascidi terminales paniculati: spica biflora, flora altero sessili, altero pedicellato: staminibus sex. Feminei axillares, spicati, erecli, sessiles in axi flexuoso: bracteis imbricatis ad medium usque involuti: stylis longissimis, exertis, pendulis: parte spicae superiore, abortiva, exserta, erecta. Cariopsis curvo-trigona axe arete adhaerens. Reana Giovanninii foliis amplexicaulibus, canaliculatis, angustis, integerrimis, longissimis. Habitat in Mexico-Annua-Attulit ex loco natali D. Doct. Melchior Giovannini, Regiensis. The description is quoted soon after in two botanical periodicals (Ann. Sci. Nat. III. Bot. 12: 365. 1849; Flora n. ser. 8: 400. 1850). Reana luxurians Dureiu, Bull. Soc. Acclim. II, 9: 581. 1872. The author in speaking before the society mentions a grass called Teosinte which he thinks is probably the name of a country. The seed probably came from Guatemala. He speaks well of it as a forage plant and ventures to call it Reana luxurians. The name is not technically published here as there is no description. Euchlaena bourgaei Fourn. Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg. 15: 468. 1876. In this article Fournier reviews the synonymy and describes the genus more fully than his predecessors. He describes three species, E. mexicana, E. hoiirgaei, and E. giovanninii, the second being new. He distinguishes the last species on description only, saying that he has seen no specimen with leaves as de- scribed. His new species is described as being 2 feet tall, annual, and the staminate inflorescence as consisting of a single terminal spike. The locality is given as "In collibus prope Chiquihuite (Bourg. absque numerp), octobri." He gives the locality for his specimen of E. mexicana as "In arena fluvii €xsiccati prope mare Pacificum, vSan Agostin, octobri (Liebm. n. 548)." Euchlaena luxurians Dur. & Aschers. Sitz.-Ber. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin (session of Dec. 19, 1876) ; Bull. Soc. Linn. Paris 1 : 107 (session of Jan. 8, 1877). These two articles appeared about the same time and covered about the same ground. In a preceding article {Ueber Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. Verh. Bot. Ver. Brandenburg 17: 76. March 3, 1876) Ascherson discusses the relation of Euchlaena to Tripsaciim. He states here that the plants of E. mexicana were cultivated in the Berlin garden a few years and then dis- appeared. In the herbarium was a specimen from the garden and one de- posited by Nees. Ascherson states further that there is no specimen in the herbarium at Gottingen to interpret Schrader's description. In the Trinius Herbarium at the Academy of Sciences, Petrograd, the present writer saw a fragment of "Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. e Hort. Goett." In the first two articles mentioned Ascherson discusses at some length the history of the genus Etichlaena. He is familiar with E. mexicana as grown at the Berlin botanic garden. Previously the genus had been placed APR. 19, 1922 HITCHCOCK : PERENNIAL SPECIES OF TEOSINTE; 207 near Olyra but he thinks it stands near Zea (Indian corn), in fact, that it resembles closely a stunted plant of maize. He points out that the staminate spikelets are 2-flowered instead of 1 -flowered as described by Schrader; describes fullv the female or pistillate spikelets and discusses the relation to Tripsacum and Zea, stating that Euchlaena is a Zea in which the female inflorescence is nearly as in Tripsacum; and quotes Grisbach (Veg. Erde 1: 542) as doubting the American origin of corn because of its affinity with certain Asiatic genera such as Coix, but Ascherson himself thinks Zea is much more closely related to Tripsacum, an American genus. Ascherson discusses Reana luxurians and takes occasion to transfer it to Euchlaena, of which genus he considers it a second species differing in its greater size. There are as manv as 150 culms to one plant, these being as much as 2V2 meters tall. In the only staminate spikelet of E. mexicana he has seen the lemmas are shorter than the glumes while in E. luxurians they are as long as the glumes. The joints of the pistillate inflorescence are cylindrical and ob- liquely truncated at the ends instead of being triangular as in E. mexicana. This is the same difference distinguishing the Florida form of the cultivated teosinte from the Dmrango form as pointed out by Mr. Collins. In 1910 I collected in Mexico, near Zapotlan, now called Ciudad Guzman, a perennial species of Euchlaena, and Mr. G. N. Collins collected it at the same place in October, 1921, while searching for teosintes in their native habitat. This species differs distinctly from all previously known forms of teosinte in the possession of rhizomes and is described below as new. Euchlaena perennis Hitchc, sp. nov. Plants perennial, producing strong scaly rhizomes; culms erect or somewhat geniculate at base, firm, glabrous, 1 to 2 meters tall; sheaths striate, the striae joined by numerous cross-veins, glabrous or some of them, especially the upper or those of the branches, somewhat hispid in the region of the collar and throat, the lower longer than the internodes, the upper shorter; ligule a short somewhat lacerate membrane, 1 to 2 mm. long; blades linear or linear- lanceolate, as much as 40 cm. long and 3 cm. wide, the upper shorter, some- what cordate-clasping at base, acuminate, flat and rather thin, the white midnerve prominent beneath, glabrous, strongly scabrous or scabrous-ciliate on the margin, ciliate near the base; terminal inflorescence staminate, con- sisting of 2 to 5 approximate, ascending or spreading racemes 6 to 12 cm. long, the internodes between the lower ones about 1 cm. ; spikelets in pairs, the pairs alternately to right and left on one side of a flat-triangular rachis, the rachis internodes 5 to 8 mm. long, scaberulous or ciliate on the angles; spikelets 2- flowered, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptic or somewhat broader above, the middle one of the pair nearly sessile, the other on an angular scaberulous pedicel 3 to 4 mm. long, enlarged toward apex; first glume flat on the back, strongly inflexed at the margins, smooth except the scaberulous-ciliate keels, these somewhat winged above, slightly notched at apex, the midnerve rather faint, the strong lateral nerves at the inflexed margins, a second faint pair intermediate; 208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 second glume a little shorter than the first, glabrous, convex on the back, loosely inflexed at the margins, thinner than the first, 5-nerved; lemmas and paleas all hyaline, the first lemma faintly 5-nerved, this and the 2-nerved palea about as long as the first glume ; second lemma faintly 3-nerved, narrower and shorter than the palea, the latter nearly as long as the second lemma; pistillate inflorescences in the axils of the leaves, partly protruding from the sheaths, each wrapped in one or more sheathing bracts, consisting of a series of pistillate spikelets on an articulate axis, the spike being 3 to 6 cm. long and 4 to 5 mm. thick, in some cases bearing above a raceme of staminate spikelets as much as 10 cm. long; pistillate spikelets single, on opposite sides, sunken in cavities in the hardened joints of an obliquely articulate rachis; joints of the fruiting rachis trapezoidal, 6 to 8 mm. long, about 4 mm. thick the short side 2 to 3 mm. long; first glume indurate like the rachis joint, closing the cavity containing the remainder of the spikelet, apiculate, about as long as the joint, pilose in the sinus at base. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 727077, collected in prairie along the railroad, about one mile south of the station, Zapotlan (Ciudad Guzman), Jalisco, Mexico, September 22, 1910, bv A. S. Hitchcock (no. 7146). Also collected at the type locality October 28, 1921, by G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton. This species is distinguished by the rhizomes and scattered stems, the plants growing in colonies. The pistillate spikes appear to be usually single in the axils of the leaves. ETHNOLOGY. — Customs of the Chukchi natives of northeastern Siberia.'^ H. U. Sverdrup. (Communicated by Francis B. Silsbee.) Captain Amundsen's Expedition left Norway in 1918 with the in- tention to follow the coast of Siberia eastward to the vicinity of Bering Strait, proceed thence towards the north, let the vessel, the "Maud," freeze in, and drift with the ice fields across the Polar Sea back to the Atlantic Ocean. The vessel was, however, forced by the ice conditions to winter three times in different places on the northern coast of Siberia, and was in 1921 compelled to go to Seattle for repairs. In September, 1919, the Expedition was stopped by the ice at Ayon Island, about 700 miles west of Bering Strait. Natives of the Chukchi tribe, with herds of domesticated reindeer, were then living on the island, but they would leave the coast in a few weeks and move inland to the forests, where they are accustomed to spend the winters. This group of the Chukchi was apparently very primitive, and had very 1 Abstract of an address delivered at a joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Science and the Anthropological Society, February 16, 1922; received for publication March 16, 1922. An extensive account, entitled "Blandt rentsjuktsjere og lamuter," has been published in Roald Amundsen's Nordostpassagen. Gyldendalske boghandel. Christiania, 1921. APR. 19, 1922 sverdrup: chukchi natives of Siberia 209 little communication with the civilized world. Captain Amundsen realized that a unique opportunity was here afforded of gathering information about this little known tribe, and he therefore suggested that I join the natives, accompany them to the interior, and return to the ship in the spring. Thus it came about that I spent seven and one-half months alone among the Chukchi. The existence of the natives among whom I stayed depends absolutely upon the domesti- cated reindeer, which in winter live in the sheltered forests, where reindeer moss is abundant under the soft snow, and in summer seek the grass-covered tundra, where mosquitoes and hornets are less troublesome. Hunting is unnecessary for the natives, because the reindeer give them practically all they need — tents, clothes and food. In addition, they need seal blubber for their lamps, and seal- skin for strings and soles. These articles they obtain from the natives at the coast in exchange for deerskin and deer meat. Furthermore, they go CA'ery spring to the Russian settlements at the Kolyma River to the yearly fur market, where they exchange their furs, mostly foxes and squirrels, for tea, tobacco, matches, knives, cartridges, and so on. The tents in which they live, summer and winter, are very well adapted both to their nomadic life and to the climatic conditions. Their most striking feature is that they are double, one being inside another. The outer tent is large and almost conical, with a cover of reindeer skin. But if such a tent in cold weather were to be heated to a comfortable temperature, it would require a great quantity of wood. The Chukchi spend, however, only three or four months of the cold season in the forests, where wood is abundant; the rest of the year they live on the barren tundra, where they find willows to furnish sufficient fuel for cooking, but not for heating. Inside the large tent, therefore, they place a smaller one, used for living and sleeping. This inner tent is made of heavy deerskin, and has the form of a square case hanging down to the ground. It is lighted and heated by a flat lamp of the Eskimo type, but most of the heat is produced by the many people who gather in the small space. The temperature may rise to 80° F., even on a day when a blizzard is raging and the temperature outdoors is — 20 ° F. , because the inner tent is protected from the wind by the outer one, and because the reindeer-skins of which it is made are highly insu- lating. But at night, when the natives are sleeping on the ground, covered with deerskins, the temperature is liable to fall. Accord- ingly, before going to sleep, the natives adjust all the sides of the inner tent so that no holes are left through which cold air might 210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 enter. The natural consequence is, that in the morning the air inside is frightful beyond description. The Chukchi dress in deerskin only ; they use one suit with the hairy side in and one with the hairy side out. The clothing of the men does not differ essentially from the clothing of the Eskimos, but the women's dress is entirely different. The Chukchi women wear high and very wide deerskin boots, and what may be called a union dress reaching to the knees. Ornaments on the dress are almost unknown ; the only way in which the deer Chukchi try to give their dresses a more attrac- tive appearance is by using white-spotted deerskins and matching them so that the white spots appear symmetrical. The reindeer supply practically all the natives' food. A few roots are dug up in the spring and eaten, and the boiled contents of the reindeer's paunch is regarded as delicious, but with these exceptions, the diet is a pure meat diet. The Chukchi obtain the necessary variety in their food by eating almost every part of deer, from the meat to the marrow. Furthermore, the reindeer are the beasts of burden; they have to pull the clumsy sledges on which all the belongings of the natives are packed, when they move from one place to another. When they are moving or living in the same place, the task of the men is to attend to the sledges, to keep the reindeer herd together, and the wolves away. The latter is the task of the young men, who sometimes lead a strenu- ous life. Occasionally it happens that for weeks at a time they do not sleep under shelter, while in the same time the elder men do not leave the tents. As soon as a man has a son, who is old enough to take care of the reindeer, he himself quits. The highest ambition of a man is, therefore, to have a son, or at least a son-in-law. The young men handle the lassos with wonderful skill, and have an astonishing knowledge of the deer. The average number of reindeer belonging to one household is about 400 or 500, and a young boy knows by sight not only his and his father's reindeer, but also all belonging to the neighbors, which may mean several thousands. Curiously enough, he is not able to tell how many he knows, because the highest figure a Chukchi is able to handle seems to be 200 — 20 times 10. The task of the women is to tan the deerskins, make new clothes, mend old ones, to cook, and to do do what may be called general housework. The same rule applies to the women as to the men, namely, that the younger have to do the work, the older may do what they like. APR. 19, 1922 SVERDRUP : CHUKCHI NATIVES Ol? SIBERIA 211 The language has one peculiarity worth mentioning ; it is pronounced in a different way by men and women. If a man uses a hard sound like r, i, or k, the woman often, but not always, replaces this with a soft z. To take one example. The word for sinew is pronounced by the men rat-tet, by the women ze-zet. The chronology of the Chukchi is ver\^ simple; it does not exist. They do not count the years, so nobody knows his own age. They have, however, a word for "a year" and names for the different seasons and for the full-moons, of which usually 13 occur in one year. To enumerate the 13 months, the Chukchi count them on the 12 joints on both arms from the finger-tips to the shoulders, including the head for the thirteenth month. Their social organization is almost as simple as their chronology. The Russian officials used to appoint one or two chiefs, whose main duty seemed to be to reconcile parties who were at odds. These chiefs had, however, very little to do, because the Chukchi really are governed by the unwritten laws of public opinion. These laws require in the first place, respect for old age, and forbearance towards the weak and poor. But they also open full opportunity for the young and hot-tempered to fight out their controversies. To fight an old man is regarded as one of the worst crimes. It is also regarded as unworthy of a man to beat a woman, unless she happens to be his wife. The women are, however, generally well treated. The marriages are usually settled by the parents when the children are five or six years old, and a small number of reindeer is paid for the girl. She moves over to the tent of her future husband at the age of ten or twelve, but may have to return to her home if she is not able to get along with her mother-in-law. Single marriages are most common, but a few men have two or even three wives. The Chukchi are accustomed to kill the old people. This is, how- ever, no act of cruelty, but an act of mercy. When an old man be- comes ill and is unable to leave the tent any more, than life becomes a burden to him and he a burden to his surroundings. He asks to be killed, and his son renders him the last service by stabbing him in the heart. The custom is barbaric, but the way in which the Chukchi treat their dead is still more barbaric. The body is taken out to a lonely place where the ground is un- covered, and an oblong of large stones, with its axis in a southeast to northwest direction is made on the ground. The body is placed in this oblong with the head toward the northwest — towards the darkness, 212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 and then the limbs are cut over at all joints up to the knee and elbow joint, the head separated, and several deep cuts made in the body. This is then covered with fresh deer meat. The dead has to have his sledge, ax, knife, tobacco pipe, and tea-cup with him. On the next day, the reindeer herd is taken to the burial place, a number of deer are killed, and their antlers gathered into a large heap northwest of the burial place. This ceremony is repeated usually three times at intervals of one year. Later, the relatives of the dead one will sacrifice a piece of meat or what they may have at hand, if they pass the burial place. If the dead one has expressed a particular wish for it, his body may be burned. The religion of the Chukchi seems to be two fold . They have them- selves no idols, but they keep a number of idols for the reindeer. Thus, the fire drills used in former times for starting a fire are regarded as some of the reindeer's idols. All ceremonies in which these idols play a part seem intended only to guard the reindeer from the dangers which surround them. Other ceremonies aim to guard the Chukchi themselves. They aim to keep away the evil spirits living in the Earth, or to reconcile them, and to seek help from the Sun, which seems to represent the good powers. In addition, the Chukchi pay attention to an endless series of small matters; their superstition is unlimited. Their conception of the soul or mind is animistic. The soul develops with the body; an old man is highly estimated because his soul is great. At death, the soul separates from the body and goes to the northwest, where it lives a kind of shadow life. It can, however, communicate with the living, and the Chukchi believe that dogs act as links between the living and the dead. Generally, the Chukchi are perfectly content with their existence; they have no desire to leave their country or change their habits. They do not care for the outside world, as long as this outside world is willing to bring tea and tobacco in exchange for fox-skins. Civiliza- tion would not bring them any good, so it would be well if they might remain as primitive as they are. APR. 19, 1922 proceedings: entomological society 213 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 338th meeting The 338th regular meeting of the Society was held March 3, 1921, in Room 43 of the new building of the National Museum with President Walton presiding and 28 members and 5 visitors present. New Members: Wm. C. Richardson, Richmond, Virginia; Chas. C. Hill, Bureau of Entomology Laboratory, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Program R. E. Snodgrass: Life-history of the resplendent shield-bearer of apple and of ribbed cocoon maker. Altogether popular in form this paper contained much of interest, being based on studies of the insect made in connection with the beautiful drawings with which the paper was illustrated. It was prepared for publication in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution. Notes and exhibition of specimens Dr. DiMiTRi Borodin, the noted Russian Entomologist, was introduced to the society by Dr. Howard. Dr. Borodin addressed the Society briefly in English and in Russian. Mr. E. H. Gibson called attention to a posthumous paper by the late Otto Heideman, which was omitted from the bibliography of Mr. Heidemann published in the Proceedings of this Society. This paper, The Rhynchota of the Isle of Pines, was published in 1917 in the Annals of the Carnegie Museum Mr. Wm. Middleton announced the discovery by himself that the males of the sayfly genus Xyela belong to the group Stropandria, that is the gen- italia are inverted. In this respect it differs from its nearest relatives. Messrs. H. S. Barber and H. E. Ewing discussed the past histor}^ and re- cent finding of insects of the primitive order protura, the latter recounting in some detail the characteristics and affinities of the group. Mr. E. R. Sasscer referred to the condition of French fruit and rose stocks which have arrived in the United States since January 1, 1921. He stated that in that period eighty-five nests of the Brown-Tail Moth had been taken in thirty-two shipments, in contrast with sixty-three infested French ship- ments which have arrived in this country during the last nine years. The finding of so many nests in such a brief period indicates that the French in- spection service is much below the standard of previous years, and to meet this situation, all French shipments of rose and fruit stocks are now being fumigated at the port of entry under the direction of the Department of Agriculture, as well as inspected at destination by state inspectors. He fur- ther stated that a warning had been sent to the French nurserymen and French inspection service to the effect that if shipments continue to arrive infested with nests of this injurious insect, it may be necessary to cancel all exist- ing permits to import French stocks. Interceptions have been made by the state inspectors of Connecticut New York, Indiana, Iowa, New Jersey, North CaroHna, Pennsylvania, 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 Maryland, and Federal Inspectors in New York City, Philadelphia, and Wash- ington, D. C. He also stated that these French shipments were found to carry a number of nests of the so-called White Tree Pierid, Aporia crataegi L. Mr. A. B. Gahan stated that owing to misdeterminations the insects hiterto known as Thyreodon morio (Fab.) and Exochilum mundum (Say) will have to be called Thyreodon atricolor (Oliver) and Therion morio (Fab.), respectively. Dr. A. G. Boving discussed the larval structures of the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus simplex. In some respects, especially in the form of the spira- cles which are forced into the air chamber of the rice stem, this larva is similar to that of Donacia. In most resects, however, it is like the other curculionids. Mr. J. A. Hyslop called attention to the recent death of Dr. Charles H. Fernald, for many years head of the department of entomology at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 339th meeting The 339th regular meeting of the Society was held on April 7, 1921, in Room 43 of the new building of the National Museum, with President Wal- ton in the chair and 23 members and 5 visitors present. New Members: C. D. B. Garrett, Cranbrook, British Columbia; Dr. W. R. Thompson, Villa Pina Flor, Auch, Gers, France. Corresponding Secretary Rohwer announced that by action of the Exec- utive Committee the Society is furnishing the Proceedings to foreign insti- tutions already subscribing, which cannot afford to subscribe at the present rate of exchange, at the rate of exchange of 1914. Dr. Walther Horn of the Berlin Entomological Museum had taken advantage of this offer and in accepting it had also sent as a gift to the vSociety a set of photographs, many in duplicate, of European Entomologists. These were exhibited by Mr. RoHWER. Such of these as are not already in the voluminous collection of Dr. Howard are to be added to that collection and the others oflfered for sale. Program August Busck and Carl Heinrich: On the Male Genitalia of the Micro- lepidoptera and their systematic Importance. This paper showed how the different forms assumed by the various elements of the genitalia furnish the best characters for the classification and recogni- tion of insects of this group. It was illustrated by many photographic lan- tern slides taken from the slide mounts of genitalia. Mr. Busck also spoke of the finding in swarms by Mr. Schwarz at Plum- mer's Island, Maryland of the hitherto rare moth, Ethmia macelhosiella Busck, and the subsequent discovery of its host relations and life-history. These swarms were first observed by Mr. Schwarz on November 8, 1916, and in the following spring larvae found feeding on Phacelia developed into adults of this species. The larvae reach full growth early in May, pupate in bark, and emerge as adult moths late in the fall. The time and place of ovi- position is not known. In the discussion of the last Mr. E. A. Schwarz spoke of the somewhat APR. 19, 1922 proceedings: entomological society 215 similar seasonal history of the weevil, Dorytomus inaequalis, the larvae of which feed in the catkins of cottonwood. S. A. Rohwer: Injurious and Beneficial Cynipid Galls. Mr. Rohwer discussed the various types of galls with especial reference to their relation to human welfare, and told of their use in the arts and of the investigations conducted during the war into the possible substitution of American galls for the ordinary galls of commerce. Lantern slides of many galls were shown. Dr. A. D. Hopkins spoke of a gall with deciduous grain-like cells which are much eaten by poultry and which analysis shows are much more nutri- tious than wheat. It is known as "black oak wheat." 340th meeting The 340th regular meeting of the Society was held May 5, 1921, in Room 43 of the new building of the National Museum, with President Walton pre- ;siding and 20 members and 1 visitor present. New members: PerEz Simmons, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Program A. B. Gahan: Phytophagous Chalcids. This was a list compiled from literature, of the phytophagous Chalci- doidea, not including the fig insects, and discussion of the probable evolution of the phytophagic habit. The speaker showed that phytophagy was now said to occur in six differ- ent families of chalcid-flies, viz., Agaonidae, Callimomidae, Eurytomidae, Encyrtidae, and Eulophidae. Seed Chalcids and joint-worm flies are not the only phytophagic forms. Certain species are definitely stated to be gall-makers and others are said to bore in plant tissue much as do certain Coleoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera. The list of food plants is a varied one embracing such widely separated botanical groups as Leguminoceae, Pomaceae, and coniferous trees. Many species are distinctly economic. Not only are the phytophagous forms distributed through several families but in many cases they apparently do not offer even minor group charac- ters by which they may be separated from parasitic forms. Phytophagous species of the genus Eurytoma can be separated specifically only with great difficulty from those known to be parasitic. Several other genera contain both plant feeding and parasitic forms. The phytophagous species belong almost exclusively to groups in which a large percentage of the related para- sitic forms breed in host larvae which are concealed in plant tissue, as for example, gall-makers. The speaker stated that the ancestors of the Chalcidoids were undoubtedly plant feeders and that parasitism was a subsequent development. Unless one believed that they arose from a source entirely separate from that of other insects and at a later date it is impossible to conceive of their always having been parasitic. Phytophagy as found in the group today, however, is believed to be a comparatively recent specialization. That this is probably true is demonstrated by the fact that although the Chalcidoids are apparently a plastic group exhibiting very numerous and slightly specialized forms, phytophagy is not confined to any particular group or groups but occurs sporadically throughout the whole superfamily. If phytophagy had long existed it is to be expected that it would have resulted in structural differen- 216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF vSCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 tiations between the forms so living and those which are parasitic. The most important indication of the probable recent development of the phyto- phagic habit, however, is found in the assertion by three different authors that certain species of Eurytomidae are parasitic in their earlier stages but finish their development as plant feeders. Such a mode of development would seem to leave little room for doubt that phytophagy as found at present is a recent specialization. Notes and exhibition of specimens Mr. L. H. Weld told in some detail of the collection of Cynipidae in the National Museum, its content and present arrangement. He stated that there are probably more Cynipidae in this museum than in any other insti- tution. Mr. S. A. RoHWER discussed the collection for the other groups of the Hymenoptera. He announced that the collection of bees had recently been completely rearranged, that the Serphoids were now being assembled and arranged; that the rearrangement of the sawflies -was completed in 1911 but* that since then much new material had been received ; that the Chalcidoids were gradually being put in good order; and that in general the arrangement of the collection had been greatly improved in the last few years. He added there is still a very great deal to be done but that he believed the National Collection of Hymenoptera was probably more extensive than that of any other institution in the groups usually considered to be of economic impor- tance. He pointed out that the material in the collection was in a large measure secured by the cooperation of the economic entomologists of the world and that because of this it represented much biological material and notes and that in this feature it was probably more complete than any of the large collections of other countries. Mr. E. A. ScHWARZ spoke of four European species of Carabus that had been introduced into New England along with the Calosoma beetles. One of these, nemoralis, has now spread as far as New Jersey, while auratus has bred and spread more sparingly. The other two have apparently failed to establish themselves. Dr. A. G. BoviNG stated that the National Museum collection of Coleop- terous larvae is by far the largest in the world. R. A. CusHMAN, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS For the purpose of encouraging research work on glass the Research Com- mittee of the Glass Division of the American Ceramic Society has made arrangements for providing glass of desired composition and desired form for investigators in this field. The material will be supplied free of charge and no limitations as to the nature of the research will be imposed. The recipients of the material will be under no obligations except that of publication of the results of their investigations. The committee, however, requests that where- ever possible the Journal of the American Ceramic Society be given preference in reporting the results. Persons who are interested are requested to address their inquiries to one of the following members of the Committee on Research : E. C. Sullivan, Corning Glass Works, Corning, New York ; E. W. Washburn, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois; R. B. Sosman, Geophysical Labora- tory, Washington, D. C. APR. 19, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 217 The Academy of Science and Arts of Trieste, Italy proposes to issue an encyclopedia of science and arts, under the editorship of Prof. Giorgio Giuseppe Ravasini da Buie, of Istria, An advance notice states that the publication, which will appear in 16-page fascicles, will contain twice as many articles as the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Petrologists' Club met on March 14, with the following program: L. La Forge, Magmatic differentiation as illustrated by the Dedhani granitic group in eastern Massachusetts; M. N. Bramlette: Review of Gordon's Desilicated granitic pegmatites; E. S. Larsen, informal communication on Crystallization and resorption in magmas. Two small lots of bird skins presented to the National Museum by B. H. Swales, Honorary Assistant Curator, Division of Birds, contain 8 genera and many species previously unrepresented in the collection. The Section of Vertebrate Paleontology of the National Museum has re- cently acquired portions of the skin, hair, muscular tissue, dried fat and blood of the Siberian Mammoth, which, with other specimens, now form an exhibit illustrative of this animal. The specimens are from a carcass that was found frozen in a cliff along the Beresovka River in northeastern Siberia in 1901, and was exhumed for the Imperial Academy of Science in Petrograd by a Russian naturalist, now a refugee in Germany. The patch of skin measuring one by two feet is from the knee of the right hind leg. It is thickly covered with a short wooly hair and with bunches of long reddish hair that varies in length from 4 to 6 inches. A bunch of hair taken from the right shoulder has a length of more than 30 inches. The Division of Mollusks of the National Museum has recently received from Dr. E. M. BluESTone, Assistant Director of the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York City, a series of 187 slides showing the different species of malarial parasites. In some instances specimens were taken at stated intervals between chills, to show the different stages in the development of the Tro- phozoite in the blood of man. The grass herbarium has received a package of Brazilian grasses from the Berlin Herbarium containing a number of duplicate types collected by Sello and described by Nees von Esenbeck in his account of the grasses of Brazil published in 1829. A fine set of Argentine grasses has also been received from Dr. Lorenzo Parodi, of Buenos Aires. The Section of Photography of the National Museum has recently pur- chased a set of 75 representative photographs of snow crystals made byW. A. Bently, of Jericho, Vermont, who has been studying snow crystals for more than thirty years. Dr. John Casper Branner, ex-president of Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni- versity, California, and a non-resident member of the Academy, died on March 1, 1922. E. F. BuRCHARD has taken leave for one year from the Geological Survey and has gone to Argentina for private interests. Mrs. Agnes Chase of the Bureau of Plant Industry sailed March 11 for Europe to study the types of grasses in the larger herbaria. She goes first to Vienna to select a series of duplicates from the herbarium of the well-known agrostologist, Professor Hackel, and later will visit Florence, Berlin, Geneva, Paris, Brussels, Leyden, and London. Mrs. Chase expects to return about the first of July. Prof. Arnold van Jennep, eminent French anthropologist, was a recent visitor in the Division of American Archeology'. Professor van Jennep 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 8 visited several sites of current investigation during his extensive journeys throughout the United States and is now on his way back to France. F. J. Katz, who has been with the Census Bureau for several years, has returned to the Geological vSurvey and will be assistant chief of the Mineral Resources Section. Mr. A. S. Le vSouef, director of the Zoological Gardens at vSydney, Australia, was a recent visitor at the Zoological Park. Mr. Le Souef took to Europe from Australia the first shipment of live animals sent abroad by the new Zoological Control Board of Australia, which now has complete charge of the exportation of Australian animals. Dr. WiLiJAM M. Mann, of the Division of Insects, who has been since last June with the Mulford Biological Exploration in eastern Bolivia and western Brazil, writes from Riberalta, Bolivia, under date of January 12, that the expedition will return to the United States early in April. Dr. Rusby, the director, has recently been compelled to return on account of ill health. Dr. Mann is now in charge of the party. Dr. Morton P. Porsild, of the Danish Arctic Station, Disko, Greenland, recently spent a day or two in study of the Alaskan collections of the National Herbarium. T. W. Vaughan has at his request been relieved of administrative duties as Chief of the Coastal Plain Section in the Geological vSurvey, and h. W. Stephenson has been assigned these duties. W. P. Woodring has been appointed Chief of the Section of West Indian geologic surveys in the Coastal Plain Section. Dr. Charles W. Waidner, chief physicist of the Bureau of Standards, died on March 10, 1922 at his home, 1748 Lanier Place, after a long illness. Dr. Waidner was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on March 6, 1873. After graduating at Johns Hopkins University he acted as instructor both there and at Williams College. He was appointed to the Bureau of Standards in 1901 and made chief physicist in 1921 after the death of Dr. E. B. Rosa. Dr. Waidner' s name is generally identified with his work on the high temperature scale, on radiation and on the resistance thermometer. More recently the other end of the temperature scale had also engaged his attention, to the advantage of our knowledge of refrigerating processes. During the war he had charge of the Bureau's work on aviation engines. He was a member of the Academy and of the Philosophical Society, as well as of many national and international scientific bodies. Dr. T. T. Waterman, lately appointed ethnologist of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, has left for field-work in Alaska, Oregon, and Washington. He will first proceed to the Kasaan National Monument, Alaska, to study the architecture, totem poles and other objects at this village and will be ac- companied by a half-breed Haida, related by marriage to Chief Skoul. It is expected that considerable legendary data bearing on history and sociology of the former inhabitants of Kasaan will also be collected. Should the results justify further work it is planned to continue field-work on place names and aboriginal village sites of Alaska to be followed later by work on stratigraphic archeology in more northern latitudes in order to discover if possible traces of the oldest Indians in this supposed prehistoric gateway of the migration of man into North America. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 May 4, 1922 No. 9 PETROLOGY, — The development of pressure in magmas as a result of crystallization ? George W. Morey, Geophysical Laboratory. The explanation of the phenomena which take place in the cooling of molten magmas, whether forming intrusive masses or extrusive flows, is one of the principal functions of petrology. To such magmas all of the laws of the physical chemistry of mixtures apply, and the phenomena met with as these mixtures cool and solidify under the conditions found in nature are the result of the action of these physico- chemical laws. The elucidation of these phenomena in terms of the known laws of physical chemistry is made difficult both by the extreme complexity of the natural mixtures and by the general lack of knowl- edge as to the theoretical relationships of mixtures containing not only non-volatile components such as the silicate minerals but also vola-' tile components far above their critical temperatures, such as carbon dioxide and water. In this note attention will be directed to certain relationships be- tween the temperature and composition and the vapor pressure of the volatile component, and especially to the relations between these quantities at temperatures approximating to the temperature of an- hydrous fusion of the mineral components, and at very considerable pressure. At temperatures near that at which crystallization begins a liquid silicate mixture containing but a small amount of volatile component may exert but a comparatively small vapor pressure, but as crystallization proceeds with falling temperature the pressure of the volatile components will increase at a rapid rate : so rapid that a pres- sure many times the original pressure may result from the crystalliza- tion of but a small proportion of the non-volatile material. This re- lation holds true whether the original liquid mixture consists of water and a low melting salt such as KNO3, or of water and other volatile substances with the usual non-volatile magmatic constituents; the • Received March 27, 1922. 219 220 JOURNAI. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 9 circumstance that the magmatic liquid is at a temperature far above the critical temperature of the volatile ingredients is without significance as long as any of the liquid phase remains in the system. The system H2O-KNO3 has accordingly been chosen to illustrate the relations be- tween the variables, pressure, temperature and composition in a sys- tem containing both volatile and non-volatile components. In a system such as H2O-KNO3 it is well known that the solubility or fusion curve is continuous from the eutectic or cryohydrate to the melting point of each component. This is illustrated in figure 1, C,- in which E is the eutectic, or cryohydrate, AmE the freezing-point curve of water in equilibrium with solutions of increasing KNO3 con- tent, B^jE the freezing-point curve of KNO3 in equilibrium with solu- tions of increasing H2O content. While with mixtures rich in KNO3 it is necessary to carry out solubility experiments inclosed vessels to prevent the escape of the water, KNO3 and water are both compon- ents of all liquids in the binary system. This still holds true when component B has a melting point above the critical temperature of water, as is the case in magmatic solutions. The curves showing the vapor pressure of the saturated solutions given in figure 1 , C are like- wise continuous from the eutectic to the melting point of components A and B, respectively, and in the case of the solutions in equilibrium with the component of higher melting point, KNO3, the curve must rise to a maximum pressure with increase in temperature, then on further increase in temperature the pressure must fall to the vapor pres- sure of the higher melting component at its melting point, or, more exactly, its triple point. This is shown in figure 1, B, in which the curve EBn, is the vapor-pressure curve of the solutions saturated with com- ponent B. As the temperature is increased, the vapor pressure of the saturated solution is determined by the balance between two opposing tendencies. One of these is the increase in vapor pressure of the water with increasing temperature; this is opposed by the decreasing water content of the solutions, and at the point of maximum pressure the two effects become equal. At higher temperatures, the second effect preponderates, and the pressure of the saturated solution decreases with increasing temperature. The actual ratio of the non-volatile to the volatile component at the point of maximum pressure is equal to the - Fig. 1 is drawn to scale for the system H2O-KNO3, but the components H2O and KNO3 are represented by A and B, respectively, for the purpose of clearer discussion of similar relations in systems containing other components. Experimental details of the study of this system will be published soon. MAY 4, 1922 morey: crystallization pressure in magmas 221 a :tw /'.^CSSU/^E / V y«TMCJPn£MFS ti s —1^ i.? <>. .' <^ ^ ^^ ^t \ Ni \ * »- N. i. -^ ^^^ s .^ :f^iiiM /p p lb Ox 010 Dominant form 0°00' 90°00' 2 m 00 110 Longer marginal form 68°21' 90°00' 3 q 01 Oil Shorter marginal form 0°00' 20°40' It may be noted that this substance lies very near to the mineral columbite, FeCb206, which, in corresponding orientation, has a : 5 -.c = 0.4023 : 1 : 0.3580. There is, however, another method of orientation which in many respects seem preferable, namely, that worked out by the late Professor E. S. Fedorov.- Unfortunately his rules have not yet been made available to non-Russian readers in complete form. The first step seems to be to bring the crystal into that orientation which shall show most clearly its relationship to a system of higher symmetry. In the present case, it takes but brief inspection of the habit to realize that this substance approaches the tetragonal system if the large pin- acoid is made the base, and this is the orientation adopted for the second angle table. The substance is, in fact, as far as the angles go, markedly peri tetragonal. According to Fedorov,^ the tabular habit perpendicular to axis c indicates that the axial ratio should be strongly positive — ^that is, axis c should be much greater than the others. As a matter of fact, whichever axis is taken as b, the value of c is greater than 2V2, so that thus far the relations are normal. Next there is a choice between making the dome with the smaller rho angle the side dome or the front dome; in the former position, axis a would be less than axis b, in the latter, greater than b. Since b is by convention taken as the unit axis, it seems preferable to make a greater than b, and as this also agrees with Fedorov' s rule, the greater elongation of the crystal being toward the greater rho, the dome with the smaller rho angle has been turned to the front, that is, made form (101). The dome with the larger rho angle then becomes (Oil), and 2 Z. Kryst. Min. 50: 513. 1912. ^ Loc. cit. Number letter Symbols Gdt. Mill. Ic 1 001 2e 01 Oil 3d 10 101 1 111 Angles Observe >P p . - . . 0°00' 0°00' 69°20' 90°00' 68^21' 43°32' 74°43' 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 12 the axial ratio given at the head of the angle table is the result. Fe- dorov termed the orientations worked out on the basis of his rules the "correct setting," but any one of the six orientations of an orthorhom- bic crystal is just as correct as any other, so the term "significant" is preferred, since what is meant is that orientation which best brings out the relations of the crystal to other systems. TABLE 2. — Angles of calcium fumarate in significant orientation Orthorhombic; a:b -.c = 1.0523 : 1 : 2.6510 (po = 2.5193; qo = 2.6510). Peritetrag- onal, with deviation of prism angle

CO 1-H > {H M > M l-i CN 1—1 < w a o CO CO fe W « . . l-H »— ( o o CO T-t lO W H^r pq <3 H 00 o + O + + a! O CO CO CO lO CD CO (N CO 00 X + o + + ni U 00 o CO C5 CO U2 lO CO ^ 1-H CO II K + O + + c8 U 00 CO CO T-H CO d 05 CO (N O •a a § a o O X- W' II X o — x o w o- — w X o o — tn cd ffi w II X — o- -w 1 1 w a o II o II o 1 = o o f 1 U* o 1 1 o — -o o = = 0 0 = =o 1 1 1 o II o ■H u 6 4; 3. 13 CO 1 o '>< X 3 fe O O Ph JUNE 19, 1922 WHERRY AND hann: calcium fumarate and maleate 295 refraction weaker. It appears under the microscope in rods or frag- ments, with the indices: a = 1.495, /3 = 1.580, y = 1.640, all ±0.003, making the double refraction 0.145. The axial angle 2V is calculated to be 77°36', and 2E 164°; this is too great an angle to be determined by the immersion method. The orientation is A'= c, Y = a, and Z = b, so, as in the case of the fumarate, the longer crystal axes do not correspond to the lesser refractive indices. The mean n = 1.571 gives, on the same basis as before, the refractivity 30.8. DISCUSSION OF THE REFRACTIVITY DATA The refractivities of the elements other than calcium used are those of Eisenlohr:^ C = 2.4, 0= = 2.2, —0— = 1.5, and H = 1.1. In calcium formate two entirely separate acid radicles are present, so the difference between the total refractivity and that calculated for the elements of the radicle may be regarded as the normal value for calcium. It is 4.9. In calcium oxide X-ray study has shown the atoms to be arranged as shown, with directions of attraction (electrostatic) also perpendicu- lar to the paper. This represents but little strain, and the additional refractivity due to the structure is slight. In the oxalate the calcium unites the two ends of the radicle into a ring, and as would be expected this produces a slightly higher extra refractivity. In calcium maleate a double bond is present, which according to Eisenlohr produces in any case an extra refractivity of 1.0; but in addition the calcium unites two ends of the radicle. The ring pro- duced in this case is much larger than that of the oxalate, and the double bond forms part of the ring, so that an additional strain must be represented ; and this is seen to produce an excess of refractivity of 2.0. The most complex of all of the compounds considered is calcium fumarate, which not only has the calcium uniting the ends of the radi- cle into a ring, but also, because the position of the substituting groups with respect to the double bond, has an irregular ring. Still more excess refractivity than in the maleate would be expected, and as a matter of fact the calculation gives 2.3. SUMMARY The preparation and crystallographic-optical properties of calcium fumarate and maleate are described. Both are orthorhombic, but they show no definite space relationships. From a calculation of the ^ Spektrochemie Organischer Verbindungen, p. 48. 1912. 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIv. 12, NO. 12 refractivities it appears that their peculiar structures lead to a definite extra refractivity, greater in the case of the less symmetrical fumarate. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 632d MEETING The 632d meeting of the Biological Society was held in the auditorium of the National Museum, at 8 p.m., on Jan. 4, 1922, in cooperation with the Audubon Society and the Wild Flower Preservation Society, with Presi- dent Bailey in the chair. Mr. Stephen T. Mather, of the National Park Service, introduced the speaker of the evening, Mr. Arthur C. Pillsbury, official photographer of the Yosemite National Park. Mr. Pillsbury's subject was Wild flowers and birds of Yosemite National Park. It was illustrated with moving pictures showing birds, flowers, and scenery of Yosemite Park. A striking feature was the exhibition of some twenty or more series of pictures showing the opening of the buds of as many different kinds of flowers; the exposures were taken at fifteen min- ute intervals, so that as projected on the screen the opening was accelerated several thousand times. 633d meeting The 633d meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club on Jan. 21, 1922, with President BailEy in the chair. The following persons were elected members: Miss Lucy Howard, Har- old M. Vars, Herbert F. Prytherch, and Arthur H. Fisher. The President appointed Messrs. Rohwer, Jackson, Chambliss, and Coker as a Committee on communications. Under general notes. Dr. R. W. ShuFELDT exhibited a new biography of the well known British ornithologist Alfred NewTON, by Wollaston. Dr. ShufeldT showed lantern slides of Professor Newton from several pictures, also some other slides illustrating the biography. Mr. Hoffman showed a specimen of Attacus edwardsii, one of the largest known moths, from India. Major Goldman reported having attended an organization meeting of the Boston Bird-Banding Society, which recently occurred. Mr. Williams reported hundreds of starlings congregating and roosting on the Hughes Building near the Cosmos Club, as many as 400 or 500, he esti- mated. They seem to chirp all night. The following program was given: S. F. HiLDEBRAND : Fish in relation to mosquito control. The speaker had been employed in the summer of 1921 to introduce fish into mosquito-breeding waters about Savannah, Ga. The top minnow, Gamhusia affinis, is altogether the best fish for introduc- tion, although all small fish will feed on mosquito larvae under favorable con- ditions. The top minnow is viviparous, hence does not have complicated nesting habits to be taken into consideration. It is a, prolific and hardy fish and never outgrows the mosquito-eating size. With the aid of a large number of lantern slides the speaker discussed the effect of various kinds of vegeta- JUNE 19, 1922 proceedings: biologicaIv society 297 tion in the water in protecting or screening the larvae from the fish, as well as other factors having an influence upon the matter. Major Goldman asked if the top minnow could be introduced outside its normal range. The speaker said it has winter-killed in the Mississippi Val- ley to a considerable extent. President BailEy remarked that lily pads are eaten by beavers, and silver grass by muskrats, which would reduce the mosquito protection where these animals occur. H. L. Shantz : Notes on the white ants of Africa. The speaker in his extensive explorations of Central and South Africa had continually come into contact with termite nests, as they are generally conspicuous objects. They tell the color of the soil at a glance. There are many types, which were illustrated with lantern slides, some colored. Where large hills stand a long time and disintegrate, the earth is richer than else- where, and natives select such places for cultivation. Discussed by Mr. Rohwer and Mr. White, who compared the local spe- cies about Washington, in their aversion to light, etc. Mr. White said the local species are very beneficial on his farm by eating out stumps, which thus decay much more rapidly ; a 4-inch stump is often eaten almost wholly out in a 3'^ear. They damage apple trees where wounds occur, making a mud tunnel up the bark. Major Goldman recalled the statement in Drummond's Tropical Africa, that termites there perform for the soil a service like that of earthworms in temperate countries, passing the soil through their bodies and enriching it. Dr. Shufeldt described the orientation of a true ant at Savannah, with reference to its path. C. D WIGHT Marsh: Live stock poisoning by death camas. Stockmen on the western stock ranges suffer very heavy losses of sheep from poisonous plants. Probably of all the plants those which cause the great- est destruction are those commonly known as death camas, which are species of the botanical genus Zygadenus. Losses of hundreds of sheep within 24 or 4S hours are not at all unusual. These plants have been known to be poisonous for nearly a century, but definite knowledge in regard to their properties has only been acquired within the last 20 or 25 years. The plants poison horses and cattle as well as sheep, but the principal losses have been of sheep. Death camas grows widely distributed over the ranges from the Rocky Mountains westward. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has made detailed studies of death camas poisoning, and it was assumed that all forms of the plant were about equally poisonous. Recent studies, however, have brought out important facts in regard to their relative toxicity. There are four common species of death camas on the western ranges, and it has been found that two are much more poisonous than the others, while one species that has always been considered dangerous has so little toxicity that probably under range conditions it never causes any losses. The most poisonous species is without doubt that growing in Montana and Wyoming. A California species is equally injurious as far as causing sickness is con- cerned, but produces fewer deaths. The results of the studies made have indicated clearly the comparative danger from these species and have also shown what measures can be taken to avoid losses. 298 journaiv of the washington academy of sciences voi^. 12, no. 12 634th meeting The 634th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Feb. 4, 1922, with Pres- ident Bailey in the chair and 55 persons present. Under Brief notes, Dr. L. O. Howard said that he had noticed in the Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology for September 30 last an illustration showing a botfly larva attached to a tapeworm, but there was no reference to it in the text. He wrote to Professor Robert Newstead of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, inquiring about the specimen figured ; Professor Newstead consulted with one of the authors of the paper, Professor YorkE, who stated that the larvae were found by him attached to tapeworms in the stomach of the zebra. Professor Yorke gave specimens to Professor News- tead, who with great generosity forwarded them to Dr. Howard, who ex- hibited them to the Society. He said the case, so far as he could ascertain, is unique. Dr. B. H. Ransom had told him that once, when collecting in Canada, he had put some tapeworms and some Oestrid larvae in the same vial and had later found that the Oestrids had destroyed the tapeworms as speci- mens. In the present case, however, the larvae became attached to the tapeworms in the zebra's stomach and presumably while both were alive. The tapeworm was identified as Anoplocephala rhodesiensis and the bot larva as Gastrophilus pecorum variety zebra Rod. and Beq. Dr. T. S. Palmer reported the recent census of the quail in the District of Columbia, made by the police, who had fed the birds during the period of deep snow, the food being furnished by the Audubon Society. The census showed over 100 covies in the District, with a total of approximately 2095 birds. President BailEy reported that bulTalo bones had been received recently from a cave in Malheur Co., Oregon, east of Malheur Lake, the locality being about 100 miles further west than any other authentic evidence of the oc- currence of buffalo heretofore. Indian tradition, however, indicates that they once occurred about 50 miles further west than this cave. The first paper of the regular program was by Smith Riley, on The Nation's game supply, and was illustrated. Dr. vShufeldt mentioned the antelope as the most difficult animal to pro- tect, as it persists in remaining on the plains. He once killed a mountain buffalo, considerably different from the plains form. Dr. Marsh said elk are impopular with stockmen, especially when it hap- pens that they destroy haystacks and the owner is prevented by law from kill- ing them. Major Goldman thought the stockmen could be pacified by feed- ing the elk in winter so as to protect the cattle range. The second paper of the evening was by A. H. HowELL, on The relationship and distribution of American chipmunks. The paper was illustrated by skins of the animals, and by lantern slides in the form of maps with shading to show the areas covered by the different forms. There are in the east one species with four subspecies , while in the west there are five species with 57 recognizable subspecies. The western forms climb trees more than the eastern but are not actually arboreal. Dr. Palmer said the group was universally called ground-squirrels in the early days, the word chipmunk dating only from 1842. The origin of the term he could not explain. He also mentioned that most of the species have been described by members of the Biological Society. J. M. Aldrich, Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 July 19, 1922 No. 13 ZOOLOGY.— Greeffiella (Trichoderma Greeff, 1869 ; not Trichoderma Steph. 1835). Contributions to a Science of Nematology, XII. N. A. Cobb, United States Department of Agriculture. In 1869, Greeff described an externally peculiar and very interesting small animal form under the name Trichoderma. Though it proves in the end to be internally a typical nema, it is only after many years that the fact becomes fully established. The very small size of the species and the fact that the setose cuticle makes it difficult to examine the internal organs, taken together, have delayed a fuller understand- ing of the internal anatomy. Opportunity has occurred to reexamine a species of this genus in a living condition, and the results are presented herewith. They serve to establish the view that the genus comprises typical nemas, in no sense transition forms; the genus presents striking relationships to the genus Desmoscolex, another typical nema genus whose affmities also have been long obscured in much the same way, but finally cleared up. The name Trichoderma being preempted, it is proposed to commem- orate Greeff's original discovery by renaming the genus after him, — Greeffiella. G. oxycaudata (Greeff) is retained as the type species. Greeffiella, nom. nov. Trichoderma Greeff, Arch. f. Naturg., Berlin, v. 3.5, bd. 1. 1S69. Not Trichoderma Steph., 1835, or Swains., 1839. 1:1. _J2:4 13^ 56. J Z2^ . „ oi Greeffiella dasyura n.sp. 3.4 9.6/ 13. 15. 9.8 "•^^•" The thin lay- ers of the transparent, colorless, hairy cuticle are traversed by about fifty- six plain transverse annules, easy of resolution, which are not materially altered on the lateral fields. The number of annules corresponds with the number of encircling rows of somatic setae. While there are no wings opposite the lateral fields, wing spaces are faintly indicated by a slight spareness, or absence, of setae near the lateral lines ; this however is a faint feature extending only from the neck to the anus, and is perhaps more pronounced on the fe- male than on the male. The contour of the body is crenate, especially to- ward the head. There appear to be toward thirty small unequal cephalic setae on the front of the head, disposed, apparently, in two closely approxi- mated circlets. These setae average to be about as long as the head is wide 300 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 amph lum oe set cpfi and are apparently too numerous and crowded to permit of any exact order ; however, about twelve of the anterior ones are spread outward and forward while all the others spread out more or less backward. These som.ewhat curved, rather slender, tapering, acute, somewhat stiff cephalic setae are of the same character as the great bulk of the somatic setae. Among the somatic setae however are a few relatively large, hollow, open bristles of an- other character, resembling the locomotor bristles found on Dra- conenia, Desm-oscolex, etc. For in- stance, on the third and eighth annule of the female, and on the second and seventh annule of the male, that is to say in the rows of setae on these annules, there occur subdorsal (on the second and third annules) and dorsally submedian (on the seventh and eighth annules) pairs of spreading tubular open- mouthed setae, or bristles, a little longer than the regular somatic setae. These special setae have extra large bases and are probably connected with glands. The rows of ordinary cervical setae have a fringe of shorter setae in their midst. As before remarked, the somatic setae are in fifty-six or fifty-seven transversa rows, — ex- cluding those on the head, but set soin mm set som mqj x 1000 Fig. 1. — Head end oi Greeffiella dasyura. The setae on several annules immediately behind the head have been omitted so as to show internal details more clearly, amph, amphid ; an, annule ; int, location of the beginning of the intestine (see also Fig. 2.) ; him oe, lumen of the oesopha- gus; oe, oesophagus; or, mouth opening; ph, pharynx; set cph, cephalic setae, — a number of which are omitted ; set som maj, one of the larger somatic setae; set som min, one of the smaller somatic setae; set tb, tubular seta. counting the finely pilose region in front of the spinneret as two annules. See Fig. 3. Passing back- ward, the setae grow steadily longer from the head to the tail; the posterior ones are about one and one-half times as long as the spinneret, while the anterior ones are somewhat shorter than the spinneret. Back as far as the beginning of the intestine, the rows of setae present minute toothed fringes, accentuating the annules. The conoid neck ends in a rounded, somewhat flattish hemispheroidal head, set off by a narrow, deep and distinct constric- tion. The lips are amalgamated and fixed. Nothing is known concerning the labial papillae. The pharynx is exceedingly minute and easily overlooked, but is, in fact, a minute, simple, obscure, straight, regular, tubular, closed, unarmed region about one-sixth as wide as the head and twice as long as wide ; these measurements include its enclosing pharyngeal tissue. Under ordinary circumstances there is to be seen here only a closed lumen. Passing back- ward from the pharynx, the oesophagus for a distance two and one-half times as great as the width of the head, is cylindroid; however, it widens slightly, JULY 19, 1922 COBB: GREEFFIELLA 301 so that it becomes as wide as the head, or one-half as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck, that is to say that portion of the neck marked by the fifth circlet of cervical setae. At this point there is a rather faint diminution of the oesophagus, which continues thence a little narrower, afterward widening out, and then soon coming to contain granules like those found in the cells of the intestine. This latter appears to begin about opposite the tenth row of setae. There are two narrow ducts, one emptying into the posterior part of each amphid; these ducts can be followed backward to near the pigmented bodies soon to be mentioned, and possibl}'- may be connected with them. The external expressions of the amphids, each of which is symmetrical to two lines, are of unequal diameter, without central markings, and are located toward the front of the head; they are about as wide as the corresponding portion of the head, each being about twice as wide as long. The two greenish pigmented bodies mentioned above (org?. Fig. 2), are olive green in color and present a nucleus in the midst of a colorless spherical cell (?) as wide nor (Jfup/l- . as one of the cuticular annules in the immediate vicinity. These bodies are naturally rather difficult to observe on account of the hairy nature of the cuticle tlirough which they are viewed ; they are located well outside the in- testine, one on each side of the bod}^ somewhat behind the base of the neck. The broad cardiac constriction Hes opposite the eighth to tenth rows of setae, and is about as wide as the distance between these roAvs. The thick-walled intestine presents a faint lumen and is composed of cells of such a size that about twelve occur in each cross section. In the male, at least, the intestine gradually becomes one-half as wide as the body. There is no pre-rectum. From the minute anus, whose anterior lip is somewhat elevated, the inconspicuous rectum extends inward at right angles to the ventral surface half way across the body ; the intestine itself extends past the anus. No anal muscles are to be seen. There are two kinds of colorless granules of variable size to be seen in the cells of the intestine; the largest of these have a diameter equal to the distance between the rows of somatic setae; the finest of the granules are exceedingly fine . The granules are not XIOOO y^l grn mj ml •'■O^ Fig. 2. — Internal anatomy of the* head end of Greeffiella dasyura. Lettering as in Fig. 1. cl int, one of the cells of the intestine; crd col, cardiac coUum; dct amph, duct connecting with the amphidial pore; gni maj int, one of the larger intestinal granules; grn min int, smaller intestinal granules; int, intestine; luni int, lumen of the intestine; nr, nerve ring; org ?, organ of doubtful significance; set tb, tubular seta. SO arranged as to give rise to a tessel- lated effect. The more or less convex-conoid tail tapers from in front of the anus to the tubular spinneret, which comprises two-sevenths of the whole 302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. lo set som setmin setm XIOOO tail. This tubular spinneret is about as wide as one of the spicules of the male; it is a simple truncate affair which tapers but very little. A marked peculiarity of the posterior extremity of the nema is the existence of numerous minute setae ; for a distance equal to the length of the spinneret the setae on the portion of the tail immediately in front of the spinneret are very much reduced and more numerous. The spherical caudal glands are located behind the anus in the anterior fourth of the tail and empty through separate ducts; each is about one-fifth as wide as the corresponding portion of the tail, or as wide as one of the somatic annules opposite. Only two nuclei were seen in connection with these glands, and these were located in the vicinity of the anus, their number indicating that the number of caudal glands may be less than the usual three. The excretory pore lies near the nerve-ring opposite the sixth annule in the male and opposite the seventh in the female ; its spherical ampulla is one-fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. The nerve- ring surrounds the oesophagus somewhat obliquely where it first diminishes in diameter somewhat behind the middle. In the dorsal side of the neck, opposite the 9-14 rows of setae there are some relatively large organs, — probably two or more finely granular cells. From the somewhat inconspicu- ous, small, elevated vulva, which is surrounded by minute setae, the small, weak, non-cutinized, tubular vagina leads inward at right angles to the ventral surface about one-third the distance across the body. Little is known concerning the double symmetrically refiexed female sexual organs. 1.5 6.6 10.6 |_M 76. .setm 3.2 7.7/ 11. 18.— -^n7>°-^"* The slightly arcuate, irregularly conoid, faintly sigmoid tail of the male, on the whole, rather re- ..ampnlt sembles that of his mate. The two equal, straight, very slender, uniform, acute, colorless spicula, which are slightly cephalated by expansion, are about one and one- fourth times as long as the anal body diameter. If swung around behind the anus, they would just about reach to the base of the spinneret; they are about twice as wide as the bases of the somatic setae, are a little larger distally than elsewhere, and are perhaps winged. No gubernaculum has been seen. On the fifth and eleventh annules in front of the anus occur ventrally submedian papilla-like organs, indicated by the presence of minute setae arranged in a cluster about a nerve ending (?), — about ten setae on the fifth annule and a much smaller number on the eleventh. There are also similar ventrally sublateral bunches of setae on the annules preceding the large (duplex?) conical one bearing the spinneret. On the lateral field near the middle of the male, a bunch of minute setae was observed like those on the fifth annule in front of the anus. The nature of these special organs, for such they must be, remains in doubt. It seems quite possible that some of them are male supplementary organs. The wide cylindrical testis is one-half as wide as the body and is refiexed to near the proximal ends of the spicula. set tb \y.mult spn Fig. 3. — Tail end of Greeffiella dasyura. Let- tering as in Figs. 1 and 2. mm pnlt, penultimate annfile; ami tilt, ultimate annule; spn, spinneret. JULY 19, 1922 bushnell: ethnologic data from Louisiana 303 Habitat: Found in sponges, Biscayne Bay, Florida, U. S. A., March, 1916. Male examined and measured in a living condition; female fixed in Flemming's solution and soon after examined and measured in water. The form of the pharynx and oesophagus; the presence of special tubular setae; the structure of the spinneret, and the relatively small number of annules, seem to indicate a closer relationship of Greeffiella with Desmoscolex than has been hitherto imagined. Perhaps Greeffiella should be placed in the same family with Desmoscolex, Tricoma, etc. ETHNOLOGY. — Some new ethnologic data from Louisiana.'^ David I. BusHNELL, Jr. The following brief notes were secured by the writer during January and February, 1922, from a woman named Rose Demise, who was born near New Orleans January 6, 1834. She claims to be, and prob- ably is, three-fourths Indian, her mother having been a full blood and her father a half blood. The early years of her life were spent at an Indian village a few miles west of New Orleans, situated between the left bank of the Mississippi and the south shore of Lake Pontchartrain, in the northern part of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana. During the Civil War the site of the native settlement was occupied by a Federal camp, known as Parapet camp, and it appears that after the war the settle- ment no longer existed as it had in earlier years. The following notes record the manners and customs of the people of the native village during the years preceding the war. It is now difficult to identify the tribe to which my informant be- longed. She says that her people often visited the Choctaw who then lived across Lake Pontchartrain, and that all spoke the same language, although in some instances the names of certain objects and of plants and animals differed. This may have been a small detached settlement of the Choctaw and may have occupied the site of a more ancient village of the old Washa tribe after the latter had become scattered. According to Bienville the Washa spoke Chiti- macha, but it is possible that remnants of the tribe later adopted the language of the Choctaw. Possibly my informant was descended from some of these, and many of the peculiar customs and ways of life related by her may have been, those of the ancient Washa. Habitations. — Some structures were circular and others rectangular, and in addition to these a sloping single roof was supported by posts — a lean-to which served as shelter from sun and rain. All were thatched 1 Received June 6, 1922. 