| ME iz. { eos ¥, f irkaate Tp Nae et fl det Mae AL Tee 5 “Se ie a re fe “Seer Lae. Sy, a ‘ ‘ et a oe € Wis: a eee = m it Tp ‘t- (hi Hh | ge . 2, | * , . 1 al it - or AU a noe : ae Nene f ‘e) . me ‘ CaN a sch “A Le 4 ra Se Cree ey, We Sowans Sar ‘ay ni : 5 * Me, a wy es Hp he i" a bs i HL la FE EIEAES HE) i H Me ee, et eee “ee ma aes Sg BN a SS Ap alt bt Dt ve eae Pee ifs if {ck i | i ta “Sn sth ih SS ne ie is SORE Weegeet ae fee pele ‘est, ; ae Ao ab rae al aaa, HEF Ne EE wg4 “Nt i BY ont aay PE, an ae 3, Hf of! ed J iy eel aE ere AB SE hig gE Lad aor fj, Mage A ae Ne ih i bey ei : rake Ft gull eats Pe Mee, Le ebony aie non Re Sears fate Bae ee Pune 4 ares Spa agers “ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME 95 1961-62 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1961-1962 Patrons THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA His EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE VISCOUNT DE L’ISLE, v.c., P.c., G.c.M.G., K.St.J. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SouTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC W. WOODWARD, k.c.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O. President Ro J. W.) LE PE VRE pisces) Eee Vice-Presidents H. A. J. DONEGAN, M.Sc. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD, .se. A. F. A. HARPER, M:sc. HARLEY W. WOOD, m.sc. Hon. Secretaries J. L./“ GRIFFITH, B.A.,. Misc. ALAN A. DAY, pPh.D., B.Sc. (Editor) Hon. Treasurer C. L. ADAMSON, B:sc. a Members of Council IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. P: DF. MURRAY, ‘pise.j3reaene AY Gs BY NN: B.Sc.S3y. W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.sc. Agr. N. A. GIBSON, Ph.D. M.Sc. G. H. SLADE, ' Bisce. JW. HUMPHRIES,” s:se: W. B. SMITH-WHITE, o.a. A. H. LOW, ph.p., M.Sc. NOW: WES osisc NOTICE The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. CONTENTS Part 1 Chemistry : Applications in maa ua of pee NS Be Molecular See ie oe W. Le Févre .. Geology : Notes on Some Additional Minerals from the Oxodized Portion of the Broken Hill Lode, N.S.W., with Observations on Crystals of Coronadite. L. J. Lawrence .. The Lambie Group at Mount Lambie. Part I: Eeee ee and Structure. Robin M. Mackay = The Geology and Betology: at ihe foetal eas Ry S.W. R. H. Vemnen Relativity : The Nature of Light Propagation. S. J. Prokhovntk Physics : Reflection of Plane Waves by Random Cylindrical Surfaces. L. G. MacCracken Part 2 Presidential Address : Chemistry and the Mining Industry. H. A. J. Donegan Crystallography : A Useful Variation of the Graphical Proof of the Biot-Fresnel Law. F.M. Quodling Geology : The Stratigraphy and Structural fat of the Manilla-Moore Creek District, N.S.W. B. W. Chappell The Geology of the Gresford oie i Ropers Mathematics : On a Group of Transforms containing the Fourier Transforms. /.L. Griffith .. Proceedings of the Society : Annual Reports of the President and Council Financial Statement .. Obituary Abstract ot Bee ndin es, 1960 Members of the Society Medals, Memorial Lectureships ancl Prves Reel by ‘he coseun Section of Geology si 35 43 47 61 CONTENTS Parts 3 and 4 Astronomy : Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1959-60. K.P. Sims.. Chemistry : Some Theoretical Studies on the Electro-Migration of Inorganic Compounds on Paper. J. Miller and W. F. Pickering : oy. Geology : The Sequence of Tertiary Volcanic and SHOMET Ga Rocks of the Mount Warning Volcanic Shield. N. R. McTaggart A New Study of the Hawkesbury danabeaten Pics Findings. J. C. Standard Mathematics : On the Number of Collisions to Slow Down Neutrons from High Speeds. Coleridge A. Wilkins Part 5 Astronomy : Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1960. W. H. Robertson Geology : Notes on Permian Sediments in the en District; NeoW.. Jie eae and G. H, Packham ae i on a Ss Palaeontology : Further Notes on Assemblages of Graptolites in New South Wales. Kathleen Sherrard Part 6 Astronomy : Precise Observations of Minor Planets at ey ian ps: 1959 and 1960. W. H. Robertson .. ee ~ ; Chemistry : | Conditions for Stability in Chain Reactions. Rk. C. L. Bosworth and C. M. Groden Fuels : A Note on Selective Fracturing in Vitrain. Rk. G. Burdon .. Geology : Geology of the Bulahdelah-Port Stephens District, N.S.W. B. A. Engel Index Title Page and Contents, Volume 95. Dates of Issue of Separate Parts Part 1: July 4, 1961 Part 2: October 27, 1961 Parts 3 & 4: January 22, 1962 Part 5: February 27, 1962 Part 6: March 30, 1962 AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL, PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY 123 125 135 145 147 153 161 167 179 189 195 197 217 ne A ditional Mi ae he ces” ne ag MacCracken, | 43 uc &} M 2 Mos at Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 1-11, 1961 Applications in Chemistry of Properties Involving Molecular Polarisability* R. J. W. Le FEvREt _ Introduction Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Before saying anything else I want to thank the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales for the honour they have conferred on me by the invitation to give this lecture. I am especially appreciative because I am the first of Liversidge’s successors to be so favoured. After nearly fourteen years in Australia my admiration of the part which Archibald Liver- sidge quietly took in the chemical and scientific life of this country and this University continues to grow. His achievements have been recorded by Sir Edgeworth David in 1931 and, more recently, by Professor Mellor in 1957 ; between the lines one can feel the difficulties, the “limitations and misunderstandings ’’, against which he worked, yet he built a new chemistry department here, supported the introduction of women students, persuaded the University to set up a Faculty of Science (of which he became first Dean), was prominent in the inauguration of technical education in N.S.W., was a founder of A.N.Z.A.A.S., was a reviver and supporter of this Society, and was active in researches on chemical mineralogy, on the origin and precipitation of gold, on the com- positions of rocks and ores and meteorites— researches of peculiar appropriateness to the Australia of his day. Mellor says: “In some ways Liversidge was ahead of his time.’ Perhaps he foresaw how chemistry would change and expand. By his Will he founded this Research Lectureship, and three others for a similar purpose elsewhere. His directions show his far-sightedness: the “lectures are to be open to the public (free or at a nominal fee), but are not to be popular lectures nor such as are intended for the ordinary lecture room instruction of undergraduates, but * Liversidge Research Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, October 13th, 1960. jeeteressor R. J. W. Le Févre, F.A.A., F-.R.S., Head of the Chemistry School, University of Sydney. A shall be such as will primarily encourage research and stimulate the lecturer and the public to think and acquire new knowledge by research instead of merely giving instruction in what is already known ’’. In satisfaction of these terms, previous Liversidge Lecturers have usually selected subjects with which they themselves are personally connected. I propose to do likewise. Genesis of the Subject—As a young organic chemist in England during the late 1920’s, I saw and heard a great deal of the then developing theoretical approaches to reactivity and reaction mechanism associated particularly with the names of Robinson and Ingold—approaches which fundamentally involved the concepts of permanent and temporary polarity, that is, of polarisation and _ polarisability, and _ their influences on and within molecules. The physical measurement of the former I took up partly from stereochemical motives and partly as a contribution to quantitative knowledge of the “inductive ’’ and ‘‘ mesomeric”’ effects. Much less was known of the “tautomeric” or ‘““inductomeric ”’ polarisability effects ; accord- ingly, a few years before the last war, my wife _and I decided to attempt their direct investi- gation. This necessitated the practical measure- ment of electric double refraction and thus brought us into contact with a physical property which, during our period in Australia, has been developed into stereochemical usefulness, and which is now beginning to be applied by others elsewhere in the world. The Anisotropy of Molecular Polarisability Nearly all molecules are anisotropically polar- isable under an electric field. The degree of such anisotropy is sensitively connected with molecular structure, conformation, and mor- phology ; its measurement and interpretation are therefore the basis of the developments just mentioned. D R. J. W. LE FEVRE When an electric field of unit strength acts upon a molecule the dipole moment induced is, by definition, the polarisability 5 of the nolecule. With spherically symmetrical molecules the directions of action of b and of the field will be always collinear; with less symmetrical molecules the induced moment will usually be at angles to the field depending on the orienta- tions of the molecule in the field—in other words, all the measurements involved are practically difficult. Accordingly, our first task was to develop and test methods for working with substances in solution. This phase was con- cluded for the Kerr effect by 1953 (Le Févre and Le Févre) and for light scattering by 1957 (Le Févre and Purnachandra Rao). Procedures now exist whereby “molar Kerr constants ”’ and “ molecular anisotropies ’’, given for gases by mis =6BniM |(e+2)?(n? +2) 2d and 6?=10A/(6-7A) the field will induce component moments parallel and perpendicular to itself. Only for certain clearly definable orientations will these perpendicular components be zero. In the case of a completely unsymmetrical molecule there will be three such orientations, mutually at right angles, and the moments induced parallel with the field in each situation are known as the principal polarisabilities 6,, b,, and 6, of the molecule. These polarisabilities enter the mathematical treatments accorded by Langevin, Gans, Born, Debye and others to many optical and electrical phenomena, and in particular to refractivity, light scattering, dielectric polarisation and the Kerr effect. For a given molecule, 0,, b, and b, are therefore accessible from quantitative measurements associated with the phenomena named. Details are given in a review by Le Févre and Le Févre (1955). Thus the total (o,+0,+6,) comes from molecular refractions, the squares of the differences (by —09)*+ (Og —bg)? + (b3—0,)? from depolarisation factors in Rayleigh scattered light, and a sum (0,+0,) from the observed Kerr constant B (defined as (n,—n,)/AE?, where 1, and u, are the refractive indices of a dielectric parallel and perpendicular to the lines of force of a field F, for light of wave- length A). Expansions of 0, and 0, are: = [ (0, —25) ?+ (bg—bs) + (b3—by) 21/(dy +, +s) e (A=depolarisation factor, n=refractive index, e=—dielectric constant, d=density, M=molecular weight), may be measured for solutes at infinite dilution. (The “molar Kerr constant ’”’ of a substance can be visualized as the differences of its molecular refractions parallel and perpendicular to a unit electric field in the Kerr cell.) From the extrapolated molar Kerr constant o(mis) and the electronic polarisation ,P of a solute, we have, at 25° C, 6,+0,=—0-2378 x10-73 x .(,,/Ko) and 6, +5,+b8=0-11891 x10-73 x ,P. Several hundred ,(,,K.,)’s have now been recorded (mostly in the Journ. Chem. Soc.) by the Le Févres and their collaborators, and from the majority the related principal polaris- abilities calculated. Principal Molecular Polarisabilities and Bond Polarisabilities The data thus accumulated have further been analysed in terms of anisotropic bond polarisabilities. A suggestion that bonds may have different polarisabilities along their lengths and in the two perpendicular transverse direc- — tions was first made qualitatively in 1931 by 01= [ (6, —b2)? + (bg 63)? + (3 —61)7] pP/452 T(z P) O2=[(0, —)g) (ui —2) -++-(b,—bs) (us—p3) + (63—}y) (u3—p)]/45h2T? (U4, Uo, and ws being the resolutes of the resultant molecular moment along the directions in which b,, b,, and 6, are measured, and ,P and ,P the distortion and electronic polarisations respectively). Application to Solutes—The underlying theory upon which these formulae are based applies strictly to dielectrics as gases—a state into which many interesting substances cannot be brought without decomposition and in which Meyer and Otterbein. Representing these as be ye” and be (L=longitudinal, 7—trans- verse, and V=vertical) for the bond joining the atoms X and Y, we have e.g. for the molecule XY, where the angle YXY is 20: bx 29 (be” cos? §-+5%” sin? 0), bx **=2(b7" sin? 0-Lbx” cos? 0), and pe Ol PROPERTIES INVOLVING MOLECULAR POLARISABILITY 3 In many instances the calculations are simplified by the facts that b,—b, or b;=0s, or ot* = oP", etc. By application to molecules of known structure of the type of argument illustrated by this simple example, the polarisabilities of the commoner bonds entering organic molecules have been deduced. They are listed in Table 1. TABLE 1 Bond Bond 1028b, 107%b, 107%), environment C-H 0-064 0-064 0-064 Paraffin hydro- carbons C-C 0-098, 0-027, 0-027, cycloHexane ie 0-097, 0-027, 0-027, cycloPentane C-F 0-12, 0-04 0-04 CH,F is (0-07) (0-07) (0°03) C,H,;F C-Cl 0-31, 0-22 0-22 CH,Cl 53 0-39, 0-16 0-16 (CH,),CCl - 0-399 0-185 0°185 CCl, and CHCl, ee 0-382 0-185 0-185 cyclo-C,H,,Cl ih 0:42 0-19, 0-15 C,H,Cl C-Br 0:46, 0-31 0-31 CH,Br aS 0:60 0-26 0-26 (CH,),CBr ie 0°53 0-27 0-27 cyclo-C,H,,Br a 0-62 0-24 0-22 C,H,Br C-I 0-68 0-47 0-47 CH,I i 0-88 0-42 0-42 (CH,),CI om 0-80, 0-41, 0°41, cyclo-C,Hy,1 i 0:91 0°53 0:33 C,H,1 C=C 0-280 0-073 0-077 CH,=CCl, C=C 0:35 0°13 0-13 C,H, C-O 0-081 0-039 0-039 Paraldehyde C=O 0-230 0-140 0-046 (CH;),C=O N-H 0-050 0-083 0-083 NH, N-C 0-057 0-069 0-069 (CH3)3N Car-CaAr (0°224) (0°:021) 0:059 C,He As is to be expected, the anisotropy of a given bond is not a “ universal ’’ constant but appears to be somewhat affected by the structural environment ; such becomes notably the case when double bonds are in conjugation— signs of this can be seen in the data for the aryl halides, and will often be found for links in molecules markedly exhibiting exaltations of refractivity. Perhaps part of the inconstancy is due to the incorporation into the listed values of “ secondary polarisabilities ’’—the augmenta- tions or diminutions caused mutually by two induced moments in proximity to one another and varying with their orientations; a prior estimations of such effects by the formulae of electrostatics, however, are often tediously long and always involve the unknown dielectric constant of inter-atomic space. Yet another cause could be the inclusion in bond _ polaris- abilities of part of the polarisabilities of adjacent lone-pair orbitals—this may explain why the H-N and C-N bonds appear to have 0, less than 0,. A safe view-point is that the data in Table 1 are empirical and should be useful in situations analogous to those from which thay have come. Polarisability in Relation to Molecular Structure The application of bond polarisabilities to problems involving choices of structures or conformations is straight-forward. In each of the various alternative models a convenient set of rectangular axes, x, y and zis set. One first imagines a unit field acting e.g. along x, and computes the moments 0,,, b,,, and 6,, which it induces in the x, y and z directions; next the process is repeated for the field along the y, and finally along the z axis. Solution of the cubic equation in A (Pry ==) (b De 2) Pxz 0 yx yy yz a Obs b, y (b., rs ) then yields the required principal polarisabilities, b,, b, and bs, for the structure under considera- tion, and permits the calculation of the direction cosines which locate these b’s in the axes taken. When 0,, 05, and b, are available from experi- ment, comparison can be made directly. In other cases the b’s may be used in conjunction with the observed dipole moment to predict the appropriate molar Kerr constants, which are then compared with the measured .(,,K,). In many instances the correct model is at once obvious. Some Specific Applications A few qualitative and quantitative applica- tions of polarisability to questions of molecular space-formulation were described by Le Févre and Le Feévre in their 1955 Review. Further evidence bearing on some of these has since come forward. The skew structure assigned to benzil, because its Kerr effect was algebraically negative, is now substantiated by work recently completed by Miss P. Cureton, whose experi- ments show incidentally that the related diketones, furil and diacetyl, are also best represented by skew formulae : 4 Ron) EE REV RE R Me C,H, CiH,© ee 156° 97° 3 We OZ cate. —37 —664 —627 HA 2 Berea —28 —664 —627 In such instances, of course, the resultant dipole moment varies with the azimuthal angle, 7°, so that in principle at least the degree of non-planarity could be determined from the polarity. Considerations involving the anisotropy of polarisability are most useful when the choice to be made is between several configurations any one of which may be expected to have a resultant dipole moment indistinguishable from or closely similar to those of the others. Three examples of this type will be cited. The first concerns the molecule morpholine for which theoretically a number of “ boat ”’ and “‘ chair’ structures can be written. Aroney and Le Févre (1958) showed that all but two can be dismissed because neither their calculated dipole moments nor their calculated molar Kerr constants approached the values from actual measurement (wz. 1°5,D. and —24-3x10-” respectively). The choice lay therefore between the two representations N pe "ak Nes es 10}? Keatc=+14:1 or —26-2 eae — 4e eo, Lor 1-5, Ds and the clear-cut conclusion was that morpholine exists, aS a Solute, almost wholly as the con- formation with the N—H link disposed axzally. The second example concerns the related problem among the cyclohexyl-halides. Le Févre and Le Févre first dealt with the matter in 1956, reporting that cyclohexyl-chloride, bromide, and iodide appeared to have their halogens attached predominantly equatorially. Improved calculations (based on more appropriate C—X link polarisability data) pub- lished recently (Le Févre, Le Févre, Roper and Pierens, 1960) for the principal polaris- abilities of the equatorial and axial isomers of C,H,,X, together with the location’ of the directions of action of the molecular dipole moments within the framework defined by the coordinates along which 0,, b,, or b, are measured, give the following results : 10" «(mK 4) Attachment observed in X in C,H,,X of C-X 10”"nK calc. carbon 5 bond tetrachloride axial 51) Cl equatorial 154 122 axial 111 oe equatorial 226 nee axial 179 I equatorial 291 fi 249 Since ,,/< observed for a mixture should be additively related to the ,,K’s of the components, the implication is that at infinite dilution in carbon tetrachloride these halides exist ca. 70%, 60%, and 60%. ‘respectivelsgaia. their equatorial form. By different techniques (kinetic studies, N.M.R. and infra-red spectra) and in other media, equatorial: axial ratios lying between 3 : 2 and 5: 1 have been reported. The matter deserves further investigation, especially from the viewpoints of solvent and temperature effects. The third example resembles the second but is advanced because the carbon skeleton involved belongs to the important natural class of steroids. When X=OH the adjoining formula X is that of cholesterol ; we have examined inter alia cholesteryl chloride, bromide, and iodide, and cholestenone (in which C, is the carbon of a ketone group). A practical difficulty needed to be removed as a preliminary : measurements of the Kerr effect are normally made in polarised light between Nicol prisms crossed for extinction, so that the introduction of molecules having natural optical rotatory powers prevents this condition being attained. Mr. J. M. Eckert PROPERTIES INVOLVING MOLECULAR POLARISABILITY 5 has shown, however, that errors caused thereby diminish steadily as the concentrations (in benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc.) of the active solute are reduced; accordingly, by a process of extrapolation the electric birefringence due to the solute can be deduced at infinite dilution. (Asacheck, the molar Kerr constants at infinite dilution found for a number of optical antipodes and for their corresponding (--) forms have been demonstrated as the same within the ordinary limits of experimental errors.) With the cholesteryl halides our objective was to ascertain whether the links C—X were ‘equatomal “-or “axial’’. As a guide to the inter-valency angles in the C,,H,,-radical the X-ray analysis of cholesteryl iodide by Carlisle and Crawfoot (1945) has been invoked, and two treatments given the data thus available: (a) a scale-model built to show the locations of the numerous atom-centres and centre-centre links, and (6) direction cosines for all the anisotropically polarisable bonds calculated from Cartesian coordinates, computed in turn from position coordinates obtained by multiplying Carlisle and Crawfoot’s fractional coordinates by the appropriate unit cell dimensions. By “ trial and error ’’—by stretching threads through the model and directly measuring angles between thread and bonds—the axes of maximum and minimum polarisability were sought empirically ; later the full and lengthy calculation of the polarisability matrix (as described formally above) has been undertaken, using the SILLIAc machine in the School of Physics to solve the final cubic equation, to give the desired principal polarisabilities, and the nine direction cosines required to define their dispositions in space. Values of 0,, 0s, and b, by the two methods agree to within 1%, although the angles between C-—X and ), differ by 8°, 6°, and 4° for the chloride, bromide, and iodide respectively (being 6° throughout when measured manually). At the present stage the analysis is as follows : 10° mk Solute eee Calc. equatorial Calc. axial observed Cholesteryl chloride Jf 360 (manual) | ‘ a (Gna. meaning eee bromide 447 (manual) | act vecmmrmcyy 1 es! 4 Eee iodide Jf 532 (manual) : 462 (SmLiiac) f- Wa eae A®-Cholestenone +280 (calc.) +282 A®-Cholestene* +42 (calc.) +44 * Now under examination by Mrs. S. Alamelu. It is seen that in the three halides equatorially disposed C—X bonds are indicated very strongly, although the observed molar Kerr constants exceed those calculated by 10-25%. Reasons for the discrepancy are not clear. These molecules are the largest so far studied, they contain more than 70 bonds, so that small inadequacies in the polarisabilities of these will be summed up in the calculation of the molec- ular polarisabilities ; moreover we may here be dealing with cases where neglected secondary effects—the polarisation induced in one link affecting that induced in its neighbours—are accumulating and becoming noticeable (yet the calc. and obsd. ,,K’s for A®-cholestenone and A®-cholestene are most satisfactory). Finally, we have no evidence that a C,,H,,.X% molecule im solution will be identical with cholesteryl iodide im the crystalline state. An analogous assumption would be misleading in certain other cases, e.g. dimethyl oxalate, diethyl terephthalate, 1,2-dibromoethane, and 1,4-dimethoxybenzene are all reported to be trans-forms in the solid phase (Chem. Soc. Special Pubn. No. 11, 1958), but their non-zero dipole moments as solutes demonstrate that they are not thus present in solution. Nevertheless, despite the imperfections men- tioned, we submit this work as the first to display the conformation at C, of dissolved cholesteryl halides without using arguments of analogy. Other Conformational Studies Recently Published or in Progress Time will not permit an extensive discussion of further examples. Clearly the method is suitable for the investigation of the “ apparent ”’ or “‘average’’ configuration adopted by a flexible or easily distorted solute molecule. Cases of this type described in recent publica- tions include the _ polystyrenes, polyvinyl- acetates, and polyethyleneglycols (with Miss G. M. Parkins and my wife, 1958 and 1960), various trialkylamines, arylamines, hydrazines, piperidines, piperazines, phenylene diamines, etc. (with M. Aroney, 1960), most of the n-alcohols up to octadecyl (with C. G. Le Fevre, B. Purnachandra Rao, and A. J. Williams, 1960), neopentyl halides (with C. G. Le Févre and M. R. Smith, 1958), azodiformates, maleates and fumarates (with C. G. Le Févre and W. T. Oh, 1957), cycloheptanone and other cyclic-ketones (with C. G. Le Févre and B. Purnachandra Rao, 1959), substituted diphenyls (with C. G. Le Févre and J. Y. H. Chau, 1959), and the mono- and 6 | R. J. W. LE FEVRE di-methoxy-, -acetoxy-, and _ -carbethoxy- benzenes (with M. Aroney and Shu-Sing Chang, 1960). In many of these instances our measure- ments have indicated the existence of several conformations, usually foreseeable by inspection of scale-models showing van der Waals radu and thus steric hindrances. An _ interesting case where results can be explained with a single form is monomeric vinyl] acetate, ,,K obsd. for which is 3-6 x10-1?, versus values ranging from 30-118 x 10-1? for the various planar forms ; mobs. =o 0 < On mK calc. =4°9 x 10-2 here the vinyl-group seems to be conveniently oriented to obviate the acetoxy-radicals impeding the growth of the carbon chains during addition polymerisation. Other studies now in hand concern trialkyl borates (M. Aroney and P. M. Lenthen), alkyl nitrites (K. D. Steel), monohalogeno-alkanes (A. J. Williams), « : w-dihalogeno- and dicar- bethoxy-alkanes (M. Aroney and D. Izsak), anils and azo-compounds (R. S. Armstrong and N. Hacket), the di-v-alkyl ketones (M. Aroney and D. Izsak), isomeric oximes (N. Hacket), tropinone (J. M. Eckert), Tréger’s base (M. Aroney and L. H. L. Chia), many aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons including rubber and gutta-percha, squalene, and other polyiso- prenoids (S. Alamelu and K. M. Somasundaram), etc. The objective of all these is conformational information. Time allows only a mention of a widening of technique now proceeding in our laboratories. By the imposition of several kilovolts, suddenly and only for fractions of a microsecond, to a solution under examination we should be able to measure Kerr effects with conducting media, and also—with natural macromolecules such as proteins—to estimate rotary diffusion constants, and hence length-diameter ratios for the solute particles concerned. Mr. Steel is developing the necessary equipment, and is intending to gather experience by an exploration of the warm-water induced reaction: collagen—gelatine. In the hope that we shall later be able to handle, inter alia, nucleic acids by such methods, preliminary work by conventional procedures has been started on phosphate esters (L. H. L. Chia) and P-O bonds (N. Hacket), on a few purine derivatives (Miss P. Cureton), and on certain alkylated and acetylated sugars (J. M. Eckert). Macromolecular morphology is here the ultimate objective. . .many difficulties lie ahead, and the first is not the least =| tomimalce’ reliable electric double refraction observations in aqueous media; afterwards will come the problems of interpretation ! The Anisotropy of Polarisability in Conjugated Systems That exaltations of mean _ polarisability occur in conjugated systems has _ been recognized for years through the imperfect additivity shown by their molecular refractions, R.. (Rexpt.—Keatc.—AR —exaltanions a aele. was not known, however, whether these polarisability increments occurred uniformly (isotropically) within a molecule, or preferentially (aniso- tropically) in particular directions. Information on the matter is obviously necessary if the fullest stereochemical use is to be made, along lines illustrated above, of polarisability as an anisotropic molecular property, calculable from the related anisotropic bond properties. Le Févre and Le Févre first attacked the problem, as it- related to substituted benzenes, in 1954. By subtracting from the principal polarisabilities found by experiment for C,H,X and CH,X the corresponding polarisabilities of C,H; (i.e. benzene minus C—) Vaud Wel, ie: methane minus C-H), bf ~* and values for the C-X bond in the two situations were obtained. The differences, (bf go ee minus (07) sonst: where 1=1, 2, or 3, suggested that the exaltations of polarisability produced by substituents in aromatic combination were concentrated along those directions in which electromeric or hyperconjugative electronic dis- placements could be expected by organo- chemical theory; for the halogeno-benzenes this direction is coincident with wc.x, i.e. the exaltation predominantly affects 0,, often apparently at the expense of b, and 6, (cf. Le Févre and Purnachandra Rao, 1958). Exaltations among benzene derivatives are, however, rather small; they are much larger with open-chain conjugated systems. Examples CX C_X br by J PROPERTIES INVOLVING MOLECULAR POLARISABILITY 7 of the latter type, recently studied by Bramley and LeFevre (1960), are the « : w-dipheny]l- polyenes, €,H,-(CH—CH),-C,H,, in which »=1 to 4. These materials display exaltations of mean polarisability, respectively, for n=1, 2, 3, and 4, of ca. 0:25,0°59, 0:96 and1°53 x10-? c.c.; their measured molar Kerr constants rise roughly by 1017, kK =41+79n?, where 41 is the value for biphenyl (~=0). Of course, such molecules are probably mesomerides in which the C=C bonds lose their identities by mesomeric shifts of the kind ii A ae C=C—C=C-, their z-electrons becoming part of a delocalized system. Nevertheless an analysis in which the exaltation of polarisability due to conjugation is separated from the polarisability of an “ isolated’? C=C bond, although perhaps unjustifiable by theory, enables us to retain the procedure of adding bond polarisabilities ten- sorially, and thereby to forecast ,,K’s in reason- able accord with those actually measured. We first calculate bi. bs and bs, without allowance for conjugation, using the geometrical specifications established by X-rays for these polyenes. Then, utilising the conclusion reached with the benzene derivatives, we add the exaltation of polarisability along that direction in which mesomerism is most to be expected. Finally, we recalculate 6,, 0, and 0d, as the maximum, intermediate, and minimum polaris- abilities respectively for the real structure ; from these, and for comparison with experiment, the molar Kerr constants can be easily computed. Apart from molecular refractions, two other sources of estimating exaltations have appeared : (a) If b is the projection of the distance between the 4 and 4’ positions onto an axis defined by the mid-points of the bonds in the polyene chain, and 0b; is calculated for the “isolated” bonds alone, then Orme = 0, end where k has a mean value of 1-13x10-?; L for the aw-diphenylpolyenes is 6-25-+2-47n A units. (b) If Amax mp. is the wave-length of maximum absorption for the K-band in a conjugated hydrocarbon, then Admaz=0max—01 =9-762 X10-? (Amax—206)3. As an illustration, the effect of using the second equation may be shown: 10!2,,K calc. 10% calc: 102 ,K n (without (with (observed) exaltation) exaltation) ib 45 111 124 2 62 358 357 3 82 764 692 4 105 1759 1740 “Corrections”” by the other two routes mentioned are similar in magnitude. In general it appears that the “ longitudinal ”’ polarisability of a conjugated system is a function of the cube of its length—a prediction earlier made by Davies in 1952 from theoretical considerations. More work is clearly needed on this important aspect of molecular polarisability. Before leaving for London last year Mr. Bramley had examined a number of conjugated ketones; his experi- ments are being continued and extended by Messrs. D. Izsak and M. Aroney. Discussion of them now would be premature, although it should be said that nothing to date has emerged which is in essential disharmony with the conclusions reached with the diphenylpolyenes. Polarisabilities and Bond Lengths Turning aside from the stereo-structural employments of polarisability, a few other aspects of interest have emerged during our work and justify a brief mention. Since by elementary electrostatics a conducting sphere of radius 7 placed in an electric field of intensity F acquires an electric moment of 7°F (ie. its polarisability is 7%), it was natural to search among our bond data for relationships involving (bond-length)?. Le Feévre in 1958, considering the information which by then had accumulated on the principal polarisabilities of sengle bonds, observed that the longitudinal polarisabilities, bee of such bonds tended to follow relationships of the type 10°47 ~*=A+Ba? in which A and B were constants, and d (in Angstr6m units) was obtained as follows: (a2) when neither X nor Y is a terminal atom, d=r,_,y (the inter-centre distance), or (0) when Y is a terminal atom, d=7,,-+7y, or (c) when X—Y is a diatomic molecule, d=7yyt7,+7y (ry, and vy being the radii of atoms X and Y). Two equations were proposed : 102407, * =0-140 +0 -156d? 10240%-¥ —0-106+0-186d3 —....... (ii) respectively to cover the 0,’s derived from the methyl halides and those from the cyclohexyl halides. Table 2 shows forecasts made by (i) and (ii). It is seen that predictions are fairly satis- factory. No analogous general expressions for the transverse polarisabilities b+ have been found, but since for single bonds bee Gon 2b Ne; estimates of D7 ~~ are mean — : Ree obviously accessible from bond refractivity data in conjunction with bx —* (calculated). 