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 on top and sides with palmetto leaves. Mats made of rushes were often used on the inner walls of the more elaborate structures. In addition to the village which stood a short distance west of New Orleans, the old woman recalled a camp site on the southeast shore of Lake Pontchartrain, about 12 miles northeast of New Orleans, at Petit Bois, or Little Wqods. It was here that the Indians stopped when preparing to cross the lake in their canoes, and it was likewise the landing place when they arrived from the opposite shore. Frag- mentary pottery, bits of animal bones, etc., discovered in 1916 and 1917, indicated the position of this old camp ground. Food. — ^Strips of venison, ducks, etc., were dried or smoked and so preserved for future use. All were first thoroughly cleaned and salted, then strung on cords and suspended between two trees or posts, and a fire kindled on the ground beneath. The warmth and smoke would soon dry the meat. vShrimp were dried in the sun after first being placed in scalding water to harden the meat. Fish were prepared by first being thoroughly cleaned, and after a quantity of salt was rubbed on the flesh they were piled one upon another in a large wooden tray and held down by a heavy weight. In this position they were allowed to remain for ten days or two weeks, during which time they would become quite dry, the moisture being pressed from them. Next they were strung on cords that passed through the tails, the ends of the cords were fastened to trees or posts, and the fish thus suspended were more completely dried and cured by the smoke and heat of small fires kindled on the ground under them. All vegetables obtainable, such as potatoes and pieces of pumpkins, were boiled in a large pot with rabbits or squirrels, or pieces of meat of any sort. File was prepared by pounding in a wooden mortar the dried leaves oi Sassafras variifolium. Leaves of the yaupon {Ilex vomitoria) were boiled in water and the liquid was used as a beverage like ordinary tea. The leaves were used either green or dried. Milk was added to the drink when it could be obtained. The favorite method of preparing corn was to allow the whole grains to remain in water overnight, or until they would swell and the husks become softened and loosened. The husks were then removed and the grains crushed in a wooden mortar to form a thick paste. The paste or crushed grain was later boiled in water and so eaten. I JULY 19, 1922 BUSHNELL: ethnologic data from LOUISIANA 305 Caches. — Caches were used extensively and every family had one or more. Quantities of dried fish and venison, supplies of various sorts, dressed skins, etc., were deposited in caches, and when so hidden would seldom be found except by their owners. Caches were prepared by making an excavation in dry ground and lining it with a large num- ber of palmetto leaves. The material to be protected was placed in a crude box or wrapped in bark and placed in the pit. More palmetto leaves were then placed on top and they in turn were usually covered with an old blanket or one or more skins. All was then covered with earth or sand and made to resemble the surrounding surface. When the house was occupied similar pits were used to hold the potatoes, hides, and other possessions of the family, but they were not so care- fully closed and protected. Dress and personal decoration. — Tattooing was practiced extensively by the people of two or more generations ago. The skin was pricked with a needle, or with several needles tied together, and the surface thus punctured rubbed with soot which had been mixed with oil or some kind of grease. The women, after marriage, often had a dot tattooed near the corner of the mouth. The hands, arms, and neck were likewise decorated. Pins, brooches, earrings, and other ornaments were made of silver coins hammered thin, then cut and trimmed to the desired shape and size. Skin dressing. — Some skins were prepared for various uses without removing the hair or wool. They were stretched in a frame or over some firm surface as soon after being removed from the animal as possible, otherwise they would become hard and dry. When properly stretched, a quantity of dry corn meal was rubbed on the flesh side to absorb all the oil and grease, the surface was scraped with a sharp implement to remove the particles of flesh, more corn meal was rubbed in, and the surface again scraped. Soon the entire skin would become soft and pliable. If it was desired to tan the skin with the hair re- moved, the latter was first singed with a hot coal or moved quickly over a small flame until it could be rubbed off, then both sides of the skin were treated with corn meal and scraped, as described above. The implement used in scraping the skins resembled a long chisel, made of hard wood and beveled at one end. Pottery. — Earthenware vessels were made and used for many pur- poses. Three sorts of clay were known, black or gray, white, and red, 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 but red was considered the best, as it could be burned hardest. The clay was first mixed with water, only enough being used to make a heavy pasty mass. A quantity of the clay was then pressed over some smooth round object, a gourd of the proper size being preferred. The mold was then removed and the clay carefully worked into shape, being pressed, expanded and thinned, more clay being added as neces- sary, and the whole mass gradually assumed the desired form. The vessel was allowed to dry slowly in the air. The surfaces were then smoothed by scraping with a shell and incised decorations were added if desired. Neither crushed shell nor sand was mixed with the clay. Tobacco pipes were often made of white clay. The pipes were usually covered with oil or grease before burning, which caused them to turn black. After burning, they were polished. Vessels were likewise made black, and with use acquired a high polish. The method of burning pottery vessels was this: a hole was made in the ground, the bottom and sides of which were covered with dry grass and bits of bark and wood. The vessels, thoroughly dried, were then placed in the hole and covered with similar grass and bits of bark and wood. This was ignited and lightly covered to cause it to burn slowly. When the fire subsided the earthenware was sufficiently burned. Mortars and pestles. — Wooden mortars and pestles were made and used for various purposes, especially for crushing corn and preparing file. The mortars were from 2 to 3 feet high. The cavity was made by burning the wood and chopping away the charred particles. When of the desired size the inner surface was scraped and smoothed and all the burnt wood removed. Baskets.— Baskets of several forms were made of split cane. Dyes were prepared from roots and barks, but my informant could not remember the names of the roots. Spoons.- — Spoons were made of cow horns and were used extensively. They were called Moocond. Needles.- — Needles 4 inches or more in length were made of dogwood, or other woods if dogwood could not be obtained. The needles were very sharp pointed and perforated to receive the thread, and very good work could be done with them. Threads. — ^Threads of sinew were used in sewing skins and for other purposes. They were made of the intestines of various animals, that of the deer being preferred. The threads and larger strands were often JULY 19, 1922 METCALF: AQUATIC PLANTS 01^ MISSOURI 307 made very long by splicing several pieces and twisting them before they became dry. One end would be fastened to a tree and the line pulled and stretched. Cords. — ^Spanish moss, after being properly prepared, was used in making ropes and lighter cords. Some were made by twisting, others by braiding. Saddles. — Saddles, or pads used as saddles, were made by weaving the soft cords of moss. Weapons. — Blowguns and bows and arrows were made and used. Blowguns were made of pieces of cane, the perforation being formed by first preparing a long, slender piece of hard wood and forcing it down one end of the cane and then down the other until the entire length was open and clear. Darts were made of pieces of hard pine, worked and smoothed, then tufted with some soft material. Transportation.- — Canoes were made of a single log, cypress being the favorite wood. Canoes, or dugouts, 20 feet in length and 3 feet in width were not uncommon, although much smaller ones were used on the shallow, narrow bayous. The larger canoes were used in crossing Lake Pontchartrain, and when the weather was favorable sails made of one or more deerskins would be raised. Burials. — The bodies were wrapped in blankets or skins and care- fully placed, in an extended position, in graves which had been thickly lined with palmetto leaves. A quantity of similar leaves were placed over the bodies and all was covered with earth or sand. It is to be regretted that more could not have been learned of the manners and ways of life of the people of this native settlement, which evidently existed until some sixty years ago. Nor is it now possible to give the name of the tribe or tribes to which the people belonged, but it is more than probable they were Muskhogean closely allied with the Choctaw whose villages stood on the northern shore of Lake Pontchartrain. BOTANY. — Notes on marsh and aquatic plants of Missouri.^ F. P. Metcalf, Biological Survey. (Communicated by A. Wetmore.) During the summer of 1920 the writer was engaged in an extensive survey of the marsh and aquatic plants of Missouri for the Biological Surv^ey, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The results of this work were so interesting from the standpoint of plant distribution that it 1 Received June 5, 1922. 308 JOURNAL O-P THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 is thought advisable to make known the most salient features in a preliminary paper. Ten species of plants collected by the writer had not previously been reported in the State. These are as follows: Alisma brevipes Greene; Hemicarpha aristulata (Coville) Smyth; Naias guadalupensis (Spreng.) Morong; Nymphoides peltatum (S. P. Gmel.) Britten & Rendle; Paspa- lum plenipilum Nash ; Potamogeton crispus L. ; P. Jriesii Rupr. ; P. heterophyllus Schreb.; Ruppia maritima I,.; Rynchospora corniculata (Lam.) A. Gray. The majority of these plants are from stations that fall well within the range of manuals covering the region, from which they have been omitted, in most cases, from lack of intensive work on the marsh and aquatic flora of the state. Naias guadalupensis and Potamogeton heterophyllus are good examples of this, as they were found in a number of lakes. Most interesting of all, however, were the plants whose known range did not previously extend into Missouri. Of these there may be mentioned first Nymphoides peltatum, formerly known to be naturalized only in the vicinity of Washington, D. C. ; an unpublished report for this plant from Louisiana,- as well as that of the writer from Missouri, extend its range to the southwest for a considerable distance. Another species, Potamogeton Jriesii, was previously unknown south of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan. The known range of Alisma brevipes is extended southeastward, as formerly it was not recorded east of North Dakota, Nebraska and New Mexico, while Hemicarpha aristulata was found at the extreme eastern border of its range. Besides those that have been mentioned, new locality records are given for a few other plants that for the most part are decidedly rare throughout Missouri, where their distribution is inadequately known. In these two categories are : Eleocharis qitadrangulata (Michx.) Roem. & Schult. ; Panicum bicknellii Nash. ; Potamogeton ampli- f alius Tuckerm. ; P.foliosus Raf. ; P. pectinatus L. ; Sagittaria brevirostra Mackenzie & Bush; Utricularia minor L. Complete data for all plants mentioned, with actual citations of specimens collected, will be found in the subjoined list. It may be well to add that in all cases where the collector is not cited, the plant was collected by the writer. All specimens have been placed in the U. S. National Herbarium at Washington. A list of the more important local and state floras for Missouri has ^ See annotated list below. JULY 19, 1922 METCALF : AQUATIC PLANTS OF MISSOURI 309 also been appended among which the Flora of Missouri by Tracy (24), the only general catalogue for the state, is now somewhat in- complete and out of date, as it was published in 1885. Among local and county floras those of greatest value are that for Columbia and vicinity by Daniels (8) ; for Jackson county by Mackenzie and Bush (14); St. Louis and vicinity by Eggert (9), Engelmann (10), Hus (13), and the Engelmann Botanical Club (28). The southeastern counties have been discussed by Bush (4) and Uphof (25) . The trees and shrubs are treated by Broadhead (2), Bush (6) and anonymously (29). A few miscellaneous papers of interest have been included in addition to those mentioned. There is no doubt that the number of new plants here added to the flora of Missouri is small in comparison with those that will be found when extensive general collections are made. The Ozark region of the southwest and the swampy region of the southeast are incompletely known. The latter region may be worked profitably by anyone as it will yield important data bearing on many interesting problems in southern and northern distribution. LIST OF PLANTS Alisma brevipes Greene. Not previously recorded from the state. Range here extended southeastward; formerly unknown east of North Dakota, Nebraska and New Mexico. Fairly common in lake near Lake City, Jackson County (No. 1030, September 25, 1920). Eleocharis quadrangulata (Michx.) Roem. & Schult. This plant was re- ported (28) from AUenton and Pinks Lake near St. Louis but a recent publica- tion (27) states that these stations as well as that of Dozier (which is repre- sented in the U. S. National Herbarium by a sheet collected by George W. Letterman) have been destroyed by drainage and cultivation. The National Herbarium has three other sheets of this rare plant, one from Paddy's Lake, Oswego County, N. Y., July, 1882, by C. S. Sheldon, and two others from Goose Pond, August 20, 1912, and Pond at the Frisco Shops, September 2, 1912, both near Springfield, Mo., collected by P. C. Standley (Nos. 9042, 9777). The writer found this plant exceedingly abundant in Iron Mountain Lake, Iron County (830, August 9, 1920), where in shallow water it formed a complete band around the whole lake. Hemicarpha aristulata (Coville) Smyth. Not previously recorded from the state. Rare along the sandy border of Lower Contrary Lake, Buchanan County (1006, vSeptember 20, 1920). This represents almost the eastern limit of the range of this plant. Naias guadalupensis (Spreng.) Morong. Not previously reported from the state which, however, comes within the commonly given general range. Common in Kilarney Lake, Iron County (No. 844, August 8, 1920), Little Bean and Bean Lakes, Platte County (No. 1019, September 22, 1920), and rare in Katy Allen Reservoir, Nevada, Vernon County (No. 969, September 9, 1920), and Loch Lin Lake, St. Louis, St. Louis County (No. 821, August 5, 1920). 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 Nyniphoides peltahtm (S. P. Gmel.) Britten & Rendle. Not previously recorded from the state. The U. S. National Herbarium has only four sheets of this rare plant. Two of these from near Washington, D. C, from a station where the plant is now extirpated, are from the only locality mentioned for this plant in the 7th edition of Gra^^'s Manual, and in Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora. One of these specimens was secured August 7, 1894, bv A. Fredholm (No. 637), the other on September 27, 1895, by C. L. Pollard (No. 710). The other two sheets come from Gretna, Louisiana, collected May 12, 1899, by C. R. Ball (No. 378), and a pond near St. Louis, Missouri, collected August 21, 1904, by M. W. Lyon, Jr. The writer found this plant abundant in a small pond in Ironton, Iron County (No. 826, August 9, 1920). Panicmn bicknellii Nash (P. bushii Nash). Fairlv common near Prairie Lake, Papenville, Bates Countv (No. 980, September 10, 1920). Collected by B. F. Bush, McDonald County, July 24, 1893 (No. 413) and described as a new species, P. bushii by Nash (26) ; possibly the only other record, for the state for this rare plant is that of a specimen from Eagle Rock, in the National Herbarium, also collected by B. F. Bush (No. 3246) on August 14, 190-5. Paspalimi plenipilum Nash (P. praelongtmi Nash). Fairly common along border of lake near Cedar Gap, Wright County (No. 915, August 26, 1920) ; not -previously recorded although Missouri comes within the range commonly given. The species is also represented in the U. S. National Herbarium by a single sheet from Missouri taken at Paw Paw Junction, September 4, 1877, by B. F. Bush (No. 213). Potamogeton amplifolius Tuckerm. Not definitely recorded^ before from the state, although Missouri comes within the general range commonly given. Common in Gravais Mills Lake, Morgan County (No. 888, August 23, 1920), and rare in Hahatonka Lake, Camden County (No. 929, August 27, 1920) ; in both cases the lakes were fed by cold springs. Potamogeton crispus L. Not previously recorded from the state ; represented in the U. S. National Herbarium by two sheets from Hatchers^ Ponds, Neosho, Newton County, May 28, 1903 (deposited by Fish Commission). This plant was also collected by the writer (No. 948, September 6, 1920) from the same lo- cality where it has long been established. Potamogeton J olio siis Raf. Apparently common throughout the state, being recorded or collected from Bell Lake, Boone Countv (No. 869, August 21, 1920); Gravais Mills Lake, Morgan County (No. 885, August 23, 1920); Seequeeota Lake, Springfield, Green County (No. 935, August 29, 1920) ; Logan Pond, Billings, Christian Countv (No. 940, September 4, 1920) ; Lake near Rich Hill, Bates County (No. 993, September 10, 1920) ; Bean Lake, Platte County (No. 1020, September 22, 1920) ; Crescent Lake, Excelsior Springs, Clay County (No. 1057, October 2, 1920) and Cemetery Lake, Macon, Macon County (No. 1080, October 9, 1920) . Apparently only known* previously from Hiffner's Lake, near Alberton, Jackson County (3), a record undoubtedly based on a sheet in the National Herbarium collected by B. F. Bush (No. 618, July 9, 1896). The National Herbarium also has specimens from Poplar Bluff, July 27, 1892, H. Eggert; Turner, Green County, September ^ Reported by Eggert (9), but it is not definitely stated whether the locality was in Missouri or Illinois. * Reported by Eggert (9) and also anonymously (28) in vicinity of St. Louis, but it is not definitely stated whether the locality was in Missouri or Illinois. JULY 19, 1922 METCALF: AQUATIC PLANTS OF MISSOURI 311 5, 1912, p. C. Standley (No. 9845), and Springfield, August 20, 1912, P. C. Standley (No. 9061). Potamogeton friesii Rupr. Fairly common at Hahatonka Lake, Camden County (No. 92.3, August 27, 1920). This and a specimen collected by J. W. Blankinship in Howells County in 1888 in the U. S. National Herbarium are the only two recorded from the state ; both extend the range of this plant southward. Potamogeton heterophyllus Schreb. Fairly common in Normandy Golf Club Ponds, St. Louis County (Nos. 787-788, July 29, 1920) ; Loch Lin Lake, St. Louis County (No. 819, August 3, 1920) ; Kilamey Lake, Iron County (No. 84.5, August 8, 1920); Iron Mountain Lake, Iron County (No. 842', August 9, 1920) ; pond near Rolla, Phelps County (No. 853, August 12, 1920), and Bean Lake, Platte County (No. 1018, September 12, 1920). Not pre- viously reported from the state; represejited in the National Herbarhim by a single sheet, from Goose Pond, Springfield, September 2, 1912, collected by P. C. Standley (No. 9780). Potamogeton pectinattis L. Fairly common throughout the state, being recorded or collected from Big Creve Coeur Lake, St. Louis County (No. 782, July 27, 1920); Upper Contrarv^ Lake, Buchanan County; Mud Lake, Buchanan County (No. 1011, September 21, 1920); New Made Lake, Bu- chanan County; Sugar Lake, Platte County; Bean Lake (No. 1017, September 22, 1920), Little Bean and Duck Lakes, Platte County. Previously recorded (28) from Arloe, Meramac Highlands, and Creve Coeur Lake, St. Louis County, and possibly by Eggert (9). There is also one additional specimen in the National Herbarium from Gascondv, July 21, 1914, W. H. Emig (No. 223). Ruppia maritima L. Not previously recorded from the state. Common in Clinton Club Lake, Clinton, Henry' County (No. 905, August 24, 1920). Possibly introduced but growing vigorously; establishment of the plant here undoubtedly due to the salinity of the spring flowing into the lake. Rynchospora corniciilata (Lam.) A. Gray. Fairly common along Black River, Fagus, Butler County (No. 691, July 10, 1920). Previously reported only from Butler County by Letterman (24). However, there are in the U. S. National Herbarium specimens from Paw Paw Junction, September 4, 1897, B. F. Bush (No. 219); St. Louis, July 27, 1892, H. Eggert; and Campbell, September 9, 1910, B. F. Bush (No. 6302). Sagittaria hrevirostra Mackenzie & Bush. Common in Coolev Lake, Clay County (Nos. 1043-4, October 1, 1920); this lake is only about 20 miles from the type locality for this rare and interesting plant, at Courtney (17), Jackson County, where it was collected by B. F. Bush (No. 2175) August 14, 1904, and October 10, 1903. A specimen {Bush 1917) collected on the latter date is the only sheet in the National Herbarium. Utricularia minor L. Previously reported from St. Louis by Riehl (24) and East St. Louis, Illinois (28). Rare, only found in Duck Lake, Platte County (No. 1025, September 23, 1920). The National Herbarium has no other specimens from this or adjacent states. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Beck, Lewis C. Contributions towards the Botany of the States of Illinois and Mis- souri. Amer. Joum. Sci. 10: 257-264. 1826. 2. Broadhead, G. C. Geographical Description of Certain Trees and Plants in Missouri and Kansas. Kansas City Review 3: 608-611. 1879-80. 312 JOURNAI. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 3. Bush, Frank. Flora of Jackson County. 1st Edition, Dec, 1882, Independence, Mo. 4. Bush, B. F. Notes on a List of Plants collected in Southeastern Missouri in i8gj. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 139-153. 1894. 5. Bush, B. F. Notes on the Mound Flora of Atchison County, Missouri. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 6: 121-134. 1895. 6. Bush, B. F. The Trees, Shrubs and Vines of Missouri. Mo. State Hort. Soc. Rep. 37: 353-393. 1895. 7. Bush, B. F. Missouri Saxifrages. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 20: 138-140. 1909. 8. Daniels, F. P. Preliminary oecological study of the native and introduced plants of the vicinity of Columbia, Boone County, Missouri. Mo. Agric. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1898: 124-156. 9. Eggert, Henry. Catalogue of the Phaenogamus and Vascular Cryptogamous Plants in the vicinity of St. Louis, Missouri. 1891, St. Louis, Mo. 10. Engelmann, George. Catalogue of a collection of plants in Illinois and Missouri, by Charles A. Geyer, with critical remarks, etc. Amer. Journ. Sci. 46: 94-104. 1844. 11. Engelmann, George. Notes on the Grapevines of Missouri. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 1: 660-662. 1856-60. 12. Galloway, B. T. Grasses of Missouri. 18th Rep. State Board Agric. Mo. 1885. 13. Hus, Henri. An ecological cross section of the Mississippi river in the region of St. Louis, Missouri. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 19: 127-258. 1908. 14. Mackenzie, K. K., assisted by Bush, B. F., and others. Manual of the Flora of Jackson County, Mo. 1902. 15. Mackenzie, K. K., and Bush, B. F. New Plants from Missouri. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis 12: 79-89. 1902. 16. Mackenzie, K. K., and Bush, B. F. The Lespedezas of Missouri. Trans. Acad. Sci, St. Louis 12: 11-20. 1902. 17. Mackenzie, K. K., and Bush, B. F. New Plants from Missouri. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 16: 102-108. 1905. 18. Palmer, E. J. Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis 19: 97-112. 1910. 19. Price, S. F. Some Ferns of the cave region of Stone County, Mo. Fern Bull. 12: 72-77. 1904. 20. Sargent, C. S. Crataegus in Missouri. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 19: 35-126. 1908. 21. Sargent, C. S. Crataegus in Missouri IL Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 22: 67-84. 1911. 22. Smith, Jared G. A Revision of the North American Species of Sagittaria and Lopho- tocarpus. Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 6: 26-74, pis. 29. 1895. 23. StandlEy, p. C. Ferns of Greene County, Missouri. Amer. Fern Journ. 6: 44-51. 1916. 24. Tracy, S. M. Flora of Missouri. 18th Rep. State Board Agric. Mo., 1885, and Mo. vState Hort. Soc, Rep. for 1885, appendix. 25. Uphof, J. C. Th. Ecological relations of plants in Southeastern Missouri. Amer. Journ. Bot. 9: 1-17. 1922. 26. Nash, George V. The dichotomous Panicums. Bull. Torrey Club 26: 568-581. 1899. 27. Engelmann Botanical Club (Check List Committee of). A Preliminary Check List of the Cryptogams and Phanerogams in the vicinity of St. Louis, Missouri. 1911. 28. (Anonymous.) Vanished plants of our Local Flora. Bull. Mo. Bot. Gard. 10: 28-33. 1922. 29. (Anonymous.) Trees, Shrubs, and Vines of Missouri. 2nd Ann. Rep., Mo. State Board of Agric, 1866. JULY 19, 1922 proceedings: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 313 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 635th meeting The 635th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Feb. 18, 1922, with Vice President OberholsER in the chair and 101 persons present. The program was as follows: Robert M. Yerkes: The behavior of monkeys and apes. The speaker had spent much of a sabbatical year in CaHfornia where he had opportunities to study several species of monkeys and one young orang about five years old. He devoted much time to testing the intelligence of the latter and two individuals of different species of monkeys, also making ob- servations of other individuals and species. Apparatus was constructed in such a way that the animal entering a room was confronted with a series of doors, on entering one of which he would obtain food. Part of the doors being open and part closed, it was possible to establish a certain relation be- tween the open doors and the right one, or the one leading to the food. The problem was to see if the animal in a large number of trials would come to perceive the relation, so as to go at once to the right door. Although the mon- keys solved some of these problems in less time than the orang, the speaker thought that the latter showed more of the human manner of investigation. A large number of lantern slides made the method clear and furnished many illuminating and some very amusing glimpses of the animals involved. Dr. T. S. Palmer in discussing the paper pointed out the prime importance of a knowledge of the previous history of the monkey under study, as by cruel treatment they may become totally changed in disposition. The whole bringing up of the animal is involved, if any normal plane of intelligence is to be demonstrated. Under Short notes, Dr. BarTSCH mentioned that for five weeks he has had as a visitor to his feeding pan a Brazilian cardinal. Where it came from is unknown. Among other birds that he is feeding he mentioned about 350 starlings. Dr. Palmer showed a check list of the birds of Africa, lately completed, and spoke of a cooperative plan by which similar lists for other world regions are being completed. 636th meeting The 636th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on March 4, 1922, with President Vernon Bailey in the chair and 64 persons present. Laurence M. HuEY, of San Diego, Cal., was elected a member of the Society. Under the head of Short notes, Dr. T. S. Palmer announced that the Na- tional Audubon Society has lately received a gift of $200,000 for endowment, making the total endowment $600,000 at the present time. He also called attention to the fact that the governor of New Jersey has lately declared the bobolink a non-insectivorous bird ; this reminded the speaker that in earlier times the quail was officially classified in Ohio as a song-bird and in South Carolina the bat was determined to be a migratory bird. He also read a letter from W. B. Alexander, an Australian ornithologist. Dr. Howard told of the 9th annual meeting of the New Jersey Mosquito 314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 Extermination Association. The organization is thriving and enthusiastic, and has accomplished a great deal in removing from New Jersey the stigma of being the home of the mosquito. Mr. Aldrich spoke of recent additions to the knowledge of the pecuHar Austrahan parasitic flies of the genus Palpostoma, several specimens of which have lately been received at the National Museum. They attack beetles which are injurious to sugarcane, and have considerable economic importance. Dr. Oberholser reported that during the recent deep snow many species of birds came about his home near Zoological Park, evidently forced by the snow to search for food in unaccustomed places ; they disappeared in two days as the snow went away. Pres. Bailey said that while in Southern Arizona last winter he had ob- served that a certain kind of tuber was eaten by rodents to a notable extent. He brought home samples for identification; they grew while lying on his table in a box, perfectly dry. The plant is Talinwn angustissimum. Vice President Oberholser taking the chair, President BailEy presented a paper on Raising baby beavers. The speaker told of experiments in raising young beavers while studying for the Biological Survey the problems relating to beaver farming. He showed lantern slides of the young taken in Northern Minnesota and Wisconsin and raised from the time when their e5^es had just opened until well grown, about three months old, — or until he left there in September. The home habits of the young were described, and the manner in which they took to human ways of life, even to the regulation baby bottle of milk, which they were shown ab- sorbing with great relish. They were most affectionate and lovable pets, adopting their foster parents as fully as they were themselves adopted; crying in real baby fashion when hungry or cold, and sure of having all their wants supplied, night or day. They soon learned to come when called, and though reluctantly would return to their little beaver house on the hill near the cabin. Their great delight was to be rocked to sleep in a soft warm lap, or on a cold night to be wrapped in a blanket and taken into a warm bed, where they would cuddle up close and go to sleep as soon as they had finished their bottle of milk. Although well covered with deep soft fur, they were sensitive to cold, es- pecially if exposed to cold wind. Slides were shown of some beaver houses with thick walls and warm inner chambers, also of beaver dams and ponds, and some of the mature beavers taken alive for study of habits. In conclusion Mr. Bailey considered beavers easily raised in captivity, gentle and intelligent, promising well as domestic animals. Mr. Bailey resumed the chair and Mr. A. S. Hitchcock gave the second paper of the evening. Botanical notes from the Orient. The speaker had made a trip to the Philippines, China and Japan, leaving Washington on April 25, 1921, and returned to the city on Dec. 24. About one-third of the intervening time had been consumed in travel. A month was spent in the vicinity of Manila. In this region Mt. Makiling near lyos Bancs is the best accessible collecting ground for a botanist. The worst drawback here was the abundance of leeches. Baguio was a good place for grass col- lecting. Omitting China to save time, the speaker described his experiences in Japan, where he traveled on foot with a native botanist as guide and in- terpreter, thus having an opportunity to live among the Japanese as foreign- ers rarely do. lyantern slides were shown to illustrate various places visited JULY 19, 1922 proceedings: biological society 315 and interesting vegetation. Japan is poor in grasses except bamboos; these however occur in wide variety. The speaker showed various articles made of wood, cocoanut shells, etc. 637th meeting The 637th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on March IS, 1922, with Pres. Bailey in the chair and 62 persons present. Under Short notes, Dr. H. M. Smith showed a photograph of an extraordi- nary crustacean, the rock lobster or salt water cra^^sh; the specimen at the National Museum was lately received from Sarasova, Fla. It is 36 inches long, including the antennae, and weighed 12 pounds. He also showed a map of Iceland from the Theatnim Orbis Tenarum, pub- lished in London in 1606, the work of Abraham Ortelius. All around the island were drawn sea monsters, which were described in the text, which the speaker read. Dr. HoLLiSTER announced the arrival at the Zoological Park of a giant anteater from South America, and described its habits. Dr. T. S. Palmer spoke of several birds lately introduced into the United States: a Chinese dove at Los Angeles, and at Tacoma the oriental Bamboo Partridge, of which 300 were brought in at one shipment. Dr. OberholsER reported that at Polksville, in southeastern Iowa, several thousand wild ducks, mostly mallards, have remained all winter, the induce- ment being regular feeding with corn. They have become quite tame. The starling, he added, has been imported from Asia into Vancouver Island, and is spreading. Mr. Hitchcock spoke on the membership campaign now in progress. The first paper of the evening was read by Dr. Paul Bartsch, on American shipworms. The shipworm is not a worm at all, but a mollusk, related to the oyster and clam. The speaker gave an account of the structure and life history of these animals, using as his example Gould's Ship-worm, the life history of which was almost completely worked out by Sigerfoos in 1908 at the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Station at Beaufort, N. C. There are two types of shipworms in America: one which produces living young, and the other which produces eggs. Gould's shipworm is of the lat- ter type. When the eggs hatch, a free-swimming larva is produced; this leads a pelagic existence for a time, the length of which had not been deter- mined, and then settles down on some piece of wood and begins digging a home for itself. The first tiny puncture is just large enough to admit the minute organism, but is widened and deepened as the animal grows. Some shipworms grow to be four feet or more in length, and as thick as a man's thumb. After the burrow is complete, the end is sealed up with a calcareous lining. In fact the whole burrow has been beautifully glazed after its excavation. The mollusk has now stopped growing, and turns its attention to feeding and reproducing. A single specimen can produce from half a million to three million offspring. The food of these animals consists, not of wood as generally supposed, but of plankton, which is strained from the water by the gills, and carried by ciliary action to the mouth. Shipworms are very destructive. The most conspicuous loss suffered in 316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 any American harbor was at San Francisco Bay, or San Pablo and Suisun Bay, its branches, where damage of no less than twenty million dollars was done by Beach's Teredo in 1919-1920. An equal loss is probably sustained annually along our various coasts. At Smith island in Chesapeake Bay a wharf col- lapsed within a period of three months after it was constructed. Recently attention has been called to the ravages of shipworms in the Panama Canal region, where on the Atlantic is the huge borer known as Reyne's Shipworm which freely attacks greenheart timber, a supposedly immune wood; while a closely related species affects the fresh waters of Mirafiores Lake on the opposite side. This is the first fresh-water shipworm known from American waters. Zetek's Shipworm is another destructive Panama kind. Twenty-eight species were listed by Dr. Bartsch from American waters, with data on distribution and other notes; there are also at least five other species known only from fragmentary specimens. The speaker showed specimens of various kinds, and wood bored by them. He stated that there are four distinct problems presented : A. A systematic study which must form the foundation for all other inquiries. This has been attempted in a monograph which Dr. Bartsch now has in press. B. A study of the range of distribution of the various species and their relative abundance. C. An examination of the physical oceanographic conditions that deter- mine their distribution. D. A study of the life histories of the various forms. The second paper of the evening was The floral alphabet of the Celts, by IVAR TiDESTROM. The speaker sketched the distribution of the Celts from Spain to Ireland, Wales and Western Scotland. He proceeded to show how the names of the letters of their alphabet were taken from the names of trees and shrubs be- ginning with the same sound, the species selected being those of wide occur- rence in the Celtic territory. The letter corresponding to our b, for instance, was called beith, the Celtic word for birch ; g was called gort, the name of ivy; and so on. The speaker referred to some of the folklore of the Celts. At the conclusion Miss E- A. Celander sang a Swedish folk-song based upon an old Celtic tradition. 638th meeting The 638th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 1, 1922 with President Vernon Bailey in the chair and 69 persons present. Henry HoYT Barrow, Lynn C. Drake, Frank G. Grimes, Smith Rieey, and J. R. Schramm were elected to membership. The first paper of the evening was Wild flowers that need protection, by P. L. RiCKER. The speaker first told of the organization, history and aims of the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America. He then discussed the need of pro- tection for many kinds of wild flowers that are approaching extinction in areas near towns, and showed a large number of colored lantern slides of wild flowers of the region about Washington, with some comments on rarity, danger of pulling up the roots in picking, etc. At the conclusion he distributed some leaflets of the Society. The second paper of the evening. Hunting fossil vertebrates in southeastern Arizona was called for but the speaker, J. W. Gidley, was not present. JULY 19, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 317 Reverting to the order of Short notes, Dr. Shufeldt said he had found a method of blocking out undesirable backgrounds by the use of small wedges of rubber, illustrating by lantern slides taken in the National Museum, but provided with new backgrounds of outdoor scenes. He also devised the use of an umbrella in taking pictures of wild flowers in the sun, to get better de- tail by shading the object during exposure. He showed a copy of a new nature magazine, just started in England, called Nature Land, edited by Graham Renshaw, and published in Manchester. Mr. Hitchcock asked information on some points in photographing flowers in nature, which was supplied by Mr. Shoemaker. The main diffi- culty, he said, is wind. A lens of rather long focus is best. The president called upon Dr. W. J. Holland, director of the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, for remarks. Dr. Holland responded with a very entertaining account of the circumstances leading up to the discovery of Diplodociis carnegiei, an immense fossil reptile, and how he came, with the financial support of Mr. Carnegie, to present plaster casts of the famous skele- ton now in Carnegie Museum to several of the largest museums in foreign countries. He also told of the Dinosaur quarry opened on Green River in Utah by his Museum, and how on the opening of the region to settlement it was found necessary to designate as "Dinosaur Monument," and to withhold from entry, eighty acres of land including the quarry. 639th meeting The 639th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 15, 1922, with President Bailey in the chair. Roberto Dabbene, Wm. A. Dayton, Geo. C. Hedgcock, Ernest Knaebel, J. Parker Norris, Jr., Wilson Popenoe, Paul G. Russell, Alden Sampson, and Joseph H. Walton, were elected to membership R. P. CowLES: A hydrographic and biological survey of Chesapeake Bay. The bay is comparatively shallow, with some deep holes along the east shore. The bottom is composed of various materials, — mud, gravel, sand, peat, fuller's earth, clay, and oyster shells. The temperature is warmest at the surface and decreases downward during the warm part of the year, April, June and July and August ; in March and September it is about the same at all depths ; while in the colder months it is colder at the surface and becomes warmer at greater depths. The large amount of fresh water meets the salt water of the ocean and mixes only imperfectly, the more saline water being heavier and lying somewhat un- derneath the fresh water. By means of the current meter it has been found that the surface water may be moving down the Bay while the deeper is moving up in the opposite direction; at other times the surface may be almost stag- nant while the deeper portion may be in motion either up or down the Bay. The water has usually a slightly alkaline reaction, but in a few regions it is slightly acid, indicating pollution. An}' or all these physical data may have an important bearing on the dis- tribution and activities of the animals and plants in the Bay. After describing the various instruments used in making observations, and the man}^ cruises taken by the small government vessel used for several years past, Professor Cowles summarized the practical bearing of the work as follows : First, an effort has been made to determine the normal biological and phys- ical conditions throughout the year, so that when great mortality of fishes, 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 oysters, clams, crabs, etc., occurs there will be normal data at hand from which to determine the abnormal conditions that bring about the trouble. Second, to learn all that is possible concerning the movement of layers of water of different density, different temperatures and different plankton content (fish food value) in the hope that the information may throw light on the migration of fishes and crabs at certain times of the year. Third, to study especially the fauna of the deep holes which occur in many places. Fourth, to study the so-called "barren bottoms," at the mouths of rivers. Fifth, to gather as much information as possible which will bear on the con- servation of the fisheries resources of Chesapeake Bay. In discussion Mr. Hitchcock said that in British Guiana there is a tide of several feet for 60 miles up certain rivers, and the mangrove grows up that far, showing that salt water comes up underneath the fresh. R. W. Shufeldt: Observations on the fauna and flora of the District of Columbia. In the paper, which was illustrated with a large number of excel- lent lantern slides made by the speaker, a general review of the more common or noted animals and plants was given. 640th meeting The 640th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 29, 1922, with President BailEY in the chair and 67 persons present. LeE M. Hutchins, H. B. Humphrey, F. E. Kempton, Miss Grace Holmes, Miss Mary Brad- ley, and Mrs. Theodore Knappen were elected to membership. The speaker of the evening, Dr. Wm. E. Ritter, of the Scripps Institution for Biological Research, was then introduced by Dr. L. O. Howard. Dr. Ritter then addressed the Society on The usefulness and the peril of the lab- oratory method in biology. The speaker himself had had an extended training some years ago in the best laboratories in existence, and as a university professor he carried on the method in educating a large number of college students, so that he was well prepared to discuss the good points of this educational method. Neverthe- less he had come to appreciate very keenly the gulf too often existing between academic science, or more particularly academic biolog}^, and any phase of actual human life. He quoted from Wm. Bateson and L. O. Howard on the same line. The usefulness of the laboratory he found to be unquestioned in the fol- lowing matters: (a) Phenomena concerning which no positive knowledge whatever can be gained without laboratory studies. (6) Phenomena concern- ing which very little positive knowledge can be gained without a combination of "field" and laboratory studies, (c) Phenomena concerning which no positive knowledge whatever can be gained in the laboratory (negative utility of laboratory). The perils of the laboratory are: (a) Laboratory necessarily limited to samples of nature; hence {b) Laboratory procedure necessarily restricted mostly to analysis; and to deductive reasoning so far as the interpretation of actual nature is concerned. And (c) Necessarily tends to beget laboratory- mindedness, and mental and social isolation, {d) There is a similarity between monasticism in religion and laboratorism in science. He proposed the following steps to remedy the situation: (a) Preliminary instruction of all would-be scientists with three-fold end in view: (1) to July 19, 1922 proceedings: entomological society 319 help them see that all science is adaptive; (2) to secure and strengthen them in natural-mindedness ; (3) to help them acquire the mental techniqvie common to all natural knowledge. (6) Coordination in research and teaching of the analytic and deductive procedure of the laboratory with the synthetic and inductive procedure of the field, by (1) carrying the laboratory method into the field as far as pos- sible; and (2) wider and more fully developed application of the statistical method. (c) Preserve in the investigator consciousness of interdependence and human meaning of all special sciences. At the conclusion of the address, which was received with close attention and high appreciation, Dr. Howard called on Professor D. H. Campbell, of Stanford University, to lead the discussion. Professor Campbell said he agreed with much, but not quite with all, that had been said. Research he thought a legitimate and necessary function of universities ; and this would generally involve complex highly specialized lab- oratory processes, often without any immediate practical aim in view. Re- search cannot be limited to lines in which the application to human life can be seen at the start. Brief remarks were contributed by Messrs. Hitch- cock, DooLiTTLE, Mann, Slosson, Howard, Schmid, Lyon, and Aldrich. J. M. Aldrich, Recording Secretary: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 343rd meeting The 343rd meeting was held November 3, 1921, at the National Museum, with President Walton in the chair and 35 members and 4 visitors. New member: Carlo Zeimet, Bureau of Entomology. L. L. Buchanan: Coleoptera in bird stomachs. In determining the coleopterous food of wild birds it is frequently necessary to identify fragments. In this work the form of the sclerites and the sculptur- ing of the surface are the best guides, and their determination requires an intimate knowledge of the many groups. Apparently the action of the di- gestive juice causes marked changes in color so that this is misleading. Very rare species are sometimes found in good condition in the stomachs. In discussing Mr. Buchanan's paper Mr. Rohwer said that the birds often collect something rare in Hymenoptera but that many of the fragments from the stomach were not in condition to permit positive identification. The determination of these fragments was a good test of one's knowledge of the group and might be treated as a game of skill. N. E. McIndoo: Glandtdar structure of the abdominal appendages of a termite guest (Spirachtha) . The staphylinid beetles discussed, about the size of a common pin head, were collected by Emerson in termite nests in British Guiana and were identified by Mann as two new species. They are most remarkable in that the fat abdomen bends forward and lies directly over the thorax and head, and that the abdomen bears three pairs of large fleshy appendages, whose only function seems to be to furnish a supposedly nutritive food for the ter- mites, which have a habit of licking these appendages. The internal anatomy of the appendages is the most peculiar of any yet described. Each appendage is a thick- walled tube or slender sac, completely filled with blood. Lying in the thick walls are countless gland cells whose inner ends are bathed by the 320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 blood, and whose outer ends are attached to the spongy, inner layer of the integument which serves as a reservoir. The gland cells extract a substance from the blood and store it in the reservoir, from which it passes to the exterior through many tiny pores lying in the outer layer of the integument. Once on the integument, the secretion evidently spreads out in a film over the entire surface of the appendages and abdomen. This paper was illustrated by two anatomical charts which were explained in detail. Notes and exhibition of specimens A. N. CaudelIv exhibited a specimen of a remarkable katydid, the re- cently described Insctidderia taxodii Caudell, which feeds only on cypress in the southeastern United States. Prof. Carl J. Drake spoke of collecting on cypress in Mississippi and Louisiana, stating that certain jassids and tingids confine their attack to this tree. Mr. RoHWER stated that one of two species of horntails seem to breed only on cypress, and that certain parasites of wood-boring Coleoptera also seem to confine themselves to this tree but are not particular as to the sys- tematic position of their insect hosts. Wm. Middleton stated that he had on October 6, 1921, liberated 20,000 adults of Schedius kuvanae Howard in Washington, D. C. This insect is a chalcid egg parasite of the gypsy moth. The liberation was made on some trees along B St., on the north side of the Museum, which had a large number of egg masses of the white-marked tussock moth. The parasite has been found to attack the egg of this moth under laboratory conditions and it is hoped that it will be useful in aiding in controlling it here. This experiment is a part of Dr. Howard's plan for getting the utmost possible good from such parasitic insects as are introduced into this country. S. A. RoHWER said he was glad this liberation of parasites was recorded and hoped that all such liberations would be made matters of record and placed available to all specialists. Unless this is done, the specialist is often puzzled when dealing with distribution of species and often has trouble in making identifications. As an illustration of the phenomenon of predaceous and parasitic insects confining their attacks to those insects which infest a given plant rather than to a given host species or genus, J. A. Hyslop discussed the two common species of the genus Alatis, A. oculaius and A. myops. The larvae of both of these beetles are exclusively predaceous, feeding on several species of wood-boring larvae, but, despite the fact that they are not wood feeders, A. octdatiis is always found in deciduous trees and A. myops invariably in conifers. Dr. A. C. Baker reported the results of some rearing experiments with the apple-grain aphis (the Aphis avenae of some American authors). He pointed out that the theory of evolution based on natural selection as pro- pounded by Darwin has been discarded by most of the experimental workers in zoology. Darwin based his theory on small continuous variations while most of these recent workers pin their faith to discontinuous variations. In the mean time Johannsen established his pure line theory which claims that self-fertilized forms or forms reproducing as in parthenogenesis will remain true showing only fluctuations. Finally Lotsy has recently dispensed altogether with variations. "The cause of evolution lies in the interaction July 19, 1922 proceedings: entomological society 321 of two gametes of different constitution." If this were so there could nat- urally be no true variation in a parthenogenetic line. EwiNG had reared the species under discussion for S7 parthenogenetic generations and secured no modifications. His conclusions therefore agree with the usual pure line conception and would tend to support Lotsy's theory. The results obtained here, however, are quite different. There appeared in the parthenogenetic rearings a form which had dropped one entire segment from the antennae. This reproduced true until the winter's frost closed the line. Apterous and winged forms were obtained and even intermediates between these two forms, all lacking the one segment. We have here then a case where a new form has arisen in a parthenogenetic line — a mutation if you wish. There seems only one way to interpret it. Mutations may arise in pure line parthenogenetic reproduction as well as through the interaction of two different gametes. This granted, Lotsy's theorv collapses and the pure line theory as often expressed needs modification. Micrographs of these forms have been prepared and will in due course be published. H. S. Barber reported on the injury to the putting greens of the Columbia Country Club near Chevy Chase, Maryland, by the larvae of the carabid beetle Agonoderus lineola. The investigation was made in late August by P. L. RiCKER of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The injury was very se- vere in spots and examination of the contents of the alimentary tract of larvae disclosed chiefl}^ grass roots. Poison baits and sprays apparently were of little value in preventing the damage, and it was recommended that surface fumigation with paradichlorobenzine under tarpaulins be tested. J. C. Bridwell told of the various insects that he had found using as nesting places the galleries of a borer in a rotten stump. Osmia lignaria Say was in the fully developed adult stage. Some individuals had been para- sitized by Chrysis (Holochrysis) hilaris Dahlb., which had attacked the bee larva after it had spun its cocoon, as was shown by the fact that the Chrysis cocoon was always enclosed by the Osmia cocoon. Nymphs of the mite genus Trichotarsus were associated with these bees. Dead and molded adults of Typoxylon albopilosum Fox were found in nests in the pupal cham- bers, and other cells filled with spiders certainly stored by this species. The nesting habits of this Trypoxylon heretofore have been unknown. Other pupal chambers contained the remains of the cockroach Parcoblatta pennsylvanica DeGeer, associated with thin silken cocoons thought to be possibly those of one of our two species of Rhinopsis, members of a group known to use cockroaches as prey. In branch galleries were cells stored with a large aphid (possibly Longistigma according to Dr. Baker), together with cocoons suggested by Mr. Rohwer as possibly those of some Nyssonid. The mite, Pedicidoides ventricosus, interfered with the rearing of some of the species. E. R. Sasscer exhibited a base ball, intercepted at quarantine, filled with whole cotton seed. .344th meeting The 344th meeting was held December 1, 1921, at the National Museum, with President Walton presiding and 33 members and 6 visitors present. Officers for 1922 were elected as follows: President, A. B. Gahan; First Vice-President, Dr. Adam G. Boving; Second Vice-President, R. A. Cushman; Recording Secretary, C. T. Greene; Editor, Dr. A. C, Baker; Corresponding 322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 13 Secretary-Treasurer, S. A. Rohwer. Additional members of Executive Com - mittee, Dr. A. L. Ouaintance, A. N. Caudell, Dr. J. M. Aldrich. Vice President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, S. A. Rohwer. The pro- gram was as follows: S. Hadwen: Oestridae. This talk consisted of an account, illustrated by specimens and photographs, of the speaker's investigation into the habits and control of the reindeer nose bot fly, Cephenomyia trompe L., and the reindeer warble, Oedemagena tarandi L. Notes and exhibition of specimens Dr. Howard, Mr. Schwarz, and Mr. Caudell gave brief reminiscences of the late Dr. W. H. Fox. Mr. Rohwer exhibited some letters from the late H. F. Bassett to Dr. IjNTNER and read one relating to one of Dr. Lintner's reports. C. J. Bridwell exhibited the elytra of an Elodes on which he has found two eggs of a Tachinid parasite and from which he had removed two larvae of the fly. He commented on the similarity in the method of attachment of the egg to that of the Bruchidae, by a firm cement which gives the larva a good purchase for penetrating the hard elytron, in the same manner as the bruchid larva penetrates the hard shell of the seed. Dr. Aldrich was reminded by Mr. Bridwell's remarks of the Tachinid eggs that are sometimes found on the adults of the potato beetle, stating that nothing has ever been reared from these eggs and that they cannot be those of Doryphorophaga since this has a piercer and probably deposits its eggs within the host. Dr. EwiNG had found these eggs and had succeeded in getting them to hatch, but had never reared the adult fly. Mr. Caudell told of having received specimens of Zorotypus from Hawaii and thought it probably a species introduced from the East Indies. He also exhibited specimens of a rare walkingstick-like mantid that Dr. .C. J. Drake had found in considerable numbers in Mississippi. Mr. CuSHMAN spoke of the confusion resulting from an old misdetermi- nation of Habrocracon brevicornis (Wesmael), whereby the name has long been associated with the common parasite of stored grain insects. The re- cent rearing of the true brevicornis from the European Corn Borer in imported material has been the means of correcting the error. Mr. Gahan discussed the habits of a recently discovered parasite of Di- abrotica vittata adults, Syrrhizus n. sp., as given him by the discoverer, Mr. W. V. Balduff, of the Ohio State Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Gahan outlined the similarities and differences between the habits of this in- sect and of the common parasite of lad> -bird beetles, Dinocampus terminatus Nees. R, A. Cushman, Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 August 19, 1922 No. 14 ZOOLOGY. — -New forms of Neotropical birds. ^ Alexander Wet- MORE, Biological Survey. The four subspecies described in the present paper have been noted in the collections of the U. S. National Museum during studies of birds secured by the writer in 1920 and 1921 in southern South America. In the case of the new form of pygmy owl thanks are due Dr. F. M. Chapman of the American Museum of Natural History for the loan of an excellent series of these birds for comparison. The types of the forms here described are all in the U. S. National Museum. Glaucidium nanum vafrum, subsp. nov. Characters. — Similar to Glaucidium nanum nanum (King)^ but with dark bars on tail broader (breadth two times or more that of the Hght bands) ; sHghtly larger. Description. — Type, U. S. Nat. Mus., Cat. No. 284,856, female (in rufes- cent phase), from Concon, Intendencia of Valparaiso, Chile, collected April 27, 1921, by Alex. Wetmore (orig. No. 6603). Crown, nape and upper back between verona brown and warm sepia; lores, superciliary stripe and streak behind eye white streaked more or less with black; crown and nape faintly streaked and spotted with rather dull cinnamon-buff, the anterior streaks faintly bordered with black ; nape with concealed markings of black, white and cinnamon-buff that appear as a broken half collar but that may be ar- ranged to form two distinct eyespots on the back of the neck; streak below eye, including auricular region, blackish slate spotted with white and cinna- mon-buff; sides of neck duller than snuff brown, barred and spotted obscurely with cinnamon-buff and, more faintly, with blackish slate; back (save as indicated above) and scapulars, slightly browner than hair brown, the scapu- lars spotted more or less obscurely with cinnamon-buff, and white bordered by cinnamon-buff; rump and upper tail-coverts verona brown, rump with hidden spots of cinnamon-buff; primaries and secondaries fuscous-black, barred on under surface with white, that becomes marguerite yellow proxi- mally on inner feathers ; outer webs of primaries spotted with white, margined with cinnamon-buff; outer webs of secondaries spotted with cinnamon-buff; wing coverts fuscous washed with verona brown; external ones spotted with white, all obscurely spotted with cinnamon-buff; tail fuscous-black, crossed by narrow bars of sayal brown, the dark bars twice the width of the light ones; malar stripe white; chin white with the antrorse hairlike feather tips 1 Received July 7, 1922. 2 Strix nana King, Zool. Journ. 3: 427. 1827. (Port Famine, Straits of Magellan.) 323 324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 black; broad band across throat darker than bister, marked irregularly with dull cream-buff; lower fore-neck and upper breast broadly white in center ; sides of fore-neck and breast duller than snuff -brown spotted obscurely with cinnamon-buff and white ; remainder of underparts dull white streaked somewhat irregularly with bister; sides and flanks wood brown, somewhat mixed with white; tibiae verona brown mixed with cinnamon-buff; tarsi grizzled with white, bister, and cinnamon-buff; under wing coverts fuscous- black mixed with white. Tip of bill deep olive-buff; base puritan gray, shading to deep olive-buff at base, gray clearer on mandible, indistinct on maxilla; iris pale greenish yellow (from fresh specimen). Measurements. — Males (2 specimens), wing 104.1-106.0, tail 70.0-76.2, culmen from cere (one specimen only) 12.0 mm. Females (2 specimens), wing 110.0-114.0,^ tail (one specimen) 74.6,^ culmen from cere (one specimen) 12.5 mm.3 Range. — Central Chile (known from Santiago, Valparaiso, Rio Blanco (altitude 1470 metres), and Tofo, sixty miles north of Coquimbo). Remarks .—The present form, a northern race of Glaucidium nanum, may be expected to range northward through the Andes into Bolivia, and perhaps farther. Specimens from Temuco, Chile, near the border of the forest belt, and from the Andes in Chubut, are intermediate between nanum and vafrum but seem nearer the former. True nanum, from the material at hand there- fore may be said to extend northward through the humid forest belt of south Chile and the southern Andes, and to be replaced beyond that point by vafrum. Six skins representing vafrum have been examined, a male, and one marked female, doubtfully so since the wing measures only 103.7 mm. (not included in the measurements given above) from Santiago, a female from Concon, one with sex not marked from Valparaiso, a questionable male from an altitude of 1470 metres on the Rio Blanco, and a female from Tofo, sixty miles north of Coquimbo. Five specimens of nanum, from near the type locality in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan (Punta Arenas, Laredo Bay and Tierra del Fuego), all agree in having the light and dark bands on the tail of about equal width. The dark tail bands in specimens from farther north become slightly broader, but even those from as far north as Temuco in Chile and northern Chubut in Argentina agree best with nanum. It may be noted that Scott and Sharpe (Princeton Univ. Exp. Patagonia, 2*: 70S. /. j6o. 1915) figure nanum from Punta Arenas with a narrow tail band, as does Crawshay (Birds of Tierra del Fuego, pi. 35. 1907) in the case of a bird from Tierra del Fuego, and Koslowsky (El Hornero 1: pi. III. Sept. 1919) in one from north of Lago Buenos Aires, Santa Cruz. In all I have examined 10 specimens that may be referred to nanum and 6 that represent vafrum. There is considerable uncertainty as to whether nanum should be main- tained as a distinct species or whether both nanum and vafrum should be placed as subspecies of hrasilianum. The distinctions between the sub- species that compose brasilianum and the two into which nanum is divided ' Type. AUGUST 19, 1922 WETMORE : NEW NEOTROPICAL BIRDS 325 are purel}- those of depth of coloration. Collectively the nanum group is darker and somewhat more heavily marked than the hrasilianum group, while the two are complementary in range. Examination of specimens from intermediate localities may easily demonstrate intergradation. So far as I can determine none of the names that have been proposed for pigmy owls can be referred to the subspecies here described as new. Athene leiicolaima Bonaparte,^ said to have come from "Oceania," is based on figures 2 and 3 on plate 4 of the atlas of Zoology of D'Urville's Voyage au Pole Sud. In Volume 3, page 7)o, of this work, Hombron and Jacquinot state that their specimens came from the Straits of Magellan, as is indicated by the narrow- ness of the dark bars on the tail. Bonaparte's name therefore is a synonym of nanum. The status of other names involved is so clear that discussion of them is unnecessary. Chloroceryle americana croteta, subsp. nov. Characters. — Similar to Chloroceryle americana americana (Gmelin),^ but bill broader and heavier. Description. — Type, U. S. Nat. Mus., Cat. No. 75019, adult male, from the Island of Tobago, collected by F. A. Ober. Hind neck, sides of head and back, rump, upper tail-coverts, wing coverts and outer webs of primaries and secondaries dusky yellowish green w^ith a distinct sheen, becoming dusky olive-green on the crown and forehead; a half collar of white around hind neck ; a few white feathers on anterior portion of lower eyelid, and a few minute white markings above the anterior end of eye ; secondaries barred with white, and primaries spotted with white on inner webs; scapulars white at base; rectrices dusky bluish green above, black below; three outer rectrices ex- tensively white at base, the white extending farther out on inner webs than on outer, and continued as spots to tip ; fourth rectrix spotted with white ; throat, submalar region, anterior part of sides of neck, extreme lower breast, abdomen, under tail-coverts and under wing coverts white ; lower throat, and breast, save lower portion, between Sanford's brown and auburn; a line from mandibular ramus down side of throat dusky yellowish green; sides, flanks and sides of abdomen spotted heavily with dusky yellowish green ; a few spots of the same color on the under tail-coverts; under wing coverts marked with blackish green. Bill, tarsus and toes black (from dried skin). Measurements. — Males (3 specimens) wing 76.2-78.0 (76.8), tail 51.0- 54.5 (53.0), exposed culmen 35.5-38.5 (37.1), tarsus 8.0-8.5 (8.2) mm. Fe- males (2 specimens) wing 76.7-77.5 (77.1), tail 53.0-54.6 (53.8), exposed culmen 36.0-40.0 (38.0), tarsus 8.5-9.0 (8.7)mm. Type (adult male), wing 76.2, tail 53.5, exposed culmen 37.2, tarsus 8.0 mm. Range. — Islands of Tobago and Trinidad, West Indies; mouth of Orinoco River, Venezuela (?). Remarks. — The form recognized above is similar in size and coloration to the typical subspecies C. a. americana as represented by material from British Guiana, Diamantina (near Santarem) and Ceara, Brazil, save for the markedly stronger and broader bill. C. a. cabanisi is larger than croteta, * Consp. Gen. Av. 1: 40. 1850. ^ Alcedo americana Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1: 451. 1788. (Cayenne.) 326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 is paler above and has the white markings on the rectrices more extensive. From isthmica the new form is distinguished by smaller size and more exten- sive rufous brown on the throat. One specimen in the series of croteta examined is marked "Orenoco River, Venezuela," without other designation. The bird in question has the heavy bill characteristic of this form, but as it is a trade skin, secured from the Museum Boucard, the locality is open to doubt. Dyctiopicus mixtus malleator, subsp. nov. Characters. — ^Similar to Dyctiopicus mixtus mixtus (Boddaert)^ but more heavily streaked on entire under surface, with less extensive white markings above, and auricular patch slightly darker. Description.— Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 284,616, adult male, from Las Palmas, Chaco, Argentina, collected July 23, 1920, by Alex. Wetmore (orig. No. 4549). Forehead dark drab; crown, nape and upper hind-neck black, feathers of the crown streaked lightly with white, those of nape some- what elongated, tipped with coral red, forming a patch on either side, more or less confluent at back ; antrorse nasal plumes dull white, mixed with black filoplumes; lower hind-neck, back and rump black, barred broadly with white to pale olive-buff, the light areas slightly less in extent than the black ; upper tail-coverts black bordered and tipped with large spots of white; primaries and secondaries between hair brown and chaetura drab spotted regularly and extensively with white forming regular bands; secondaries tipped with white; wing coverts black, each feather with a large irregular, sometimes heart-shaped, spot; rectrices black, barred narrowly with pale olive-buff, the bars, passing diagonally across the web toward the shaft; a streak from in front of eye behind rictus to below auricular region, and a superciliary stripe, beginning at front of eye, dull white, the superciliary stripe expanded at sides of nape into a white patch; auricular region forward to eye darker than hair brown, bordered above and behind with black ; under surface dull white to pale olive-buff (more or less stained) ; throat and fore-neck with elon- gate spots of black; sides of neck and breast with prominent black streaks; sides, abdomen and under tail-coverts spotted and cross-barred heavily and irregularly with black; under wing coverts dull white, spotted with black. Maxilla dark neutral gray; mandible deep mouse gray with mandibular rami slate-gray; tarsus and toes blackish slate (from dried skin). Measurements. — Male, one specimen (type), wing 87.4, tail 48.5, exposed culmen 19.6, tarsus 18.5 mm. Females, three specimens, wing 82.3-86.6 (84.9), tail 45-55 (49.3), exposed culmen 16.6-18.0 (17.3), ^ tarsus 17.5-19.0 (18.2) mm. Range. — Northern Argentina from the Territory of Chaco (Las Palmas) and Tucuman (Tapia), north in the Chaco to northern Paraguay (Puerto Pinasco) Reinarks. — The subspecies described above is represented by a male and a female from Las Palmas, Chaco, a female from Tapia, Tucuman, and a female from Kilometre 80, west of Puerto Pinasco, Paraguay. It is dis- tinguished from the typical form from Buenos Aires (represented by four * Picus mixtus Boddaert, Tabl. Plan. Enl. 47. 1783. (Buenos Aires.) ^ From two specimens. AUGUST 19, 1922 WETMORE : NEW NEOTROPICAL BIRDS 327 skins from Conchitas and Ouilmes), the type locality according to Hellmayr,^ by the heavier, more decided streaking of the ventral surface and the reduction of the white markings on the back. Smaller bill and darker coloration dis- tinguish malleator from D. m. berlepschi Hellmayr. Picus maculatus Viellot,^ based on the Carpintero chorreado of Azara refers to the subspecies described here but is antedated by Piciis maculatus Scopoli^*^ applied to another species of woodpecker. Other names in the synonymy of mixtus species refer to other forms. Myrmorchilus strigilatus suspicax, subsp. nov. Characters. — Similar to Myrmorchilus strigilatus strigilatus (Wied)^^ but male with sides, flanks and under tail-coverts between cinnamon-buff and clay color ; superciliary stripe duller, not terminating in a distinct white spot posteriorly; post ocular space slightly darker than bister. Female with under tail-coverts more buffy; superciliary stripe and auricular region duller, less whitish. Description.— Type, U. S. Nat. Mus., Cat. No. 283,862, male adult, from the Riacho Pilaga, near Kilometre 182 (Ferrocarril del Estado), Gobernacion de Formosa, Argentina, collected August 11, 1920, by Alex. Wetmore (orig. No. 4712) . Crown and nape streaked narrowly with dull black and cinnamon- brown, the feathers dark centrally and paler laterally, those on nape with a faint buff margin ; superciliary stripe dull white, becoming buify above eye and merging behind eye with buff on sides of nape ; a line from the nasal fossa to eye, continued in a narrow line around eye, black, mixed slightly with white behind nostrils and interrupted by a small white spot near center of upper and lower eyelids ; malar stripe white ; band behind eye slightly darker than bister; auricular region snuff" brown; upper back mikado brown streaked broadly with black ; scapulars black centrally with inner margin russet and outer margin white, washed with cinnamon-buff, the latter forming a promi- nent light line above wing; sides of breast tawny-olive streaked with black, blending gradually with white of breast; lower back, rump and upper tail- coverts hazel, the lower back streaked broadly with black ; primaries and secondaries fuscous, the outer webs washed with cinnamon near middle, and black proximally; tertials black margined broadly with cinnamon to mikado brown ; wing coverts black ; lesser coverts spotted slightly with white, middle coverts tipped with white, and greater coverts tipped with white shading internally to pinkish buff; primary coverts tipped narrowly with dull white and cinnamon-buff; central pair of rectrices russet; others black, the outer pair with distal half of outer web and tip white, and the others (save the median pair) tipped with the same color; chin, throat, fore-neck and center of upper breast black; sides of upper breast, lower breast and abdomen white; sides, flanks and under tail-coverts between cinnamon-buff and clay color; bend of wing black; under wing coverts white. Bill black, becoming neutral gray at base of mandible; tarsus mouse gray; iris dull brown (from recently killed specimen). ^Verhandl. Ornith. Ges. Bayern 12: 212. 1915. 9 Nouv. Diet. Hist. Nat. 26: 19. 1818. (Paraguay.) 10 Del. Flor. Faun. Insubr. 2: 89. 1786. (Antigua, Panay.) " Myiothera strigilata Wied, Beitr. Naturg. Brasilien 3: 1064. 1831. (Bahia.) 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 Measurements. — Males (4 specimens), wing 65.6-66.6 (66.0), tail 56.1- 60.6 (58.6), exposed culmen 16.7-17.7 (17.1), ^^ tarsus 31.9-33.6 (32.6) mm. Females (3 specimens), wing 61.3-67.4 (63.9), tail 57.5-60.4 (59.2), exposed culmen 16.4-17.2 (16.7), tarsus 31.5-32.0 (31.7) mm. Type (adult male) wing 66.6, tail 60.0, exposed culmen 17.7, tarsus 31.9 mm. Range. — Formosa (Riacho Pilaga), Rio Vermejo, and eastern Salta (?) Argentina. Remarks. — The material on which the form described above is based has been compared with two specimens (male and female) from Bahia, the type locality of Myiothera strigilata of Wied. The male of M. s. strigilatus has the white superciliary prolonged to terminate in a prominent white spot on the side of the head, and the feathers behind the eye (above the auricular region) almost black. In addition the sides, flanks and under tail-coverts are white with very little buffy tinge. The female of typical strigilatus is whiter on the sides, flanks and under tail-coverts, has the superciliary stripe whiter and more prominent, and the side of the head paler. Measurements (in millimeters) of the two skins from Bahia are as follows: male, wing 64.5, tail 57.0, exposed culmen 15.5, tarsus 30.5; female, wing 61.0, tail 52.2, ex- posed culmen 14.0, tarsus 29.3. It will be noted that in suspicax the bill and tarsus seem to average slightly longer than in typical strigilatus. In addition to seven specimens taken by the writer at the type locality, there is a skin in the National Museum secured by Page on the Rio Vermejo, apparently the most southern point from which the bird is recorded, since in Argentina published records indicate it as known only from eastern Salta. No specimens have been seen from the latter locality. BOTANY. — The two species of deerhorn cactus.'^ N. L. Britton and J. N. Rose. In our southwestern deserts, ranging from western Texas to south- eastern Arizona and extending into northern Mexico, just how far we do not know, the well-known deerhorn cactus is to be found. It is never abundant, usually growing up through other bushes with its branches often looking like dead sticks. It has an enormous turnip-like root, sometimes weighing 60 pounds. When in flower it is greatly sought after by plant-lovers. It is a night-bloomer and in the southwest is known as the Queen of the Night. When barren, the plant is difficult to find, but when in flower it can easily be located in the dark by its strong but delightful odor, and people often go into the desert seeking it, carrying lanterns not to aid in finding the flowers but only to guide them away from the thorny vegetation. The plant was long known as Cereus greggii, having been so-named by '2 Average of three specimens. 1 Received July 18, 1922. AUGUST 19, 1922 BRITTON AND ROSE: DEERHORN CACTUS 329 Dr. George Engelmann for Joseph Gregg, a well-known collector of plants, but on account of its peculiar habit, flowers, fruit and seeds, it was made the type of a new genus, Peniocereus, by Britton and Rose in 1909.2 Fig. 1. Peniocereus greggii. — Upper figure, ^ow^r; lower figure, fruit. In 1921, through the efforts of Dr. B. W. Evermann, a scientific expedition was sent out by the California Academy of Sciences to explore the islands in the Gulf of California. While engaged in the botanical work of this expedition Mr. Ivan M. Johnston collected a second species of this genus which is described as follows: Peniocereus johnstonii Britton and Rose, sp. nov. A climbing or clambering plant, up to 3 meters long, with a very large fleshy root, sometimes weighing 14 pounds ; stems and branches 3 to 5-angled, the young growth not pubescent; spines 9 to 12, brown to black, glabrous; upper radial spines short, stubby, swollen at base, nearly black, the two lower light brown, elongated, bristle-like, reflexed; central spines 1 to 3, subulate, 4 to 8 mm. long; flower (only an old flower seen) about 15 cm. long; perianth-segments about 3 cm. long; lower and outer perianth-seg- ments bearing tawny hairs and long bristles ; flower- tube slender, with promi- nent areoles on knobby projections and bearing tawny wool and bristly spines; fruit ovoid to oblong, about 6 cm. long, bearing prominent clusters of black spines, dry (?), many-seeded; seeds oblong, 3 mm. long or more, black, shining; seedling dark purple; cotyledons ven- thick, triangular. Collected by Ivan M. Johnston on San Josef Island, off the west coast of southern Lower California, May 28, 1921 (no. 3940, type) and June 10, 1921 (no. 4085) ; also on the mainland at San Nicholas Bay, Lower California, May 16, 1921 (no. 3737). This species was always found growing up through bushes of Olneya. 2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 12: 423. 1909; Britton and Rose, Cactaceae 2: 112. 1920. 330 JOURNAI^ OF the: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 KEY TO THE SPECIES OP PENIOCEREUS Young growth pubescent; areoles on flower- tube not borne on knobs; fruit bearing small inconspicuous spine-clusters; seeds dull black 1- ^- Sreggii. Young growth glabrous ; areoles on flower-tube borne on knobs ; fruit bearing large clusters of spines at the areoles ; seeds larger than in the last, shining black 2. P. johnstonii. Fig. 2. Peniocereus johnstonii. — Upper figure, branch: lower figures, old flower and seeds. BOTANY. — Three new species of Passiflora /rom Venezuela and Ecua- dor} E. P. KiLUP, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by William R. Maxon.) Recent botanical exploration in Venezuela and Ecuador has brought to light three new species of Passiflora, which are described herewith. One of them, P. popenovii, is cultivated for its edible fruit. Passiflora (Granadilla) dispar Killip, sp. nov. Stem terete, striate, glabrous; stipules ovate, 2 cm. long, 0.6 to 0.8 cm. broad, foliaceous, serrulate, aristulate; petioles 3 to 3.5 cm. long, bearing 4 to 6 stipitate glands l.S mm. in length; leaves ovate, 11 to 13 cm. long, 6 to 7 cm. broad, unlobed or occasionally with one lateral lobe, narrowed to an obtuse apex, subpeltate about 2 mm. above base, glabrate above, densely grayish-tomentulose beneath, palmately 5 or 7-nerved with promin- ulous secondary veins, reticulate, the margin entire or remotely and minutely serrulate toward the base; peduncles 2 to 2.5 cm. long; bracts ovate-lance- olate, 1 to 1.5 cm. long, 0.5 to 0.6 cm. broad, foliaceous, acute, closely callous- serrulate, the base cordate with unequal lobes; flowers 4.5 to 5.5 cm. wide; sepals ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, 2 to 2.2 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, short-horned just below apex; filaments of faucial corona in several series, the outer fili- form, equaling the petals, the succeeding series capillary, barely 3 mm. high; middle corona membranous, erect, irregularly lacerate; basal corona closely 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received! July 19, 1922. AUGUST 19, 1922 kilup: three new passiflora 331 surrounding base of g^^nophore, slightly folded, crenulate; gynophore 1 cm. long, glabrous; anthers linear-oblong, 7 mm. long, 2 mm. broad; ovarv' ellip- soidal, glabrous, glaucous; st^des filiform, 6 to 7 mm. long; stigmas orbicular. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,065,083, collected in forest at Guaremales, along road from Puerto Cabello to San Felipe, Carabobo, Venezuela, altitude 10 to IjOO meters. May 20 to June 10, 1920, by H. Pittier (no. 8854). This species is allied to Passiflora gritensis Karst. of the highlands of Vene- zuela, which is known to the writer only from description. In P. gritensis the leaves are deeply 3-parted, the divisions being acute and mucronate, and the peduncles are twice as long as the leaves. The unusual character of the bracts seems to be common to both species. Detailed description of the structure of the coronae of P. gritensis is lacking. Passiflora (Granadilla) perlobata Killip, sp. nov. Stem terete, striate, glabrous; tendrils stout, glabrous, up to 10 cm. long (in contraction) ; stipules narrowly linear-subulate, falcate, 8 to 9 mm. long, 1 mm. broad at base, glabrous; petioles flattened, sulcate, glabrous, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, biglandular about 8 mm. from base, the glands sessile, saucer- shaped, 1.5 mm. in diameter; leaves suborbicular in outline, 6.5 to 7 cm, long, 9 to 10 cm. broad, palmately 5 (or 7?)-lobed to within 1 cm. of base (lobes oblong, obtuse, mucronate, the apical one 6.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 cm. wide, abruptly narrowed at base to a width of 4 mm., the two middle lobes 4 to 4.5 cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide, narrowed at base to a width of 7 mm., the two lower lobes 2 to 2.2 cm. long, 1 to 1.3 cm. broad), cordate at base, mem- branous, glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath ; peduncles stout, terete, 5.5 to 6 cm. long, 2 mm. in diameter; bracts free to the base, ovate, 3.5 cm. long, 2 to 2.5 cm. broad, obtuse, minutely tomentulose on both surfaces, the margin entire, becoming involute in drying, biglandular on each side near the base, the glands orbicular, 1 mm. in diameter, black, shining; flowers 8 to 10 cm. wide; sepals oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, 4 cm. long, 1.5 cm. broad, subcoriaceous, apparently green without, white within, keeled on the outer surface, the keel terminating in an awn 2.5 mm. long; petals linear-lanceolate or spatulate, 3 cm. long, 0.8 to 1 cm. broad, obtuse, membranous, rose-colored ; filaments of faucial corona in several series, those of the outer ligulate, long- tapering, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, dark blue, banded with white, those of the next series linear, 3 mm. long, white at base, those of the succeeding 3 or 4 series capillary, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, pale blue and white; middle corona membran- ous at base, filamentose above, the filaments very numerous, 8 to 9 mm. long, spatulate, white below, blue at apex; basal corona annular, 1.5 mm. from base of gynophore; gynophore 9 mm. long, glabrous, sulcate, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, swollen near base to a diameter of 4.5 mm. ; ovary globose, glabrous. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,067,545, collected at San Antonio, San Cristobal, Venezuela, July, 1920, by Eleazar Vivas (no. 6). This species has no very close affinities. Its deeply lobed leaves resemble those of Passiflora coerulea, but its linear stipules and more slender, rose- colored petals and the longer filaments of the middle corona readily dis- tinguish it from that species. In the notes which accompany the type speci- 332 JOURNAL O^ THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 men the collector states that the leaves are 7-lobed. The two leaves which the specimen bears are but 5-lobed. Doubtless the lower leaves have an additional pair of lobes. Passiflora {Granadilla) popenovii Killip, sp. nov. Vine, up to 8 meters in length, glabrous throughout, except the ovary and outer surface of the flower tube; stem terete below, 4 or 5-angled above, striate; tendrils wirv, up to 0.8 mm. in diameter; stipules narrowly linear- subulate, 1 cm. long, 0.5 mm. broad, deciduous; petioles slender, averaging 2 cm. in length, slightly tortuose toward the base, glandless; leaves oblong- ovate or elliptic-ovate, 8.5 to 14.5 cm. long, 4 to 7 cm. wide, acuminate, rounded at base, entire, papery or pergamentaceous, lustrous on both sur- faces, featherveined (lateral veins 4 or 5 pairs) and prominulous-reticulate, without ocellae; peduncles slender, elongate, 8 to 10 cm. long; bracts distinct to base, concave, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, 1.2 to 1.5 cm. broad, rounded and often cleft at apex, narrowed at base, entire, minutely puberulent on the lower part of the outer surface; flowers showy, fragrant, up to 10 cm. wide; the tube 1.2 cm. long; sepals deep rose-colored, oblong, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, 1.5 to 2 cm. broad, slightly concave, wide-spreading when developed, obtuse, keeled on the outer surface, the keel terminating in a cusp 3 mm. long; petals white, linear-oblong, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, averaging 1 cm. wide, flat, slightly reflexed; filaments of faucial corona in 4 series, the 2 outer at throat of tube, white, banded with purplish-blue, the 2 inner 3 mm. and 2 mm. from the throat, the filaments of the outermost series filiform, 1.5 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, slightly divaricate, those of second series ligulate, fleshy, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, 2 to 2.5 mm. wide, those of third series capillary, 1 mm. long, those of the fourth series capillary, 2 mm. long; middle corona membranous, 5 mm. long, the lower half adnate to the floor of the flower tube, the upper half free, slightly recurved ; basal corona none; gynophore stout, grooved, con- spicuously swollen about 1 cm. above base ; ovary globose, narrowed at base, densely tomentellous ; styles clavate, 6 mm. long; stigmas 3 mm. in diameter. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,060,000, cultivated in vol- canic loam at Banos, Tungurahua, Ecuador, at an altitude of 1,850 meters, collected March 6, 1921, by Wilson Popenoe (no. 1271). The nearest relative of P. popenovii is P. laurifolia, widely cultivated in the West Indies under the name water-lemon. The flowers of the two species are very much alike, the coronal structure being practically identical. Passi- flora popenovii is to be separated, however, by its thinner, more acuminate leaves, by the absence of petiolar glands, and by its more slender and more elongate peduncles. This species is one of several cultivated in Ecuador under the name of "Granadilla de Quijos" and the edible fruit is commonly on sale in the markets of Banos and Riobamba. It is said to be indigenous on the eastern slopes of the Andes. AUGUST 19, 1922 proceedings: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 333 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 641ST MEETING The 641st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on May 13, 1922, with President Bailey in the chair and 74 persons present. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. M. N. Pope and Dr. J. W. Roberts were elected members of the Society. Short Notes Dr. White exhibited a fossil frog or toad in a remarkable state of preser- vation. It was taken from some oil shale at Elko, Nevado, and is the prop- erty of W. K. SheELER of that place. The stratum is of Middle Miocene age, overlying beds of lignite. It seems that the development of vegetable growth in the water of that early period gradually resulted in ulmohumic acid accumulation, which apparently stopped bacterial growth and thus the frog was preserved in a medium virtually aseptic. Mr. Aldrich said in this connection that the shales of the Green River at the Dinosaur Monument in Utah contain many dipterous larvae which seem certainly to be those of botflies, though no reason can be thought of to account for such large numbers of these flies, now very scarce. Dr. Howard asked if Dr. White could conjecture what animal could have been the host of such a quantity of bots. He could not offer a sug- gestion on the matter, however. But he added the remark that the open quarrvdng of oil shales on a large scale in the West, which is sure to come be- fore many years, will be a veritable gold mine for the paleontologists. Miss Boone reported that she had recently visited Mr. Chas. T. Simpson, formerly of the National Museum staff, at his home in Florida. He has for a long time been engaged in gathering and cultivating on a Florida ham- mock a large number of Florida and other tropical plants; and lately the city of Miami has adopted his place as a public park, to remain in his care. Dr. WetmorE stated that bird notes are sometimes very unusual. Near Mt. Vernon a few days ago he heard a small bird singing an unfamiliar song from a position on a telephone wire. On inspection, it proved to be an oven- bird. He said that Mr. McAtee had noted the same case a year earlier at almost the same place. The first paper of the evening was by Dr. T. S. Palmer, on the subject Twenty years of Federal protection of the buffalo. The first and only appropriation for the purchase of buffalo ever passed by Congress was approved by President Roosevelt July 1, 1902. It was a pro- vision in the general deficiency bill carrying $15,000 for the purchase of buffalo for the Yellowstone National Park, providing fencing, and maintenance for one year. Under this act 21 buffalo were purchased and established at the park. In 1902 the total number of buffalo in existence was only about 1750, of which 600 were wood bison in Canada ; 200 were in a single herd, the prop- erty of Michael Pablo in Montana ; 52 belonged to the government, and others in small scattered herds. The only wild buffalo were 22 in the Yellowstone National Park and 5 in Lost Park, Colorado. The government herds in- cluded 9 head in the Zoological Park here in Washington. 334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 In 1922 the total number of buffalo in existence is over 10,000 of which 6,000 are in Canada and approximately 4,000 in the United States. The Government now has nine widely separated herds with a total of 1,250 buffalo, as follows : Two in the east — one in Washington, D. C, in sight of the place where buffalo were first seen by white men in 1612; the other at Pisgah, N. C, not far from where buffalo were first reported in that State about 1730. Two in the Southwest on the former range of the southern herd — one on the Wichita Game Preserve, the other in Platte National Park, in Oklahoma. Three in the northern Plains Region, the former range of the northern herd — one at Niobrara Reservation, Nebraska; one on the Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota; and one at vSully Hill, North Dakota. Two in the Rocky Mountain region — one near Ravalli on the former Flat- head Reservation, the former home of the Canadian herd; and the other in the Yellowstone National Park. Five of these herds are on National Parks — Zoological Park, Platte, Wind Cave, Sully Hill, and Yellowstone; four on National Game Preserves- Wichita, Oklahoma; Pisgah, North Carolina; Niobrara, Nebraska; and the Montana Bison Range. The number of buffalo now in the government herds (1250) represents about two- thirds of the total number of buffalo living twenty years ago. All but about 130 were born on the reservations. The number of calves born last year was approximately 165. The biological problems of chief importance are those relating to diseases, life history of the animals, and breeding. Four serious diseases are known to occur — Texas fever, gastro-enteritis, haemorrhagic septicemia, and con- tagious abortion. The wide dispersal of the various government herds makes it impossible for any epidemic to entirely exterminate the species in the United States. The length of life of a buffalo, the normal number of calves, and the normal ratio of the sexes, are still unknown. It is generally known that buffalo be- gin to breed the third year, and the cows have calves every other year or two years out of three, but how long they continue to breed is still to be de- termined. There is a record of a cow breeding in her twenty-sixth year, and one on Wichita preserve had a calf at the age of 22. The oldest buffalo on record is in Paris, said to be 31 years old. The oldest members of the gov- ernment herds are a cow 24 years old on the Wichita Preserve and Kalispel Chief, the leader of the Montana herd, now 20 years old. The "ten-dollar buffalo," which lived in the Zoological Park, was upwards of 20 when he died a few years ago. At the conclusion of the paper Major ShufeldT gave reminiscences of hunting buffalo in Montana while in army service ; the army expedition of which he was a member used several for meat, which he and others shot. Mr. RoHWER asked whether the government is doing any experimental work in crossing the buffalo with domestic cattle. Dr. Palmer said it is not, but the Canadian government has taken over some private work and expects to extend it. Dr. White called attention to the fact that Dr. Palmer had himself played a leading part in securing the establishment of the government herds. Dr Oberholser took the chair, and President Vernon BailEy exhibited some wild animals, and at the same time gave an informal talk on Wild AUGUST 19, 1922 proceedings: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 335 animals as pets. The animals shown were all rodents; — the common field mouse in a cage with two types of wheel, both in active use ; the small kan- garoo rat of Arizona, and others. All these animals the speaker said were verv readily tamed and made interesting pets. His primary object in keep- ing them in cages was to obtain information about their habits in the course of his professional duties, but incidentally he found them very enjoyable. At the conclusion Mr. Smith Riley urged the enlargement of this line of work, in order that the economic status of these obscure little animals may be fully developed. Dr. Howard spoke of a mouse plague in Italy since the war, and Major Goldman mentioned one in France. J. M. Aldrich, Recording Secretary. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 345th meeting The 345th meeting of the Society was held January 5, 1922 at the National Museum, with President Gahan in the chair and 38 persons present. C. J. Hartley and L. B. Smith elected to the Society. The paper of the evening was the Presidential Address by W. R. Walton: The entomology of English poetry. It was discussed by Mr. Schwarz and Dr. Howard. 346th meeting The 346th meeting was held February 2, 1922, at the National Museum, with President Gahan in the chair and 29 persons present. Mr. Rohwer spoke briefly of a meeting of the Executive Committee at which it was agreed to cut the edition of the present volume of the Society from 500 to 400 copies. William T. Owrey and M. D. Leonard were elected to the Society. The program was as follows : R. E. Snodgrass: The fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea Drury). The pa- per was in a popular form and was illustrated by drawings in pen and ink and in water colors. Mr. BuscK made some remarks on the popular form of the paper. He also spoke of some of the characteristic protective movements of the larvae. J. S. Wade: On the entomological publications of the U. S. Government. The speaker gave a list of the various Government publications relating to entomology, with the number of parts and the dates of each series. He gave a brief outline of the development of the Department of Agriculture, which started in 1S36 with the Commissioner of Agriculture as its head. The Di- vision of Entomology started in 1863, with TownEnd Glover as its head. Dr. Wm. Barnes of Decatur, Illinois, spoke briefly, giving some recollec- tions of the Society in its early years, and reminiscences of J. B. Smith, Henry Edwards and various other old time collectors. 347th meeting The 347th meeting was held March 2, 1922, in Room 43 of the National Museum, with President Gahan in the chair and 31 persons present. The program of the evening was Notes and exhibition of specimens. Dr. Ewing gave an illustrated talk on the Seasonal history of Proturans. The females are found in every month of the year and the males from Jan- uary 1st to the end of February. The best time for collecting is from late September through October. Mr. Caudell spoke of finding the Proturans between dead leaves. 336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 Mr. BuscK gave an outline of his recent five months' trip in the tropics, on a survey of the pink boll worm. Dr. Hooker of the Experiment Station Record spoke on the subject How can abstracts in the Record he made more useful? There was a discussion by Messrs. Hyslop, Cushman, Schwarz, Rohwer and others. Mr. Caudell exhibited a specimen of the imported Japanese preying man- tid Tenodera sinensis Sauss., taken in Washington, D. C. Mr. Schwarz exhibited a specimen of a male and female of the curious Calandriid beetle Cyrtotrachelus longimanus Fabr. from Mt. Omei, Province Tseschauan, northeast China. Mr. Sasscer reported the interception at Baltimore, Md., by Mr. C. E. Prince, an Inspector of the Federal Horticultural Board, of a box in the pos- session of a passenger from Brazil containing miscellaneous tree and garden seeds and fifty odd packages of cotton and cotton lint. The cotton seed contained living adults, pupae and larvae of the Pink Boll worm. He also exhibited a string of so-called "Italian Beads" found in mail at San Francisco. The so-called beads were filberts infested with larvae of Plodia inter punctella Hbn. C. T. Greene exhibited three photographs showing the adult spider parasite fly Oncodes costatus Loew, and its eggs. 348th meeting The 348th meeting was held April 6, 1922, at the New National Museum. Vice-President R. A. Cushman presided and 34 persons were present. Notes and exhibition of specimens Dr. Howard spoke of a note recently published by Dr. Feysand regarding the Hymenopterous parasite Habrobracon johannseni Viereck stinging the larva of the potato tuber moth Phthorimaea opercullella Zeller after it had spun the cocoon. The parasite afterwards feeds through the oviposition hole. Mr. Cushman spoke of the feeding of Calliephialtes, parasite of the codling moth. They feed at the punctures made by the ovipositor. He described the pumping motion employed by the parasite to bring the juice of the host within its reach. Dr. Aldrich said that several species of Agromyza puncture the leaf with the ovipositor and suck the juice for nutriment. Dr. Howard brought up the matter of the estimates that have been made of the total number of described species of insects and of the total number of species that exist in the world. A general discussion followed. Hymenoptera. — Mr. RohwER had counted sample pages of Dalla Torre's catalogue and considered it would be conservative to consider ten valid names per page for Dalla Torre's catalogue. For the species described since Dalla Torre, Mr. RohwER used the card catalogue in the National Museum, and after carefully estimating the number of cards he subtracted one-third for generic transfers, synonomy, reference to biology, etc. After completing these estimates he had talked to some of his colleagues and Mr. Gahan had pointed out that for the Chalcids the estimate was, in his opinion, about two thousand too few. To prove this Mr. Gahan had estimated the index of the volume of the Genera Insectorum and found it contained about 6500 spe- cies. It must be remembered that this volume of the Genera Insectorum contains but very little synonomy and but few species other than those which occur in Dalla Torre's catalogue. Mr. Gahan's estimate for the Chalcidoids AUGUST 19, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 337 would be 14,633 and would average about six species to a genus. Using the Genera Insectorum for the cuckoo wasps in the same way, Mr. Rohwer thought that his estimate for this group was unnecessarily conservative as judged from the basis of the index, and that there must be at least 1,800 valid names of this group. He pointed out that it was very difficult to determine what was a valid species, but from the standpoint of taxonomic study syn- onomy made but little difference as for all revisionary work it is important to take all synonyms into account. He noted that according to his estimate the number of described Hymenoptera has practically doubled since Dalla Torre's catalogue and that in addition to this the classification of the Hymen- optera has undergone changes which make it difficult if not impossible, for students to find the names given them in the catalogue. He presented these facts to show the great need for a new catalogue of the Hymenoptera. Mr. Rohwer closed his remarks by stating that he believed 90,000 would be a conservative estimate for the number of described species of Hymenoptera, and to be conservative he would multiply this by three so as to get a good estimate of the total number of species in the world. This would give a total of 270,000. A table was presented showing the number of species in the various groups. Diptera. Dr. Aldrich stated that he based his estimates on the catalogue of the Diptera of the world dated 1902-1910, which represents about nine- sixteenths of the species at this time, or about 44,000 species described. After comparing several genera as to species old and new he estimated that about five times this number would be a fair estimate, or 220,000 species de- scribed and undescribed for the world. Coleoptera. — Mr. Barber said that comparative figures indicating the number of species of beetles had been hastily gotten together but might offer a basis for an estimate. In regard to the fauna of the United States the very con- servative Henshaw list of thirty-seven years ago numbered 9238 species, which was raised to 11,256 by the still very conservative third supplement, appearing ten ^'-ears later. This number has grown steadily, reaching 18,644 (including the Stylopidae) by the close of 1918, according to the Leng list which reflects a slightly more liberal standard of specific differentiation. In regard to the world fauna we can at present only compare the number of species listed in certain families in the Gemminger and Harold (Munich) catalogue of about fifty years ago with corresponding families that have been listed in the Junk catalogue within the last twelve years. A table of fifteen families out of more than a hundred usually recognized families of beetles showed an average increase of 151% in about forty-five years. If this is representative of the entire order, the 77,008 species of Coleoptera enumerated in the Munich catalogue should now be increased to about 200,000. To base an estimate of the existing unknown species upon this estimated figure of the known forms would be mere guesswork and if one's field exper- ience is limited to our own fauna is apt to fall far below the reality. For comparison, the speaker was one of a group of half a dozen active collectors paying special attention to the fauna of Plummer's Island and vicinity (near Washington, D. C), but their combined efforts covering about ten years recorded only about 1300 species of beetles, while six weeks of collecting by Mr. Schwarz and the speaker in the humid forests of Guatemala in 1906 produced about an equal number of species, a large percentage (probably quite 25%) of which were represented only by unique examples, and although 338 JOURNAI^ OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI.. 12, NO. 14 groups were sent for inclusion in the then unpubHshed parts of the Biologia Centrah-Americana, probably 20% of the species still remain undescribed to this date. He believes that we know less than a tenth of the existing spe- cies of beetles. Mr. Fisher added that the small species of Buprestidae from Malaysia con- tained about 90% new species. This will also apply to the species of the sub- family Lamiinae of the Cerambycidae. In the material collected in Canal Zone about 75% of the species of the tribe Agrilini, family Buprestidae were new. Orthoptera. — Mr. RohwER read a note prepared by Mr. CaudelIv in which he stated that Guenther in 1896 states that in 1830 there were 800 described species in Orthoptera, and in 1881 there were 6,500 species, an annual average increase of about 15%. In 1904 Caudell published an exact account of the Blattidae as 1,684. In Kirby's Synonymic Catalogue, 1904-1910, there were 17,896 species of Orthoptera. With increases since then at 1 % a year, a minimum number would total about 20,500 species. Drs. Ball and Quaintance discussed the Hemiptera but did not give any estimate in figures. Mr. BridwELL made the following statement: "I have been very much impressed with the fact that those who have spoken after tropical collecting experience have been much more liberal in their estimates than those who have collected only in the United States. My own experience in Tropical West Africa leads me to think of the tropics as exceedingly rich in species. In Nigeria I paid particular attention to the large conspicuous Braconids easily seen in flight and perhaps thirty species were taken of which only one or two species were represented by more than one or two individuals. It is only rarely the case that a species is abundant in any one place. As yet only the larger insects of the tropics have been taken, those smaller than a medium sized Coccinellid being largely unknown. "Two remarks about beetles made to me by careful men have stuck in my mind. Dr. Peringuey, Director of the vSouth African Museum, told me that he knew six hundred named South African Tenebrionidae and eight hundred still undescribed. An Australian Coleopterist said that while they had 40,000 Australian beetles in their lists they knew that they had 40,000 more undescribed. "But 80,000 must be far too small a number for Australian beetles since two-thirds of the continent is still unexplored. A hundred thousand would seem nearer the facts. Malaysia and India together must have as many and the same is probably true of Eurasia and the Mediterranean, Ethiopian Africa, North America and South America. "It has been borne in on me increasingly that the apparent great discrep- ancy in numbers between the Coleoptera and each of the major orders of insects is not real and that in time they will each reach much more nearly the numbers of the Coleoptera. "Mr. RohwEr's estimate of the numbers of the Hymenoptera seems to me far too conservative." Dr. Snyder stated that in the Termites there were about 1,000 known spe- cies, and this number may double or possibly run to about 5,000 species. Mr. Cushman stated that in a collection of Oriental Ichneumonidae re- ceived from C. F. Baker of the University of the Philippines, together with a few from other sources, he had found about 75 apparently undescribed AUGUST 19, 1922 proceedings: ENTOMOIvOGICAIv SOCIETY 339 species of Xanihopimpla, a genus distributed through the Oriental, Austral- ian and Ethiopian regions. The Baker collections were made largely on Luzon and Mindanao, Borneo and Singapore with some from the islands of Basilau and Penang; while from other sources there are several from Formosa and a few from China and Java. There are already slightly in excess of 100 spe- cies described. He believed that as careful collecting throughout the range of this genus would at least treble the number of species. Dr. Howard, in closing the discussion, ventured the opinion that, con- sidering the character of the men who had spoken, this discussion was the most important which had been held concerning this greatly mooted matter of the number of species of insects. He believed that the number of species of insects in the world must probably exceed three millions. Mr. BuscK announced that the name of the spruce bud moth had been changed. This new name will be published in a forthcoming paper which will also contain a key to the species based on genital characters. Mr. BridwELL reported rearing two individuals of an apparently undescribed species of the Chalcidoid genus Perilampus from the nests of the genus Cra- hro, one of them from Crabro chrysarginus. This is particularly interesting on account of its bearing upon the biology of this genus, since the manner of their oviposition is unknown. They are known to have a migratory Planidium first stage larvae and have been generally bred as parasites of hymenopterous or dip- terous parasites of lepidoptera. This is apparently the first American record of a species as parasites on aculeate hymenoptera. In Europe Gaulle records Peralampus auratus Panzer as bred from Solenius rubicola and S. vagus by Lichtenstein. These are Crabronid wasps closely related to Crabro chrysargimis. These Crabronids store their nests with diptera (often flower- inhabiting) and they themselves frequent the flowers as do the insects of Perilampus. The utilization of Crabro as a host adds probability to Harry S. Smith's suggestions that Perilampus may oviposit upon flowers and the planidium be carried by insects to their food. The planidia had evidently made this entrance into the nests of the Crabro in the fall or summer, but their development was retarded until the host ma- terial had been brought into the laboratory. The larvae were first apparent as external parasites upon the prepupal larva in the cocoon. Mr. Barber exhibited specimens and photos of males of Dynastes display- ing intergradient forms between the giant "hercules beetles," 6V2 inches long, through the middle-sized form named perseus by Olivier (1789) to the dwarf form two inches long, known under the name alcides Fabr. (1787). Mr. ScHWARZ has previously discussed these forms and published a plate in our Proceedings (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 10: 70). Recently the speaker examined a series of about 20 specimens from Merida, Venezuela (Solomon Bricino & Sons) which supplies an almost continuously intergrading series between the two extremes. In this series the pair of lateral tubercles on the pronotal horn gradually comes closer to the base as the size diminishes until, in the small- est specimens, they occupy about the same position as in the common North American species tityus. A photo of 17 of these beetles arranged according to size was exhibited with a sketch map illustrating the habitats of the various species of Dynastes and it was pointed out that the Mexican species, hylltts Cher. 1843, may connect with our rather abundant and slightly variable tityus Linn, of the Southern States, and also through the plateau of Mexico, with the rather distinct Arizona species known as granti Horn. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 Two varietal names have been proposed by Prof. F. Campos R. 1920 (Revista del Colegio Nacional Vincente Rocafuerte No. 2, p. 30, figs, llb-c 1920), based on the denticles of the cephalic horn, but the differences he in- dicates by his varietal names unidentatus and bidentatus appear irregularly among the larger individuals of the species and the varieties seem to be without biological significance. Of the three species described by A. H. Verrill in 1905 and 1906 (Amer. Journ. Sci. IV. 21: 317) from Dominica, W. I. the first (D. tricornis) belongs to the genus Strategus, the second {D. lagaii) seems to be the extreme depauperate form alcides and the third {D. vulcan Verrill 1905) appears nearly equivalent to perseus Oliv. The description of the fourth species, argentata Verrill 1907 (op. cit. 24: 305-308), appears to be based upon a large and unusually brightly colored specimen of hercules. Mr. RoHWER read a note from C. A. MosiER of Miami Beach, Fla., who sent in the head of an Orthopteron (Belocephalus subapterus) found attached by its powerful jaws to the lip of a cat. C. T. Greene exhibited specimens of the immature stages of Hydrophorus agalma Wheeler (Dolichopodidae). Mr. Schwarz spoke of a letter from Mr. John Sherman Jr., calling his. attention to a rare book, "The Coleoptera of Georgia," by Le Conte. It con- tains lists of Lepidoptera, Birds and Plants, but the lists are not signed. Chas. T. Greene, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS At the call of Secretary Walcott, a meeting of the scientific staff of the Institution and its branches was held in the Smithsonian Chapel, Tuesday, May 23, to discuss the promotion of research in connection with the Smith- sonian Institution. Several interesting research problems which could be advantageously taken up were suggested, together with means for carrying them out. A committee on research was then appointed by the Secretary, consisting of Dr. Merrill, Chairman; Dr. CovillE, Dr. Fewkes, Mr. FowLE, Dr. Hough, Mr. Nelson, and Dr. Stejneger. The committee will hear reports by individuals on proposed research pro- jects and consider means for taking them up, and it is hoped that by fall a definite plan of action will be formulated. At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Institute for Research in Tropical America held June 3 in the Smithsonian Building it was decided to concentrate the efforts of the Institute on the establishment of a research station in Panama near the Gorgas Memorial Institute which is to be erected in the outskirts of the city of Panama. The members present were Thomas Barbour, Harvard University; H. E. Crampton, Barnard College (repre- senting the New York Academy of Sciences) ; A. S. Hitchcock, Smithsonian Institution; and A. G. Ruthven, University of Michigan. Dr. Witmer Stone, Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, was absent on account of sickness. About sixty members and guests of the Chemical Society took part in an excursion to the Endless Caverns near New Market, Virginia, on June 11. The caves are situated in the Shenandoah limestone, in the western branch of the Shenandoah Valley on the opposite side of Massanutten Mountain from the well-known Luray Caverns. At the annual dinner of the National Academy of Sciences, held at the Hotel Powhatan on Tuesday evening, April 25, the J. Lawrence Smith medal was bestowed upon Dr. George P. Merrill, Head Curator of Geology, in recog- AUGUST 19, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 341 nition of his work on meteorites. This is a gold medal of the value of $200, from a fund established in 1884 as a reward for "original investigation of meteoric bodies." Because of the rarity of investigators in this field, this medal has not been given since 1888. The American Meteorological Society held its seventh meeting in Wash- ington on April 26. In addition to members of the Weather Bureau, the meeting was attended by representatives of the Canadian Meteorological Service and the Argentine Weather Service. The bird collection of the late William Palmer, consisting of about 3,000 specimens, bequeathed to the U. S. National Museum in his will, has now been turned over and catalogued in the Division of Birds. This collection is very important on account of the large number of District of Columbia records and for the number of immature and molting specimens it contains, Mr. Palmer having paid especial attention to the study of molt for many years. The annual field meeting of the Petrologists' Club of Washington was held on May 13, 1922, under the guidance of S. G. Gordon of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and E. T. Wherry of Washington. The party assembled at Perry ville, Maryland, on the preceding evening and began the excursion the following morning by a visit to the granite quarry at Rock Run near Port Deposit, on the Susquehanna River. The party then visited the pegmatite dikes in the serpentine area of northern Cecil County, and studied the cross-section of the mica gneiss and phyllite along the Sus- quehanna from Bald Friar, Maryland, to Peach Bottom, Pennsylvania. Problems of special interest on this part of the trip were the manner of in- trusion of the narrow vertical diabase dike in the gneiss near Haines, and the question as to whether the gneiss is the metamorphosed equivalent of the Martinsburg shale or represents a formation of much earlier age. This was the third annual field meeting of the Club. The first excursion was held on May 18, 1920, when the Club examined the weathering of granite at the Tilden Street quarries. District of Columbia, and the structure of the gneisses in the vicinity of Great Falls, Maryland, under the guidance of G. P. Merrill and C. N. Fenner. The second excursion was on May 17, 1921, and included visits to the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks near Point of Rocks, and the Triassic sandstones and diabase at Dickerson, Maryland. The following persons have become members of the Academy since the last report in the Journal (November 4, 1921, p. 443). Except where other- wise noted, the address is Washington, D. C. Dr. Elmer Darwin Ball, Dept. of Agriculture ; Prof. Alan Mara Bateman , Dept. of Geology, Yale University; Dr. A. F. Beal, Bureau of Standards; Dr. A. W. Boswell; C. E. Chambliss, Bureau of Plant Industry; Dr. George Whitley Coggeshall, Institute of Industrial Research; J. S. Conway, Bureau of Lighthouses; Dr. Howard Austin Edson, Bureau of Plant In- dustry; Dr. Maurice Crowther Hall, Bureau of Animal Industry; Dr. Leonard Lee Harter, Bureau of Plant Industry; Dr. Clyde Evert Leighty, Bureau of Plant Industry; S. K. Lothrop, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. ; RussELL A. OaklEy, Bureau of Plant Industry; R. P. Parrott, General Electric Company; E. L. PeffER, Bureau of Standards; Dr. A. G. PiETERS, Bureau of Plant Industry; Prof. Charles V. Piper, Bureau of Plant Industry; R. L. Sanford, Bureau of Standards; Prof. Benjamin Schwartz, Univ. of the Philippines, Los Banos, P. I.;C. M. Smith, Bureau of Chemistry; Dr. W. T. Thom, Jr., Geological Survey; 342 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 14 G. W. ViNAL, Bureau of Standards; Dr. W. P. Woodring, Geological Survey. A. E. Fath has taken furlough from the Geological Survey to do private geologic work in foreign countries. Prof. W. H. Holmes and Dr. Ales Hrdlicka have been elected Honorary Associates of the Sociedad Cubana de Historia Natural "Felipe Poey" of Habana, Cuba. Charles M. Hoy, who for the past three years has been collecting natural history specimens in Australia and Tasmania for Dr. W. L. Abbott, has returned to Washington. Mr. Hoy secured a very fine collection of both birds and mammals, a large number of them being new to the collection. Drs. Walter Hough and Ales Hrdlicka have been appointed delegates from the Institution to the International Congress of Americanists, to be held in Rio de Janeiro, the latter part of August. They will also represent the Institution at the International Congress on America's History, which meets at the same place on September 7. Neil M. Judd, curator of American Archeology, who is conducting archeo- logical excavations at Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico, for the National Geo- graphic Society, arrived in the field May 3 and assembled his men and equip- ment. The work of excavation began May 15, and Mr. Judd holds great expectations of valuable results from this season's work. Dr. Dorse Y A. Lyon, chief metallurgist of the Bureau of Mines, has received the degree of Doctor of Science from the University of Utah in recognition of his contributions to metallurgical research. G. R. Mansfield has been appointed chief of the section of non-metallif- erous deposits in the Geologic Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey. Dr. Charles L. Parsons sailed from New York on June 13 to attend the meeting of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry at Lyons, France, June 27- July 7. Dr. Parsons represents the United States as vice-president of the Union. Other delegates were Edward Bartow, E. S. Chapin, R. B. Moore of the Bureau of Mines, E. W. Washburn of the National Research Council, and H. S. Washington of the Geophysical Laboratory. Word just received from the Canal Zone announces the safe arrival there of Dr. F. W. PennELL, Curator of Botany in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, who, accompanied by Mrs. PennELL and by Mr. E. P. Killip of the National Museum, is en route to Colombia, where about six months will be spent in botanical exploration in the central and western cordillera. From headquarters at Cali work will extend northward to Medellin and south- ward toward the Ecuadorean border. The exploration should be successful not only in assembling a large amount of topotypic material but also as afford- ing an opportunity of collecting in new and interesting territory, western Colombia being as a whole little known botanically. In this exploration the New York Botanical Garden and the Gray Herbarium are cooperating with the two institutions mentioned. William vSchaus was elected, on April 5, an honorary member of the Sociedade Entomologica do Brazil in recognition of his extensive work on the butterflies and moths of Brazil. Atherton Seidell of the Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Ser- vice, is spending several months in Europe with the special purpose of compar- ing American and European methods and progress in the study of vitamines. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 . September 19, 1922 No. 15 GEOPHYSICS. — A plea for geophysical and geochemical observatories.^ T. A. Jaggar, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. A volcanic system, is known to the volcanologist as a place, not merely of kinds of processes, but of measurable events. In the course of events processes change. Nowhere is this so true as in a physico- chemical system dependent on pressure, temperature and saturation. The volcano edifice is a furnace changing these things in accordance with fixed laws of accumulation, of movement of the crust of the Earth, and of reaction with the watery and atmospheric envelopes that en- case the crust. The relation of the volcano and its processes to these changing features of the globe through the seasons and the years, incessantly measured, is the most fundamental control for all the processes. Therefore the sending of geological expeditions concerned only with a process here, and a process there, will no more solve the volcano mystery than the sending of an expedition to Mauritius to observe an eclipse will resolve the orbits of the solar system. Let the astronomers say which is the more important, an expedition or an observatory. The expedition may furnish vitally important methods and data. Only the cooperation of fixed stations can collect these into a constructive science. The comparison of geology with astronomy may be profitable to geology from another angle ; namely, the application to the science of special invention and expensive apparatus. Astronomy and geology both deal with enormous bulks, gradual migrations, physical processes, chemical reactions, hidden masses revealable only by the aid of in- struments of precision. From the time of Lyell geology has been increasingly dependent on the study of the living Earth to interpret the past. The life of the Earth's interior and of its outer shells, through the time of the present generations of men, is just beginning to be studied. With due allowance for the contributions of terres- trial gravity, geodesy, magnetism, and seismology, all of recent date, 1 Received November 21, 1921. 343 344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL- 12, NO. 15 produced rather by engineers than by geologists, the science of the Earth has yielded no Herschel, Huggins, or Hale, intent on improving the tools of the workman. Sorby's work on the petrographic micro- scope was good, but that was mineralogy, not measurement of the Earth. The hammer and compass still suffice for the geologist, and he borrows an aneroid or a transit from the engineer. No elaborate fluviometer costing hundreds of thousands of dollars stands on the banks of the Mississippi or the Ganges, comparable to the improved speculum of the star gazer. No mighty oceanometer has been in- vented for penetrating the deeps of the sea — unless it is the submarine, not yet available for the geologist. And no great Alpine observatory exists, with a staff of forty trained physicists and computers, and instruments which look inward at the core of the Himalaya and in- terpret every movement of uplift and erosion in terms of physical process and progress. Is this because the living Earth is less impor- tant to mankind than the number of units in a star-cluster or the diame- ter of a heavenly body? And yet nowhere on Earth, so far as known to the writer, is there a skilled geophysicist and inventor giving his whole life to an observatory devoted to measurement of change in a river system or a mountain range. The perpetual measurement and record of these changes and their minutiae will not be done "somehow" or "anyway," and the results be stored in the libraries. It will not be done by travellers. It will not be done by teachers of school geography. It is not being done by engineers and governments and geological surveys. Little quali- tative dabs are being done here and there but not quantitative records that will show cycles and crises, that may be platted as curves of change, that will create formulas useful in the discovery of the indices or coefficients of process for different places and climates. The writer, from his experience of a decade of recording on an active volcano, is convinced that all that he learned in seven volcano expedi- tions to distant lands was as nothing compared with a few years in a fixed experiment station. He never had the slightest suspicion, from the travellers' accounts, of the number of changes which occur in a short time. Processes of which he never dreamed are dominant. Physical statements by reputable persons are proved wholly erro- neous. Dimensions, even when estimated by engineers, are exag- gerated. Interest never flags. Measurement of change becomes increasingly precise and the charts become increasingly illuminating. New problems open out endlessly and new experiments are suggested. SEPT. 19, 1922 jaggar: geophysical observatories 345 The old experiments get new meanings and need repetition with more precise method. Every day of observation opens up a new query. The psychology of casual scientific visitors at Kilauea throws hght on the statements which were made and recorded by similar travellers of a half-century ago, citing white heat, lava liquid as water, absence of flames, clouds of steam, floating islands, melting by lava, excessive heights and depths, and loudness of noises. The misstatements are due to failure to observe gases and their effects, and to precon- ceived notions, inexperience, hasty generalization, and the tendency to exaggeration which is never so dominant as on an active volcano. The will to explain is so much more active than the will to doubt and ascertain, that a bag-full of erroneous notes is carried off in triumph. As a matter of fact, doubting and waiting is necessary in presence of the unsolved and difficult problems of volcanism, the most enigmatical field in geology. I recently asked the Research Information Service of the National Research Council about funds for fixed experiment stations dealing with eruption, erosion, sedimentation, and deformation as objects of measurement. Numerous inquiries by that Service failed to dis- cover any specific provision for the kinds of research designated. Volcanology and seismology are meagerly supplied with fixed stations recording secular changes. Uplift and tilt in mountains and shore- lines, erosion, and sedimentation, are not subjects of even experi- mental measurement having in view pure geology. The sedimentation symposium directed by T. W. Vaughan is an admirable compilation revealing recognition of the need for a new method, but nowhere suggesting the observatory method. The phrasing refers to "problems" and the "need for critical studies" and correlation and classification, always with a mapping or a series of specimens in mind. Almost none of the experts has in view per- manent secular measurement of rate of change and of kinds of change. This idea suggests to the geologist an impossibility. He instantly says, "It would take too long." I reply, "Not only are you wrong, but your clocks must be set to Greenwich time and must split seconds to measure some of the accelerations of your sedimentation process. These sediments are filling intramontane basins, burying cattle bones on the plains, and shallowing the Gulf of Mexico." "Who has done any such work?" he asks. I answer, "George Ellery Hale at Mount Wilson." "But surely," says my friend, "you can't expect to do 346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 that in geology, for the Earth is so much more complicated ^ Whereat I laugh. He has asserted that the Earth is more complicated than the universe. His difficulty is due to confusion of ages of strata with the physical conception of rate of change. The hour, minute, and second are just as important to geology as era, period, and epoch. The first half of the textbooks of geology is misnamed "dynamical," for it contains no measurements of dynamical facts. The measure- ments needed will be rough at first, but they will gradually grow pre- cise. This has been the history of meteorology and seismology, and geonomy is the same kind of science. Dr. Daly has said that science is drowning in facts. Geological science is utterly lacking in measured facts of change within human time. Astronomical science is wholly made up of precision measure- ments of change within human time. Has this discouraged the as- tronomer? Dr. Hale says the supreme problems are the constitution of matter, the evolution of celestial bodies and the structure of the universe. The supreme problem of the Earth is the application of atomic theory to the evolution of the globe as a celestial body. Erup- tion, erosion, sedimentation, and deformation are surface manifes- tations of terrestrial evolution, just as comets, orbital motion, novae, and sunspots manifest celestial evolution. When an astrophysical problem is to be solved, a certain star or nebula is selected as a type. The same thing may be done for sedi- mentation. Geographically delimit a certain strategic area and measure the changes there in relation to gravitation, crustal motion, atmosphere, water, and topographic form. Select an area where processes are rapid, and work thence to areas where they are slow. Do the work with trained physical experimenters and engineers. Do it with a view to pure geology, for purposes of discovery, and with- out economic bias. And finally, do it with the expectation that the institution will live after the individual has withered. The floods of a decade will yield unexpected results, the rates of accumulation will show seasonal and other rhythms undreamed of before, and, best of all, the problems which will open out for experimental treatment will themselves be surprises. If properly financed and manned, such a station will be more quoted than the Challenger expedition, and will take rank with Mount Wilson. TENDENCIES IN THE GROWTH OF GEOLOGY It is of interest to review the growth of geology for seeing whither SEPT. 19, 1922 JAGGAR : GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATORIES • 347 it tends. Like other sciences it originated in the needs of commerce. Just as botany grew out of "physic gardens" adjunct to medicine, so geology sprouted from the necessity of knowing coal and iron. Explained at first as abortive efforts at creation, the fossil shells and leaf imprints of the coal measures later became the hobby of doctors and curates inspired by William Smith and Lyell. In America vast mappings bred a hardy band of geologists, supplemented by topog- raphers and railway men, exploring a wilderness of plains, deserts, mining districts, and mountains. These workers were partly army engineers, and for Britain such men also explored India and the Hi- malaya, and the problems of mass and magnetism, river erosion, climatal change and volcanic heat gained increasing prominence, when physically trained minds brought experimental method to bear on what had hitherto been merely descriptive. Next came formal organization under Government for studying rivers, harbors, the weather, sea bottoms for laying cable, the tides, terrestrial gravity and magnetism as affecting the instruments of astronomy, and the necessities of construction against fire, hurricane, flood, and earth- quake. Agriculture, navigation, inland transport and mining, urban life, post and telegraph service, public time-keeping — all of these utilities are what have demanded expenditure of the public money to train experts in Earth process, just as coal and iron first produced experts in Earth history. Earth history is dependent on Earth process, just as life is dependent on food, air, blood and brain. The physician of the one as of the other must have clinical experience. No geologist can doctor a coal mine who has never seen coal in the making. This is a startling assertion, but is it not true? Can any physician, not a quack, doctor blood and brain, restore life to morbid tissues, or even localize a bone, if he has made no experiments in hospital and dissecting room? The whole of geology is increasingly leaning upon present history. Earth energy, geophysics. But we have seen that the historical science and the physical have independently sprouted from utilitarian needs. They have never been blended to aid each other as pure sciences. The toilers of the copper and iron mines, economic geol- ogists, pick up crumbs that fall from the laboratory tables of the students of terrestrial gravity and magnetism, and vice versa, but neither understands the other's problem. I think it is true that neither geologist nor geodesist is making the slightest effort to find a place in the world today where copper and iron ores are being natu- 348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 rally segregated, and there to study their electrical and gravitative effects. And yet at the Hawaiian volcanoes copper and iron sulfates and iron oxides are visibly concentrating, the magnetic declination values are various in an absurdly aberrant fashion, and the gravity phenomena of the heavy basaltic mountains are known to be extraor- dinary. All of this may be the key to Mesabi iron and Keweenawan copper, in ancient volcanic lands, but never an expert from those mines has come to Hawaii to find out. OBSERVATORIES VERSUS EXPEDITIONS The economic motive is apt to come to the front. Direct service to mankind is the measure of success. If this test is applied in the case of geology vs. geophysics, the customary alignment which places geology first (as explaining coal, petroleum and iron) may be defective. The Mississippi river syvStem means more to more people than the succession of strata in the Illinois coal fields. Yet we know the Illi- nois coal fields, and no man living knows the Mississippi river system. The bogs may be making coal. No man knows the bogs. So we could run through the category of shore-lines, sea-bottoms, mountain streams, glaciers, springs, deserts, sand dunes, deltas, tide flats, vol- canoes, and snowy peaks and show that no one knows the processes now going on, now changing and moving these things, in the sense of having measured them in relation to the passage of time. Just as a volcano occasionally reaches a crisis, so it is with a peak, a glacier or a delta; except by hearsay, no one knows these critical points or their controls. The peak may be breaking down, the glacier reaching a pressure limit, and the delta a limit of weight or height. An engi- neer with a ten million dollar contract dependent on knowing such rate of change would spend ten years, if need be, to measure it. One of the most striking developments of continuous measurement at the Hawaiian volcanoes is the revelation of rhythmic recurrences. There are tides in the lava with maxima near midnight, a systematic upheaval of the solid crater floor by two or three feet every night. There are weekly, monthly and semi-annual culminations. There are cycles of about 9 years' duration, and there are possible cycles of 65 and 130 years. There may be longer cycles measured in tens of centuries. Rhythmic control appears in the tremors, earthquakes, and tilts with periods ranging from a half -second to a half-year. Any- one who has ever seen a loose monkey-wrench creep along the foot- board of a vibrating motor-car is led to wonder whether this tremulous creaking earth-crust is not shaking down its mountains and its sedi- SEPT. 19, 1922 jaggar: geophysical observatories 349 ments by a similar mechanism. The determination of these period- icities has depended on the founding of an observatory, and only a decade of work has already laid the foundations for much useful dis- covery. Many phenomena before deemed exceptional are found to be commonplaces (Pelee spine). Others neglected before are found to be fundamentally important (aa lava). Chemical processes which were taken for granted, like oxidation, begin to loom large. Elements difficult to detect because of unperceived combustion and rapid diffu- sion, like hydrogen and helium, may prove more important in explain- ing volcanism than any of the obvious things. Chaotic-looking results are achieved by surprisingly gradual processes, even in volcanism, and immense bulks are moved rapidly with astonishingly little dis- turbance. A temporary expedition cannot be expected to discover such things. An expedition expert is not expert in knowledge of the habits of the place he is visiting. So-called intensive studies by expeditions cannot reckon with past, present, and future critical events. The time element in physical control entirely breaks down. Agassiz in Galapagos found green slopes ; he was amazed that Darwin had reported barren- ness. They were there at different seasons. Often the evidence of a local consul or physician is more valuable than the opinion of experts. The solution of the coral reef problem is a Fiji observatory; the solu- tion of the continental glacier problem is a Greenland observatory; the solution of the ore-deposit problem is a series of volcano and hot- spring observatories; and the solution of the erosion problem is a Mississippi observatory. Piecemeal notes patched together from library reading never yet made a discovery in natural history and never will. Human observation is such that often it must dwell with an obvious fact which it never sees for many years, until suddenly there comes an awakening. This is a commonplace of scientific progress, as biography shows. The specimen and the descriptive note are makeshifts, intolerable in the experimental sciences such as physiology, astrophysics, or meteorology' ; how large a part does a mummy, a meteorite, or a hailstone play in those sciences? So it is with geonomy, the science of Earth law. Men dwell on the Earth and live by its forces. No statement can be too strong in enforcing the importance of Earth processes for man. In America the names of Button, Dana, Gilbert, Russell, Becker, Powell, McGee, Shaler, and Clarence King recall personalities of men who saw erosion, gravity, desiccation, accumulation, uplift. 350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 unweighting of the Karth-crust, lifting of loads, and all such motions as more important, for their generalizations concerning past history, than anything contained in the dead rocks. They also studied these processes in action within the limits of their broad reconnaissance of a mighty continent. That reconnaissance expected a measurement of these movements by the next generation. The literature of geology is overburdened with expressions such as "possibly," "probably," "it may be assumed," "perhaps," and "according to current con- ceptions," all of which tend to hold it back from becoming a quanti- tative science. The expedition method of intensive study of field problems is never free from the reconnaissance element, because of the unexpected phenomena which demand the manufacture of special instruments. Again and again in the writer's experience he has found himself in strange lands without the proper tools. However carefully prepared the equipment, pyrometers, gas-collecting devices, thermometers, sounding apparatus, transits, alidades, cameras, cableways, dredges, signals or what not, the explorer with limited time at his disposal finds that "here is the supreme opportunity" for so and so, and he has neither the man nor the equipment to test it. Perhaps it is merely one little piece of some peculiar metal or glass that he needs, perhaps it is a whole man, learned in atmospheric electricity, or a gun for throw- ing a rope, or a glass-blowing equipment and someone who can do the work. No matter how large and complete a shop and laboratory on the ship, there is needed a casting, a lens, or an implement made of fused quartz, and the vessel cannot produce it. Every recent expedi- tion reports such happenings, owing to the great complexity and variety of requirements of modern science. Here is where the fixed observatory, if properly equipped and strategically placed, with machine-shops available and time to get men and apparatus as needed, and a whole life-time of deliberate work before the staff, can do what the expedition is not fitted for. Cooperative experts may be called in as occasion demands. The great endowed research establishments of the world attest the advantage of fixed stations, and the time has come for applying the method to geonomical processes. A RIVER OBSERVATORY Imagine a Fluviometric Observatory for the permanent increase and diffusion of knowledge about everything pertaining to the geo- physics of the Mississippi river from the Yellowstone to the Alle- ghanies and from New Orleans to Minnesota. Its staff of physicists, SEPT. 19, 1922 jaggar: geophysical observatories 351 chemists, engineers, and assistants would be charged with the task of experimenting upon and measuring everjrthing that can be learned concerning the changes in progress in the Mississippi, its basin, its sources, its waters and its sediment. Ultimately this institution would learn the natural history (literally) of that great organism, and the meaning of its presence and its probable future. This would yield new knowledge of other rivers, the Nile, the Congo, the Amazon, and of the philosophy of river basins in the economy of the continents. On no account would the observatory start with any preconcepts of physical geography. Its work would be purely quantitative and wholly devoted to water chemistry and the physics of gravitation and hydraulics acting on a complex surface to drain that surface and lower it by erosion acting under isostatic compensation. Isostasy, tilt, rainfall, temperature, wind, earth pressures, analyses, springs, rock decomposition and creep, silting, laking, floods, erosion pattern, earthquakes, uphft at fixed bench marks, biological controls, and delta sedimentation would be among the chapters in the record book. Mappings and repeated levellings would be among the station's achievements. New constants, new units and a new terminology would develop. No existing doctrine of orogeny, erosion, or sedi- mentation would be taken on faith — all would be tested in the crucible of relentless measurement through seconds, days, years, decades, and centuries. I would like to see such an institution liberally en- dowed, and as rigorous as the Bureau of Standards. Is there not a wealthy Mark Twain somewhere who loves the great "Father of Waters" enough to catch the vision of this institution, and what it would do for the world of men and the world of science? A mountain observatory It is worthy of comment that very few naturalists possess names immediately associated in the pubhc mind with the places they have illumined by dwelling there. Heim for the Alps and John Muir for the Sierra are types by way of illustration. There are those who have made many trips to the Rocky Mountains and have brought home specimens. But have they hstened to the Rocky Mountains breath- ing in winter and summer, have they measured the change in cliffs and creeks and sage-brush flats, do they know the trembHngs and the tiltings measurable in rock chambers in the face of a towering peak, have they for decades long surveyed lines from peak to plain, checked with levels? Have they studied the swayings of a mountain lake, the rise and fall of the brooks in springtime, the boilings of the geyser 352 JOURNAIy OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL,. 12, NO. 15 basins, and timed the avalanches in the uppermost cirques? One can imagine a philosophical old prospector resident there, who knows more of the living forces that build the Rocky Mountains than any visitor. Not only must he who would be Master of the Mountain dwell there, like Seraphita amid her fjords, but he must work there and make lifelong measurements of change, until his faith has truly made the mountain move. Anyone who has spent summers with pack-train in a place like the Yellowstone comes to know the land to be leaping. All night in camp 9000 feet above sea-level one hears the rocks from the precipice tin- kling, sliding, crashing. A glacier booms through a deep crevasse. The milky stream carries off powdered rock by tons. A geyser terrace is hot, expanded; a neighboring summit is snow-clad, contracted. A herd of elk bounds up the slope with a clatter of rocks disturbed; every stone has been impelled nearer to sea-level. We hear much talk of water erosion ; this is a land where tumbling and sliding do just as much as water. The mountains are falling all the time and by millions of tons. Something underground is shoving them up. Occa- sionally there is the whirlwind crash of a whole mountain-side, like the disaster at the mining village of Frank, Alberta. How many scores of similar slides occur in lonely places where no one even hears the noise? And how often? How much is the ground tilting? The genius who finances and mans the first mountain observatory will found a new science. Similarly we may imagine shore-line, glacier, desert, and sea-bottom observatories, ever inventing new instruments and revealing an unknown world. Physical chemistry has worked wonders by synthesis in the labora- tory, exploring rigorously a wide range of saturations, temperatures and pressures. There is needed direct comparison of these results with the complex analyses and syntheses which nature is always achieving. The comparison with mineral specimens studied in the polarizing microscope has been useful, but it is not enough. The astrophysicist never contents himself with a meteorite. Invention of field methods in geophysics is not keeping pace with laboratory skill. In contrast to the ultimates of modern physical research, the processes of the middle ground such as the motion of Tyndall's glaciers and the submarine subsidence postulated by Darwin are worthy of permanent stations, large staffs of specialists, big instruments, and endless refinement of measurement. The workers should live and die in their chosen field, they should create their own social group,. SEPT. 19, 1922 baker: new aphids from Baltic amber 353 with students to act as assistants and computers, and welcome visiting travellers as co-workers. Geological experiment stations on the mountains of Antarctica, the volcanoes of Chile, the sands of Sahara, the tide flats of Fundy, the foothills of Himalaya, the forks of the Amazon, eternally measur- ing creep, tilt, temperature and flood, will become famous not only as harnessing the globe with a web of pure reasoning, but will be fertile ground for sowing the seeds of peace and international cooperation. Science has been well described by Soddy as man's most eclectic religion, and no nation can object to an invasion by scientific mis- sionaries. The basis of physical geology resides in hydrogen and the evolution of the elements just as in the case of astronomy. But astronomy is basing all its newer work on astrophysics and astrochemistry. It is frankly pure and does not worry about getting itself applied. Earth science needs a new stimulus in the same direction. The observatory method furnishes a worthy and adventurous outlet for the pent-up energies of inventive young men trained in geophysics and geochem- istry. PALEONTOLOGY. — Two new aphids from Baltic amber} A. C. Baker, Bureau of Entomology. In several blocks of Baltic amber recently purchased by the writer, there are preserved two interesting species of aphids, and a study of these specimens throws considerable light on the family as a whole. In the writer's generic classification- the genus Mindarus Koch was used as the basis of the subfamily Mindarinae, a group supposedly dominant in earlier times and quite distinct from the Eriosomatinae in which it had formerly been placed. Only one living form is known, Mindarus abietinus Koch, a cosmopolitan aphid living on conifers. The blocks obtained show two alate specimens of a Mindarus very similar indeed to abietinus and a young nymph which we believe represents one of the earlier instars of the same thing. The remarkable similarity between this amber form and our common species can be seen by glancing at the figures in which the parts have been drawn to approximately the same size. That the genus Mindarus was formerly well represented seems to be fairly assured. Aphis transparens Germ. & Ber.,^ also from amber, 1 Received July 26, 1922. 