8 TABLE 2 Calculations of 1024o% ¥ YXY ty, bL Ore bL Bond (A) (A) by (i) by (ii) | Found N-H 1-01 0-30 0-5 0-5 0:5 C-H 1-09 0-30 0-6 0-6 OQ-6 C-N 1-47 _—- 0-6 O-7 0-6 C-O 1-43 — 0-6 0-6, 0-8 C-C 1-57 —_ 0-7 0-8 1-0 C-F 1:38 0-64 1-4 1-6 1-2; C-Cl 1-78 0°99 3:4, 4:1 3°2 (3-8?) C-Br 1-94 1:14 4:7 5:5 4:6, (5-38) C-I 2-13 1-33 6-6 7-8 -6+8.5(8-12) H-Cl» 1-27, 0-99 2°8 3-2 3-1 H-Br? 1-414 1:14 3:8 4:4 4:2 Aska 1-604 11-33 5:4 6:4 6:6 a pee found in cyclohexyl halides. Dy,» taken as 0:30 A. Experimental evidence on bonds of order higher than unity is scarce. It is relevant, however, that modifications of the above equations show promise. If, for example, (i) is written as (iii) 10240*¥ — 0-140 +0 -156 [d?+9 +5 (r3ngle—7 psa.) (iii) 008 O10 o12 O'4y OG R. J. W. LEFEVRE then the following forecasts are possible with A=T1 obsa.- Bond Vobsd. 107467 1074b7 calc. found C—¢ 1-33 2°15 2-8 C—e 1-20 3°6 3°5 Cc—©@ ssf Be 1-22 2-1 2-3 CO (Carbon mon- oxide) ae ag 1-14 2D 2-6 CC (Aromatic) 1-40 ou ? Equations of type (ili) moreover may be applicable to “single’’ bonds shortened by mesomerism, as in the tri- and _ tetrachloro- ethylenes, where the C—Cl separations are ca. 1-71 A, or in the dichloroethylenes and chloro- benzene, where they are ca. 1-69 A. If, with these 7yy's, @ is calculated as for single bonds and inserted in (111), longitudinal polarisabilities for C-—Cl emerge which exceed by 0-7 or 0-8 x10-*4, respectively, the value appropriate for a single bond attached to a methyl-group. Thus, empirically at least, we find that longitudinal polarisabilities of bonds and the exaltations of polarisability of molecules can be connected with cubes of lengths. N26 CARB Mon(-) C=C Q O'\8 O20 O22 ORY O2 O28 O30 O52 O34 O86 O38 O4O O42 Fig. 1 PROPERTIES INVOLVING MOLECULAR POLARISABILITY a Polarisabilities and Bond Stretching Frequencies Another generalization deducible from Table 1 concerns a quantity Q given by Q=(1/rxv)(b” (M4 in which 7 is the internuclear distance in the link X-Y, M is the reduced mass for X-Y, and 0%” is in units of 10-2%c.c. Straight-line relationships seem to exist between stretching frequencies v (as cm~1) and Q (see Fig. 1). Le Févre (1959), noting that both v and 07” can vary somewhat with molecular environment so that many fairly similar equations can be written dependently on data sources chosen, suggested the following : v=9273 0—254. From our viewpoint this is of value since by it the 0;*’s become predictable of bonds inaccessible to ordinary measurement wa the Kerr effect. As illustrations, examples of cases where 07” is already known and of others where it has yet to be determined are given in Table 3. TABLE 3 pxY XY L Bond vy (cm~?) y (A) oF (ex Kerr (calc.) effect) O—H 3650-3590 0-97 0-06 ? N—H 3400-3200 1-01 0:06-0:05 0-05 C—O ca. 1100 1-43 0-18 0-08 C—© 1720 1-22 0-22 0-23 c—N 1690-1640 1-28 0:26-0:24 ? C=N = 2260-2240 1-15 0-30-0-29 ? C—C 802 1-54 0-12 0-10 C=C 1620 1-34 0-29 0-28 N=N 1630-1575 1-24 Q-21-0-19,; ? N=N 2360 1-09 0-26 0-24 C—F 1048 1-39 0-14 0-12; C—Cl 732 1-78 0-34 0-32 C—Br 611 1-94 0-45 0-46, C—I 533 2-13 0-63 0-68 N—O 814— 751* 1-37 0-07,—-0-06 ? N=O 1681-1613* 1-22 0-22 -0-20 ? N=O ca 1400+ 1:22 ca 0:14 2 * In alkyl nitrites. + In nitrosamines. As comment on these it can be said that a be” of 0-06 x10-23 is not excluded by the measurements of n-alcohols by Le Févre, Le Févre, Purnachandra Rao, and Williams (1960). The value 0-18 x10-23 forecast for the C—O bond is quite incorrect; a value for home of 0-081 requires v to be ca. 780 cm-! which is much below assignments usually made by infra-red = spectroscopists. Malherbe and Bernstein (1952) attribute several frequencies observed in the Raman spectrum of dioxan to ring stretching, and among these is one at 834 cm.—1, annotated as polarised and strong ; this being used b{~° emerges as 0-09. Fre- quencies near 750 cm! are recorded for many polymethylene chains, but are commonly ascribed to a rocking mode of the methylene groups; however, Ramsay and Sutherland (1947) consider 802 cm-} to be “ probably the symmetrical C-C stretching frequency” in cyclohexane, the compound from which Le Feévre and Le Févre (1955) originally estimated ee It is interesting to examine the reverse use of the equation, whereby a vy, is estimated from the b%” given by the Kerr effect. Table 4 shows this : TABLE 4 XY v (cm—}), v(cm—), Bond oT calc. obs. C—H 0-064 2950 2962-2853 c—G 0:28 1605 1616 in CH, : CCl, C_C 0-35 2240 2260-2100 c—@ 0-23 1750 1718 in Me,COP C—F 0-12, 1000 1048 in MeF C—Cl 0-32 710 732 in MeCl C—Br 0-46, 620 611 in MeBr C—I 0:68 556 533 in Mel @ Corresponding Raman displacement at 1611 cm7!. b 1742 cm-! in vapour. Agreement appears. satisfactory. Carbon monoxide, an isolated bond so to speak, with v—1-14A and 6;=0-26, fits the equation precisely, v (calc.) and v (obs.) being 2143 cm.~?. Polarisabilities and other Physical Properties A knowledge of the anisotropy of molecular polarisability can sometimes provide information on the disposition of a given molecule in its crystal lattice. In combination with the measured density of the solid phase, 0,, b,, and bs yield three ‘‘ molecular refractions ’’, R,, Ro, and R,;, from which three corresponding refractive indexes can be extracted. If one of these equals one of those observed for the crystal, the “‘lie’’ of one of the molecular axes is determined. Examples of this type of use are seen in Le Févre and Le Févre’s (1955) treatment of naphthalene, or that by Bunn and Daubeny (1954) of hexatriacontane. 10 R. J. W. LE FEVRE A number of other physical measurements in which either molecular or bond polarisabilities appear to be important are also receiving attention ; two will be mentioned but cannot now be enlarged upon. The first concerns molar Verdet constants. In their 1955 Review the Le Févre’s mentioned that these, for many molecules, seem to be linearly related to the sums of the products of the various principal molecular polarisabilities, viz. b,b,+0.b3+0,0). The second concerns stress birefringence, especially in polymers. If a macromolecule is made up of mers, each with polarisabilities 6,, 6,, and 6,, in random array, then the birefringence An induced by a stress on the material in bulk is given by the “ stress optical coefficient ’’ C=27(n?-+2)?(b,—b,)/45nkT, where nm is the ordinary refractive index. As stated above, both rubber and gutta-percha are being studied by us; these are poly-czs- and poly- trans-isoprenes respectively, and the constituent mers are Dh LY From our C-C, and C=C bond data, 6,—), isaca. 0-255<10-29 for ‘boths) Withe 7—1-52 the calculated stress optical coefficient emerges at 2-1-2-2 x10-cm?/dyne, which agrees with the value listed by Stein (1956) for Hevea Rubber at 30°. We are hoping that similarly satisfactory calculations will apply to other polymers now engaging Dr. Sundaram. n Possible Future Developments By Liversidge’s Will the lecturer is charged also with “drawing attention to the research work which should be undertaken. . .’’. Where the wider aspects of my subject are concerned, perhaps this can most neatly be done by saying that nine ways may be foreseen whereby the imposition of electric or magnetic fields may cause anisotropy of a liquid or gas composed of anisotropic molecules, whose random orienta- tions are partially destroyed by orientations caused by the applied field. In theory, effects should be observable on the dielectric constant ¢, the magnetic permeability w*, and the refractive index n: Field Applied n & u* Electric .. 1. An Ae ? Magnetic Ace A?) ? ? Optical .. 50 ? is ? Of the six possible phenomena associated with electric and magnetic fields, three have been discovered by experiment, and only one of these—the Kerr effect—can be said to have been extensively investigated from a molecular structural viewpoint. Even so, much straight- forward work remains to be done, e.g., the dependence of the Kerr effect on state—a matter taken up so far only in two papers, and which really requires a long series of patient measurements on gaseous dielectrics. We in Sydney are beginning a study of “magnetic birefringence’? — the ‘“‘ Cotton- Mouton effect” (in which the molecular aniso- tropies of both optical polarisability and magnetic susceptibility are concerned); our plans are to proceed along lines parallel to those used with the Kerr effect. The other “ effects ’”’— less interpretable and more difficult to detect— we leave to resourceful posterity ! The idea that a very intense beam of polarised light (“‘ optical fields’”’) may cause anisotropy of observable properties is due to Dr. A. D. Buckingham, an old student and one-time collaborator of ours. His theory is set out in papers in 1956 and 1957. Luminous fluxes of a very high order will be required if his “ effects ”’ are to be amenable to laboratory study ; perhaps the techniques of flash photolysis will help. . .anyway, here is a discovery half made ! Acknowledgements I desire to record my deep gratitude to all my co-workers and students, past and present, who have contributed magnificently by their labours, and taught me so much by their discussions. Their names have been mentioned above and occur again in the references listed below. Especially do I acknowledge my debt to my wife, Dr. Catherine Le Févre, my equal collaborator for nearly 30 years, without whose persistent struggles with the principles and techniques of physical optics, never-ending patient experimentation, and help in innumer- able ways, this work could never have been done in the University of Sydney. To those people and firms that have given financial and material assistance—to I.C.I.A.N.Z. Ltd., to Messrs. Beetle-Elliott, Ltd. (now Monsanto Chemicals Australia Ltd.), to the B.H.P. Co. Ltd., to the Polymer Corporation, to Davis Gelatine Pty. Ltd., to the Nuffield Foundation, to the Colonial Sugar Refining Co., to Unilever (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., and to many others—I record my sincerest thanks. PROPERTIES INVOLVING MOLECULAR POLARISABILITY 11 References* ARONEY, M., AND LE FEvrE, R. J. W., 1958. J. Chem. Soc., 3002; cf. Aroney, M., 1960. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney. ARONEY, M., AND LE FEvreE, R. J. W., 1960. J. Chem. Soe ZIG6I, 3600. ARoNEY, M., LE FEvre, R. J. W., AND SHU-SING CHANG, 1960. J. Chem. Soc., 3173. BRAMEEY, K., Le FEVRE, C. G., LE FEvRE, R. J. W., AND PURNACHANDRA Rao, B., 1959. J. Chem. Soc., 1183. BRAMEEY, Ik., and LE FrEvre, R. J. W., 1960. /. Chem. Soc., 1820. BuckincHaM, A. D., 1956. Proc. Phys. Soc., B69 344. Buckincuam, A. D., 1957. Proc. Phys. Soc., B70 753. Bunn, C. W., AND DAUBENY, R. DE P., 1954. Tvans. Faraday Soc., 50, 1173. CARLISLE, C. H., AND CrowFooT, D., 1945. Proc. Roy. Soc., 184, 64. DaviEs, P. L., 1952. Tvans. Faraday Soc., 47, 789. EDGEWORTH Davip, T. W., 1931. J. Chem. Soc., 1039. Le Frvre, C. G., and LE FEvrE, R. J. W., 1953. J. Chem. Soc., 4041. LE FEvreE, C. G., AND LE FEvreE, R. J. W., 1954- J. Chem. Soc., 1577. he Pvee, C. G., AND LE FEvRE, R. J. W., J. Chem. Soc., 1641. ie hEVRE, C. G., AND LE _FEVRE, R. J. W., 1955. Revs. Pure Appl. Chem. (Australia), 5, 261. Ike; KEVRE, C. G., AND LE FEVRE, R. J. W., 1956. J. Chem. Soc., 3549. 1955. * Sources not listed here may be found in the 1955 Review by Le Févre and Le Févre. Le FEVRe; Cr Gr Le: Prvees kh, |. We AND CHAU, i, Weis tooo, fi. Chem. S0c.,. 2660: LE FEvre, C. G., LE FEvrE, R. J. W., AND Ou, W. T., 1957. Aust. J. Chem., 10, 218. LE FEvreE, C. G., LE FEvrRE, R. J. W., AND PARKINS, G. M., 1958. J. Chem. Soc., 1468. LE FrEvreE, C. G., LE FEvrE, R. J. W., AND PaRKINS, G. M., 1960. J. Chem. Soc., 1814. LE FEvrRE, C. G., LE FEvrE, R. J. W., AND PuRNa- CHANDRA Rao, B., 1959. J. Chem. Soc., 2340. LE FrEvreE, C. G., LE FEvRE, R. J. W., PURNACHANDRA Rao, B., AND WItttiams, A. J., 1960. J. Chem. SOC 4 Ml: LE FEvre, C. G., LE FEvRE, R. AND PIERENS, R. K., 1960. LAs. LE FEvreE, C. G., LE FEvRE, R. J. W., AND SMITH, M. R., 1958. J. Chem. Soc., 16. LE FEvRreE, R. J. W., 1958. Proc. Chem. Soc., 283. LE FEvrRE, R. J. W., 1959. Proc. Chem. Soc., 363. LE FEvrE, R. J. W., AND PURNACHANDRA Rao, B., 1957. J. Chem. Soc., 3644. LE FEvreE, R. J. W., AND PURNACHANDRA Rao, B., 1958. J. Chem. Soc., 1465. MALHERBE, F. E., AND BERNSTEIN, H. J., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 74, 4408. MELLor, D. P., 1957. Proc. Roy. Aust. Inst. Chem., 24, 415. Ramsay, D. A., AND SUTHERLAND, G. B. B. M., 1947. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 190, 245. STEIN, R. S., 1956. Chapter in Vol. 4 of “ Die Physik der Hochpolymeren “, Ed. Hi. A. Stuart, Springer, Berlin-Gottingen-Heidelberg, p. 120. J. W., Roper, R. Proc. Chem. Soc., 1952. School of Chemistry, Umversity of Svdney, Sydney. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 13-16, 1961 Notes on Some Additional Minerals from the Oxidized Portion of the Broken Hill Lode, N.S.W., with Observations on Crystals of Coronadite L. J. LAWRENCE (Received June 23, 1960) ABSTRACT—Six additional secondary minerals : chalcophanite, hydrozincite, aurichalcite, olivenite, acanthite and goslarite are recorded from the Broken Hill lode N.S.W., and some crystal- lographic data on single crystals of coronadite is presented. Introduction Recent mining operations by Broken Hill South Limited in and adjacent to the Open Cut has revealed the presence of a number of additional minerals not recorded in the previous accounts of the mineralogy of the Broken Hill lode (Smith, 1926; Stillwell, 1953). These minerals are all of a secondary nature and have formed late in the oxidation cycle insofar as they occur as overgrowths on earlier formed secondary minerals. The identity of each mineral has been verified by X-ray diffraction measurements and, where appropriate, by optical properties either in transmitted or in reflected light. 1. Chalcophanite, (ZnMnFe)Mn,O;.2H,O* Numerous specimens of crystallized chalco- phanite were found lining small cavities in and forming a velvet-like overgrowth upon stalag- titic pyrolusite. The minute crystals range in size from 0:02 mm to 0:05 mm diameter and consist of very thin hexagonal plates of a lustrous deep purple-red colour. In polished section (Plates 1 and 2) those crystals the “c”’ crystallographic direction of which is approximately parallel to the plane of the section, show maximum reflectivity of a strong white colour and have very strong reflection pleochroism from white to dark grey with sharp parallel extinction. These sections possess extreme anisotropism of a uniform white colour. Basal sections are not so_ strongly reflecting and their isotropism is always masked by a most intense carmine red internal reflection when viewed between crossed polars. Internal * The chemical formulae cited herein are those given in Dana’s System of Mineralogy, vols. I and II (new editions). reflections are also observed in ordinary light but the intensity is considerably subdued. Twinning is evident in basal section (Plate 2) where the optical continuity, as evidenced by uniform reflection and the co-planar arrange- ment of the extensive 0001 faces suggests that the twinning occurs on the 1120 (prism) plane. The host material consists of a rhythmically banded psilomelane of a distinctly blue-grey colour in reflected light, together with pyro- lusite of a creamy white colour in perfect colloform arrangement (Plate 1). The outer layers give way to a confused aggregate of minute pyrolusite crystals with the chalcophanite crystals lining the outermost surface. In a few instances the chalcophanite supports isolated nests of hair-like coronadite crystals (q.v.). Chalcophanite occurs also investing and, in part, replacing embolite. 2. Hydrozincite, Zn;(OH),(CO3), Among the many pieces of smithsonite obtained from a large mass of coronadite ore at the base of the Open Cut were several, both of the globular and of the dog tooth type, which appeared to have been converted to a white porcellanous mineral. The white mineral proved to be hydrozincite. The dog tooth crystals were, in most instances, complete pseudomorphs of hydrozincite after smithsonite but the globular masses were, in general, only partially replaced (Plate 3), leaving remnants of unreplaced smithsonite. The hydrozincite is of the harder compact type and is barely translucent in thin section. The mineral is cryptocrystalline (colloidal) except for the profuse development of hysteresis fractures resulting from the hardening of the hydrozincite colloid. 14 L. J. LAWRENCE 3. Aurichalcite, 2(ZnCu)CO,;.3(ZnCu) (OH), The 350’ level of the South Mine yielded several pieces of cuprite liberally coated with malachite and externally covered with fine acicular crystals of a pale sky blue colour. The following optical properties were deter- ‘mined on some detached crystals: X=a with n=1:65; Z=c with n=1-75; straight extinction; pleochroic in thicker pieces from colourless to faint blue-green. These deter- minations together with ““d”’ and “I”’ values confirm the identity of the mineral as auri- chalcite. This mineral, the occurrence of which at Broken Hill was alluded to by Smith (loc. cit.) but never confirmed, is much paler in colour than the classic material from Kelly, New Mexico, but the X-ray diffraction patterns of the two are identical. 4, Olivenite, Cu,(AsO,)(OH) Two pieces of lode material encrusted with a fine granular apple green mineral were obtained from the southern end of the Open Cut. The green mineral has been identified as olivenite which, under high magnification, is seen to be minutely crystallized. Olivenite has been recorded only twice pre- viously in Australia: at Kundip in Western Australia and at Mount Diamond near Pine Creek in the Northern Territory. The very limited occurrence at Broken Hill of this rare copper arsenate is due, no doubt, to the scarcity of primary arsenic minerals. 5. Acanthite, Ag,S The orthorhombic form of silver sulphide was found in the 350’ level of the South Mine. One large mass weighing some 70 lb. and several smaller pieces were obtained. The mineral is soft and sectile, of a dull grey colour with a shining metallic streak and contained numerous small grains of extraneous material such as garnet, quartz, plentiful iron oxides and cerussite. It is clearly of a supergene nature and was closely associated in the stope with iodyrite and embolite. A differential thermal analysis of the silver sulphide after acid leaching to remove iron oxides (Fig. 1) shows a sharp endothermic peak at 180°C representing the inversion from the orthorhombic form (acanthite) to the unstable isometric form (argentite). The progressive breakdown of the silver sulphide with loss of sulphur is spread over a range of temperatures reaching a maximum at 700°C. The D.T.A. run was repeated several times without removing the specimen from the oven. In each case the heating curve and the cooling curve were identical and the inversion point constant. This spontaneous reversibility : _ Argoe c acanthite ———- argentite agrees with the earlier findings of Ramdohr (1942) and the much later work of Roy e¢ al. (1959). DEGREES C IPO 200 300 400 s00 600 700 800 900 104 100 200 300 400 S00 600 DEGREES -C 700 800 900 1000 Fic. 1 Differential thermal analysis curve of Broken Hill acanthite (corrected for base line drift) showing acanthite-argentite inversion point at 180° C, the progressive exothermic rise to a 700° C peak due to loss of sulphur and the ultimate melting of the resulting metallic silver indicated by a sharp endothermic peak at ca. : 960° C Chemical analysis of the Broken Hill acanthite gave the following results : Ag iy a ‘O22 Cu ss He ie wail S i = > 1 Geo Remainder, mainly iron oxides (26:7). These figures indicate an Ag: Cu percent ratio of 84:8: 2-8. The mineral contains insufficient copper to rank as the cuprian variety jalpaite (Ag.Cu),S which has been recorded from Broken Hill by Stillwell (loc. cit.) as supergene replace- ments of primary galena. 6. Goslarite, (ZnSO,.7H,O) The only recorded sulphates from the oxidized zone at Broken Hill are the insoluble salts anglesite, linarite and brochantite. The common soluble sulphates chalcanthite and melanterite have not been noted, and, with the abundance SOME ADDITIONAL MINERALS FROM BROKEN HILL LODE, N.S.W. 15, of zinc minerals, it is perhaps not surprising that the rarer zinc sulphate, goslarite, occurs preferentially, though not hitherto recorded. Several fine specimens of goslarite of a delicate coral pink colour (due to the admixture of manganese) were found in the shallow levels of the South Mine immediately beneath the Open Cut. The goslarite consists notably of stout stalactites up to four inches long adhering to quartzose lode material and as microcrystalline masses lining cavities and joints in low grade ore. The interior of some of the stalactites is more or less hollow and the inner surfaces are some- times lined with well-formed crystals of the same mineral, up to }” in length. A partial chemical analysis showed a ZnO to MnO ratio of 33-2:4-1 and this may be sufficient to identify the Broken Hill material as a “‘mangangoslarite ”’. Coronadite Crystals The occurrence at Broken Hill of coronadite (MnPbMn,O,,; ? pseudo-tetragonal) as collo- form masses, rarely with a radiating fibrous texture, is well known; it is now possible to record, for the first time from this locality, single crystals of this rare mineral. The crystals are very minute—rarely exceeding 0-1 mm in length—but are well formed and of an extremely acicular habit. The X-ray data obtained by means of a Phillips 1010 diffractometer (CuK«, 1-54R) agreed precisely with that of Frondel and Heinrich (1942) on material from Clifton- Morenci, Arizona with the exception of a strong peak at ‘‘d” 3-02. This line is not listed by Frondel and Heinrich and may be due to impurity. The coronadite crystals occur either in small cavities in psilomelane where they are supported by crystals of chalcophanite, or as an outer coating of clustered crystals of random orienta- tion upon stalagtitic liimonite and psilomelane. When thus aggregated the coronadite is of a distinct indigo-grey colour. The crystals are sufficiently lustrous to examine in reflected light by immersion in cedar oil. They show strong reflectivity of a white colour and have sharp straight extinc- tion. Between crossed polars the crystals exhibit strong anisotropism of white, dark grey and dark brown. An unusual prismatic cleavage is evident in many crystals (Plate 4) and this gives rise to a pronounced fraying at the terminal ends of the crystals and often spreads almost the full length of the crystal. The crystals appear to consist predominantly of prism (110) and basal pinacaid (001) but there is evidence of the development of two or three pyramidal faces. One of these faces, measured in profile under the microscope, indicated an interfacial angle of approximately 55° with respect to the prism and another approximately 45°. Twinning is a feature of some crystals with a steep pyramidal face as the twin plane. This results in the development of well-formed arrow-head twins (inset of Plate 4) having an included angle of 56°; this. would indicate an internal angle of 28° between this particular pyramid and the prism. Acknowledgements The attention of the author to some of the minerals described in this paper was drawn by Mr. Albert Chapman of Glebe, Sydney, who, in association with Mr. Arthur Campbell of Broken Hill—both leading collectors of Broken Hill minerals — has contributed much to _ the mineralogy of this locality. The enthusiasm with which these gentlemen preserve “ new finds’ for detailed study is well worthy of recording. In this regard, also, the author offers his thanks to the Staff of Broken Hill South Ltd. for their vigilance in preserving unidentified minerals found in that mine. Mr. R. Coote of the Department of Fuel of the University of New South Wales produced the excellent photomicrographs and Mr. G. T. See carried out the chemical analyses. References FRONDEL, C., AND HEINRICH, E., 1942. New data on hetaerolite, hydrohetaerolite, coronadite and hollandite. Amer. Mineval., 27, 48—54. Rampowr, P., 1942. Lehrbuch der Ferdinand Enke Verlag: Stuttgart. Roy, R., Majumpar, A. J., AND HULBE, C. W., 1959. The Ag,S and Ag,Se transitions as_ geologic thermometers. Econ. Geol., 54, 1278-1280. SMITH, G., 1926. A contribution to the mineralogy of New South Wales. N.S.W. Dept. Mines. Mineral Resources No. 34. STILLWELL, F. L., 1953. Mineralogy of the Broken Hill Lode ; in Geology of Australian Ore Deposits. Fifth Empive Mining & Met. Congr. Proc., 1. Mineralogie. School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, Umiversity of New South Wales, Sydney. 16 L. J. LAWRENCE Explanation of Plates PLATE 1 Tabular crystals of chalcophanite resting within a nest of crystals of the same mineral cut approximately parallel to their “c’’ crystallographic axes. The dark grey mottled mineral at the top is embolite. The base of the specimen consists of limonite (dark grey), psilomelane (whitish) and pyrolusite (light grey mottled) all in perfect colloform arrangement. (Oil immersion, reflected light x 1000.) PLATE 2 Chalcophanite crystals lining a small cavity in pyrolusite-limonite and embedded in clear plastic. The two highly reflecting crystals are orientated approximately normal to the “c”’ crystallographic axes and the one on the left-hand side shows twinning apparently on the (1120) plane. (Oil immersion, reflected light x 1000.) PLATE 3 Hydrozincite (dark—almost opaque area) showing profuse development of anastomozing hysteresis fractures, replacing smithsonite with a remnant of unreplaced zinc carbonate top right. (Transmitted light. x 20.) PLATE 4 Single crystals of coronadite. Some of the smaller crystals, e.g. at X, show a fraying due to pronounced prismatic cleavage. Inset shows a characteristic arrow-head twin. (Oil immersion reflected light. x 1750.) Journal Roval Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 LAWRENCE, PLATE Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 LAWRENCE eA ae Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 LAWRENCE “PLAT Bo ournal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 LAWRENCE, PLATE 4 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 17-21, 1961 The Lambie Group at Mount Lambie Part I: Stratigraphy and Structure RoBIN M. MACKAY (Received August 9, 1960) ABsTRAcT—At Mt. Lambie, the Lambie Group consists of some 10,000 feet of sandstone, siltstone and shale with subordinate conglomerate. are described in some detail. Introduction The sediments outcropping around Mt. Lambie (Fig. 1) have been the subject of numerous geological examinations. A résumé of the literature dealing with this area was given by Brown and Joplin in 1938. Since that time relevant literature has been limited to a brief mention of the thickness of the sediments at Mt. Lambie by David (1950), McElroy (1957) and Branagan (1958), and to Maxwell’s (1950 and 1951) description of some Cvrtospirifers from this group. Thickness and Succession Group outcrops extensively To the south The Lambie south and east of Mt. Lambie. it is invaded by the Bathurst granite and in the north it is overlain unconformably by the The structure and petrology of the sediments almost horizontal, basal conglomerates of the Permian Capertee Group (David, 1950, vol. 1, p. 248). It unconformably overlies rocks of uncertain age henceforth referred to as ? Middle Palaeozoic. These older rocks consist of a succession of about 5,000 ft. of shales overlain conformably by a conglomerate horizon con- taining limestone pebbles, and then by several thousand feet of tuffs, greywackes (Pettijohn, 1957, p. 291) and acid volcanics. The evidence for the unconformity is entirely structural and relies heavily on the observed attitude of the ? Middle Palaeozoic conglomerate horizon (Fig. 2). Unfortunately this horizon thins and eventually pinches out before the boundary of the Mt. Lambie Formation is reached. However, the strike and dip of this horizon is markedly divergent from the dominant east-west strike of the Mt. Lambie Formation lant ROBIN M. MACKAY 18 a6pad2a}> squior / / 34NYIDs 4 / / 231UD55 [x] uozisoy 3jyDsaWojbuod 21020aD/Dq = a|PPIW ¢ aA aiozoapjpg aippiwé [ © | GQN39371 \\ uoZsOY JaxJOW SNOJapiISSo4 5s a uozlv0Yy 4d4sDW aj0s2WOjbu0D 2 El 2 yO SNVWWav3d Fic. 3 Be “| 04 O5 08 CT 67 LEGEND aa, ee / ie" 7 0 Bedding ! et 1 4 ee vertical . Q 66 ee ea \\ 66 | \ Q Anticli ‘ ’ \ | (aes oo et a eae ‘ae \ 5 65 fe Synclinal * - 45 BAS | pea re —— Roads © a= ee 2 " ( Cony ’ f 40 . 64 mmm Railways (f *~ 5 i 64 ae \\ | J L | pas H Scale | s 604 630 614 1/2 op . | 63 True io : 5 : L magnetic | 4 B | Mt.Walker ff 62 62 3896 = rey O coooatt t, SD Sto Aro ~ “Ye T 94 95 96 97 98 99 (ole) Ol 02 O03 04 Meapow FLaTy -““. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF RYDAL - TARANA DISTRICT OS 67 LEGEND A Bedding | a vertical ° . ° ° ° ° A Anticlinal axis ° . ° ° e ° 65 Synclinal axis 30, 66 —=— Roads 64 =m Railways Scale O72 Po a2 a True North 4 Magnetic north RYDAL SYNCLINE J32 a i ‘ ; { i j * ie : i Ny A } A . i ve i} mt yi | , 1 ie hs @ , : i" ‘ rsh 1 * t ii «gi a \ , } ~ . ri 4 “piv ; u 3 1 ;- ~ - - 0 he i x . F ; t, i | 1 a al A ; a 1 a * ; Ba i 2 = . ‘ : = 1 et * a / ’ ih i é Sa \ j i ’ ‘ : i = = ‘ > a i t . ‘ Fi ¢ ' = —_ . a . be a = p = 7 >, i Dae Ns oF ee ; re f yi op ; . . a, ‘ . c ‘ ‘ ‘ : a 1 ae < i J ¥ ‘ : ; THE LAMBIE GROUP AT MOUNT LAMBIE 19 immediately to the south, where also the base of the Mt. Lambie Formation is seen to overlap from the acid volcanics onto the stratigraphically lower shales. Estimates of the thickness of sediments of the Lambie Group have varied considerably. Wil- kinson’s (1875) original 10,000 ft. of sediments was reduced by Brown and Joplin (1938) to 2,500 ft. “above the Spirifer bed”, whilst recent estimates are “possibly more than 5,000 ft.” by David (1950), 5,000 ft. by McElroy (1957) and 6,500 ft. by Branagan (1958). The type section for the Lambie Group chosen by the present writer is located along the old Mt. Lambie Coach Road and the Bowenfels Road. This measured traverse, combined with some sixty bedding readings obtained along the road and in the nearby creeks, yielded the following succession. Erosion surface 180’ Red siltstone 270’ Green and purple shale 170’ Purple shale 160’ Green and purple shale 220’ Grey and reddish siltstone 170’ Purple shale 50’ Grey siltstone 220’ Purple shale 70’ Grey siltstone 80’ Purple shale 70’ Grey siltstone 220’ Red and purple shale 270’ Grey siltstone 140’ Purple shale 1320’ Purple and buff shale 50’ Black shale 600’ Buff siltstone 60’ Buff and grey siltstone 160’ Buff and red shale 440’ White and pale brown fine sand- stone 330’ Buff and purple shale 550’ Buff siltstone 50’ White fine sandstone 830’ Purple shale 40’ Purple and grey siltstone 60’ CONGLOMERATE 40’ Purple shale and siltstone 500’ White and pale brown sandstone 50’ Purple siltstone 550’ White sandstone 20’ FOSSILIFEROUS WHITE SANDSTONE 2200’ White and pale brown sandstone Basal Unconformity Total: 10,200’ For the compiling of the section (Fig. 3) this information was projected onto an east-west vertical plane passing through Rydal. The section thus obtained is situated a little to the south of Wilkinson’s original section but coincides exactly in position with that of Brown and Joplin (1938). The extension of the section in depth is of necessity hypothetical. Moreover, the presence of recrystallized rocks in the vicinity where the section line crosses Cox’s River indicates that, there at least, granite is present at only a short distance beneath the surface. The basis for the overall concentric style of folding shown in the section will be discussed in the following structural section. In general, the individual beds have not been mapped on the eastern limb of the syncline, as they are somewhat metamorphosed and difficult to correlate with corresponding beds outcropping in the west. However, the lower- most 2,200 ft. of white and pale brown sandstone are readily located on the eastern limb of the syncline as are also the fossiliferous and con- glomerate marker horizons. Sedimentary structures are limited to cross- bedding in units 2 in. to 5 in. wide in the silt- stones and occasional units up to 2 ft. wide in the sandstones. Ripple marked bedding planes are not uncommon in the sandstones. The variety of sediments in the succession at Mt. Lambie would enable the Group to be divided into at least two formations each con- taining several members. Probably the most logical place to draw the boundary between the two probable formations is at the base of the conglomerate horizon. The mapping required to place the boundary of the formations on the map has not yet been carried out. Work in the area is, however, in progress as part of a regional study of a more extensive area centring around Mt. Lambie. Structure In delineating the structure of the Lambie Group two marker horizons, the fossiliferous sandstone horizon and the conglomerate horizon, were found very useful. It should be noted here that Brown and Joplin were incorrect in their mapping of the outcrop of the fossiliferous sandstone horizon as comparison between their Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 of the present paper readily shows. This error is largely responsible for their obtaining such a small thickness for the sedimentary succession. | With regard to the conglomerate marker it should be noted that some degree of facies change was observed in this horizon. In the east and centre of the area it has essentially a purple siltstone matrix, whilst in the west the matrix is coarser and more quartz rich. The overall structures developed in the Lambie Group are open concentric folds although a sharp flexure in the vicinity of g.r. (995640)* * Grid references refer to the. Wallerawang and Bathurst 1:63,360 military maps, and may be read directly from Fig. 2. 