2 Bull. 826, U. S. Dept. Agr. 1920. 3 Org. Reste 2^'. pi. 2. 1856. 354 JOURNAIy OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 undoubtedly belongs here. In fact it may even be the same species as that herein described. Unfortunately the description is very in- adequate and it is only from the drawing of the wings that the species can with certainty be placed in the genus. Lachnus dryoides described by the same authors at the same time seems so similar to our immature form that there may be good reason to conclude that it represents young nymphs of transparens. This is also born out by the reports of other workers. Out of fourteen alate specimens found by Menge"* in amber he referred thirteen to transparens, and along with these he found abundant a form which he referred to dryoides. In the same way Mochulskii^ lists dryoides as the most abundant species repre- sented in his material. Scudder^ has erected many new genera from Florissant, basing them on the angle of the wing veins, a procedure which would seem dangerous in view of the fact that living forms show variation in this regard. He believed that the American forms are mostly quite distinct from the European ones. "American fossil plant lice," he says, "appear as a rule to differ from the winged forms so far described from the European Tertiaries with the single exception of the species figured by Berendt from amber under the name Aphis transparens The species is indeed an Ancon- atus." Through the kindness of Nathan Banks I have been able to examine the Scudder material in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard. Anconatuf dorsuosus Buckton, type of the genus, is repre- sented by Numbers 3228 and 1 1 175. Number 4827, from which Scud- der's figure was made, is not present. The specimens on the other two blocks are not adequate to determine definitely the placing of the species. Neither can this be done from the drawing but Scudder's description, which seems not to agree with his figure, indicates that the species is probably a Mindarus. The ground is much more secure in the consideration of Schizoneuroides scudderi Buckton. From the very typical figure given by Scudder one would believe this species to be a Mindarus and an examination of the specimen shows this to be the case. Scudder's figure of Pterostigma recurvum Buckton suggests that this species also is a Mindarus. The drawing, however, does not seem to agree with the specimen. While the cubitus and anal are about as indicated, the media seems to arise much nearer the * Progr. Petrischule. 1856. 6 Etudes Ent. 5: 29. 1856. 6 Tert. Ins. 1890. sept/ 19, 1922 baker: new aphids from Baltic amber 355 radial sector. The general character, however, seems to be that of Mindarus. It would be impossible to place definitely with their allies many of the species described by Scudder. One thing, however, seems certain. None fall in the subfamily Eriosomatinae (Schizoneurinae) in which he placed them. While details of structure cannot be seen, this fact is evident from the general nature of the specimens. With the exception of those forms falling in the Mindarinae, all of Scudder 's specimens, with one exception, are different from forms in recent genera. This species is Oryctaphis lesueurii. I am unable to make this form agree with the. description and figure unless what shows as the stigma and radial sector are something quite different. The stigma appears to be truncate and the radial sector short and heavy like certain recent forms in the Lachnina. If this is actually the case, it indicates a remarkable difference from the other Florissant forms, all of which possess an extended stigma and a long radial sector arising far back on it. 0. recondita, the second species of this genus, is quite different. It is very large and is not improbably a Mindarus. Scudder' s figure hardly gives an accurate representation of it. The radial sector arises near the base of the stigma. The media can be traced almost to its base, and a branch is indicated very near its tip, much nearer than indicated in Scudder's figure. Scudder believed that this vein was twice branched but I believe the branch visible in the specimen to be the Only one and that the insect might with good reason be grouped with Mindarus. Many of the fossil aphids in the Scudder collection are not well preserved and it is perhaps as well to let them rest in the genera he described for them. Certain general characters are, however, worthy of mention. The most striking is the extension of the stigma and the insertion of the long radial sector. In many specimens the antennae are very long, suggesting some of the slender antennae in the Callip- terina. Cornicles appear not to be present, and there seems little doubt that if the aphids possessed these heavily chitinized structures in any prominence traces of them would be preserved with the less delicate ones. Prominent cornicles are present in some of the species in amber, but these species have quite a recent aspect. We are forced to conclude that the cornicles were not prominently developed when the Florissant deposits were laid down. In only one specimen can I find traces of what may have been cornicles. This is a form which Scudder described as Aphidopsis sp. (No. 1044). In his description 356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 6 I^-!ii!^^ia2iniI12?2afc- .c?3r2J=^==^ nrsnzirsiOisr^:^ 11 Fig. 1. — 1, Mindarus magnus, wings; 2, Af. abietinus, wings; 3, M. magnus, antenna; 4, M. abietinus, antenna; 5, M. abietinus, cauda and anal plate; 6, M. magnus, cauda and anal plate ; 7, Calaphis scudderi, cornicle ; 8, C. scudderi, cauda and anal plate ; 9, C. scudderi, antenna; 10, C. scudderi, fore wing; 11, C. scudderi, head. SEPT. 19, 1922 baker: new aphids from baIvTic amber 357 he mentioned these structures and described the insect as immature. It is, however, an alate specimen which has lost the wings, or possibly an intermediate, for the structure of the thorax is well preserved and the ocelli are visible. The cornicles, if they are cornicles, are broad at the base, short and somewhat tapering. The cauda seems to be knobbed and the anal plate bilobed. The entire insect suggests the genus Euceraphis. A detailed reference to the other specimens in the collection could add little to the knowledge already available, but I believe that the remarks here given, together with the detailed description of the amber species, are sufficient to support the view that Mindarus is a genus formerly dominant but now represented by the solitary, cos- mopolitan, conifer-feeding species abietinus. The descriptions of the amber species given herein are the first in which any attempt has been made to give the more minute details of structure as is done in the description of living forms. This has been possible by use of the same high magnification adopted in study- ing recent aphids and the employment of powerful illumination. Even with the best Hght available, however, certain desirable characters remain obscured. Mindarus magnus Baker, n. sp. Alate viviparous female. — Head, thorax, and appendages appearing as dark brown. Abdomen yellowish, possibly greenish in life, with a large dark central dorsal marking irregular in outline. Wings transparent, the veins and stigma brown. Length from vertex to tip of cauda 2 mm., width of head across the eyes 0.48 mm. Fore wing (Fig. 1) 2.88 mm. X 1.2 mm. at its greatest diameter. Hind wing 1.28 X 0.56 mm. Antenna (fig. 3) extending about to the wind insertions, segment III 0.24 mm. with 9 or 10 transverse sensoria, IV 0.08 mm., V 0.096 mm., VI (0.112 -|- 0.048 mm.), these segments distinctly im- bricated and bearing the usual fringed sensoria. The measurements given for the antennal segments cannot be considered absolutely exact in view of the fact that they are not perfectly horizontal in the amber. In the second specimen, segment III of one antenna is 0.304 mm. long and segment IV appears to have 2 or 3 sensoria. Cauda and anal plate not distinctly \isible but apparently as in Fig. 6, cauda possibly more extended in life. Cor- nicles obscured. Beak long, extending to about the middle of the abdomen. Nymph. — What is possibly the 2nd instar of this species is herewith de- scribed. Length from vertex to tip of cauda 0.896 mm. Length from vertex to tip of beak 1.36 mm. Antennal segments with the following measurements: I 0.032 mm., II 0.048 mm.. Ill 0.032 mm., IV 0.032 mm., V 0.048 mm., IV (0.048 -f 0-048 mm.). Form elongate, rather slender, segmentation distinct, color appearing brownish. Mindarus magnus differs from M. abietinus in being much larger, in having a longer beak and in having somewhat stouter and relatively shorter antennae. 358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 Described from three specimens in as many blocks, two alate specimens of which the type has the wings spread and one young nym.ph. The type and paratypes are temporarily retained in the author's collection. Calaphis scudderi Baker, n. sp. Alate viviparous female. — Head, thorax, and appendages appearing dark brown. Wings transparent with rather heavy veins. Abdomen brownish with dark markings above. Length from vertex to tip of cauda 1.28 mm. to tip of wings 1.92 mm. Head (fig. 11) with the eyes very prominent and the antennal insertions dis- tinctly transverse, median ocellus outstanding. Antenna (fig. 9) as follows: III 0.352 mm. with a row of sensoria which stand out distinctly, IV 0.256 mm., V 0.32 mm., VI (0.08 + 0.864 mm.). vSegments distinctly imbricated, the distal one with the base not prominently marked off from the unguis, in this respect resembling Monaphis antennata (Koch). Cornicles (fig. 7) faintly visible but apparently short, somewhat tapering, with a slight con- striction, and a large opening. Wings not unusual, the fore wing (fig. 10) showing a truncate stigma with a short distally set radial sector which is little curved Cauda and anal plate (fig. 8) not clearly visible, but the anal plate some- what bilobed and the cauda from the visible portion in all probability knobbed. Described from one specimen with the wings folded over the back. Type temporarily retained in the author's collection. I have placed this species in the genus Calaphis because it seems nearer this than to any described and I am loath to erect a new one for its reception. It represents a type of insect not present in the Florissant material but which is the usual type of living forms. This is especially evident in the wing, in the shape of the stigma and the radial sector. It indicates that while the more primitive forms represented by Mindarus are present in the Florissant beds and abundant in amber, the more recent type, dominant today, appears only in the amber. G'EOhOGY .—The Lower Paleozoic section of southeastern Pennsylvania.'^ George W. Stose and Anna I. Jonas, Geological Survey. The facts here presented are the results of comprehensive geologic studies in connection with detailed surveys in southeastern Pennsyl- vania by the writers and Eleanora Bliss Knopf for the Federal Geo- logical Survey and the Pennsylvania State Geological Survey. A brief preliminary statement of the Paleozoic section that has been worked out and the formation names that have been applied are given in this paper. Twelve miles east of Lancaster, Pa., the Cambrian quartzites of Welsh Mountain plunge southwestward beneath the limestones of the Lancaster Valley and rise again a few miles west of Lancaster in the Hellam-Chickies Hills. 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and the State Geologist of Pennsylvania. Received August 5, 1922. SEPT. 19, 1922 STOSE AND JONAS : LOWER PALEOZOIC OF PENNSYLVANIA 359 The divisions recognized in the quartzites and limestones of this area and described below, are as follows: Generalized Columnar Table Age Name Thickness (ft.) Character of Rocks <-< M Conestoga lime- stone (probably older than, or in part equivalent to, Cocalico shale) 500 ± Dark slaty limestone, coarse limestone and marble conglomerate, thin-bedded granular blue limestone, and thin graphitic slate. Contains brachio- pods and crinoid plates and stems of probably Chazy age. Overlaps south- eastward on all formations from the Ledger dolomite to the Harpers schist. > o O Cocalico shale 1000 ± Dark gray shale containing grap- tolites of Normanskill type and thin crinoidal limestone at base ; gray, green, and purple slates and green impure sandstone above. B eekmantown limestone 2000 ± Light blue limestone and some light gray magnesian limestone and dolo- mite, containing a little chert. Car- ries Beekmantown fossils. c Conococheague limestone 900 ± Massive blue limestone containing Cryptozoon reefs, thin-bedded wavy laminated limestones, sandstones and sandy conglomerates, and dolomite. c dJ TO Elbrook dolomite 500 ± 1000 ± Cream-colored to white, fine-grained impure marble, mostly thinly lami- nated ; weathers to shaly yellow tripoli and yellow earthy soil. 6 o o •o c o i- o +J c 1—1 '3 cr W Ledger dolomite Granular, gray to white dolomite, mostly thick-bedded, some beds of which are siliceous and weather to rust-stained granular cherty layers. c a a! U u 1 Kinzers formation 150 Siliceous banded dark blue limestone, impure dolomite weathering to dense buff tripoli, spotted white marble with wavy impure partings, and shale which contains an Olenellus fauna. h-I Vintage dolomite • 500-650 Massive, glistening, coarse-grained, dark gray dolomite, weathering whit- ish with scattered crystalline blebs, and dark blue dolomite with argil- laceous partings, weathering knotty or lenticular. 360 JOURNAI, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 - en 3 o 1 u cc C u < Antietam quartzite Hellam- Chickies Hills 200 ± Welsh Mtn. 150 ± Vitreous and granular impure quartz- ite, the upper part of which contains Oholella and trilobite fragments. Harpers phyllite Chickies quartzite 1000 ± 1500± Greenish gray phyllite or biotite schist. J2 B o (I 1 1000 550 Massive-bedded, Scolit}ius-h&Q,r\ng, light-colored vitreous quartzite, grainy quartzite with clear quartz grains, and some white clay beds in upper part. Hellam conglomerate member : Unconformity (600) (150) Quartz conglomerate, grainy quartz- ite with rounded clear and blue quartz grains, and slate chlorite schist at base in Hellam Hills. Pre-Cambrian Greenstone and aporhyolite in Hellam Hills; gneiss and granitic rocks in Welsh Mountain and Barren Hills. Most of the Lower Cambrian arenaceous series is well exposed in the gorge of the Susquehanna River through the Hellam-Chickies Hills. The quartzite at Chickies Rock has been called Chickies quartz- ite since 1878, when the name was first used by Lesley and Frazer; they also used Hellam quartzite for the same rocks in Hellam Hills. Lesley and Frazer applied the name Chickies (Chickis) to the quartz- ite and associated "quartz slate" but not to the overlying phyllite, and later Walcott followed the same usage, applying the name Chickies to the quartzite. Conglomerate at the base of the arenaceous series was not mentioned by these early writers and apparently was not seen by them, as it is not exposed at Chickies Rock. It is brought to the surface three miles to the west in the midst of the Hellam Hills, where the anticline rises higher, and is there included in what was later called by Lesley Chickies quartzite. These basal conglomeratic beds, to which the name Hellam conglomerate member is here applied, correspond in general with the Weverton and Loudoun formations of South Mountain. The Hellam conglomerate member lies on epidotic amphibolite schist or greenstone and aporhyolite, which are altered volcanic rocks related to the pre-Cambrian metabasalt or Catoctin schist and aporhyolite of South Mountain. The basal beds of the conglomerate here are chlorite schist which contains glassy quartz grains and flat fragments of chloritic and rhyolitic schists, SEPT. 19, 1922 STOSE AND JONAS : LOWER PALEOZOIC OF PENNSYLVANIA 361 apparently pebbles derived from the disintegration of the underlying greenstone and aporhyolite. The higher beds are dark slate and pebbly vitreous quartzite with interbedded coarse conglomerate which is made up of crowded round white quartz pebbles, 2 to 4 inches in diameter, in a sericitic siliceous matrix. The thickness of the Hellam conglomerate is estimated to be 600 feet. The Chickies quartzite as exposed in Chickies Rock is a heavy- bedded light-colored vitreous quartzite and grainy quartzite with slate interbedded near the top, 400 feet thick. The quartzite carries Scolithus tubes throughout. It is similar to the Montalto quartzite member of the Harpers schist of South Mountain but as it lies at the base of the Harpers and not in its midst, it is probably not the exact equivalent of the Montalto. The Chickies quartzite, including the Hellam conglomerate member, is about 1000 feet thick. The Harpers formation of the Hellam- Chickies Hills is a greenish gray phylHte with some biotite.^ The bedding of the phyllite cannot be determined in most places, but the interbedded quartzite layers show several close folds. Although the thickness cannot be accurately determined it is estimated to be 1000 feet. The phyllite is overlain by light gray, somewhat calcareous, vitreous and granular impure quartz- ites, about 200 feet thick, some of the upper beds of which weather to a laminated, porous, highly ferruginous rock. These upper beds have the characteristics of certain fossiliferous beds of the Antietam sandstone of South Mountain, and their bedding surfaces show nu- merous rusty molds of Ohelella and trilobite fragments. This quartzite is therefore equivalent to the Antietam sandstone (quartzite) of South Mountain. The senior author has recognized in Welsh Mountain and vicinity the same divisions of the Lower Cambrian arenaceous series as are found in the Hellam-Chickies Hills. The Hellam conglomerate member in Welsh Mountain is made up of a grainy to finely conglom- eratic quartzite and coarse quartzose conglomerate at the base, some of the pebbles of which are of clear blue quartz. The chloritic schist which occurs at the base of the section in the Hellam anticline is here absent because the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Welsh Mountain region from which the arenaceous Cambrian rocks were derived is ' The rock of the Harpers formation in the Hellam-Chickies and Welsh Motmtain anti- clines is referred to here as a phyllite to distinguish it from the more metamorphosed rock on the flanks of Mine Ridge, which is a schist. The senior author would prefer to use the term Harpers schist in both areas, which name he has used in previous publications on the South Mountain. 362 JOURNAL OF THK WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 composed of an igneous complex of plutonic rocks and old sediments among which there are no greenstone schists. The pre-Cambrian, however contains conspicuous veins of glassy blue quartz, pebbles of which are inclosed in the basal Cambrian sediments. The conglom- erate is well exposed near the sand mines northwest of Honeybrook, where it is only 150 feet thick. In Welsh Mountain the lower part of the quartzite above the con- glomerate is vitreous and the upper part is granular, both carrying Scolithus tubes. The granular quartzite is generally disintegrated at the surface and is quarried for sand. It passes upward into a fine- grained, white, siliceous, laminated clay, which is also mined. Four hundred feet of the formation has been measured in quarries and other good exposures. The Harpers phyllite, estimated to be about 1,500 feet thick, is composed of gray sandy phyllite. At the top the phyllite is interbedded with light gray, granular quartzite which weathers to a porous rusty rock containing molds of Obolella and trilobite frag- ments. About 150 feet of the upper quartzose beds are probably equivalent to the Antietam sandstone of South Mountain. The arenaceous series of the Hellam-Chickies and the Welsh Mountain anticlines is overlain by the limestones of Lancaster Valley. The Vintage dolomite, the oldest of these limestones, is in part a gray, heavy-bedded dolomite, which weathers to a whitish chalky surface, and in part a knotty, dark blue dolomite with argillaceous partings. Some of the beds are sparkling, gray to blue mottled, with siliceous and calcareous blebs that stand in relief on the weathered surfaces. At the base is a whitish, schistose, thin-bedded impure dolomite con- taining muscovite flakes. This formation closely resembles the Toms- town dolomite on the northwest flanks of South Mountain. It, however, is known to represent only a part of the Tomstown dolomite and is therefore named Vintage dolomite from the small village 15 miles east of Lancaster, where most of it the section excellently ex- posed in a cut of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Kinzers formation which overlies the Vintage is best exposed in the Pennsylvania Railroad cut at Kinzers just east of Vintage. At the base there are a few thin beds of impure dolomite that weather to an earthy tripoli, containing at many places remains of Salterella, brachiopods, and trilobites. These beds are followed by a variable thickness of blue hackly shale as much as 50 feet thick in places. Northwest of Lancaster this shale carries abundant trilobites chiefly Olenellus, described by Walcott and extensively collected by Professor SEPT. 19, 1922 STOSE AND JONAS : LOWER PALEOZOIC OF PENNSYLVANIA 363 Roddy of Millersville, Pa. Above the shale is a variable series of dark banded argillaceous dolomite that weathers to a tough, buff, ribbed, argillaceous rock, sparingly fossiliferous. Some beds are an intimate mixture of nodular white granular dolomite marble and dark impure dolomite that weathers to a knotty pseudo-conglomerate of white marble. South of Welsh Mountain the Kinzers formation is much thinner, in places not more than 25 feet thick, and the shale horizon there is not a prominent feature of the formation. Although no one section clearly exposes all the different beds of the formation, the section at the Kinzers cut is so nearly complete that it is here given in detail. Partial Section of Kinzers Formation in Railroad Cut, Kinzers, Pa. Feet Dark blue limestone with wavy impure partings 10 Thick-bedded light gray dolomite 12 Dark -blue limestone with wavy impure partings 6 White spotted marble with wavy buff dolomite partings 8 Blue limestone banded with slightly wavy siliceous layers 10 Highly siliceous banded dark limestone, weathering to skeleton of buff siliceous network 8 Impure thick-bedded dolomite, weathering to dense buff tripoli 3 White spotted marble with even buff dolomite banding 8 Wavy banded blue limestone, numerous argillaceous partings. . 10 Crumbly, fissile, dark shale, weathering spheroidal 50 =•= Impure dolomite, weathering to buff tripoli and containing few trilobite fragments and Salter ella 7 Massive light blue dolomite (Vintage) — 132± The Ledger dolomite, which overlies the Kinzers formation, is a granular gray to white dolomite, generally thick-bedded with few bedding planes. Because the bedding cannot be determined in many of its exposures and because outcrops are few owing to the readiness with which the dolomite weathers to a granular red clay soil, its thick- ness cannot be exactly determined. It is apparently about 1,000 feet thick. Although fossils have not been found in the Ledger dolo- mite, it together with the underlying Kinzers formation and Vintage dolomite are believed to be the equivalent of the Tomstown dolomite of Cumberland County. It is named from Ledger, 3 miles northeast of Kinzers. The Elbrook dolomite, which overlies the Ledger dolomite north and northeast of Lancaster, is an impure, white to cream-colored, fine-grained dolomite marble which splits to fine plates and leaves on weathering and eventually breaks down to fragments of soft buff 364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 15 tripoli and earthy yellow soil. It closely resembles the Elbrook limestone of Cumberland County and is correlated with it. The Waynesboro formation, a purplish sandy shale which lies between the Tomstown and Elbrook formations in Cumberland County but which dies out northeastward near the Susquehanna River, is evi- dently not present in this area. Because of poor exposures, the thick- ness of the Elbrook formation cannot be determined but it is estimated to be about 500 feet. The Elbrook is succeeded by a series of limestones comprising thick pure light gray limestones which are apparently largely Cryp- tozoon reefs, thin-bedded finely laminated wavy limestones of related organic origin, sandy conglomerate beds which weather to pitted porous sandstone, and dark blue impure dolomite. This formation corresponds to the Conococheague limestone of Cumberland County. As many of its beds weather to earthy yellow soil similar to that of the Elbrook dolomite it cannot readily be distinguished from that formation on upland surfaces. It is estimated to be 900 feet thick. Overlying the Conococheague are well-bedded pure blue limestones and magnesian limestones containing gasteropods. The fossils and the lithologic characters determine the formation to be Beekmantown. The Beekmantown limestone is estimated to be about 2,000 feet thick. The Beekmantown limestone is overlain by a dark gray shale, gray, green, and purple slates, and soft greenish impure sandstone. The dark shales contain graptolites of Normanskill type and have at their base thin crinoidal limestones which are also fossiliferous. It is probably at least 1,000 feet thick. It is named Cocalico shale from the creek which exposes the shale where its relation to the under- lying Beekmantown limestone is well shown. South of the Hellam-Chickies Hills and Welsh Mountain there is a dark slaty and conglomeratic limestone formation that develops to great thickness south of Lancaster and eventually supplants all other limestones. Eleanora Bliss Knopf and Anna I. Jonas have called it in manuscript the Conestoga limestone. It has been traced and studied by them from Lancaster southward to Quarr}'ville and into Chester Valley, but its relations are not there revealed. It was named Conestoga limestone because of excellent outcrops along Conestoga Creek, south of Lancaster. The Conestoga limestone is made up of thin-bedded dark slaty limestone, coarse conglomerate or breccia of limestone and marble pebbles and fragments, thin-bedded blue crystalline limestone, and thin, dark, graphitic slate. Its total SEPT. 19, 1922 STOSE AND JONAS: LOWER PALEOZOIC OF PENNSYLVANIA 365 thickness is not known, but it is probably several hundred feet. The marble conglomerates that occur at or near the base were described by Walcott'^ as intraformational conglomerates in the Lower Cambrian sediments. At the Bellemont quarries, 12 miles southeast of Lan- caster, one of the many excellent exposures, the conglomerates occur at about the horizon of the banded dark blue argillaceous limestone and knotty white-marble pseudo-conglomerate beds of the Kinzers formation, and at first were regarded by the writers as an expansion of this formation. Later work in other parts of the region has shown that the Conestoga limestone is an overlapping and much younger formation. In the northeastern outskirts of Lancaster, the coarse basal limestone conglomerate clearly fills depressions in the upper surface of the Ledger dolomite. North of Vintage, it overlaps on the Kinzers formation. At the Bellemont quarries it lies on the Vin- tage dolomite. Five miles south of Vintage it overlaps on the Harpers schist. The basal beds of the Conestoga are so variable that no consecutive section has been recognized for any distance, a fact that made it very difficult to distinguish the formation from the limestone on which it rests and to draw its boundary with certainty at many places. The characters of the basal beds of the Conestoga vary with the formation on which they overlap and from which they were largely derived. West and north of Welsh Mountain the section is continuous from the Vintage dolomite up to the Beekmantown limestone with no indi- <:ation of Conestoga type of sedimentation, and as the Conestoga is known to unconformably overlie the Ledger, it is believed to be younger than the Beekmantown. A few brachiopods and crinoid plates and stems recently found by the writers in the lower beds of the Cone- stoga limestone east of York, Pa. , have been identified by Ulrich as forms found in the Frederick limestone of Frederick Valley which is probably of Chazy age. The Frederick limestone also somewhat resembles the Conestoga limestone in appearance and they are probably in part equivalent, but the greater thickness and extent of the lime-stones to which the name Conestoga is applied are believed to warrant a sep- arate formation name. The Frederick limestone rests on Beekman- town limestone in Frederick Valley and the Cocalico shale rests on the Beekmantown northeast of Lancaster. The Conestoga limestone, which is an argillaceous limestone with many shaly beds, may therefore be in part the southeastward representative of part of the Cocalico shale. 3 C. D. Walcott. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 134: 17-19. 1896. 366 JOURNAI^ OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIv. 12, NO. 15 It is concluded, therefore, that in post-Beekmantown time, pre- ceding Conestoga deposition, the southern part of the area was up- lifted and the older formations were successively exposed by erosion from the Ledger dolomite near Lancaster to the Harpers schist at Mine Ridge, and that the Conestoga formation was then laid down across the eroded edges of these formations, the waste from the re- spective underlying formations being incorporated in its basal beds. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Lewis M. Hull, who for several years has been engaged in studies of electron tubes in the radio laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, has re- signed to accept a position as Director of Research of the Radio Frequency Laboratories, Inc., of Boonton, N. J. E. A. ScHWARZ received the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the commencement exercises of the University of Maryland on June 10. Norman Snyder, a member of the scientific staff of the Radio Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, left the Bureau June 1st for a leave of absence of several months. During this time Mr. Snyder will be with the Research Laboratory of the General Electric Co. at Schenectady, where he will work on electron tube problems. Paul C. StandlEy, of the National Museum, returned to Washington in June from several months' botanical collecting in El Salvador and Guate- mala. Dr. Knud Stephensen of the Zoological Museum at Copenhagen, well known for his biological survey of the Brede Fjord in southwestern Green- land and for his studies on the Crustacea, accompanied by Messrs. Taaning and Olsen, recently visited the National Museum. Dr. Richard C. Tolman has resigned as director of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory to take a position in the California Institute of Tech- nology. He is succeeded by Dr. F. G. Cottrell. E. D. Williamson, of the Geophysical Laboratory, left Washington in July to attend the meeting of the British Association, where he will present a paper on the high pressure work of the Geophysical Laboratory. JOURNAL ^J'Tv. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 October 4, 1922 No. 16 ZOOLOGY. — The possibility of control of Heterodera radicicola and other plant-injurious nemas by means of predatory nemas, especially by Mononchus papillatus Bastian.'^ G. Steiner and HELEN Heinly. (Communicated by N. A. Cobb.) I. INTRODUCTION The investigations, the results of which are described in this paper, were carried on from December, 1921 to the end of May, 1922, in the Osborn Zoological Laboratory of Yale University, in collaboration with the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The work was outlined by Dr. N. A. Cobb of the Bureau of Plant Industry. As the investigations were of a novel nature, numerous methods for the rearing of nemas had to be worked out. A large quantity of soil-material was collected and washed by a combination of the sieve method described in an earlier paper by Cobb (7) and the well known gravity-method. The daily control of the cultures, transferring the predatory nemas to fresh conditions, keeping records of the victims and adding a fresh supply of food requires much time and patience. Heterodera radicicola material was kindly sent to us by the Connecticut Agricultural Station and from the Plant Introduction Garden of the Department of Agricul- ture, Brooksville, Florida. We wish here to express our appreciation for this assistance. We feel indebted to the authorities of Yale University, particularly the Osborn Zoological Department, for their permission to carry on our work and for their cordial cooperation. II. THE PROBLEM Numerous methods of control of plant injurious nemas have been described in the past. Although some of these methods are very useful, yet the fact remains that today the damage done by nema-pests is enormous and is still increasing. In recent years the study of free-living nemas has been greatly increased, and as a result the problems connected with nema-pests * From the Osborn Zoological Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., in collaboration with the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Received September 9, 1922. 367 368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 have acquired a new aspect. It was shown by Cobb (4,5,6), Menzel (13) and other investigators that there are in the soil certain species, and even whole genera, of nemas, which in some cases are, and in others may be, predatory and doubtless at least occasionally, are feeding on other kinds of nemas, and even species known as nema-pests. Cobb recorded a series of such observations (4) and suggested first the possi- bility of using these predatory nemas as a means of decreasing the number of plant injurious nemas in the soil. In a more recent paper Dr. Menzel (13) compiled all the recorded facts and observations on food and feeding habits from the literature on free-living nemas. He performed also some experiments with a species of Mononchus, corroborating the observations of Cobb. He observed that Mononchus papillatus, brought together with Tylenchus sp., Plectus auriculatus, Tripyla media and Anguillula aceti, attacked these forms, and killed them either by sucking out their vitals, or by swallow- ing them whole. Cobb therefore advocated an investigation of the relationship be- tween predatory Mononchus species and other soil-inhabiting and plant-infesting nemas, especially Heterodera. If possible the investiga- tions should show to what extent the above mentioned facts regarding the feeding habits of some mononchs are a true expression of the life habits of these animals. If they prove to be a true expression, methods for the propagating and rearing of Mononchus should be studied with the view to applying the results for practical purposes in agriculture, especially for fighting the root-knot nema, Heterodera radicicola. The first thing for us to find out was the life history, food, and feeding habits of the predatory mononchs. We chose for our investigations Mononchus papillatus Bastian, a species which appeared to be best fitted, first because it seemed one of the easiest to obtain, being among the commonest of mononchs, and second because many observations have been made on the voracity of this form. Recent investigators (1-3, 8-12 and 14-18) have reared free-living nemas, but as far as we know, mostly forms which feed on decaying matter, and therefore in most cases easily reared in a small amount of suitable medium on slides or in watchglasses. Berliner and Busch and also Byars were the first who used agar as a culture medium for true soil nemas, although the nemas they experimented on were plant- parasites, namely: Heterodera schachtii and Heterodera radicicola. They planted seeds of oats, etc. on agar and then nematized it with eggs and larvae of Heterodera. OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HElNIvY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 369 There have been seen no published statements made concerning the culture of predatory soil nemas. Menzel seems to have kept Monon- chus papillatus specimens for only a short time in a small amount of water, simply in order to perform his experiments on their feeding habits. Therefore, it was first necessary to invent simple and practical methods for rearing mononchs. III. METHODS OF CULTURE OF MONONCHUS PAPILLATUS BASTIAN The greatest difficulty in rearing minute soil organisms, especially soil nemas, is to devise a culture medium permitting at any time the study and inspection of the reared animals and offering as far as possible natural conditions. Soil, however, even in small quantities, is not transparent. If then, the organism to be cultured is to be continuously observed, ordinary soil cannot be used as a culture medium.' A. Culture in a drop of water on a concave slide. — The first attempt to rear the mononchs was in a small drop of water on a concave slide. Mononchus papillatus specimens at different stages of growth were isolated in water-drop cultures, and Heterodera larvae, different species of Rhabditis or Anguillula aceti, added as food. By this method it was possible to keep mononchs alive for from one to three weeks, if the water was changed daily. In cultures of this sort the mononchs seemed to remain in very good condition for several days; they were easy to observe and study, and it was not difficult to get a record of the number of nemas eaten or destroyed by them. However, after a short time had elapsed, all animals reared in pure water cultures became sluggish and finally died. B. Culture on concave slides with soil and water. — After a number of failures with the foregoing method, we tried to get more natural conditions by adding small quantities of soil to the drop of water on the concave slide. It was seen immediately that the nemas under such conditions grew better, and could be kept alive for a much longer time . After some experience, we were able to rear the mononchs by this method from the first larval stage up to the adult stage and even to the point of producing eggs. The following points should be kept in view. 1. In order to render the observations comparatively eas}^ only a small quantity of soil should be used. A larger amount of soil furnishes a much better medium for the nemas, but the investigator will have difficulty in finding and controlling them. By trials, any investigator can find the best amount of soil. 2. The nature of the soil is not of great importance. Our experi- 370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 ments showed that sandy soil as well as other kinds may be used. 3. It should be seen to that the soil be free from decaying matter. 4. If possible the water, and even the soil, should be changed daily. Mononchus papillatus seems to be very susceptible to any pollution, especially bacterial {B. subtilis typ.). It seems very astonishing at first that the simple addition of a small amount of soil should be of such great importance to the growth and life of these nemas. It was found that soil was absolutely essential for the keeping alive of newly hatched larvae and for rearing them. C. The agar-cuUure method. — In 1914 Berliner and Busch described a method for rearing Heterodera schachiii Schmidt on agar plates. Agar was carefully washed, sterilized and poured into petri dishes. Sterilized seeds of oats, turnips, beets and different varieties of vetch and clover were planted on the agar and eggs or larvae of Heterodera schachtii added. This seemed to be a very simple and useful method also for our purpose, it being only necessary to add the mononchs to get a complete food cycle, — Heterodera feeding on the roots of the growing plant and Mononchus feeding on Heterodera. Byars in 1914 also described a similar method for rearing Heterodera radicicola. Had good results been obtained, it would have shown very beautifully the relationship between these two forms of soil nemas ; but difficulties soon arose. In the first place Heterodera radicicola, the form used for infecting the roots, did not attack them (oats, cucumbers) and up to the present time our experiments along this line have not been satis- f actor)/. The mononchs were already feeding on the Heterodera and seemed to thrive in the agar, moving constantly around, even laying a number of eggs. So we added more food for them, consisting of Rhabditis pellio, Rh. elegans, Anguillula aceti, and Heterodera radicicola. By this time the bacterial infection of the plate grew so heavy that the mononchs died. Young larvae already hatched from the eggs also died, even in freshly prepared and non- infected agar. Thus it seems to us that the agar method may be used only for larvae a week or more old, and adults, and then the agar should be changed every eight to fourteen days. A further inconvenience consisted in the size of the plate, since on even the smallest plates it was quite difficult to find the nemas and eggs again, because of the rapid wandering of the former through the agar and the minuteness of the latter. The second method, that of using concave slides with a small quantity of soil in a drop of water, seemed best fitted for our purpose, OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROIv OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 371 especially in the matter of keeping records of the rate of growth and the number of animals destroyed. D. The tube-culture method. — Desiring to control the results of our slide cultures, we started, after several other experiments, with cultures in a larger amount of soil in small glass tubes, which were placed in holes bored in a small block of wood, as shown in Fig. 1. A small wrrrr ^P^«H^9n^PK||||^| Fig. 1. Wooden block and glass-tubes with soil contents illustrat- ing the tube-culture method of rearing mononchs. amount of sterilized soil was placed in each of these tubes, moisture added, as well as the mononch to be reared, and a daily supply of Rhabditis, Anguilhda or Heterodera as food. The tubes were kept in a moist chamber. If a large amount of soil was used it was not necessary to renovate the tubes for several weeks, but if a smaller amount was used, a weekly change was required. The chief aim was to secure conditions for the mononchs as near as possible to those found in the soil of fields. Under these conditions it was possible to rear Mononchus papillatus in a shorter time than on concave slides. A larger number of eggs was also produced. If a sufficient amount of food was added, numerous mononchs could be reared together in the same tube, without their attacking each other. The best method for inspecting a tube was to pour the contents into one or more large watchglasses and then dilute with a large quantity of water. If this was not done, eggs and larval forms easily escaped notice. E. Remarks on flower-pot and field experiments. — Finally a series of host-plant experiments were also performed. Flower pots and soil were sterilized in an autoclave, and sterilized seeds of oatS, tomato and cucumber, planted. The seeds were sterilized according to the pre- soak method, a one -tenth per cent solution of commercial formalin being used. After the first roots were formed and the growth began, the plants were infected with a certain number of Heterodera radicicola and also Mononchus papillatus added at the same time. Unfortunately 372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 we worked with too small a supply of animals, and could not get noticeable results within the short time available. The roots were attacked by Heterodera but the effect of the Mononchus was not deter- mined. With further experiments along this line, it should be quite possible to observe results from the external appearance of the host plants. IV. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF MONONCHUS PAPILLATUS BASTIAN Comparatively little is accurately known about the life-history of free-living nematodes. About the only forms that have been studied are those living on decaying matter, such as species of Rhabditis, Cephalobus, Plectus and Diplogaster. Most of these genera have a very rapid development and are in this way somewhat adapted to the ephemeras of dead and decaying bodies that serve as food. From a study of these forms it would be impossible to generalize and state that all soil or free-living nematodes have a rapid development and short life. The results we obtained in rearing Mononchus papillatus showed that the life of this form may be of considerable length, and the same thing may be true of many of the other soil nematodes. In order to judge the value of M. papillaius for fighting other nematodes it is necessary to have a complete knowledge of its life history, the time required to reach the adult stage, the number of eggs produced and the length of life after the cessation of egg production. Nematodes live in the soil as members of an association of living forms, among which there exist interrelationships. It is important to know what effect Mononchus as a predatory form may have on the associated nematode population of the soil, and especially its influence on the diminution of forms causing root-knot and similar diseases; if the monoch has a high rate of propagation, and lives for a long time, it has naturally a more rapid and beneficial effect. A. The hermaphroditism of Mononchus papillatus. — Hermaphrodit- ism in numerous species of the genus Mononchus was first observed by Cobb. Males have been described in very few species, and seem to be extremely rare in most of them. A gradation exists in this genus similar to that found in the genera Rhabditis and Diplogaster, where we find some species in which there is an equal number of males and females, some in which from ten per cent to forty per cent or more are males, some species in which not even one per cent are to be found and still others in which males seem never to occur. Conditions similar to these are found in the genus Mononchus: the Antarctic M. gerlachei seems to produce an equal number of males OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY: CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 373 and females, — males are rare in M. ohtusus and in most of the species they have not yet been found. Hermaphroditism in Mononchus papillatus is of some importance in our problem, as every individual is able to reproduce, not being dependent upon the presence of the other sex for propagation. This may prove of great value in using this species as a means of fighting injurious nemas. B. The egg and the embryonic evolution. — -The spermatozoa in M. papillatus are very minute, the ovary producing them early, and later on the eggs. Fertilization then takes place. The ovary of the nema is syngonic, and the animal a protandric syngone. (See Cobb 5.) We could not determine the number of sperms produced but it is probably rather restricted, as we observed several cases of old females that formed eggs (at times depositing them also) , that were probably not fertilized, as they never developed. There were never more than two eggs in one uterus at a time, and usually two or three to the individual were observed. It was rather a rare occurrence for the animal to have four eggs, two in each uterus. The eggs were elongated, and appeared smooth shelled in the uterus, but when deposited the surface seemed covered ^*^- ^- ^^^ °^ ^'!' with protuberances, having the appearance of short ^^^^^^ showing ridges, the whole surface having a somewhat lace-like the protuber- effect. (See Fig. 2.) ances on the If the mononchs lived in an approximately normal ess s e condition, an average of two or three eggs was deposited daily. Our slide cultures showed a production of two or less, but the tube cultures gave higher results, and it may be that under natural conditions in the soil the egg production is still higher. In the slide cultures, the maximum number of eggs deposited by one female was twenty-eight in twelve days, the animal then ceasing to produce; but in tubes our records showed eighteen eggs produced in six days, and forty-one larvae hatched from eggs produced by one fe- male in twenty days were also found. The exact number of eggs pro- duced may have exceeded this, as even with the most careful inspec- tion, eggs and larvae may escape notice. Experiments along this line are still being carried on and higher figures may be obtained. The number of eggs laid by one M. papillatus seems very small when compared with that of some other free-living species, as, for instance, species of Rhabditis, in which within a few days eight hundred or more 374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 eggs are produced. The maximum number obtained from one Mononchus was forty-one, the minimum number, twenty eggs. The eggs required from six to seven days before hatching. This also is rather a long period compared with Rhabditis, Diplogaster and some other known forms. The mononch eggs are unicellular when de- posited ; the first division takes place about twenty-four hours later. C. The development, of the larva of Mononchus papillatus. — The newly hatched larva is very active but not hardy, and the presence of soil seems very essential to its life. The body is quite transparent. As far as our experiments show, during the first two or three days the larvae attacked no nemas ; but on the fourth day, and even on the third day, the predatory instinct was developed and they began to feed on other nemas. As soon as this occurred the intestine began to darken and in a short time became opaque. The time of larval development up to the period of sexual maturity was somewhat varied. Slide cultures showed the average time for larval development (from the end of embryonic life in the egg shell to sexual maturity) to be from six to seven weeks. But tube cultures showed the minimum time to be only four and one-half weeks. The temperature of these cultures was the same, and the difference in re- sults must be due to the more natural environment found in the tubes. Therefore we are inclined to adopt the minimum time as the time re- quired for development, and to judge from this the influence of this species upon the nematode population of the soil. Unfortunately, up to the present, we have not been able to get exact data as to the time and number of the moultings. We observed three moults, two in the earlier stages of growth and one just before arrival at sexual maturity. In a study of the life history of one specimen we observed a moult at eighteen days and another at forty-four days after hatching, the latter being the moult just before sexual maturity. Judging from the size of the nema at which other moultings were observed, there must be a moult between eighteen and forty-four days. There may be a moult soon after hatching, but we never observed it. The skin is shed as a whole. There were no observations of the act of moulting, but, judging from the cast, the animal leaves the skin through an opening in the ventral side near the cardia. The mouth- capsule and wall of the rectum were found attached to the cast; the lining of the oesophagus was not observed and may be cast off sepa- rately. The animal became rather sluggish and inactive just before each moult. OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 375 D. The adult and senile Mononchus papillatus. — Soon after moulting the last time, the mononch began to produce eggs. At this age, the nema was extremely voracious. The number of eggs produced seemed to be in direct proportion to the number of destroyed and devoured nemas. The maximum duration of &gg production observed was twenty days, but further experiments may probably show a longer period. The period after the cessation of &gg production was called the senile stage. It seemed very remarkable that this senile stage was of such long duration as compared with the length of the other periods. In one case the senile period lasted ten weeks, while the combined length of the other periods was only eight weeks. In many hermaphroditic nematodes there are long senile stages. The senior author observed in cultures of the hermaphroditic Rhabditis elegans Maupas, the length of the different life periods to be as follows : April 20 — newly hatched larva, — (larval stage lasted two days or less) . April 24 — first production of eggs, — (egg production stage lasted two to three days) . April 26 — production of eggs stopped, — (senile stage lasted thirteen days) . May 9 — death. Of a life period of eighteen to nineteen days, thirteen were of the senile stage, that is, the period after the last fertilized egg was laid. The senile stage was therefore two or three times longer than the other Hfe periods taken together. The protandric syngonism (Cobb 5) of these forms is probably the cause of this. If spermatozoa are es- sential and only a certain number of spermatozoa are produced, then when this supply is exhausted, if the gonads are unable to produce more sperms, all subsequent ova will fail of further development, and senility begins. The same thing seems to happen in Mononchus papillatus. The comparatively enormous length of the senile stage may be the result of the inability of the syngone to produce sperm cells a second time. The senile period of ten weeks was observed on a slide culture, and un- der more favorable conditions it may last very much longer. In judging the relationship between Mononchus papillatus and other soil nematodes the above facts are of some importance, as the amount of food required during the senile stage was very small compared with that devoured during the egg-producing period. Consequently all 376 jouRNAiy OF the; Washington acadkmy of sciences vol. 12, no. 16 senile M. papillatus have a decreased efficiency in combating nematode pests. V. I.BNGTH OF IvlFE OF M. PAPILLATUS Eighteen weeks was the maximum length of life observed for M. papillatus in a slide culture; the tube culture method showed the life period under more normal conditions to be very much longer. Com- pared with the length of life of other nemas, even excluding forms of Rhabditis, Diplogaster, Plectus spec, etc. that live on decaying matter, this period seems very long, but it may not be exceptional for soil nematodes. At the Zoological Station of Cette (France) the senior author kept adult marine nematodes alive for a comparatively long time, as for example an adult species of Thoracostoma for over thirty days. We may therefore conclude that free living nematodes have a much longer life period than is usually supposed. To a certain degree, this fact may compensate for the restricted number of eggs of M. papillatus when considering the effect of this species on the nema population of the soil and the whole community of life therein, as, it means an increase of the efficiency of this species as a destructive factor. VI. FOOD AND FEEDING-HABITS OF M. PAPILLATUS In working out our problem, a study of the food and feeding habits was of the greatest interest. From statements made by the investiga- tors already mentioned, it was known that M. papillatus fed on other nematodes. It was necessary to discover whether the carnivorous habit lasted throughout its life or for only a certain period. To obtain these facts was of great importance as they determined largely whether M. papillatus can become a really efficient agent in combating nema- tode pests. Our experiments along this line confirmed fully what Cobb in several papers stated to be true. In our cultures, M. papillatus lived exclusively on other nemas, also appearing at times to devour small soil particles. The consumption of soil grains seemed to be of chief importance in the first larval stage of the animal, and we observed likewise in the intestine of adults soil particles of unknown origin. The important influence of the presence of soil on our cultures seemed also to confirm these observations. The larval M. papillatus, just hatched from the egg, was very active. Its intestine at first was transparent ; the cells of the thin wall at this stage were easily seen, and their nuclei as well. But in a suitable medium, a few days were sufficient to transform this colorless intestine OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER andheinly: control of injurious nemas 377 into a brownish, or even apparently black organ. To this end the presence of soil was absolutely necessary. In water, but with plenty of food (other small larv^al nematodes) the mononch larv'ae remained transparent and died in a short time. We were not able to determine exactly what kind of food the newly hatched and very young larvae ate. They moved through the soil, sucking here and there on soil fragments, and particles of an organic nature were probably consumed. But the mononch larvae soon began to feed on other nematodes. We observed three-day old larvae feeding on Rhabditis larvae, and their voracity increased with their age. Our records showed that the number of nematodes killed daily in- Fig. 3. Photograph of the dead bodies of Rhabditis elegans Maupas as they appeared after their slaughter by mononchs. The picture shows well the common method of destruction, that of piercing the cuticle and sucking the contents of the body in the manner of a weasel. creased as the mononch developed, beginning with one or two destroyed during the third or fourth day of larval life, and attaining a maximal number of sixty -five. In one case as many as eighty- three Heterodera radicicola were killed (either swallowed wholly or partly sucked out) by one mononch in one day. The largest amount of food was con- sumed at the time the maximal number of eggs was produced, and then it decreased during the senile stage of life. During a life time of about twelve weeks one animal killed 1332 nematodes. We are certain 378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 that this number may be very much larger under natural conditions. It was also observed that during the moulting periods fewer nematodes were killed and for a period of one or two days none at all, with a de- cided increase after the moult. When in a resting position, the mononch lay on its side, and never oh either its back or "stomach." The body was more or less curved ventrally, — the tail end often bent in the form of a spiral. At times the whole body was spirally curved. Agar was the best medium for the study of the movements. It was seen that locomotion was ac- complished by bending in the dorso-ventral plane of the body, this plane being placed mostly in a horizontal position so that the dorsal and ventral sides were seen in profile. Mononchus papillatus changed continually from a moving to a resting state, moving backward as well as forward. In the water-drop cultures with a small amount of soil, the mononchs were found only very exceptionally outside the soil area. There was a striking difference in the behavior of Mononchus papillatus and the Rhabdites added as food. The mononchs seemed to have a more highly developed stereotropism, as they remained well hidden in the soil, while the Rhabdites were more or less concentrated on the edge of the water drop outside the area occupied by the particles of soil. The sense of touch seemed to be the only sense M. papillatus used in hunting about for food. It is known that in nematodes three differ- ent kinds of sense-organs may be developed. 1 Organs for the sense of touch. — -These are no doubt among the chief sense organs of the group and show a high degree of perfection in stereotropic reactions and reflex movements. 2 Chemical or chemico-physical sense organs, — those known as lateral organs or "amphids." In M. ^a^i//a/M5 the amphids are rather small and inconspicuous. 3 Organs for the perception of light. — These are found in many free- living nematodes, but are absent in mononchs as well as in most soil inhabiting forms. Judging from the behavior of M. papillatus, the organs of touch were probably the only ones used while hunting for food. The nema moved through the medium, continually searching its surroundings by moving the head end in all possible directions. The head end contains the chief organs of touch, as well as those for chemical per- ception. After long observations, we came to the conclusion that M. papillatus was not able to find its prey at long distance, and the use OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 379 of the sense organs of touch seemed to be its chief method of locating food. We could therefore confirm statements made by Menzel about this matter. As soon as the head end of a mononch came into contact with its prey, it grasped it tightly. By a sucking movement, probably of the oesophageal muscles, the head was fixed to the prey. The nematode caught by the mononch naturally made most violent efforts to get free, and often the mononch was shaken and dragged along. But it held on tightly and soon its tooth and other mouth parts began to work. By a sucking movement of the oesophagus and mouth cavity, the mo- nonch became more firmly fixed to its prey, when the tooth located on the dorsal wall was protruded and produced an opening in the skin of the victim. Then a stronger (or further) sucking ac- tion was exerted by the mononch and the tooth came back to its normal position. The whole oesophagus came often into action and moved forward and backward with the intestine, the whole body going through the same move- ments; first the body fluid of the prey was sucked out, and as this happened its body be- came shrunken. Very often the mononch was satisfied with this, and set free its prey, which died shortly afterwards. Specimens of Rhabditis elegans killed in this way are pictured in Fig. 3. M. papillatus rarely devoured an entire animal when feeding on large forms, except when exceedingly hungry. No one part of the victim's body seemed to be preferable for attack, the prey being seized at ran- dom. Fig. 4 shows an Anguillula aceti attacked near the cardia, and Fig. 4. Photograph of a mononch attacking an Anguillula aceti near the cardia. Photograph taken from an agar- plate. Fig. 5. Sketch of the head-end of a mononch attacking a larval Rhabditis. Notice the wide opened lips and the protruded tooth. 380 JOURNAL OF THU WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI.. 12, NO. 16 Fig. 5-9 in other situations. Larval mononchs , were only able to attack and destroy the prey in the way described, but even a small mononch will attack prey of much larger size. Large mononchs often swallow smaller nemas whole ; this will happen, if the prey is seized at one end of the body, the animal being then sometimes swallowed without being killed or even injured by the mouth organs of the mononch. In our slide cultures this phe- nomenon was twice observed. A large adult mononch swallowed a rather large larva of Rhabditis elegans. In this species of Rhab- ditis the larvae are very slender and more resistant than other species. The larva seemed to have passed through the mouth and oesophagus of the mononch without harm, probably in the way sketched in Fig. 10. We first noticed that the mononch, very active the day before, appeared nearly motionless. To our great astonishment we noticed the larva of the Rhabditis moving throughout the intestine as if searching every-where for an exit. The larva moved in every possible direction, the mononch be- coming less active all the time. We were very interested in knowing the outcome of this case. The digestive fluid in the intestine of the mononch did not seem to harm the larva. The same evening, the mononch did not react to outside stimuli and appeared quite motion- less . During the night the Rhabditis found a way to freedom through the vulva opening, and in the morn- ing the mononch was dead. The same thing happened shortly after- ward with another very active mononch. From a scientific point of view these incidents are of interest, as they show that this species of Rhabditis is very resistant to mononch Fig. 6. Sketch of the head- end of a mononch seizing an adult Rhabditis by the neck. The skin of the prey is already opened, and the mo- nonch is sucking the contents ; notice that the dorsal tooth during this sucking action is in its normal position and not protruded. The prey was afterwards sucked out as shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 7. Sketch of a Rhabditis seized near the middle of the body and partly sucked. See Fig. 8 for later stage. OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NBMAS 381 Fig. 8. The Rhahditis refered to in Fig. 7 as it was released after having been partly sucked. Notice that the skin of the emptied part re- mained. digestive fluids, and they also throw light on the way the mononch swallows, and the action of the dorsal tooth of the mouth cavity. Incidents of the kind just described seem only possible if the tooth, during the act of swallowing, is protruded to such a degree that its point cannot harm the prey. Very probably, the latter was caught by the tail-end, and in the act of seizing, the tooth was protruded and the tail glided into the mouth cavity. In most cases the prey is seized at some other part of the body as Figs. 7-8 show. In this case not onl}^ the body fluid is sucked out, but also a large part of the intestine. Fig. 8 shows the prey after release, the skin remaining. The chief organ of the mononch functioning dur- ing the act of swallowing was undoubtedly the oesophagus. The contractions of its radial muscles were vigorous; they began at the mouth cavity and ran down the oesophagus so quickly that at first they seemed instantaneous. But more careful observations showed that each contraction first began around and behind the mouth and then ran back to the intestine. This contraction of the oesophageal radial muscles was accompanied by a shortening of the entire organ, and the whole intestine during the act of swallowing moved back and forth. As soon as the radial muscles contracted, the oesopha- gus apparently shortened and the forward movement of the cardiac region was easily seen. When contrac- tion ceased, the oesophagus assumed its normal shape and the cardiac region and intestine moved backwards. The mouth cavity did not serve as a place for out completely macerating food, biit more or less as a suction capsule, the remaining Together with the lips and the attached muscles, it skin. may seize and retain the prey, but our knowledge of the whole apparatus was not sufficient to completely understand its function. The dorsal tooth was certainly protruded as long as the whole cavity was used in retaining the prey. Fig. 9. Sketch of a Rhabditis sucked 382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 Some of the digestive fluids are probably formed and secreted by small glandular cells among the radial muscles of the oesophagus. These glands were first described by Cobb. Their secretions may not act in the oesophagus itself, as the food did not stay there. Digestion began and ended in the intestine. The oesophageal glands were probably compressed every time the animal swallowed by the shortening and pressure of the radial muscles, and the digestive fluid thus entered the intestine with the food. VII. MONONCHUS PAPILLATUS AS A FACTOR IN FIGHT- ING NEMATODE PESTS The foregoing experimental results show conclusively the predatory nature of Mononchus papillatus. From our experiments, and from observations made by other investigators, all kinds of nematode species, and Rotifers, Naididae (small Oligochaetes) , etc. are taken as food. Heterodera radicicola is acceptable in large numbers, and we were able to rear M. papillatus by feeding this form of plant-injurious nema exclusively. The same thing happens in the soil and there is no doubt but that mononchs live there in about the same way as in our cultures. Undoubtedly this pred- atory nema when present kills Heterodera and other injurious forms in soil planted with crops. It is therefore extremely useful and its propagation should be encouraged. Under some conditions this form perhaps completely controls Heterodera and similar plant-injurious species. Why should this not be- come the case in our infested fields ? Further investi- gations should be started along these lines. Once in the roots, Heterodera and other such root- parasites are probably protected against the predatory mononchs, but when moving freely in the soil during larval Hfe, they may be destroyed in large numbers and we are convinced that under favorable conditions Mononchus is able partially, perhaps completely to control some of these destructive forms. In order to advance any further along this line, it is absolutely necessary to have a knowledge of the nematode population of different kinds of soil, of the relationships that exist Fig. 10. Sketch of the supposed manner of swal- lowing the Rhabditis larva which was found living and moving in the intestine of a mononch, killing it after- wards by break- ing through the intestine and body wall. dnt. — tooth as it is supposed to have acted dur- ing the attack on the larva. OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NEMAS 383 between these forms and other members of the community of living forms that exist there, and of their relationships to other nematode species. VIII. THE soil., ITS LIFE AND THE NUMBER OF NEMATODES, ESPECIALLY OF PREDATORY FORMS THEREIN Our knowledge of life in the soil, especially of microscopic life there, is still very restricted. We know very little about the relationships that exist between the living components of the soil, and often we do not even know these components. Certainly soil fertility does not de- pend entirely upon its chemical, colloidal and physical nature, but also and probably largely, upon the animal and plant life therein. The importance of soil bacteria is already known and there exists a close relationship between these bacteria and the nematode population, as a large number of nemas are bacteria consumers. Investigations carried on throughout more recent years have definitely proved that the soil contains an enormous number of nematodes, and that, next to bacteria, they form probably the largest constituent element in sub- terranean life. Numerous new species have been described and all investigators agree that there is an enormous number still undescribed. It will require the collaboration of many research workers to describe all these forms. A nema species may furnish millions of individuals to ever}^' acre of our fields. No exact records regarding the number have been published so far. Dr. Cobb kindly placed at our disposal some of his tables from field surveys. The results of the surveys shown below are of great interest. Minimum number of nematodes per acre, top six inches (15.2 cm.) From Missouri corn field 648,000,000 From North Carolina field 242,400,000 From New Jersey field 129,600,000 From Rhode Island field 610,800,000 From New Hampshire field 99,600,000 From Minnesota field 121,200,000 From Vermont field 580,000,000 From Kansas field 278,400,000 These tables give only the minimum numbers arid are figures taken from a study of only the top six inches (15 cm.) . A maximum penetra- tion of some nema species has been observed to be as much as (7-8 m.) 25 feet. These unpublished observations were made by Dr. Cobb on citrus trees in California and on alfalfa roots in New South Wales. 384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 16 Usually soil nematodes go as deep as the roots of plants can penetrate and therefore the depth figures recorded in publications are too small. Until recently nemas have been almost completely disregarded by investigators of soil economics, and especially by research workers in soil fertility. If we wish to know what part nematodes play in the economics of the soil, one of the first questions to be answered is what is the nature of their food. There have been no very comprehensive studies made of this question up to the present, and our knowledge is based mostly on only occasional observations. The results of these show that some forms such as Rhabditis, Cephalohus, etc. feed on decaying matter, that is on the contained bacteria or bacterial products ; others, such as Tylenchus, Heterodera, Aphelenchits, etc. feed on plant tissues or fluids; others such as Dorylaimus, etc. feed probably on both plants and ani- mals; and still others such as Monoiichus papillatits, described in this paper, are apparently exclusively predatory. So that not only the problem of combating nematode pests in soil by the use of their natural enemies will be attacked by investigations along this line, but also the problem of soil fertility itself. Today we know that soil nematodes play a very important role, 1. As consumers and destroyers of our crops; — often destroying whole fields, but much oftener decreasing their yield in a less per- ceptible degree. 2. As consumers of, and as important workers in the distribution of the bacterial flora of the soil. Their activity is certainly not restricted to denitrifying bacteria, but extends to nitrifying forms as well. A closer study may show relations of very great importance. They carry bacteria and fungus spores everywhere. Wounds on roots or other parts of plants may very often be infected by bacterial and fungus diseases carried by these nematodes. (See Metcalf 15.) 