20 ROBIN M. shows that locally minor structures may be much tighter. The fold axes strike approxi- mately N. 15° E. and plunge 10°S. The axis of the Rydal syncline does however curve around to due north and probably to N. 20° W. under- neath the Capertee Group in the north-eastern part of the area (see Fig. 2). The major factor which controlled the deformation of the Lambie Group is the competency of the lowermost 3,000 ft. of sedi- ments which consist mainly of quartz-rich sandstones. The sandstones are cut by prominent rotational joints (see Fig. 3) whose spacing generally varies from 2 ft. to 6 in., though exceptionally these joints may be as closely spaced as 2 or 3 in. Tensional joints across the nose of the central anticline striking approxi- mately 285° and dipping vertically or steeply north, are sometimes observed. The uppermost 3,500 ft. of shales and silt- stones are deformed in a somewhat different manner from the lower sediments of the group. They are cut by a prominent fracture cleavage whose spacing varies from } in. to $ in., but some of the more massive siltstones have a very Closely spaced jointing transitional between the cleavage of the shales and the jointing of the sandstones. The fracture cleavage in the shales and siltstones is usually steeply inclined and somewhat irregular due, most probably, to crumpling of the shales as they were compressed into the shape prescribed by the folded com- petent sandstones. Despite these irregularities, there seems to be an overall tendency for the fracture cleavage to fan across the syncline, converging downwards. Petrology For the purposes of description the sediments of this group can be divided into two main groups; the sandstones, and the siltstones and shales. The sandstones show remarkably constant characteristics, their average grain size varying from 0-1 to 0-2 mm. Quartz comprises 80% to 95% of the detrital grains, the remainder consisting of small fragments of feldspar, metaquartzite, mudstone and _ less commonly mica-schist. A small percentage of detrital mica is also present, while detrital magnetite averages 1% to 2%. Zircon and tourmaline, typically well-rounded, are the only other heavy minerals present. The original detrital grains were fairly well-rounded but authigenic outgrowth of quartz tends to obscure this feature. Quartz is generally the only mineral cement present although calcite is MACKAY found in the sandstones associated with the fossiliferous horizon. The characteristics described place the sand- stones into Pettijohn’s (1957, p. 291) proto- quartzite group and into Packham’s (1954) quartzose sandstone group. Both these groups are thought by their authors to be typical of sedimentation in shallow water shelf areas. The siltstones and shales, average grain size 0:05 to 0:1 mm., are, without exception, ‘ dirtier’ than the sandstones, their quartz content ranging from 40% to 70%. The remaining detrital material in the siltstones consists of grains of magnetite, fragments of feldspar, rock fragments and flakes of white mica and very rarely fresh biotite. Variation in the percentage of detrital magnetite, which may make up as much as 10% of the rock, is responsible for much of the banding of the siltstones. The green siltstones and shales — owe their colour to the presence of approxi- mately 15% of a green clay mineral, probably chlorite. Zircon and tourmaline are less common than in the sandstones, but are found in some samples. Authigenic outgrowth of quartz is again much in evidence, but the larger grains are seen to have been fairly well-rounded. Apart from their quartz content, the shales consist of grains of magnetite, very fine micaceous material and small amounts of carbonate. The smaller quartz grains in the shales are quite angular as would be expected, since grains of such a small size are not readily rounded during transportation. Joplin (1935, p. 20) suggested that the red shales at Mt. Lambie were of tuffaceous origin, on the basis of the angularity of their quartz grains. There is, however, no evidence to support a pyroclastic origin for these shales. Finally, the conglomerates consist of pebbles, average size 5 mm., but ranging up to several centimetres in diameter, set in a purple siltstone or a quartzose sandstone matrix. They consist of quartz (60%) and fragments of siltstone and occasionally metaquartzite. The variation in roundness of the pebbles is greater than that of the grains in the sandstones, but the larger pebbles generally show well-rounded outlines. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor C. E. Marshall, in whose department the work for this paper was carried out. I would also like to thank Dr. T. G. Vallance and Mr. B. Hobbs for helpful advice and criticism. Cap EAMBIESGROUP AT MOUNT LAMBIE 21 References BRANAGAN, D., 1958. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis: “Studies in Sedimentation and Structure in the Western Coalfield of N.S.W.” Geology Dept. Sydney Univ. Brown, Ipa A., AND JOPLIN, GERMAINE A., 1938. Upper Devonian Sediments at Mt. Lambie, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 63, 219. DAVID, IT. W. E., 1950. wealth of Australia. W. R.) London: Edward Arnold. JOPLIN, GERMAINE A., 1935. The Petrology of the Hartley District, Part III. The contact meta- morphism of the Upper Devonian (Lambian) Series. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 16—50. Geology of the Common- Vol. I. (Edited by Browne, MAXWELL, W. G. H., 1950. An Upper Devonian Brachiopod from the Mount Morgan district. Univ. Queensland Papers, Geology, 3, No. 12. MAXWELL, W. G. H., 1951. Upper Devonian and Middle Carboniferous Brachiopods of Queensland. Univ. Queensland Papers, Geology, 3, No. 14. McEtroy, C. T., 1957. Explanatory Notes on the Sydney 4-Mile Geological Sheet. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. PackHaM, G. H., 1954. Sedimentary Structures as an Important Factor in the Classification of Sandstones. Am. J. Scv., 252, 466-476. PETTIJOHN, F. J., 1957. Sedimentary Rocks. York: ‘Harper ce Brothers. WILKINSON, C. S., 1875. Geological Map of the District of Hartley, Bowenfels, Wallerawang and Rydal. Geol. Surv. N.S.W. New } "4 2 ' Sa f t ¥ \ ‘ rh a air a | i” é ' A Phy ' “s en i ‘ i j j ( Ya f { y fl \ ‘ane J ¢ 4 i Pa \ \ A F 4 i ' ms \ ‘ pew ' ‘ ‘ ‘ at ' e Y i ' i . ‘ith a ‘ | iy sate ally : xa St ae, fu Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 23-33, 1961 The Geology and Petrology of the Uralla Area, N.S.W. R. H. VERNON (Received July 21, 1960) Apstract—In the Uralla area, N.S.W., Palaeozoic sediments (greywackes, greywacke- conglomerates and argillites), together with associated igneous dyke-rocks, have been subjected to thermal metamorphism by a granodiorite-adamellite intrusion. granodiorite at its margins to a central area of adamellite. The intrusion grades from This gradation is believed to have been caused by contamination with basic igneous rock, the effects of which were felt more in the marginal parts of the mass. Other igneous rocks occurring in the Uralla area include quartz porphyry, porphyritic microdiorite, teschenite, and olivine basalt. Introduction The town oi Uralla lies about 13 miles south- west of Armidale, New South Wales. The Uralla area has been mapped by Voisey (1942) and his map, with certain alterations, has provided a basis for the present study (Fig. 1). The area shown on the map as “ Uralla Beds ”’ also includes numerous acid and intermediate dykes not mapped individually. A number of speci- mens collected from outside the area shown in Fig. 1 have also been examined. The relationships between the major rock units are shown in Fig. 1. The central part of the Uralla area is occupied by a late Permian (?) mass composed of granodiorite and adamellite, which extends further to the north and south of the area shown in Fig. 1, forming a body of batholithic dimensions. This is part of the large acid-intermediate igneous complex extending from Stanthorpe in Queens- land southwards to Tamworth, often referred to as the New England Batholith. The grano- diorite-adamellite body is flanked by older. Palaeozoic sediments (Uralla Beds) and dyke- rocks to the west and south-east (Fig. 1). A contact metamorphic aureole separates these rocks from the granodiorite-adamellite. In the highest parts of the area, namely in the north and north-east, Tertiary fluvio-lacustrine deposits belonging to the Armidale Beds occur capping the Palaeozoic rocks. Remnants of flows of olivine-basalt overlie these sediments or rest on the Palaeozoic rocks. Physiography The Uralla area is part of the New England Tableland, a partly dissected, uplifted peneplain. The Main Divide, which is an erosional feature Separating the east- and west-flowing rivers in southern New England (cf. Voisey, 1957), tuns approximately north-south along the eastern edge of the Uralla area. It is marked by the elongated outcrop of acid porphyry in the south-east of the area, and follows the line of basalt to the north (Fig. 1). It is a line of low hills rising only a few hundred feet above the surrounding country. Between Uralla and Armidale it is about 3,500 feet above sea level (Voisey, 1957, p. 131). The Main Divide and the country immediately to the east and west of it in the Armidale region constitute an erosion surface called the Laterite Surface (Voisey, 1957, p. 130). In the Uralla area its various characteristics are well shown. Swamps and lagoons are present (Fig. 1), the sparse hills are capped with basalt, and lateritic deposits (e.g., “ironstone gravel ’’) occur locally. The surface is very flat, with an extensive soil cover, so that outcrops of the granodiorite-adamellite and the Uralla Beds are generally rather poor. The western boundary of the Laterite Surface is shown in Fig. 1. The Post-Laterite Surface to the west is lower and more dissected than the Laterite Surface. It is drained particularly by Kentucky Creek and Rocky River, which flow northwards to join the west-flowing Bundarra River. The town of Uralla lies on this surface in the narrow valley of Rocky Creek. Rock exposures, especially of the granodiorite-adamel- lite, are generally better on the Post-Laterite Surface. Uralla Beds The term “ Uralla Beds” is used for these rocks, since they cannot be correlated with any certainty with those rocks near Armidale considered by Spry (1953, p. 129) to be part of the “ Woolomin Group ’”’. So far the Uralla Beds have yielded only a few poorly preserved plant remains found alongside the Uralla-Walcha road in the south-east of the area (Portion 117, Parish of Harnham). Lithologically similar 24 R. H. VERNON PORPHYRY [___] GRANODIORITE . a ee id S994™ or a URALLA: -— = \ RAS (Ea \ \ / / / 4 .Y \ -— a \ x ~ ' ‘ pt aoatt ead mee ant ae — \ A : 1 siool yf | é ! Nit ¢ EYSIOI6 ys I RACECOURSE ; AB LAGOON ’ F fd \ DANGAR‘S i * t LAGOON i | ‘N 1 ‘ | NA ! / oO em awn a . —_—/— — : Jsvte, | 1) Geological sketch-map of the Uralla area. the Laterite Surface after Voisey (1957) rocks throughout New England are generally regarded as being of middle Palaeozoic age. he beds strike generally north and dip 40-60° W, with local sharp variations and occasional overturning. The most complete sections observed occur along Reedy Creek, about 34 miles to the north of the area shown in Fig. 1. Graded bedding indicates that the top of the sequence is to the west. The sedi- ments consist chiefly of greywacke, which is interbedded with some greywacke-conglomerate The dotted line represents the approximate western boundary of and silty argillite, the most common association being greywackes alternating with generally thinner beds of silty argillite. The beds of greywacke, which commonly are graded, invari- ably have sharp lower contacts and normally have sharp upper contacts, although some grade upwards into argillite. Angular chips of argil- lite are commonly incorporated in the base of greywacke beds. A little vitric tuff has been found interbedded with greywackes in the south-east of the area. GEOLOGY PNDSEETROBOGY OF THE URALLA AREA, N'S.W. TABLE 1 Approximate Modes of Uvalla Sediments Rock type Specimen No.* S980 Quartz Chert Plagioclase Orthoclase Rock fragments Matrix .. : Cement Or | mo Ors 00 — bo Ot SHOOK oA IO ¢ | S974 Greywackes Argillite 5976 S973 Sond 5981 3 9 4 3 4 2 15 2 6 10 14 5 67 42 26 22 19 35 38 638 1 2 3 — * Geology Department catalogue numbers, University of New England. Petrography—Approximate modes of five Uralla greywackes and one silty argillite are given in Table 1. The greywackes plot as labile greywackes on the diagram of Packham (1954, p. 472). The argillite plots in the same field, but further towards the matrix vertex (Fig. 2). Because of their coarse grain-size, the greywacke-conglomerates are unsuitable for modal analysis. However, in view of their decreased matrix content, they would plot further towards the (feldspar-++rock fragments) Mertex. The greywackes are dark grey with shades of green and blue in fresh hand specimens. As seen in thin section, they are poorly sorted sediments consisting of angular fragments of quartz, feldspar and rock detritus, embedded in a prominent matrix (usually greater than 20 vol. per cent). Most detrital particles are of sand size, though a few larger fragments are com- monly present. The largest fragments (up to 5x2mm) are the black argillite “chips” of intraformational origin, mentioned above. The mineral fragments are mainly of quartz and feldspar. The quartz has a roundness of 0-15-0-6 (Pettijohn, 1957, p. 59, Table 16), and a sphericity of 0-4-0-8 (Krumbein and Sloss, 1951, p. 81, Figs. 4-9). Some quartz grains are fractured and others are partly disintegrated, but most of the quartz does not MATRIX S977 / - $973 - S974 : “$980 $976 PELITE LABILE GREYWACKE FELSPAR+ROCK FRAGMENTS QUARTZ + CHERT Fie. 2 Modal composition of some Uralla sediments plotted on the diagram of Packham (1954) 26 R. H. VERNON show undulose extinction. The inclusions in the quartz are globular, acicular and “ dusty ”’ and are irregularly distributed, these character- istics suggesting an igneous source for the quartz (Keller and _ Littlefield, 1950). Rounded, embayed quartz grains indicate that some of the quartz has been derived from acid volcanic rocks. The feldspar fragments, dominantly plagioclase, are generally more rounded than the quartz, and are kaolinized and sericitized to varying degrees. The plagioclase is commonly twinned and rarely zoned. Measurement of its refractive indices is made difficult by generally severe alteration, but indicates compositions varying from albite to oligoclase in different rocks. A little potash feldspar is also present. Allogenic ferromagnesian minerals are un- common, minor amounts of amphibole and warped biotite being present locally in some of the greywackes. A little detrital muscovite, magnetite, apatite and zircon is commonly present. The rock fragments are largely of igneous origin, volcanic and hypabyssal (intermediate and acid) types predominating. Smaller quan- tities of sedimentary fragments are also present. The rock types represented include rhyolite, spherulitic rhyolite, quartz-feldspar porphyry, andesite, trachyte, granophyre, basalt, chert, siltite, argillite, and a little jasper. The matrix is composed of a fine-grained mixture of authigenic chlorite and white mica. Limonitic stains are common and a magnetite cement is locally present. In places cubes of pyrite are found in the matrix. The detrital grains commonly show marginal replacement by the matrix minerals. A little epidote has been formed in grey- wackes lower in the sequence. It occurs scattered through the rocks and in veinlets, but mainly occurs as fine-grained aggregates enclosed in plagioclase. The plagioclase of these rocks is albite, whereas higher in the sequence it is generally oligoclase. This suggests that albitization of detrital oligoclase may have taken place in the deeper rocks, epidote being liberated during the reaction. The greywacke-conglomerates are made up of large rounded or sub-rounded rock pebbles (averaging 4mm in diameter, with a maximum diameter of 10mm), together with smaller, commonly angular rock and mineral fragments, many of which are of sand size. The detritus is set in an iron-stained matrix of chlorite and white mica, which is much less abundant than in the greywackes. Locally the matrix is coarser-grained and resembles greywacke. The mineral fragments are mainly of plagioclase and quartz, and the rock fragments comprise rock types similar to those occurring in the grey- wackes, especially porphyritic acid and inter- mediate rocks, chert (commonly ramified by thin quartz veinlets), argillite, siltite and grey- wacke. Fragments of plutonic rocks are absent. The silty argillites are black and apparently massive in hand specimens, but in thin section they show alternating coarse- and fine-grained layers. These rocks are better sorted than the greywackes, and consist of silt-size fragments of quartz and plagioclase with fewer rock fragments, embedded in a matrix composed of authigenic chlorite and white mica with some iron oxide and parallel streaks of (?) carbon- aceous material. The matrix is much more abundant than the detritus. Contact Metamorphism of Sediments The Uralla Beds adjacent to the grano- diorite-adamellite body have been contact metamorphosed. North of the Uralla-Balala Road about 5 miles west of Uralla, where the rocks are relatively well exposed, biotite is characteristic of the hornfelses at least as far as half a mile from the contact, whereas cordierite is present as well in rocks in the inner parts of the aureole. In the south-eastern part of the area the relationships are similar but, in addition, spotted hornfelses have been encountered about half a mile from the contact. Therefore, there appears to be a zoning of the aureole similar to the zoning of contact meta- morphosed argillaceous hornfelses recognized by Tilley (1924) in the Comrie area of the Perthshire Highlands. In the Uralla area, spotting has been observed only in the horn- felses derived from argillites, the greywackes probably being too coarse-grained. Near the Uralla-Balala road, about 3 miles west of Uralla, highest grade hornfelses occur 3 mile from the nearest contact. This is presumably the effect of an underlying apophysis from the main mass. Petrograpbhy—Petrographic observations have been confined largely to the metamorphosed greywackes and argillites, since the altered greywacke-conglomerates observed show only a low grade of metamorphism, by virtue of their occurrence. in the outer parts of othe: aureole. The higher grade hornfelses are fine- grained rocks consisting of granoblastic quartz, plagioclase, potash feldspar and minor cor- dierite, together with flaky biotite and GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY OF THE URALLA AREA, N.5.W. 27 muscovite. Some of these rocks carry porphyro- blastic garnet or granular andalusite as well. The low grade hornfelses consist mainly of quartz, plagioclase, sericite, chlorite and biotite. Chiastolite is present in some of the low grade hornfelses derived from argillite. The argillite hornfelses commonly show fine relic bedding and the lower grade greywacke hornfelses possess blastopsammitic textures. Quartz is the most abundant mineral in the sedimentary hornfelses, generally forming a finely granular mosaic, although some larger relic grains are also commonly present. The quartz, which in places shows undulose extinc- tion, generally carries inclusions of magnetite, apatite, biotite, muscovite and unidentified “dust ’’. Buotite forms decussate aggregates, independent flakes, or incipient rounded blebs (depending on the grade of metamorphism), some grains being sieved with quartz. In some rocks the biotite flakes show parallel alignment. Cordierite, commonly partly con- verted to pinite, occurs as xenoblastic to elongated, rather ragged grains, many of which show a good cleavage. Inclusions of quartz, magnetite and biotite are common, and some cordierite grains show cyclic twinning in pseudo- hexagonal cross-sections. Muscovite occurs as decussate aggregates, small disseminated flakes, and large plates sieved with quartz. Some has replaced biotite. Potash feldspar occurs as small, xenoblastic grains, which are readily recognized after staining with sodium cobaltinitrite. It tends to be preferentially concentrated in certain areas of the rocks. Plagioclase, extensively kaolinized and sericitized, forms part of the granoblastic mosaic also. Owing to the alteration, its refractive indices were not measured. Garnet torms xenoblastic, fractured, light pink porphyroblasts, commonly altering to (?) magnetite or chlorite along the cracks. It is generally free from inclusions except for a little apatite. The garnet hasn=1-812--0-003, suggesting a composition of approximately 65-70 per cent almandine and 30-35 per cent spessartite (Winchell and Winchell, 1951, p. 487). Andalusite, a rare constituent, occurs as small, generally tresh, irregular and rounded grains, which have grown around the quartz. The andalusite is commonly pleochroic, the absorp- tion being sharply variable within a single grain (cf. Winchell and Winchell, 1951, p. 522). The variable absorption and a lower refractive index distinguish the andalusite from possible hypersthene. The pleochroism scheme is: X=deep pink, Y=Z=very pale green. Fine- grained (?) magnetite is commonly associated with this granular andalusite. In some of the low grade argillite hornfelses, chiastolite forms idioblastic prismatic porphyroblasts up to 2 mm across, basal sections of which show minute opaque inclusions arranged in a cruciform pattern. Finely granular iron oxide is also concentrated around the edges of the chiastolite crystals. Accessory minerals in the sedimentary horn- felses include (?) magnetite, zircon and apatite. Sequence of Metamorphic Changes—The initial metamorphic effect in the greywackes is the recrystallization of the authigenic chlorite and white mica, forming larger crystals, which may occur in clusters. In the argillaceous rocks “spots’’ of chlorite, white mica and opaque needles represent the first metamorphic effects. Among the weaker effects in both rock types is the formation of disseminated grains of (?) magnetite. Biotite is the next mineral formed, appearing first as incipient blebs, and it persists through all higher stages. Increase in biotite results in decrease in chlorite and white mica which, together with some of the magnetite, combine to form the biotite (Tilley, 1924, p. 29; Harker, 1932, p. 49). In the greywackes, the biotite and excess magnetite are more abundant in the areas formerly occupied by the matrix. In the argillites, biotite (together with fine-grained white mica) initially forms incipient blebs occurring between the spots. It gradually increases in amount as white mica decreases, and is joined by dis- seminated magnetite granules. In some of the argillite hornfelses chiastolite is formed at an early stage, being present in rocks which still show some weak spotting. The chiastolite tends to be concentrated in certain bands, possibly those rich in aluminous material and poor in chlorite (Tilley, 1924, p. 31; Harker, 1932, p. 49). A higher stage of metamorphism is marked by the development of a granoblastic texture, a more complete crystallization of biotite, and the formation of cordierite. Garnet is locally present in the higher grade rocks, owing prob- ably to local concentration of manganese (Tilley, 1926, p. 50). Close to the contact the hornfelses contain abundant potash feldspar, somewhat less biotite than before, cordierite, plagioclase, and a little granular andalusite. Whether the original sedi- ments contained sufficient potassium (in the authigenic white mica especially) to permit the 28 R. H. VERNON formation of potash feldspar by thermal pro- cesses, or whether the potash was introduced from the granodiorite, remains unknown in the absence of chemical evidence. These potash feldspar-rich hornfelses also contain some muscovite, and close to the contact muscovite may be so abundant as to almost exclude potash feldspar. Its presence implies an introduction of at least water and fluorine from the grano- diorite. Contact Metamorphism of Igneous Rocks Quartz Porphynes Most of the information on these rocks comes from the large outcrop in the south-east of the area (Fig. 1). The metamorphosed quartz porphyries possess blastoporphyritic textures and consist of large relic phenocrysts (broken down to varying degrees) of quartz, plagioclase and occasional potash feldspar, set in a grano- blastic groundmass consisting mainly of quartz and potash feldspar. In the outer parts of the aureole, the only mineralogical changes are the sericitization of the feldspar and the formation of chlorite, magnetite and a little brown and green biotite in the groundmass. However, higher grade rocks are much more extensively recrystallized, and carry small amounts of cordierite and granular andalusite. They may also contain a little muscovite, which locally forms large, poikiloblastic plates. Porphynites The contact metamorphosed porphyrites are blastoporphyritic rocks, consisting of relics of former plagioclase phenocrysts set in a ground- mass of plagioclase, secondary ferromagnesian minerals and, in some rocks, abundant calcite. The ferromagnesian minerals are blue-green fibrous actinolite (locally radiating), biotite and chlorite. The biotite is usually brown, rarely greenish, and is commonly partly altered to chlorite. A little magnetite is generally present, and some of the porphyrites carry minor muscovite and potash feldspar. The Granodiorite-Adamellite A body of granodiorite-adamellite occupies the central parts of the Uralla area. Xenoliths are abundant, especially in the marginal part of the mass, and veins of aplite are common. Petrography—The granodiorites and adamel- lites are medium-grained rocks, without any obvious lineation. In thin section the rocks are seen to consist of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende and minor pyroxene, together with accessory zircon, opaque minerals and apatite. The texture of the rocks is hypauto- morphic-granular and the average grain-size is 1 mm. Quartz and orthoclase occur as anhedral grains filling the interspaces between the plagioclase, biotite and hornblende crystals. The quartz commonly shows undulose extinction. and carries “dusty ’ inclusions. The ortho-= clase forms plates, 1 to 3mm across, and is kaolinized, generally to a greater degree than the plagioclase. Some grains of orthoclase show carlsbad twinning. Plagioclase occurs as euhedral to subhedral tabular crystals averaging 2x1mm in size. It has §=1-548,* corres- ponding to a composition of Ang, wt. per cent (Chayes, 1952), or Ans, pmol per cent: Some plagioclase grains are slightly zoned from An, mol. per cent (core) to Ang, (margin). The plagioclase is twinned on the albite, carlsbad and pericline laws, and on combinations of these laws. Many grains are irregularly kaolinized and sericitized, especially along fractures, cleavages, and in some of the more calcic zones. In some of the granodiorites a second generation of plagioclase occurs as small, well-formed grains averaging 0°75 x0°5 mm. Biotite occurs as platy crystals, which are strongly pleochroic from straw-yellow (X) to deep fox-brown (Y,Z); X probably of Oligocene age (Voisey, 1957, p. 130). The olivine basalts may be divided into two types : (i) strongly porphyritic types, which consist of phenocrysts of altered, anhedral to subhedral olivine (averaging 0-25mm _ across), stout, sometimes corroded, euhedral labradorite (averaging 0-5 mm long), and a little anhedral clinopyroxene, set in a fine-grained pilotaxitic groundmass of labradorite, with subordinate olivine, clinopyroxene, (?) magnetite, apatite, analcite, and secondary limonite ; (11) slightly porphyritic types (also pilotaxitic), which are very fine-grained, and consist of a few relatively large clinopyroxene phenocrysts (up to 1x0:75 mm) set in a very abundant groundmass of labradorite, olivine, clino- pyroxene, (?) magnetite, apatite and analcite, with secondary chlorite and lmonite. The teschenite is composed mainly of elongated, lightly kaolinized labradorite laths (averaging 1mm in length) and titaniferous diopsidic clinopyroxene grains (averaging 1-2 mm across), which exhibit intergranular, sub-ophitic, or more rarely, ophitic textural relationships. Anhedral to subhedral, fractured grains of olivine (averaging 0-75 to 1 mm across) are less abundant, and are invariably partly altered to iddingsite. Apatite, (?) magnetite and inter- stitial analcite are always present. Secondary minerals include chlorite and limonite. Acknowledgements This work was carried out in the Geology Department of The University of New England, Armidale. The writer gratefully acknowledges the advice and encouragement given by Professor A. H. Voisey and Professor J. F. G. Wilkinson, and by Dr. K. A. W. Crook in connection with the sediments. Thanks are also due to Dr. A. B. Edwards for helpful criticism of the manuscript. CEOLOGY-AND PETROLOGY OF THE URALLA AREA, N.S.W. 33 References Bowen, N. L., 1928. The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. Dover Publications, Inc.: New York. CHAYES, F., 1952. Relations between composition and indices of refraction in natural plagioclase. Amer. J. Sci., Bowen Volume, 85-105. CuaveEs, F., 1955. Potash feldspar as a by-product of the biotite-chlorite transformation. /. Geol., 63, 75-82. HARKER, A., 1932. Metamorphism. Methuen and Co. : London. SerrreR, © VW. D., AND LITTLEFIELD, R. F., 1950. Inclusions in the quartz of igneous and meta- morphic rocks. J. sediment. Petrol., 20, 74-84. PRUMBEIN,, WV. €., AND Stoss, L._L., 1951. Strati- graphy and Sedimentation. W. H. Freeman and Co.: San Francisco. INOCKOLDS, S. R., 1933. Some theoretical aspects of contamination in acid magmas. /. Geol., 41, 561-589. PAcKHAM, G. H., 1954. Sedimentary structures as an important factor in the classification of sandstones. Amer. J. Sct., 252, 466-476. PETTIJOHN, F. J., 1957. Sedimentary Rocks. Harper and Bros.: New York. POLDERVAART, A., 1950. Correlation of physical properties and chemical composition in the plagio- clase, olivine and orthopyroxene series. Amer. Min., 35, 1067-1079. 2ndsesd: Spry, A., 1953. The thermal metamorphism of portions of the Woolomin Group in the Armidale district, N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock area. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 87, 129-136. Sunpius, N., 1946. The classification of the horn- blendes and the solid solution relations in the amphibole group. Sverig. geol. Unders. Afh., Arsbok, 40, No. 4. TILLEY, C. E., 1924. Comrie area of the Perthshire highlands. J. geol. Soc. Lond., 80, 22-71. TILLEY, C. E., 1926. On garnet in pelitic contact- Contact metamorphism in the Quart. zones. Miner. Mag., 21, 47-50. VotsEy, A. H., 1942. The geology of the County of Sandon, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 67, 288-293. VoisEY, A. H., 1957. Erosion surfaces around Armidale, N:S.W. jf. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 90, 128-133. Watton, M., 1955. The emplacement of “ granite’. Amer. J. Sci., 253, 1-18. WINCHELL, A. N., and WINCHELL, H., 1951. Elements of Optical Mineralogy. John Wiley and Sons: New York. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydnev, Sydney. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 35-41, 1961 The Nature of Light Propagation S. J. PROKHOVNIK (Received October 14, 1960) ABSTRACT—By making clear distinction between the conventional measures and the proper measures of space and time intervals it is possible to achieve a consistent and physically inter- pretable approach to special relativity. This approach implies the further distinction between the conventional measure, v, of relative velocity and its “‘ clocked ’’ measure w. It is suggested that Einstein’s light velocity principle implies the relationship : .{/i+v/c w=C (Bae —1), thus meeting the claim that clocked velocities greater than c have been observed and are required by nuclear and quantum theory. It is further shown that the Lorentz transformation forms a direct and necessary mathematical link between Einstein’s light velocity principle and the mass-energy equivalence formula, suggesting that the nature of light propagation may be physically related to the mass-energy transformation phenomenon. Finally the intuitive (commonly accepted) approach to reflected light rays is shown to result in a hitherto unsuspected contradiction which is absent in the alternative interpretation proposed. 1. Introduction In a previous communication (Prokhovnik, 19605) it was suggested that the interpretation, there proposed, of the Lorentz transformation leads to a method of synchronizing clocks in relative motion and hence to the possibility of investigating experimentally the nature of light propagation between observers in relative motion. Distinction was also made between the “clocked ”’ velocity of a body in relative motion and the measure of this velocity when determined according to Einstein’s definitions. It will be shown that the relation between these two measurements depends precisely on the nature of ight propagation ; and hence that the experimental investigation of this relation can provide an important test of our approach and of its underlying assumptions, in particular, Einstein’s light-velocity principle. The basic principles and definitions involved in this discussion are as previously (Prokhovnik, 1960a ; 19600),* viz. : I. Equivalence of inertial systems. II. Constancy of velocity of light for all inertial systems. . The independence of the mode of light propagation between observers in relative motion, to the direction of the propagation. * Henceforth, provided the context is clear, these two papers will be referred to as A and B respectively. The basic assumptions are presented formally in | Paper A. (i) Definition of synchronism. (ii) Definition of the “‘ time ”’ of an event. (1) Definition of space interval. (iv) Definition of relative velocity. ) (v) Definition of synchronism of clocks in relative motion consequent on ITI. As before we will be discussing measurement relationships between two observers A and B receding from one another with relative velocity v (according to (iv)), and carrying similar clocks which were synchronized at ¢,=¢,=0 during their spatial coincidence. The same terminology as previously will apply to the measurement of an event. Thus if at time t, the observer A transmits a light signal which reflects an event and returns to him at ion we will denote by t% the time of reflection of the event according to A’s time-scale. #, cannot be considered as being necessarily synonymous with the “‘ time ”’ defined in (ii); its value must be consistent with, and should be deducible from the principles assumed, that is, I, IJ and III. The definition (ii), on the other hand, is independent of the principles and leads to the measure ta=4(ta +14) such that c(t —t4) =c(t, —t4) =vt4 The relation between #4 and 4 is developed in paper A; however, the relevant argument requires a slight refinement, which does not affect its conclusions, though it involves making 36 S. J. BROK H@WIN TIC a distinction between the “clocked”’ relative velocity and the measure of this velocity according to (iv). This distinction is clearly similar to that relating to time measurements as discussed above. It is further shown that the argument in paper B leads to a unique relation between these two measures of the relative velocity and that this relation is a necessary consequence of the Lorentz transformation. It will be seen that this implies some interesting links between the nature of light propagation and the mass-energy equivalence relationship. 2. The Clocked Relative Velocity This measure of B’s velocity relative to observer A is obtained by clocking the position of B at two points in A’s inertial system. This requires that at each of these points there be an observer who is stationary in A’s inertial system and whose clock is synchronous with A’s clock, according to (i). It is seen that the corres- ponding space and time intervals measured by the two observers are the proper intervals in A’s inertial system. Hence the clocked relative velocity, w, so obtained can be considered as the proper relative velocity of B in A’s inertial system. We have at present no reason to assume any particular relationship between w and_ the measure v determined according to (iv). How- ever, whatever relationship obtains between w and v in A’s inertial system, must, by the principle of relativity (2), also hold in B’s inertial system, and since in accordance with this principle, the measurement v is the same for both observers A and B, therefore the measurement w will also be the same whether obtained as B’s clocked velocity in A’s inertial system or vice versa. This can be considered as a direct consequence of J, since w, as well as v, depends only on a mutual and symmetrical relationship between A and B. 3. The Relation between w and v Consider now as in paper A, Part 3, a light signal transmitted by A at ty, reflecting a clock reading /, and returning to A at ¢%. Let the time of reflection, according to A’s time-scale, be denoted by #4. Then according to A the proper distance separating A and B is wt, at the departure of the signal and wt’ at its arrival at 6. Hence’ the distance mnayelled iby, the signal on its outward journey cannot be less than wt, nor greater than wt4, though it may have some intermediate value between these two bounds. a, tien djp—wta +k4,(wts —wt4)=c(t4—th) .. (3) since the signal travels with velocity c relative © to A in the interval # to £%, and where k,,) is a constant which may depend on w and 00; hence, in particular, for t4—=0 when A and B are spatially co-incident, (11) becomes =. That is, the distance apparently traversed by the light-ray, on its outward journey to E, is xp—the space-interval separating A and E at the time of transmission, tj. Thus the assumption of Einstein’s light-velocity principle demands a specific mode of light propagation equivalent to taking k=0 in the context of the equations (3) and (4). The principle II is indissolubly linked also with the Lorentz transformation ; the combining (as in paper B) of (11) and (12) with the simpler expressions for B’s measurements yield the transformation directly. An alternative assumption regarding light propagation, and involving therefore a different value of k, leads inevitably to a different trans- formation, which would still however reflect the principle of relativity and embody the formula (7). For instance, if we were to assume * Note that the circumstances here are different to those which led to equation (8); hence they lead to a different relationship between /’, and #1, etc. 38 that a light-ray always has the velocity c with respect to its source, then instead of (11) and (12) we would have* jeanne = é (1 a) (13) U jens Cc and 1 +- xn f= (“ at) . (14) U 1 = Cc Assuming that (13) is valid for t4=0, it is seen that this is equivalent to the case, k=1. The symmetry of these relationships appears to match that of (11) and (12), yet they lead to v hie i —-+-——= —] p y2 2C v ogee 1 Eras or c v ee f ote yt C {= =— +4 “fil “f gz 2 v i Nese CF c so that 2 2(x4—vt4) and m m ie v UB ei savas 1— 1— 3). This transformation is neither symmetrical nor reciprocal, nor does it satisfy the invariance relationship (x2) —(ct4) =(xB) —(ctz) It would appear therefore that the mathe- matical symmetry and elegance of the Lorentz transformation are an expression not only of the principle of relativity but also of the assump- tion that the velocity of a light-ray is the same for all inertial systems, requiring that k=0. Thus the Lorentz transformation gives faithful expression to Einstein’s concepts in terms of his definitions. * By considering that the light-ray takes time ™m *B to reach a point A’, distant xR from A and stationary c relative to A. Thus A’ bears a similar spatial relation- ship to FE as A does to B, and so (8) and (9) are applicable. S. J. PROKHOVNIK 5. Experimental Implications On putting k=0 in (10) we obtain . (15) (ite is | 2 Thus w differs from v by — to the first order of magnitude. Such a difference should be experimentally detectable for velocities of say Cc 1000 (15) may there- fore provide a criterion for an experimental test of the underlying theory and its assumption. relative to an observer. However, there already appears to exist experimental and theoretical evidence supporting the validity of (15). The fact that special relativity appears to place an upper limit to the velocity of a particle has been challenged by nuclear physicists who claim to have detected clocked velocities greater than c. In particular, Heisenberg (1958) observes that the relativistic restriction on the magnitude of velocities leads to unresolved difficulties in connection with the uncertainty relations of quantum theory ; and that “‘ This state of affairs has as its practical consequence the fact that in attempting to arrive at a mathematical formula- tion of the interactions of the elementary particles, we shall always encounter infinite values for energy and momentum, preventing a satisfactory mathematical statement”. The distinction between w and v expressed by (15) resolves this apparent contradiction, since w has no upper bound even though v has, as is inevitable from its definition; and w—+o as UC. The clocked velocity of a light-ray travelling between a source and destination, stationary — in the same inertial system, has been determined to a high degree of accuracy. It would also be of interest to determine a light-ray’s clocked velocity when its source and destination are in relative motion. If the synchronism of clocks associated with two observers A and B is not affected by their uniform relative motion, then such a measurement, for a light-signal travelling from A to B, could be based on A’s clock- reading on departure of the signal and B's clock-reading coincident with its arrival at B. these times, together with a determination of the clocked relative velocity, would then be sufficient THE NATURE OF LIGHT PROPAGATION 39 to determine the light-signal’s clocked velocity. Dingle (1959) has actually proposed such an experiment as a test of Einstein’s light velocity principle. 6. The Validity of Einstein’s Second Principle The Lorentz transformation is based on a specific assumption regarding light propagation ; it cannot be derived without assuming that a light-ray has the same velocity for all inertial systems. This assumption certainly appears strange and incomprehensible in terms of classical concepts; nevertheless, it has a considerable theoretical and experimental basis. Many relativists consider that the invariance relationship 2 ny 1 2% ¢2f2 a yp!2 1 y’2 1 9/2 __c2y/e (16) is a necessary corollary of the principle of relativity, and use (16) to deduce the Lorentz transformation. In fact, however, (16) also assumes the value of c of a light-ray’s velocity for each of two inertial systems. It is inevitable, therefore, that this assumption should underlie the Lorentz transformation if it is to satisfy (16). Yet it is not the elegance of (16) but of the Maxwell Equations which provided Einstein with the firmest support for his second principle. The invariance of these equations for all inertial systems requires the validity of the Lorentz transformation and hence of its underlying assumptions, and, in fact necessarily, these equations already imply that the constancy of ¢c has universal validity. The power and experi- mental success of the Maxwell equations provided a powerful argument for the validity of Einstein’s assumptions. Later the astronomical evidence of de Sitter (1913) and others seemed to provide further support for Einstein’s second principle. This evidence suggests that the propagation of light is independent of the velocity (relative to the light-ray’s destination) of its source and hence that the apparent path of a light ray depends on the space interval separating source and destination at the instant of emission. As we have seen, this assumption is equivalent to taking k=0, which is basic to the Lorentz transformation. The principle II is also mathematically expressed by the relativistic composition of velocities formula, which guarantees that a velocity of c for a given inertial system transforms to the same value for any other inertial system. This formula is an immediate consequence of the Lorentz transformation and by combining it (e.g. Moller, 1952) with Newton’s first and second laws (conservation and rate of change of momentum), it leads in turn to relativistic dynamics and the mass- energy equivalence relationship =Car aaa (17) This relationship is therefore mathematically linked with the light-velocity assumption ; and the too-dramatic confirmations of (17) in recent years provide perhaps the strongest experimental evidence that light and matter have remarkable properties, as yet, little understood, but nevertheless correctly postulated in Einstein’s principles. The mathematical link suggests also a physical link between the laws underlying light propagation and mass-energy transformations. af + % ae B 1 - Vf Fic. 1 Times of reflection, according to III, of a light ray travelling to and fro between receding observers A and B. The line Of represents the common time-scale. The distance, in a direction normal to Ot, between OA and OB and corresponding to a given value of ¢ is then proportional to the proper space-interval (according to either observer) separating A and B at the given time 40 S. J. PROK BGYNIK There exists further evidence, independent of our approach, that the mass-energy relation- ship is linked explicitly with the propagation of light principle. According to Whittaker (1953) the relationship (17), or a very similar one, was proposed a number of times in the pre- relativity era, as a deduction of electromagnetic or radiation phenomena; and more recently, Synge (1954) has associated relativistic dynamics with de-Broglie wave theory by a four dimen- sional application of Hamilton’s principle. It is suggested therefore that the experimental investigation of light propagation, leading to a deeper understanding of Einstein’s second principle, may also help us to decipher further the significance of mass-energy equivalence. And since both of these phenomena have relevance to many aspects of modern physics, the amplification of relativity theory and of its underlying assumptions could have signal significance. 7. The Behaviour of a Reflected Light-Ray The adoption of the hypothesis III has as its consequence the ineguality of the out and return paths of a light-ray travelling between observers in relative motion. This is expressed by the relations (5), (6), (7) and by the figure in paper A which is reproduced as Figure 1. III can be considered as a corollary of the relativity principle, I, since it is based on the idea that neither of two uniformly receding observers A and B can be considered as having a privileged status; and hence that the law of propagation of a light-ray travelling from A to B applies equally to a light-ray travelling from Bto A. As is seen in Figure 1, this leads to a sequence of reflection times which obeys the — same law in the inertial system of either observer; — and which provides a simple interpretation of the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformation. However, the inequality of the out and return paths appears contrary to “common sense ’”’. For consider these light-paths from A’s intuitive standpoint. The reflection on Bb apparently occurs at a fixed point relative to A and hence the return path should be from this fixed point back to A, and should be equal to the outward path mapped on A’s inertial system. Thus according to A the time of reflection at B is given by the 24 of definition (ii) and so a sequence of such reflections might be represented as in Figure 2, where ta—ta=ta—ta, i, tytn ta, ete, Now from 6’s standpoint, any reflection at A should similarly take place midway, on B’s time-scale, between a pair of consecutive appearances of the light-ray at B; that is, according to Figure 3, where ie ee tp—tp=—tp—lp tp—th—tp —tp, etc. It is seen, by comparing Figures 2 and 3, that the time-scales of observers A and B cannot be reconciled with regard to their timing of the events 1 to 7. Equal intervals on A’s time-scale are unequal on B’s and vice-versa. This is not explicable even by assuming time dilatation; it could only be explained by assuming that B’s clock runs alternatively fast and slow relative to A’s and vice-versa. Thus the alternative to the hypothesis III and Figure 1 yields two time-scales which B Fig. 2 Times of reflection, according to A’s intuitive standpoint, of the reflected light ray. A’s time-scale is here coincident with the line OA. The distance between OA and OB, in a direction normal to OA, is then proportional to A’s measure of the space-interval separating A and B. This measure is given by the definition (iii) which assumes the equality of the out and return paths THE NATURE OF LIGHT PROPAGATION 41 Fig. 3 Times of reflection, according to B’s intuitive standpoint, of the reflected light-ray. B’s time-scale is here coincident with the line OB. The distance between OB and OA, in a direction normal to OB, is then proportional to B’s measure, according to (ili), of the space interval separating A and B. The superscripts, 1 to 7, refer to the same seven events (of reflection) as timed by A according to Figure 2, and by B according to Figure 3 are irreconcilable even in terms of time dilatation and space contraction, yet stemming from the same assumption (the identity of #7 and 14) as do the latter concepts. The intuitive approach further requires a different law of light propagation for the out and return paths, it implies that the propagation be considered relative to the source, S, on its outward path, but relative to the destination, D, on its return journey. This contradiction is avoided by the rigorous application of the principle of relativity in the form of III, and it leads to a single law of light propagation for all paths and for the inertial systems of both S and D. In fact the same law then applies for all inertial systems since this law (e.g. in the form (17) and (18) in paper B) leads to the Lorentz transformation, and is in turn Lorentz-invariant. The inequality of the out and return paths might be decisively tested by reflecting a light- beam on a body moving across the direction of incidence. If our approach is correct, the directions of the out and return paths will then differ, the angle depending on the relative velocity of the reflecting body. The astron- omical phenomenon of aberration suggests that such a test may well bear out our contentions. Should this test prove negative, or alter- natively, if time dilatation or some comparable absolute effect is indeed shown to be a conse- quence of uniform motion, then our concepts of relativity will have to be revised. Meanwhile we have attempted to show that these concepts form the basis of a system which is mathe- matically self-consistent and free of physical contradictions. Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Professor J. Blatt for directing attention to the implications of the intuitive approach as expressed by Figures 2 and 3. The mention of Synge’s work is due to a suggestion by Dr. N. W. Taylor. References DINGLE, H., 1959. Nature, 183, 1761. HEISENBERG, W., 1958. ‘“‘ The Physicist’s Conception of Nature’’, p. 48. Hutchinson, London. M@LLER, C., 1952. ‘‘ The Theory of Relativity ”’, pp. 67-68. Oxford U.P. PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1960a. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 93, 141. PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 19606. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, 109. SITTER, W. DE, 1913. SYNGE, J. L., 1954. Phys. Zeitschrift, 14, 429. ‘““Geometrical Mechanics and de Broglie Waves.’ Cambridge U.P. WHITTAKER, E., 1953. ‘‘ A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity’, pp. 51-54. Nelson. School of Mathematics, Umiversity of New South Wales, Sydney. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 43-46, 1961 Reflection of Plane Waves by Random Cylindrical Surfaces L. G. MACCRACKEN (Received August 3, 1960) ABSTRACT—For an aperiodic cylindrical metallic surface illuminated by horizontally polarized radiation, the reflected field is established as a superposition integral and the reflection function is obtained as an integral representation, whose integrand contains surface dependent functions. Proceeding to the optics limit, the reflection function is found proportional to the Fourier transform of exp [Qz], where Q depends on grazing angle and wavelength and zis the surface height. Allowing a Stationary stochastic process for the surface, the reflection coefficient, on the average, agrees with all previously derived results and the received intensity shows a dependence on the auto- correlation, p(y), of the surface. Introduction Lord Rayleigh (1878), in his studies of acoustic reflections, approximated the solution to the problem of reflection of plane waves by cylindrical surfaces. This approximation was successively improved through the work of C. T. Tai (1948) and W. C. Meecham (1952). The approximation, in all cases, is a consequence of the infinite system of linear equations defining the solution. About the time of Meecham’s work (1952), interest in the reflection of waves was shown by M. A. Isakovich (1952). Here, the general problem of rough surface reflection was approached in the Green’s function manner and solved in Kirchhoff approximation ; Gaussian statistics for the surface height and auto-correlation were assumed. W. S. Ament (1953), interested in evolving a theory of sea clutter, also used a Green’s function approach but solved the attendant integral equation using a variational procedure. Gaussian statistics were assumed, too, and the reflection coefficient derived was in agreement with the result of MacFarlane (1945) and C. L. Pekeris (W.W. II). Working from a different direction, using the field equivalence theorem approach and assuming, in approximation, the surface current densities, W. Magnus (1953), J. Feinstein (1954), and L. M. Spetner (1958) have derived asymptotic reflection coefficients ; here, too, the free use of Gaussian statistics for the surface was made. As in the earlier treatments of the problem, the approximate specular reflection coefficient was obtained, one which showed a Gaussian dependence due to the assumed stochastic process. This paper will deal with the reflection problem for an aperiodic surface. A plane wave polarized colinearly with the generators of the surface is reflected with a reflection coefficient dependent on the surface current distribution. The dependency is established from the appropriate Fredholm integral equation with a non-symmetric kernal describing the boundary-value problem of the first kind. The integral equation is solved in optical approximation and free use of Gaussian statistics is made in order that the determination of the average reflection coefficient, the average received power, for a unit intensity source, and the ratio of lobe maxima to minima as a function of the auto-correlation of the surface may be obtained. Part I A plane wave 0,(r), of direction cosines 3, y, polarized in the x-direction impinges on an aperiodic surface S(y) which possesses single-valued properties. The scattered field, or more properly called the reflected field for small surface perturbations when specular reflection is dominant, caused by, equivalently speaking, surface current densities may be described by ol) =1 { ‘ Em Gal IGNASG yea lmminicaes eeniecietarn as eee (1) 44 L. G. MacCRACKEN : where fq) is the surface-current density and the Hankel function is the appropriate Green’s function. As f(g) is unknown, one might just as well represent the reflected wave as rie Ue TG ANON SN SS ! , oM=_[ HRVOIT FESO WU. @) where (y’) is now the unknown function and transformationally related to f(Q). By inserting the Fourier integral representation for the Hankel function, o(7 ) becomes 7) eioly—y’) +i{z— oe a, "dy (3) BO aaa crm) (CAVAa EV 1 hs Sa a a |_|, verso which can be written as = emf Rl M\orteVE—atgy . e.. (4) C, with F 1 [2 eriwy’—iS(y') VP ae, (o=3 | Fae V0 ii! bo (5) at all points for which z>S(y’), i.e. at all points above the surface. Replacing b(y’) and e-iS()V#—o* by their Fourier integral representations defined as eet ie ~ Wz i Uo)e®’ede eS hea [Vk2— we ; plet’Pdp IG, and using the fact that i e*Vdy =2 78 (x) where 6(x) is the Dirac delta function, equation (5) becomes so that the total field is mie +f Rl alin tiVF=o ia... (7) Linearly transforming the variable wm to w-+k6, defining the reflection function R(w)=R,(w@+kB), and imposing the boundary condition o(r)=0 when z=S(y), the integral equation for the field is _ its) | Rla)eor HTOSPoal /... . an (3) C after e*6” has been divided out. Fourier transforming the left-hand side of Eq. (8) and collecting terms under one integral, one finds eM | R(w) et o)Sy) 4-4 ENG Fee |oadeo=0. 2. Ue 9 | G o Von (9) Were one to solve this equation for R(w), the intensity of radiation [=| o(r 7) |2 could be readily found. As approximate solutions are helpful, a variational procedure to give ine least-square fit to a true [ (7) when carried to completion yields an integral equation holding not only in the upper half-space but also on the surface exactly equal to Eq. (9). A sufficient solution to Eq. (9), and justifiable in a zero-order sense of Lord Rayleigh for high-frequencies, is REFLECTION OF PLANE WAVES BY RANDOM CYLINDRICAL SURFACES = 45 whereupon the total field is (7) weihlby +r) + ae a7 | F(2khy;m)elo+ By tToedey oo. c eee (11) Cc with I'(@)=—Vk?—(w+kB)?. Part II The surface is now considered to move randomly in time at a rate very slow compared to the emission frequency. In the case where the “ periodicity ’’ of wave motion is long compared to the length of time necessary to establish a steady-state, this neglects Doppler effects, the ensemble average reflected wave function is <9,(7)>= = =|) (F (2hy;) > ethby +10) +04 «y aa C =e | { © @ithySiy) ior’ yeitty+Poetinodedy’ 0... (12) “TING —o For a stationary stochastic process, one invariant with respect to y’, > 1 a Bart ; +2Re {9;*9}>+<| 05 [> = 2 (2k cos (2h) eC Ol?) 2 aati ao cence ws (18) so attention is now directed to finding <| 9,|*>. As | 9.0) p=s-[ | F (2hy;p) F*(2ky;0) ettby +o): + ive —ikBy —11*(0)2—vod bd ensemble averaging produces <| 0. Pa | | | [cerns —anstenneTinn re Toon te —tovstrdpdadude i oe (19) it follows that {| p |*>=1—2@(2ky) cos 2kyz+O[2ky,—2Qkyin] iw ws ss ee (20) since cO Cei@hyS(u) —i2kyS(o)\ — | | eitky—2hyaW (21, zo n)dz,d2, =[2ky, Aa GMs CRN eee Ptr ee ee oe (21) and the four-fold integration produces unity. 7 is the correlation time, ¢;—/,, corresponding to 2, at ¢, and z, at ¢,. The first term of Eq. (21) represents the auto-correlation of the incident field, which must be unity, the second term the cross-correlation of the incident and reflected fields, and the third term the auto-correlation function for the reflected field. For a Gaussian distributed surface, the joint characteristic function O(2ky,—2ky;7) is O(2ky, —2ky;y) =e VOMI—emM)} ee ee (22) 46 L. G, MAacCRACKEN where (7) is the auto-correlation function of the surface. The total field may thus be expressed as <| 9 |?) =1 =2e" 2 eet cos (2kyz)--e A roll sci)” (23) The ratio of maximum to minimum intensity in the lobe structure, expressed in decibels, is easily — seen to be Tk —2k*y?2o? —_ AR*y2g2f 1 (a (7) | W(DB)=10 logo] i oF aaa | | 6 ee te —4k?y*o?S1 — p(n)} Special cases, for o(n)=0 and pe(y)=—1 are i | 1 — e—2hy*0? Se SNee] W(DB)=20 log ==)! | 1 te—2hy*0" W(DB)—10 los |: 9() | Tea Ue (Spherical Earth Case) .. (25) W(DB)=20 log Among the special cases has been added a relation apropos to the spherical earth problem. In this event, the only modification, for engineering calculations, is the inclusion of a divergent coefficient which is also incident angle sensitive. Numerical studies made at the Naval Research Laboratory in the U.S.A. prior to 1956 in connection with airborne early warning radars showed the deterioration of W, i.e. W-+0, at high grazing angles and practical independence of surface roughness at low grazing angles for wavelengths less than 1 metre and surface undulations of order of 3 metres. Summary The boundary-value proplem of the first kind has been solved for the plane-wave case incident on an aperiodic cylindrical surface. Polarized tangentially to the surface generator, the reflected radiation has been established as an integral representation, whose integrand contains trans- formations of a function exp [ Qz], where z is the surface height, and which has been approximated in the optics limit. Invoking stationary stochastic properties to the surface, the specular reflection coefficient, the total received intensity of radiation, and the ratio of maxima to minima in the lobe structure have been found as functions of the characteristic functions of the surface. References AMENT, W. S., 1953. Toward a Theory of Reflection MEEcHAM, W. C., 1952. Reflections from Irregular by a Rough Surface. Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., Surfaces. Univ. Michigan, Eng. Res. Rbt., 41, 142-146. Proj. M936, June 25, 1952. FEINSTEIN, J., 1954. Some Stochastic Problems in PERKERIS, C. L. (Unpublished memorandum, Wave Propagation, I. Prof. Gp. Antennas and W.W TLS Propagation, Inst. Radio Eng., AP-2, 23-30. RAYLEIGH, Lorp (J. W. Strutt), 2878: | Theory (om IsakovicH, M. A., 1952. Wave Dispersion from a Sound. Macmillan, New York, p. 89. Randomly Uneven Surface. Zh. Ekspey. % SPETNER, LL. M1958. W. B. SMITH. -WHITE, M.a. | A. H. LOW, pPh.p., M.se. N. W. WEST, B:se. | j Y NOTICE Ty Nee The Royal acces of New: South Wales originated in 1821 as the “Philosophical ciate Mae . of Australasia *’ ; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name ofthe ss ‘* Australian Philosophical Society ”’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was) changed to the “‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its Present title, and was eae a by Act of Parliament of New South Wales in: i ge ; mtd 5 ta. By ee coe Set ee Cee ee Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 47-60, 1961 Chemistry and the Mining Industry* H. A. J. DONEGAN I am fully aware that courtesy and precedent will call for publication of this address in our journal which, having world distribution, gives these words a chance of being permanently available. Therefore it is quite possible that curiosity may lead someone, maybe a future President, to look over past addresses long after I’ve shuffled off this mortal coil, and he, from his vantage point of later knowledge, may find them quaintly amusing. Fifty years hence our present techniques, professional and political, may, unless a world disaster overtakes us because man is becoming so clever, be as outmoded as those of fifty years ago appear to us today. I have forty-one working years to look back over and as, apart from journeys overseas and to other Australian States, thirty-seven have been spent in the Chemical Laboratory of the Mines Department of New South Wales, it is only natural that I should select Chemistry and the Mining Industry as the general subject, and should draw on the development of that laboratory and the service it performs in the mining industry for the particular substance of my Presidential address. The Mutual Challenge of Chemistry and Mining Those of us whose memory extends beyond 50 years believe that this is the most remarkable age in mankind. Perhaps it is, even more so than the period of the Renaissance, because within our living memory, knowledge and its application have extended man’s horizon in every direction of human endeavour to distances We ourselves, when younger, believed beyond the bounds of possibility or of which we just had no conception. The great primary industries of mining and agriculture are alike in their need of the chemist, but they have one great difference. The farmer can sow, and reap a large harvest for mankind from a small fraction of his previous crop, but * Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 5, 1961. A no small portion of a mineral lode, once recovered from the earth to serve man, can be sown to reproduce another lode of that mineral. Our mineral wealth in any particular item is a wasting asset. It is part of the world’s limited capital which is being withdrawn in rapid and ever increasing amounts. In any economy and under any set of conditions, mineral resources are of critical importance. It behoves us, and the legislatures of our country, therefore always to see that each withdrawal is as complete in itself, that our recovery of the mineral from each deposit or ore body is as complete as possible and that when recovered it is processed and used to the best advantage in the broad interests of national and international welfare. Mining, basic to all other industry and one of the most ancient professions, has always been essentially allied with chemistry because, generally speaking, without the application of chemistry neither can the value of minerals be assessed nor can their valuable constituents be separated from the matrix in which they are found. As Longfellow said when speaking of man and woman, they are “ useless each without the other’’. In fact the development of the mining industry, and of chemistry, is very closely bound up with the development of our modern civilization which depends on them for its very existence. Wherever the mining industry goes it has always had a profound effect on society. Our own country’s history, as well as that of many another nation, attests this fact. When a new country is opened up by mining, as was Australia, or a new mining field in a country is discovered, its isolation ceases. Population rapidly increases, and other industries tend to grow up around the mines. No town booms so quickly aS a mining town, or is so attractive to the adventurous, the impulsive, and the selfish, and great responsibility les on the mining engineers and _ scientists who should plan development to accord with what is best, not only for their particular company shareholders and the mining industry, but for society generally, and the national welfare, present and 48 future. This is especially so in the prospecting exploration and development of what we are pleased to call backward or primitive countries. Mining engineers and scientists must be men of many parts, and no means have been found so effectual in promoting the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals, and the welfare of those employed in these industries, as the free interchange of experience among those actually engaged in mining and metallurgy. In this connection it has been my fortune to experience, over a number of years, the camaraderie which exists among mining engineers, chemists, metal- lurgists and geologists all over the world and at the annual general meetings of our own Austral- asian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, of which some of our Society are members, and at the quaternary Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgy Congresses, held in_ different Commonwealth countries in turn, the delegates obtain tremendous mutual assistance and thus boost progress in their respective professions and the mining industry generally. It has been a characteristic of mining since the turn of the century that, in accord with world demand, steeply rising production has necessitated the working of progressively lower grade ores, and consequently higher tonnages. In their efforts to counter the effect of the depletion of mineral resources, the higher efficiency of the chemist and metallurgist in pushing back the limits of payability is con- tinually increasing the reserves in sight, but there are ultimate limits beyond which they cannot go. One has also to realize that in the face of shortage or high price of particular metals the consumer will increasingly turn to substitute metals and alloys, or even to non-metallic sub- stances such as synthetics, where such can be used. Some substitutes have been found better than the original metals for special purposes. Thus aluminium and its alloys have made inroads into the steel and copper markets, and magnesium in its turn is in some cases displacing aluminium, while synthetics affect any markets where properties such as ease of formability, colour, lightness, and reliability of design are important. This permits great flexibility in consumer requirements and although the chemist is, in the main, responsible for this state of affairs, he also assists the mining men to meet the very challenges he creates. It is perhaps a comfort to the mining man to know that each metal possesses its own unique properties which give H. A. J. DONEGAN it particular uses in fields the substitutes cannot enter, and that world consumption of metals, because of these particular properties, is increas- ing in line with the growth of world population and the upward trend in living standards in all countries. Development and Progress Since the mists of antiquity chemistry has, through ceaseless experimentation, developed to the stage when today the chemistry depart- ments of the universities, large industries, and progressive governments with applied research staffs on various chemical projects, all seeking new and useful knowledge, flood the world with increasing thousands of published papers. This is demonstrated in the rapid year by year expansion of the abstract services of scientific societies and professional institutes, and is exemplified particularly in the case of the “Chemical Abstracts ”’ of the American Chemical Society, which now abstracts approximately 72,000 papers per year from 575 journals, and has now felt compelled to commence a special publication twice a month, of 3000 indexed “Chemical Titles ’’ only, to enable leaders in chemical research and teaching to keep pace with the literature available. The National Science Foundation estimates that U.S.A. alone will spend about one thousand million dollars on basic research this year (the biggest single item being salaries). Chemistry itself has thus grown into a vast tree of knowledge so greatly beyond the capacity of any one person, however devoted to its study, that he is perforce compelled first to confine his activities to one of its great branches, organic, inorganic, or physical, and then to move out along one of the sub-branches, and finally even to the twigs and leaves, where he almost loses sight of other chemists on different branches. Sometimes he cannot even intelligently follow a fellow chemist’s conversation, let alone his written word. Specialization however, though unavoid- able, should be a chemist’s particular and not his sole usefulness. The scientific discipline, of which a recognized university degree or equivalent qualification is the hallmark, is a first essential; the next is at least one other interest not directly related to chemistry to widen the basis of judgment, assist in under- standing human nature, and the art of getting on with people, for when all is said and done we live in a world of people. Many chemists, in Australia and elsewhere, have attained senior executive rank in the - | — — CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 49 mining industry where their ability to appreciate technical considerations is specially needed, as well as the other abilities which form no part of a science or technology degree. One has only to consider the lists of past Presidents of the world’s mining and metallurgical institutes, and to note some of the distinguished members of those bodies, to recognize this fact. In the demands of the world for new needs, and the challenge for new means to meet them, chemists are indispensable. On the road of progress you will always find the chemist travelling in harmony with men of other dis- ciplines: engineers, physicists, geologists, medical men and, in fact, men of all professions. The chemist is able to assist in solving the problems of the mining industry, and his own problems, because he has inherited a handsome legacy of accumulated wisdom and knowledge, to which legacy he in his turn may contribute something for the benefit of those who follow him. His work nowadays is of necessity both of research and of what is termed routine nature, for the essential analytical control (a very important function in industry carried out often by staff in training, using methods standardized either by an outside authority such as a Standards Association on the advice of experts, or by modifications adapted to suit the particular industrial requirements) varies itself in nature as do with time the very methods used them- selves. Rigid adherence to standard methods to obtain comparable results between labora- tories is often necessary, but does constitute a danger to progress which must be carefully watched. Any industrial or government laboratory must be continually carrying out a certain amount of research in order to develop its service to its company, the public, or the State. In the mining industry the ultimate objective is production via development, and chemical research is carried out, partly to improve existing extractions, processes or products, to develop new processes for the same product, or new products for the same use or new uses. Research and development are usually con- ducted by chemists and their assistants working in teams, progressing from assistants through research officers to a general director of research. Research is not all glamour. It is not without its periods of frustration and despair, and the conclusions are more often the results of patient careful sustained effort, rather than brilliant Inspiration, but it can be exciting and satisfying. Research is not a magic process which will guarantee immediate returns, nor a luxury to be indulged in only when times are good. Tedious, empirical, gravimetric analysis re- quiring painstaking care and long experience to reduce doubts as to accuracy still has its place, particularly in classical rock analysis, but nowadays there are so many ways of measuring quantities without weighing them, especially very small quantities, that there is usually some easier method of determination. The useful properties of many of the reagents now used seem to have been discovered by accident and their use developed by the analyst. Schwarzenbach did not have the analyst in mind when he began his classical investigations on ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (the E.D.T.A. now so extensively used in analysis) ; also copper, aluminium, and beryllium can now be determined by use of a drug originally used as a disinfectant of the intestinal tract (8-hydroxy quiniline potassium _ sulphate) (Wilson, 1960). It is said that anyone can do chemical deter- minations if an analyst tells him how to do the separations. Certainly many large industrial laboratories employ relatively unskilled labour on routine determinations, sometimes using very expensive and complicated apparatus, thus offsetting the low cost of the operative against the high cost of the equipment. The apparatus used, however, was originally evolved and calibrated by chemists for their needs and, in the event of trouble, the unskilled operator could neither diagnose nor correct the trouble, nor in emergency use an alternative method. On the Rand goldfields of South Africa I saw young ladies with no academic qualifications operating spectrophotometers and spectrographs costing many thousands of pounds each, but in the background, and of course responsible for their work, were well qualified analysts. Chemical analysis, in short, is a body of techniques, chemical and physical, used to ascertain the chemical composition of sub- stances. It is an economic activity where theory often follows practice. In universities, chemical elements and compounds are studied for their intrinsic interest and some may be shown to have properties which might be of value to the analyst. The analyst is only interested in them if they can produce quicker, easier, cheaper, or more accurate analyses. The most expensive component of an analytical report being laboratory time, the wise analyst continually strives to supply the information required of him as fast as he can without loss of accuracy, and the wise mining executive, 50 generally realizing that chemical information and control is not an overhead but part of the production costs, and essential to control the quality and quantity of his product, will assist him in that endeavour. Modern analysis entails the use of what may at first sight appear very expensive equipment and reagents of a wide variety of types, and involves, as before stated, a knowledge of other disciplines than chemistry, as it is commonly accepted, to understand and perform the techniques required in carrying it out. The Chemical Laboratory of the Mines Department When I first commenced duty in the Chemical Laboratory of the New South Wales Mines Department it already had a very high reputa- tion for precious and base metal assaying, and a world reputation for classical high quality rock analysis. Some work had been carried out on coal and a few gas analyses made, the first in 1910. The equipment, techniques used, and the academic standing of the staff were in keeping with the general standards of 40 years ago. My predecessor and I were both told by our then chief that we were wasting our time learning physical chemistry. Careful atten- tion to, and the following of, old and tried methods were considered more important than such frippery. Discipline was stern and initiative repressed. However, the quality of the work produced, through insistence on care and accuracy, was remarkably high compared with that attainable under modern conditions. “Tn carrying out chemical analyses nowadays we are half the time not primarily concerned with chemical analysis but with physics, but we are not analytical physicists, but analytical chemists because what we are interested in is not usually the physical state of our samples but the chemical composition, and we use any criterion, chemical, physical, etc., that will help us to obtain the desired information.”’ (Wilson, 1960.) There are of course times when the physical state of some of the samples submitted and the physical properties we determine are most important, as in our ceramics section, but even there the physical properties are allied with the chemical composition. In our laboratory I have seen the slow and stately long beam chemical balances give way to the short beam, thence in turn to the Vernier scale, the chainomatic, the dampened aperiodic, and finally to the constant load single pan (Mettler) type to make weighing simpler, quicker and more accurate. H. A. J. DONEGAN I knew the time when almost every analytical and assay determination was carried out gravimetrically, e.g., copper and antimony as “sub-sulphides ’’, change over the years to volumetric analysis using progressively indicators, external and internal, to electrically recorded methods of indicating the end point ; spectrophotometry replacing Nessler tubes for colour comparisons and determining alkali metals in solution; recording flame spectro- photometry determining accurately and quickly Caesium and Rubidium, etc.; rapid polaro- graphic determinations of metals in the one solution which we once found difficulty in determining separately; fluorimetry deter- mining small concentrations of Uranium; gas chromatography determining quantitatively gases, once completely beyond the capacity of old equipment even to identify, in attenuated concentrations that our old analysts would have believed indeterminable ; X-ray diffraction and X-ray spectrographic methods used for identification of minerals and quantitative analysis of their components; and the use of complexometric titrations with chelating reagents in ordinary assays and analytical work, and so on. I have already mentioned the scope of the work carried out by the Chemical Laboratory 40 years ago. This work was carried out in three laboratory rooms: special, inorganic, and fire assaying. No charge was made for work carried out as the greater bulk was for pros- pectors—some little offset to the hard life of the unpaid original seekers and discoverers of our mineral fields. The special work was almost entirely for our geological surveyors and the staff of the geology school of the University. The library was pitifully inadequate, and the annual vote for all equipment, chemicals, and stores was £300 p.a. Three only of the staff, two of them the most junior, were academically qualified, but the seniors were of sufficient practical experience to be accepted in Chemical Societies and to gain world reputation as A.1-grade rock analysts. Today we are staffed with double the number of professional men, all of whom are well qualified academically, plus nine University - trainees and a corresponding competent general division staff to handle the extensive variety of equipment, reagents, and clerical duties as well as sample preparation, cleaning, and attendant duties. Our annual vote for minor equipment exceeds £1200, plus a multiple of that for major equipment. Laboratory space has been considerably extended and _ sub- CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 51 divided, and our library brought and kept up to date. We charge private organizations for work which they find unable to get done else- where, while still preserving the policy of no charge for prospectors, or for work of national and scientific value. Naturally, the laboratory is registered with the National Association of Testing Authorities. Salaries are now adjusted to a career scale in common with other disciplines in government service today. The present organization comprises a Chief, a Deputy and then Senior Analysts in charge of the following sections : Precious Metals, General Inorganic, Rock Analysis, Fuel, Ceramics, Gas Analysis, Safety in Mines, Geochemical Pros- pecting and Waters, Special Instrumentation, and Explosives, Inflammable Liquids and Dangerous Goods. The last-named was added when the Explosives Department Laboratory was amalgamated with the Mines Department in 1922. Each section head is a recognized expert in his particular field, his advice is sought by other Government bodies and the public, and where required he serves on appropriate State committees, Standards Association of Australia committees, gives lectures and acts as expert witness in court. Some remarks concerning the work of each section and its raison d’étre may be of interest. Precious Metals (Fire Assaying) In the Precious Metals section we find the methods and equipment used by the ancient chemists allied with modern equipment and techniques. Gold, one of the very few metals found in its natural state, was first used for adornment and ornament because of its many noble properties, relative scarcity, and lasting beauty, but soon developed a parallel function which surpassed its first use—as a means of value, a store of wealth, and a medium of exchange. Sir Charles Morgan Webb states: “‘ No modern monetary invention can provide for the countless millions of mankind that feeling of confidence in the future which has been attached to gold by the experience and tradition of 50 centuries” (Webb, 1960). It gives stability to the world’s - economy and is the foundation of orderly trade between nations. The search for gold led to great discoveries in the old and new worlds, agricultural and industrial development following in their wake. Its indestructibility is evidenced by the survival of gold articles after being buried 5000 years under conditions which caused the corrosion and even disappearance of silver and other metals. It was originally won, as in Australia, from alluvial deposits, but in ancient Egypt gold was won by firesetting rock. Gold coins were used in Ephesus in 800 B.c. Australia has produced a large quantity of gold, including the largest alluvial nuggets and the largest single mass of gold ever found (Holtermann and Byers’ at Hill End, N.S.W.), but in 1959 produced only one million ounces compared with South Africa’s 20 million, and is now fourth largest producer. Silver is commonly regarded in terms of its intrinsic worth as coinage, jewelry and silver- ware, whereas industrial usage accounts for well over half the silver consumed in the free world each year (296 million ounces in 1959). It has the highest electrical and thermal con- ductivity and the highest optical reflectivity of all metals and only gold is more malleable and ductile. The main industrial use for silver and its salts is in the photographic field, but it is also used in air conditioning, automotive and electronic industries, in aircraft, missiles, and rockets, alloys, solders, and brazes, in radar, and for bactericidal purposes. The craft of the assayer evolved from necessity and has been practised since antiquity, the purity of gold and silver being expressed by weight relations as long ago as 2000 B.c. There are biblical references to the loss in weight of impure gold in the furnace. Fire assaying remained the basis of assaying, even for other than precious metals, for many centuries and it has a longer continuous history than any other quantitative chemical process. Being indispens- able to a trial of coinage, accuracy was essential. Cupellation was used for the assay of silver collected as tax in the 12th century. We read that blank determinations were made on the lead used to obviate errors, and direction given as to care of balances and to use of aqua fortis used to “part ’’ gold from silver in the 14th century. The traditional methods of previous centuries were revealed to a wider public when printed books became available in the 16th century, an example being the work of Agricola in his volumes De Re Metallica, in which are diagrams and details of techniques of mining, metallurgical and assay operations still used today. In the larger mining centres of Central Europe assays were carried out-at the rate of hundreds per week, and the assayer’s work was recognized as an essential and natural part of the economic life of a community. In the 18th century assaying influenced, and was influenced by, the increasingly scientific nature of chemistry. 52 H. A. J. DONEGAN In technique, especially in the construction and use of the balance, assayers were often in advance of their contemporary chemists (Greenaway, 1960). In our routine assays for gold and silver we still flux and fuse in coke-fired furnaces unaltered in design from antiquity (and in fact we still use the same counterweighted doors to the furnaces as were used when the departmental laboratory was set up 80 years ago). We still use the same types of crucibles, cupels, tongs, etc., as the ancient assayers and follow the same techniques. We still have the 17 lb. bucking hammer and the 30 in. square, 3 in. thick steel plate on which all the samples were crushed and ground by hand until 1930, a dusty method of sample preparation which cost the lives of two: samplers through silicosis. But we have progressed. We have purer chemicals, finer machine grinding of samples with suitable ventilation, regular atmospheric dust counts and medical examinations of the sample preparator to avoid danger of silicosis, better balances, and a better theoretical know- ledge of the principles underlying fire assaying and produce results to a greater accuracy (5 grains per ton, or roughly 1 part in 3 million— better if required). In addition to determinations of gold and silver, this section is responsible for assaying for platinoid metals, but fire assays for tin, lead, and copper have not been carried out for over thirty years. Platinum and platinoid metals are used as catalysts in the oil, gas, and acid industries ; in the glass and glass fibre industries; in electrical contacts ; and, as is better known, in jewelry and laboratory equipment. The section also carries out amalgamation and cyanidation tests to ascertain the amen- ability of ores, tailings, slimes, dumps, etc., to these processes and, in common with the general inorganic section, control work on relevant beneficiation experiments. It also recovers bullion from gold and silver wastes (gold leaf, etc.) from the Government Printer ; and from solutions, and silver recovery units used in photographic developing baths of Government bodies and hospitals, and assays the bullion it produces for the Government Stores Department, which arranges their sale. It is intended when time permits to investigate paper chromatographic methods so that pros- pectors can rapidly assess gold values, and consequently cover a greater area of country before returning to base with selected samples for the assayer, because gold prospecting still remains the province of the fossicker on foot, ever trying, ever hoping to make a satisfactory “strike ’’. There seems little doubt, however, that fire assaying, which has stood the test of time, will hold pride of place as the most reliable method of determining gold and silver values for many years to come. General Inorganic Section This section is responsible for the deter- minations of all other metals, including the glamour metals, type metals and alloys, lime- stones, magnesites, dolomites, gypsums, bauxites and miscellaneous inorganic work. In contradistinction to the Fire Assay section the techniques used and the facilities available have changed completely. The ventilation of our fume cupboards used to be by induced draught from the crushing room fan, and was very poor. There were doors to the fume cupboards, but it was little wonder that the staff were frequently very badly affected by acid fumes and sulphuretted hydrogen. Beach sands were tested for tin by reducing them in a gas heated hard glass tube with a stream of hydrogen generated in Kipp’s apparatus. Acid ferric salts were also often reduced for titration by nascent hydrogen produced with metallic zinc. Molybdenum was precipitated as sulphide under pressure of sulphuretted hydrogen in bottles, securely stoppered, wrapped in cloths and placed in boiling water. We therefore had hydrogen explosions, or a molybdenum bottle exploding occasionally, to liven-up things. We also had a couple of coal gas explosions as a result of which large, heavy porcelain sinks were flung about and heavy benches and everything in or on them wrecked. Common acids were used by the hundredweights per quarter. We had to test all reagents for purity and when necessary purify them ourselves. Today our better ventilation permits us to have open fume cupboards ; we have progressed to more elegant techniques, and our work is carried out more smoothly, efficiently and accurately, using the modern apparatus pre- viously referred to. Moreover the work is of greater interest and variety. Rock Analysis Section Here the Laboratory reputation is as high as ever, by international test conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the United States Geological Survey, and further- more we have the advantage of better equipment, CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 53 better chemicals and later knowledge than were available to our old rock analysts. One man now turns out three times the work per annum that three men used to do and gives more precise results with a larger number of con- stituents. In this section, also, pure minerals are analysed, our result for Davidite, for instance, being internationally accepted as standard (Butler and Hall, 1960). Other work has included determinations of the fluorine content of fossil bones to assist estimation of their geological age. Fuel Section Here there has been great progress. The gas-heated, carbon and hydrogen combustion furnace of my youth has been replaced by the better controlled electric furnace. Volatile matters are not done, as then, in a platinum crucible first over a low gas flame and then blasted for two minutes with a foot-bellows operated blow pipe, but by standard technique in electric muffles. Ashes are done in batches in electric muffles, and moistures in electric ovens, or by distillation with toluene. Calorific value determinations by the Thompson’s calori- meter were spectacular and used to be great fun, with sparks and bubbles shooting out under the water, and copious clouds of white smoke, and after the final reading of the thermometer had been made, 10° was added to the determined value for radiation losses. I have seen the progress from the old style enamel lined Mahler bomb calorimeter with lead washers to the latest stainless steel type with automatic tapping of the thermometer, reading by magni- fication and eye estimation to 1/1000°C., and automatic time signals by light and buzzer. We can, with the Gray King apparatus, determine either the low temperature or high temperature carbonisation products of coal, such as coke or residual fuel, tars, liquors, ammonia, and gas in percentages by weight or yields per ton, with analyses, specific gravities and calorific values of the products to give thermal balance. We determine the different forms of sulphur in coal, ash fusion points, swelling index and agglutinating value. Specific gravity used to be determined on crushed coal of specific size, discarding fines and oversize ; naturally it was not a representative value. That is no longer the case. The coal sections of scout bore cores are sampled and analysed ply by ply, and results calculated for composite samples with or without shale bands. Ash analyses are carried out. These are regular determinations so that our coal resources can be used to best advantage. Similar analytical work on wood, sawdust, brown coals, black coals, cokes, and ashes is related to power house boiler efficiency tests, and such special investi- gational work as may be required. The Mines Department is shortly to undertake investigation of our Riverina brown coal deposits by scout boring, and subsequent analysis of the samples obtained. The Fuel section also carries out all the usual tests on liquid fuels natural and manufactured, such as distillation range, specific gravity, sulphur, ash, calorific value, cloud and pour point, flash and fire point, etc.; and calorific value, specific gravity and composition of ordinary fuel gases. The Ceramic Section This analyses and carries out physical tests. plasticity, green strength, drying, shrinkage, and ascertains results of firing at specific temperatures on colour, shrinkage, porosity, hardness and fusibility ; glazing, and viscosity of clay slips, etc., to determine the suitability of our clay and shale resources for the various ceramic purposes in the manufacture of brick, tile, pipe, and porcelain ware, and even uses in fullering or paper manufacture. Certain investi- gational work for the industry is performed. Gas Analysis Section This analyses, in modern precise apparatus, airs and atmospheres of all types for toxic, noxious and inflammable gases usually for mine safety purposes, such as investigations on coal mine fires, areas sealed due to fire, spontaneous combustion and the lke. It has taken part in investigations of fatalities in pipes and sewers for the Water Board, occluded gases in coal seams for University research on underground gas outbursts, and even the gas from fermenting tobacco, and the batteries of submarines for the Royal Navy. It has investigated atmos- pheric pollution by metallurgical works for the Health Officers of the Sydney City Council, and the laboratory was represented on the State committee for Smoke Abatement. During the last three years a recording gas chromatograph, a technique which only originated in 1952, has been built and calibrated by the Senior Gas Analyst and is in regular use on natural gases determining quantitatively constituents, like the higher homologues of the paraffin series, that our older apparatus was incapable of detecting. The valuable gas helium has been detected in small quantities in some of our natural gases. A recording infra-red gas analyser 54 H. A. J. DONEGAN is being installed to supplement and extend the work of the Graham Lawrence carbon monoxide apparatus as well as determine other gases—truly a far cry from the Winkler burette with separate absorption and explosion pipettes (we had fun sometimes there, too) used in my early years, and the Haldane, and Bone and Wheeler apparatus which followed them. This section also tests various types of indicators, used in mining, for detecting toxic, noxious, and inflammable gases. Safety in Mines Section Apart from the gas analysis for toxic and inflammable gases previously mentioned, and the testing of explosives detailed later, this section is responsible for determining the composition of the exhaust gases, under varying conditions of speed and load, of the diesel locomotives used underground, their external temperatures, conditioner tank pollution, and the extent of pollution of mine airs from their use, to ascertain compliance with official requirements. These locomotives are of various types and sizes and are tested on the surface, sometimes in improvised galleries filled with explosive atmospheres, before they are per- mitted to be used underground. Ordinary petrol internal combustion engines are not permitted underground for a number of reasons, and evidence has been given in court of their exhaust gas composition, extent of contamina- tion of mine air therefrom, and fire hazards from the fuel in a case of breach of regulations. This section is much concerned with dust, both as regards airborne concentrations of finer particles and their nature in the war against miners’ lung diseases, and as regards the combustible volatile content of the ordinary visible coal and shale mine road dust, which has been responsible for the worst colliery explosion disasters, and also as regards the composition and physical state of the stone dusts which are used to prevent these explosions. Several hundred road dust samples are analysed annually. On the one hand the section works with the medical profession and the Occupational Health division of the Public Health Department and on the other with the Coalfields Branch, Mines Inspection Branch and the Joint Coal Board. The laboratory is currently working on shot firing fumes in both coal and metal- liferous mining, using various portable indicating instruments and analysing samples for con- centrations of noxious gases, such as the insidious oxide of nitrogen which can slay an apparently healthy man in his sleep several hours after exposure. Free silica (quartz) determinations on rock strata and dusts are made to guide compliance with the new proclaimed airborne dust concentration standard, which varies with the percentage concentration of free silica (quartz) in the parent rock producing the dust. Supersonic sound method has been used, to free the minute quantity of ultra-fine dust from the filtering medium of airborne dust sampling instruments used during test on roof bolting operations, so that it could be analysed by X-ray methods. The.Chief Inspector of Coal Mines calls for chemical technical assistance in investigations of the various types of fire, explosion, and