3. As having relationships with fungi upon which some species are known to feed. According to Zopf fungi on the other hand may use nematodes as prey. 4. As consumers of protozoa. It is known that certain fresh- water nemas feed specially on protozoa, sometimes apparently on a single species. There is a probability that some soil species may feed in a similar way, and further investigations may enable us to combat plant injurious protozoa by the use of these nemas. 5. As furnishing a control for plant-injurious nemas. This refers to the work of predatory nemas, such as Mononchus papillatus, whose OCT. 4, 1922 STEINER AND HEINLY : CONTROL OF INJURIOUS NRMAS 385 feeding habits have been described in this paper. There are other species of nemas with a similar significance. Here is a great field for study. Investigations should also be carried on to show more defi- nitely the relations of these predatory forms to rotifers, oligochaetes and other soil animals. 6. As a factor in the humification of the soil, in transformation and removal of all kinds of organic matter, decaying bodies, etc. ' 7. As assisting in the aeration of the soil. We know how very im- portant aeration of soil is for the growth of bacteria and all kinds of plants. Quite possibly these millions of nematodes living in the soil are highly useful aerators. In order to solve the problem of the relation of soil nemas to soil fertility, we require a knowledge of the nema population in the soil itself and we also need to know : 1. The composition of the nema population, the species found and their numeric representation in all kinds of soil, — ;sandy, humus, swampy, dry-soil, hard clay, etc. 2. The horizontal and vertical distribution of nemas in all kinds of soil and the reasons for this. 3. The seasonal changes of the different species, the number of spe- cies and the number of individuals of each species. 4. The influence of habitat on the nematode population including physical, chemical and biological factors found in the habitat. The biological factors include kinds of crops and other forms of vegetation that may be present. , The working out of these problems will surely enable us to conclude why nema pests are absent in some cases, and why in apparently similar conditions they exist in such enormous numbers. A large field is thus opened up for investigations, the results of which will be of great im- portance to agricultural science. REFERENCES 1. Berliner, Ernst and Busch, Kurt, "tjber die Ziichtung des Riibennematoden {Heterodera schachtli Schmidt) auf Agar." Biol. Centralblatt 34: 349. 1914. 2. Byars, L. p. "Preliminary notes on the cultivation of the plant parasitic nematode, Heterodera radicicola." Phytopathology 4: 323-326. pi. 21. 1914. 3. Byars, L. P. "The nematode disease of wheat caused by Tylenchus tritici." U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 842. 1920. 4. Cobb, N. A. "The Mononchs. A genus of free-living predatory nematodes. Contributions to a science of Hematology VI." Soil Science 3. 1917. 5. Cobb, N. A. "Notes on Nemas. Contributions to a Science of Nematology V." Waverly Press, Baltimore, 1917. 6. Cobb, N. A. "Nematodes of the slow sand filter beds of American cities. Con- tributions to a vScience of Nematology VII." 1918. 386 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. Ifi 7. Cobb, N. A. "Estimating the nema population of the soil." Agric. Technology Circ. I, Bur. PI. Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr. 1918. 8. CoNTE, M. A. "De I'influence du milieu nutritif sur le developpement des Nema- todes libres." Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 52: 374-375. 1900. 9. HiivGERMANN and Weissenberg. "Nematodenziichtung auf Agarplatten." Central, fiir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, Originalia, Bd. 80. 1918. 10. Johnson, G. E. "On the Nematodes of the Common Earthworm." Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 58: 605-652. 1913. 11. Maupas, E. "La mue et I'enkystement chez les Nematodes." Arch. Zool. Expt. III. 7: 563-628. 1899. 12. Maupas, E. "Modes et formes de reproduction des Nematodes." Arch. Zool. Exp. Ill 8: 463-628. 1900. 13. Menzel, R. "tjber die Nahrung der freilebenden Nematoden imd die Art ihrer Aufnahme." Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Ernahrung der Wiirmer." Verhandl. Naturf. Ges. Basel 36: 153-188. 1920. 14. Merrill, T. H. and Ford, A. L. "Life History and Habits of Two New Nematodes Parasitic on Insects." Journ. Agr. Research. 6: 115-127. 1916. 15. Metcalf, H. "Cultural Studies of a Nematode Associated with Plant Decay." Trans. Am. Micr. Soc. 24: 89-102. 1903. 16. Oliver, W.W. "The Cultivation of an Ectoparasitic Nematode of a Guinea Pig on Bacteriologic Media." Science (n. s.) 36: 800-801. 1912. 17. Potts, F. A. "Notes on the Free-living Nematodes." Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 55: 433-484. 1910. 18. Welch, Paul S. and WehrlE, L. P. "Observations on Reproduction in Certain Parthenogenetic and Bisexual Nematodes Reared in Artificial Media." Trans. Am. Micr. Soc. 37: 141-176. 1918. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 October 19, 1922 No. 17 MINERALOGY. — A worked jade pebble from Copan.^ H. vS. Wash- ington, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. During his excavations at the ancient Maya city of Copan, Hon- duras, in 1919, Dr. Sylvanus G. Morley found a fiat pebble of jade> (sawn in two and perforated), on the platform of Stela 7.'- (Fig. 1.) The material of this pebble seemed to be of such interest, and its pebble form argued so strongly for an American provenance, that I expressed a desire to study it. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Morley for the privilege of examining the object, and especially for his liber- ality in permitting me to remove a few grams for the chemical and microscopical study. It is gratifying to know that the mutilation has yielded some results of interest in connection with the study of American jades. The pebble has had a wide cylindrical perforation bored into it from each flat side, penetrating almost to the center and tapering slightly inward ; it was then sawn in two equatorially down the center about half way between the two flat sides, thus freeing the cylindrical cores of the perforations, which (as Morley states) were probably used for making ear ornaments, either disks or plugs. ^ The width of the equatorial cut was about 5 mm. With this pebble was found a finely worked and highly polished deep green pendant, 7.5 cm. high, representing a human figure, with the arms crossed over the breast; this figure was intended to hang with the side outward. The weight of this is 87.8300 grams, and I found its specific gravity to be 3 .307 at 22°, indicating that it is com- posed largely of jadeite, with but little of the diopside and albite ' Received October 3, 1922. - S. G. Morley. The inscriptions at Copan. Carnegie Publ. 219: 105. 1920. ' Dr. Morley thinks that the perforation was carried through from side to side; but that it extended only partly through from each side is indicated by the slight traces of a ridge at the bottom edge of each perforation extending a milUmeter or so inward around the edge. The saw marks show that the sawing was done in various directions and extended down to the ])erforation, the marks being tangent to this circle. 387 388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 molecules present.^ I have not yet had the opportunity to study the material chemically or with the microscope. It is what appears to be the jade most valued among the Maya. Dr. Morley informs me that "the nearest monument to these objects is Stela 7, recording the date 9. 9. ().().(). of the Maya Era, or 354 A. D. These jades, however, probably date from a century to a century and a half later." Fig. 1. Worked jade pebble; Copan, Honduras. A on the right, B on left. The two pieces are not quite the same size or weight, but they are unquestionably parts of the same pebble. Their general form is shown in fig. 1. The greatest length is about 7.6 cm., the greatest width (B) 5.2 and (A) 5.5 cm., while the smaller (A) is about 5 cm. in greatest thickness and the larger (B) about 1.2. The perforation is circular and of the same diameter in each, 3.3 cm. The smaller (A) weighed 37 . 3062 grams (before the piece, weighing about 3 grams, was removed by me), and the larger (B) weighs 55.8190 grams. The curved surfaces are those of the original pebble; they are water-smoothed, but not polished. In color the smaller piece (that '' See a forthcoming paper on The jades of Middle America, to be published in Proc. Nat. Acad, for 1922. OCT. 19, 1922 WASHINGTON : JADE PEBBUE FROM COP AN 389 which was analysed) is of a nearly uniform, pale gray green, between Ridgway's pea- and sage-green. The larger is decidedly whitish on the natural surface, which shows slight pitting; and this has evidently been somewhat weathered, as is also shown by its lower density. On the sawn face it is of about the same color as the other. The tex- ture of both pieces is very fine-grained, indeed quite aphanitic. The material shows the lack of toughness which is characteristic of the Middle American jades. The specific gravity of the smaller piece was determined by me as 2.934 at 19.4°, giving a density of 2.929; while Dr. L. H. Adams obtained the density value 2.932 for the same piece. The true den- sity may be taken as 2.930. Adams found that the density of the larger, whitish piece is 2.756. In thin section the jade (of piece A) is seen to be composed largely of clear albite in irregular poikilitic patches, not as the sharp anhedral grains or angular interstitial areas which are most commonly seen in other Middle American jades. Through this albite matrix is in- terspersed, not uniformly, considerable pyroxene, of an extremely faint brownish color, not pleochroic. Some of the pyroxene forms rather large (0.5 mm. long), roughly prismatic grains; much of it is in small (up to 0.3 mm. long), sharp prisms; but most of it is in small irregular grains, which appear to be due to crushing. There is no definite general orientation of the pyroxene crystals, and they tend to be felted where they are most thickly crowded. No other minerals were seen in the section. Dr. H. E. Merwin kindly determined the refractive indices of the pyroxene and found the values : a = 1 . 665, 7 = 1- 693, y — a = 0 . 028 These values are close to those of artificial diopside (CaMgSi^Oe): a = 1 .664, 7 = 1 .694, 7 — a = 0.030. As will be shown presently this Copan pyroxene is composed of about 71.5 per cent of diopside and 28.5 of jadeite, leaving out of account the probable presence of some albite in solid solution. This is more fully discussed in the forth- coming paper mentioned above. A chemical analysis was made of a portion of a small wedge (weigh- ing about 3 grams) which was sawn out of the end of (A) the smaller and fresher piece. The analysis, made on material dried at 110°, gave the results in table I. The analysis of the Copan jade differs widely from those of other jades, from Chichen Itza, and other localities in Mexico, and Central 390 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 America, made by me and others, especially in its high silica, rather high magnesia and lime, and low soda. In most respects it is inter- mediate between the jade of the Tuxtla statuette and that from Chichen Itza shown above. The former is composed entirely of diopside-jadeite (the two being present in about equal amounts), while the latter is about two-thirds albite and one-third diopside- jadeite. The relations are perhaps better shown when the analyses are recalculated into terms of their mineral molecules. TABLE I. — Analyses of Jades from Central America Si02 AI2O3 Fe203 FeO MgO CaO NazO K2O H2O Ti02 Cr203 MnO 1 62.64 14.92 0.60 1.25 4.31 5.92 8.78 0.23 1.27 none none none 99.92 2 55.50 12.33 1.41 1.33 8.72 12.76 6.94 0.25 0.30 none none 0.05 99.59 3 64.64 18.83 0.46 0.49 1.87 2.62 11.25 0.23 0.16 none 0.07 none 100.62 1. Jade Copan pebble. Washington analyst. 2. Diopside-jadeite, Tuxtla statuette, Washington analyst. H. S. Washington, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 60: Art. 14. 1922. 3. Jade bead, gray-green. Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Washington analyst. Table 2. — Analyses of Central American Jades in Terms of Mineral Molecules 1 2 3 Orthoclase 1.12 1.67 1.11 Albite 61.31 none 62.61 Anorthite 0.56 1.67 0.28 Jadeite 10.10 45.25 25.25 Diopside 22.60 49.40 9.85 Hypersthene 1.86 0,50 0.60 Magnetite 0.93 1.74 0.70 Here we note the extremely pyroxenic character of the Tuxtla jade (2), while the Copan (1) and Chichen Itza (3) jades contain about the same proportions of albite and pyroxene. In the Copan jade, however, there is about two and a half times as much diopside as jadeite, while in that from Chichen Itza the relation is almost OCT. 19, 1922 BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF LETTERWOOD 391 exactly reversed. It may be said here, anticipating another pub- lication, that the pyroxene in the great majority of Mexican and Cen- tral American jades shows a great preponderance of jadeite over di- opside. The pyroxene always contains considerable diopside, but only two cases are known in which the diopside and jadeite are present in about equal amount (one being the Tuxtla statuette), while the pyroxene in the Copan pebble is the only one known so far in which diopside dominates greatly over jadeite. This difference is so marked that it gives rise to the thought that, possibly, the Copan jade belongs to a petrographical series of jades which is distinct from the others, and thus possibly comes from a different locality. BOTANY. — Two new species of letterwood (Piratinera) . S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry. ^ The letterwood, snakewood, bois des lettres, or letterhout^ of com- merce is the heartwood of the species of the Moraceous genus Pira- tinera Aubl., all of which are native in the Guianas, the Amazon region of Brazil, and Panama. Aublet, describing the original species, Piratinera guianensis, says^ that it is called "bois des lettres" by the Creoles of French Guiana, and "boutous" by the Galibis, who used the inner wood in making bows and clubs. Canes and pestles were also made from it. A variety with white heartwood, called "bois des lettres blanc," and supposed by Aublet to be only a young state of the same species, was used by the negroes in the manufacture of walking sticks. For this purpose the straightest branches were selected and the bark removed. They were then stained a permanent black with a dye made by mixing soot with the sap of a species of Inga known as "bourgoni" {Mimosa bourgoni Aubl., now known as Inga bourgoni (Aubl.) DC), and when polished had the appearance of ebony. Letterwood has been an article of commerce from the earliest settlement of British Guiana. The timber was originally procured from fallen trunks from which the sapwood had long since rotted away. Although such material is still occasionally dug up from the forest floor, the prevailing practice is to fell the timber and split and hew 1 Received September 26, 1922. - It should be noted that the name "letterhout" is not restricted to species of Piratinera, but is used also, as proved by other material received from Professor Record, for Heli- costylis tomentosa (Poepp. & Endl.) Rusby and a species of Sahagimia (?), and the same is true of many others of the vernacular names recorded in this paper. 3 PI. Guian. 2: 890. 1775. 392 JOURNAL O'P THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 off the sapwood in the forest, sending to market the heart portions which are 3 to 8 inches in diameter and 7 or 8 feet long. Its principal use in this country is for the manufacture of walking sticks and um- brella handles. Minor uses include drum sticks, butts of fishing rods, violin and archery bows, and miscellaneous fancy articles. It is also employed to a limited extent in cabinet work, but only in the form of sawn veneers. The native Indians have long used it for making their bows and various other articles requiring great strength and elasticity."* The letterwood trees inhabit the lowlands and not infrequently attain a diameter of two and rarely of three feet. The trunks are long and slender, covered with a smooth bark rich in milky latex, and have a very thick layer of light-colored sapwood surrounding a small, often irregular core of red or reddish-brown heartwood that is as heavy as lignum-vitae. Commercial wood is spotted all over with peculiar black markings which bear some semblance to hiero- glyphics and often give to the surface the appearance of snake skin. Not all of the heartwood is figured in this way, and the native cutters cannot tell until they have cut through the sapwood whether the heart will be speckled or only striped with black. It has been sup- posed that the speckled wood was indicative of a certain species, but studies of sections of tree trunks which accompanied the herbarium material described in this paper prove that this feature is not a spe- cific character. Prof. Samuel J. Record, of the School of Forestry of Yale Uni- versity, who is making a thorough investigation of many tropical American woods, has recently sent me for study a considerable num- ber of specimens of Moraceae which he secured from British and Dutch Guiana, including no less than 12 sheets of Piratinera, as well as some detached leaves representing other collections. Full credit for the collection of these important specimens should be given to Mr. J. W. Gonggrijp, Conservator of Forests of Surinam, Mr. L. S. Hohen- kerk. Forest Officer of British Guiana, and Mr. C. W. Anderson, formerly Forest Officer, whose efforts have provided material for the settlement of one of the many problems connected with the identi- fication of tropical American trees of commercial importance. As preliminary examination of this material showed that it represented three species with distinctive foliar characters, leaves of all three ^ This paragraph and the following one have been contributed by Professor S. J. Record. OCT. 19, 1922 BLAKE : NEW SPECIES OP LETTERWOOD 393 were sent to Dr. A. B. Rendle of the British Museum, who has kindly compared them with Aublet's type of P. guianensis and thus estab- lished the identity of that species. It has been customary to refer the name Piratinera Aubl. (1775) to Brosimum Sw. (1788), and the latter name was made a nomen conservandum by the International Botanical Congress at Vienna in 1905. A few years ago, however, Mr. Henry Pittier^ brought for- ward evidence to show that the genera were distinct, being separable by the number of pistillate flowers (1 in Brosimum, 2 or more in Pira- tinera), and the presence of a perianth in the staminate flowers of Piratinera, as well as by differences in the shape of the receptacle. The last feature seems to be of minor significance, but the floral char- acters brought forward by Pittier are sufficient to justify the sepa- ration of the two genera. Another point of interest in the separation of the two genera is brought out in Professor Record's study of the wood of various species. He finds that the heartwood of Piratinera is never white, while that of Brosimum is always white, except in B. paraense, a species of somewhat doubtful generic position. Five species of Piratinera were listed by Pittier, — P. guianensis Aubl., P. discolor (Schott) Pittier, P. ruhescens (Taub.) Pittier, P. acutifolia (Huber) Pittier, and P. panamensis Pittier, — of which only the last two have hitherto been represented in the National Herbarium. In the light of the material now at hand, the separation of the first two species seems to be unjustified. Brosimum discolor Schott, briefly described'' in 1827, was fully described in 1853 by Miquel,'' who had examined an authentic specimen. Miquel described the under surface of the leaves as glaucescent and subsericeous-pubescent with short, appressed hairs. This is the diagnostic feature of the spe- cies, well represented in Prof. Record's material, which has been identi- fied by Dr. Rendle with the type of P. guianensis Aubl., and as no distinguishing characters are apparent in Miquel' s long description, it is evident that P. discolor (Schott) Pittier should be referred to the synonymy of P. guianensis Aubl. With this reduction, and the addition of the two new species rep- resented in the material sent by Prof. Record, the known species of Piratinera are increased to 6. All except P. ruhescens are now rep- = Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 96-100. 1918. 6 In Spreng. Syst. Veg. 4: 403. 1827. " In Mart. Fl. Bras. 4: 110. 1853. 394 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 Fig. 1. Leaves of Piratinera, natural size. — a, P. guianensis Aubl. (Anderson 598A); b, P. panamensis Pittier (type collection); c, P. aciiiifolia (Huber) Pittier {Diicke 12155); d, P. velutina Blake (type) ; e, P. scahridula Blake (type). OCT. 19, 1922 Bi^AKE: new species of letterwood 395 resented in the National Herbarium. The following key based chiefly on the leaves will serve to separate the species. Leaves finely appressed-puberulous beneath. Leaves rather densely appressed-puberulous beneath; peduncles solitary, erect. Petioles 2 to 5 mm. long; peduncles (in flower and fruit) 3 to 8 mm. long; receptacle in flower 3.5 to 7 mm. wide. 1. P. guianensis. Petioles 5 to 7 mm. long; peduncles (in flower and fruit) 10 to 15 mm. long; receptacle in flower 1 cm. wide or more. 2. P. panamensis . Leaves very sparsely appressed-puberulous beneath chiefly along the costa; peduncles usually paired, refracted. 3. P. rubescens. Leaves densely puberulous to pilosulous beneath with spreading or in- curved but not appressed hairs. Leaves gradually long-acuminate, puberulous beneath with incurved hairs; chief lateral veins 14 to 22 pairs. 4. P. acutifolta. Leaves emarginate or rounded to abruptly short-acuminate, hispidulous or pilosulous beneath with straight spreading hairs; chief lateral veins 8 to 12 pairs. Leaf blades mostly 4 . 5 to 7 . 5 cm. long, 2 to 4 cm. wide, hispidulous along costa above, very densely scabridulous-hispidulous on sur- face beneath with minute hairs much shorter than the thickness of the leaf tissue. 5. P. scabridtda. Leaf blades mostly 7 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 5.5 cm. wide, glabrous above, rather densely velvety-pilosulous on surface beneath, the hairs about as long as the thickness of the leaf tissue. 6. P. velutina. 1. Piratinera guianensis Aubl. PI. Guian. 2: 888. pi. 340. 1775. Pale- LEAE LETTERWOOD. Fig. 1, a. Brosimum discolor Schott in Spreng. Syst. Veg. 4^: 403. 1827. Brosimum guyanense Huber, Bol. Mus. Goeldi 5: 337. 1909. Piratinera discolor Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 100. 1918. Type locality : Caux, French Guiana. Illustrations: Aubl. PI. Guian. pi. J40. Miq. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 4': pi. J J (as B. discolor). Specimens examined : British Guiana: Komentyne (Komantin) Creek, Wiruni River, and Berbice River (near savanna of Karaka), February 18, 1910, C. W. An- derson 467/C. T. 45 (N, Yale).* Essequibo-Rupumuni region, Ander- son 598 A (N, Yale). On hills up to 15 or 20 meters above sea level, Kamuni Creek, Demerara River, Anderson 137 (Yale). Issororo Creek, Pomeroon River, June 8, 1909, Anderson 308 (Yale). Surinam: Zandery I., a station at Km. 45 of railway, November 25, 1915, Forestry Service (Surinam) 1371 (Yale). Moderzorg, Surinam River, August 8, 1921, Forestry Service 5429 (Yale). Sarwa Creek, Mapane, Commewyne River, November 22, 1921, Forestry Service 5497 (Yale, fragm. N). Berlyn, Km. 50 of railway, December 13, 1921, Forestry Service 5501 (Yale, fragm. N). Brazil: Obidos, Amazonia, December 22, 1907, Ducke 9189 (N). * In the citation of specimens, N = U. S. National Herbarium; Yale = herbarium of Yale University. 396 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADKMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 ■" " The vernacular names accompanying the British Guiana material are "letterwood" (no. 598A) and "tibikushi" {i.e., bastard letterwood; nos. 137, 308, 467). No. 308, which consists only of comparatively large leaves (about 11 cm. long, 5.5 to 6 cm. wide) and of a wood specimen (the latter not examined by the writer), is labeled "not true tibikushi." Although considerably larger than those of the other specimens examined, these leaves agree in pubescence, and seem to be clearly referable to P. guianensis. No. 137 is said to grow to be a large tree on sandy soil, the bark emitting a sticky substance when cut, and the heartwood being red mottled with black. The material from Surinam is labeled with the following names: "letter- hout," "letterhout (gespikkeld)," "man letterhout" (Dutch); "manletri," "kappewerie letri" (Negro English); "moeje-paulettoe" (Saramacca Bush Negro); "koereroe," "kolero," "koelero" (Arowak Indian); "paida," "toekoesipaida," "wekerepaida" (Carab Indian)." In his list of the described species of Brosimum, Pittier^ recognizes B. guianense Huber as a valid species distinct from Piratinera guianensis Aubl. This course is not in accordance with the rules of nomenclature, since Huber published the name, in the form Brosimum guyanense, without description, and cited Piratinera guyanensis Aubl. and B. aubletii Poepp. as synonyms. Three collections were listed, nos. 4871, 9189, and 9072. The two latter are in the National Herbarium, as mentioned by Mr. Pittier. Investigation of these, in the light of the information recently obtained as to the identity of Aublet's type, shows that no. 9189 is referable to P. guianensis Aubl. No. 9072, however, is referable to the new species described beyond as Pira- tinera velutina. In a later note by Huber, ^'^ cited by Pittier as the place of publication of B. guianense, where the wood is described (with the vernacular name given as "muirapinima"), reference is again made to P. guianensis Aubl. 2. Piratinera panamensis Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 100. pi. 7. 1918. Panama LETTERWOOD. Fig. 1, 6. Type locality : Near Puerto Obaldia, Panama. Specimens examined : Panama: Hills back of Puerto Obaldia, San Bias Coast, September 2, 1911, Pittier 4336 (type collection, N). The vernacular name of this species is given as "guaimaro." Prof. Record, who has studied wood material collected by Mr. Pittier, informs me that the sapwood is white, and the heartwood dark red with black markings. 3. Piratinera rubescens (Taub.) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 100. 1918. REDLEAF LETTERWOOD. Brosimum rubescens Taub. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 12: Beibl. 27: 4. 1890. Type locality: Brazil. Type collected by Glaziou (no. 12169). The vernacular name of this plant is .given as "pao vermelho." " Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 101. 1918. '0 Bol. Mus. Goeldi 6: 168. 1910. OCT. 19, 1922 BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF LETTERWOOD 397 4. Piratinera acutifolia (Ruber) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 100. 1918. ShARPLEAF LETTERWOOD. Fig. 1, c. Brosimum acutifolium Huber, Bol. Mus. Goeldi 6: 66. 1910. Type locality: Primeval woods along the railroad between Belem and Braganga, Para, Brazil. Type collected by A. Goeldi (no. 8231). Specimen examined: Brazil: Rio Branco de Obidos, Para, 4.8. 1912, Ducke 12155 (N). This species is readily recognized by its long-acuminate leaves. The ver- nacular name is "murure." 5. Piratinera scabridula Blake, sp. nov. Roughleae lETTERwood. Fig. 1, e. Tree with sticky latex; young branches slender, brown or purplish brown, minutely and rather sparsely spreading-hispidulous, glabrescent, the older flaky-barked, becoming gray; buds ovoid, acute, about 2.5 mm. long, finely erect-hispidulous; internodes 2 to 20 mm. long; stipules not seen; petioles 2 to 5 mm. long, sulcate above, finely hispidulous with spreading or erectish hairs; leaf blades elHptic to oval or sometimes obovate-oval, (2.7) 4.5 to 7.5 cm. long, (1.3) 2 to 4 cm. wide, obtuse or obtusely short-pointed to rounded, often emarginate, at base cuneate or rounded-cuneate and unequal, entire, subcoriaceous, above usually light green, shining in age, glabrous except along the hispidulous costa, beneath pale, along costa and chief veins spreading-hispidulous, on surface scabridulous to the touch with very dense and very minute, conical, spreading, whitish hairs, featherveined, the chief veins 8 to 12 pairs, diverging at an angle of 60° to nearly 90°, united inside the margin, flattish or barely prominulous above, prominulous beneath, the costa prominulous above, prominent beneath, the secondaries prominu- lous-reticulate beneath; peduncles axillary, solitary, erectish, about 7 mm. long, minutely antrorse-hispidulous; young receptacle depressed-hemi- spheric, about 4 mm. thick, covered with orbicular, peltate, minutely puberu- lous and ciliolate bracts; 9 flowers about 5; d" flowers numerous, 1-androus, the perianth monophyllous, apparently split on one side; fruit not seen. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,120,360, collected below Manakobi, on the Corentyn River, British Guiana, December 13, 1909, by C. W. Anderson (no. 406/C8). Duplicate in the herbarium of Yale Uni- versity. Additional specimens examined : Surinam: Casipora Creek, Surinam River, November 24, 1921, Forestry Service 5495 (Yale, fragm. N). Irakoeka Creek, Surinam River, January 11, 1922, Forestry Service 5499 (Yale), 5500 (Yale, fragm. N). The vernacular name associated with the type is "letterwood." The Dutch names of the other specimens are given as follows: "manletterhout" (5495), "kapiteinhout" (5499), "roode letterhout" (5500). The Arowak Indian name of 5495 is "koelero boelekolle." The label of the type collection states that the flowers were greenish yellow with brown anthers. Unfor- tunately only a single receptacle has been available for examination, and that is too young and in too poor condition to afford much information, beyond establishing the fact that the plant is certainly a Piratinera. 398 JOURNAI, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIy. 12, NO. 17 The hairs of the under leaf surface in this species are so small that under a 12x lens they appear merely as densely crowded papillae. Viewed on a cross section of the leaf under a 49x binocular, they are seen to be conical hairs, standing off stiffly at a right angle from the leaf surface, and about one-half to one-fifth as long as the thickness of the leaf. 6. Piratinera velutina Blake, sp. nov. Velvetleaf letterwood. Fig. 1, d. Young branchlets brown, finely, densely, and rather softly spreading- puberulous, the older glabrate, gray-barked; internodes mostly 1 to 2.5 cm. long; stipules lance-subulate, 4.5 mm. long, appressed-puberulous on both sides, deciduous; petioles 3 to 5 mm. long, scarcely sulcate above, puberulous like the branchlets; leaf blades oblong to oblong-oval, rarely slightly obovate-oval, (5) 7 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 5.5 cm. wide, abruptly short- pointed with obtuse apex, at base very unequal, broadly rounded on one side, obliquely rounded on the other, entire, subcoriaceous, above deep green, shining, glabrous, beneath paler (brownish or griseous-green when dry), on the chief veins hispidulous-pilosulous with rather soft spreading or an- trorse hairs, on surface very densely papillose and rather densely and softly velvety-pilosulous with spreading hairs, featherveined, the chief lateral veins 8 to 1 1 pairs, diverging at an angle of GO ° to SO °, united inside the mar- gin, with the secondaries flattish or delicately prominulous-reticulate above, prominulous-reticulate beneath, the costa prominent beneath; peduncles (very young) solitary, axillary, erect, puberulous, 5 mm. long or less; young receptacles depressed-subglobose, about 4 . 5 mm. thick, densely covered with orbicular, peltate, puberulous and ciliolate bracts; 9 flowers 2 or 3; 6 flowers numerous, 1-androus, the perianth monophyllous, split on one side; fruit not seen. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,120,361, collected at Sectie O, a forest station at Km. 65 of railway, Surinam, February 15, 1916, by the Forestry Service of Surinam (no. 1647). Duplicate in herbarium of Yale University. Additional specimens examined: Surinam: Sectie O, November 3, 1915, Forestry Service 1158 (Yale), November 22, 1915, Forestry Service 1378 (Yale). Irakoeka Creek, Surinam River, January 11, 1922, Forestry Service 5498 (Yale). Brazil: AlluWal forest, Rio Mapuera, Amazonia, December 8, 1907, Ducke 9072 (N). The hairs on the under leaf surface of this species are much longer than those of P. scabridula, being readily distinguishable with a 12x lens, and about equaling the thickness of the leaf tissue when seen under the binocular. The species bears the following names: "letterhout," "roode lelterhout" (Dutch); "letri," "basra letri" (Negro English); "poevinga," "pauletoe" (Saramacca Bush Negro); "sokone-biberoe," "belekoro," "koereroe" (Aro- wak Indian); "paida," "wekere paida," "tianalin weive," "tokoro apoUi merie" (Carab Indian). DOUBTFUL SPECIES Brosimum aubletii Poepp. & Endl. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 34. pi. 148, J. a-d. 1838. OCT. 19, 1922 standley: persimmon from mexico 399 This species, from the banks of the Rio Huallaga near Yurimaguas, Peru, was stated by its authors to be without doubt identical with Piratinera guianensis Aubl. Pittier,^^ however, considers it "probable that it belongs neither to Brosimum nor to Piratinera, but perhaps to Helicostylis." The description and figures of the receptacle and floral parts, however, particularly of the peltate bracteoles, seem to me to indicate that the plant is a Piratinera, and that the staminate flowers were overlooked. The diff"erence in range makes it improbable that the plant is identical with Aublet's species. Until more information is secured, it is impossible to dispose of the name definitely. BOTANY. — Diospyros conzattii, a new species of persimmon from Mexico. Paul C. Standley, U. S. National Museum.^ The National Museum has received recently from Prof. C. Con- zatti of Oaxaca, Mexico, specimens of a native persimmon which can not be referred satisfactorily to any of the ten species previously listed from the country. The Mexican species of the genus are en- demic, with two exceptions — Diospyros ebenaster Retz., an East Indian species with large fruit (4 to 7 cm. in diameter or larger), which is widely cultivated, being known commonly as "zapote prieto;" and D. texana Scheele, the "chapote" or "chapote prieto," which extends into western Texas. All the Mexican persimmons have edible fruit, whose pulp is usually black at maturity. The species here described is an interesting addition to the known trees of Mexico, especially since the collector has furnished such complete information concerning it. Diospyros conzattii Standi., sp. nov. Tree, 10 meters high, the branchlets minutely and sparsely fulvous-puberu- lent; petioles 4 to 6 mm. long, minutely puberulent or glabrous; leaf blades ovate-oblong or lance-oblong, 5 to 9 . 5 cm. long, 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 cm. wide, acumi- nate, acute or subobtuse at base, subcoriaceous, glabrous, somewhat lustrous above, the costa depressed, the lateral nerves nearly obsolete, the costa prominent beneath, the lateral nerves also prominent, slender, irregular, 5 or 6 on each side; fruits borne on short stout pedicels; calyx 5-parted, the lobes narrowly lance-oblong or linear-lanceolate, 15 to 18 mm. long, long-attenuate, glabrous or sparsely strigillose outside near the base; fruit depressed-globose, about 4 cm. broad and 2 cm. high, glabrous, green, the pulp black; seeds 5 to 10, strongly compressed, about 13 mm. long and 10 mm. broad, brown, finely rugulose. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,014,759, collected in the Cafetal San Rafael, Cerro Espino, Distrito de Pochutla, Oaxaca, Mexico, April 24, 1917, by C. Conzatti (no. 3167). " Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 98. 1918. ' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 26, 1922. 400 JOURNAL OF The; Washington acadbmy of sciences vol. 12, no. 17 Diospyros conzattii is not closely related to any of the species previously reported from Mexico, with the possible exception of D. blepharophylla Standi. (D. ciliala A. DC), a little-known plant, the type of which is said to have come from southern Mexico. That is described as having ovate- elliptic ciliate leaves, on longer petioles. From a manuscript work upon the edible fruits of Mexico, Professor Conzatti has furnished the following notes concerning the new species here described : "On the twenty-fourth of April, 1917, while making an excursion in the company of Senor E. Makrinius, manager of the Cafetal Concordia and its subsidiaries. District of Pochutla, Oaxaca, on the so-called Cerro Espino, upon which lies the Cafetal San Rafael, I had the good fortune to find among other things a medium-sized (10 meters) tree, known there as zapote negro monies. At that time of the year the tree bore leaves and ripe fruits. Samp- ling the fruits, with some suspicion at first, I found them quite to my taste and ate as many as I could. But I prefer to quote what I have already published in the Boleiin de la Direccion de EsHidios Biologicos :^ " 'The zapote negro monies is especially interesting because of its edible fruit, of exquisite flavor. With the exception of the chicozapote, I know of no other fruit which compares in quality with the zapote negro, and all the persons who have tried it are agreed in considering it superior to that. The fruits, which are perfectly round, and green outside, are much smaller than those of the common zapote negro {Diospyros ebenaster), being only 4 cm. in diameter and 2 cm. or slightly more in height, since they are somewhat depressed. " 'It seems to me that propagation of the tree should be relatively simple, taking into account the elevation (1,000 meters) at which it grows and the fact that it is native.' " BOTANY. — A new Salvinia from Trinidad.'^ William R. Maxon, National Museum. In Christensen's Index Filicum 13 species of water fernworts of the genus Salvinia are recognized, these mainly inhabitants of tropical regions. Of the few American species, 5. sprucei, known from a single collection in the Amazon region, has been unique in having ascending, somewhat cup-shaped leaves, in distinction from the plane blades of the small floating leaves of other species. Recently a new species closely allied to 5. sprucei has been collected in Trinidad. This is described below. = II. 3: 316. 1918. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 6, 1922. OCT. 19, 1922 proceedings: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 401 Salvinia cyathifcrmis Maxon, sp. nov Plants small, 1 to 1.5 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, or less; stem filiform (about 0.3 mm. thick), bearing a few deciduous short few-celled hairs. Submerged radiciform leaves imperfect, conceptacles wanting. Floating leaves few, 2 or 3 pairs (the nodes 3 or 4 mm. apart), petiolulate (about 0.5 mm.), olivaceous above, darker beneath, 5 to 6 mm. long, subflabelliform, cyathiform, truncate- subcordate at base, broadly rounded in the apical portion, not emarginate, conduplicate in drying, the folded blade 4 to 5 mm. broad, appearing cunei- form, with an acutish or narrowly roundish-cuneate base; midvein slight, subflexuous, hardly thicker than the lateral veins; main lateral veins 6 or 7 pairs, connected in oblong areoles oblique from the midvein, each areole subtending two narrowly oblong or linear areoles toward the margins, the excurrent veinlets mostly free, occasionally producing a minute areole; papillae numerous on the upper side in a wide marginal zone 1.5 to 2 mm. broad, linear, about 1 mm. long, borne mostly upon the ultimate cross-veins and between the excurrent veinlets, greenish-hyaline, cleft at the tip. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,058,520, collected from a pond at Cedros, Trinidad, December 20, 1914, by W. E. Broadway; received from the New York Botanical Garden. In habit and in form and venation of the floating leaves 5. cyathiformis resembles 5. sprucei Kuhn, of Brazil, founded on Spruce 1G36. That species as described and figured in the Flora Brasiliensis, and as known to the writer from a portion of the type collection courteously lent from Kew, has the leaves much less deeply cup-shaped, broadly cuneate, and devoid of papillae upon the upper surface, except for a few at the extreme margin that are so minute as to have escaped Kuhn's attention. The leaf substance of 5. sprucei is much thinner than that of 5. cyathiformis, and the venation is in consequence much more sharply defined. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 162nd meeting The 162nd meeting of the Academy, the 24th annual meeting, was held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, on Tuesday, January 10, 1922. The meeting was called to order by Vice- President Humphreys. Dr. Alfred H. Brooks, retiring President of the Academy, delivered an address, entitled. The scientist in the Federal service. This has since been published in the Journal of the Academy (12: 73-115. Feb. 19, 1922). Following the address the annual business meeting was held. The minutes of the 21st annual meeting were read and approved. The Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, reported briefly on the activities of the Acad- emy during the year. On January 1, 1922, the membership consisted of 6 honorarj^ members, 3 patrons, and 534 members, the total being 543, of whom 325 reside in or near the District of Columbia. Nine resignations were accepted diu-ing the year, and the Academy lost by death the following 402 JOURNAL OP The WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 members: Edward Chester Barnard, Frederic Perkins Dewey, Louis Albert Fischer, Franz A. R. Jung, Edward Bennett Rosa, Samuel Stockton Voorhees. Other matters dealt with included the movement initiated by the Botanical vSociety of sending scientific literature to the scien- tists of Russia, the wider distribution of the Journal to Continental Euro- pean countries, and the compilation by the committee of the Academy of a list of 100 popular books in science. The list, prepared at the suggestion of Dr. George F. Bowerman, Librarian of the Public Library of the District of Columbia, has been widely circulated and commented upon. The ac- tivities of the Academy in advocating the establishment of a national arbore- tum and botanical garden on Moimt Hamilton were also discussed. The Recording Secretary, William R. Maxon, reported also on the nine public meetings held during 1921, in addition to the annual meeting, at which illustrated lectures were delivered. Several of these were held jointly with one or more of the societies affiliated with the Academy. The titles and dates, and the place of publication of the lectures, were stated. The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, showed total receipts of $6,382.79 and total disbursements of $6,196.89; the cash balance on hand December 31, 1921, was $1,978.52. Investments of the Academy have a total par value of $15,036.37. The cost of printing the Journal in 1921 was $3,701.23, as against $2,550.00 for 1919 and $2,873.74 for 1920. The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of W. R. Gregg, S. H. Ayres, and E. G. Fischer, was read and the reports of the Treasurer and the Auditing Committee were accepted. The report of the Editors of the Journal was read by Robert B. Sosman, the senior Editor. Various economies, including change in make-up and in size of page, had made possible the publication of 537 pages in Volume 11, equivalent to about 620 pages of former volumes. Original articles, 53 in number, took up 61 per cent of the pagination. Proceedings of the Academy and the Affiliated Societies 18 per cent. Abstracts 11 per cent, and News, Notes and Index the remaining 10 per cent. The Committee of Tellers, consisting of H. W. Bearce, Robert H. Lom- bard, and Robert B. Sosman, reported that the following officers had been elected for 1922: President, W. J. Humphreys; Corresponding Secretary, F. B. Silsbee ; -Recording Secretary, William R. Maxon; Treasurer, R. L. Faris; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, G. E. Hale, D. C. Miller; Managers Class of 1925, L. J. Briggs, Robert B. Sosman. The following vice-presidents, nominated by the affiliated societies, were then elected: Archaeological Society, Austin H. Clark; Biological Society, Vernon Bailey; Botanical Society, Charles E. Chambliss; Chemical Society, R. C. WELLS ; Institute of Electrical Engineers, R. P. Parrott; Society of Engineers, J. S. Conway; Entomological Society, S. A. Rohwer; Society of Foresters, Raphael Zon; National Geographic Society, Frederick V. CovillE; Geological Society, G. W. Stose; Historical Society, AllEn C. Clark; Medical Society, A. W. Boswell; Philosophical Society, E. C. Crittenden. 163d meeting The 163d meeting was held jointly with the Philosophical Society of Wash- ington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Saturday, January 28, 1922. Dr. L. T. Troland, Professor of Psychology at Harvard University, delivered an address on Psycho-physics as the key to metaphysics. OCT. 19, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 403 This has been published in the Journal of the Academy (12: 141-162. March 19, 1922). 164th meeting The 164th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Geological Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, February 2, 1922. Prof. H. A. BrouwER of the Geological Institute, University of Delft, Holland, delivered an illustrated address, entitled The major tectonic features of the Dutch East Indies. This has been pubhshed in the Journal (12: 172-185. April 4, 1922). 165th meeting The 165th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Anthro- pological Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, February 16, 1922. Dr. H. U. Sverdrup, of Amundsen's Arctic Expedition, delivered an address, entitled. Customs of the Chukchi natives of northeastern Siberia. A full abstract of this lecture has been pubhshed in the Journal (12: 208-212. April 19, 1922). William R. Maxon, Recording Secretary. PHILOSOPHICAI. SOCIETY 865th meeting The 865th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium April 8, 1922, with President Crittenden in the chair, and 28 persons present. The President announced that a custom formerly prevailing — that of affording opportunity for the presentation of informal communications — would oe a regular feature of programs in the future. The following papers were presented: F. H. Smyth: Experimentation at high pressures and temperatures, with special reference to the fusion of calcium carbonate (illustrated). The essential apparatus necessary for work at high pressures and tempera- tures are (1) a strong-walled gas-proof container or bomb, and (2) an electric furnace within the bomb with which temperatures up to 1500 degrees may be obtained. Electrical leads for the furnace and for the thermo-elements used in measuring furnace temperatures, may be brought out through small holes in the bomb wall, insulated and made gas-tight by soapstone plugs rammed in under pressure around the wires. For pressures up to 1000 atm. a bomb of nickel steel of 10 cm. internal diameter, and 20 cm. depth, with a wall 7 cm. thick has been found satis- factory. The bomb wall is made with two shells, between which are grooves through which cooling water may be circulated. A small platinum wound resistance furnace of 14 mm. internal diameter is used as a heating element. Owing to the great heat losses due to convection in a gas atmosphere at high pressure, the furnace tube must be well baffled with small discs of refractory material, and the platinum crucible containing the heated charge must be in practically solid contact with the inside furnace wall. The system studied to date is the two component system CaO-CaCOa. The best previous work on this system has been done by Boeke (N. Jb. Min. 1912, 1, 91-121) under conditions which permitted pressures up to 300 atm. Boeke reports a reversible change from one form of solid CaCOa to another at 970 deg. The eutectic between CaO and CaCOs is given as 1218 deg., and the melting point of pure CaCOa as 1289 deg. at 110 atm. 404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 17 The results of the present investigation show that there is no change in solid CaCOs below the eutectic point. The eutectic hes between 1230 and 1240 deg., the corresponding gas pressures being 34 to 39 atm. The melting point of nearly pure CaCOg is 1335 deg., at a pressure of 1050 atm. Even under these conditions the fused carbonate contains a fraction of a per cent of lime. To get rid of the last traces of lime would probably require much higher pressures, but the melting point of the carbonate probably would not be greatly raised. E. D. Williamson: The prediction of solubility relations tender high pressure from compressibility measurements (illustrated) . Discussed by Mr. Hawkes- WORTH. It is somewhat difficult to make direct solubility measurements under high pressure and it is therefore important to observe that such solubility relations can be accurately and unequivocally determined by indirect methods. The following data must be first obtained : (a) a set of equilibrium measure- ments covering the derived concentration at atmospheric pressure — say, vapor pressure or electro-motive force determinations; (b) accurate density determinations at atmospheric pressure; (c) compressibility measurements on both solutions and pure substances. The lack of trustworthy compressi- bility results for solutions has so far made calculations worthless, but this gap is now being bridged. G. W. MorEy: 77-2^ production of pressure in magmas by crystallization (illustrated). Discussed by Messrs. Humphreys and White. It has been published in full in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 12: 219-230, 1922. At the conclusion of the regular program informal communications were presented by L. H. Adams on The stability of graphite and diamond, and by W. P. White on The existence of amorphous material in metals. 866th meeting The 866th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, May 6, 1922, with President Crittenden in the chair, and 36 persons present. Program : E. H. Bowie: The formation and movement of West Indian hurricanes. Discussed by Messrs. ly. H. Adams, Hawkesworth, Heyl, Kadel and Pawling. The formation and the manner of progression of the cyclones of all lati- tudes and especially those of the tropics have been perhaps more extensively referred to in the literature of meteorology than any other phenomena of the air. The old hypothesis accounted for their formation by the "clashing" of two or more major air currents, such as those that surge back and forth between the tropics and far northern latitudes. Ferrel took exception to this hypothesis and wrote extensively and rather convincingly on the part that local superheating of the lower air strata had to do with the formation of cyclones. The basis of Ferrel's hypothesis had back of it local heating and the deflective influence of the earth's rotation which gave rise to the counterclockwise circulation of the winds around a central region of warm or relatively warm air. Now, the hypothesis of local thermal convection as applied to the formation of cyclones rests exclusively on the supposition that cyclones are warm up to a considerable altitude. Free-air observations wherever made fail to prove this to be a fact, for in Europe the cyclone is found to be cold or relatively cold, while in the United States, at least east of OCT. 1',), 1022 proceedings: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 405 the 100th Meridian, the free-air observations disclose the fact that the eastern half of the cyclone is warm and the west half cold. No doubt if similar free-air observations were made in the far northwest in the winter months it would be found that, in cyclones in British Columbia, Alberta, Washington, Oregon and Montana, the western half of the cyclone is warm and the eastern half cold, for certainly the surface distribution of temperature implies just this temperature distribution in the free-air in that region. The inference is that the distribution of temperature in the cyclone is but a question of whence came the air that passes into and out of the cyclone, and that the temperature distribution therein is purely incidental and not fundamental to the origin of the cyclone itself. The other important hypothesis assigned the formation of the cyclone to the more general movements in the air and asks one to look beyond the immediate place of the origin of the cyclone for its cause. The hypothesis is referred to as the "counter-current theory" and its most ardent advocate in recent years has been Bigelow. The more recent presentation by Bjerknes seems but a modified and dilTerently presented account of the part counter-currents have in the formation of cyclones. It is assumed that these counter-currents on passing one another will cause a diminution of the air pressure above the intervening region, a welling up of the surface air strata, and thus bring about instability which will result in the formation of cyclones. It is also assumed that similar air currents passing one another in the reverse direction will bank together and produce ridges of high pressure or an ticy clonic areas. The existence of such counter-currents in the tropical and extra-tropical regions is well supported by observations. The deflective force of the earth's rotation is an important adjunct to the counter-current hypothesis and it follows that counter-currents passing one another on the right will maintain a belt of low barometeric pressure and those passing one another on the left will maintain a ridge of high barometric pressure between them. The energy arising from the condensation of water vapor after the cyclone has formed no doubt contributes to its length of life. Attempt is made to account for the progression of cyclones as moving along the region bounded by counter-currents, such as the "Polar Front" named by Bjerknes, although above the cyclone proper the air stream over and on both sides of the cyclone may and no doubt frequently does flow in the same general direction. E. B. Calvert: Radiating the weather (illustrated). Discussed by C. A. Briggs. Radio is an indispensable factor in the work of the Weather Bureau and since 1902, when the first storm warning was sent out by this means, it has become of constantly increasing importance in the collection of weather reports and in the dissemination of forecasts and warnings. The Weather Bureau early recognized the potentiality of radio telegraphy as an aid to its projects and was a pioneer among Government agencies in engaging in experiments and investigations looking toward developing and improving it. These experiments were begun in 1900 and continued for several years. During this period a transmitter and receiver were developed, the principles of which were in general use for a long time. Weather observations are collected daily from 210 places in the United vStates; '.iO in Canada; 36 in the West Indies, Cuba and South American countries; 12 in the Pacific and the Far East, including Honolulu, Guam, Midway Island, Philippines, China and Japan; 22 in Europe; 17 in Mexico 4()() JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI^. 12, NO. 17 and 9 in Alaska, from which a current daily meteorological chart of the northern hemisphere is prepared. These reports are obtained by telegraph, cable, telephone and radio, but the latter is used wholly or in part in connection with the collection and transmission of the observations from Europe, West Indies and South America, the Far East and Alaska. Radio is also used in providing the meteorological services of Europe, the Philippines and Japan with reports from the United States, Canada and Alaska in exchange. The vessel weather service is an important and exceedingly valuable feature of the work of the Weather Bureau. Radio communications are utilized almost exclusively in cormection therewith. Observations are taken regularly on vessels plying the south Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. These observations are radioed twice daily to the forecast centers at Washington and San Francisco and are charted in con- junction with land reports. Cyclone and anti-cyclone centers are located over these water areas, their intensity, direction of movement and rate of progress are determined, and forecasts and warnings are broadcast for the benefit of ships of all nations. During the year 1921 about 10,000 observa- tions were received by radio from ships at sea. The value of this service, especially during the hurricane season, in the saving of ships, lives and cargoes is enormous. The dissemination of the forecasts and warnings to ships is accomplished entirely by U. S. Naval radio stations. Comprehensive weather bulletins containing observations from land and sea areas, synopses of barom- eter distributions over land and sea, wind and weather forecasts for designated ocean zones and storm and hurricane Avarnings are broadcast twice daily from 5 high-power stations; and local bulletins and forecasts from 31 naval radio stations on the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts, and on the Great Lakes. This service for the benefit of navigation is the most complete, extensive and effective in the world. It has not been possible to extend the benefits of the weather forecasts, cold wave, heavy snow, frost and other warnings to the agricultural interests of the country as efi"ectively as to commercial and navigation interests, Ijecause of the inaccessibility of a large portion of farmers to the telegraph and telephone lines, and to newspapers by which they are distributed for the most part. The marvellous advance made in radio telephony offers a solution of this difficult and important problem. Farmers in increasing numbers are supplying themselves with receiving sets. The Weather Bureau has taken advantage of the opportunity and a system of broadcasting weather reports and warnings has been inaugurated in the different states. This system now embraces 80 stations in 34 states. P. R. Heyl: On a superior limit of n in Fermat's equation. Discussed by Messrs. Heal and Humphreys. If in Fermat's Equation x" -{- y" = z" we assign any arbitrary value to z we can find a critical value of n above which no integral solution of the equation is possible. This value of w is a slowly increasing function of z; hence by its means no general proof of Fermat's Last Theorem can be arrived ut. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 12 November 4, 1922 No. 18 PHYSICS. — Temperature changes accompanying isentropic, isen- ergic, and isenkaumic expansion.'^ Leason H. Adams, Geo- physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The pressure on a fluid may be changed from its initial value to some final value in several well-recognized ways. The temperature changes accompanying the release of pressure depend on the method by which the pressure is released, and may be calculated from the conventional equations of thermodynamics. It is the object of this communication to note, largely because of the connection with geo- physical problems, the changes in temperature of typical fluids when pressure is released according to three principal methods. These methods are as follows : (A) Reversible release of pressure. Isentropic expansion. — This, the most familiar of the three kinds of expansion, takes place when a fluid {i.e., a gas or a liquid) is expanded, for example in a cylinder with movable piston, without exchange of heat with the surroundings under such conditions that frictional effects are (sensibly) absent and slowly enough so that equilibrium is maintained, i. e., that the external force acting on the piston is (sensibly) equal to the opposing force exerted by the fluid. Under such conditions the entropy (5) of the fluid remains constant, the process is called isentropic, and the relation between temperature and pressure is given by the equatoin : -(f)r-f in which T is the absolute thermodynamic temperature, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, a is the coefficient of expansion — j , V being the volume of unit mass. The first member of 1 Received October 13, 1922. 407 ( 408 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIv. 12, NO. 18 . . bT the equation is written — — for convenience in representing the op rise in temperature due to decrease of pressure. (B) Explosive release of pressure. Isenergic expansion.—When pressure on a given amount of material is released in such a way that no heat is added to or taken away from the material and no work is done on or by the surroundings, the intrinsic energy (E) of the material remains constant, and the expansion may be termed isenergic. This type of expansion may be realized by allowing a gas to expand from one part of a container to another (evacuated) part, or — of more practical interest — ^by the sudden release of pressure on a liquid contained under high pressure in a bomb, e. g., by a breaking of the walls or by a blowing off of the lid. The relation between temperature and pressure in isenergic expan- sion is : ^p — aT \dp/E \dp J E Cp — ap (2) /bv\ jS being the compressibility, namely, — ( :r- ) (C) Porous plug release of pressure. Isenkaumic expansion. — The third variety of expansion occurs when a fluid — as before, insu- lated thermally from the surroundings — reduces its pressure by stream- ing through a porous plug or through a throttle of some sort. In this case a certain thermodynamic quantity, represented by the letter H and commonly called heat content, remains constant. The expression, heat content, is sometimes confused with heat capacity and, moreover, the two-word name does not lend itself well to the formation of derivatives. Thus, "isoheatcontentic" would be an awkward term. For these reasons a single-word equivalent of heat content would be desirable, and the word enkaumy^ is here proposed. In the process just considered the enkaumy remains constant, and for this isenkaumic expansion the relation between temperature and pressure is : '^^^ ="-^^ (3) _/bT bp/H Cp 2 Greek, Kavfia from Kautv to burn. Cf. obsolete English word, cauma, heat. For the suggestion of this root I wish to thank my colleague, Dr. Henry S. Washington. It is of interest to note that — AH, the difference in enkaumy of two states, is the exact equivalent of the heat of combustion, or the heat of reaction, at constant pressure. NOV. 4, 1922 ADAMS: temperature changes 409 The equations given for the three types of adiabatic expansion apply strictly only when the pressure on the substance is purely hydro- static, i. e., equal in all directions. This limits the rigorous application of such formulas, particularly (2) and (3), to liquids and gases; but if the pressure on a solid be many times the strength of the material, the pressure may be nearly equal in all directions, and the equations may then be used for calculating the piezo-thermal effects in solids. The error involved will naturally be smaller, the larger the pressure. For example, when a metal is extruded through a die by a pressure of many thousands of atmospheres, the rise in temperature can be estimated from equation (3) and the known properties of the metal. The temperature effects for the three kinds of expansion and for a number of typical substances are shown in the following table. Numerical Value of Temperature Rise for the Three Kinds of Expansion. —dT/dp IS THE Rise, in Degree Centigrade per Megabar Fall in Pressure dT/i>p Material Temp. Deg. C. Pressure megabars At. const. 5 (Isentropic) At. const. E (Isenergic) At. const. H (Isenkaumic) Nitrogen 0 1 -83.4 -0.38 -0.26 Hydrogen 0 1 -79.3 -0.02 +0.03 Water 20 1 -0.0013 -0.0013 +0.023 Water 20 4000 -0.0028 -0.0010 +0.021 Kerosene 20 1 -0.017 -0.017 +0.043 Lead 25 4000 -0.0020 -0.0013 +0.068 In making calculations with equations (1), (2) and (3) it is con- venient to take V in cubic centimeters per gram, p in megabars (1 megabar = 0.9869 atmosphere at latitude 40°), and Cp in deci- joules per gram per degree (1 calorie = 41.84 deci- joules). An alternative way is to take p in kilograms per square centimeter, and Cp in kilo- gram-centimeters per gram per degree. The values of ( :r- ) for nitrogen and hydrogen in the above \op/H table were not calculated from equation (3), but are the results of direct measurements of this, the Joule-Thomson effect. Likewise it /dT\ was more convenient to calculate (t~ ) for these gases from the relation : \PpJe C, which holds with sufficient accuracy for gases. In this equation n 410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 C-Pl and a form is written for ( ;— ) and a for ( — — ) . Values of both m and a for the more common gases are to be found in the literature. The kerosene referred to is the ordinary commercial product having a density of about 0.8. Probably the temperature always falls in isenergic expansion — at least over the range of temperatures and pressures which have hitherto been investigated. This is equivalent to the statement that the internal energy of a substance steadily decreases as the pressure is increased.^ Isentropic expansion causes a fall in temperature, except in those rare cases wkere the expansion coefficient is negative, e. g., water below 4° C. For isenkaumic expansion, however, there is no such regularity. At temperatures sufficiently high the temper- ature of a fluid rises during isenkaumic expansion; at intermediate temperatures it falls; while at still lower temperatures it again rises, except at pressures above a certain limit, under which conditions the change is always a rise.^ At moderate pressures there are thus two inversion points where (— — I changes sign. One is somewhere near the ordinary boiling-point, while the other is at a temperature several times the critical temperature. Since the (3p and ap terms in equation (2) are small for liquids except at high pressures ( — — 1 and I — — ) for ordinary liquids are practically identical at low or moderate pressures. It is hardly necessary to point out that for an ideal gas aT = 0p = v, and hence for an ideal gas the right-hand members of equations (2) and (3) reduce to zero. For ordinary solids and liquids v is much greater than a T; therefore —I J is practically equal to — . Thus, \ dp JH Cp the heating effect when such materials are expanded isenkaumically is nearly equal to the thermal equivalent of the work done {v6.p) in forcing the material through the porous plug or throttle — more ap- proximately the total heating effect is the algebraic sum of this thermal equivalent of the net work done on the substance, and of the cooling effect accompanying isentropic expansion, the latter being com- paratively small for all solids and liquids. For these materials, ' Cf. P. W. Bridgman. Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. 48: 348. 1912. ^ Cf. W. McC. Lewis. System of Physical Chemistry, Vol. II, p. 71. London, 1920. NOV. 4, 1922 COBLENTZ: THERMAL RADIANT ENERGY 411 therefore, we may, if we like, regard the rise in temperature during extrusion as being (nearly) that due to the conversion of the work expended on them into heat, this conversion being effected by friction along the walls or by internal friction (viscosity) ; but for gases, of course, this is not even approximately true. It is of interest in this connection to note the behavior of antimony when extruded through a small opening. According to Bridgman the extrusion at certain pressures proceeds slowly and ;-egularly, but if the pressure is raised to a certain critical value, the antimony comes out with almost explosive violence and in the form of a long, con- tinuous wire. Now the temperature rise for isenkaumic expansion of antimony is about the same as for lead, namely about 70° per 1000 megabars. Since the pressure was 10,000 megabars or more, the question may well be raised as to whether the antimony, in spite of heat losses, may not have been raised to its melting point at ordinary pressure, namely, 630° C. PHYSICS. — Some observations on the transformation of thermal radiant energy into electric current in molybdenite ^ W. W. CoblEntz, Bureau of Standards. As announced in the Bureau of Standards Tech. News Bulletin, No. 61 of May 11, 1922, during the past year the writer has been searching for a possible relation between (1) an e.m.f . which is observed in isolated spots in certain samples of molybdenite when exposed to thermal radiation but without an impressed e.m.f., and (2) the photo- electrical reaction (which is usually considered a change in resistance) exhibited in these same spots when subjected to an impressed e.m.f. and exposed to thermal radiation. The materials examined are narrow strips of molybdenite 1 to 6 cm. in length, soldered to copper wires which are connected with a Thomson galvanometer. Touching the copper-molybdenite junctures with a thin hot wire produces the well known thermal e.m.f. of a heterogeneous circuit. Touching the intervening parts of the crystal with the hot wire pro- duces no e.m.fs. On the other hand, focusing the short wave-length radiations from a Nernst glower or tungsten-ribbon lamp upon different parts of the » Received September 16, 1922. 412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 crystal, remote from the electrodes, produces, in some samples, local e.m.fs. which differ in magnitude and in polarity. Exposing a spot, exhibiting a high local e.m.f., to an equal energy spectrum, an electric current is generated which is a function of the intensity and the wave-length of the light stimulus, and of the thick- ness of the crystal. The maximum effect was produced by wave- lengths extending from 0.6 to 0.8 micron, and no e.m.f. was found for wave-lengths greater than 1 micron. The spots exhibiting local e.m.fs., caused by thermal radiation do not seem to coincide always with the spots exhibiting the photo- electrical reactions (change in resistance) when there is an impressed e.m.f. ; though further investigation may show that this is owing to the fact that the thermal e.m.f. effect is found to be extremely small in comparison with photoelectrical reaction. The polarity of this newly observed thermal e.m.f. may be photo- negative or photopositive, depending upon the wave-length of the thermal radiation stimulus just as was previously observed for the photoelectrical reaction (resistance change) when there is an external e.m.f. It is therefore an interesting question whether the so-called photoelectrical reactions in solids, when subjected to an impressed e.m.f., are an amplification of the e.m.fs. produced by the thermal radia- tion but without an impressed e.m.f. PHYSICS. — A device for recording electric contact using an electron tube generator and a radio-frequency spark. '^ Charles T. Zahn, Princeton University, (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.) It is sometimes desirable to have a convenient means of recording an electric contact of relatively short duration, of the order of one thousandth of a second. For a particular use it was found that various devices which have been used heretofore were either not satisfactory or not convenient. It was suggested that the use of the three-electrode electron tube generator might be successful. The following is a de- scription of some experiments performed at the radio laboratory of the Bureau of Standards with this end in view, and is given here simply to illustrate a new experimental method. The three-electrode electron tube generator was used as a source of radio-frequency alternating current to produce a radio-frequency 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. S. De- partment of Commerce. Received September 19, 1922. NOV. 4, 1922 ZAHN : RECORDING ELECTRIC CONTACT 413 Spark, by means of the high voltage induced in a coil whose natural frequency is the same as that of the applied field. (This radio fre- quency was about 300,000 cycles per second.) The duration of this spark was controlled by an electric contact within the generator cir- cuit, and registered by letting the spark puncture a moving piece of carbon paper. It was a matter of experiment to see how nearly the spark, with the particular arrangement used, followed the electric contact made and broken in the generator circuit. The exact arrangement of apparatus which was first used is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a simple electron tube generator and a rotating chopper K used to make and to break the contact at the filament terminal of the tube and thus to start and to stop the generation of radio-frequency current, respectively. The coil Ls is a large coil of Fig. 1. Generating circuit, commutation at filament terminal. the type known as "stagger wound" or sometimes as "spider web," and has a natural frequency of such a value that the generator can be tuned to it by means of the condenser C. By means of coupling the coil Ls with coils Li and L2, which are coupled to. each other, and tuning, a radio -frequency voltage is induced in the coil L3 sufficient to maintain a series of sparks between the coil terminals when they are brought close together as shown in Fig. 1 . The duration of this series of sparks is registered in the following manner. The chopper K is divided into alternate equal segments of insulating and conducting material so that the spark exists for equal time intervals separated by time inter\^als equal to those of the spark duration . A piece of carbon paper in the form of a cylinder is made to rotate about its axis in synchronism with the chopper by having it wrapped around a brass drum which is mechanically coupled to the shaft which rotates the 414 JOURNAI, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 chopper. One terminal of the coil L3 is connected to this brass drum and the other terminal in the form of a needle point is fastened within a millimeter's distance from the carbon paper. During the time when the chopper makes contact a spark passes between the needle point and the brass drum through the carbon paper, and while the contact is interrupted no spark passes. Thus the carbon paper is punctured at equal intervals around the cylinder. The arrangement of apparatus for another method of controlling the radio-frequency current is shown in Fig. 2. Here a resistance R of about 10 ohms, sufficient to prevent the generation of radio-fre- quency current, is inserted in the oscillating circuit of the tube. The chopper is connected across this resistance. When this resistance is short circuited by the chopper, radio-frequency current is generated. Fig. 2. Generating circuit, commutation by inserting resistance. This latter method is better for cases where sparking at the contact is objectionable, for in the former method the chopper interrupts the plate current. The following experimental details may be of interest. Several types of coil for .L3 and several types of electron tubes were tried. The stagger-wound coil gave the best results as regards power con- siderations. At first a General Electric Type P pliotron tube rated at 250 watts was used at rated plate voltages. This gave much more power than was necessary, so several other combinations were tried, to see whether enough power could be generated using 220 volts on the plate of the tube. With this latter plate voltage neither a General Electric Type P 250-watt tube, nor two General Electric Type U 50- watt tubes, nor four Western Electric Type E 5-watt tubes gave suffi- cient power : therefore, it was decided to use a single Type U tube with 500 volts on the plate. NOV. 4, 1922 zahn: recording electric contact 415 The following is an application of this electron tube recorder. In the Automotive Power Plant Section of the Bureau of Standards a method has been devised to record automatically the pressure-volume curve for a gas engine c>cle.