gas outbursts which occasionally occur underground, the composition of plastic tubular bags to be used when filled with water for stemming in shot firing, and tests of other substances for fire proofing timber and brattice and rendering mine seals and brattice impervious, the use of reflecting tape, wetting and floor- consolidating agent, and various tests on self- contained breathing apparatus used in mine rescue work as regards composition of inspired and exhaled air breathed by the wearer and of the absorbents and oxygen used as to com- pliance with safety requirements. Flame safety lamps, the modern development of the Humphry Davy lamp and still the most reliable practical indicators of foul or inflammable atmospheres, have also been tested for safety in use. In fact this section advises the Chief Inspectors on all matters affecting mine safety where chemical knowledge is required. This entails a certain amount of up-to-date knowledge on operational mining here and overseas, and field knowledge of underground and mine rescue conditions, in order to understand the nature of the chemical work involved. This laboratory represents the Department on the State com- mittee on Coal Mine Dust Research and Control and its technical sub-committees, and the industrial respiratory devices committee of the Standards Association of Australia. Geochemical and Water Section Here again a wide variety of work is under- taken. Metallometric surveying, or geochemical prospecting, by outcrop and drill hole sampling, is a primary reconnaissance tool, and no area of whatever topography, climate, or vegetation can be regarded as adequately mapped unless thus investigated. Samples of soil taken in a regular pattern over the area investigated are assayed for the required constituents (as yet usually only for the base metals, copper, lead and zinc), and the determinations in parts per CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 55 million plotted on geologic base maps and contoured to indicate the points where the mineral lode should be closest to the surface, with a rough outline of its shape, to make prospecting drilling less of hit-or-miss affairs. Since the analyst is looking for such small concentrations, ordinary distilled water, which contains traces of the elements from the metal still or glass water containers and would give positive readings with the spectrophotometer, is useless and we have to use water which has passed through resin ion exchange columns, to remove bases and acid radicles, and has been caught and stored in polythene bottles. An electric recorder indicates when the columns need regenerating or changing. This treated water has displaced ordinary distilled water, which in my early days was tested only for chloride content and was stored in glass bottles, for all our normal analytical work. This section also carried out density, conducto- metric, and salinity determinations on several hundreds of sea water samples for the Navy, in connection with isopycnic oceanography during the International Geophysical Year, by electronic means in a constant temperature water bath. It analyses waters for all uses, other than for potability, with a combination of electro-conductometric and chemical methods. It assists the Geological Survey in surface and underground hydrology by analysing well, bore and surface samples so that the courses of underground aquifers and stream junctions can be traced and optimum sites selected for new wells or bores. It also carries out analyses of river and dam waters to determine the extent of pollution or poisoning by mining operations, and advises as to possibility of remedial measures. In this connection the Senior Analyst has served on a combined Commonwealth and State committee set up to investigate the pollution of the Molonglo River flowing through the Federal Capital Territory. He is a recognized authority on geochemical prospecting, complexo- metric titrations and is developing the X-ray section. He has just determined the sulphide content of the sea water at Circular Quay which will be used in the air-conditioning plant in our tallest (A.M.P.) building. The Explosives, Inflammable Liquids and Dangerous Goods Section Here samples of all commercial explosives, including detonators, fuses, fireworks and sporting ammunition, are tested and recom- mended as to safety for issue and use, and technical advice is given on handling, packing, storage and transport. Inflammable liquids are tested and classified according to the regulations and_ technical advice given on all matters of storage including construction and layout of inflammable liquid tank farms, ship to shore installations, and the necessary foam etc. fire-fighting equipment which is also inspected and tested for efficiency ; the construction of mobile tanks for delivery depot to service station, and the construction and layout of the retailers’ underground tanks and delivery pumps, nozzles, and hoses. Flame proofing of motors in hazardous atmospheres, other than mines, to avoid fire and explosive risks also comes under this section. Motion picture film vaults and film processing plants, acetylene cylinders etc., are dangerous goods matters and the construction etc. is carefully vetted to see that public safety is ensured. Investigations are carried out for the Police Department on fires and explosions other than in mines, and expert evidence given in Coroner’s inquiries dealing with arson, accidental fire, and explosions, murder and accidental fatalities, involving explosives and inflammable liquids and dangerous goods. Instructions are regularly given to Police Officers on explosives and removal of explosives in safe-breaking cases. Naturally the Senior Analyst in this section serves on all relevant State and Standards Association committees. From this outline it can be seen that the Chemists of the Mines Department laboratory are endeavouring to keep pace with the general progress of their fellows in other disciplines and to render that service to the mining industry and the State which they feel the public needs. They have some pride in that within their laboratory is bridged the gap between the technique of the ancient fire assayer and the electronic determinations of the modern nuclear Space age. Current Trends Since the end of World War II we have come to think of ourselves as living in a Free World quite distinct from that behind the Iron Curtain, but in mining, because of the law of supply and demand, and the various channels through which trade can flow, such distinction is not as clear cut as we might wish or think. Imposition of sanctions, once thought an effective weapon of defence against the menace to our freedom and way of living, now seems futile, particularly when Russia, China and their satellite countires have expanded both their knowledge of mineral resources, and their mineral productions, with 56 H. A. J. DONEGAN such speed that their productive potential may now equal that of the Western world which so heavily outweighed it but a few short years ago. The U.S.S.R. applies geochemical prospecting most extensively. Application of metallometric surveying was made mandatory in geological surveying and exploration on any scale and success must be judged on published results. “In a drive to gain maximum knowledge of its indigenous mineral resources the U.S.S.R., according to an official report of the Soviet Government released last November, employed 398,000 people in 1958. This army of highly trained earth scientists of every type, chemists, semi-skilled technical personnel and labourers operated with a budget equivalent to about 1% of the country’s Gross National Product... in a modern industrial society consumption of energy reflects the level of industrial produc- tion. . .in 1965 consumption of energy in the U.S.S.R. will be about 58° of the United States total for that year. . . the Soviet Union possesses the world’s second largest ferrous metallurgical industry, being surpassed only by the United States. . .a large nation which spends a fortune in manpower and capital to locate, investigate and develop its mineral resources. ..a nation well endowed in minerals. . . which has used minerals to exert economic pressure or gain political advantage ”’ (Anonymous, 1960a). In some areas of China 70% of the population has been involved in prospecting for new mineral deposits. The Chinese Geological Service has 270,000 employees and workers (23,000 specialists including 12,000 geologists). “‘ Any- one can visualize the consequences of turning 60 million Chinese from agriculture to pros- pecting, mining, and metallurgical operations, during the ‘leap forward’ year 1958, coupled with the report that China has increased her domestic production of mining machinery by 80% in 1959 over 1958 and has also been a substantial importer of machinery” (Alex- androv, 1960). Thus it can be understood why, for instance, Chinese coal production rose in 1959 to a total of 348 million tons; it now exceeds that of Britain by 70%, and is second only to that of the U.S.A. The same picture applies to other minerals and metals production. For example, 20 years ago Germany produced 20,000 tons of a world total of 32,000 tons of magnesium, the metal now coming so much to the fore in castings and alloys. In 1959 of a world production of 92,000 tons, 45°4 was produced by the U.S.S.R. and 30% by U.S.A. An American team of engineering and educa- tion experts who visited the U.S.S.R. in 1960 at the invitation of the Soviet Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education, and sponsored by the National Science Foundation, reported that the Soviets are producing 250,000 industrial technician graduates each year compared to 15,000 in the U.S.A., but that in their opinion not more than 1000 of the U.S.A. graduates are trained as well as those of the Soviet. Engineer- ing schools “project”? research (basic and applied) expenditure in 1958 was $70-9 million (Anonymous, 19600). However, aS some counterbalance to any threat to world’s stability from this great upward leap in production behind the Iron Curtain, there is the increased demand and consumption arising from the tremendous prospective growth in world population, and the rising standard of living behind the Iron Curtain and in newly emergent and economically undeveloped countries. It appears then that we are in a highly com- petitive world situation and, if we want to help to maintain our position, we must realize and properly appreciate the importance and impact of technology. The aim of the mining engineer and the chemist here, as in other democracies, must be to develop our mineral resources to help support the expanding economy, and assist human welfare, and to encourage, within our Western system of free enterprise, as distinct from the Communist monopolistic system, greater investment in our mining industries and more research in our mineral sciences. It can be done. It is being done. In the last 17 years Australia’s mineral production increased by £A200 million. Let us look at the position with respect to the fuels, the metals and the non-metals. Coal constitutes 91-8°% of the world’s known reserves of fuel, oil 3-1%, natural gas 1-9%, peat 1:4%, methane in coal 0-9% and oil shale 0:99 (Andrews, 1960). In the field of Australian fuel we find that, despite the inroads of imported oil and the development of hydro- electric power in New South Wales and Victoria, the coal potential of Australia is an important economic factor in the rapid growth of secondary industries. The black coal industry has made a remarkable recovery, effecting a substantial reduction (124%) in cost. Reorganization, improved efficiency, and mechanization have increased production per man shift to 6-11 tons. In N.S.W. uneconomic mines have been CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 57 closed down, underground collieries have been reduced from 140 to 102, employees from 20,000 in 1952 to 13,000 in 1960, and yet coal output has increased from 14-3 million to 15-8 million tons. Thirty-two million pounds have been spent on equipment, 81% of the coal won comes from highly mechanized collieries, and 30 washeries produce cleaner, lower ash coal, saving transport and ash disposal costs. Large electric generating stations erected, and to be erected, on the coalfields save transport and will ensure a continuous demand for coal. It has been shown that, used in properly designed and maintained appliances, coal is at least as efficient as oil and does not create a greater smoke problem than oil (Anonymous, 1959). Chemicals from coal are more varied and valuable than those from oil, but the petro-chemical industry is stronger, perhaps due to its greater research drive, than the coal chemical industry. It would greatly help coal to compete success- fully with oil as industrial fuel if, by cheap conversion, it could acquire the ease of handling and control which fluid fuels possess. Complete gasification-of-coal units on our coalfields, with a grid pipeline system similar to the electricity grid, is a_ possibility. Hydraulic pipe-line transport of coal itself, the further development of pulverized coal and colloidal coal-oil com- bustion units, and the use of fuel cells using coal as the fuel anode (Mills, 1960; Anonymous, 1960d) could help. Research is continually in progress on the storage of coal (prevention of spontaneous combustion), the manufacture, purification, quality and use of coal gas, coke, tar and even ash, as instanced in the new “Stretford ”’ gas purification process (Anonymous, 1960e), and the effect of particle size distribution of blends of coking coals on coke quality (Anonymous, 1960/). From time to time we have heard gloomy predictions as to the depletion of the world’s supply of oil. Although the use of non- traditional sources of power must increase, liquid fuel may always be supreme in road and air transport, just as it seems that coal will be the primary source of power for many years to come. So far Australian natural oil and gas exploration has not yielded very much and our oil shale industry has closed down, although the shale worked was rich, averaging over 100 gallons to the ton; but there is plenty of time and we are not without hope. Much of Australia has still to be tested. Known world reserves of oil shale amount to one million million tons. The richest deposit in the U.S.A. is that at Green River, Colorado, covering 3000 sq. miles and containing six times as much oil as all the wells in the world had produced by 1950, so that the U.S.A. need not worry overmuch about | depletion of her natural oil reserves (Caldwell, 1960). Our Laboratory once carried out a lot of work on New South Wales oil shales. It is now just as busy with natural gas analyses. If we now turn to the metals, technological progress is creating new opportunities for the | older major metals, copper, lead, tin, and zinc, the light metals, aluminium, titanium, mag- nesium and scandium, the steel industry metals iron, manganese, nickel, chromium, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, columbium, tantalum, and silicon, and the newer glamorous metals alike. Losses in the use of lead in cable covering and building are balanced by the growth in use in batteries, petrol, enamels, glazes, and electronics. The Copper Products Development Association has several projects under consideration, stainless copper, copper alloys of iron and steel (Anonymous, 1960g) and with alumina for electric power uses and chemical uses in industry and _ agriculture. It is interesting to note that an electric racing car has been built with power provided by prototype fuel cells using oxygen at 9 p.s.i. and zinc. High capacity of the unit in small space, plus operation at normal temperature and pressure, could make it a serious contender in the mobile power field (Anonymous, 1960/). The light metals and their alloys are finding uses principally in air and road transport, building, structural, protective pigments, canning materials, electronics, chemical pro- cessing equipment and _ nuclear: industries. Because of its high strength : weight ratio and resistance to corrosion, each 1 lb. of titanium saves about $300 in additional pay load in the life of an aircraft. The new Douglas DC. 8 jet contains 2000 lb., the Convair 2500 Ib. Volkswagen consuming 1300 tons of magnesium per year is the greatest single outlet for that metal. Uses are being investigated for scandium, which has a density comparable with aluminium but a melting point of 1550°C. or 24 times that of aluminium. In the steel industry, where research and development are continuous, world production in 1959 reached a total of almost 318 million tons, using one ton of manganese to 23 tons of steel. Nickel alloys are used in rockets and missiles, automobiles, batteries, electronics, and architecture. The properties and uses of tungsten (m.p. 3410°C.), molybdenum (2510°) and vanadium (1725°) are well known. These and columbium, the lightest of any engineering 58 H. A. J. DONEGAN metal retaining strength at jet end missile temperatures, and tantalum all have their respective and special uses as refractory metals in this burgeoning atomic energy and space age. The nuclear metals are uranium, zirconium, hafnium, lithium, beryllium, thorium, the lan- thenons, ytterbium, caesium and rubidium. Of these we find zirconium not only used in refractories, foundries and ceramics, but in reactors for submarine propulsion. Hafnium has advantages over other materials in control rods in nuclear reactors. Lithium aluminium alloys are used in high performance aircraft and missiles and lithium chemicals in rocket propulsion. Beryllium in spite of its toxicity is used in gas cooled reactors and as shields in U.S.A.’s manned space capsules. Caesium com- pounds are used in photoelectric cells, infra-red photography, signalling devices, scintillation counters, vapour rectifiers, radio tubes, micro- chemical reagents, special storage batteries and rocket fuels, and a caesium thermionic cell has been used in the first direct conversion of nuclear energy into electric power. A potential use for this metal is in ion propulsion engines for space travel. Then there are the electronic minerals (micas), and metals which can be produced in a high degree of purity, Cd, Hg, Se, Ge, Si, Te, Ga, In, Re, Tl, and Ra. Mica scrap can now be chemically treated and the resulting pulp formed into a continuous sheet, by methods similar to those used in paper manufacture, for use in the electrical industry. Most of the various properties and uses of these metals and their compounds are well known, but some interesting ones might be mentioned. Silicon is used on a large scale as a semi-conductor in transistors and rectifiers for highly sensitive electronic devices and in solar cells. Its use as ferro silicon in the steel industry is well known but hyper-eutectic silicon alloys (up to 16% Si) may possibly become a substitute for cast iron in automobile engines. Tellurium’s present use is chiefly in copper alloying, rubber industry, and thermo-electric devices but beryllium telluride is believed to have startling possibilities in the development of non-mechanical refrigeration units and in the generation of electricity from solar and atomic reactor heat sources using no mechanical parts. Gallium melts at 85°F. but does not boil until 3600° F. and expands on solidification. It has to be handled in special tantalum lined containers which resist its corrosive action, but its potential uses in metrology are obvious. Gallium compounds have a wide variety of uses, the phosphide is being developed by the U.S. army signal corps for aero space uses. The chemical and metallurgical materials potash, soda, antimony, sulphur, boron, bismuth, fluorspar, barytes and phosphates have well known uses in the chemical, metallurgical, printing, pigment, plastics, rubber, ceramics, glassware, agriculture, pharmaceutical and atomic energy industries. The remaining minerals include the clays and clay shales, the insulants, and refractories such as asbestos, vermiculite, perlite, silliimanite and graphite ; the gem stones, and the abrasives sand, garnet, and pumice with the applications of which most are familiar (Anonymous, 19607). Merely to show possibilities, may I say that at a lecture I attended in 1949 at the Fourth Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress in England, Sir John Cockcroft demonstrated an alloy with certain required properties demanded by the Government for which he had theoretically and accurately predicted the composition from known properties of metals and their lattice structures. Future Outlook The demand for minerals moves with general economic trends and is governed by techno- logical and political developments. The rapid development in travel, terrestrial and space, and the upward surge in living standards will demand more metals, alloys, and chemical compounds with tailor-made properties in ever increasing variety and quantity than we could conceivably have required even a few years ago. It is obvious that the establishment of new sources of these materials depends first on widespread analytical investigation, and then on the development of adequate extraction methods. Old methods of prospecting must be improved and new methods developed and used. The Metallurgist must improve extrac- tion and the Chemist must seek better and quicker means of determination. General aerial reconnaissance which has already been used in Australia with suitable instruments, such as gravity meters, could be followed by general ground seismic exploration and prospecting with portable instruments such as a berylometer (Anonymous, 1960A), transistor operated geophysical units, chromato- graphic methods, and metallometric surveys. Prospecting methods based on the scientific analysis of the different isotopes of oxygen in rock formations and their relation to the extent to which they were heated and permeated CHEMISTRY AND THE MINING INDUSTRY 59 by hot mineral bearing fluids hundreds of millions of years ago are being developed. During the past few years a considerable Uranium mining and metallurgical industry has been developed in relation to atomic energy. This would have been impossible but for the introduction on an industrial scale for the first time in the mineral chemical industry of new methods of extraction using either organic solvents or organic ion exchange resins. These specially selective processes will no doubt help in their turn in the extraction of other minerals from their lean ores. Mining cannot exist without water. Even if one or two of the mining processes themselves do not use water (such as gold concentration by dry blowing) the operators must have it to live. It can be filtered from solids but some- times the soluble salts of available water are too high for all ordinary purposes. One promising method of demineralizing such water to a useful state is by electric dialysis. The National Chemical Research Laboratory of the South African Council for Scientific and In- dustrial Research, Pretoria, has shown that by use of ion selective membranes, 100,000 gallons per hour of brackish water can be reduced from a salt content of 3000 parts per million to a potable 500 parts per million, and at the same time produce a concentrated brine (Anonymous, 1960/, 1960m). The use of cetyl alcohol in reducing evaporation losses from reservoirs is now well known. At Broken Hill, N.S.W., 200 million gallons of water were saved in six weeks in 1957 (Mansfield, 1960). As far then as the mining industry and chemistry are concerned the outlook is awe- inspiring in its immensity and challenging. Great events are imminent which could plunge the world into utter depths of destruction, horror and despair, or lift it to immense heights of constructive development, attraction and delight beyond present imagination. We can only trust that the Supreme Being, whose wealth and variety of secrets seem the greater the more we probe them, will guide world leaders aright. Willy nilly we dare not cease endeavours to discover and use Earth’s natural resources for the general betterment of mankind. Since 1950 there has been an increased and significant fusion of the mining and chemical industries, chemical companies going into mining for the raw materials and mining companies becoming interested in chemical end products. This combination of interests is important to our welfare and will become stronger. No progress, however, is possible without the vital human element, and the miner and the chemist must attract an adequate supply of recruits of the right type into their professions, not just by appealing to the romantic, the adventurous, or the idealistic in their natures, but by offering the best tuition possible, good career prospects, and ever safer working con- ditions. The newcomers must be made aware that even in large-scale enterprises the individual is not lost in the crowd and no longer essential. “Creative thinking is the province of the individual. . . association with a group does not relieve anyone of personal responsibility. . . because we can employ tools, we tend to forget that they were fashioned to aid, not to replace, the human hand. . .no machine ever devised has acquired the great human virtues of courage, faith and resolution in the face of adversity. . . this country was not built by timid souls. . . there is hardly a successful venture in our history, industrial or national, against which excellent arguments, highly logical arguments, could not have been advanced at the outset. . . it is the responsible individual’s role to evaluate the scientific tools at hand to the end that our technology is not seen as an end but as a means...’ (Dupont, 1960). It may not seem quite the same to young people who today nonchalantly accept the present way of life, but to those of us who have seen the fantastic progress and changes since the turn of the century, the future, undoubtedly in their hands, seems of immense opportunity and promise. All sciences are becoming so_ inextricably entangled that it is increasingly difficult to define lines of demarcation between the various disciplines. This necessitates a widely based general scientific knowledge in early education before specializing in particular fields. Necessary specialist societies cater for and encourage research and development in their own particular fields, but as a general forum for interchange of knowledge of progress in the various disciplines such a body as this Royal Society of New South Wales, with its members drawn from every profession and walk in life, united in common concern for science, affords means for the healthy well balanced scientific progress so essential to the ultimate common weal. Its members naturally include repre- sentatives of both the mining and chemical professions and in the Chemical Laboratory of the N.S.W. Department of Mines we are 60 H. A. J. DONEGAN striving in our humble way to fulfil those functions we feel the mining industry demands of us. References ALEXANDROV, E. A., 1960. Red China Steps Up its Geological Service. Mining Engineer, March 1960 ANDREWS, R. S., 1960. The Changing Fuel Economy of Australia. Qld. Govt. Mining J., May 20, 1960. ANonyMous, 1959. International Clean Air Con- ference, October 1959. Anonymous, 1960a. Mining Engineering, June 1960, . 558. fee os, 1960b. Chemical and Engineering News, August 15, 1960, pp. 48-49. Anonymous, 1960c. Mine and Quarry Engineering, September 1960. ANONYMouS, 1960d. Potential Heat in Fuel—Con- version to Electricity. /. Inst. Fuel., 33, 294. Anonymous, 1960e. Brit. Chem. Engineering, December 1960, p. 904. Anonymous, 1960f. J. Inst. Fuel., 33, 3-9. Anonymous, 1960g. Mining J., June 10, 1960. Anonymous, 1960h. Coal Age, June 1960. Anonymous, 19607. Mining J., Annual Review 1960. Anonymous, 1960k. Qld. Govt. Mining J., April 20, 1960. Anonymous, 1960). Brit. Chem. Engineering, December 1960, p. 904. ANONYMOUS, 1960m. Mine Water Demineralization. Brit. Eng. and Transport, 43, 43. BuTLeR, J. R., AND Hatt, R., 1960. Chemical Characteristics of Davidite. Econ. Geol., 55, 1541. CALDWELL, J. M., 1960. The Changing Pattern of World Energy. Tvans. Inst. Mining Engineering, 120. Dupont, H. B., 1960. The Fundamentals of Tech- nology. Coal Age, June 1960. GOLDSCHMIDT, B., 1959. Atomic Energy, December 1959, pp. 12 et seq. GREENAWAY, F., 1960. Thirty Centuries of Assaying. Address to British Soc. for History of Science, Science Museum, London, January 20, 1960. MANSFIELD, W. M., 1960. Mining J., 255, No. 6526. Mitts, R., 1960. Fuel Cells. Aust. J. Sct., 23, 109. WEsBB, C. M., 1960. The Outlook for Gold. Tvansvaal and Ovange Free State Chamber of Mines Pub. P.R.D. 65. WItson, H. N., Chemical Analysis. 1960. The Changing Aspect of The Analyst, 85. Chemical Laboratory, N.S.W. Depariment of Mines, Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 61-62, 1961 A Useful Variation of the Graphical Proof of the Biot-Fresnel Law F. M. QUODLING (Received September 16, 1960) ABSTRACT—The law is proved on a crystallographic plane coincident with the plane of stereo- graphic projection. The investigation of extinction phenomena in petrological and mineralogical studies is an essential part of an examination under the petrological microscope, and if universal stage techniques are used procedure is completely dependent on extinction. Therefore, in dis- cussions of optical theory, even at an elementary level, the property should receive due attention. Early in the last century, it was known that light transmitted through crystal sections vibrated in directions which were strictly controlled by the crystal structure. Biot (1820) determined experimentally, and Fresnel (1827) proved theoretically, that for light of per- pendicular incidence, the extinction directions in any biaxial crystal section bisect the angle between the traces made on it by two planes, each of which contain an optic axis and the section normal. Fletcher (1892) showed that the optical properties of a crystal could be identified with the geometry of a triaxial ellipsoid, the “ optical indicatrix’’. This surface was, as Fletcher himself pointed out, the ellipsoid of polarisation of Couchy, the ellipsoid of indices of MacCulloch and the index ellipsoid of Liebisch. In a classical paper by Phemister (1954), the “Fletcher Indicatrix ’’ surface was bound up with the electromagnetic theory of light. Since this optical figure, for which Phemister would prefer the name ‘‘ wave-normal ellipsoid ”’, is completely established, the Biot-Fresnel law is simply and adequately proved by means of stereographic projection. Recently published text books use the law but do not prove it (de Jong, 1959 ; Hartshorne and Stuart, 1960). Wahlstrom (1960) gives a three-dimensional clinographic projection diagram, but his proof a ji G M <4 = O Optic Axro/ os Plone . 0. A. Be ee BANG O.A D N Fic. l 62 F. M. QUODLING and one given earlier by Johannsen (1918) lack clarity because the crystal plane for which extinction directions are determined has random orientation 7m the respective projections. There- fore, the following graphical proof is brought to the notice of readers. In Figure 1 a vandom crystal section is repre- sented stereographically, not cyclographically (Fisher, 1953), by the great circle arc and reference circle DHKN. For the purpose of discussion any two points within the circle except the centre point O may be chosen to represent the stereographic poles of the optic axes (O.A.). Each will lie on a radius of the reference circle. The great circle arcs MH and GK, of which the optic axes are poles, are constructed. Then OH and OK _ represent the intersection of the circular sections of the indicatrix with the plane of the random section. The constructed right angles KOF and HOL include the angle HOK, therefore, the angles FOH and LOK are equal. OH and OK, equal radii 3, of the indicatrix, must lie symmetrically about a semi major or a semi minor axis of the elliptical section coincident with and repre- senting the random section, DHKN. OJ, a semi axis, 1s constructed and consequently the angles JOF and JOL are equal, i.e. “‘ an extinc- tion direction bisects the angle between the traces on the section of two planes NF and DL each of which contains an optic axis and the section normal O”’. If the stereographic pole of the optic axis on OD be moved to D, and a new optic axial plane be projected, Figure 1 will illustrate a section containing one optic axis; the arc MH will coincide with OH. The positions of vibration directions will not change. With one optic axis represented by a stereo- graphic pole at D and the other by a stereo- graphic pole at F, the case of an optic normal section may be examined.—The arcs MH and GK will coincide with the radii OH and OK respectively and the stereographic pole of the acute bisectrix will lie in a vibration direction at E. References Biot, J. B., 1820. Mem. Acad. France, Ann. 1818, 3, 177-384. FISHER, D- J. 1952: J. Geol:, 61, 72: FLETCHER, L., 1892. ‘‘ The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals.’’ London. FRESNEL, A., 1827. Mem. Acad. France, 7, 45-176. HARTSHORNE, N.H., AND STuART, A., 1960. “‘ Crystals and the Polarising Microscope ’’, 3rd ed. Arnold, London. JOHANNSEN, A., 1918. Methods ’’, p. 399. DE Jonc, W. F., 1959. ‘‘ General Crystallography.” Freeman, San Francisco. PHEMISTER, T. C., 1954. ‘‘ Fletcher’s Indicatrix and the Electromagnetic Theory of Light’, Amer. Mineralogist, 39, 172-192. WautstroM, E. E., 1960. ‘‘ Optical Crystallography ”’, Srd_ ed. . Wiley; No. ““ Projection Nomenclature ’’, “Manual of Petrographic Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 63-75, 1961 The Stratigraphy and Structural Geology of the Manilla-Moore Creek District, N.S.W. B. W. CHAPPELL (Received September 30, 1960) ABSTRACT—The Woolomin Beds are shown to be of Ordovician-Silurian age and the limestone horizons within the Tamworth Group are recognized as biostratigraphical and not lthological units. Particular attention is given to the problems of Upper Devonian stratigraphy, the Manilla Group being redefined to consist of the Baldwin Formation and Mandowa Mudstone. The Baldwin Formation is taken to include the lower strata of the earlier Barraba Mudstone. It is recom- mended that the use of the term Barraba Mudstone be discontinued. The Klori Anticline, Mandowa Syncline and Attunga Fault are recognized as important new structural features and the Yarramanbully Anticline, the Namoi Fault and the Peel Fault System are studied south of the Namoi River. The tectonic evolution of the Tamworth-Manilla district and its relation to the tectonic evolution of New England are outlined. Introduction The area under consideration is situated between Manilla and the Namoi River to the north and the Peel River and Moore Creek to the south. It extends from near Somerton in the west to the margin of the New England Batholith to the east. The region covers the eastern three-quarters of the Attunga one mile to the inch military sheet and portions of the adjacent Manilla and Tamworth sheets. Benson (1915, pp. 541-544) summarized the earlier geological literature on the Tamworth district. He examined the areas between Tamworth and Moore Creek and north of the Namoi River in detail (1915, 1917a). The work which he had done between Moore Creek and the Namoi River was published (19170). Brown (1942) studied the Tamworth Series north of Attunga in detail, recognizing three horizons of limestone. Voisey (19580) identified the Manilla Syncline as the major structural feature north from Manilla. He also named the Yarramanbully Anticline and the Namoi Fault which have been mapped southwards in the area under discussion. Crook (1959) studied the area south of Tamworth and many of his conclusions are of importance in this study. This publication fills in the gaps in the work of Benson, referred to above, linking his more detailed studies and those of Brown (1942) and Voisey (1958d). In addition, the area north of Tamworth, mapped by Benson (1915) has been examined in part and conclusions arising from this, in the light of our fuller knowledge of the structural evolution of New B England, are presented. The author has also examined the area to the west of the Attunga- Manilla Road, which had not previously been studied, joining this study to the northerly continuation of the Werrie Basin (Carey, 1934). In addition, the author has mapped the rocks of the new England Batholith east of the present area. Stratigraphy The stratigraphic rock units adopted in this study are as follows (in descending order) : Carboniferous Burindi Group Devonian Manilla Group Mandowa Mudstone Baldwin Formation Tamworth Group Silurian Woolomin Beds In addition to these rock units, three time-rock units are recognized within the Tamworth Group, namely the Moore Creekian, Sulcorian and Neminghaian stages. These are the three limestone horizons within the Tamworth Group and comprise only portion of that Group. Woolomin Beds The Woolomin Beds occupy a considerable area of New England ; in the present area they occur east of the Peel Fault System and are bounded to the east by the New England Batholith. Crook (196la, pp. 175-176) sum- marized the nomenclature used for these rocks 64 B. W. CHAPPELL by various authors and proposed the term Woolomin Beds. This terminology is appropriate and is followed in this paper. The structural complexity of the Woolomin Beds renders their detailed study very difficult. Their general and lithological features have been described by Benson (1913a, p. 496; 19130, pp. 570-572; 1913c, pp. 707-708; 1915, pp. 546-548; 1917a, pp. 228-233; 19170, p. 695). The characteristic lithology consists of jaspers and quartzites with spilites, grey- wackes and generally very highly sheared argillaceous rocks. They are intersected by numerous quartz veins and many of the rocks have undergone marked silicification. In addition to the normal lithological associa- of the Woolomin Beds, limestone has been observed at the following localities (grid references to Australian one mile to the inch series, zone 8, sheet no. 321, Attunga): LI, 934904 ; L2, 927890; L3, 916843 ; L4, 916840 ; L5, 998827; L6, 910875; L7, 908793; L8, 918784; L9, 922783. These localities are shown on the accompany- ing geological map. L6 is the most extensive occurrence, lying to the west of the main development of serpentinite, north of the head of Yarramanbully Creek. The limestone here is about 50 ft thick, extending about three- quarters of a mile south of the above grid reference, thinning to the south. L5 and L7 are smaller, L1 and L4 are small outcrops, and Ie2) and’ 3) are of very minor textent, | Phe relationships with adjacent strata are best seen at L7, it being impossible to determine relation- ships at some of the other localities. The masses of limestone at L7 are interbedded with the more characteristic rocks of the Woolomin Beds, as part of the normal sequence and hence the limestone bodies are considered to be part of the Woolomin Beds sequence in this area. Of these occurrences, Carne and Jones (1919) recorded, Lil) (p: 1219) and E77, 83) 9 (p2256). They considered the latter occurrences to be the northerly continuation of the limestone south of Willow Tree Creek and in their opinion all bodies were of Devonian age. In addition (p. 219), they recorded two small lenticular beds of limestone on the western side of Wise- man’s Arm Creek, in portions 55, 91, and 82, Parish Hallor n. Benson (1917), p. 695) recorded lenticular masses of limestone among the Eastern Series which are “well seen along the valley of Wiseman’s Arm Creek’’. His accompanying map (p. 694) showed limestone traceable in the Eastern Series, although no specific localities © were indicated. He stated (p. 695) that this — limestone probably belongs to the Nemingha horizon which he considered to be of Lower Middle Devonian age. The limestone bodies have not been examined in detail for palaeontological evidence. However, the presence of Halysites sp. (with Favosites sp. and Helolites sp.) at L4 and L6 indicates that the limestones are of Ordovician-Silurian age. Further search may reveal the presence of rugose corals at the various localities which might enable the age to be determined with greater precision. The fossil occurrences are probably near the top of the sequence (see also Voisey, 1959), p. 194). The only previous record of Lower Palaeozoic fossils from northern New South Wales is that of Whiting (1954, p. 87), who recorded dendroid Favosites sp. and TIvyplasma sp. in dark limestone at Jackadgery on the North Coast of New South Wales. These were stated to be of Silurian and possibly Upper Silurian age. The presence of limestone in the Woolomin Beds throws light on the problem of the presence of rocks of the Tamworth Group faulted into the Woolomin Beds. In defining the Woolomin Series, Benson (1913a, p. 496) considered the Series to be of Lower Devonian age. Later (1915, p. 546), he stated that the rocks east of the Serpentine Line are “ so intensely folded and faulted, and have thrust in among them so much that seems to be derived from the Middle or even Upper Devonian series, that it has not seemed worth while, at present, to attempt to disentangle the Woolomin Series from the others, if such a series should really exist’. He named the whole complex of rocks east of the Serpentme Line the Wasterm )Senes, aiihe term Woolomin Series being restricted to rocks thought to be of Lower Devonian age, these being included within the Eastern Series. Brown (1942, p. 176), after demonstrating that the Tamworth Series extended into the Lower Devonian, deduced that the older Woolomin Series was pre-Devonian in age. In the sense in which Benson (1915) used the term Woolomin Series, it would thus be applied to the rocks of pre-Devonian age east of the Serpentine Line and the Eastern Series would include both these and the infaulted repre- sentatives of Devonian rocks occurring more typically west of the Serpentine Line. The record of limestone masses among the Eastern Series by Benson (1917), p. 695) has. been mentioned above. These led Benson to ~ state that ‘“‘ the crushed and altered rocks of the MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. 65 Eastern Series here belong, apparently, to the Lower Middle Devonian formation in great measure’. Thus he would not have included these in his Woolomin Series. This study has shown that these limestone bodies are pre-Devonian. This suggests that further examination of the Woolomin Beds in other areas may reveal that many of the beds ‘“‘infaulted ’’ among Benson’s Woolomin Series, to give the complete Eastern Series, are of the same general age as the Woolomin Series. An example is the lenticular mass of limestone recorded by Benson (1918, pp. 328-329) from portions 52 and 146, Parish Nemingha, 300 yds east of the serpentine. Thus it is considered that the difficulties which prompted Benson in 1915 to propose the term Eastern Series to include the Woolomin Series and younger rocks occurring more typically west of the Serpentine Line may yet be resolved. At least in the present area, which represented one of Benson’s chief diffi- culties in this respect, the problem no longer exists. Tamworth Group The Tamworth Group is regarded as Lower Devonian-Middle Devonian in age. The northernmost occurrence is south of the Namoi River east of Manilla and the Group occupies a belt south of this, bounded by the Namoi and Attunga faults, with a maximum width of approximately four miles, east of Attunga. Strata of the Tamworth Group also occur east of the Namoi Fault south of Spring Creek. Benson (19134, p. 496) gave a section of what he considered to be the most typical and complete section of the Bowling Alley or Tamworth Series at Bowling Alley Point, with a total thickness of 10,000 ft. Later (19130, pp. 572-580) he gave a complete description of the Bowling Alley Series. In 1915, Benson (1915, p. 548) recognized three horizons of limestone in the Tamworth Series, in place of the single horizon formerly recognized, placed, in probable chronological order, as follows : the Nemingha Limestone, the Loomberah Lime- stone and the Moore Creek Limestone. The whole of the Tamworth Series was thought to be Middle Devonian in age. Benson (19170, p. 698) assumed that the limestone north of Attunga belonged to the Moore Creek horizon, although the presence of Phuillipsastraea sp. and other forms suggested to him that the Loomberah Limestone might also be represented. The possibility of establishing the strati- graphical relations of the various limestones in the Tamworth Series led Brown (1942) to under- take her studies in the Attunga district. The Rugosa collected by Brown were described by Hill (1942) and the field relationships enabled Brown to divide the Tamworth Series north of Attunga into the Nemingha, Sulcor and Moore Creek stages. Hill (1942) deduced, from a study of the Rugosa, that 1. The Nemingha (imsigne) fauna is Devonian or possibly early Couvinian. Lower 2. The Loomberah (Eddastraea) and Sulcor (Endophyllum) faunas are both early Couvinian, not necessarily on the same horizon, and 3. The Moore Creek (Sanidophyllum) fauna is Givetian in age. Voisey (1958a, p. 175; table C, p. 174) renamed the stratigraphical units proposed by Brown. In table C, Voisey has shown the Tamworth Group as equivalent to the Tamworth Series of Benson, Brown and Browne (David, 1950, p. 236), containing the following three formations : Moore Creek Limestone Sulcor Limestone Nemingha Limestone. Later, Voisey (1958, p. 209) included the Tamworth Common Cherts or Tamworth Cherts as a formation within the Tamworth Group. This referred to the cherts overlying the Moore Creek Limestone which are well known from their occurrence at Tamworth Common. The Tamworth Group was defined by Voisey in anticipation of later work enabling a full sequence of constituent formations to be defined (Voisey, 1958a, p. 175). This has now been done by Crook (19614a). It has not been possible to define strictly lithological units within the Tamworth Group north of Tamworth. This group is here regarded as a Single mappable unit, consisting dominantly of the lithological association of limestone and chert: Although the distribution of the various limestone masses within the Tamworth Group is shown on the accompanying map, this does not imply that the limestones constitute rock units in the sense of the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (1959). Brown (1942) showed that three horizons of limestone are present in the Attunga district. The evidence for this is primarily palaeontological since nowhere in the region from Tamworth to Manilla can the presence of three horizons in 66 B. W. CHAPPELL sequence be shown in the field. The presence of at least two horizons can be demonstrated in two localities, north of Sulcor Quarry and north-east of the Manilla Road, two and a half miles from Attunga. Thus the basis for dis- tinguishing the three limestone horizons is palaeontological and these methods must also be used in determining to which horizon a particular outcrop should be assigned. Hence, in accordance with the Code (1959, p. 64), it is here proposed to use time-rock terms for the limestones that were mapped by Brown (1942). The terms Moore Creekian Stage, Sulcorian Stage and Neminghaian Stage are not used in the same sense as Brown, being restricted to the limestone masses, whereas Brown included adjacent cherts in_ the appropriate stage. It is not possible to do this on a larger area than that studied by Brown since limestone masses, necessary for time-rock determinations, are not as abundant. This nomenclature involves the setting up of a local time-scale as provided for in the Code (1959, p. 69). In accordance with the evidence of Hill (1942), the Moore Creekian, Sulcorian and Neminghaian stages are considered, respectively, to be Givetian, Couvinian, and Coblenzian or possibly early Couvinian in age. Each stage corresponds, in time, with portion of the European equivalent. The stages are dis- tinguished on the basis of the faunal lists of Brown (1942, pp. 169, 170, 172). The accompanying map includes the area mapped by Brown (1942, p. 168), the horizon to which she assigned each limestone body being shown. In general, the other limestone masses have not been allocated to a particular stage, as this would be beyond the scope of this study. The age of the limestones south of Moore Creek, originally surveyed by Benson (1915), has been indicated on the map. These are the type Moore Creek limestones, characterized by such forms as Sanidophyllum davidis Eth. fil. and Spongophyllum giganteum Eth. fil. (1915, pp. 551-552). In addition, the limestone near Willow Tree Creek is assigned to the Moore Creekian Stage on the basis of the presence of Amphipora sp., a form which Brown (1942, p. 172) included in the list of fauna characteristic of the Moore Creek Stage, but not the Sulcor and Nemingha stages (pp. 170, 169). Benson (19175, p. 695) stated that this limestone probably belongs to the Nemingha horizon and Brown (1942, p. 170) adopted this conclusion. The presence of Pseudamplexus princeps (Eth. fil.) in a large limestone body to the south of Yarramanbully Creek indicates that this belongs to the Sulcorian Stage. Brown (1942, — p. 173) has assigned the large mass of limestone | to the west of Yarramanbully Road to this stage on her sections, although they are outside the area shown on her map. This suggests a possible Couvinian age for many of the limestone occurrences north and east of the area surveyed by Brown. There is no evidence to suggest that the limestones are reef complexes. In a few instances the limestones occur as continuous beds which exhibit little change in thickness and no lateral facies variation to be expected in reef complexes or bioherms. In the other cases in which there are numerous small masses of limestone, this multiplicity is ascribed to tectonic features, not to the limited lateral extent one would associate with a reef origin. I. A. Browne (1959, p. 115) has pointed out that the Devonian limestones at Taemas are well- bedded deposits. It is suggested that the limestones formed under essentially similar conditions in both regions, as outlined by Browne (1959, p. 126) for Taemas. No continuous sequence of beds in the Tamworth Group has been measured because of the extensive deformation which has also obscured its relationship with contiguous forma- tions. It is separated from the older Woolomin Beds by the Peel Fault System and in only one place was it followed upwards into the Baldwin Formation. This was east of the Namoi Fault, between Attunga and The Horse Arm creeks. Here the base of the Baldwin Formation is approximately 7,000 ft above the limestone of the Moore Creekian Stage near Willow Tree Creek. In this case there may be some repetition of portions of the Tamworth Group by strike faulting. Manilla Group The Manilla Group consists of the Baldwin Formation and the overlying Mandowa Mud- stone. It is regarded as Upper Devonian in age, the palaeontological evidence for this being as follows. Leptophloeum sp. is found through most of the sequence, a genus which Tachibana (1959, pp. 31-33) states is character- istic of the Upper Devonian of Eastern Asia and Australia. Pickett (1960) described a new species of clymeniid, Cymaclymenia bora- hensis from the Borah Limestone, correlated with the Kiah Limestone of Crook (19610), — considered to occur within the Mandowa Mudstone in the area under discussion. Pickett (1960, p. 238) also records Platyclymenia sp. from the Baldwin Formation in Catong Gully. Both of these forms are Upper Devonian in age. MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. 67 Benson (19134, p. 495) included the Barraba or Nundle Series and the Baldwin Agglomerates in his classification of the sedimentary forma- tions developed prior to the folding in the Great Serpentine Belt. He considered the former to have a maximum thickness of at least 13,000 ft. Later (p. 503) he stated that there is probably much repetition in the Nundle Series. Benson (1915, p. 577) again recognized two divisions of the Upper Devonian Series. However, he extended the term Barraba Series to comprise the whole of the Upper Devonian, recognizing the Baldwin Agglomerates merely as a basal zone which may or may not be present. He used the terminology Barraba Mudstones for the upper part of the Barraba Series. This was followed in his later discussions. David (1950, p. 251) used the terminology Barraba Series, consisting of the Baldwin Stage and an upper or mudstone stage. Osborne (1950, p. 10) discussed the Baldwin Series and Barraba Series as separate stratigraphical units of equal status. Voisey (19584, 19585) defined the Baldwin Formation and Barraba Mudstone as formations constituting the Manilla Group in the Manilla Syncline. Crook (19615) grouped the Upper Devonian sediments of the Tamworth- Nundle district into the Parry Group, containing two main formations, the Baldwin Formation, and overlying it, the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone. The relationship between these various schemes is shown in Table 1, together with the terminology here adopted. In proposing the Baldwin Formation, Voisey (19584, p. 175; 1958), p. 209) was unable to designate a type section as required by the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (1959, p. 67) because extensive faulting made it virtually impossible to measure stratigraphical sections (1958), p. 210). It was anticipated that later work elsewhere would enable a type section to be defined. Crook (19615, p. 192) stated that the Baldwin Formation only required designation of a type section to be completely acceptable under the Code. He later (p. 204) defined the type section of the Formation at Silver Gully, south of Tamworth. Voisey (19584, p. 175) stated that near Manilla the sudden change from coarse beds to mudstones is so well marked that it shows up physiographically and is an easily mapped junction. This junction was taken as the top of the Baldwin Formation. He (19580, p. 210) noted a number of breccia or greywacke beds in the mudstone sequence, mainly in the higher parts of it, the total percentages being much TABIE I RELATION BETWEEN VARIOUS SCHEMES OF NOMENCLATURE PROPOSED FOR THE UPPER DEVONIAN AND LOWER CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE (—K—-L— = Kiah Limestone horizon) Burindi Burindi Lower Burindi series Series Group Barraba Barraba Series Mudstones Mudstone Group Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Barraba Manilla Agglomeratesg Formation | Benson Benson Voisey Crook | (1913a) (1915) (1958a, 1958») (1960d ) Crook as here interpreted | This paper Burindi Goonoo Goonoo Goonoo Group Ky ae, ci Goonoo Mandowa Mudstone Mudstone Mudstone Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Manilla Formation Formation Formation 68 less than in the Baldwin Formation. Crook (19610, p. 192) stated that the top of the Baldwin Formation is readily identifiable throughout the Tamworth-Nundle district and also in the Manilla district. The top of the Formation was formally defined as the top of the last major arenite bed in the basal portion of the Parry Group. The Baldwin Formation, thus defined, includes the greywacke beds in the mudstone sequence overlying the Baldwin Formation as mapped by Voisey (19585) in the Manilla Syncline. The horizons taken by Voisey and Crook are not equivalent, strata of Voisey’s Barraba Mudstone being included in the Baldwin Formation as defined by Crook. The Baldwin Formation is here taken as extending from the top of the Tamworth Group to the top of the last greywacke bed in the overlying sequence. The upper limit is marked by a clear physiographic break on both limbs of the Klori Anticline. It is considered that the Formation is always developed above the Tamworth Group in southern and western New England. The present investigations have shown that faulting is responsible for the absence of the Baldwin Agglomerates in the places found by Benson (1915, p. 577). The difficulties inherent in changing the sense in which Voisey originally defined the Baldwin Formation are resolved if it is recognized that his definition lacked designation of a type section, for the reason given earlier, and that such a section has been provided by Crook (19615, p. 204), lithologically equivalent to the unit that is here considered desirable for the following reasons. First, this represents a distinct lithological and lithogenetic unit. There is a variation in the relative proportions of greywacke and mudstone through the sequence, but this is not a significant lithogenetic feature. Second, this unit could be generally readily recognized for mapping purposes. A problem in this regard would be presented in areas of flat-lying strata consisting of mudstone without greywacke, which could be representative of either a greywacke-poor portion of the formation or of the overlying formation which consists of similar mudstone. Third, it is essential to group all the mudstone-greywacke strata into one unit for mapping in more deformed regions, for example in the Yarramanbully Anticline. An example of the confusion that would prevail is provided by the strata of the Baldwin Forma- tion in the Klori Anticline north of the Namoi River, forming the hills west of Spring Creek. Benson (1917a, p. 255) regarded these as BuoW. CHAPPELL : Baldwin Agglomerates on the basis of lithology. — These can now be correlated with the mudstone- greywacke beds occurring in the highest parts — of the sequence in the Manilla Syncline, which Benson (1917a, p. 250) assigned to the Barraba Mudstones. The term Mandowa Mudstone is proposed for the lithological unit overlying the Baldwin Formation, extending upwards to the base of the Burindi Group. This is equivalent to the upper portion of the Barraba Mudstone. It is recommended that use of the term Barraba Mudstone be discontinued. The term Barraba Mudstone is old and well known but its use here would add to the number of meanings which this term has assumed in the past. Thus a new stratigraphic term, namely Mandowa Mud- stone, is proposed. In addition, the rocks west of Barraba, regarded by Benson (1917a, p. 256) as the type for the Barraba Mudstones, may well belong to the Baldwin Formation as now defined. The Mandowa Mudstone is named from its development in the Mandowa Syncline. The formation outcrops very poorly but future examination of the western limb of the Klori Anticline should enable a precise definition to be made. The provisional type section is on the western limb of the Klori Anticline immediately south of the Namoi River. The Kiah Lime- stone Member, a characteristic limestone horizon in the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone to the south (Crook, 19616, pp. 201-202) occurs within or slightly above the Mandowa Mudstone on the western limb of the Klori Anticline on both sides of the Namoi River. Crook (19616, p. 195) considered that in the Tamworth-Nundle district, the sequence between the top of the Tamworth Group and the base of the “Lower Kuttung Group” should be considered as a single group, the Parry Group. The Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone overlying the Baldwin Formation comprised the Barraba Mudstone and “‘ Lower Burindi Group ”’ in the sense of Voisey (1958a, pp. 175, 176). The terms “ Burindi’”’ and “ Barraba ”’ to have no objectivity in the area discussed. Carey (1937, p. 350) mentioned the presence of current-bedding in the sandstones near the base of the Burindi Series in the Merlewood Section. Voisey (personal communication) has traced this and other features indicative of shallow water deposition north through the Keepit Dam area to Wean. This apparent shallowing of the seas to the west has made separation of the Mandowa Mudstone from the overlying formations quite clear in this region. were stated — MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. 69 It is proposed that the term Mandowa Mudstone be used in areas in which an upper limit can be recognized at the onset of conditions of shallow water deposition. In other cases the use of the term Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone is appropriate. This scheme is illustrated in the last two columns of Table 1. The Baldwin Formation and Mandowa Mud- stone are taken to constitute the Manilla Group. As thus defined, it is identical in stratigraphical extent with the original definition of Voisey. The distribution of the Manilla Group is shown on the accompanying map and it is of extensive occurrence. The Baldwin Formation occurs on either side of the Tamworth Group in the limbs of the Yarramanbully Anticline, in the Manilla Syncline and in the axis of the Klori Anticline. The principal occurrences of the Mandowa Mudstone are in the Mandowa Syncline and the western limb of the Klori Anticline, from which it passes conformably upwards into the Burindi Group strata west of the present area. Benson (1913a, p. 495) estimated a thickness of 3000 ft for the Baldwin Agglomerates and Voisey (19580, p. 210) considered this a reason- able estimate. Crook (1961), p. 204) gave a thickness of 3100 ft for the Baldwin Formation in the type section. The 2000 ft of Barraba Mudstone in the centre of the Manilla Syncline (Voisey, 19585, p. 210) is now included in the Baldwin Formation and must be added to Voisey’s earlier figure for the thickness of the Baldwin Formation in the Manilla district. The apparent thickness of the Baldwin Forma- tion on the eastern limb of the Yarramanbully Anticline is much greater than the 5000 ft indicated above, but there is probably repetition by strike faulting. The greywacke beds in the Baldwin Formation are subordinate in amount to the mudstone. Voisey (19580, p. 210) stated that approximately 60° of the formation consists of mudstone and the present writer’s observations support this conclusion. In addition, it must now be recognized that greywackes may be absent from considerable portions of the sequence. The author intends to publish the results of a petrological study of the greywackes of the Baldwin Formation later. These exhibit many of the features of deep water sediments tabulated by Packham (1954, p. 467). They are medium to coarse-grained, poorly sorted rocks, the detrital fragments being highly angular. Characteristically, quartz is present only in very small amounts, or absent. The dominant detrital component is rock fragments, principally of andesitic origin. The following is an average of the modal analyses of thirty-three greywackes: Quartz=—0-°5%; plagioclase=11-8%; rock fragments —64-4°% ; pyroxene=1-5% ; opaque minerals =0-3% ; Matcie— OO a; car- ponate—l GY; cement—0-4.97. Benson (19134, pp. 495, 503 ; 19130, p. 581) estimated that the Barraba or Nundle Series had a maximum thickness of over 13,000 ft but the maximum thickness measured by Crook (19610, p. 195) for that portion of the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone corresponding to the Barraba Mudstone was 1150 ft in the Timor Creek district. The thickness of the Mandowa Mud- stone north of Somerton, using the Burindi Group boundary shown on Carey’s map of the Werrle Basin (1934), is a little over 2000 ft. An accurate figure should be obtained when the boundary between the Burindi Group and the Mandowa Mudstone is mapped in detail. This supports Crook’s drastic reduction of the original thickness proposed by Benson. The conglomerates taken by Carey (1937, p. 350) as the basal beds of the Carboniferous Burindi Series in the Merlewood Section are now con- sidered to be the uppermost beds of the Baldwin Formation in that region; Crook (19610, p. 193) subscribed to this view. The thickness of the Mandowa Mudstone here, before the onset of sediments of shallow water origin mentioned above, is of the order of a few feet. Burindi Group Benson (1917a, pp. 238-240; 1926, p. 38) recorded Carboniferous strata adjacent to the Serpentine Line north of the Namoi River. Voisey (1958), Plate VI) mapped these Car- boniferous strata between the Peel Thrust and the Fleming Fault, south to Halls Creek. Although the Burindi Group is not developed to any extent south of Halls Creek, it is possible that it occurs in places, immediately west of the main fracture of the Peel Fault System. A rich Polyzoan fauna has been found two hundred yards west of the magnesite quarry, approxi- mately half a mile north of Attunga Creek. Abundant fenestrellinids are present, indicative of a Carboniferous or Permian age. It is not possible to represent these occurrences on the accompanying map since they are small in area and their boundaries cannot be delineated accurately. Alluvial Deposits Considerable portions of the area are covered by thick alluvium, parts of which date back to the Pleistocene (Brown, 1942, p. 167). Brown states that the Pleistocene alluvials contain 70 remains of extinct marsupials such as Diprotodon australis Owen. Structural Geology The area embraces portions of several of the structural elements proposed by Voisey (1959a) in his classification of tectonic elements in New England. These are the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts, the Great Serpentine Belt, the Central Complex and the New England Granite Batholith. Benson (1917a, p. 228) subdivided the area north of the Namoi River into a number of zones, each characterized by a fairly uniform tectonic structure. Voisey (19580, p. 212) used these tectonic divisions in describing the Manilla Syncline and associated structures. In this study south of the Namoi River, the terms proposed by Voisey (1959a) are used with various portions of the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts referred to the Yarramanbully Anticline, the Mandowa Syncline and the Klori Anticline. The New England Batholith The accompanying map shows the western margins of two adamellite intrusions which are portion of the New England Granite Batholith. These intrusions are here named the Attunga Creek Adamellite and Moonbi Adamellite, the term adamellite being used in the sense of Johannsen (1932, p. 309). The Moonbi Adamellite was formerly the Moonbi Granite of Benson (1913c, p. 696; 1915, pp. 586-589 ; 19175, p. 606), described by Andrews, Mingaye and Card (1907, pp. 205, 210) as a sphene- diorite-porphyry. These authors were dealing with the extensions of the mass to the east and south. The Attunga Creek Adamellite has not previously been recognized. Both intrusions bear no relation to the structures of the adjacent rocks, for example, the Moonbi Adamellite cuts across the Peel Fault System and the associated serpentinite, thus transgressing the marked structural break between the Central Complex and the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts. Considering the intrusions as a tectonic unit, they are post-tectonic types, late members of the Granite Series, that is intrusive magmatic granites or granite plutons in the sense of Read (1955, p. 410). They are surrounded by narrow, well-defined contact aureoles and are excellent examples of ‘“‘disharmonious”’ granites as defined by Walton (1955). The Central Complex The region from the margins of the batholith to the Peel Fault System is occupied by the B. W. CHAPPELE Woolomin Beds. These form portion of the Central Complex of New England. Voisey © (19585, p. 212) referred to the Eastern Zone north of Halls Creek, describing it as invariably tightly folded and shattered and having experi- enced slight dynamic metamorphism. The beds are vertical or dip steeply to the east. The structural complexity of the Central Complex has prevented detailed structural study. This extensive deformation marks the zone off as a distinct structural element and this is the most important feature in the present study. The Great Serpentine Belt The term serpentine line was used by Benson (1913a, p. 494) for the “ marked line of fault ” dividing the region from Warialda to Nundle into two sharply distinguished portions, the Eastern Zone to the east and the less-deformed rocks to the west, which he studied in greater detail. Later (1917a, p. 233), he used this term for one of the zones which he employed in his discussion of the regional geology of the Western Slopes of New England. Voisey (19580, p. 212) used this term and later (1959, pp. 194-195) the name Great Serpentine Belt in his tectonic subdivision of north-eastern New South Wales. The line of fault marked by the serpentinite was named the Peel Thrust by Carey and Browne (1938, p. 604). Voisey (19585, p. 212), in referring to the Peel Thrust, remarked that some lateral as well as vertical movements were involved. There can be little doubt that a transverse component was involved in producing the fault although the divergence from a straight line north of Attunga Creek presents a problem in this connexion. Thus the non- genetic term Peel Fault would be preferable to the earlier name. Voisey (1958), p. 212) stated that the Peel Fault is a complex system of faults, the serpentinite occurring in a number of these. Crook (1961a, p. 173) proposed the name Peel Fault System and he mapped several distinct faults in this System. Within the Peel Fault System, the junction between highly deformed and less deformed rocks is quite marked and thus most of the tectonic movement took place along a single fracture. This is the fracture shown as the Peel Fault on the accompanying map. Benson (1917a ; 19170, p. 694) indicated the position of the Serpentine Line south of the Namoi River on his geological maps although this part was not mapped in detail. Detailed mapping has shown that nowhere between Halls Creek and The Horse Arm Creek does the MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. 