- A mechanical arrangement was worked out which for any given pressure makes an electric contact con- tinuously during the time of the cycle when the pressure in the engine cylinder is greater than or equal to this given pressure. Thus the pressure in the engine cylinder is equal to this given pressure at times corresponding to the makes and the breaks of electric contact, and these times correspond to points on the curve whose ordinates are equal to the given pressure. It was attempted to register this time of contact by low-frequency sparks. A drum covered with carbon paper was to be rotated in synchronism with the engine, and for any given pressure the time of sparking would be registered on the paper. For the differ- ent pressures parallel lines would be registered, all of which together would give the pressure diagram in the form of an area of sparks. The Fig. 3. Carbon paper record of spark passing when chopper contact is closed. difficulties found in trying to use low-frequency methods should be obviated by applying the device described in this paper. The time of duration of the radio-frequency spark in the experi- ments described in the beginning of this paper is actually registered as a series of dots about a millimeter apart and the equality of time interval of contact and open circuit is registered on the carbon paper to an accuracy corresponding approximately to the distance between the dots just mentioned. It is believed that if the length of spark gap is reduced, the accuracy of the production of equal intervals can be con- siderably increased. The fact that a series of dots is obtained in- stead of a continuous cut in the paper is probably due to differences in conductivity of the paper at different points or to an effect on the tube generator due to the passing of the spark from the coil L3. The fre- quency of these dots is about one fiftieth that of the radio-frequency. 2 H. C. Dickinson and F. B. Newell, "A High-Speed Engine Pressure Indicator of the Balanced Diaphragm Type," Report No. 107 of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, 1921. Government Printing Office. 416 JOURNAI^ OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 The accompanying Fig. 3 is a reproduction of five series of these dots, each series corresponding to a different position of the needle. The first four series were taken with different speeds of rotation of the drum the maximum linear speed of the carbon paper being about 500 cm. per second ; the last series was registered with the direction of rotation reversed. This diagram shows that there could not have been a time lag in starting or stopping the generator corresponding to more than 2 millimeters on the carbon paper, i.e., there could not have been a lag of more than 1/2500 second. The writer is indebted to Mr. F. B. Newell for the loan of special apparatus used in performing these experiments and to Mr. L. E. Whittemore for valuable suggestions in the work. ZOOLOGY. — A new species of Nygolaimus, an outstanding genus of the Dorylaimidae} N. A. Cobb, United States Department of Agriculture. The Dorylaimidae constitute one of the largest famiHes of nemas, its type genus Dorylaimus alone doubtless containing many hundreds of species. For a time it appeared that the individuals comprising the family constituted an unusually homogenous group. Later discover- ies are dispelling this idea to a considerable extent. The form de- scribed herein belongs to one of the more outstanding genera, Nygo- laimus. It is too early to speculate very profitably as to the relation- ships of the Dorylaimidae to other nemic families, but the structure of Nygolaimus stimulates hypotheses. Recently the Dorylaimidae have come into consideration as an economic factor in the soil; additional information with regard to their structure and habits is therefore much to be desired, and this is one of the main reasons for the publication of the following note. 1.8 5.4 22. Y. 98.8 Nygolaimus denticulatus n. sp. i'.i'i'.'s i.6 i.'e iii' ^ • The thick layers of the transparent, colorless, naked cuticle, measuring five microns through near the head and fifteen microns on the tail, are traversed by very fine transverse striae, difficult of resolution, which are not altered on the lateral fields. It is barely possible with the highest powers to resolve these striae into rows of excessively faint dots. The striae are near the surface of the cuticle, probably in the thin outer layer, which measures about three-fourths of a micron in thickness. The contour of the body is plain. There are no dermal » Received October 19, 1922. NOV. 4, 1922 COBB : A New SPECIES OF NYGOL,AIMUS 417 appendages. On each lateral field, extending from near the head to the tail, there is a double series of sublateral pores not forming exact lines but arranged slightly irregularly, the distance between them aver- aging somewhat less than the diameter of the body. This distance, however, varies somewhat and is perhaps a little greater anteriorly than posteriorly, so that there are toward one hundred fifty pores on each lateral field. Each of these organs at its surface presents a slight but relatively broad depression in the cuticle. From the center of this depression there extends inward at right angles to the surface of the body a narrow tube, three-fourths of a micron in diameter, which extends to the lateral chord, where it rather suddenly expands and connects with a broadly saccate unicellular gland located in the tissue of the chord. These glands and ducts are a prominent feature of the anatomy of the living nema and strike the observer at first glance, jj^ especially if the nema be viewed dorso-ventrally. 'VU„ pl/'c vstbl The neck, which is cylin- droid posteriorly and more or less conoid anteriorly, becomes convex-conoid at the continuous, subtrun- cate to truncate, head. The mouth opening is cen- tral, depressed, and rela- tively conspicuous. It is surrounded by six conflu- ent, subspherical, well- developed lips, each sup- plied with two minute papillae which do not in- terfere with the rounded contour of the lip ; one of Somewhat oblique ventral head end of Nygclaimus denticulatus n.sp. and posterior labial papillae; amph, X 800 view of the ppl, anterior amphid; dnt, denticles Uning the wall of the pharynx; cav anl ph, cav md ph, cav post ph, anterior, median and posterior ■(■J^gjjj jg outward pointing segments of the pharynx; wn^r ^/t, wall of the pharynx; j +t, +t, 1 V> 1 SM5-c«/,subcuticle;o^, oesophagus ;/6, lip region; on M. ^^^ ^^^ °^^^^ ^^^° Dareiy onchium; has ph, hasQ oi fh^ vhaxynx; phc vsth, folds OUtward pointing. This in the vestibule. latter, the anterior one, is located near the border of the lip region ; the posterior one, somewhat farther back and on the outer surface of the lip region. It seems possi- ble that the lips, or some of them, present additional very faint papillae. The somewhat hexagonal lip region, which is nine microns high and 418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 eighteen microns wide, is distinctly set off by constriction; and espe- cially laterally, on account of the large and conspicuous amphids, lo- cated just at the base of the lip region. The pharynx is entered through a vestibule, more or less hexagonal when closed, about nine microns long and at its narrowest part, when the lips are at rest, normally not over one micron wide. The pharynx, like other parts of the anatomy, is distinctly dorylaimoid, but the very small left ventrally submedian tooth-like onchium, only six microns long and one and one-half microns wide at the base, instead of being tubular, as in Dorylaimus, is closed. The food does not pass through it, but to one side. Speaking broadly the pharynx is of double structure, — ^the anterior portion being somewhat napiform or fusiform, and the pos- terior more or less tubular or prismoid. To go into particulars, the pharynx may be said to be divided into four parts, arranged tandem, reached through a narrow vestibule from the somewhat flaring mouth opening. Part one, the shortest part, about five microns long, extends from the vestibule to the region opposite the apex of the solid onchium, and might be regarded as a portion of the vestibule. This portion of the pharynx is characterized by the presence in its wall of several short longitudinal ribs or refractive folds, no doubt six in number. The second portion of the pharynx, a little longer than the preceding and with it form- ^«^ . - ' ^^'^'^'* ing a broadly fusiform cavity, is the portion fflpost^ vw^ of the pharynx containing the onchium, and /** \^^'~ W is lined throughout the greater portion of its om/i V ^ .^ ^> length with a multitude of excessively fine lobMsuM^^- i./ denticles, apparently similar to those found Fig. 2. Front view of the lip in the pharynx of some mononchs, and, as ^^g^onoi NygoMmus ienticulatus ^ ■> n.sp. ppl ant, ppl post, anterior there, shghtly larger and more regular ante- ^^^ posterior labial papillae ; ph, riorly. The third portion, eleven microns pharynx; amph, amphid; loh long, is the anterior third of the tubular ^"^ ^"^'"' '^* '^'^ ^"*"?' ventrally . , , 1 M J 1 r . 1 1 and dorsally submedian lobes of part of the pharynx, while the fourth and ^^^^^^ ^^^.^^. ^„ „^,hium. longest portion, twenty microns long, is the posterior two-thirds of that tube. Thus the entire pharynx is nearly sixty microns long. The distinction between parts three and four is not very marked ; it manifests itself in the varying refractivity of the lining of the two parts, and also in the tendency of the posterior part to be more prismoid or cylindroid, while the anterior third tapers slightly from front to back. The thickness of the various parts of the highly refractive walls of the pharynx is somewhat variable, — from a NOV. 4, 1922 COBB : a new species of nygolaimus 419 half to one micron thick. The width of the main, that is, posterior, por- tion of the cavity of the pharynx is about four microns. The slender slightly arcuate onchium is one-third as long as the lip region is wide and when at rest reaches one-third the distance from its base to the anterior border of the head. It is a left ventrally submedian organ, and may almost be said to be set in a pharyngeal niche of its own. Not only is it slightly arcuate but the tendency is for its apex to be swung outward a little when at rest. It tapers from its base to its acute anterior extremity and at its widest part is about one-fourth as wide as the adjacent cuticle is thick. That portion of the compound pharnyx behind the base of the onchium is about one and one-half times as long as the part in front of it, vestibule included. It is the posterior two-thirds of the fusiform widest portion of the pharynx which is lined with the above-mentioned denticles. The large amphids, like the onchium, are very much like those of N. pachydermatus , and are very conspicuous, and externally somewhat escutcheon shaped; they have their front borders removed from the anterior extremity of the nema a distance about one-third as great as the corresponding diam- eter of the head. They are about three-fifths as wide as the corre- sponding part of the head and nearly as long as wide. There are no eyespots. The oesophagus, which is dorylaimoid, enlarges somewhat gradually near the middle; the two parts of the oesophagus are not very clearly set off from each other. Behind the pharynx the oesophagus is about one-third, at the nerve ring about one-fourth, and finally about one-half as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. The lining of the oesophagus is a very distinct feature throughout its length ; anteriorly it is tubular and highly refractive and about one- fourth as wide as the oesophagus ; posteriorly it is more distinctly triquet- rous and somewhat wider — again about one-fourth as wide as the corre- sponding portion of the oesophagus. The musculature of the oesoph- agus is rather coarse and colorless. It is not yet known positively whether there are any glands in the tissue of the oesophagus — ^but it is almost certain that they are present. The conoid cardia is about one-third as wide as the base of the neck. There are no valves in the oesophagus. The rather opaque thick-walled intestine, which presents a faint, very slightly zigzag lumen, becomes at once one- half 'as wide as the body, and is separated from the oesophagus by a coUum about one-third as wide as the base of the neck. It is com- posed of cells of such a size that about six are presented in each cross section. There is a distinct pre-rectum about five times as long as 420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 the corresponding width of the body. It is set off from the intestine not only by being slightly less in diameter but by being more nearly colorless; the intestine itself is yellowish on account of the pres- ence in its cells of certain exceedingly fine yellowish granules. The rectum is readily seen to lead inward and forward from the depressed anus a distance about equal to the anal body diameter. The anus is a transverse slit two-fifths as wide as the corresponding portion of the body. The fine granules of rather variable size which are numerous in the cells of the intestine are some of them yellowish in color and taken altogether so arranged as to give rise to a faint tessellated effect. The largest of them are not much over one micron across. The tail is nearly hemispherical. There is no spinneret and there are no caudal setae. Extending backward and outward from the conoid protoplasmic "core" of the tail there are ten to twelve innervations, which are much less clearly visible than are the two tubes leading outward and backward from the two lateral glands located in the tail, — ^the final members of the lateral series already mentioned. Similar innerva- tions occur toward the head end of the nema and probably to a less extent throughout the body. The cuticle on the tail is very much thicker than elsewhere (15 microns) and is characterized by the pres- ence in it of longitudinal markings which indicate that it is probably finely laminated. The lateral chords, about one-sixth as wide as the body, are deep, about as thick as the body wall — and are coarsely granular. Their cells are made up largely of subspherical granules closely packed together and of such a size that the largest, some four microns across, are about one-twentieth as wide as the body. Among these granules are scattered others, ellipsoidal, measuring up to one micron, and characterized by blackening in Flemming's solution. The nerve ring, which surrounds the oesophagus somewhat squarely, is accompanied by numerous rather obscure nerve cells. Nothing is known concerning the renette. Nothing is known con- cerning the sexual organs. Habitat: Found in soil collected by Prof. J. R. Christie at Falls Church, Va., August 29, 1922. Only one young specimen seen. Examined and measured alive in water, and afterwards fixed in Flemming's solution and examined in glycerine. Nygolaimus is manifestly related to Dorylaimus. It undoubtedly belongs to the Dorylaimidae, although it may possibly be regarded as a "transition form." Some features of the pharynx remind one strongly of Mononchus. The new onchia are sometimes prepared some dis- NOV. 4, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : BOTANICAL SOCIETY 421 tance behind the pharynx, as in Dorylaimus. N. denticulatus appears to be closely related to N. pachydermatus , in which quite possibly dermal pores may have been overlooked. The mouth structures of Nygolaimi appear to harmonize with the supposition that the lip region can be expanded and the lips everted. Otherwise it is rather difficult to understand how the onchium can be efficiently used. The denticles are in relatively about the same posi- tion as in Mononchus, subgenus Mylonchulus, but not in two distinct patches. It seems quite apparent that the vestibule, when closed, is disposed in folds which would admit of its opening out in accordance with the above supposition. The Nygolairas are carnivorous. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY 156th meeting The 156th meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held at the Cosmos Club, on January 3, 1922, with about 75 members and guests present, and President Safford in the chair. Messrs. Ernst F. Artsch- WAGER, Arthur C. Dillman, Dr. Chas. Drechsler, Dr. Arthur S. Rhoads, Ernst S. Schultz, Victor F. Tapke, and W. H. Tisdale, all of the Bureau of Plant Industry, were elected members of the Society. Brief notes and reviews of literature. — P. L. Ricker stated that the letter from Dr. Henry Muhlenberg, written in 1809, and containing a list of the flora of the District of Columbia had already been purchased by Mr. W. L. McAtee. W. W. Diehl spoke of the desirability of making of a list of the fungus flora of the District. Mr. Ricker added that a tentative list of the mycological flora of the District was now being prepared. Regular program: L. R. Jones: Predisposition and resistance to disease in plants. Plant pathology is now in a transition period. For some time we have been talking of disease resistance without getting much nearer to the fundamentals underlying this resistance. Such questions must be answered as the par- ticular relation of a particular parasite to a plant, the relation of environment to resistance, etc. Much of the work of pathologists has been and still is the search for re- sistant strains or varieties of plants to certain diseases. This is a work which the geneticist and horticulturist can do far better than the plant pathol- ogist. The latter' s particular field is not to search for resistant strains, much as this is worth while, but to search for causes of resistance. This involves a study of cell pathology, the study of a single parasite and of single cells of the host plant. Only a beginning has been made on this fundamental work. 422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 18 Symposium on plant breeding for disease resistance. W. J. HuMPHREv, Cereal crops. — In the cereal crops some diseases were transmitted with the seed as in the case of the smuts. Some measure of suc- cess had been achieved with seed treatment, both with the use of chemicals and the hot water treatment. It is not enough to develop a disease-resis- tant grain, for some of the grains developed by cross breeding, while highly- resistant to certain diseases, lacked in milling qualities or in yield. The aim of the plant pathologist and the plant breeder was to secure not only disease- resistant varieties of grain, but to secure grain of good yield and quality. W. W. Gilbert, Cotton, truck and forage plants. — A double gain was ob- tained by securing disease resistant plants; a gain in the product itself and a gain in the greater utilization of the land. There are certain requisites for selection and hybridization, to get disease resistant varieties or species. 1. The land must be naturally or artificially infected. 2. Work must be carried on in an environment suitable for the disease. 3. The use of a large number of varieties or strains. The question arises. Is disease resistance in plants permanent? The failure of the cotton farmer to continue selection in the case of wilt-resistant cotton, shows how this resistance to disease becomes lessened. Resistance to disease is specific. One variety or one plant may be resistant to one dis- ease, but that does not signify a resistance to all other diseases. MerTon B. Waite, Fruits. — Much of the early work in breeding for dis- ease resistance in plants was carried on by natural selection, the survival of the fittest, as well as consciously by orchardists. The gardener and orchard- ist have done as much as the plant breeder or plant pathologist along this line. A number of projects were being worked in the Bureau of Plant Indus- try, including Dr. Swingle's work of breeding for resistance to citrus canker. The breeding of resistant stocks was emphasized as being important. P. L. RiCKER, Grasses.— 'New grasses are being introduced into this country from various foreign countries. Some of these are found to be subject to variou diseases in their native country, as well as in this country. One of the biggest problems is in connection with lawn grasses on golf links, which suffered from so-called sun scald, which was found to be a Rhizoctonia. Strains of grasses which were resistant to this disease in one year, were propa- gated vegetatively and were fairly immune for a couple of years, but in the third year were wiped out completely. Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol.. 12 November 19, 1922 No. 19 MATHEMATICS. — Values of sine 6 and cosine d to jj places of decimals for various values of 9 expressed in sexagesimal seconds.^ C. B. Van Orstrand and Marvin A. Shoultes, Geological Survey. One hundred preliminary values of both the sine and cosine were computed several years ago in collaboration with the late Dr. George F. Becker with the object in view of constructing complete tables of the natural values of the six trigonometric functions. In the mean- time Professor J. Peters- published 870 values of the sine, and cosine, to 21 places of decimals, the interval of the argument for the first 10' being 1", and for the remainder of the semiquadrant, 10'. During the interval 1911-18, the elaborate tables to 15 places of decimals by Professor H. Andoyer^ of the University of Paris were published. An unnumbered volume contains values of the logarithmic sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents; and in volumes 1 to 3, respectively, are tabulated natural sines and cosines; tangents and cotangents; secants and cosecants. The interval of the argument in all of the tables is 10". Volume 1 contains also natural values of each of the six trigonometric functions to 20 decimals for arguments expressed in hundredths of a quadrant. Andoyer's tables are the first to replace the great work of George Joachim Rheticus consisting of the Opus Palatinum, published in 1596 and containing 10 place values at in- tervals of 10" for all of the trigonometric functions ; and the Thesaurus Mathematicus which was published in 1613 and contains 15 place values of the natural sine at intervals of 10" throughout the entire quadrant, and in addition, values of the same function to the same 1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received June 30, 1922. - Peters. J. Einundzwanzigstellige Werte der Funktionen Sinus und Cosinus zur gen- auen Berechnung von zwanzigstelligen Werten sdmtlicher trigonometrischen Funktionen eines beliebigen Arguments sowie ihrer Logarithmen. Abh. Konigl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1-54. 1911. 3 Andoyer, H. Nouvelles tables trigonometriques fondamentales (logarithmes) ; same (valeurs naturelles). •■■ 423 424 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 number of decimals at intervals of 1" for the first and last degree of the quadrant. Detailed information in regard to these and other tables is given by Andoyer, Glaisher/ and Horsburgh.^ The fundamental values required for the evaluation of the func- tions tabulated in the accompanying tables were obtained by the substitution of X = 0.04848 13681 10953 59935 89914 10235 79479 760 in the series, thus obtaining values of sin d and cos 6 for 10,000". The values for 1", 10", 100", and 1000" were then easily obtained from the preceding computations of x'/n! by making the appropriate displacements in the decimal point. With these values as a basis, new values were computed at equal intervals of the argument by means of repeated applications of the formulae for sin {x + y) and cos {x -\- y). Both functions were computed at the same time with a "Millionaire" computing machine. Each computation was verified independently. We have for example. Sin {x ^ y) = sin x cos y ='= cos x sin y. By addition of the last to the preceding term of this equation we obtain sin {x -\- y), a new quantity; similarly by subtraction, we obtain sin {x — y), 2i quantity previously computed. Apart from checks provided by each subsequent interpolation at equal intervals, comparisons were of course made at 15°, 30°, and 45° by means of the known values^ of ■\/2, V3, and \/6. All of the computations were carried to 35 places of decimals. Andoyer's table 1, volume 1, contains expansions in series for each of the six trigonometric functions, the variable angle being written, X ir/2- The coefficients in these series are tabulated to 24 places of decimals. In table 3, volume 1, each function is tabulated to 17 places of decimals at intervals of 9'. Tables I and II may be useful in connection with these tables and the tables of Peters previously mentioned. A careful comparison of our values with the correspond- ing values given by Peters and Andoyer revealed no errors in any of the computations. The plus signs following Andoyer's tabulations were also found to be given correctly. * See article. Table, mathematical, in Encyclopedia Brilannica. * HoRSBURGH, E. M. Modern instruments and methods of calculation, a handbook of the Napier tercentenary exhibition. ' « Bookman, J. M. Square-root notes. Math. Mag. 1: 207-8. 1882^. Martin, A. Extraction of the square roots by series. Math. Mag. 1: 164-5. 1882-4. NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES : TABLES 425 TABLE I.— Values of Sine 0 e' Sine e 1 0.00000 48481 36811 07636 78200 79090 941 2 .00000 96962 73622 03878 29452 38417 064 3 .00001 45444 10432 77329 26805 60891 947 4 .00001 93925 47243 16594 43311 34785 949 • 5 0.00002 42406 84053 10278 52020 56404 615 6 .00002 90888 20862 46986 25984 32767 058 7 .00003 39369 57671 15322 38253 84284 359 8 .00003 87850 94479 03891 61880 47437 958 9 .00004 36332 31286 01298 69915 77458 047 10 0.00004 84813 68091 96148 35411 51001 965 11 .00005 33295 04896 77045 31419 68832 588 12 .00005 81776 41700 32594 30992 58496 724 13 .00006 30257 78502 51400 07182 77003 508 14 .00006 78739 15303 22067 33043 13502 792 15 0.00007 27220 52102 33200 81626 91963 541 16 .00007 75701 88899 73405 25987 73852 222 17 .00008 24183 25695 31285 39179 60811 203 18 .00008 72664 62488 95445 94256 97337 142 19 .00009 21145 99280 54491 64274 73459 381 20 0.00009 69627 36069 97027 22288 27418 340 21 .00010 18108 72857 11657 41353 48343 911 22 .00010 66590 09641 86986 94526 78933 846 23 .00011 15071 46424 11620 54865 18132 160 24 .00011 63552 83203 74162 95426 23807 513 25 0.00012 12034 19980 63218 89268 15431 611 26 .00012 60515 56754 67393 09449 76757 598 27 .00013 08996 93525 75290 29030 58498 445 28 .00013 57478 30293 75515 21070 81005 348 29 .00014 05959 67058 56672 58631 36946 118 30 0.00014 54441 03820 07367 14773 93983 577 31 .00015 02922 40578 16203 62560 97453 948 32 .00015 51403 77332 71786 75055 73045 251 33 .00015 99885 14083 62721 25322 29475 695 34 .00016 48366 60830 77611 86425 61172 069 35 0.00016 96847 87574 05063 31431 50948 141 36 .00017 45329 24313 33680 33406 72683 045 37 .00017 93810 61048 52067 65418 93999 675 , 38 .00018 42291 97779 48830 00536 78943 085 39 .00018 90773 34506 12572 11829 90658 871 40 0.00019 39254 71228 31898 72368 94071 575 41 .00019 87736 07945 95414 55225 58563 071 42 .00020 36217 44658 91724 33472 60650 959 43 .00020 84698 81367 09432 80183 86666 963 44 .00021 33180 18070 37144 68434 35435 318 45 0.00021 81661 54768 63464 71300 20951 167 46 .00022 30142 91461 76997 61858 75058 953 47 .00022 78624 28149 66348 13188 50130 812 48 .00023 27105 64832 20120 98369 21744 966 49 .00023 75587 01509 26920 90481 91364 117 • 50 0.00024 24068 38180 75352 62608 89013 840 ' 426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 1. — Values of Sine d {Continued) $' Sine e 50 0.00024 24068 38180 75352 62608 89013 840 51 .00024 72549 74846 54020 87833 75960 974 52 .00025 21031 11506 51530 39241 47392 018 53 .00025 69512 48160 56485 89918 35091 522 54 .00026 17993 84808 57492 12952 10120 483 55 0.00026 66475 21450 43153 81431 85494 734 56 .00027 14956 58086 02075 68448 18863 341 57 .00027 63437 94715 22862 47093 15186 994 58 .00028 11919 31337 94118 90460 29416 399 59 .00028 60400 67954 04449 71644 69170 673 60 0.00029 08882 04563 42459 63742 97415 740 61 .00029 57363 41165 96753 39853 35142 716 62 .00030 05844 77761 55935 73075 64046 310 63 .00030 54326 14350 08611 36511 29203 213 64 .00031 02807 50931 43385 03263 41750 491 65 0.00031 51288 87505 48861 46436 81563 982 66 .00031 99770 24072 13645 39137 99936 684 67 .00032 48251 60631 26341 54475 22257 150 68 .00032 96732 97182 75554 65558 50687 882 69 .00033 45214 33726 49889 45499 66843 724 70 0.00033 93695 70262 37950 67412 34470 254 71 .00034 42177 06790 28343 04412 02122 178 72 .00034 90658 43310 09671 29616 05841 721 73 .00035 39139 79821 70540 16143 71837 023 74 .00035 87621 16324 99554 37116 19160 531 75 0,00036 36102 52819 85318 65656 62387 390 76 .00036 84583 89306 16437 74890 14293 839 77 .00037 33065 25783 81516 37943 88535 603 78 .00037 81546 62252 69159 27947 02326 285 79 .00038 30027 98712 67971 18030 79115 761 80 0.00038 78509 35163 66556 81328 51268 570 81 .00039 26990 71605 53520 90975 62742 310 82 .00039 75472 08038 17468 20109 71766 029 83 .00040 23953 44461 47003 41870 53518 620 84 .00040 72434 80875 30731 29400 02807 212 85 0.00041 20916 17279 57256 55842 36745 565 86 .00041 69397 53674 15183 94343 97432 460 87 .00042 17878 90058 93118 18053 54630 094 88 .00042 66360 26433 79664 00122 08442 474 89 .00043 14841 62798 63426 13702 91993 809 90 0.00043 63322 99153 33009 31951 74106 900 91 .00044 11804 35497 77018 28026 61981 538 92 .00044 60285 71831 84057 75088 03872 894 93 .00045 08767 08155 42732 46298 91769 913 94 .00045 57248 44468 41647 14824 64073 705 95 0.00046 05729 80770 69406 53833 08275 940 96 • .00046 54211 17062 14615 36494 63637 242 97 .00047 02692 53342 65878 35982 23865 578 98 .00047 51173 89612 11800 25471 39794 654 99 .00047 99655 25870 40985 78140 22062 307 100 0.00048 48136 62117 42039 67169 43788 898 NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES: TABLES 427 TABLE 1. — Values of Sine e {Continued) e" 100 0.00048 48136 62117 Since 42039 67169 43788 898 0 0 01 n 40 200 .00096 96272 10282 15256 89823 20807 032 0 03 20 300 .00145 44405 30541 53507 62744 90817 111 0 05 00 400 .00193 92535 08942 96004 59253 71238 703 0 06 40 500 0.00242 40660 31533 89995 70314 77452 941 0 08 20 600 .00290 88779 84361 93442 43460 76882 902 0 10 00 700 .00339 36892 53474 77698 21461 61448 455 0 11 40 800 .00387 84997 24920 30186 80679 43000 289 0 13 20 900 .00436 33092 84746 57080 69045 76345 248 0 15 00 1000 0.00484 81178 19001 85979 43598 14483 948 0 16 40 2000 .00969 61216 85978 39588 10784 88351 447 0 33 20 3000 .01454 38976 51582 65677 03848 45733 109 0 50 00 4000 .01939 13317 71824 37245 47571 94786 397 1 06 40 5000 0.02423 83101 10748 13776 78016 39085 971 1 23 20 6000 .02908 47187 43111 40688 85777 50013 596 1 40 00 7000 .03393 04437 57062 23604 67590 79056 606 1 56 40 8000 .03877 53712 56816 71148 99343 73318 846 2 13 20 9000 .04361 93873 65335 99978 17530 77209 944 2 30 00 10000 0.04846 23782 27002 95750 84955 84328 790 2 46 40 11000 .05330 42300 10298 23748 20045 37349 674 3 03 20 12000 .05814 48289 10475 82853 87480 16847 071 3 20 00 13000 .06298 40611 52237 96604 80984 34293 964 3 36 40 14000 .06782 18129 92409 35025 77020 37025 599 3 53 20 15000 0.07265 79707 22610 60962 00827 96120 115 4 10 00 16000 .07749 24206 71930 94626 23706 99519 970 4 26 40 17000 .08232 50492 09599 90078 02676 95188 826 4 43 20 18000 .08715 57427 47658 17355 80642 70837 473 5 00 00 19000 .09198 43877 43627 43983 86954 31224 866 5 16 40 20000 0.09681 08707 03179 09579 14761 20018 367 5 33 20 21000 .10163 50781 82801 87285 02823 74772 066 5 50 00 22000 . 10645 68967 92468 25762 15451 10176 599 6 06 40 23000 .11127 62131 98299 65468 94977 71117 421 6 23 20 24000 .11609 29141 25230 22967 56665 23380 711 6 40 00 25000 0.12090 68863 59669 36994 06114 61572 998 6 56 40 26000 . 12571 80167 52162 70034 84187 81870 530 7 13 20 27000 . 13052 61922 20051 59154 84062 27895 489 7 30 00 28000 . 13533 12997 50131 09826 39365 73063 912 7 46 40 29000 . 14013 32264 01306 26511 51356 19346 678 8 03 20 30000 0.14493 18593 07246 73754 06813 03177 897 8 20 00 31000 . 14972 70856 79039 61542 36681 02368 752 8 36 40 32000 .15451 87928 07840 48706 78550 96980 932 8 53 20 33000 . 15930 68680 67522 58121 33757 81353 360 9 10 00 34000 . 16409 11989 17323 97482 52220 48582 552 9 26 40 35000 0.16887 16729 04492 79443 35126 33030 004 9 43 20 428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 1. — VAI.UES OF Sine B {Continued) e" Sine e 35000 0.16887 16729 04492 79443 35126 33030 004 36000 .17364 81776 66930 34885 17166 26769 314 37000 .17842 06009 35832 13114 76243 73816 845 38000 .18318 88305 38326 62779 19399 48689 692 39000 .18795 27544 00111 87296 09103 66159 291 e O / ff 9 43 20 10 00 00 10 16 40 10 33 20 10 50 00 40000 41000 42000 43000 44000 0.19271 . 19746 .20221 .20696 .21170 22605 72371 75723 31545 38722 48089 12997 32037 51505 29410 68602 53028 93118 39198 74548 24054 93175 00611 33167 29811 35580 20166 09131 44529 16675 049 624 373 770 828 11 06 40 11 23 20 11 40 00 11 56 40 12 13 20 45000 46000 47000 48000 49000 0.21643 .22117 .22589 .23061 .23533 96139 02683 57243 58707 05966 38102 66887 24644 42440 76137 87975 77654 80057 17845 60553 95536 59084 85664 01983 51441 69617 24833 86355 49292 77436 940 467 610 939 051 12 30 00 12 46 40 13 03 20 13 20 00 13 36 40 50000 51000 52000 53000 54000 0.24003 .24474 .24944 .25413 .25881 97913 33439 11440 30812 90451 09005 54323 57981 01078 02520 91962 77999 29065 50664 76234 72430 82076 51653 78138 88988 91690 32813 08864 55503 37624 162 311 737 119 048 13 53 20 14 10 00 14 26 40 14 43 20 15 00 00 55000 56000 57000 58000 59000 0.26349 .26817 .27283 .27750 .28215 89256 26127 99966 09676 54161 21610 60637 67461 38095 19287 76070 36254 01504 75871 75199 64197 21023 82378 39833 26412 81812 94984 06002 40833 51393 046 500 119 418 960 15 16 40 15 33 20 15 50 00 16 06 40 16 23 20 60000 61000 62000 63000 64000 0.28680 .29144 .29607 .30070 .30532 32327 43081 85334 57995 59976 11090 69434 08699 04273 95113 25310 99844 91717 12162 11324 32801 33369 35320 25471 64497 73167 63357 12347 35931 20020 158 123 692 073 700 16 40 00 16 56 40 17 13 20 17 30 00 17 46 40 65000 66000 67000 68000 69000 0.30993 .31454 .31914 .32373 .32831 90193 47561 30997 39420 71752 86305 51613 36030 58321 13561 14396 67280 85779 02334 04313 67978 17265 60933 99482 91905 45929 82039 62815 31479 07868 734 423 731 140 057 18 03 20 18 20 00 18 36 40 18 53 20 19 10 00 70000 71000 72000 73000 74000 0.33289 .33746 .34202 .34657 .35111 26914 03832 01433 18643 54394 75676 99974 25668 78407 72788 57891 11559 73304 55530 81774 82749 22352 40996 39759 76892 34745 97522 14682 36664 14440 209 744 259 117 613 19 26 40 19 43 20 20 00 00 20 16 40 20 33 20 75000 76000 77000 78000 79000 0.35565 .36017 .36469 .36920 .37370 07618 77248 62220 61473 73946 14876 04710 38811 12684 23310 49311 41724 85553 45119 49660 58452 85846 70672 98878 11760 17291 71617 05417 30071 53564 041 039 247 688 587 20 50 00 21 06 40 21 23 20 21 40 00 21 56 40 80000 0.37819 98581 71642 46893 70567 45860 696 22 13 20 NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES : TABLES 429 TABLE 1.- —Values of Sine 0 ( Continue d) 9 B" Sine d o n 80000 0.37819 98581 71642 46893 70567 45860 696 22 13 20 81000 .38268 34323 65089 77172 84599 84030 399 22 30 00 82000 .38715 80118 20000 62367 09516 7.5664 442 22 46 40 83000 .39162 34913 64139 03650 63151 45548 608 23 03 20 84000 .39607 97660 39156 82369 60433 91609 744 23 20 00 85000 0.40052 67311 03060 58179 36996 58697 610 23 36 40 86000 .40496 42820 32673 58653 12675 97568 048 23 53 20 87000 .40939 23145 26092 54.575 41387 •94119 105 24 10 00 88000 .41381 07245 05139 15146 02720 61105 513 24 26 40 89000 .41821 94081 17806 37332 13027 39853 214 24 43 20 90000 0.42261 82617 40699 4.3618 69784 89647 730 25 00 00 91000 .42700 71819 81471 42419 92477 42377 872 25 16 40 92000 .43138 60656 81253 4.5426 86252 32813 699 25 33 20 93000 .43575 48099 17079 36179 31028 12022 586 25 50 00 94000 .44011 33120 04304 84162 88601 12690 874 26 06 40 95000 0.44446 14694 99020 98745 23555 28775 780 26 23 20 96000 .44879 91802 00462 17278 50403 34733 143 26 40 00 97000 .45312 6.3421 53408 21708 49345 06908 387 26 56 40 98000 .45744 28536 50580 78044 36287 95557 841 27 13 20 99000 .46174 86132 35033 930.56 29306 73135 623 27 30 00 100000 0.46604 35197 02.538 82.582 23487 64495 630 27 46 40 101000 .47032 74721 03962 4.5838 69080 27959 114 28 03 20 102000 .47460 03697 47640 40144 44030 52184 505 28 20 00 103000 .47886 21122 01743 50480 21260 80880 521 28 36 40 104000 .48311 25992 96638 48321 53464 63171 169 28 53 20 105000 0.48735 17311 27242 34196 33658 08586 089 29 10 00 106000 .49157 94080 5.5370 58433 38248 28214 527 29 26 40 107000 .49579 55307 12079 14582 20902 62875 705 29 43 20 108000 .50000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 000 30 00 00 109000 .50419 27170 95670 38115 69879 97569 601 30 16 40 110000 0.50837 35834 51855 56896 66444 69809 366 30 33 20 111000 .51254 25007 99865 18058 30874 18895 538 30 50 00 112000 .51669 93711 51862 91572 41254 63063 465 31 06 40 113000 .52084 40968 03169 70045 20754 27285 637 31 23 20 114000 . 52497 65803 34560 17551 82577 11220 776 31 40 00 115000 0.52909 67246 14552 47529 36243 83473 826 31 56 40 116000 .53320 44328 01691 24346 56755 94519 073 32 13 20 117000 .53729 96083 46823 83184 07855 46267 707 32 30 00 118000 .54138 21549 95369 62875 12861 67817 392 32 46 40 119000 .54545 19767 89582 46372 81410 58369 706 33 03 20 120000 0.54950 89780 70806 03526 27803 74050 134 33 20 00 121000 .55355 30634 81722 30864 56553 30355 275 33 36 40 122000 .55758 41379 68592 83103 43050 11746 238 33 53 20 123000 .56160 21067 83492 91107 02043 40781 882 34 10 00 124000 .56560 68754 86538 61053 13764 48220 929 34 26 40 125000 0.56959 83499 48106 49567 67013 60694 550 34 43 20 430 JOURNAI. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 1.- —Values of Sine 0 {Continued) B' Sine e O 6 / n 125000 0.56959 83499 48106 49567 67013 60694 550 34 43 20 126000 .57357 64363 51046 09610 80319 12826 158 35 00 00 127000 .57754 10411 92885 01914 76330 96100 449 35 16 40 128000 .58149 20712 88026 66790 10886 48582 988 35 33 20 129000 .58542 94337 69940 51134 96645 10259 519 35 50 00 130000 0.58935 30360 93344 85499 11787 32161 758 36 06 40 131000 .59326 27860 36382 06072 46974 18896 909 36 23 20 132000 .59715 85917 02786 16485 18521 60583 960 36 40 00 133000 .60104 03615 24042 84324 62520 00059 672 36 56 40 134000 .60490 80042 61541 67292 23380 84844 332 37 13 20 135000 0.60876 14290 08720 63941 60975 42898 164 37 30 00 136000 .61260 05451 93202 83957 23105 40752 806 37 46 40 137000 .61642 52625 78925 32951 64466 48319 867 38 03 20 138000 .62023 54912 68260 06777 39492 34865 251 38 20 00 139000 .62403 11417 04126 90368 54453 15852 926 38 36 40 140000 0.62781 21246 72098 56145 33886 93521 289 38 53 20 141000 .63157 83513 02497 57034 37819 90534 395 39 10 00 142000 .63532 97330 72485 09175 59238 43787 042 39 26 40 143000 .63906 61818 08141 59406 35866 55041 224 39 43 20 144000 .64278 76096 86539 32632 26434 09907 263 40 00 00 145000 0.64649 39292 37806 54213 29246 73007 645 40 16 40 146000 .65018 50533 47183 42513 59944 14209 006 40 33 20 147000 .65386 08952 57069 66782 55812 60900 376 40 50 00 148000 .65752 13685 69063 65554 35855 19951 813 41 06 40 149000 .66116 63872 45993 20773 18972 59028 767 41 23 20 150000 0.66479 58656 13937 82870 87022 42597 499 41 40 00 151000 .66840 97183 64242 42043 75159 18990 214 41 56 40 152000 .67200 78605 55522 40995 78662 60690 329 42 13 20 153000 .67559 02076 15660 24434 83393 53674 354 42 30 00 154000 .67915 66753 43793 20629 56024 70184 810 42 46 40 155000 0.68270 71799 12292 50354 70231 73649 024 43 03 20 156000 .68624 16378 68733 58572 96049 99617 538 43 20 00 157000 .68975 99661 37857 64222 41556 11776 983 43 36 40 158000 .69326 20820 23524 23499 08872 00800 829 43 53 20 159000 .69674 79032 10655 02045 10164 03957 504 44 10 00 160000 0.70021 73477 67168 51473 83772 77449 050 44 26 40 161000 .70367 03341 45905 85684 55809 28499 420 44 43 20 162000 .70710 67811 86547 52440 08443 62104 849 45 00 00 NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES: TABLES 431 TABLE 2.— Values of Cosine 6 $' Cosine 6 1 0.99999 99999 88247 78473 04740 76217 925 2 .99999 99999 52991 13892 21725 33999 183 3 .99999 99998 94230 06257 59240 60726 215 4 .99999 99998 11964 55569 31098 02036 402 5 0.99999 99997 06194 61827 56633 61822 030 6 .99999 99995 76920 25032 60708 02230 248 7 .99999 99994 24141 45184 73706 43663 006 8 .99999 99992 47858 22284 31538 64776 987 9 .99999 99990 48070 56331 75639 02483 521 10 0.99999 99988 24778 47327 52966 51948 487 11 .99999 99985 77981 95272 16004 66592 202 12 .99999 99983 07681 00166 22761 58089 300 13 .99999 99980 13875 62010 36769 96368 596 14 .99999 99976 96565 80805 27087 09612 932 15 0.99999 99973 55751 56551 68294 84259 022 16 .99999 99969 91432 89250 40499 64997 267 17 .99999 99966 03609 78902 29332 54771 578 18 .99999 99961 92282 25508 25949 14779 165 19 .99999 99957 57450 29069 27029 64470 329 20 0.99999 99952 99113 89586 34778 81548 232 21 .99999 99948 17273 07060 56926 01968 655 22 .99999 99943 11927 81493 06725 19939 751 23 .99999 99937 83078 12885 02954 87921 772 24 .99999 99932 30724 01237 69918 16626 794 25 0.99999 99926 54865 46552 37442 75018 423 26 .99999 99920 55502 48830 40880 90311 490 27 .99999 99914 32635 08073 21109 47971 735 28 .99999 99907 86263 24282 24529 91715 471 29 .99999 99901 16386 97459 03068 23509 247 30 0.99999 99894 23006 27605 14175 03569 483 31 .99999 99887 06121 14722 20825 50362 106 32 .99999 99879 65731 58811 91519 40602 164 33 .99999 99872 01837 59876 00281 09253 432 34 .99999 99864 14439 17916 26659 49528 000 35 0.99999 99856 03536 32934 55728 12885 854 36 .99999 99847 69129 04932 78085 09034 439 37 .99999 99839 11217 33912 89853 05928 211 38 .99999 99830 29801 19876 92679 29768 179 39 .99999 99821 24880 62826 93735 65001 425 40 0.99999 99811 96455 62765 05718 54320 624 41 .99999 99802 44526 19693 46848 98663 540 42 .99999 99792 69092 33614 40872 57212 513 43 .99999 99782 70154 04530 17059 47393 936 44 .99999 99772 47711 32443 10204 44877 711 45 0.99999 99762 01764 17355 60626 83576 705 46 .99999 99751 32312 59270 14170 55646 175 47 .99999 99740 39356 58189 22204 11483 199 48 .99999 99729 22896 14115 41620 59726 082 49 .99999 99717 82931 27051 34837 67253 750 50 0.99999 99706 19461 96999 69797 59185 136 432 JOURNAL Olf THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 2. — Values of Cosine 6 {Continued) B" Cosine 50 0.99999 99706 19461 96999 69797 59185 136 51 .99999 99694 32488 23963 19967 18878 549 52 .99999 99682 22010 07944 64337 87931 033 53 .99999 99669 88027 48946 87425 66177 709 54 .99999 99657 30540 46972 79271 11691 105 55 0.99999 99644 49549 02025 35439 40780 481 56 .99999 99631 45053 14107 57020 27991 125 57 .99999 99618 17052 83222 50628 06103 652 58 .99999 99604 65548 09373 28401 66133 283 59 .99999 99590 90538 92563 08004 57329 106 60 0.99999 99576 92025 32795 12624 87173 336 61 .99999 99562 70007 30072 70975 21380 550 62 .99999 99548 24484 84399 17292 83896 920 63 .99999 99533 55457 95777 91339 56899 420 64 .99999 99518 62926 64212 38401- 80795 034 65 0.99999 99503 46890 89706 09290 54219 942 66 .99999 99488 07350 72262 60341 34038 695 67 .99999 99472 44306 11885 53414 35343 377 68 .99999 99456 57757 08578 55894 31452 757 69 .99999 99440 47703 62345 40690 53911 423 70 0.99999 99424 14145 73189 86236 92488 905 71 .99999 99407 57083 41115 76491 95178 788 72 .99999 99390 76516 66127 00938 68197 809 73 .99999 99373 72445 48227 54584 75984 941 74 .99999 99356 44869 87421 37962 41200 462 75 0.99999 99338 93789 83712 57128 44725 018 76 .99999 99321 19205 37105 23664 25658 666 77 .99999 99303 21116 47603 54675 81319 908 78 .99999 99284 99523 15211 72793 67244 709 79 .99999 99266 54425 39934 06172 97185 505 80 0.99999 99247 85823 21774 88493 43110 195 81 .99999 99228 93716 60738 58959 35201 123 82 .99999 99209 78105 56829 62299 61854 047 83 .99999 99190 38990 10052 48767 69677 091 84 .99999 99170 76370 20411 74141 63489 687 85 0.99999 99150 90245 87911 99724 06321 506 86 .99999 99130 80617 12557 92342 19411 372 87 .99999 99110 47483 94354 24347 82206 163 88 .99999 99089 90846 33305 73617 32359 705 89 .99999 99069 10704 29417 23551 65731 647 90 0.99999 99048 07057 82693 63076 36386 323 91 .99999 99026 79906 93139 86641 56591 604 92 .99999 99005 29251 60760 94221 96817 736 93 .99999 98983 55091 85561 91316 85736 167 94 .99999 98961 57427 67547 88950 10218 353 95 0.99999 98939 36259 06724 03670 15334 564 96 .99999 98916 91586 03095 57550 04352 664 97 .99999 98894 23408 56667 78187 38736 887 98 .99999 98871 31726 67445 98704 38146 598 99 .99999 98848 16540 35435 57747 80435 036 100 0.99999 98824 77849 60641 99489 01648 050 NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES: TABLES 433 TABLE 2.- -Values of Cosine 6 {Continued) A e' Cosi ne d O d ft 100 0.99999 98824 77849 60641 99489 01648 050 0 01 40 200 .99999 95299 11426 04859 14618 69087 718 0 03 20 300 .99999 89423 00812 19524 30450 81847 258 0 05 00 400 .99999 81196 46146 16090 05668 14138 802 0 06 40 500 0.99999 70619 47621 30585 47944 02697 103 0 08 20 600 .99999 57692 05486 23611 59460 12436 124 0 10 00 700 .99999 42414 20044 80335 52572 10605 823 0 11 40 800 .99999 24785 91656 10483 35623 63183 580 0 13 20 900 .99999 04807 20734 48331 68908 70286 798 0 15 00 1000 0.99998 82478 07749 52697 90782 60445 306 0 16 40 2000 .99995 29915 07226 15330 04692 98023 894 0 33 20 3000 .99989 42319 27107 52254 64532 27481 627 0 50 00 4000 .99981 19704 48501 39893 94719 26234 634 1 06 40 5000 0.99970 62090 04913 20525 42015 08166 159 1 23 20 6000 .99957 69500 82200 57696 26607 63405 281 1 40 00 7000 .99942 41967 18514 93368 05324 11432 941 1 56 40 8000 .99924 79525 04230 06928 80243 59014 703 2 13 20 9000 .99904 82215 81857 76240 37162 19403 330 2 30 00 10000 0.99882 50086 45950 40919 49149 63375 233 2 46 40 11000 .99857 83189 42990 68081 30755 65278 093 3 03 20 12000 .99830 81582 71268 20804 78207 08783 278 3 20 00 13000 .99801 45329 80743 29609 80108 59131 055 3 36 40 14000 .99769 74499 72897 67266 31651 24437 112 3 53 20 15000 0.99735 69167 00572 27286 33071 52804 468 4 10 00 16000 .99699 29411 67792 06480 00016 81034 629 4 26 40 17000 .99660 55319 29577 91987 59491 03072 423 4 43 20 18000 .99619 46980 91745 53229 50104 02473 888 5 00 00 19000 .99576 04493 10691 39246 89358 35953 664 5 16 40 20000 0.99530 27957 93165 81936 13607 09688 502 5 33 20 21000 .99482 17482 96033 05710 38033 04378 624 5 50 00 22000 .99431 73181 26018 44152 24463 29729 806 6 06 40 23000 .99378 95171 39442 64251 83970 77594 519 6 23 20 24000 .99323 83577 41942 98854 78955 52193 704 6 40 00 25000 0.99266 38528 88181 87975 25671 45608 280 6 56 40 26000 .99206 60160 81542 29659 32897 60508 774 7 13 20 27000 .99144 48613 73810 41114 45575 26928 563 7 30 00 28000 .99080 04033 64845 30850 93672 86613 503 7 46 40 29000 .99013 26572 02235 82611 76227 01884 454 8 03 20 30000 0.98944 16385 80944 51897 38370 64936 939 8 20 00 31000 .98872 73637 42938 75922 25125 21270 174 8 36 40 32000 .98798 98494 76808 97870 19733 65138 328 8 53 20 33000 .98722 91131 17374 06345 96272 07825 437 9 10 00 34000 .98644 51725 45273 90950 36130 58227 655 9 26 40 35000 0.98563 80461 86549 14936 75625 91705 341 9 43 20 434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 2.- -Values of Cosine d {Continued) e e" 35000 0.98563 80461 Cosine 0 86549 14936 75625 91705 341 O 9 43 ft 20 36000 .98480 77530 12208 05936 67430 24589 523 10 00 00 37000 .98395 43125 37780 65772 51599 70530 389 10 16 40 38000 .98307 77448 22860 00405 42693 48954 215 10 33 20 39000 .98217 80704 70630 71096 47717 68768 433 10 50 00 40000 0.98125 53106 27384 67889 35337 51430 954 11 06 40 41000 .98030 94869 82024 06552 79906 21844 498 11 23 20 42000 .97934 06217 65551 50151 04288 24636 922 11 40 00 43000 .97834 87377 50547 56440 43137 64919 949 11 56 40 44000 .97733 38582 50635 52320 43159 80711 030 12 13 20 45000 0.97629 60071 19933 36597 08864 89605 428 12 30 00 46000 .97523 52087 52493 12346 91344 82532 502 12 46 40 47000 .97415 14880 81727 50199 03601 37006 148 13 03 20 48000 .97304 48705 79823 83883 28851 72784 696 13 20 00 49000 .97191 53822 57145 39421 67968 63170 943 13 36 40 50000 0.97076 30496 61619 99370 48705 41634 248 13 53 20 51000 .96958 78998 78116 03549 92542 09959 624 14 10 00 52000 .96838 99605 27805 87728 04796 72433 550 14 26 40 53000 .96716 92597 67516 61755 20007 10311 466 14 43 20 54000 .96592 58262 89068 28674 97431 99728 897 15 00 00 55000 0.96465 96893 18599 46367 20778 00334 742 15 16 40 56000 .96337 08786 15880 33308 11859 45689 290 15 33 20 57000 .96205 94244 73613 20062 19774 02922 903 15 50 00 58000 .96072 53577 16720 48149 95257 00092 449 16 06 40 59000 .95936 87097 01620 17965 04093 15820 317 16 23 20 60000 0.95798 95123 15488 87443 73747 66956 755 16 40 00 61000 .95658 77979 75512 23219 03657 05217 438 16 56 40 62000 .95516 35996 28123 06021 01829 41469 934 17 13 20 63000 .95371 69507 48226 92114 38470 64600 258 17 30 00 64000 .95224 78853 38415 32593 31211 28441 795 17 46 40 65000 0.95075 64379 28166 52382 96088 72745 030 18 03 20 66000 .94924 26435 73033 90826 13672 60314 740 18 20 00 67000 .94770 65378 53822 05762 70539 00165 703 18 36 40 68000 .94614 81568 75750 43038 42633 44150 010 18 53 20 69000 .94456 75372 67604 73408 88844 60829 404 19 10 00 70000 0.94296 47161 80875 98833 20272 84944 114 19 26 40 71000 .94133 97312 88887 30181 03151 04064 764 19 43 20 72000 .93969 26207 85908 38405 41092 77324 732 20 00 00 73000 .93802 34233 86257 81262 65235 97115 007 20 16 40 74000 .93633 21783 23393 07689 38851 27219 288 20 33 20 75000 0.93461 89253 48988 41975 56026 15508 867 20 50 00 76000 .93288 37047 32000 49900 82050 33097 417 21 06 40 77000 .93112 65572 57721 89030 46047 93683 301 21 23 20 78000 .92934 75242 26822 45395 54160 27564 276 21 40 00 79000 .92754 66474 54378 58810 44112 07511 693 21 56 40 80000 0.92572 39692 68890 39109 49227 43644 059 22 13 20 NOV. 19, 1922 VAN ORSTRAND AND SHOULTES: TABLES 435 TABLE 2.- -Values of Cosine B {Continued) e e" Cosine 8 0 It 80000 0.92572 39692 68890 39109 49227 43644 059 22 13 20 81000 .92387 95325 11286 75612 81831 89396 788 22 30 00 82000 .92201 33805 33918 42159 82417 51005 049 22 46 40 83000 .92012 55571 99539 00077 11892 01720 896 23 03 20 84000 .91821 61068 80274 01475 89614 15314 637 23 20 00 85000 0.91628 50744 56577 95301 99669 10379 085 23 36 40 86000 .91433 25053 16179 38590 01894 09911 083 23 53 20 87000 .91235 84453 53014 15400 92458 55321 636 24 10 00 88000 .91036 29409 66146 65950 61269 69701 259 24 26 40 89000 .90834 60390 58679 28464 90047 54815 463 24 43 20 90000 0.90630 77870 36649 96324 25526 56754 317 25 00 00 91000 .90424 82328 07917 93089 46829 87244 356 25 16 40 92000 .90216 74247 81037 68027 24559 96346 896 25 33 20 93000 .90006 54118 64121 14782 41492 26925 298 25 50 00 94000 .89794 22434 63688 15871 10879 25644 859 26 06 40 95000 0.89579 79694 83505 15696 88208 37774 595 26 23 20 96000 .89363 26403 23412 24819 25741 86866 655 26 40 00 97000 .89144 63068 78138 58231 66235 63600 156 26 56 40 98000 .88923 90205 36106 10433 12823 63874 580 27 13 20 99000 .88701 08331 78221 70105 46098 83037 517 27 30 00 100000 0.88476 17971 76657 77234 86857 64728 642 27 46 40 101000 .88249 19653 93621 25544 23738 08546 285 28 03 20 102000 .88020 13911 80111 13129 39007 65608 480 28 20 00 103000 .87789 01283 74664 44219 72983 15935 547 28 36 40 104000 .87555 82313 02090 85010 67925 63258 589 28 53 20 105000 0.87320 57547 72195 76542 25687 54324 677 29 10 00 106000 .87083 27540 78492 07624 99832 00274 584 29 26 40 107000 .86843 92849 96900 50841 22332 32894 675 29 43 20 108000 .86602 54037 84438 64676 37231 70752 936 30 00 00 109000 .86359 11671 77898 64861 78734 18410 727 30 16 40 110000 0.86113 66323 92513 68036 89047 11923 137 30 33 20 111000 .85866 18571 20613 10865 21839 08591 569 30 50 00 112000 .85616 68995 30266 47765 20353 68472 192 31 06 40 113000 .85365 18182 63916 30442 94966 76849 576 31 23 20 114000 .85111 66724 36999 72440 53230 15594 884 31 40 00 115000 0.M856 15216 36559 01939 56147 29489 679 31 56 40 116000 .84598 64259 19^1 06085 87513 91409 795 32 13 20 117000 .84339 14458 12885 70127 28568 05827 572 32 30 00 118000 .84077 66423 09103 14682 27867 79545 790 32 46 40 119000 .83814 20768 67840 34483 46190 26250 481 33 03 20 120000 0.83548 78114 12936 41965 38261 70019 584 33 20 00 121000 .83281 39083 31267 19092 07224 03480 631 33 36 40 122000 .83012 04304 71278 80845 33858 88619 260 33 53 20 123000 .82740 74411 41510 53820 40664 30805 183 34 10 00 124000 .82467 50041 09106 73401 00852 96826 926 34 26 40 125000 0.82192 31835 98318 03011 44152 92055 530 34 43 20 t fj V 436 JOURNAL OF THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 TABLE 2.- -Values of Cosine d {Continued) 9" Cosine 6 0 / // 125000 0.82192 31835 98318 03011 44152 92055 530 34 43 20 126000 .81915 20442 88991 78968 44883 85916 843 35 00 00 127000 .81636 16513 15051 84481 03093 23590 596 35 16 40 128000 .81355 20702 62967 56371 46508 49682 892 35 33 20 129000 .81072 33671 70212 28115 89634 80549 570 35 50 00 130000 0.80787 56085 23711 12827 86442 99734 483 36 06 40 131000 .80500 88612 58278 29833 04691 39261 663 36 23 20 132000 .80212 31927 55043 78508 32948 91933 925 36 40 00 133000 .79921 86708 39869 63083 05777 40147 899 36 56 40 134000 .79629 53637 81755 72124 98229 69134 519 37 13 20 135000 0.79335 33402 91235 16457 97769 61501 299 37 30 00 136000 .79039 26695 18759 29283 09861 70580 147 37 46 40 137000 .78741 34210 53072 32298 92755 88165 015 38 03 20 138000 .78441 56649 19575 71641 47347 24386 379 38 20* 00 139000 .78139 94715 78682 27488 09366 91314 549 38 36 40 140000 0.77836 49119 24160 01194 03499 36116 485 38 53 20 141000 .77531 20572 81465 83854 22268 34155 507 39 10 00 142000 .77224 09794 06069 10206 86630 78636 736 39 26 40 143000 .76915 17504 81765 01819 30109 64085 003 39 43 20 144000 .76604 44431 18978 03520 23926 50555 417 40 00 00 145000 0.76291 91303 53055 17066 26907 30247 919 40 16 40 146000 .75977 58856 42549 36054 00873 36254 422 40 33 20 147000 .75661 47828 67492 86112 79740 94670 113 40 50 00 148000 .75343 58963 27660 74436 18579 08569 961 41 06 40 149000 .75023 93007 40824 52733 77363 79999 078 41 23 20 150000 0.74702 50712 40995 97708 13061 51183 367 41 40 00 151000 .74379 32833 76661 13184 62921 28215 260 41 56 40 152000 .74054 40131 09004 58045 01400 11765 967 42 13 20 153000 .73727 73368 10124 04138 42933 94982 317 42 30 00 154000 .73399 33312 61235 28366 42745 16636 468 42 46 40 155000 0.73069 20736 50867 43161 17992 18861 828 43 03 20 156000 .72737 36415 73048 69598 71764 17663 816 43 20 00 157000 .72403 81130 25482 57411 52651 38384 266 43 36 40 158000 .72068 55664 07714 56187 22826 08402 286 43 53 20 159000 .71731 60805 19289 42062 37697 70109 592 44 10 00 160000 0.71392 97345 57899 04242 60206 36824 553 44 26 40 161000 .71052 66081 17520 95702 42639 44831 623 44 43 20 162000 .70710 67811 86547 52440 08443 62104 849 45 00 00 NOV. 19, 1922 maxon: ferns new to cuba 437 BOTANY. — Ferns new to the Cuban Floral William R. Maxon, National Museum. In the course of continued botanical exploration of eastern Cuba, Brother Leon collected extensively in the high Sierra Maestra, Oriente Province, during July of the present year and ascended Pico Tur- quino, the culminating point of the range, which has an altitude of approximately 2,300 meters. His collections were sent to the New York Botanical Garden, from which institution a set of the ferns has been forwarded to the National Museum for identification by the writer. Since the region is almost untouched botanically this material proves of exceptional interest, containing several new species as well as numerous others that are rare in Cuba or have been known hereto- fore only from the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. These are described and listed in the present paper. The discovery of a pronounced montane Jamaican element at simi- lar elevations in Cuba is not altogether unexpected, and the definite records of extended ranges here given will lead to a certain modifica- tion of the current idea of Jamaica as a highly endemic center, at least so far as ferns are concerned. With increasing collections from the high Sierra Maestra an analysis of this relation and of the elements common to Cuba and Hispaniola should prove of the highest interest from several points of view. In addition to records afforded by Brother Leon's collection of 1922 there are included a few based upon material collected by Brother Leon and his associates a year or two earlier in other parts of the Sierra Maestra, mainly at a lower altitude. CYATHEACEAE Culcita coniifolia (Hook.) Maxon. Near top of Pico Turquino, among shrubs (11155). This is the only Cuban material seen by the writer. Known from Hispan- iola and Jamaica, and on the continent from Mexico to Brazil and Ecuador. Cyathea araneosa Maxon, N. Amer. Fl. 16: 74. 1909. Sierra Maestra (11089). Described from the Gran Piedra, Oriente, Cuba, on specimens collected by the writer (no. 4035), and since gathered by other collectors. The present specimen is the most completely fertile one seen, the segments throughout the pinnae all bearing 4 to 6 pairs of sori, instead of 1 to 3 basal pairs. The specific name was unfortunately chosen, inasmuch as the delicate, whitish-araneose inner border of the indusium, though evident enough in the 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 20, 1922. 438 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 type specimens, disappears at a very early stage, upon the ripening of the sporangia. Only the merest trace is discernible in the other specimens. Cyathea producta Maxon, sp. nov. Caudex erect, 4 to 6 meters high; fronds apparently ample; stipe 75 cm. long, olivaceous from a brown densely scurfy base, aculeate throughout, the spines numerous, 1 to 2 mm. long, conical, straight or antrorsely curved; basal part of stipe persistently paleaceous, the scales densely imbricate, 2 to 3.5 cm. long, acicular-caudate from a lanceolate base, atropurpureous, highly lustrous, with narrow yellowish brown, scarious, subentire borders; blade at least 1 meter broad, subtripinnate ; rachis and middle pinnae want- ing; basal pinnae oblong, 43 cm. long, 18 cm. broad, abruptly short-acumi- nate, long-petiolate (3 cm.) , the secondary rachis dull olivaceous, closely yellow- ish-strigose above, beneath laxly and sparsely yellowish-hirsutulous, muri- cate toward the base; pinnules about 17 pairs, slightly apart, sessile or nearly so, 9 to 11 cm. long, 14 to 18 mm. broad, linear-oblong, in the apical third abruptly acuminate and conspicuously attenuate-caudate (the attenuate tip 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long), pinnatifid to about 1 mm. from the costa, thecosta yellowish-strigose above, beneath laxly glandular-puberulous and deciduously paleaceous, the scales membranous, yellowish brown, broadly ovate, hair- pointed, subbuUate, caducous; segments 14 to 16 pairs, oblong, rounded- obtuse, broadly connected by their strongly dilatate bases, 7 to 10 mm. long, 3.5 mm. broad at their middle, 5 mm. broad at base, spreading, falcate, membrano-herbaceous, glabrous above except for 1 to 3 stiff spinous hairs near the apex, thinly hirsute beneath along and between the veins to the freely long-ciliate, broadly crenate, slightly recurved margin; costules minutely paleaceous beneath, the scales like those of the costae; veins 8 or 9 pairs, acutely once forked near the base; sori 5 to 7 pairs, borne against the costa; indusia globose, transparent, membranous, rupturing irregularly; receptacle large, dark, depressed; paraphyses numerous, short, griseous-hyaline. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,049,972, collected along a small stream near Palma Mocha Peak, Sierra Maestra, Oriente, Cuba, at 1,300 meters altitude, July, 1922, by Brother Leon (no. 11181). In minute characters, such as the structure and disposition of hairs and scales upon the under surface of the blade, C. producta is most nearly related to C. dissoluta Baker, a rare plant of the Blue Mountain region of Jamaica, at 1,500 to 1,800 meters altitude. That species differs notably in having the pinnules closer, shorter (5 to 8 cm. long), and merely acuminate, the segments close, not at all dilatate, and not ciliate, the veins very oblique, partly simple, and running to obliquely crenate marginal teeth, and the scales of the costae and costules beneath highly colored and lustrous. Among related species C. producta is readily distinguished by its abruptly caudate pinnules alone. Cyathea pubescens Mett. Pico Turquino; trunk 4 to 6 meters tall (11151). New to Cuba. Known heretofore from the mountains of Porto Rico, Hispaniola and Jamaica (the original region) . Variable and perhaps need- ing segregation. GLEICHENIACEAE Dicranopteris furcata (L.) Underw. Pico Turquino (11106). The specimens are referred tentatively to this species, which Underwood NOV. 19, 1922 maxon: ferns new to cuba 439 reports only from the Lesser Antilles (Martinique, Guadeloupe, and St. Kitts). The Cuban plant is essentially like recent Haitian specimens {Leonard 4273, 4273a), which will be discussed shortly in reporting on Mr. Leonard's collections. Dicranopteris jamaicensis Underw. Bull. Torrey Club 34: 258. 1907. Northwestern spur of Pico Turquino, altitude 1,900 meters (11112). Known hitherto only from Jamaica, where it is abundant at 1,600 to 2,225 meters, forming extensive thickets on the half-open ridges, along with D. palmata. Dicranopteris leonis Maxon, sp. nov. Plant of medium size, sparingly branched; rhizome not seen; primary leaf -axis (incomplete) olivaceous, mottled with brown, about 3 mm. thick, dull, deciduously scurfy-paleaceous. Primary branches apparently 1 or 2 pairs, 35 to 40 cm. long, twice pseudodichotomous, the included buds all dormant, the scales firm, up to 7 mm. long, narrowly deltoid, flexuous at the long-attenuate apex, bright castaneous and lustrous with pale borders, or paler and concolorous, the friable borders obliquely and laxly long-ciliate; first internode of the branches 2 to 3.5 cm. long, naked, subtended by 1 or 2 small segments; second internodes 2 to 8 cm. long, diverging at an angle of 60 to 80°, completely pectinate except at the outer side near the base, the lower segments gradually shorter; pinnae diverging at an angle of 60°, linear-lanceolate, 25 to 32 cm. long, 3.5 to 5 cm. broad, abruptly narrowed at the base, attenuate at the apex, pectinate throughout, cut nearly to the rachis, the sinuses linear, acute; rachises of pinnae brownish or (in the outer part) greenish, persistently paleaceous beneath, the scales spreading, light castaneous, firm, freely long-ciliate ; segments 90 or more on each side, close, Hnear, 1.8 to 2.8 cm. long, 4 mm. broad at the base, 3 to 3.5 mm. broad at the middle, acutish or narrowly obtuse, herbaceous, minutely pale-papillate beneath; margins entire, narrowly revolute; veins 30 to 35 pairs, close, once forked, green, elevated both above and beneath, these and the strongly elevated, stramineous costae minutely paleaceous beneath, the scales cas- taneous, reduced, substellate, with firm spreading cilia, minute ones extending sparingly almost to the margin, 4 or 5 larger ones invariably borne close against the leaf surface from the base of the receptacle of the son in a close radiating indusium-like group, the scales otherwise all distinct, never forming a tomen- tum or obscuring the leaf surface; sori mostly 4-sporangiate, inframedial. Type in the U. S. National Herbariima, no. 1,049,896, collected in the Turquino region of the high Sierra Maestra, Oriente, Cuba, July, 1922, by Brother Leon (no. 11092). The description is partly drawn from another specimen of the same number in the Underwood Herbarium, New York Botanical Garden. In gross structural characters D. leonis is not very unlike D. palmata (Schaffn.) Underw., D. mellifera (Christ) Underw., and D. brittonu Maxon, in all of which the stellate scales of the under surface are very greatly re- duced and truly capillary, even flaccid. In the presence and distribution of firm true scales beneath it is nearer D. longipinnata (Hook.) Maxon, of Surinam, but the scales are utterly different in color and structure. ^ 2 Cfr. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 47-49. 1922. 440 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 POLYPODIACEAE Elaphoglossum inaequalifolium (Jenman) C. Chr. Pico Turquino, on trees (11166). Described from Jamaica and known heretofore only from that island, where it is an abundant high-mountain species. Polypodium gramineum Swartz. Palma Mocha Peak, Sierra Maestra, at 1,400 meters elevation (11160). Apparently not heretofore reported from Cuba. Agreeing closely with the present specimens are small plants collected on or near Pico Turquino by S. H. Hamilton in 1902. Both collections differ uniformly from the typical Jamaican plant in having much smaller and more delicate fronds, the stipes being more slender and the blades only 1 to 2 mm. broad, of thinner sub- stance, and with some of the veins simple to the marginal connecting- vein ; but in minute structural characters, such as those afforded by the rhizome scales and the once-forked glandular hairs of the leaf margin, the agreement is too close to justify the segregation of the Cuban plants as a distinct species. The extremes in width of blade do not, however, overlap. In Jamaica P. gramineum is abundant in the Blue Mountain region at 750 to 1,700 meters altitude. Polypodium jenmani Underw. East of Palma Mocha, Sierra Maestra, at 1,300 meters altitude, on tree trunks along a small stream (11101). Loma del Gato and vicinity, Cobre Range, Sierra Maestra, December, 1920, Clement 370. New to Cuba, being known otherwise only from Jamaica, where it is very rare in the eastern part of the island at 500 to 900 meters elevation {Maxon 961, 1535; Underwood 2606; Maxon & Killip 173). The relationship is with P. flexuosum Maxon, of Cuba, which it resembles in scale structure. Polypodium calvum Maxon, sp. nov. Plants epiphytic, the fronds numerous, subfasciculate, rigidly ascending, 10 to 20 cm. long. Rhizome oblique or short-creeping, 1 cm. long or more, 3 or 4 mm. thick, coarsely long-radicose beneath, conspicuously paleaceous above, the scales ascending, loosely imbricate, 2.5 to 3 mm. long, 0.5 to 0.8 mm. broad, narrowly oblong-lanceolate, long-attenuate, attached just above the rounded subcordate base, entire, conspicuously clathrate, the cells with strongly sclerotic, dark reddish brown lateral walls, the outer walls pale yellowish, hyaline, greatly depressed; stipes short (0.5 to 1.5 cm. long), brown, nonsetose, bearing a few short branched glandular hairs, narrowly greenish-alate ventrally, the wings brownish with age; blades pinnatisect, 10 to 18 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 cm. broad near the middle, evenly attenuate in both directions, the apex not produced, the rachis nearly concealed above, beneath very prominent, black, lustrous, nonsetose, bearing a few branched glandular hairs, these evident mainly in the sinuses; pinnae 35 to 50 pairs, contiguous but not joined, spreading, the middle ones oblong or slightly triangular-oblong, broadest at base (3 to 4 mm.), rounded-obtuse or rarely acutish, rigidly coriaceous, nearly plane, entire, opaque, pale beneath, the venation wholly concealed; lower pinnae gradually shorter, triangular, the lowermost ones broader than long, short-decurrent ; midveins of pinnae decurved at base, subflexuous ; veins of larger pinnae 4 or 5 pairs, all but the proximal basal one diverging at about 45°, simple, ending in minute de- pressed-punctiform hydathodes remote from the margin; sori 3 or 4 pairs. NOV. 19, 1922 maxon: ferns new to cuba 441 large, borne half way to the margin; sporangia numerous, glabrous, sometimes conceahng 2 or 3 minute reddish setiform hairs. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,049,931, collected in the high Sierra Maestra, Oriente, Cuba, in July, 1922, by Brother Leon (no. 11131). Collected also in the vicinity of Loma del Gato, Cobre Range, Sierra Maestra, altitude 1,100 meters, by Leon, Clement, and Roca (no. 10504). A member of the group of P. momliforme Lag., differing from the typical Jamaican form of that species in its short rhizome, its thick, short, rigid stipes, its numerous, mostly oblong pinnae, and its dark, heavily sclerotic rhizome scales. It is more nearly related to continental forms that are still erroneously retained in P. momliforme. Polypodium senile Fee. Pico Turquino, on trees (11127). New to the West Indian flora. Specimens are at hand from Costa Rica, Panama, Columbia, and Venezuela.^ Polypodium sherringii Baker. Pico Turquino (11115). Known hitherto only from the original collection, which came from the Newton District, Port Royal Mountains, Jamaica, at 1,200 to 1,500 meters altitude. This has recently been discussed by the writer.^ The present specimens, which agree absolutely with a photograph of the type, show that the relationship with P. basiattenuatum Jenman is much more remote than previously supposed, Jenman' s redescription^ being accurate in every respect. The rigid, spongiose, dark green leaf-substance, with few, rigid, dark brown setae, the distant, oblique, decurrent lobes, and the decurrent foliaceous wing arising from the basal lobes at once distinguish this diminutive plant. Cheilanthes harrisii Maxon, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 51. 1922. High Sierra Maestra (11184). Known previously only from the vicinity of Cinchona, Jamaica, at 1,500 meters elevation. Allied to C. marginata H. B. K. Paesia viscosa St. Hil. Sierra Maestra, at 1,300 meters elevation; in woods (11159). New to Cuba. An andine species of continental America, known hitherto in the West Indies only from the higher peaks of the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. Psilogramme cubensis Maxon, sp. nov. Rhizome stout, decumbent, 6 cm. long, 1.5 to 2 cm. thick (including the imbricate stipe-bases of old fronds), with numerous coarse wiry roots; rhizome hairs concealed, about 1.5 mm. long, dark purplish brown, opaque, rigid, simple, turgid, septate. Fronds several, clustered, arching, 40 to 60 cm. long; stipes nearly straight above the curved base, 20 to 28 cm. long, dark purplish brown, subscabrous, at first thinly short- villous with flattish septate hairs; blades oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, 20 to 32 cm. long, 8 to 13 cm. broad, subtripinnate, the primary rachis similar to the stipe, more freely villous, lightly flexuous throughout; larger primary pinnae 8 or 9 on each side, alternate, slightly oblique, subfalcate, inequilateral, those of the basal third the largest, triangular, acutish, 4 to 7 cm. long, 3 to 4.5 cm. broad, 3 Cfr. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 13: 43. 1909. « Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17: 552. 1916. 5 Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 4: 113. 1897. 442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 short-stalked (2 to 3 mm.), fully pinnate at base, the flexuous secondary rachis greenish-alate outward, bearing numerous pale, spreading, gHstening, septate hairs; pinnules of larger pinnae 7 or 8 pairs below the pinnately lobed apex, pinnately parted, or the large basal ones fully pinnate at the base, with 4 or 5 pairs of spreading segments; larger segments in general broadly cuneate or cuneate-rhombic, 5 to 8 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. broad (the base as broad as the common wing), obliquely cleft into 2 or 3 lobes, these simple or shallowly bilobate at tip; ultimate lobes 1.7 to 2 mm. broad; segments bright green, delicately membrano-herbaceous, bearing numerous stSf oblique tawny hairs above (both on and between the veins), the hairs of the lower side whitish, spreading, often gland-tipped, borne mainly on the veins; venation evident, the branches ending in the minutely emarginate tips of the lobes ; sporangia relatively few, falling far short of the tips of the lobes, not long-decurrent. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,049,913, collected on Pico Turquino, Sierra Maestra, Oriente, Cuba, in July, 1922, by Brother I^eon (no. 11111). A close ally of P silo gramme chiapensis Maxon,^ of Mexico, belonging to the group of P. hirta and P. glandulosa, of South America. That species is similar to P. cuhensis in structure, but differs in its much smaller pinnules and narrower segments (the ultimate lobes mostly 1 mm. broad, or less), and in its more copious hairy covering, this largely of a distinctly glandular type. Asplenium diplosceuum Hieron. Hedwigia 60: 232. 1918. Loma del Gato and vicinity, Cobre Range, Sierra Maestra, at 1,000 meters altitude; in woods {Leon, Clement & Roca 10179). Founded on Wright's no. 849, collected in some part of eastern Cuba, and known heretofore only on material of that collection. Plagiogyria semicordata (Presl) Christ. Near Pico Turquino (11126). Apparently new to Cuba. It occurs on the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica, altitude 2,225 meters, and on the continent from Mexico to the Andes of vSouth America. Struthiopteris shaferi Broadh. Bull. Torrey Club 39: 374. 1912. Slopes of Pico Turquino, at 1,800 to 1,900 meters altitude (11148). Originally described from much smaller specimens, collected at Camp La Gloria, south of Sierra Moa, Oriente, Cuba, by J. A. Shafer (no. 8106). The present specimens are about 1 meter high and apparently represent a full development of the species. The sterile blade tapers gradually in the lower third, the lowermost pinnae being less than 1 mm. long. In other respects the plant agrees with the original material, the form of the sterile pinnae being especially distinctive. Dryopteris grisebachii (Baker) Kuntze. Near Palma Mocha, Sierra Maestra, at 1,300 meters altitude, along banks of small stream (11137). Vicinity of Loma del Gato, Cobre Range, Sierra Maestra, altitude 1,050 meters, in forest (Leon, Clement & Roca 10169). Known from Cuba otherwise, apparently, only on Wright's no. 1055, the type collection. It occurs sparingly in the Blue Mountain region of Jamaica at elevations of 750 to 1,500 meters. « Bull. Torrey Club 42: 81. 1915. NOV. 19, 1922 maxon: ferns new to cub a 443 Dryopteris hemiptera Maxon, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 59. 1922. Ridge of the Sierra Maestra, at 1,300 meters elevation, in forest (11133). Cobre range of the Sierra Maestra (Leon, Clement & Roca 10311, 10409, 10486). When described this species of the subgenus Stigmatopteris was known only from the original collection {Wright 1053), from some part of eastern Cuba. No. 10486 is viviparous in the axils of most of the pinnae, bearing young plants with leaves 1 to 2.5 cm. long. Dennstedtia globulifera (Poir.) Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 34: 455. 1904. Loma del Gato and vicinity, Cobre Range, Sierra Maestra, at 1,000 to 1,100 meters elevation {Leon, Clement & Roca 10177). New to Cuba; originally described from Hispaniola. The history and relationship of this species will be discussed shortly in another connection. HYMENOPHYLIvACEAE Hymenophyllum lineare Swartz. Pico Turquino ; on tree trunk (11116). The only undoubted Cuban specimen of this species seen by the writer, though it has previously been ascribed to the island. Described originally from Jamaica, where it grows commonly in large mats on tree trunks of the upper forested slopes of the Blue Mountains, at 1,600 to 2,225 meters al- titude. On the continent H. lineare is reported from Mexico to Brazil and Peru, but the name is very loosely used for several species of this group, which needs critical revision. The Cuban and Jamaican plants are identical. LYCOPODIACEAE Lycopodium montanum Underw. & Lloyd, Bull. Torrey Club 33: 107. 1906. Turquino region; terrestrial (11099). Known previously only from the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica, altitude 2,225 meters. Lycopodium serratum Thunb. Pico Turquino, in woods; terrestrial (11161). A widely distributed Old World species known in America, hitherto, only from Mexico, whence it was described as L. sargassifolium Liebm. 444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 19 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY 157th meeting The 157th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 7, 1922. Presi- dent Safford was in the chair and 86 members and guests were present. Senor Carlos A. VallEJO, of the Argentine Embassy, was elected a member. Dr. D. N. Shoemaker spoke of the death of Dr. Walter Van Fleet, formerly a member of the Botanical Society, and gave a r^sum^ of his life and work. Dr. Van Fleet was bom at Piermont, N. Y., June 18, 1857, and died at Miami, Florida, January 26, 1922. He was educated in medicine, and kept up his medical practice in Pennsylvania until 1893. From that time on his interests were largely in horticulture, particularly in the develop- ment and improvement by hybridization of hardy roses and gladioli, as well as of cannas, strawberries, and many other cultivated plants. A. S. Hitchcock: Botanical and agricultural notes from the Orient (illus- trated) . Dr. Hitchcock left San Francisco May 3 for Manila, stopping 6 days in Honolulu and arriving at his destination June 2, One month was spent on the island of Luzon, mostly at Manila, but a trip was also made to Los Banos, the seat of the Agricultural College, and Baguio in the mountains of the north- em part of the island. The month of July was spent in Japan at Yokohama, Tokyo, Nikko, Kyoto, Lake Hakone and Mt. Fuji. From a botanical standpoint Mt. Fuji was disappointing. During August Dr. Hitchcock visited Nanking in China, making his head- quarters at the University of Nanking, and Kuling, a mountain resort much frequented by the missionaries of central China. About the first of Sep- tember he went to Canton staying at the Canton Christian College. He made trips from here to Yingtak and Shiuchow on the North River, to Lohfau mountain northeast of Canton, to Whampoa, a place visited by the Wilkes Expedition, and to Macao, a Portuguese possession and the first locality occu- pied by Europeans in southeast Asia. Collections were also made at Hong Kong, the gateway to this part of China. One of the most impressive things in Chinese agriculture was the extent to which the valleys were cultivated in the most intensive manner, while the hills or lands just above and adjoining the valleys which grow an abundance of grass, had no stock grazing upon them, partly on account of fear of bandits. This grass, however, did serve the purpose of fuel for cooking. An excursion of about 5 weeks was made to Indo-China and the island of Hainan. French Indo-China was entered at Haiphong in Tonkin. Dr. Hitchcock went by rail to Hanoi and Vinh and by autobus to Hue, the capital of Annam. Here he made collections of grasses chiefly for the purpose of in- terpreting the work of Loureiro, a Portuguese botanist who lived here and in 1790 published a flora of Indo-China. After going to Tourane on the coast he returned to Haiphong and sailed for Hainan. This large island lies in the tropics off the south coast of China and is seldom visited and little known. About ten days were spent here mostly in making a trip to Kachek and the foothills of the central mountains. After returning to Canton he went to NOV. 19, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 445 Manila and sailed on an army transport November 15 for home, arriving in Washington the day before Christmas. Large collections of grasses were made in the countries visited as the season was favorable for this purpose. Mr. G. N. Collins spoke on the Toronto Meeting of the American Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science, specially dealing with the papers on Genetics. These were about evenly divided between the botanists and zo- ologists. The leading number of papers concerned Drosophila, while the papers on maize ran second in number. Dr. G. R. Lyman spoke of the meeting of the Pathologists at the Toronto Meeting, and of the plan to coordinate the various biological scientists into one association similar to that of the Engineers Society and the Medical Society. Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The educational courses at the Bureau of Standards this winter include: Harmonic Series Applied to Physical Problems, D. R. Harper, 3d; Advanced Organic Chemistry, L. L. vSteelE; Physical Metallurgy, H. S. Rawdon. John L. Baer, acting curator of American Archeology, National Museum, during the past few months, is in Pennsylvania, continuing his study of aboriginal quarry sites in the Shenandoah Valley. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, a resident member of the Academy, died at his summer home in Nova Scotia on August 2, 1922, in his seventy-sixth year. Dr. Bell was bom at Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847. His invention of the telephone stands as his most notable scientific achievement, but he carried on research in various subjects, as for example, animal breeding, relief of deafness, applications of electricity, etc. He was a member of the Academy, the Anthropological, Historical, and Philosophical Societies of Washington, and the Institute of Electrical Engineers. Henry B. Collins, Jr., of Louisiana, a member of the 1922 National Geographic Society expedition to Pueblo Bonito, will spend the next few months in Washington studying the collections of the expedition. Mayo D. Hersey, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, and until recently associate professor of properties of matter in the department of physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has resigned to take a po- sition as physicist in charge of the physical laboratory of the U. S. Bureau of Mines at Pittsburgh, Pa. Neil M. Judd, curator of American Archeology at the National Museum, returned to Washington September 28, following completion of the second season's explorations at Pueblo Bonito, under the auspices of the Na- tional Geographic Society. About forty secular rooms and five kivas were excavated during the summer and, in addition, considerable attention was devoted to study of the possible geophysical conditions which prevailed in Chaco Canyon at the time the great ruin was occupied. Dr. Samuel W. Stratton, director of the U. S. Bureau of Standards since its foundation in 1901, has resigned to become president of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. F. E. Wright of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, has returned after a year's absence in South Africa, where he has been engaged in geological and petrological investigations in company with Messrs. Daly, Palache, and Molengraaf. i^ LIBRARY! JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol.. 12 December 4, 1922 No. 20 GEOLOGY. — Geology of a vein occurrence of rutile-ilmenite in a new locality.^ Thomas L. Watson, University of Virginia. INTRODUCTION In each of the several known world areas of commercial rutile, the mineral occurs as a primary constituent of some type of igneous rock, formed either as a product of crystallization from a molten magma or as the result of pneumatolysis. As a primary mineral formed under igneous conditions, rutile is a high temperature product, but prob- ably not in all cases necessarily accompanied by high pressure. Ac- curate measurements by the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, on carefully prepared specimens of rutile separated from the igneous rocks, syenite and nelsonite, of Nelson County, Virginia, gave 1690° C. (syenite) and 1700° C. (nelsonite).- The occurrence of primary coarse rutile in veins and pegmatites is well known but not common. The two occurrences are closely related genetically, and in each, rutile has developed as a primary mineral under conditions of high temperature. Of the vein occurrences of primary rutile, the mineralogic types, ru tile-bearing apatite veins, with or without scapolite, and rutile- bearing quartz veins, with or without ilmenite, seem well established. Others are known, especially some metalliferous veins, in which rutile occurs as a minor constituent. Representatives of the apatite vein type in Norway and Sweden have been described by Vogt^ and are regarded by him to be of pneumatolytic character. In this type rutile is associated with the titanium minerals, ilmenite and titanite. Important rutile-bearing apatite bodies with or without ilmenite and known as the rutile variety of the igneous rock nelsonite occur in Nelson County, Virginia. These have been 1 Received October 19, 1922. 2 Watson, Thomas L. and Taber, S. Va. Geol. Survey Bull. Ul-A: 154. 1913. 3 VOGT, J. H. L. Genesis of Ore Deposits. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Engrs., 646. 1901. 447 448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI^. 12, NO. 20 described by Watson and Taber/ who regard them as igneous dikes and not true veins. The rutile-bearing quartz vein type, with or without ilmenite, is represented in the Piedmont Plateau province of the southern Ap- palachians, especially Virginia, where several occurrences are known. The known occurrences of this type of vein are characterized by the absence of all minerals except quartz and rutile and, in some instances, ilmenite. The purpose of this paper is to describe one of the more im- portant occurrences of this type. The older gneisses and schists of the Piedmont province of the south- eastern Atlantic States have been freely injected in places by granite pegmatites and quartz veins, which both conform with and cut across the structure of the rocks. All gradations between typical granite pegmatites, with or without rarer minerals, and quartz veins, with or without other minerals, exist and can be traced. Black tourmaline is a frequent mineral in many of the quartz veins of the Virginia Pied- mont province, but so far as the writer is aware it does not occur in the rutile-bearing type of quartz vein. The pegmatite occurrence of rutile is likewise represented in the old gneiss-schist complex of the Virginia Piedmont Plateau province. One of the most important of these from the standpoint of probable commercial rutile is an area^ in Goochland and Hanover counties, Virginia, near but within the eastern border of the Piedmont province. Here granite-gneisses are injected by granite pegmatites which conform as a rule, with the gneiss structure. Some of these carry rutile as a primary constituent in grains and masses of many pounds in weight. The rutile is frequently intergrown with ilmenite, but there is a singu- lar absence of other minerals save the common rock-making silicates of granite pegmatites. Unlike the rutile-ilmenite intergrowths of the Franklin County, Virginia, quartz vein described below there is gen- eral absence of crystal form in the titanium minerals occurring in the pegmatites of Goochland and Hanover counties. Recently rutile has been noted by the writer in one of the ex- tensively worked pegmatites of the Amelia County, Virginia, area, so well known to mineralogists for the large number of rarer minerals found in them. Part of a prismatic crystal of rutile weighing 1 pound « Watson, Thomas L. and Taber, S. Va. Geol. Survey Bull. III-A: 100-155. 1913. 6 Watson, Thomas L. and Taber, S. Va. Geol. Survey Bull. III-A: 248-261. 1913. Hess, Frank L. Mining World 33: 305-307. 1910. DEC. 4, 1922 WATSON : VEIN OF RUTlLE-IIvMENlTE 449 was obtained by the writer during a recent visit to the area. No pub- lished record mentions rutile among the rarer minerals found in the pegmatites of this area. Finally the pegmatite body described by Hess® at Baringer Hill, Llano County, Texas, carries rutile and is of especial interest on account of the association of minerals of the rare earth metals. GEOLOGY OP THE VEIN AREA The rutile-bearing quartz vein described in this paper is located in Franklin County, Virginia, 15 miles in a direct line southeast of Roanoke City and about 1 mile west of Teels Mill, near the entrance of Indian Creek into Roanoke River. It is crossed by the Roanoke- Franklin highway and is less than a mile southwest of Roanoke River. (See Roanoke, Virginia, topographic sheet, U. S. Geol. Survey.) The vein occurs about 8 miles east of the main Blue Ridge in the pre-Cambrian schists of the western part of the Piedmont Plateau province. The surface of the area is one of moderately strong relief with an average elevation above sea level of between 900 and 1,000 feet. The rocks are deeply weathered, yet outcrops of fairly fresh and hard rock are common. Where crossed by the highway the vein has an elevation of 1,000 feet above sea level. The vein is inclosed in dark gray, mica schists, composed chiefly of biotite, but variations in mineral composition are frequent. The structure (schistosity) of the schists strikes N. 50-60° E. and dips 80-85° S.E. Veins and thin stringers of white granular quartz similar to that of the rutile-bearing vein, but characterized by the absence of all minerals save quartz, are fairly numerous. They usu- ally lie in the foliation planes of the schists and hence are comformable with the structure. Likewise occasional thinly schistose granite peg- matites not exceeding 3 feet in width, also occur in the schists conform- able with the structure, but no indication of rutile was noted in them. The schist weathers to a red clay soil through which are scattered leached yellow folia of biotite. Also loose fragments of white quartz derived from the quartz veins by weathering are thickly strewn over the surface in many places. The vein outcrops on the north side of the road, on the Maxey place, as a low reef -like form traced for a distance of nearly 100 feet. Loose fragments (float) of the vein rock, however, can be traced « Hess, Frank L. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 340: 287-294. 1908. 450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 beyond the outcrop for some distance to the northeast. Apparently the vein does not outcrop on the southwest side of the road, but quartz - rutile-ilmenite fragments are scattered over the surface for a short distance. Like the numerous quartz veins within the area the rutile- bearing vein apparently conforms with the structure of the inclosing schists, since it has a strike of N. 60° E. and dips 80-85° S.E. It will not exceed 50 feet in width. The vein was prospected for rutile about 10 years ago with the reported result that considerable rutile was obtained, but nothing could be learned of its disposition. Development work was con- fined to the outcrop portion of the vein. It comprised a cut 60 feet long by an average of 5 feet deep opened in the vein. The cut ex- tended from the road in a N. 60° E. direction (strike of the vein), and southwestward under the road for an additional distance of 30 feet. On the north edge of the road a shaft was sunk in the vein from the bottom of the cut for a depth of 30 feet. Most of the vein, so far as the development work discloses, is entirely barren, neither rutile nor ilmenite having been observed by the writer in its outcrop portion. The rutile obtained was derived chiefly from the shaft and to a less ex- tent from that part of the open cut near the shaft. The surface in the vicinity of the shaft, especially along the road side, is reported to have been thickly covered with fragments of quartz containing rutile crystals and of loose crystals of rutile free from quartz, but most of them have been taken away. Small crystals of rutile and fragments of vein quartz with rutile were found on the J. S. Oyler place about 1 mile northwest of the ru tile- bearing quartz vein on the Maxey place. Although no outcrop of a vein was noted in this locality, the surface indications undoubtedly suggest the occurrence of a rutile-bearing quartz vein of similar char- acter to the one on the Maxey place. MINERALOGY OF THE VEIN The mineralogy of the vein is very simple. It is composed almost throughout of white vitreous quartz with, locally, rutile and ilmenite, which are the only other minerals observed. It is entirely massive and without evidence of mashing. Quartz. — In thin sections under the microscope the quartz forms a mosaic of interlocking angular grains that are colorless and transparent, remarkably free from inclusions, and of exceptional purity. The DEC. 4, 1922 WATSON : VEJIN OF RUTILE-ILMENITE 451 grains frequently show shadow extinction, but less often is there evi- dence of peripheral shattering or granulation. Rutile. — The rutile is developed in elongated prismatic crystals of dark red-brown color up to 6V2 cm. (2^/i6 inches) long and 1 cm. (^/i6 inch) broad. The prism faces are usually vertically striated and in case of the larger ones are deeply furrowed. Terminal crystal faces are absent and twin crystals are rare. The rutile is locally distributed through the quartz matrix in clusters of prismatic crystals, and as scattered single crystals. Thin films or wedges of quartz sometimes part crystals for more than half their length. When the rutile crystals are broken from the matrix, the quartz surfaces are smooth, almost polished, and preserve completely the angles and striations of the rutile prism faces. The crystals are usually straight but curved ones sometimes occur. In thin sections under the microscope the rutile is brownish yellow and without noticeable pleochroism. Cleavage is usually well devel- oped but twinning is rare. Much of the rutile appears to be fresh, but some of it shows clouded surfaces indicating slight alteration. The rutile is partly intergrown with and partly altered to ilmenite, rela- tionships which are discussed below. A chemical analysis of the rutile is given in column I of Table I. Ilmenite. — This mineral exhibits no unusual microscopic characters. Occasional inclusions of quartz occur, but those of rutile are more frequent. Like the rutile it is usually fresh, but much of it shows partial alteration, chiefly about the boarders and along cleavage and fracture directions, probably to leucoxene. The most interesting feature of the ilmenite is its intergowth relation to rutile. Microscopic study of thin sections shows that the two minerals rarely occur as separate individuals, but are usually intergrown with the characteristic prismatic habit of rutile. This relationship has frequently been observed by the writer in formless grains and masses of rutile, but rarely to such a degree in perfectly formed pris- matic crustals of rutile. It is well brought out chemically in the analy- sis given in column II of Table I. The analysis was made on what was assumed, after careful examination to be a single individual of ilmen- ite, but on recasting the analysis in the usual way, it is clear that the specimen was composed of a mechanical mixture of rutile and ilmenite, with the former predominating. Rutile-ilmenite relationships. — Microscopic study of thin sections 452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 shows the rutile-ilmenite relations referred to above to be (1) definite intergrowths of the two minerals, and (2) alteration of rutile to ilmen- ite, all the important stages in the process being traced under the mi- croscope. That the individual crystals in most instances are composed of a mixture of the two minerals is also evident megascopically, but without the microscope it is not possible to distinguish between ilmen- ite that is primary and that which is secondary. Much of the ilmenite is undoubtedly secondary, the early stages in the alteration of the rutile being particularly well-marked under the microscope. These are shown principally in irregular dark gray nearly black patches and areas of variable size, composed of exceed- ingly fine granules of ilmenite, not connected apparently with lines of fracture or parting; and in similar irregular areas, directly connected with both fracture and parting (cleavage) planes, which gradually fade into the unaltered rutile. In each case the boundaries are grada- tional and lack sharpness of definition. Some ilmenite is developed in the rutile in reasonably closely spaced parallel line-like bodies having sharp definition and strongly suggestive of primary origin, but they may possibly be secondary. A part of the ilmenite on the other hand is definitely primary, the two minerals, rutile and ilmenite, being molded against each other in sharp and distinct contacts, and each is inclosed in the other as in si- multaneous crystallization. In some thin sections, the boundaries are more angular and irregular and are marked by reentrances and tiny stringers of ilmenite penetrating the rutile. In such cases these rela- tions may cast doubt on the primary character of the ilmenite, but the irregular angular boundaries of the rutile-ilmenite are no more emphasized than are the boundaries between rutile and quartz in the same thin sections. Some of the ilmenite has undergone partial alteration about the borders and along fractures to a fine-granular grayish substance probably leucoxene. Such peripheral alteration of the ilmenite is shown whether in contact with rutile or not. Distributed through this alteration product at times are very minute black granules which may represent residual ilmenite, although their identity is uncertain. The alteration in such cases makes it uncertain as to whether the il- menite was originally primary or secondary, but the writer is rather inclined to regard much of it as having been originally primary and subsequently altered. DEC. 4, 1922 WATSON : VEIN OF RUTILE-ILMENITE 453 Bearing of rutile-ilmenite inter growths on composition of r utile. — This subject is discussed elsewhere by the writer'^ and is only briefly touched on here. The intergrowth relations of the two titanium minerals de- scribed above have their analogy in the titaniferous magnetites which have been shown by others to be a mechanical mixture of ilmenite in the host magnetite. All modern analyses of rutile show the presence of ferrous oxide in variable amounts. The writer suggests that probably the source of this constituent is from ilmenite mechanically mixed with rutile and not from a supposed isomorphous mixture of ferroustitanate (FeCTiOs)) and titanyl titanate (TiO)(Ti03), as has been advanced by some.^ This explanation certainly seems applicable to the rutile of the Franklin County, Virginia, vein. Many supposed cases of isomorphism among sulphide minerals have been shown by modern critical study to represent mechanical mixtures.^ The writer is con- vinced that this relationship holds among opaque oxides, CHEMICAI^ COMPOSITION OF THE RUTlI^E-IIvMENlTE Chemical analyses of the rutile and rutile-ilmenite from the Franklin County, Virginia, rutile-bearing quartz vein are given in Table I below. TABLE I. — 'Analyses of Rutile and Rutile-Ilmenite, Franklin County, Virginia Ti02 SiOo CroOs V2O3 : FeO MnO HoO _ 100.13 100.10 I. Rutile, Franklin County, Virginia. William M. Thornton, Jr., analyst. II. Rutile-ilmenite, Franklin County, Virginia. Dorothy Getz, analyst. The possible effect of the presence of Cr203 and V2O3 in rutile, as shown in all recent accurate analyses, has been discussed by the ' Watson, Thomas L. Rutile-ilmenite intergrowths. Amer. Mineralogist. 1922. (In press.) 8 ScHALLER, W. T. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 509: 9-39. 1912, and references. 9 Wherry, E. T. This Journal 10: 488. 1920. Foshag, W. F. Am. J. Sci. 1921. I II 97.30 80.85 .12 .06 .05 .03 .26 .17 2.21 18.81 .09 .14 .10 .04 454 JOURNAI, OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 writer in an earlier number of this Journal. ^° Recasting the two analy- ses above by allotting FeO to TiOo to form ilmenite (FeO.Ti02) the mineral composition in terms of rutile and ilmenite is : I II Rutile • 94.80 59.92 Ilmenite 4.71 39.67 Rest .62 .44 100.13 100.03 The analysis in column II clearly shows a mixture of rutile and il- menite, in which rutile is in largest amount. Although a thin section of this particular specimen was not examined, it is not improbable that some of the ilmenite may have been secondary. BOTANY. — The genus Culcita.^ William R. Maxon, National Museum. The tribe Dicksonieae, one of the three groups of Cyatheaceae or tree ferns, is usually regarded as consisting of three genera: Dick- sonia, Cibotium, and Balantmm, all represented in both hemispheres. The distinctions between Dicksonia and Cibotium are fairly pronounced, and both names are currently applied in their proper sense. Balantium, though showing indusium characters similar to those of Dicksonia, is habitually very different from either, and its recognition as a valid genus is general. The name Balantium, however, is technically a synonym of Dicksonia and must be supplanted by Culcita, as shown below. The distinctive characters of the genera of Dicksonieae were stated briefly by the writer a few years ago in a popular article on the tree ferns of North America^ and the name Culcita was there employed in the present sense, without, however, a statement of the reasons for substituting it for Balantium. The genus Dicksonia was described by L'Heritier in 1788 ^ with two species: D. arborescens, from St. Helena, and D. culcita, from San Miguel, one of the Azores, both being proposed as new. The form_er is an arborescent plant and, except for its temporary reference to Balantium by Hooker in 1838, has been consistently retained as the >o Watson, Thomas L. This Journal 2: 431^34. 1912. ' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 9, 1922. 2 Report Smiths. Inst. 1911: 463-491. pi. 1-15. 1912. 3 Sert. Angl. 30. 1788. DEC. 4, 1922 maxon: The genus culcita 455 typical member of a group of species now numbering more than a score, under the generic name Dicksonia. The second species, D. culcita, became later the type of Culcita Presl. The genus Cibotium of Kaulfuss, though sometimes credited to his EnumerattG Filicum (1824), was actually published four years earlier in a little known pharmaceutical journal.^ The type and only species mentioned at the original place of publication is C. chamissoi, of the Hawaiian Islands. There are about ten recognized species, most if not all of them treelike. The North American members of the genus have been discussed by the writer.^ The genus Balantium Kaulf., was proposed in 1824,^ with two species: B. auricomum Kaulf. (p. 228) and B. culcita (L'Herit.) Kaulf. (p. 229). Kaulfuss' redescription of B. culcita is only two lines long and omits all mention of the sori; but of B. auricomum there is a long and detailed description (agreeing very closely with the generic diagnosis) and a figure, which indicate clearly the importance of this species in the describer's mind and seem to justify the acceptance of this, rather than B. culcita, as the generic type. There is every reason to suppose that the material of B. auricomum supplied the major data for his generic description. Balantium, thus typified by B. aurico- mum ( = arbor escens), becomes a synonym of Dicksonia, founded on the same species. Since in recent years Balantium has been tacitly regarded as typified by B. culcita, the genus Balantium of authors must receive another name. Fortunately, Culcita is available. The genus Culcita Presl dates from 1836,'^ and is founded on a single species, Culcita macrocarpa Presl, a change of name for Dicksonia culcita L'Herit. and Balantium culcita Kaulf. It is thus exactly the equivalent of the genus Balantium of recent writers.^ The species of Culcita are as follows: 1. Culcita macrocarpa Presl, Tent. Pter. 135. pi. 5,/. 5. 1836. Dicksonia culcita L'Herit. Sert. Angl. 31. 1788. Balantium culcita Kaulf. Enum. Fil. 229. 1824. *Berl. Jahrb. Pharm. 21: 53. 1820. 5 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 16: 54-58. pi. 30-32. 1912. « Enum. Fil. 228. 1824. 'Tent. Pter. 135. pl-Sj-S- 1836. ' It is interesting to note that Presl applies the name Balantium in the sense of Dicksonia with the exception of a single species, and further that he takes up the name Dicksonia for the genus of Polypodiaceae that we now call Dennstedlia, omitting therefrom both of the species originally described under Dicksonia by L'Heritier! 456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 The generic type; known from Madeira, Teneriffe, and several of the Azores; originally described from San Miguel. The very large sori at once distinguish this species, of which the following specimens are at hand : Madeira: San Vicente, June 21, 1850, Lowe 31. Without special locality Mandon 300; Mason in 1857. Azores: San Miguel, Trelease 1143. Pico, C. S. Brown 317. 2. Culcita coniifolia (Hook.) Maxon, Report Smiths. Inst. 1911: 488. pi 13, f. c. 1912. Dicksonia coniifolia Hook. Sp. Fil. 1: 70. pi. 24. A. 1844. Dicksonia martiana Klotzsch; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1: 70. pi. 24. B. 1844. Balantium martianuni Fee, Vase. Crypt. Bres. 1: 155. 1869. Culcita schlimensis Fee, Mem. Foug. 10: 47. pi. 36, f. 3. 1865. Balantium coniifolium J. Sm. Hist. Fil. 258. 1875. Variable in several characters, but perhaps no more so than to be expected in a plant occupying so wide an area. Its nearest ally is C. macrocarpa. Hooker's type was from Caracas {Linden 538). The following specimens are in the National Herbarium: Jamaica: John Crow Peak, alt. 1,650 to 1,800 meters, Harris 7336; Under- wood 3258; Maxon 1333, 1333a; Blue Mountains, alt. 1,800 meters, Hart 132. Cuba: Near summit of Pico Turquino, Sierra Maestra, Leon 11155. Costa Rica: San Cristobal, Werckle. San Jeronimo, alt. 1,500 meters, Werckle (Jimenez, no. 578). Without locality, Brade 142. Panama : Humid forest between Alto de las Palmas and top of Cerro de la Horqueta, Chiriqul, alt. 2,100 to 2,268 meters, Maxon 5459, 5459a. Cordil- lera above "Camp I," Holcomb's Trail, 10 miles above El Boquete, Chiriqui, alt. 2,100 to 2,150 meters, Killip 5326, 5328. Colombia: Medellin, Bro. Henri-Stanislas 1714. Murillo, Tolima, alt. 2,100 to 2,500 meters, Pennell 3181. Camino de Gacheta, Bro. Ariste- Joseph A483. Guasca, Bro. Ariste-Joseph A217. Without locality, Bro. Ariste- Joseph 198; Triana 179. Brazil: Serra do Itatiaya, Dusen 170; same locality, alt. 2,000 meters. Rose & Russell 20490. Reported also from Hispaniola, Mexico, and Ecuador. 3. Culcita javanica (Blume) Maxon. Dicksonia javanica Blume, Enum. PI. Jav. 240. 1828. Dennstedtia javanica Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 617. 1904. Balantium javanicum Copel. Phil. Journ. Sci. Bot. 4: 62. 1909. Described from Java and attributed only to that island. Not seen by the writer. Listed by Christensen as valid, and so regarded by recent writers. 4. Culcita formosae (Christ) Maxon. Dennstedtia formosae Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 617. 1904. Balantium formosanum Christ, Geogr. Fame 155. 1910. Founded upon specimens collected on Formosa by Faurie (no. 676). Said to be a close ally of C. javanica, but listed by Christensen as valid. No material has been seen. DEC. 4, 1922 maxon: the genus culcita 457 5. Culcita copelandi (Christ) Maxon. Dicksonia copelandi Christ, Phil. Journ. Sci. Bot. 2: 183. 1907. Balantimn copelandi Christ; Copeland, Phil. Journ. Sci. Bot. 3: 301. 1908; 4: 62. pi. 19. 1909. A very distinct species, separated by Christ from C. straminea; apparently confined to the Philippines. The true indusium is somewhat membranous, erose-dentate, and provided with occasional cilia. In these respects and in its pronounced hairy covering the plant shows less alliance with C. straminea than with C. diihia and the new species here described as C. blepharodes. The follow- ing specimens are in the National Herbarium: Luzon: Vicinity of Baguio, Province of Benguet, Elmer 6025 (co-tvpe), 9000; Topping 196, 241; Bartsch 241; Loher 1304. Province of Abra, Ramos 7158. Mount Tonglon, Loher 965. Negros: Dumaguete (Cuernos Mountains), Province of Negros Oriental, Elmer 9694, 9899, 10394. 6. Culcita straminea (Labill.) Maxon. Dicksonia straminea Labill. Sert. Austr. Cal. 7. pi. 10. 1824. Dicksonia torreyana Brack, in Wilkes, U. S. Expl. Exped. 16: 278. pi. j8, f. 2. 1854. Dennstedtia straminea J. Sm. Hist. Fil. 265. 1875. Balantium siramineum Diels in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 1^: 119. 1899. Not Sitolobium stramineum Brack. 1854. Described and figured by La Billardiere on specimens from New Caledonia; attributed by Christensen to Polynesia generally. The following specimens are at hand. : New Caledonia: Koghis, alt. 250 meters. Franc 477. Yahoue, alt. 250 meters. Franc (Rosenstock, no. 63). Fiji Islands: Sandalwood Bay, Wilkes Exped. {type oi Dicksonia torreyana Brack., 3 sheets). Without special locality. Prince in 1898. Samoan Islands: Savaii, Reinecke 143a (2 sheets, both labeled "Davallia moluccana Bl. var. amboynensis Hook."). Upolu, Betsche 119 (as Dicksonia dubia Gaud.) ; Reinecke 97 (2 sheets, both labeled "Davallia moluccana Bl., normale Form."); Reinecke 190 (labeled "Davallia dubia R. Br."). Tutuila, just below top of Matefao, Setchell 389. Island not indicated, Powell 117 (as Dicksonia straminea). These plants agree well among themselves and represent a single species that must be regarded as referable to Culcita, notwithstanding their arbores- cent habit; the trunk is described by Brackenridge as "8 to 10 feet high, its surface rough, owing to the base of the old stipes remaining attached to it," in this character resembling Dicksonia. The sori, though very small in comparison with those of C. macrocarpa and C. coniifolia, are similar in structure; the receptacle is elongate trans- versely; the outer valve of the "indusium" is formed of a slightly modified, but deeply saccate, recurved lobule of the leaf margin, with pale thin borders; the inner lip, or true indusium, is similar in form to the outer, being vaulted, 458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 ample, subcoriaceous, and subentire, and closes against it, as if hinged on the transverse receptacle. In these particulars the resemblance of Culcita straminea to the Australian plant described as DavalUa duhia R. Br. is slight, yet the two have been greatly confused. The original description of DavalUa duhia reads as follows : "Fron- dibus supradecompositis, foliolis 2-3-pinnatis pubescentibus, pinnulis lineari- lanceolatis incisis, involucris subrotundis fimbriatis subaxillaribus lobulo saepe reflexo semitectis. (J. D.) v. t;." The specimens were from Port Jackson (New South Wales) and Tasmania. The numerous Australian specimens at hand (cited hereafter) agree perfectly with Brown's description in having the marginal lobule opposite to the sorus often reflexed and some- times partially protecting the sori ; but the sorus is relatively distant from the margin, the marginal lobule is not at all modified and is never saccate, and the true indusium is membranous and conspicuously dentate-ciliate, is early thrust back against the leaf surface, and in form, structure, texture, and position is so unlike the marginal lobule that it can hardly be regarded as forming any part of a "double" indusium. In these respects C. duhia differs so definitely from Culcita proper that it ought at least to be regarded as the type of a new subgenus. The details of structure are shown fairly well in Hooker's plate 24, figure C.^ The Fiji plant listed by Brackenridge in 1854 as Sitolohium stramineum is not Culcita straminea, but a new species very closely allied to the DavalUa duhia of Robert Brown. It is described below. Not all of the Reinecke plants from Samoa distributed as DavalUa moluc- cana Blume or one of its varieties pertain to C. straminea. The following numbers, as represented in the National Herbarium, belong to Saccoloma moluccanum (Blume) Mett., regarding that species in its usual widely col- lective sense: Reinecke 71 and 97a, 4 sheets, from Upolu; Reinecke 143, from Savaii. 7. Culcita dubia (R. Br.) Maxon. DavalUa duhia R. Br. Prodr. Fl. Nov. HoU. 157. 1810. Dicksonia duhia Gaud, in Freyc. Voy. Bot. 367. 1827. ? Balantium hrownianum Presl, Tent. Pter. 134. pi. 5,/. 4. 1836. Sitolohium duhium Brack, in Wilkes, U. S. Expl. Exped. 16: 273. 1854. As noted under the last preceding species DavalUa duhia was founded on material from New South Wales and Tasmania. Luerssen^" cites four col- lections from the Fiji group as Dicksonia duhia, but they doubtless pertain to the next species, C. hlepharodes. As represented in the National Herbarium C. duhia is confined to Australia, the specimens being as follows : Australia: Vicinity of Sidney, New South Wales, Wright; Darnel (ex herb. Bot. Mus. Hamburg); Wilkes Exped. (2 sheets, as Sitolohium duhium). ' Sp. Fil., vol. 1, 1844, as Dicksonia dubia (R. Br.) Gaud. 10 Fil. Graeff. 233. 1871. DEC. 4, 1922 MAXON : the genus culcita 459 "Eastern coast," Verreaux 135 (as Dicksonia davallioides) . Without special locality, Verreaux 290 (2 sheets, as Davallia duhia). Gippsland, Victoria, F. von Mailer. Without special locality, Schomburgk. The sorus characters of this species and of C. straminea have been discussed under the latter species. Since C. blepharodes is somewhat intermediate in sorus structure, C. duhia may best be regarded as the type merely of a new subgenus, Calochlaena, the name being chosen in allusion to the distinctive character of the delicate true indusium. A good deal of doubt exists as to the proper reference of Balantium hrown- ianum. This name was proposed in 1836 by Presl, who cited as synonyms Davallia duhia R. Br. and Dicksonia fallax Kaulf., and published an illustra- tion (pi. 5, /. 4 ). The name Davallia fallax had been given by Kaulf uss to an Australian plant distributed by Sieber. Luerssen, who has examined this, refers it to Dicksonia duhia; but the highly conventional figure shows sori like those of C. straminea, as Hooker has remarked, and bearing very little likeness to those of C. duhia, whether or not it was drawn from Australian material. Brackenridge has pointed out the same discrepancy, and until the Sieber plant has been re-examined critically the correct disposition of Balantium hrovunianum must remain doubtful. 8. Culcita blepharodes Maxon, sp. nov. Frond (incomplete) 1 meter long or more, the stipe about one-third as long as the blade, sulcate, ochraceous from a darker base ; blade tripinnate, the pin- nae subopposite, ascending, about 30 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. broad, narrowly deltoid-oblong, the rachis firm, brownish-stramineous; pinnules distant, alternate to subopposite, oblique, deltoid-oblong, acuminate; segments 10 to 15 pairs, slightly oblique, linear or linear-oblong, cuneate at the inequi- lateral base, abruptly acuminate, distant, faintly connected along the ven- tral groove of the tertiary rachis, deeply lobed throughout; lobes of the larger segments 5 to 7 pairs, mostly with 2 lobules or crenations on the distal side, the apical one sterile and curved upward, the other broader and soriferous ; sorus about 1 mm. in diameter; fertile lobule invariably concave, but not saccate; true indusium ample, delicately membranous, long-ciliate, born upon a narrowly oblong, transverse receptacle, early thrust backward against the leaf surface and exposing the numerous sporangia; paraphyses many, slender, brown; under surface of blade freely villous-hirsute, the hairs ex- tending abundantly to the veins; upper surface slightly hirsute, glabrescent. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,094,080, collected at "Lomo- Lomo" or "Somu-Somu," Fiji Islands, by the Wilkes Expedition (1838-42). There is a second, smaller specimen of the same collection. This is the plant which Brackenridge, having mistakenly redescribed the Dicksonia straminea of La Billardiere as a new species of Dicksonia (D. torreyana Brack.), listed as Sitolohium stramineum. He properly compares it with Sitolohium duhium Brack. (Culcita duhia) and notes several points of distinction. Culcita hlepharodes belongs to the subgenus Calochlaena, and is closely 460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 allied only to C. duhia. From that it differs in having the receptacle nearer the margin, the marginal lobule regularly though not deeply concave (not recurved or reflexed, as in C. dubia) and approaching somewhat the "ac- cessory indusium" form of typical Culcita, and the true indusium larger and more freely long-ciliate. The specimen selected as the type is very incom- plete, and the measurements are thus not dependable. As noted previously this is doubtless the plant listed by Luerssen as Dicksonia dubia on Fiji specimens collected by Graeffe (nos. 151, 490) and Darnel (nos. 31, 32). PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 867th MEETING The 867th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, May 20, 1922, with President Crittenden in the chair and 42 persons present. R. C. Tolman: Some remarks on the Quantum Theory. This paper was illustrated by charts and figures, and was discussed by Messrs. Beal, C. A. Briggs, Fairchild, Foote, Hawkesworth, Mohler, Pawling, Sosman, Tuckerman, Wells and White. This paper has been published in full in 1922, number of the Journal of the Optical Society. The speaker first reviewed the steps by which the Classical Dynamics was led to expect that there would be an equipartition of energy between the different modes of vibration in the hohlraum. The modifications in the Classical Dynamics which are proposed by Quantum Theory to meet the contradiction between this prediction of the Classical D5aiamics and the experimental facts were then discussed. The equations given by Quantum Theory for the possible steady motions of simple oscillators and rotators and for the distribution of elements at thermo- dynamic equilibrium were then developed. It was shown how these equa- tions account for the photoelectric effect, the inverse photoelectric effect, the relation between the frequenceis of absorbed and phosphorescent light, the energy distribution in the hohlraum, the Debye theory of the specific heat of solids, the theory of rotational specific heat of gases, the theory of the rotational spectra of gases, and the theory of the emission spectra of the elements. The Quantum Theory was then criticised from the point of view of its arbitrariness, its conflict with the facts concerning the undulatory nature of light, its apparently unnecessary abandonment of the Classical Dynamics in solving the problem of the distribution of energy in the hohlraum and the unsatisfactoriness of its atomic model. A model which contains some fea- tures which it might be desirable to incorporate in the final model of the hydrogen atom was then exhibited. W. R. Gregg, Recording Secretary, Pro Tern. 869th meeting The 869th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, October 7, 1922. DEC. 4, 1922 PROCEEDINGS : PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 461 By invitation Mr. Raymond Davis presented a paper on "deciphering of charred paper records" which was illustrated by lantern slides. After the presentation of the paper the author answered numerous questions by Messrs. White, Crittenden, Heyl, and others. Author's Abstract: The bureau of Standards was recently called upon to find a method for deciphering the written and printed matter contained on charred paper. The charred papers submitted apparently had been subjected to heat in a closed vessel, such as a safe, — the paper having been converted into black sheets of carbon and not to ashes as would have been the case had they been burned in an open container. With casual observation no traces of writing are visible, but under certain critical conditions of lighting very faint traces of markings can be seen. These traces are not sufficiently clear to permit deciphering. In some preliminary trials made on paper charred for the purpose, con- version of the iron salts contained in the ink into colored salts was tried. These were unsuccessful. It is known that the photographic plate, besides being sensitive to light, is also sensitive to certain gases and vapors. Some of these have the property of fogging or rendering developable such portions of the plate as are exposed to their actions. Certain other gases or vapors have the contrary property, that is, they partially or completely desensitize the plate. For the first trial a sheet of the carbonized paper was placed between the two "fast" photographic plates and kept in the dark for two weeks. On development in the usual manner a very perfect copy of both the writing and the printing was obtained. It appears that the carbonized paper contains gases that fog the photographic plate. Where the ink is present, little or no effect takes place. Apparently the ink acts as a screen, hindering the escape of the gas. It is interesting to note that the writing on both sides of the charred paper appears, that from the back being fainter than that from the face. Appar- ently the ink penetrates the paper sufficiently so that its residue reduces the amount of gas escaping from beneath. No attempt was made to determine the nature of the active material con- tained in the charred paper. It is quite likely that it contains products similar to those obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. Further tests showed that photographic plates of sensitiveness usually termed fast or medium are best adapted for this purpose. However, the sensitiveness to light is no definite indication of the sensitiveness to the charred paper. For example Seed 30 and Seed 26 X are of equal sensitiveness to the charred paper, the former is considerably faster to light than the latter. Very good copies can be obtained with either of these plates after a weeks time in con- tact with charred paper. Very slow plates such as ''Process'' are not suitable as exposure of 32 days shows only faint action. Photographic printing and enlarging papers are very insensitive to the charred paper. Results obtained by the use of photographic films were very surprising, as shown by the two types of emulsions selected for the test, namely : East- man "Portrait Film" and Eastman "Super Speed Portrait Film." The Portrait Film showed no effect in 32 days. The Super Speed Portrait showed very slight but interesting effect with a 16 day exposure and only a little better at 32 days. This was just the reverse of that with the plates, 462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 the inked areas showing black on the films, whereas on the plates they showed clear. That is, with the films the ink is the active portion, the charred paper producing no fogging. It is also noted that the chemical fog of de- velopment is much lighter over the portions of the film covered by the charred paper as compared with the uncovered areas. The results suggest that there are perhaps two difi"erent kinds of gases given off, one kind by the charred paper and another by the ink, both of which fog the photographic emulsion, but the one from the charred paper more rapidly. It was found that a short washing of these films in distilled water, about five minutes, followed by thorough drying, gave results similar to those ob- tained with plates. Very good copies were obtained from washed film after 8 days contact with the charred paper. Mr. R. W. G. Wyckoff presented a paper entitled "Crystal structure of ammonium chloride and hydrazine hydrochloride," which was illustrated by diagrams. It was discussed by Messrs. Hawksworth, Tuckerman, Crittenden, and Brown. Author's Abstract: The crystal structure of hydrazine dihydrochloride. Using Laue photographic and spectrographic data and making use of the re- sults of theory of space groups, the manner of arrangement of the atoms within the unit cube of a crystal of hydrazine hydrochloride, which contains four chemical molecules and is 7.89 A.tl. on a side, has been determined. The corresponding space-group is Th^. The parameter v defining the positions of the chlorine atoms is found as 0.27+ and the most probable value of the nitrogen parameter is estimated as about 0.04. The distance between ad- jacent chlorine atoms thus is approximately 3.69 A.U.; between chlorine and nitrogen atoms about 3.14A.U. It is pointed out that these results are markedly at variance with the hypothesis of constant atomic radii. On the crystal structure of ammonium chloride. — It is shown that the Laue photographic data obtained from crystals of the low temperature form of ammonium chloride are in agreement with the powder data in assigning to it a structure containing one chemical molecule within the unit cube. The disagreement between the symmetry of the arrangement of the atoms of ammonium chloride and its described crystallographic symmetry is thus com- pletely established. As a result it is pointed out that unless these crystallo- graphic data are shown to be erroneous it will not be permissible to accept etch figure data and face development as definite indications of the sym- metry of the arrangement of the atoms within a crystal. Mr. W. W. CoBLENTz read a paper on ''Further measurements of stellar temperatures and planetary radiation,'' which was illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. White, Pawling, and Abbot. Author's Abstract: During the past summer, through the generosity of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona, who financed this research, a further opportunity was presented to continue the measurements of 1921 re- lating stellar temperatures and planetary radiation. Especial acknowledge- ment is due Dr. C. O. Lampland for kindly operating the telescope. The speaker reported a verification of the estimate presented before this Society (The meeting of December 17, 1921) of the temperatures of 16 stars as determined from their spectral energy distribution which was obtained by means of a new spectral radiometer, consisting of a series of transmission screens and a vacuum thermocouple. DEC. 4, 1922 proceedings: philosophical society 463 By means of these screens, which, either singly or in combination, had a uniformly high transmission over a fairly narrow region of the spectrum and terminating abruptly to complete opacity in the rest of the spectrum, it was possible to obtain for the first time the radiation intensity in the complete stellar spectrum as transmitted by our atmosphere. The recent measurements of the spectrol radiation components, made prin- cipally on the sun, the temperature of which was used as a standard of com- parison, verify the previous measurements of stellar temperatures, which range from 3000° K for red, class-M stars, to 12000° K for blue, class-B stars. Planetary radiation. — The thermal radiation emitted from a planet as a result of warming by exposure to solar radiation, including heat which may be radiated by virtue of a possible high internal temperature of the planet itself, is essentially of long wave lengths 7^i to 12/x. Hence, by means of a 1 cm. cell of water, interposed in the path of total radiation emanating from the planet, this long wave-length radiation can be separated from the reflected solar radiation, and in this manner a measurement obtained of the energy reradiated. If there is planetary radiation then the water cell transmission will be less than that of direct solar radiation. It was observed that the water cell transmission of the total radiation emanating from Jupiter is practically the same as that of the direct solar radia- tion. From this it appears that the outer atmosphere of Jupiter does not radiate appreciable long wave length infra-red energy as the result of warming by solar rays, and that the atmosphere is sufficiently thick and opaque to trap all the energy reradiated as the result of warming of its interior by solar radiation, or by internal heating, if the interior of Jupiter is still highly heated. The radiometric measurements of Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn are in good agreement with similar measurements made at Mt. Hamilton, Calif., in 1914, showing a decidedly lower transmission of radiation through the water cell in the case of Venus and Saturn. The intensity of the planetary radiation increases with decrease in the density of the surrounding atmosphere and (as interpreted from the water cell transmissions) in per cent of the total radiation emitted is as follows: Jupiter (0), Venus (5), Saturn (15), Mars (30), and the Moon (80). The water cell transmission of the radiations from the Southern (50.6%) and northern (53.1%) hemispheres of Mars should be and are higher {i.e., the planetary radiation is lower) than that of the radiations emanating from the equatorial (47.3%) region, owing to the depletion of the reradiated energy by the greater air mass. Moreover, the intensity of the planetary radiation from the northern hemisphere of Mars was found to be less than from the southern hemisphere. This is to be expected in view of the observed cloudi- ness over the northern hemisphere which is approaching the winter season and hence is at a lower superficial temperature. The radiometric measurements of Mars are of especial interest in view of the question of the temperature of this planet. The calculations of Lowell, based on the heat retained, give a mean tem- perature of 9° C. for the surface; while another calculation gives a tempera- ture of 22° C. He points out that owing to cloudiness, only 60 per cent of the incident solar radiation is effective in warming the earth, while 99 per cent is effective in warming the surface of Mars. 464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 20 In a recent discussion of climatic conditions on Mars, inferred from phe- nomena generally observed on the planet, Pickering estimates the mean an- nual temperature at 20° F. as compared with the mean annual temperature of the earth at 59° F. (15° C). At night the Martian temperature is below 32° F. (0° C.) and at noon it is perhaps 60° to 70° F. (15° to 20° C). These estimates are arrived at from the appearance and disappearance of snow and frost during the course of the Martian day, and from the fact that snow is never seen on the equator at Martian noon. The radiometric measurements are in agreement with the calculation of Lowell and with the arguments recently set forth by Pickering, showing a considerable rise in temperature of the surface of Mars. Probably the most convincing experimental observations of the range of temperature of the moon are those of Langley and Very, and later, those of Very. These measurements indicate inferred effective lunar temperatures ranging from 45° C. to over 100° C. The calculated value using recent data on the solar constant, indicates a lunar temperature of 82° C. When we consider that 30 per cent of the total radiation emanating from Mars is of planetary origin, as compared with 80% from the moon, and that all the evi- dence shows that the lunar surface becomes appreciably warmed, it appears that there is also a considerable temperature rise (10° to 25° C.) on the sur- face of Mars as calculated by Lowell. So whether or not we accept the view that vegetation can exist on Mars, the radiometric measurements confirm other meteorological data, showing that at Martian noon the snow is melted which could not happen if the temperature were — 39° C, as some have calculated. As for the views held by some of the possibility of vegetation growing on Mars, much depends upon whether we think of palm trees growing in our tropics, or the mosses and lichens which thrive on the apparently bare piles of volcanic cinders of Arizona and under our Arctic snows. H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 349th meeting The 349th meeting of the Society was held May 4, 1922 in Room 43 of the New National Museum, with President Gahan in the chair and 36 persons present. Mr. Gahan spoke briefly about the new Brazilian Entomological Society. The first paper of the evening was The operation of the Federal Insecticide Act, by Dr. J. K. Haywood. It was discussed by Dr. McIndoo. Messrs. Haywood and MiddlETon spoke of tree doctors injecting trees with fluids to kill insects. Notes. — Mr. BridwELL announced the discovery of a Bruchophagus, indistinguishable from B. funebris, from seeds of Oxytropis lamherti collected by L. Weld in Colorado. This is apparently the first record of this species breeding in legumes other than clover and alfalfa. Dr. Aldrich stated that Dr. C. H. T. TownsEnd had completed his book on the muscoid flies. It has been sent to the United vStates for publication. J. A. Hyslop spoke as follows: "I have received a most interesting com- munication from Air. C. W. CrEEL, State Entomologist of Nevada, accom- panying a vial containing a large number of Chrysomelid beetles. Mr Creel stated that the County Agent of Clark County sent in these specimens, i DEC. 4, 1922 proceedings: entomologicaIv society 465 which were unknown to him, with a statement that they were doing very ser- ious damage to all the vineyards in the Las Vegas Valley in southern Nevada. This is a desert region where they are growing Muscat grapes under irriga- tion. The beetles prove to be Glyptoscelis squamulata Crotch, a species which has been collected in southern California and Arizona on sage brush and the small desert sunflower Balsamorhiza sagittata. "It is evidently a native desert insect which has turned its attention to the cultivated plant which has usurped its territory. The County Agent went on to say that the insects do their work at night, boring small holes into the buds just before the vines started to leaf out, and eating out the center of the bud." , 350th meeting The 350th meeting was held June 1, 1922, in Room 43 of the New National Museum, with President Gahan in the chair and 57 members and guests present. The first paper of the evening was an account by Dr. Wm. M. Mann of his recent trip to South America on the Mulford Exploration, illustrated with lantern slides. The balance of the evening was devoted to notes and exhibition of speci- mens. Dr. McIndoo asked where the silk was obtained which was used in the ants' nests. Dr. Mann said it was obtained from the larvae. Mr. Hyslop spoke of a nitidulid attacking strawberries in New York and Connecticut. He stated that about three years ago specimens of a small nitidulid were sent to the National Museum from Youngstown, N. Y., for determination. These proved to be the European Heterostomus puUcarius L., a species apparently of but little economic importance in Europe, where it is recorded as feeding on the pollen of Linaria. In 1920 Mr. H. NoTMAN described what Mr. Schwarz considers as this species under the name of H. mordelloides, from Schoharie, New York. In 1921, Mr. H. Morrison collected specimens of this same beetle in Arnold Arboretum at Boston. In this number of the Bulletin is a report by Dr. E. P. Felt that this insect is seriously damaging strawberries in Columbia County, and is distributed over Saratoga, Albany, Niagara, and Schoharie Counties, New York. The damage is done by the adult beetles feeding at the base of young blossoms and producing "nubbins" or entirely destroying the fruit. One of the most interesting developments of the month has been the de- termination as Anomala orientalis Water, of a beetle collected in Connecticut during the past two years. This is the Anomala which occasioned so much concern in Hawaii about ten years ago. The insect is a native of Japan and was probably introduced into Hawaii before 1908 in soil on the roots of imported plants from Japan. In 1908, Dr. Lyon, then working with the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association observed large numbers of these larvae at the base of cane plants but mistook them for the Japanese beetle of Hawaii (Adoretus tenuimaculatus Water.). In 1912, Dr. A. SpEar, in studying the fungous diseases of insects affecting sugar-cane in Hawaii collected a number of these larvae and turned them over to Mr. F. Muir, who recognized them as a species new to the Island. In June of that year Mr. Muir visited the infested fields and collected adults; the pest though infecting but a small area was extremely destructive, and the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association 466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO, 20 detailed a specialist to proceed to the Orient and obtain parasites for the control of this pest. This work was so successful that one of the parasites {Scolia manilae Ashm.) was established between the years of 1914-16 and by 1919 had so thoroughly controlled this pest that from an area where in 1917, 3,500 Anomala grubs were collected in 1919 only four grubs were found by most diligent searching. The parasite has extended its range beyond the area infested by the Anomala and is now infesting the Japanese beetle of Hawaii. That the Anomala is established in Connecticut seems evident as specimens have been collected in the same nursery two successive years. Dr. Baker discussed a species of aphid in Baltic Amber. Dr. Aldrich made some remarks on Lucilia species. He reported Onesia agilis Meigen, a European genus new to the country. It is a scavenger and has been reared several times by Mr. Theodore H. Frison at the Japanese Beetle Laboratory. Mr. RoHWER exhibited the nest of Pseudomasaris vespoides (Cresson) which had recently been received from Mr. L. H. Weld. The nest was composed of five cells, four of which produced the vespid and one a chrysidid parasite belonging to the section Gonockrysis. The nest of this wasp was first observed by Davidson and more recently by Professor CockerELL. This is the first complete nest in the National collection of this kind. Mr. RoHWER exhibited the resin and pebble nest of one of the bees belong- ing to the genus Dianthidmm. This nest was attached to an oak twig and was recently collected by Mr. L. H. Weld in California. It resembles closely the nest of D. arizonicum Rohwer, recently illustrated by Mr. MiddlETon, but was so heavily parasitized by a chalcid of the genus Monodontomerus that none of the bees had emerged. Mr. BuscK read the following paragraph from the report of the Swedish botanist Pehr Kalm, a student of Linnaeus, who made what was probably one of the first scientific expeditions to North America, in the middle of the eighteenth century. "I came unconsciously near bringing a great misfortune upon Europe. At my departure from America I brought with me a small package of sweet peas that looked very good and sound. On August 1, 1751, some time after I had arrived in Stockholm, I opened the package and found all the peas worm-eaten. From the hole in each pea an insect was peeking out, and some crawled into the open intending to try the new climate. I was glad to close the package again instantaneously and thus prevent the escape of these destructive creatures; and I must confess that when I first opened the package and saw those insects I was more frightened than if I had found a poisonous snake in it, for I knew what damage might have been wrought in my fatherland if but two or three of them had escaped. Many coming generations in many places would then have had reason to pass condemnation on me for causing so much misfortune." Mr. Rohwer in discussing Mr. Busck's remark pointed out that with all the precaution of the early naturalists they had not been successful in keeping American insects out of Europe and gave as an example the Douglas fir seed chalcid Megastigmus spermotrophus Wachtl, a species which was first described from the material secured in Denmark from American seeds. This seed chalcid is a much greater pest in Europe than it is in America. Mr. Gahan gave the following note on the distribution of the clover chalcid, Bruchophagus funebris (How.): America, in clover, alfalfa and astragalus; DEC. 4, 1922 proceedings: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 467 Chile, in wild alfalfa; Omsk, Siberia, in alfalfa seed; Manchuria, in seeds of Trifolium; Cape Town, South Africa, from seeds of lucerne or alfalfa. J. C. Bridwell announced the recovery of Kytorhinus karasini Fischer v. Waldheim (1808), type of the genus Kytorhinus Fischer, which has not been recognized since its description. It was originally described from the seeds of Robinia (now Caragana) jubata from the Altai Mts. in Central Asia. The genus Kytorhinus has been represented by species in the Mediterranean region, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and a species was described by Dr. Sharp as the type of his genus Pygobruchus. The material in question was found by the inspectors of the Federal Horticultural Board in seeds of a species of Caragana (possibly jubata) which occurs in Szechuen Province, China, from which the material was sent to the Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction Office of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and there are in the U. S. National Museum a new species of the genus from India and one from China received in this manner. A Canadian species of the genus has been recently discovered in material collected by Mr. F. C. Carr at Edmonton, Alberta. This is the first authentic instance of a mylabrid genus (in the narrower sense) common to the old and new worlds. Descriptions of the new species have been prepared for publication. Dr. ScHWARZ said that species collected in South America many years ago by Darwin are now only partly named. Dr. Schwarz also stated that the first scientific expedition in South America was made by the French engineer CONDERMAINE about 1770. His main object was to measure the equator. He went from Ecuador to the Rio Napo River. The second scientific expedi- tion was by Humboldt and Bonpland. They went down the Orinoco to Ecuador mainly to investigate the high volcanoes. Chas. T. Greene, Recording Secretary 468 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIv. 12, NO. 20 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Closer cooperation between the weather observation stations in the Ba- hamas and the Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agri- culture is being estabHshed in connection with the hurricane-warning work. Mr. Benjamin C. ICadel, a meteorologist from the U. S. Weather Bureau, has been sent to Nassau and to Inaugua, in the Bahamas, to assist in this work. Excavations for a new hotel building at Connecticut Avenue and De Sales Street in Washington have uncovered the stumps and residues of a Tertiary- forest of cypress of considerable geological interest. Ernst G. Fisher, chief mechanical engineer in the U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey, retired from the service August 5, 1922, after over thirty-five years of active work for the Government. Joseph W. Grieg, recently assistant in the department of mineralogy at Columbia University, has been added to the staff of the Geophysical Labo- ratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, as a petrologist. John B. Henderson, a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, has pur- chased for the Division of Mollusks the General Evezard Collection of mol- lusks estimated at from 7,000 to 10,000 specimens, including a large number of types. General Evezard lived in western India for twenty-eight years, and being interested chiefly in mollusks made large collections of those animals. Professor A. S. Hitchcock, Custodian of Grasses at the National Museum, is giving a course on taxonomic botany in the graduate School for Depart- ment Workers, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Ellsworth P. Killip, Aid in the Division of Plants, U. S. National Museum, returned in October from a botanical collecting trip of six months in Colombia organized by the New York Botanical Garden, the Gray Her- barium, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and the National Museum. Dr. August Krogh, oceanographer, Copenhagen, Denmark, winner of the Nobel Prize in medicine, 1920, is visiting in Washington, and lectured before the Entomological So(^iety November 8. C. P. LouNSBURY, entomologist of the Union of South Africa, who has been in official entomological work for twenty-six years at Cape Town, is visiting the United States and has recently been at the National Museum and De- partment of Agriculture. Mr. Lounsbury is a New Englander by birth and a graduate of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. W. W. RuBEY, assistant geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, has been granted leave of absence to accept an instructorship at Yale University for the current year. Dr. George Otis Smith has resigned as director of the U. S. Geological Survey in order to qualify as a member of the Coal Commission appointed by the President. Dr. Philip S. Smith has been appointed acting director in the interim. David White, who completes ten years' service as chief geologist in the U. S. Geological Survey on November 16, will be relieved of that duty at his own request and W. C. Mendenhall, for more than ten years the ge- ologist in charge of the Land Classification Board, will be made chief geol- ogist. Mr. Mendenhall will be succeeded as chief of the Land Classification Board by Herman Stabler. (uj LIBRA, JOURNAL X>,.!^^^" OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol,. 12 December 19, 1922 No. 21 GENERAL SCIENCE. — A first revised edition of the Academy s list of one hundred popular hooks in science} Robert B. Sosman, Chairman of the Committee on Popular Books in Science. In the latter part of 1920 Dr. George F. Bowerman, Librarian of the Public Library of the District of Columbia, suggested to the Board of Managers of the Academy the desirability of having an authorized list of popular and at the same time reliable books in science which he could recommend to his readers. The Board thought well of the suggestion and appointed the President and resident Vice-Presidents, representing the fourteen affiliated societies, as a committee to prepare such a list. The writer, at that time Secre- tary of the Academy and one of the editors of its Journal, was ap- pointed editor of the list. Part of the work was assigned to the members of the Committee, and the assistance of a number of other resident and non-resident members of the Academy was also requested. The material thus com- piled was prepared in the form of a preliminary report and distributed in July, 1921 for criticism. Between fifty and sixty persons cooperated, through correspondence or by personal interview, in revising this preliminary list. The list, which then numbered somewhat over one hundred, was reduced to an even hundred by elimination of the titles which were most in doubt, and the books were grouped with accompanying notes so as to make of the whole a continuous-reading unit. This was published in the Journal,- and the books themselves were placed on view at a meeting of the Academy at the Public Library on October 20, 1921, at which additional criticisms and suggestions were received. Offprints of this preliminary publication were distributed to many libraries by Dr. Bowerman, and some useful comments and sug- gestions were received. It was also reprinted in the Public Library's 1 Received November 23, 1922. 2 This Journal 11: 353-366. September 19, 1921. 469 470 JOURNAI, OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOX,. 12, NO. 21 bulletin and has subsequently been copied elsewhere. The wide- spread interest indicated in such a list led Dr. Bowerman to suggest that it be published by the American Library Association in a form available for libraries in general, and the preliminary edition above referred to has therefore been revised with that end in view. REVISION OF THE LIST A new committee, consisting of the President and resident Vice- Presidents for the current year, with the writer as chairman, was appointed. As a preliminary to this revision the list, condensed to author and title only, was sent to all members of the Academy in the form of a ballot in December, 1921. The ballot also contained, in addition to the one hundred, forty-five titles which had been favor- ably recommended to the Committee. The request heading the ballot was as follows: "The committee in charge of the selection wishes to obtain the best possible list, and will welcome your opinion on the books already selected, and your suggestions as to changes which would improve the list. Specifications: (1) The book must be readable; if the average visitor to the library takes the book home, it will interest him so much that he will read it through, and will come back to ask the librarian for another on the same subject. (2) It must be accurate; preferably written by one who knows his subject at first hand. Minor points are: (3) up-to-dateness; (4) small bulk; (5) attractive binding, type, and illustrations. The relative number of books in different branches of science is not fixed. For example, a good book in mathematics may be substituted for a poor book in anthropology, provided anthropology is not thereby left wholly un- represented." About one-fourth of the resident members responded with criticisms and new titles, and replies were also received from many non-resident members.^ These ballots were made the basis of the new revision. The total number of books nominated and considered was 323. A new feature of the revision which the first committee had not had to consider was the question whether books were in print. The larger libraries, when issuing reading lists, sometimes find it necessary to have many copies of a book on hand. Furthermore, copies are continually being worn out and replaced, so that for wide circulation it is important that the list contain only books which are readily ' It may be of interest in passing to note that the member of the Academy who made the "highest score" as to the number of books read was the president of a large research institution, working in many fields of science. He had read, and gave opinions upon, fifty-two books out of the hundred. The member who came next in order was a man who had devoted most of his life to research in a relatively narrow specialty. DEC. 19, 1922 sosman: popular books in science 471 available. This problem has caused the removal of about twenty- five books from the preliminary list, and has required several minor revisions as further information was obtained regarding the possibility of reprinting or otherwise securing a supply of certain books. The Committee is indebted to Dr. Bowerman and the Library staff, as well as to the American Library Association, for handling the con- siderable volume of correspondence necessary in obtaining up-to-date information on availability, editions, paging, and prices. THE IDEAL POPULAR SCIENCE LIST The Committee recognizes that in giving opinions on the readability of scientific books it is going outside its proper province. Its true function should be to pass judgment on the reliability of the books. Their readability can be determined only by the reader, and the ultimate choice of such a list lies with him. The logical procedure would seem to be to take several hundred scientific books which are known to be popular simply because they are good reading, and select from among them the one hundred which are the most reliable scientifically. Unfortunately, the data for such a preliminary listing do not seem to exist. Perhaps the data are practically unobtainable, because of the large and unknown influence of the many ways, in- tentional or accidental, by which books are advertised. But this whole question of how books become popular is a problem outside the province of the Committee. The Committee has done its best to select one hundred books which it feels fairly sure are scientifically reliable, and which it believes to be readable. The list is subject to revision, and indeed should be revised frequently to keep up with the progress of science and the publication of books better adapted to the purpose. The Committee will welcome opinions and suggestions looking toward a revision after a year or two of trial of the present list. In general, it need hardly be said that even a tried and tested list can never be completely satisfactory, for the simple reason that there is no such person as the "average reader." Every individual has his own foundation of natural capacity and education, and his own background of experience and interests. We therefore need one series of lists covering all types of capacity, another series differentiated according to kind and duration of education, another series distributed according to age and to variety of experience, and still another adapted to the varied types of man's interests. Provided with such a set of 472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI.. 12, NO. 21 lists we could name twenty-five scientific books which would be almost certain to interest keenly any given individual. Lacking such pro- vision, we can only hope, on behalf of the very general list herewith submitted, that every reader who can be induced to read anything at all serious will find on the list a few books which appeal to him strongly, and that none of the other books will give him the impression that science makes reading-matter which is difficult or forbidding. BOOKS DROPPED FROM THE PRELIMINARY EDITION The following books, which were in the preliminary list published in September, 1921, have been dropped for reasons briefly indicated: Abbott, C. C. Upland and meadow. Out of print. Abney, W. de W. Colour measurement and mixture. Out of print. Not well adapted for popular reading. • Adolfo Stahl lectures in astronomy. Out of print. Ames, J. S. The constitution of matter. Out of print. Ball, R. S. Time and tide. Out of print. Bennett, L. F. Rocks and minerals. A manual, not a book adapted for reading. Buckley, A. B. Life and her children. Out of print. Cole, G. A. J. The changeful Earth. Out of print. Cornish, V. Waves of the sea and other water waves. Out of print. Darwin, C. The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms. Out of print. Dickson, H. N. Climate and weather. Out of print. DwERRYHOUSE, A. R. Geology. Out of print. Gratacap, L. p. a popular guide to minerals. A manual, not adapted for reading. Haddon, a. C. The study of Man. Out of print. Hale, G. E. The study of stellar evolution. Out of print and replaced by a later book by the same author. Harrington, M. W. About the weather. Out of print. HeadlEy, F. W. Problems of evolution. Out of print. Herrick, F. H. Home life of wild birds. Out of print. KiDD, D. Savage childhood. A study of Kafir children. Out of print. LoTSY, J. P. Evolution by means of hybridization. Considered by some to be too specialized for popular reading. Also difficult of importation, being a Continental book. Lubbock, J. Flowers, fruits and leaves. Out of print. MiCHELSON, A. A. Light waves and their uses. Out of print. Peckham, S. W., and Peckham, E. G. Wasps, social and solitary. Out of print. DEC. 19, 1922 sosman: popular books in science; 473 Perry, J. Spinning tops. Out of print. Seely, H. G. The study of the Earth in past ages. Written for British rather than American readers. Talman, C. F. Realm of the air. (Title subsequently changed to Meteor- ology, the science of the atmosphere.) Part of a series which the publishers would not promise would be available singly. Thorpe, E. History of chemistry. A two-volume work. Also thought by some to be not well adapted for popular reading. Tyndall, J. Fragments of science. Now obtainable only as two volumes; some of the essays now out of date and incorrect in certain particulars. Whetham, W. C. D . The recent development of physical science. Out of print. The following titles were put on the revised edition for 1922, but had to be removed subsequently because they were found to be out of print : HeadlEy, F. W. Life and evolution. Le Conte, J. Sight: An exposition of the principles of monocular and binocular vision. Shaler, N. S. Aspects of the Earth. . Sternberg, C. H. The life of a fossil hunter. It may be that some of the books contained in the two lists above are much better adapted for popular reading than some of the books on the revised list. The Committee would be grateful to any reader of this report for having its attention called to such books, because if they are badly needed there is a possibility of having them reprinted, either by the original publisher or through agreement with some other publisher who may be willing to assume the risk for the sake of aiding in making available first-class popular science. As the complete "first revised edition" of 1922 will soon be obtain- able through the American Library Association and will probably be distributed by several large libraries, it hardly seems worth while to reprint here the full list with accompanying notes and connecting paragraphs. For convenience of reference, however, the authors and titles of this latest edition are reprinted below: General science: 1. Thomson, J. Arthur, Editor. The outline of science. 2. Huxley, Thomas Henry. Selections from Huxley. Man: 3. Thorndike, Edward L. The Human Nature Club. 4. James, William. Psychology. 5. WooDwoRTH, Robert S. Psychology ; a study of mental life. 474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 21 6. OsBORN, Henry Fairfield. Men of the Old Stone Age; their environment, life and art. 7. Mason, O. T. The origins of invention. 8. Mason, O. T. Woman's share in primitive culture. 9. Hough, Walter. The Hopi Indians. 10. McCoLLUM, E. V. The nevoer knowledge of nutrition. 11. Sherman, H. C. Food products. 12. Eddy, Walter H. The vitamine manual; a presentation of essential data about the new food factors. 13. Jordan, E. O. Food poisoning. 14. Keen, William Williams. Medical research and human welfare. 15. Huntington, Ellsworth, Civilization and climate. Heredity : 16. Darwin, Charles. The origin of species. 17. East, E. M., and Jones, D. F. Inbreeding and outbreeding. 18. Castle, W. D,, Coulter, J. M., Davenport, C, B., East, E. M., and Tower, W. L. Heredity and eugenics. 19. Morgan, T. H. A critique of the theory of evolution. 20. CoNKLiN, E. G. Heredity and environment. 21. Galton, Francis. Hereditary genius. 22. PoPENOE, Paul, and Johnson, R. H. Applied eugenics. Biology: 23. Thomson, J, Arthur. The wonder of life. 24. Thomson, J, Arthur. The haunts of life. 25. BouviER, E. L. The psychic life of insects. 26. Curtis, Winterton C. Science and human affairs. 27. LocY, William A, Biology and its makers. Zoology : 28. Buckley, A. B. The winners in life's race. 29. Nelson, E. W. Wild animals of North America. 30. Roosevelt, Theodore. African game trails. 31. Beebe, C. W, Jungle peace. 32. Stone, Witmer, and Cram, W, E. American animals; a popular guide to the mammals of North America north of Mexico. 33. Chapman, Frank M. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. 34. Fabre, J, H, Social life in the insect world. 35. Maeterlinck, Maurice. The life of the bee. 36. Jenkins, Oliver P. Interesting neighbors. 37. Blatchley, W. S. . Gleanings from Nature. 38. Mayer, Alfred G. Sea-shore life. Botany: 39. Ganong, W. F, The living plant; a description and interpretation of its functions and structure. DEC. 19, 1922 sosman: popular books in science 475 40. OsTERHOUT, W. J. V. Experiments with plants. 41. SoRAUER, Paul. A popular treatise on the physiology of plants for the use of gardeners or for students of horticulture and agriculture. 42. Hardy, Marcel E. The geography of plants. 43. Darwin, Charles. Insectivorous plants. 44. TowNSEND, C. W. Sand dunes and salt marshes. Microscopic life: 45. ValERY-Radot, Ren^. Louis Pasteur, his life and labours. Paleontology : 46. Lucas, F. A. Animals of the past. 47. Hutchinson, H. N. Extinct monsters and creatures of other days; a popular account of some of the larger forms of ancient animal life. Geology and geography: 48. Gregory, I . W. Geology of to-day. 49. HawkesworTh, Hallam. The strange adventures of a pebble. 50. Lull, R. S., and others. The evolution of the Earth and its inhabitants. 51. Chamberlin, T. C. Origin of the Earth. 52. Geikie, Archibald. The founders of geology. 52A.^ Merrill, George p. The first one hundred years of American geology. 53. Semple, Ellen Churchill. Influences of geographic environment. 54. Spurr, J. E., Editor. Political and commercial geology and the world's mineral resources. 55. Brigham, Albert P. Geographic in''uences in American history. Geologic agents: 56. Tyndall, John. The forms of water in clouds and rivers, ice and glaciers.. 57. BoNNEY, T. G. The work of rains and rivers. 58. BoNNEY, T. G. Volcanoes, their structure and significance. 59. Russell, Israel C. Volcanoes of North America. 60. Davison, Charles. The origin of earthquakes. Meteorology : 61. LEMpfert, R. G. K. Weather science. 62. Ward, R. de C. Climate, considered especially in relation to Man, The ocean : 63. Murray, John. The ocean. Rocks and minerals: 64. Cole, GrenvillE A.. J. Rocks and their origins. Astronomy : 65. Ball, Robert S. The story of the heavens. 66. Dyson, F. W. Astronomy. 67. Hale, George E. The new heavens. 68. Abbot, Charles G. The Sun. * Now out of print, but will be reprinted in 1923, when it will replace no. 52. 476 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 12, NO. 21 69. Lewis, Isabel M. Splendors of the sky. 70. McKready, Kelvin. A beginner's star book. 71. Turner, H. H. A voyage through space. 72. Berry, Arthur. A short history of astronomy. Chemistry : 73. Slosson, E. E. Creative chemistry. 74. Hendrick, Ellwood. Everyman' s chemistry. 75. Fuller, Henry C. The story of drugs. 76. Eabre, Jean Henri. The wonder book of chemistry. 77. Duncan, Robert Kennedy. The chemistry of commerce. 78. Martin, Geoffrey. Modern chemistry and its wonders. 79. SoDDY, Frederick. The interpretation of radium. 80. Venable, F. p. a short history of chemistry. 81. Smith, Edgar Fahs. Chemistry in America. Physics : 82. SoDDY, Frederick, Matter and energy. 83. Mills, John. Within the atom. 84. Einstein, Albert. Relativity. 85. Fleming, J. A. Waves and ripples in water, air, and aether. 86. Miller, Dayton C. The science of musical sounds. 87. Bragg, William. The world of sound. 88. LucKiESH, Marion. Color and its applications. 89. Boys, C. V. Soap bubbles: their colours and the forces which mould them. 90. Mach, Ernst. Popular scientific lectures. 91. SoDDY, Frederick. Science and life. Mathematics: 92. Whitehead, A. N. Introduction to mathematics. 93. Conant, Levi Leonard. The number concept, its origin and develop- ment. 94. VouNG, John Wesley. Lectures on the fundamental concepts of algebra and geometry. 95. Shaw, James Byrnie. Lectures on the philosophy of mathematics. 96. De Morgan, Augustus. On the study and difficulties of mathematics. 97. Smith, David Eugene. Number stories of long ago. History of science: 98. Libby, Walter. An introduction to the history of science. 99. Sedgwick, W. T., and Tyler, H. W. A short history of science. 100. White, Andrew D. A history of the warfare of science with theology in Christendom. DEC. 19, 1922 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 477 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS L. B. Aldrich of the Smithsonian Institution is taking charge of the solar observing station at Montezuma, Chile, probably until 1925. Dr. L. M. EsTABROOK of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Depart- ment of Agriculture, will leave in January for the Argentine, the government of which has asked him to reorganize the economic and statistical work of the similar department in that country. During his absence his work will be in charge of W. F. Callander. Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has returned from a trip to South America and Europe. In Europe he was enabled to visit a number of important sites, some of them new, of finds of Early Man, and to personally examine all the skeletal remains of ancient man discovered since his European visit in 1912. Among them were the remains of the Piltdown Man, and the Rhodesian skull recently discovered in South Africa. The Petrologists' Club met on Tuesday, November 28. Dr. F. E. Wright of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, gave an informal illustrated talk on A geologic trip to South Africa. The National Research Council has appointed the following committee to examine the project for the establishment of a tropical research station in Panama: Nevin M. Fenneman (Chairman), Chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography; Henry S. Graves, Chairman of the Division of States Relations; Frederick P. Gay, Chairman of the Division of Medical Science: Raymond Dodge, Chairman of Anthropology and Psychology; and Vernon L. EIellogg, Permanent Secretary of the Council. INDEX TO VOLUME 12 An * denotes an abstract of a published paper. A f denotes an abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated Society. A § indicates an item published under the head Scientific Notes and News. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Biological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 188, 251, 296, 313, 333. Botanical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 45, 136, 275, 421, 444. Entomological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 163, 213, 273, 319, 335, 464. Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 21, 186, 264, 403, 460. Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings: 139, 162, 401. AUTHOR INDEX Adams, L. H. fGraphite and diamond, stability of. 404. Temperature changes accompanying isentropic, isenergic, and isenkaumic expansion. 407. Aldrich, J. M. t Alaska, an entomologist in. 253, 274. jDiptera, estimated number of species. 337. Altrup, F. W. Electromotive force of cells at low temperatures. 64. AsHBROOK, F. G. fFur trade in the United States. 189. Bailey, Vernon. fBeavers, raising baby. 314. fWild animals as pets. 334. Baker, A. C. Amber, two new aphids from Baltic. 353. t^/)/iw, rearing experiments. 320. Ball, E. D. fLeaf hoppers, food plants and adaptations of. 164. Barber, H. S. \Coleoptera, estimated number of species. 337. Bartsch, Paul. fShipworms, American. 315. BasslER, R. S. fSex characters in fossils. 190. Bauer, L. A. tions. 268. BissET, Peter. tion. 46. Blake, S. F. Acanthospermum, new species from Galapagos Islands. 200. tEarth-current observa- fRoses for garden decora- Piratinera (Letterwood), new species of. 391. Bowie, E. H. fFormation and movement of West Indian hurricanes. 404. Bowie, William. fEarth's crust, yielding of. 269. Bridwell, J. C. fKytorhinus, type of the genus. 467. Brooks, Alfred H. Scientist in the Federal Service, the. 73. Brouwer, H. a. Dutch East Indies, major tectonic features of. 172. Buchanan, L. L. iColeoptera in bird stomachs. 319. BuscK, August. \Microlepidoptera, sys- tematic importance of male genitalia of. 214. BuSHNELL, David, I., Jr. Ethnologic data from Louisiana. 303. Calvert, E. B. fRadiating the weather. 405. Caudell, a. N. -fOrtJioptera, estimated number of species. 338. Chapman, F. M. *Ostinops decumbens, unusual types of variation in. 20. Clark, Austin H. Evolution of the animal body. 25. Cobb, N. A. Greeffiella, genus of nema- todes. 299. Nygolaimus, genus of Dorylaimidae (nematodes). 416. CoBLENTz, W. W. Molybdenite, trans- 478 AUTHOR INDEX 479 formation of thermal radiant energy into electric current in. 411. tStellar temperatures and planetary radiation. 462. fTemperature of stars. 186. CowLES, R. P. fChesapeake Bay, hydro- graphic and biological survey of. 317. Crawtord, Donald R. Argentina siliis, Teleostan fish, spiral valve in. 8. Curtis, H. D. fSun, our nearest star. 139. Davis, Raymond. fDeciphering charred paper records. 461. DiLLER, J. S. *Chromite in California, Oregon, Washington, and IMontana. 72. Erickson, E. Theodore. Tschermigite (ammonium alum) from Wyoming. 49. Ewing, H. E. iProhcrans, seasonal history of. 335. Fairchild, C. O. fPyrometer, an im- proved disappearing filament. 271. fThermo-electric tests for purity of metals. 266. Faris, R. L. Sea, some problems of. 117. Ferguson, S. P. fKite, aerological, im- proved. 272. FiSK, H. W. fDip-needle errors from pivot defects. 21. FooTE, Paul D. fSelection principle, exception not explainable by Stark effect. 187. Gahan, a. B. fChalcids, phytophagous. 215. GiDLEY, J. W. fPrimates of the Paleocene. 252. tVertebrates, hunting fossil, in Ari- zona. 316. Gilbert, W. W. fCotton, truck and for- age plants, breeding for disease re- sistance. 422. Goldman, E. A. fRats in the war zone. 235. Grinnell, Joseph. fRapid peering birds. 234. Hadwen, S. fOestridae. 322. Hall, H. M. fTaxonomy, synthetic method in. 231. Hancock, Eugene T. *Lignite field. New Salem, N. Dak. 19. Hann, Raymond M. Calcium fumerate and maleate, crystallographic-optical properties of. 288. Heinly, Helen. Monochus papillatus, con- trol of Helerodera radicola by. 367. Nemas, control of injurious, by predatory nemas. 367. Heinrich, Carl. ■\Microlepidoptera, sys- tematic importance of male genitalia of. 214. Hersey, Mayo D. Properties of matter, general method for determining. 167. Heyl, p. R. fFermat's equation, superior limit of n in. 406. Hildebrand, vS. F. fFish in relation to mosquito control. 296. Hitchcock, A. S. fBotanical and agri- cultural notes from the Orient. 444. fBotanical notes from the Orient. 314. Teosinte (Euchlaena), perennial spe- cies of. 205. HoLLiSTER, N. *Wild ducks, relative abundance of, at Delavan, Wis. 44. Hooker, W. A. f Abstracts in the Record. 336. Hoover, W. H. fPyrometer, improved disappearing filament. 271. Howard, L. O. fFabre's work, Ferton's review of. 164. flnsects, estimates on number de- scribed. 336, 339. Howell, A. H. fChipmunks, American. 298. Humphrey, W. J., fCereal crops, breeding for disease resistance. 422. Hyslop, J. A. ]Anomala orient alis, para- site of. 465. ^Glyptoscelis squamualta, injurious to Muscat grapes in Nevada. 465. ■ ]Heterostomiis pulicarius injurious to strawberries. 465. Jackson, Hartley, H. T. Sorex, new species and subspecies from western America. 262. Jagger, T. J. Observatories, plea for geophysical and geochemical. 343. Jonas, Anna I. Lower Paleozoic section of southeastern Pennsylvania. 358. Jones, L. R. fDisease in plants, predis- position and resistance to. 421. ^y/^z. 480 AUTHOR INDEX Kendai,!,, William C. Argentina situs, Teleostean fish, spiral valve in. 8. KiLWP, E. P. Passiflora, new species from Mexico and Central America. 255. Passiflora, new species from Vene- zuela and Ecuador. 330. KnowlTON, E. H. fFlora (fossil) of Eloris- sant, Colo. 232. Krieger, Louis C. C. fHistory of my- cological illustration. 276. Lambert, Walter D. tLatitude of Ukiah (variation of) and motion of the Pole. 22. Lincoln, F. C. *Birds of Clear Creek, Colo. 44. fDucks, fall migration of, from Lake Scugog, Ontario. 233. LooMis, H. F. Trox, Coleopterous genus, new species of. 132. Mabbott, Douglass C. *Food habits of American shoal-water ducks. 2 1 . Marmer, H. a. *Tidal observations off entrance to Delaware Bay. 43. Marsh, C. Dwight. fLive stock poisoning by death camus. 297. — — fPoisonous whorled milkweeds. 46. Maxon, William R. Culciia, the genus. 454. Ferns new to the Cuban flora. 437. Salmnia from Trinidad, new species of. 400. McIndoo, N. E. fAbdominal appendages of Termite guest (SpiracJitha). 319. Meggers, W. F. fSelection principle ex- ception not explainable by Stark effect. 187. fSpectrographic tests for purity of metals. 267. Metcalf, F. p. Marsh and aquatic plants of Missouri. 307. MiDDLETON, William. \Schedius kuvanae, parasite of gipsy moth, introduced in Washington. 320. MoFFiT, Fred H. *Tuxedni Bay, Cook Inlet, Alaska, geology of. 72. MoHLER, F. L. fSelection principle ex- ception not explainable by Stark effect. 187. MoREY, George W. Magmas, pressure crystallization in. 219. Norton, J. B. S. \Dahlia varieties, history of. 236. Oberholser, Harry C. *Mutanda or- nithologica. 20. *Birds of Washington region, Feb.- March. 43. fBreeding waterfowl of Great Plains. 232. Orton, W. a. ^Dahlia, classification of, and aims of breeders. 235. Palmer, Harold S. *Ground water in Southington-Granby area. Conn. 19. Palmer, T. S. fBison in the U. S. 233. fFederal protection of buffalo. 188. fOrigin of opossums in California. 188. — — fParrots imported into U. S. 234. Pardee, J. T. *Chromite in California, Oregon, Washington, and Montana. 72. *Manganese ore in Montana, Utah, Oregon, and Washington. 71. PiLLSBURY, Arthur C. fYosemite Park, wild flowers and birds of. 296. PiTTiER, H. Dalbergia of Mexico and Cen- tral America (key and new species). 54. PoPENOE, Wilson. fHunting new plants in Central and South America. 275. Porter, B. A. fAnaphoidea conotracheli, parasite reared from apple maggot. 165. PosNjAK, EuGEN. Alkali halides, crystal structures of. 248. Power, F. B. fChaulmoogra oil, source of. 137. Putnam, George R. Lighthouse service, applications of science and engineering to. 279. Reeside, John B., Jr. *Oil prospects in Washington Co., Utah. 44. RiCKER, P. L. fBreeding of grasses for disease resistance. 422. fWild flowers that need protection. 316. Riley, J. H. *Birds, new, from Philip- pines and Greater Sunda Islands. 44 Riley, Smith, f Nation's game supply, the. 298. RiTTER, William E. f Use fulness and peril of laboratory method in biology. 318. AUTHOR INDEX 481 Rock, J. F. fChaulmoogra oil, source of 136. ROHWER, S. A. fGalls, Cynipid, injurious and beneficial. 215. fGalls, insect, injurious and bene- ficial. 189. "fHemenoptera, estimated number of species. 336. Rose, J. N. fCactus, rediscovery of a, from Haiti. 234. fDeerhorn cactus. 328. Safford, W. E. ^Dahlia, botany and chemistry of. 236. ^Dahlia, origin and development of. 191. fFood plants of ancient America. 162. Sasscer, K. R. fBrown tail moth in shipments of French fruit stocks. 213. ScHALLER, WaIvDEmar T. GiUespite, new- mineral. 7 Sincosite, new mineral. 195. Shannon, Earl V. Chlorite, white. 239. Cristobalite from Columbia River basalt of Spokane, Wash. 195. — — Crocidolite from Pennsylvania. 242. Shannon, R. C. fClassification of Syr- phidae. 164. Shantz, H. L. fWhite ants of Africa. 296. Shoultes, Marvin A. Sine e and cosine 0, values of, to 33 places of decimals. 423. Shufeldt, R. W. fChanges in skull of badger due to old age. 252. fFlora and fauna of District of Columbia. 318. Smyth, F. H. fCalcium carbonate, pres- sures and temperatures in reference to fusion of. 403. Snodgrass, R. E. fFall web worm. 335. fResplendent shield-bearer and ribbed cocoon maker, life histories of. 213. Snyder, T. E. fTermites, estimated number of species. 338. Sosman, R. B. First revised edition of Academy's list of one hundred popular books in science. 469. Standley, Paui. C. Diospyros conzattii, new species of persimmon from Mexico. 399. Steiner, G. Monochus papillatus, control of Heterodera radicola by. 367. Predatory nemas, control of in- jurious nemas by. 367. Stose, George W. Lower Paleozoic sec- tion of southeastern Pennsylvania. 358. SvERDRUP, H. U. fScientific work of Amundsen Arctic expedition. 270. Siberia, customs of Chukchi natives. 208. Swales, B. H. *Rare bird records for Washington, D. C. 21. Thompson, David G. *Ground water for irrigation near Gage, Okla. 20. TiDESTROM, Ivar. fFloral alphabet of the Celts. 316. ToLMAN, R. C. tQuantum theory, the. 460. Troland, Leonard Thompson. Psycho- physics, the key to physics and meta- physics. 141. Van Orstrand, C. E. Sine 6 and cosine 6, values of, to 33 places of decimals. 423. ViEHOEVER, Arno. tEdible and poisonous beans of Lima type. 47. ViNAL, G. W. Electromotive force of cells at low temperatures. 64. Wade, J. S. tEntomological publications of the United States government. 335. WaiTE, MerTon B. fBreeding of fruits for disease resistance. 422. Washington, H. S. Worked jade pebble from Copan. 387. Watson, Thomas L. Geology of a vein of rutile-ilmenite. 447. Westgate, L. G. *Chromite in California, Oregon, Washington, and Montana. 72. WetmorE, Alexander. Neotropical birds, new forms of. 323. Wherry, Edgar T. Calcium fumarate and maleate, crystallographic-optical properties of. 288. Calcium oxalate monohydrate, op- tical-crystallographic properties of. 196. Chlorite, white. 239. 482 SUBJECT INDEX Crocidolite from eastern Pennsyl- vania. 242. White, Walter P. fAmorphous material in metals. 404. fPrecision pendulums. 187. Wickers, Edward. fPurification of ele- ments in platinum group. 265. Williamson, E. D. Annealing of glass, mathematical note on. 1. fPrediction of solubility relations under high pressure from compressi- bility measurements. 404. WooDRiNG, Wendell P. Middle Eocene Eoraminifera from Haiti. 244. Woodward, R. S. fCalculus of harmonics and preharmonics. 268. Wyckoff, R. W. G. fCrystal structure of ammonium chloride and hydrazine hy- drochloride. 462. Yerkes, Robert M. fMonkeys and apes, intelligence tests of. 313. Zahn, Charles T. Recording electric contact, device for. 412. SUBJECT INDEX Apparatus. fAerological kite, improved. S. P. Ferguson. 272. fDisappearing filament pyrometer, im- proved. C. O. Eairchild and W. H. Hoover. 271. Astronomy. fLatitude of Ukiah (variation of) and motion of the Pole. W. D. Lambert. 22. fSun, our nearest star. H. D. Curtis. 139. Biology. fChesapeake Bay, hydrographic and biologic survey of. R. P. CowLES. 317. fFish in relation to mosquito control. S. F. HiLDEBRAND. 296. fFlora and fauna of District of Columbia. R. W. ShufeldT. 318. fGame supply, nation's. Smith Riley. 298. fLaboratory method in biology, usefulness and peril of. W. E. RiTTER. 318. fYosemite Park, wild flowers and birds of. A. C. PiLLSBURY. 296. Botany. Acanthospermum, .new species of from Galapagos Islands. S. F. Blake. 200. fAsdepias, poisonous species of. C. D wight Marsh. 46. fBeans of Lima type, edible and poison- ous. Arno ViEHOEVER. 47. tBreeding, plant, for disease resistance. 422. fCactus, deerhom. J. N. Rose. 328. fCactus, rediscovery of a, from Haiti. J. N. Rose. 234. fCelts, floral alphabet of. Ivar TidE- STROM. 316. fCentral and South America, hunting new plants in for American horticulture. Wilson Popenoe. 275. fCereal crops, breeding for disease re- sistance. W. J. Humphrey. 422. fChaulmoogra oil, source of. F. B. Power. 137. fChaulmoogra oil, source of. J. F. Rock. 136. fCotton, truck, and forage plants, breed- ing for disease resistance. W. W. Gilbert. 422. Culcita, the genus. W. R. Maxon. 454. f Dahlia, botany and chemistry of. W. E. Safford. 236. jDahlia, classification of and aims of breeders. W. A. Orton. 235. ^Dahlia, origin and development of. W. E. Safford. 191. jDahlia varieties, history of. J. B. S. Norton. 236. Dalbergia of Mexico and Central America (key and new species). H. PiTTiER. 54. fDeath camus, live stock poisoning by. C. DwiGHT Marsh. 297. Diospyros conzattii, new species of per- simmon from Mexico. P. C. Stand- LEY. 399. fDisease in plants, predisposition and resistance to. L. R. Jones. 421. Euchlaena fteosinte), perennial species of. A. S. Hitchcock. 205. SUBJECT INDEX 483 Botany (Continued) Ferns new to the Cuban flora. W. R. Maxon. 437. fFood plants of ancient America. W. E. Safford. 162. fFruits, breeding of, for disease resis- tance. M. B. Waite. 422. tGrasses, breeding of, for disease resis- tance. P. L. RiCKER. 422. "fHydnocarpus anthelmintica and the source of chaulmoogra oil. J. F. Rock. 136. Letterwood (Piratinera) , new species of. S. F. Blake. 391. Marsh and aquatic plants of Missouri. F. P. Metcalf. 307. tMilkweeds, whorled, poisonous species of. C. DwiGHT Marsh. 46. tMycological illustration, history of. L. C. C. KriEger. 276. fOrient, botanical and agricultural notes from. A. S. Hitchcock. 444. tOrient, botanical notes from. A. S. Hitchcock. 314. Passiflora, new species of from Mexico and Central America. E. P. Killip. 255. Passiflora, new species from Venezuela and Ecuador. E- P. Killip. 330. Persimmon, new species of, from Mexico. P. C. StandlEy. 399. fPhaseoIus lunatus, edible and poisonous forms of. Arno ViEhoEvER. 47. Piratinera, new species of. S. F. BlakE. 391. fRoses for garden decoration. PETER BissET. 46. Salvinia, new species from Trinidad. W. R. Maxon. 400. -\Taraktogenos ktirzii, source of chaul- moogra oil. J. F. Rock. 136. tTaxonomy, synthetic method in. H. M. Hall. 231. Teosinte, perennial species of. A. S. Hitchcock. 205. fWild flowers that need protection. P. L. RicKER. 316. Ceramics. §Glass provided by American Ceramic Society for investigation. 216. Crystallography . fAmmonium chloride and hydrazine hydrochloride, crystal struc- ture of. R. W. G. Wyckoff. 462. Calcium fumarate and maleate, crystal- lographic-optical properties of. E. T. Wherry and R. M. Hann. 288. Calcium oxalate monohydrate, optical- crystallographic properties of. E. T. Wherry. 196. Electricity. Electromotive force of cells at low temperatures. G. W. Vinal and F. W. Altrup. 64. Entomology. fAbstracts in the Record. W. A. Hooker. 336. fAlaska, an entomologist in. J. M. Aldrich. 253, 274. ^Anaphoidea conotracheli, parasite reared from apple maggot. B. A. Porter. 165. 'fAnomala orientalis, parasite of. J. A. Hyslop. 465. \Aphis, rearing experiments in. A. C. Baker. 320. fBrown tail moth in shipment of French fruit stocks. E. R. Sasscer. 213. fChalcids, phytophagous. A. B. Gahan. 215. fColeoptera, estimated number of species. H. vS. Barber. 337. fColeoptera in bird stomachs. L. L. Bu- chanan. 319. "fDiptera, estimated number of species. J. M. Aldrich. 337. fFabre's work, Ferton's review of. L. O. Howard. 164. fFall web worm. R. E. Snodgrass. 335. fGalls, insect, injurious and beneficial. S. A. RoHWER. 189, 215. ]Glyptoscelis squamulata injurious to Mus- cat grapes in Nevada. J. A. Hyslop. 465. fGypsy moth, parasite of, introduced in Washington. William Middle- ton. 320. \Heterostoinus pulicarius injurious to strawberries. J. A. Hyslop. 465. \Hymenoptera, estimated number of spe- cies. S. A. RoHWER. 336. ■\Kytorhtnus, type of the genus. J. C. Bridwell. 467. fLeaf hoppers, food plants and adapta- tions of. E. D. Ball. 164. ^ Microlepidoptera, systematic importance of male genitalia of. August Busck and Carl Heinrich. 214. 484 SUBJECT INDEX Entomology (Continued) fMosquito control, fish in relation to. S. F. HiLDEBRAND. 296. fNumber of described species of insects, estimates on. L. O. Howard. 336, 339. ^Oestridae. S. Hadwen. 322. ]Orthoptera, estimated number of species. A. N. Caudeli.. 338. ■\Proturans, seasonal history of. H. E. EwiNG. 335. fPublications, entomological, of United States government. J.S. WadE. 335. fResplendent shield-bearer and ribbed cocoon maker, life histroy of. R. E. Snodgrass. 213. ■\Schedius kuvanae, parasite of gypsy moth, introduced in Washington. William Middleton. 320. ^Syrphidae, classification of. R. C. Shannon. 164. fTermite guest (Spirachtha) , abdominal appendages of. N. E. McIndoo. 319. fTermites, estimated number of species. T. E. Snyder. 338. fTermites (white ants) of Africa. H. I,.. Shantz. 296. Trox, Coleopterous genus, new species of. H. F. LooMis. 132. tWhite ants of Africa. H. L. Shantz. 296. Ethnology. Chukchi natives of Siberia, customs of. H. U. SvERDRUp. 208. fCelts, floral alphabet of. Ivar TidE- STROM. 316. fFood plants of ancient Americans. W. E. Safford. 162. Louisiana, new ethnologic data from. D. I. BusHNELL, Jr. 303. Worked jade pebble from Copan. H. S. Washington. 387. Evolution, i A phis, rearing experiments in. A. C. Baker. 320. Geography. fScientific work of Amundsen Arctic expedition. H. U. SvERDRUP. 270. Geology. *Chromite in California, Oregon, Washington, and Montana. J. S. DiLLER, L. G. Westgate and J. T. Pardee. 72. tEarth's crust, yielding of. William Bowie. 269. *Ground water in Southington-Granby area, Conn. H. S. Palmer. 19. §Lehman Caves National Monument, reservation of. 116. *Lignite field. New Salem, N. Dak. E. T. Hancock. 19. *Manganese ore in Montana, Utah, Oregon, and Washington. J. T. Par- dee. 71. *Oil prospects in Washington Co., Utah. J. B. Reeside, Jr. 44. Paleozoic, Lower, section of southeastern Penn. G. W. Stose and Anna I. Jonas. 358. Rutile-ilmenite, geology of a vein of. T. L. Watson. 447. Tectonic features, major, of Dutch East Indies. H. A. Brouwer. 172. *Tuxedni Bay, Cook Inlet, Alaska, geol- ogy of. F. H. MoFFiT. 72. Geophysics. fLatitude of Ukiah (varia- tion of) and motion of the Pole. W. D. Lambert. 22. Observatories, plea for geophysical and geochemical. T. J. Jaggar. 343. Horticulture. fCentral and South America, new plants from for American horti- culture. Wilson Popenoe. 275. fDahlia, classification of and aims of breeders. W. A. Orton. 235. ]Dahlia varieties, history of. J. B. S. Norton. 236. fRoses for garden decoration. PETER BissET. 46. Hydrography. fChesapeake Bay, hydro- graphic and biologic survey of. R. P. CowELS. 317. *Ground water for irrigation near Gage, Okla. D. G. Thompson. 20. Ichthyology. Argentina silus, Teleostean fish, spiral valve in. W. C. Kendall and D. R. Crawford. 8. Inorganic Chemistry. Alkali halides, crystal structure of. EugEn Posnjak and R. W. G. Wyckoff. 248. Mathetnatics. fFermat's equation, a supe- rior limit of n in. P. R. Heyl. 406. Glass, mathematical note on annealing of. E. D. Williamson. 1. Sine 0 and cosine d, values of, to 33 SUBJECT INDEX 485 Mathematics (Continued) places of decimals. C. E. Van Or- STRAND and M. A. Shoultes. 423. Metallurgy. fPlatinum group, purification of elements in. Edward Wickers. 265. Meteorology. fHurricanes, formation and movement of West Indian. E. H. Bowie. 404. tRadiating the weather. E. B. Calvert. 405. Mineralogy. Chlorite, white. E. V. Shan- non and E. T. Wherry. 239. Cristobalite from Columbia River basalt of Spokane, Wash. E. V. Shannon. 195. Crocidolite from eastern Pennsylvania. E. V. Shannon and E. T. Wherry. 242. Gillespite, new mineral. W. T. SckallER. 7. Sincosite, new mineral. W. T. SchallER. 195. Tschermigite (ammonium alum) from Wyoming. E. T. Erickson. 49. Necrology. §Bell, Alexander Graham, 445. Carrigan, William T., 278. Davis, Charles Henry, 278. Fer- nald, Charles H., 214. Jung, Franz August Richard, 48. Tonduz, Adolf, 193. Waidner, Charles W., 218. Oceanography. Lighthouse service, applica- tions of science and engineering to. G. R. Putnam. 279. Problems of the sea. R. L. Faris. 117. *Tidal observations of entrance to Delaware Bay. H. A. Marmer. 43. Ornithology. §Baird Club formed. 277. *Clear Creek, Colo., birds of. F. C. Lincoln. 44. ]Coleopt£ra in bird stomachs. L. L. Buchanan. 319. *Ducks, American shoal-water, food habits of. D. C. Mabbott. 21. fDucks, fall migration of, from Lake Scugog, Ontario. F. C. Lincoln. 233. *Ducks, wild, relative abundance of, at Delavan, Wis. N. Hollister. 44. *Mutanda oniithologica. H. N. Ober- holser. 20. Neotropical birds, new forms of. AlEX. WetmorE. 323. *Ostmops deciifubens, unusual types of variation in. F. M. Chapman. 20. fParrots imported into United States. T. S. Palmer. 234. *Philippines and Greater vSunda Islands, new birds from. J. H. RilEy. 44. fRapid peering birds. Joseph Grinnell. 234. *Washington, D. C, rare bird records from. B. H. Swales. 21. *Washington region, February-March. H. C. Oberholser. 43. fWaterfowl of Great Plains, breeding. H. N. Oberholser. 232. Paleontology. Amber, two new aphids from Baltic. A. C. Baker. 353. Dictyocomus from Haiti. W. P. Wood- ring. 244. fFlora of Florissant, Colo. F. H. Knowlton. 232. Foraminifera from middle Eocene, from Haiti. W. P. Woodring. 244. fPrimates of the Paleocene. J. W. GiDLEY. 252. fSex characters in fossils. R. S. BasslER. 190. fVertebrates, hunting fossil, in Arizona. J. W. GiDLEY. 316. Petrology. Crystallization pressure in mag- mus. G. W. Morey. 219. Physics. fCalcium carbonate, fusion of, pressures and temperatures in refer- ence to. F. H. Smyth. 403. fDip-needle errors from pivot defects. H. W. FiSK. 21. fGraphite and diamond, stability of. L. H. Adams. 404. fHarmonics and preharmonics, calculus of. R. S. Woodward. 268. fMetals, amorphous material in. W. P. White. 404. Molybdenite, transformation of thermal radiant energy into electric current in. W. W. Coblentz. 411. fPrecision pendulums. W. P. WhiTB. 187. Properties of matter, general method for determining. M. D. Hersey. 167. 486 SUBJECT INDEX Physics (Continued) tQuantum theory, the. R. C. Tolman. 460. Recording electric contact, device for. C. T. Zahn. 412. fSelection principle, exception not explainable by Stark effect. P. D FooTE, F. L. MoHi^ER, and W. F. Meggers. 187. fSolubility relations under high pressure, prediction of, from compressibility measurements. E. D. Williamson. 404. fSpectrographic tests for purity of metals. W. F. Meggers. 267. Temperature changes accompanying isen- tropic, isenergic, and isenkaumic ex- pansion. L. H. Adams. 407. fTemperature of stars, estimated from energy distribution in spectrum. W. W. COBLENTZ. 186. fTemperature, stellar, and planetary ra- diation. W. W. CoBLENTz. 462. fThermo-electric tests for purity of metals. C. O. Fairchild. 266. Science, General. Abstracts in the Journal, discontinuance of. 136. fArctic expedition, Amundsen, scientific work of. H. U. SvERDRUP. 270. Books in science, first revised edition of Academy's list of one hundred popu- lar. R. B. SosMAN. 469. fBooks of science, readable. 138. Federal Service, the scientist in the. A. H. Brooks'. 73. §Institute for Tropical Research. 340. §Lehman Caves National Monument, reservation of. 116. Psychophysics, key to physics and metaphysics. L. T. Troland. 141. Scientific Notes and News. 23, 47, 116, 191, 216, 276, 340, 366, 445, 468. 477. Technology. Annealing of glass, mathemati- cal note on. E. D. Williamson. 1. fDeciphering charred paper records. Raymond Davis. 461. fFlatinum group, purification of elements in. Edward Wickers. 265. fPrecision pendulums. W. P. White. 187. Terrestrial Magnetism. t-A-mundsen's Arctic expedition, cooperation with. 190. tEarth-current observations. L. A. Bauer. 268. Zoology. fBadger, changes in skull of, due to old age. R. W. ShufeldT. 252. fBeavers, raising baby. Vernon BailEY 314. fBison in the United States. T. S. Palmer. 233. fBuffalo, Federal protection of. T. S. Palmer. 333. fChipmunks, American. A. H. HowELL. 298. Evolution of the animal body. A. H. Clark. 25. fFur trade in United States. F. G. ASHBROOK. 189. Greeffiella, genus of nematodes. N. A. Cobb. 299. fMonkeys and apes, intelligence tests. R. M. Yerkes. 313. Monochus papillatus, control of Hetero- dera radicola by. G. SteinER and Helen Heinly. 367. Nemas, control of injurious nemas by predatory. G. SteinER and Helen Heinly. 367. Nematodes, Greeffiella, genus of. N. A. Cobb. 299. Nematodes, Nygolaimus, genus of. N. A. Cobb. 416. fOpossum in California, origin of. T. S. Palmer. 188. fRats in the war zone. E. A. Goldman. 235. tShipworms, American. Paul BarTsch. 315. Sorex, new species and subspecies of, from western America. H. H T. Jackson. 262. tWild animals as pets. Vernon BailEY. 334. Vol. 12 January 4, 1922 No. i JOURNAL OF THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. F. Bi^AEB Sidney Paige E. D. Williamson BUKBAU 0» PI.ANT INDUSTB7 OSOI^OOICAI, SURVSY OSOPBYSICAl, I^ABORATORV ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan S. A. Rohwbr BOTAKICAL SOCISTV INTOMOLOOICAL SOaSTI N. HOUJSTBR G. W. Stosb BICNbOOICAl, SOCISTV OBOLOOICAI, SOCtBTV W. F. Meggers J. R. Swanton PHILOSOPHICAL aOCIITy ANTHKOPOLOOICAI. ■OGISTV PUBUSHBD SSUI-MOMTHLT EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEHBBRr WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OPPICE OP PUBLICATION 311 CHURCH STRBBT SASTON, PA. Bnttrcd u Second Class Matter, January 2S, I9I9, at the post-office at Baston, Pa., andar th* ▲et of Angutt 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided fot ia Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorised oo Tuly 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAi,, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty- fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journai, for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly tsrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copie* 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 60 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rale of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made vtithin thirty days after date of the following issue. '*Volame I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911 will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS Tuesday, January 10. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club. Program: Address of the Retiring President, Ai,fred H. Brooks: The scientist in the Federal Service. Tuesday, January 10. The Institute of Electrical Engineers. Wednesday, January 11. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Thursday, January 12. The Chemical Society. Saturday, January 14. The Philosophical Society. Tuesday, January 17. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, January 18. The Society of Engineers. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mathematics. — ^A mathematical note on the annealing of glass. E. D. Wiluamson. . 1 Mineralogy. — Gillespite, a new mineraL Waldemar T. SchaixEr 7 Ichthology. — ^Notice of a spiral valve in the Teleostean fish Argentina silus, with a discussion of some skeletal and other characters. Wiluam C. Kendall and Donald R. Crawford 8 Abstracts Geology 19 Hydrology 20 Ornithology 20 Proceedings Philosophical Society 21 Scientific Notes and News 23 •?;; Vol. 12 January 19, 1922 No. 2 JOURNAL OP THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES V S. F. BlakB BURSAU OP rhAur inodstbt BOARD OF EDITORS Sidney Paigb OSOLOOICAI. 8USV87 E. D. Williamson OSOFBTSICAI. I^BORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCISTY N. HOLUSTSK BIOLpOICAI, 30aHTV W. F. Meggers PHtLOaoPBICAL ■OCIBTV S. A. ROHWBR ■MTOMOLOOICAL SOCnTI G. W. Stosb OSOLOOICAI. SOCISTT J. R. SWANTON AMTHBOPOLOOICAL BOCUITy PUBUSBBD SBMI-MONTHLT EXCEPT IN JT7LT. AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BT THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OPFICB OF PUBLICATION 211 CHtTRCH STREET BASTON, PA. Bntertd u Second Class Matter, Janauy 25, 1919, at the poat-office at BMton, Pa., nader tiM Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage prOTidcd far in .Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Aatborised on Jolr 3. 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the ofiBdal organ of the Washington Academy , of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To thu end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or entonating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty- fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following foiu-th or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly tjrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more tiian correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copie* 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.60 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. 'Volume I, however, fron July 19, 1011, to December 19, 1911 will be lent for $3.00. Special rate* are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, January 21. The Biological Society. Wednesday, January 25. The Geological Society. Wednesday, January 25. The Medical Society. Saturday, January 28. The Philosophical Society. Wednesday, February 1. The Society of Engineers. Wednesday, February 1. The Medical Society. Saturday, February 4. The Biological Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL^ Wednesday, January 4. The Biological Society, at the National Museum at 8.15 p. m., in cooperation with the Audubon Society and Wild Flower Preservation Society. Program: Arthur C. Pn,i3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Tuesday, March 21. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, March 22. The Geological Society. Saturday, March 25. The Philosophical Society. Saturday, April 1. The Biological Society. Tuesday, April 4. The Botanical Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISvSUE OP THE JOURNAL' Monday, February 20. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club. Program: H. D. Miser and C. S. Ross: Diamond-bearing peridotite in Arkansas. Tuesday, February 21. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Program: J. C. Merriam: The ultimate significance of the Calaveras skull. Thursday, March 2. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m. Program: Notes and exhibition of specimens. Saturday, March 4. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program : Vernon Bailey: The raising of baby beavers. Paul BarTsch: The American ship- tvorms and their economic importance. Tuesday, March 7. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: RuDOLP KuRAz: Fruit growing and forestry in Czecho Slovakia. David Lumsden: Raising orchid seedlings by the use of a symbiotic my cor rhizal fungus. 1 Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting. CONTENTS ORiGiNAt Papers Page General Science.— Psychophysics as the key to the mysteries of physics and of meta- physics. Leonard Thompson Troland 141 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 162 Entomological Society 163 Vol. 12 April 4, 1922 No. 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. P. Bi«AKB SiDNBT Paiob B. D. Wiu,iauson BURBAO or K.ANT IMOUSTKT OSO(,OOICAI, SDSTSV OaOPBTaiCAI, LABORATOST ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlam S. a. Rohwsb BOTAinCAL aOCIKTT ■MTOMOLOOICAL aOCmTT N. HOLUSTBR G. W. Stoss BIOLOGICAL 90CIBTT OlOLOOICAb ■OCIBTT W. P. MBG08KS J. R. SWAMTOM PKU.OSOVRICAL aoCtSTV AHTaBOPOLOOICAl, MMiaTT PUBUSHBD SSMI-MONTHLT SXCSPT IN JXTLT, A0O08T, AND SSPTBUBBK. WHBN UONTHLT BT TBI WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OPPICB OF PUBUCATION 211 CHURCH STRBET BASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 26, 1919, at the post-office at Eastoa, P«., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postagre provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. v^\ Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JotTRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washingfton; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly t5T)ewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot tmdertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. A uthors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re- ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices : Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers .50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies afHliated with the Academy. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Wednesday, April 5. The Society of Engineers. Thursday, April 6. The Entomological Society. Saturday, April 8. The Philosophical Society. Tuesday, April 11. The Society of Electrical Engineers. Wednesday, April 12. The Geological Society. Thursday, April 13. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program : A. M. Houghton: What is a patent? W. B. Johnson: The chemist and the Patent Office. Saturday, April 15. The Biological Society. Tuesday, April 18. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, April 19. The Society of Engineers. . PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISvSUE OF THE JOURNAL^ Thursday, March 16. Joint meeting of the Academy and the Chemical Society, at th« Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: R. B. Moore: The rare gases: their history, properties, and uses. Saturday, March 18. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: Paui, Bartsch: The American shipworms and their economic importance. Ivar Tidestrom: The floral alphabet oj the Celts. ^ Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting. CONTENTS Original Papers Physics. — Note on a general method for determining properties of matter. Mayo D. Hersey 167 Geology. — The major tectonic features of the Dutch East Indies. H. A. Brouwer. . 172 Proceedings Philosophical Society 186 Biological Society 188 Scientific Notes and News 191 Vol. 12 April 19, 1922 No. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. P. Blaks Sidn9t Paigs E. D. Wiixiamson BDRBAO 0» FbAVT UfDUSTKT OaoUMICAL SOSVST aaOVBTSICAI, LABOa4TOKT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Hari^m S. a. Rohwbr BOTAmCAl aoCIBTT ENTOMOI,OGICAL SOCI8TY N. HOIXISTBS G. W. ST088 BIOLOOICAt SOaSTT GSOLOGICAi; SOCISTy W. p. Mbgobrs J. R. Swamton nmOSOraiCAI, lOCtaTT ANTHROPOLOOrCAt socibty PUBU8HBO SBMI-HONTHLT SXCBPT IN JXTLY. AUOUST, AND SBPTBICBSR, WHKN MONTHLY BT TRB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICB OP P0BUCATION 211 CHURCH STREET BASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-oflSce at Easton, P»., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided fof in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorired on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubhshes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. • A uthors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re- ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covera 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12, 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Serai-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, U. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. , Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Voluine I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Thursday, AprU 20. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Saturday, April 22. The Philosophical vSociety. Wednesday, April 26. The Geological Society. vSaturday, April 29. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program : W. E. RitTBr: The usefulness and the peril- of laboratory methods in biology. Tuesday, May 2. The Botanical Society. Thursday, May 4. The Entomological vSociety. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL* Wednesday, March 29. Joint meeting of the Academy, the Philosophical Society, and the Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: F. W. Aston: Isotypes and the structure of the atom. Saturday, April 1. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: P. Iv. Ricker: Wild flowers that need protection. J. W. Gidley: Hunting fossil verte- brates in southeastern Arizona. Thursday, April 6. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m. Program : Notes and exhibition oj specimens. ' Received too late for publication before the date of the meetiii,';. CONTENTS Page Original Papers Mineralogy. — Smcosite, a new mineral. Waldemar T. SchallER 195 Mineralogy. — Cristobalite from the Columbia River Basalt of Spokane, Wash. Earl V. Shannon 195 Crystallography. — Review of the optical-crystallographic properties of calcium oxalate monohydrate. Edgar T. Wherry 196 Botany. — ^Two new species of Acanthospermum from the Galapagos Islands. S. F. Blake 200 Bptany. — A perennial species of teosinte. A. S. Hitchcock 205 Ethnology. — Customs of the Chukchi natives of northeastern Siberia. H. U. SvERDRUP 208 Proceedings Entomological Society 213 Scientific Notes and News 216 Vol. 12 May 4, 1922 No. 9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. F. Blakh Sidnsy Paiob B. D. Whxiamson BUUAO or rLAMT UrOOITKT OSOUiOICAI. SOBVST OSOFRTSICAI, LABOBATOST ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Haioam S. a. Rohwbs BOTAWICAI. aoCIBTT BNTOMOIvers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ^y. ANNPUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, May 20. The Philosophical Society. Wednesday, May 24. The Geological Society. Saturday, May 27. The Biological Society. Thursday, June 1. The Entomological Society. SPECIAL NOTICE Members of the Chemical Society will make an excursion to the Endless Caverns near New Market, Virginia, in the Shenandoah Valley, leaving Union Station, Washington, Sunday, June 11, at 8.00 a.m., returning the same day. These caverns are extensive and are said to contain many remarkable geologi- cal formations. The railway rate is $2.50 round trip, motor conveyance $1.00. Dinner at the Caverns, if desired, $1.00. Members of the Academy and affiliated societies and their friends are cordially invited to join in the excursion. The train arrives at 12.15; returning, leaves New Market 6.00 p.m., arriving at Washington 10.15 p.m. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mineralogy. — Notes on white chlqrites. Earl V. Shannon and Edgar T. Wherry. 239 Mineralogy. — Crocidolite from eastern Pennsylvania. Edgar T. Wherry and Eari, V. Shannon 242 Paleontology. — Middle Eocene Foraminifera of the genus Dictyocomis from the Repub- lic of Haiti. Wendell P. Woodring 244 Inorganic Chemistry. — The crystal structures of the alkali halides. Eugen Posnjak AND Ralph W. G. Wyckoff 248 PROCEEDINGS Biological Society 251 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 June 4, 1922 No. 11 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. F. Blakb Sidnht Paigb E. D. Wuxiamson BDUAO 0» 9LAm INDOaTST OBOLOOICAL BDB«VY aaOFRTSICAI, LABOKATOST ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Haxi^n & A. ROHWSK SOTAHICAL 90CISTT BNTOMOLOOICAL, SOCIBTV N. HOUUSTSB G. W. STOS8 BIOIOOICAL SOCtSTI GSOLOOICAI. SOCIBTV W. F. MSGOSKS J. R. SWANTOM rBK.OSOrRICAI, SOCISTT ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBUSHBD SSm-HONTHLT 8XCBPT IN JtfLY, AUOCST, AND SSPTBlfBSK, WHSK MONTHI.T BY TBB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OVPICB OF PtTBUCATION 211 CHURCH STREET SASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-ofiSce at 'Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailin? at special rate of postage provided for In Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes; (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. , Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re- ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices : Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Fans, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volnme I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for.^a.OO. Special rates are given to memberi of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ■■I CONTENTS Original Papsrs ' Pafre Botany. — New Passifloras from Mexico and Central America. E. P. Killip 2.55 Zoology. — New species and subspecies of Sorex from western America. Hartley H. T. Jackson 2G2 Proceedings Philosophical Society 264 Entomological Society . 273 Botanical Society 275 Scientific Notes and News 270 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Btireau. Corresponding Secretary; Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 June 19, 1922 No. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY » OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. P. Bl,AKS SiDNKT PaIGS E. D. WuXIAXaON BnBKAD Oy PLAMT UrDOMKT OBOLOOICAI. aDKVST OSOPHTaiCAI, I.ABOKATOXT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlam S. a. Rohwbs BOTAmCAL SOaSTT SNTOUOLOOICAI, SOCISTT N. HoixisTss G. W. Stosb BIOLOOICAL lOCIITT QSOLOGICAL SOCI8TY W. p. MSG0BR3 J. R. Swantom PBtLOBOPBICAL SOCISTT ANTHROPOLOQICAI^ SOCIBTY PUBUSHBD SSm-UONTHLT BXCBPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SSPTBUBSR, WHBN HOMTBLT BY THl WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES 0p9icb op pubucatiom 211 Church strbbt baston, pa. Entered m 5>econd Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-oflBce at Baston, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences * This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors caimot undertake to do*more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re- ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices : Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 ■ 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers -25 Monthly numbers -50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue, ♦Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. CONTENTS Originai, Papers Page Oceanography . — The applications of science and engineering in the work of the United States Lighthouse Service. George R. Putnam 279 Crystallography. — Crystallographic -optical properties of calcium fumarate and maleate. Edgar T. Wherry and Raymond M. Hann 288 Proceedings Biological Society 290 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of vStandards. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. V>' Vol. 12 July 19, 1922 No. 13 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. F. Bl,AKB "^IDNBY PaIOB E. D. WnXIAUSON bursao or puiirr ian>nmy osobooicAi. subwv osopBysiCAL labobatokt ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Hakjuan S. a. Robwbs BOTAVICAt, SOCntTT ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTV N. HOLUSTBB G. W Stosb UOIXtOICAl, lOCIBTT GBOLOGICAL SOCISTy W. F. M90G8K3 J. R. SWAMTOM rrnXLOBOtBlCAM, ■OCIVTT ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV PUBLISBBD SSMI-MONTHI.T KCCBPT IN JtrtY, ACOUST, AND SSPTBMBBKl, WHBN MONTHLY BY THI WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES OFnCB OP PUBUCATION 311 CHURCH STREET BA3TON, PA Entered us Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptani-e for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volimies correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editor^; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figiu-es or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.60 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be ftunished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. / The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers -25 Monthly numbers -50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washmgton. D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, Loudon. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ^ CONTENTS Original Papers Zoology.— Greeffiella (Trichoderma Greeff, 1869; not Trichoderma Steph. 1835). W. A. ^ Cobb 299 Ethnology. — Some new ethnologic data from Louisiana. David I. Bushnell, Jr. . . . 303 Botany. — Notes on marsh and aquatic plants of Missouri. F. P. Metcalf 307 Proceedings Biological Society 313 Entomological Society 319 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President:' W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: Wii^liam R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 August 19, 1922 No. 14 JOURNAL OI^ THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS S. P. BI.AK8 SiDNBT PaIOB E. D. WoXIAlfSON BDUAU 0» WLAMT tmVVWnt OSOLOOICAb SURVaT OaoraTSICAI. bABOKATOKT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. HakmiK S. a. Rohwb> BOTAKICAI. aoaSTT SNTOMOLOOICAL SOCISTV N. HOXJUSTSR G. W. Stoss BIMOOICAI, aOCIBTV OSOLOOICAt SOCIETY W. p. MsooORS J. R. Swaktom nOLOSOVmeAL tOCUYT ANTaROPOI.OOICAI, SOCIBTY PUBUSHBD SSia-MONTHLT CXCBPT IN JUI,T, AU0TT8T, AND aSPTSMBBR, WHBN MONTBIT B7 TBB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OWICS or PUBUCATIOM 211 CHURCH STRBBT BASTGN. FA. Entered m Second Class Matter, January 2S, 1919, at the post-office at Baston, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage prorided for h» Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorised on July 3, 1818. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of cxurent scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and w|ll be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6,66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .60 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volnme I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent Cor S3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. CONTENTS . Original Papers I Page Zoology. — New forms of Neotropical birds. AlExande;r Wetmore 323 Botany. — The two species of deerhorn cactus. N. I,. Britton and J. N. Rose. . . . 328 Botany. — Three new species of Passiflora from Venezuela and Ecuador. E. P. Killip . 330 Proceedings Biological Society 333 Entomological Society 335 Scientific Notes and News 340 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiiySBEE, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: Wiluam R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 September 19, 1922 No. 15 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. F. Blake nURRAtt 0» Pl^ANT INDOSTRV BOARD OF EDITORS Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAI, SURVEV E. D. WlLUAMSOX GBOPHYSICAJU I,ABORATORV ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIETY N. HoLLISTER BIOLOGICAI, SOCIETV W. F. Meggers PHILOSOPHICAI, SOCIETY S. A. ROHWER ENTOMOLOGICAI, SOCIETY G. W. Stose GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. S WANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETV PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT m JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE, OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, Pa. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized ou July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following foiuth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editore; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is lu-ged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12,12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers -25 Monthly numbers -50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Fans, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I, however, from June 19. 1911, to December 19.1911, will be sent for W.OO. Special rates •re eiven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Geophysics. — A plea for geophysical and geochemical observatories. T. A. Jaggar. "343 Paleontology. — Two new aphids from Baltic amber. A. C. Baker " 353 Geology. — The Lower Paleozoic section of southeastern Pennsylvania. George W. Stose and Anna I. Jonas 358 Scientific Notes and News 366 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J- Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: Wii^liam R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 October 4, 1922 No. 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. F. Blake BURSAU 0» PLAKT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORvS Sidney Paige GROLOOICAL, SURVBV E. D. Williamson GBOPHYSICAI. LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIGTY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOOICAL SOCISTY W. F. Meggers PBILOSOPHICAI. SOCIETY S. A. ROHWER SNTOMOLOOICAL SOCIBTV G. W. Stosb OSOLOOICAL SOCIBTY J. R. S WANTON ANTHROPOLOOICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Bnterfed as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the oflBdal organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dtu-ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints.-^On request the author of an original article will re ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices : Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 ^1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasiu-er, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: "^illiam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Voluni« I, however, from Jane 19, 1911, to December 19„ t91I,'will be sent for S3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Zoology. — The possibility of control of Heterodera radicicola and other plant-injurious nemas by means of predatory nemas, especially by Mononchus papillatus Bastian. G. Steiner and Helen Heinly 367 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphrbys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 October 19, 1922 No. 17 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. F. Blake BPRKAC OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS Sidney Paige GBOLOGICAL SURVEY E. D. Williamson GBOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V< Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIETY N, HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY W. F. Meggers PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY S. A. ROHWER ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY G. W. STOSE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. S WANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage nrovided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 I Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JotTRNAL, the offidal organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 5U $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 . 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be ftunished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasm-er, R. L. Fans, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. •Volume I, however, from June 19. 1911. to December 19, 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Specie! rates are ^veo to members of scientific societies affiliated with the .\cademv ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES . Saturday, October 21. The Philosophical Society. Wednesday, October 25. The Geological Society. Saturday, October 28. The Biological Society. Thursday, November 2. The Entomological Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOITRNAL' Saturday, October 7. The Philosophical Society at the Cosmos Club at 8.15 p.m. Pro- gram: Raymond Davis: Deciphering of cJiarred paper records. R. W. G. Wyckofp: Crystal structure of ammonium chloride and hydrazine hydrochloride. W. W. Cob- LENz : Measurements of planetary radiation. Thursday, October 12. The Chemical Society at the Cosmos Club at 8.00 p.m. Program : P. E. Palmbr: Autamatic control of industrial processes by gas analysis methods. ' Notices received too late for publication before the date of the meeting. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mineralogy. — A worked jade pebble from Copan. H. S. Washington 387 Botany. — Two new species of letterwood (Piratinera) . S. F. Blake 391 Botany. — Diospyros conzattii, a new species of persimmon from Mexico. Paul C. Standley 399 Botanv. — A new Salvinia from Trinidad. William R. Maxon 400 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 401 Philosophical Society 403 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: William R.JVIaxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vou 12 November 4, 1922 No. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. F. Blake BtTRSAO OI> PLANT INODSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS Sidney Pakjb OBOLOGICAL SURVEY E. D. Williamson OSOPHYSICAI. LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIBTY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY W. F. Meggers PHILOSOPHICAL SOaSTY S. A. ROHWER BNTOHOLOGICAL SOCIBTY G. W. Stose GBOLOGICAL SOCIETy J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED semi-monthly EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STBIEET EASTON, Pa. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-ofiRce at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAi,, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or commtmicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of ciurent scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following foiu-th or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and shotild include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be met by the author. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will re- ceive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Coyer* 50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50 100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89 150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 '2.27 200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66 250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagina- tion and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is : $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers .25 Monthly numbers .50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L'. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey,. Washington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand. London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19. 1011. to December 19, 1911. vrill be sent for $3.00. Special rates are idven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, November 4., The Philosophical Society. Tuesday, November 7. The Botanical Society. Wednesday, November 8. The Geological Society. Thursday, November 9. The Chemical Society. Saturday, November 11. The Biological Society. Thursday, November 16. The; Academy. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED vSINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNALi Tuesday, October 17. The Anthropological Society at the National Museum at 8.00 p.m. Program: J. Walter Fewkes: A summer's field work at Mesa Verde. Thursday, October 19. Joint meeting of^TnE Academy, the Biological Society and the Chemical Society at the Cosmos Club at 8.15 p.m. Program: H. J. Hamburger: The increasing significance of chemistry in medical thought and practice. Saturday, October 21. The Philosophical Society at the Cosmos Club at 8.15 p.m. Pro- gram : William Bowie : The meetings of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union and of the International Astronomical Union. Robert S. Woodward: The compressibility of the Earth. Wednesday, October 25. The Geological Society at the Cosmos Club at 8.00 p.m. Pro- gram: E. S. Larsen: Origin of some corundum-bearing rocks. Edward Sampson: Ferruginous cherts of Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland. E. G. ZiEs: Fttinarnle minerals of the Katmai region. Notices received too, late for publication before the date of the meeting. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — Temperature changes accompanying isentropic, isenergic, and isenkaumic expansion. Leason H. Adams 407 Physics. — Some observations on the transformation of thermal radiant energy into electric current in molybdenite. W. W. Cobi^ENTZ 411 Physics. — A device for recording electric contact using an electron tube generator and a radio- frequency spark. Charles T. Zahn 412 Zoology. — A new species of Nygolaimus, an outstanding genus of the Dorylairaidae. N. A. Cobb 416 Proceedings Botanical Society 421 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau, Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Silsbee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 12 November 19, 1922 No. 19 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. F. Blake iURgAD or PLAKT INDOBTItV BOARD OF EDITORS SiDNBY Paige gSolooical survey E- D. Williamson GKOPHYSICAL LABORATOHT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H, V. Harlan BOTANICAi, SOCIBTV N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV W. F. Meggers PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY S. A. ROHWKR SNTOMOLOaiCAL SOCIBTV G. W. Stose OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTV J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV PtJBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, Pa. Entered as Second Class Matter, J^f uary 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under tbt Act of August 24, 1912. A