71 serpentinite occupy a positicn in the main fracture of the Peel Fault System. It invariably occurs within the Woolomin Beds to the east. Two large masses occur and the-e are numerous smaller bodies, many of which could not be shown on the accompanying map. Benson (1913a, p. 494) recorded that the serpentine forms a row of intrusions in the ma*ked line of fault separating the Woolomin Series from the western rocks. He stated that it also occurs to the east of this line and con- cluded that the great fault plane was the main channel of ascent of the ultrabasic magma. He ascribed the many occurrences to the east to the intrusion along the many fault planes in the shattered eastern block and the few sub- sidiary intrusions west of the main line to intrusion along subsidiary fault-planes, ‘“‘ such as would be expected to occur here and there by the main great overthrust ”’ (p. 495). Later (1915, p. 585) he reasserted that the serpentine follows the line of fault and he also referred to the use of a small mass to trace the fault line. In his study north of the Namoi River, Benson (1917a, p. 233) stated that the fault line is generally occupied by a band of serpentine of varying width and subsequently (1926, p. 39), that the serpentine, from Port Stephens to Warialda, generally occupies a_ well-marked structure-plain separating highly crushed from less crushed rocks. In the belt from the Namoi River to The Horse Arm Creek, the serpentinite is absent from the main fracture of the Peel Fault System. A close examination of the Peel Fault System to the north and south would be necessary before this could be stated as a general rule. The constant relationship between the major fracture of the System and the serpentinite in a belt a few miles to the east implies a genetic connexion. However, it cannot be assumed that the intrusion took place along this fracture, but rather along subsidiary faults. It follows that intrusion could only occur in places with a suitable system of subsidiary faults. This may be the explanation for the discontinuous and irregular outcrops of the ultrabasic rock. The Yarramanbully Anticline Benson (1917a, pp. 238-239) recorded an anticlinal structure north of the Namoi River in the region occupied by the Tamworth Series on his geological map. Voisey (19580, p. 210) _ proposed the name Yarramanbully Anticline for this structure. He showed that it continues for a distance of eight miles north of the Namoi River. In this study the Yarramanbully Anti- cline is recognized as the major structural feature for a considerable distance south of this river. It is a portion of the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts. The anticline is a complex structural feature in which major faulting followed the initial folding. The axial portion and the two limbs form distinct units separated by the important Namoi and Attunga faults. The eastern limb of the anticline is bounded by the Peel Fault System to the east and the Namoi Fault to the west. The strata, which belong to the Baldwin Formation, invariably dip towards the east at angles of 70 degrees or more. Voisey (19595, p. 212) discussed the general features to the north but did not con- sider this a portion of the Yarramanbully Anticline. His determination of the anticline was based on strata of the Baldwin Formation north of Halls Creek, to the west of the Namoi Fault, dipping in an easterly direction. The present author considers that a study of the complete structure indicates that these are better regarded as part of the eastern half of the axial portion. The eastern limb continues to the south in the manner indicated until it is crossed by a fault along Spring Creek. Between Spring and Attunga creeks, the Tamworth Group is repre- sented, the attitude of the beds being unknown. To the south, these are faulted against the rocks of the Tamworth Group and the Baldwin Formation, which pass upwards stratigraphically from east to west. These are intruded to the south by the Moonbi Adamellite. The Namoi Fault has been recognized by Voisey (19580, pp. 210, 212), who followed it for several miles northward and stated (p. 212) that it undoubtedly continues for a considerable distance to the south. This continuation has now been mapped until the fault is transected by the Moonbi Adamellite on The Horse Arm Creek. The fault must have been at least fifty miles in length before the intrusion of the adamellite, and it warrants recognition as a major structural feature. Voisey (1959a) has shown the Namoi Fault on his tectonic map of north-eastern New South Wales in which it runs into the New England Granite Batholith north of Tamworth. He has extrapolated from his studies north of the Namoi River and this has been verified by the present study. It has not been possible to measure the dip of the Namoi Fault, but as it runs in almost a straight line and appears to have a high dip, it may be a transcurrent fault. 72 The structures within the axial portion of the Yarramanbully Anticline are most complex. The anticlinal structure within it can be distin- guished only in the northern portions, as, for example, in the anticlinally folded limestone on Yarramanbully Creek; to the south the structure is possibly synclinal and it is necessary to consider it in relation to the younger strata dipping away on either side to the east and west. The Yarramanbully Creek limestone plunges slightly to the north and is overlain by cherts of the Tamworth Group. These rocks are faulted against the Baldwin Formation to the north. There is little sign of the structure south of the limestone on Yarramanbully Creek. Brown (1942, p. 173) indicated a synclinal structure on section C—C between Sulcor and Yarramanbully Road. This interpretation may be correct but it is necessarily based on little evidence as there is a thick cover of alluvium between the lime- stones on either side. In other places, extensive faulting in the axial portion of the Yarraman- bully Anticline has produced numerous fault- bound bodies of limestone within the cherts. The prevalence of basin structures in some of the limestone bodies in the vicinity of Attunga is worthy of comment. Included among these are the occurrence south of the Inlet Road described by Benson (1917), p. 697), the lime- stone behind the Burdekin Homestead east of Attunga and that of the Sulcorian Stage on the western side of Attunga Creek one and a half miles north of Attunga. It is considered that the evidence now avail- able indicates that a fault separates the axial] portion of the Yarramanbully Anticline from the Manilla Group to the west, herein named the Attunga Fault. Benson (1917), p. 700) stated that there is no reason for assuming, from the absence of Baldwin Agglomerates, the presence of a fault separating the Middle and Upper Devonian beds at Attunga. He based this on the fact that his studies in the southern part of the Tamworth district had shown that the passage from Middle to Upper Devonian beds was not always marked, as he had formerly believed, by the presence of an intervening mass of Baldwin Agglomerates. He thus assumed that the relationship between the Tamworth Group on the east of the Attunga-Manilla Road and the Manilla Group to the west is an uncon- formable one in which the Baldwin Formation is absent. Brown (1942, p. 174) states that the field evidence north of Attunga strongly suggests an angular unconformity between the Tamworth Series and the Upper Devonian Barraba Series, outcropping to the west. It has now been BOW. CHAP PBIEL found that in other places where the Tamworth Group is not faulted against the Manilla Group, the sequence is conformable and the Baldwin ~ Formation is always developed. The sequences in which Benson considered that this does not hold have now been shown to be faulted. This ~ is strong evidence that a fault is present and this conclusion is in keeping with the general tectonic picture of the area which has become clearer, owing to the large amount of work — undertaken in Western New England, since the Attunga district was studied by Brown. The Attunga Fault commences to the south near the Tamworth-Attunga Road and follows this north-west to Sulcor. It then swings in a northerly direction which is in direct contrast ~ with the linear nature of the Peel and Namoi faults. Anticline is located to the west of the Attunga Fault south of Yarramanbully Creek, north of This indicates that the fault is a thrust. — The western limb of the Yarramanbully — which it is not faulted off from the axial portion. — The Tamworth Group has been thrust over all but the upper portions of the Baldwin Forma- tion. The latter dips to the west, generally at low angles, of the order of 10 to 20 degrees. The western limb corresponds with the eastern limb of the Mandowa Syncline in the region immediately south of the Namoi River and this structure will be discussed below. North of the Namoi River the western limb of the Yarramanbully Anticline corresponds with the eastern limb of the Manilla Syncline. accompanying map shows the structural features The © of the southern end of the Manilla Syncline, the information being taken from that of Voisey — (19580, Plate Vi); Dire Veness Fault has © caused a slight departure from the simple relationship between the two major structures. The Mandowa Syncline and Klori Anticline The Mandowa Syncline and Klori Anticline are here recognized as distinct structural features. They occupy the region between the Namoi and Peel rivers and the Attunga- Manilla Road and the northerly extension of the Werrie Basin of Carey (1934). The Klori_ Anticline also continues for some distance north © of the Namoi River. South of the Namoi River, the western limb — of the Yarramanbully Anticline corresponds — with the eastern limb of the Mandowa Syncline. — The axial portion of the syncline consists of near-horizontal Mandowa Mudstone with the Baldwin Formation to either side. It is faulted to the north against the western limb of the | x n is} 2 a = x 5 g = ua) —YSAIN VITINVAW INITINAS VTITINVW 5 = Ss iS x ay x = S & = m JINITIILNY ATINGNUWVYYVA Y3AIN IOWYN Sections | TO ACCOMPANY GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE B MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, LAVM TV LEGEND SERPENTINITE MANDOWA MUDSTONE BALDWIN FORMATION TAMWORTH GROUP WOOLOMIN BEDS m L AVM TIVE INITIILNG ATINGNVWVYYVA NEW SOUTH WALES. SCALE @ Ye 2 MILES 1s) 433Y9 STIVH DATUM IS 1000 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL W33aYd VONNLLV —-W33Y9 ONIYdS =< Z SSS = TAMWORTH FORMATION, Z\ nat Ol A IN, ~ GENERAL SYNCLINAL we ED joe Geological Map OF THE New South Wales. qe ge sh otk Se AE stb CREEK DISTRICT, MANILLA —MOORE ROADS yo RAILWAY «7 TREND LINES —~—— FAULTS Ll, efc. refer to bod/es of Iimestone in Woolom/n Beds ANTICLINAL AXIS + STRIKE @ DIP OF STRATA \35" SYNCLINAL AXIS + HORIZONTAL STRATA ® Dips ~* over 70° DIPS ~ under 70° > SS 2S X/ x Vaayn STAGE SULCOR STAGE MOORE CREEK TAMWORTH GROUP STAGES + x aia ADAMELLITE |X _ xX ADAMELL/TE PERMIAN MOONB/ ATTUNGA CREEK NEMINGHA STAGE UNDIFFERENTIATED TAMWORTH GROUP UNDIFFERENTIATED LIMESTONE SILURIAN Q & S SS S ~~ iS) 8 = SERPENTINITE DEVONIAN MANILLA GROUP MUDSTONE BALDWIN FORMATION MANDOWA : i j j nfm 3 r, / = = i 1 Ve i Lye 2 ! =| “ \ ? f , ; ) ‘ is * = , 7 ; - y i | f 4 ' i ,* = { i} / i 3. f / ! { —_ iy 7 iT ft i i , - ‘i \ “i % 5 MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. 73 Manilla Syncline by the south-eastern portion of the Baldwin Fault which here is dominantly transcurrent. The strata in the Manilla Syn- cline have moved westward relative to the Mandowa Syncline. This is confirmed by the change in strike from north-south to east-west immediately north of the Baldwin Fault. The Mandowa Syncline plunges slightly to the north and is surrounded at the southern end by the Baldwin Formation. The Klori Anticline is situated between the Mandowa Syncline and the northerly extension of the synclinal axis running through the Werrie Basin. Its axis, marked by the line of hills running from north of Somerton to the Namoi River east of Rushes Creek, continues north almost to Borah Creek. The hills consist of the uppermost beds of the Baldwin Formation which are horizontal and dip away on either side at low angles. Benson (1917a, p. 255) remarked on a hill of Baldwin Agglomerates occurring west of Spring Creek, to the south of Borah Creek, cut off to the west by a fault. Voisey (19585, Plate VI) also showed Baldwin Formation faulted against Carboniferous strata to the east. Part at least of these so-called Carboniferous rocks are now considered to belong to the Mandowa Mudstone. The over-all structure is an anticline and faults are not necessary to explain the separation of the Baldwin Formation from the Mandowa Mud- stone on either side. In the south the relationships are more complex. The Baldwin Formation continues as a line of prominent hills east from Klori Trig. Station, apparently exposed because of a slight variation in the low dip, whilst to the north the Mandowa Mudstone is present in the axis of the Mandowa Syncline. The wide alluvial plain of the Peel River prevents a correlation with those structures mapped by Crook (1959) to the south. Cotton and Walkom (1912, p. 704) recorded a series of anticlines and synclines between Tamworth and Somerton. On their section (p. 707) they show an anticline east of Somerton which may correspond to the Klori Anticline to the north. Structural Features South of Moore Creek Benson (1915) indicated the structural features south of Moore Creek. The main feature, continuous to the north, is the westerly dipping Manilla Group in the west. It is thought that the Attunga Fault continues for some distance in separating these from the Tamworth Group to the east. The limestone of the Moore Creekian Stage south of Moore Creek is folded anti- clinally and is faulted against cherts of the Tamworth Group at its northern end, as stated by Brown (1942, p. 169). Detailed correlation of structures between Attunga and Moore creeks is impossible due to the presence of the Moonbi Adamellite in the eastern portion and the very poor outcrops west of this. Benson (1915) showed the position of faults on his map and sections and they are drawn vertically on the latter. Some of these would be better regarded as low angle thrusts, similar to the faults mapped by him (1917a) north of Manilla and restudied by Voisey (19580). Low angle thrusts are consistent with the tectonic style of the region, which is a zone of marked lateral compression. Tectonic Evolution of the Tamworth- Manilla District and its Relation to the Tectonic Evolution of New England The structural study of the Manilla-~-Moore Creek district is a contribution to the study of Upper Palaeozoic earth movements in north- eastern New South Wales. Voisey (19580) demonstrated the presence of over-thrust fault- ing north of Manilla. This was the first work since the time of Benson on the structural evolution of the near-western margins of New England. Previously it had been assumed that the main relief from Late Palaeozoic orogenic pressure occurred along the Mooki thrust system to the west, mapped by Carey (1934). Voisey (1959a, p. 194) classified the structures between the Border Thrusts and the Peel Fault System as the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts. This is characterized by a series of meridional folds and thrusts. To the folds are now added the Klori Anticline, the Mandowa Syncline and the southern development of the Yarramanbully Anticline. The Attunga Fault is an example of a meridional thrust. Voisey has commented on the increase in intensity of the deformation moving east from the Border Thrusts to the Great Serpentine Belt as the outstanding feature of the Belt of Folds and Thrusts. Studies within the present area support this conclusion; the Klori Anticline and the Mandowa Syncline are simple folds whilst the Yarramanbully Anticline to the east is a complex structure, in which much more deforma- tion has occurred. In addition to the major meridional folds and faults, other features are indicative of intense deformation. The multiplicity of outcrops of limestone between the Attunga and Namoi 74 Bo WW. CHAPPERIE faults is indicative of much transcurrent and thrust faulting. There is no reason to suppose that the extensive fracturing shown by the limestone differs from that in other parts of the region east of the Attunga Fault in which distinct horizons are not present. In the early stages of the compression the area to the north of Manilla was thrown into a number of folds and this also appears to have been the case to the south. The Yarramanbully Anticline and the Manilla Syncline were very likely developed contemporaneously because of the very simple relation between them. The Mandowa Syncline and the Klori Anticline may have been formed at this stage, or alternatively, at a later stage during the development of the Attunga Fault. Increase in the intensity of the orogenic forces produced tighter folding and strike faulting in the region of the Manilla Syncline and the Yarramanbully Anticline. Finally, major fracturing occurred, accompanied by differential movements of the northern portions relative to the southern parts, with development of high angle transcurrent faults. The Baldwin Fault developed at an early stage in the compression since the folding in the Manilla Syncline produced little effect in the region of the Mandowa Syncline. Movement along this fault became more marked during the later stages as the western limb of the Manilla Syncline was thrust over portion of the eastern limb of the Klori Anticline. The structures associated with the Peel Fault System formed at an earlier stage in the orogenic history. Following the compression, the New England Granite Batholith, a post-tectonic type, was intruded and this has stabilized the area since the end of the Permian Period. Acknowledgements The bulk of this work was carried out in the L. A. Cotton School of Geology of the University of New England, where Professor A. H. Voisey, Associate Professor J. F. G. Wilkinson, Dr. K.S. W. Campbell and Dr. K. A. W. Crook gave much valuable advice and assistance, which is gratefully acknowledged. Professor D. A. Brown and Dr. A. J. R. White critically read the manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions. References ANDREWS, E. C., MINGAYE, J. C. H., AND Carp, G. W., 1907. The geology of the New England Plateau, with special reference to the granites of northern New England. Part IV. Petrology. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 8, 196-238. AUSTRALIAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE © (Third Edition), 1959. J. “GeolpisecessAgsr. 6, 63-70. Benson, W. N., 1913a. The geology and petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New South Wales. Part I. Introduction.. Prec. Ling sogcmeNas. WwW. 38, 490-517. Benson, W. N., 19130. of the Nundle District. 38, 569-596. Benson, W. N., 1913c. Ibid. Part III. Petrology. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 38, 662—724. Benson, W. N., 1915. Ibid. Part V. The geology of the Tamworth district, “Precmiiiy. = sec: N.S.W., 40, 540-624. Benson, W. N., 1917a. Ibid. Part VI. A general account of the geology and physiography of the western slopes of New England. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 223-283. Benson, W. N., 19176. Ibid. Part VI. Appendix. The Attunga district. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 693-700. BEnson, W. N., 1918. Ibid. Part VII. The geology of the Loomberah district and portion of the Goonoo Goonoo estate. Pyvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 43, 320-384. Benson, W. N., 1926. The tectonic conditions accompanying the intrusion of basic and ultra- basic igneous rocks. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington, XIX, Mem. 1. Brown, I. A., 1942. The Tamworth Series (Lower and Middle Devonian) near Attunga, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 165-176. Browne, I. A., 1959. Stratigraphy and structure of the Devonian rocks of the Taemas and Cavan areas, Murrumbidgee River, south of Yass, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.; 92, Vi5—-V28: CaREY, S. W., 1934. The geological structure of the Werrie Basin. Pyvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 59, 351-374. CAREY, S. W., 1937. Ibid. Part II. The geology Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., The Carboniferous sequence in the Werrie Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 62, 341-376. CAREY, S. W., AND BROWNE, W. R., 1938. Review of the Carboniferous stratigraphy, tectonics and palaeogeography of New South Wales and Queens- land. j. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 71, 591-614. CAREY, S. W., AND OSBORNE, G. D., 1938. Pre- liminary note on the nature of the stresses involved in the late Palaeozoic diastrophism in New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 72, 199-208. CARNE, J. E., AND JONES, L. J.; 1919. ~The limestone deposits of New South Wales. Minerval Resources, No. 25, geol. surv. N.S.W. Cotton, L. A., AND WALKom, A. B., 1912. Note on the relation of the Devonian and Carboniferous formations west of Tamworth, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 37, 703-708. Crook, K. A. W., 1959. The geological evolution of the southern portion of the Tamworth Trough. Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of New England. Crook, K. A. W., 196la. Stratigraphy of the Tam- worth Group (Lower and Middle Devonian), Tamworth-Nundle_ district, N.S.W. jf. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, 173-188. Crook, K. A. W., 19616. Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous), Tamworth-Nundle_ district, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, 189-208. MANILLA-MOORE CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. (i Davip, T. W. EpGEwortTH, 1950. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Vol. I. Edward Arnold & Co., London, 747-+xx pp. Hitt, D., 1942. The Devonian rugose corals of the @ammorth, district, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 142-164. JOHANNSEN, A., 1932. A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks. Vol. II. The Quartz-Bearing Rocks. Univ. Chicago Press, 428-+-viu pp. OSBORNE, G. D., 1950. The structural evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province, N.S.W. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. Monogr. 1. Packuaw, G. H., 1954. Sedimentary structures as an important factor in the classification of sandstones. Amer. J. Sci., 252, 466-476. PIcKETT, J. W., 1960. A Clymeniid from the Wock- lumeria zone of New South Wales. Palaeont., 3, 237-241. READ, H. H., 1955. Granite Series in mobile belts. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 62, 409-430. TACHIBANA, K., 1959. Leptophioeum in the close of the Upper Devonian in Eastern Asia. Faculty of Liberal Arts and Education Nagasaki University, Science Buill., No. 9, pp. 31-34. VoisEY, A. H., 1958a. Further remarks on the sedimentary formations of New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 91, 165-188. VoisEy, A. H., 1958b. associated faults. 91, 209-214. VolisEYy, A. H., 1959a. The Manilla Syncline and J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Tectonic evolution of north- eastern New South Wales, Australia. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92, 191-203. VoisEy, A. H., 1959b. Australian geosynclines. Aust. J. Sci., 22, 188-198. Watton, M., 1955. The emplacement of “ granite ’’. Amer. J. -9ct:, 253, 1-18. WHITING, J. W., 1954. Limestone deposits, Parish Braylesford, County Gresham. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W. (for 1950), 87. L. A. Cotton School of Geology The University of New England Armidale, N.S.W. Present address : Geology Department The Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 77-91, 1961 The Geology of the Gresford District, N.S.W. JOHN ROBERTS (Received August 18, 1960) ABSTRACT—The Lower Carboniferous sequence in the Gresford district is divided into the following formations in ascending stratigraphic order: Bingleburra Formation (mudstone with some limestone and sandstone), Ararat Formation (mainly sandstone), Bonnington Formation (siltstone and mudstone), Flagstaff Sandstone, Wallaringa Formation (sandstone and con- glomerate), and Gilmore Volcanics. The Flagstaff Sandstone is approximately the marine equivalent of the non-marine Wallaringa Formation and Gilmore Volcanics. Faunal lists are included, and the ages of the faunas briefly considered. The palaeogeography of the area is discussed. Four new elements in the structure of the area have been recognized. Lewinsbrook Syncline, Ararat Basin, Colstoun Basin, and Gresford Basin. These are The origin of these structures is considered in the light of present structural knowledge of the Hunter Valley Province. Introduction The scope of this paper is a study of the geology of Carboniferous rocks in the Gresford district, N.S.W. The area, approximately 30 miles north of Maitland, consists of a Lower Carboniferous sedimentary sequence which has suffered considerable folding and faulting. A number of important facies changes have been observed in the sequence. Only one minor outlier of Tertiary basalt remains from the previously extensive basalt sheet which covered the area. All map references, unless otherwise specified, are to the Dungog One-Mile Military Sheet. Locality numbers refer to fossil localities, University of New England Collection. Previous Literature The first geological investigations in the Gresford district were made by the Rev. W. B. Clarke in 1855, who sent collections of fossils to Europe for identification. The fossils were later described by de Koninck (1876). Osborne (1950) presented structural and stratigraphical details on the Hunter-Manning- Myall Province of New South Wales, but gave only brief consideration to the area around Gresford. A comprehensive summary of Carboniferous stratigraphic literature is given by Voisey (1957). References relevant to the Gresford district include: Sussmilch and David (1919), Osborne (1922, 1949), Carey and Browne (1938), Voisey (1945, 1957), and Crockford (1947). Changes in nomenclature for the Carboniferous are tabulated by Voisey (1957, p. 177, Table D). Stratigraphy Lower Carboniferous sediments in the Gresford district which accumulated in the New England Eugeosyncline (Voisey, 1959b) have previously been divided into the Kuttung and Burindi Series (Osborne, 1922). Voisey (19590, p. 176) notes that since these names have been used as rock and time-rock terms, as well as for facies variations, they are unacceptable as rock terms as defined by the Australian stratigraphic code. In this work the sedimentary sequence has been divided into formations, following the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (3rd edition). The relations of the new forma- tions with the nomenclature of Osborne (1922) are given in Table 1. Detailed lithologies of the Bingleburra and Ararat Formations are in Figure 1. Faunal lists are incorporated in Table 2. Bingleburra Formation Name—The Bingleburra Formation is named after ‘“‘ Bingleburra’’ homestead, 46289931, approximately 4 miles north-east of Gresford. Type Sectton— The type section extends from the foot of Almonds Hill, eastwards, in the direction of Lewinsbrook Creek (45909967-46179968). Thickness of the type section 1s approximately 3,000 ft., with fossil- iferous mudstones resting against the Camyr Allyn Fault at the base, and interbedded mudstone and siltstone at the top of the formation. The section is conformably overlain by the Ararat Formation. Its importance palaeontologically does not rank with the Lewinsbrook-Trevallyn section (text-fig. 1). Lithology—The Bingleburra Formation com- prises a major mudstone unit containing sand- stones, and thin lenses of oolitic and crinoidal limestones. Mudstones are dark brown, and occasionally fossiliferous, while siltstones which become dominant towards the top of the formation are thinly bedded, and_ exhibit 78 JOHN ROBERTS OSBORNE 1922 Glacial Stage GRESFORD DISTRICT Area Area Vane Sandstone Mt.Jonnstone Beds n =| Volcanic Gilmore | a a Stage Volcanics z Basal Wallaringa = S Stage Formation ZA $d Vi a Ararat Aeration / | Formation /| Bingleburra Formation Marine Formations Bingleburra Formation BURINDI SERIES Non Marine Formations. ea Table I. sedimentary structures, including cross strati- fication, washouts, and load casts. Oolitic limestones are cross bedded and _lensoidal. Well washed crinoidal limestone lenses are cemented by a coarsely crystalline calcite cement. Fine grained tuffaceous sandstones become coarser and more lithic towards the top of the formation. In the sandstones grains are sub-angular, and well sorted; plagioclase feldspar is oligoclase-andesine, Ab,An,; and quartz frequently exhibits irregular extinction. Rock fragments include rafted mud fragments, and volcanic fragments. The latter include andesites and dacites of varying types ; spheru- litic volcanic glass, and microcrystalline lavas. The cement is dominantly calcite, with minor chlorite. Regional Variation — Gresford-Bingleburra Road Section: A smaller, but more accessible section, approximately 1,000 ft. thick, crops out on the Gresford-Bingleburra road (45939934—46259930). Brown mudstones con- taining one crinoidal limestone lens underlie a sandstone and conglomerate unit. This passes into mudstones which lie immediately below oolitic” limestone) lens#™ a"s seo athe earancae Formation. Mt. Richardson Section: Excellent exposures of the Bingleburra Formation occur from 46559935, on the road to Mt. Richardson, to the top of the Wallarobba Range. This section, approximately 2,500 ft. thick, contains fewer limestone lenses, and thinner sandstone units than the type section. Lewinsbrook-Trevallyn Section: At least seven important fossil horizons are present in this 2,700-foot section located in a westerly dipping fault block. It belongs to a different sedimentary facies from the type _ section, and with the exception of one oolitic limestone at Lewinsbrook, limestones are absent. Four massive conglomerate lenses present in the section are here designated as members, and are named as follows, in descending order : 350 ft. 150 it. 200 ft. 270 it. Trevallyn Conglomerate Gresford Conglomerate Glenroy Conglomerate Lewinsbrook Conglomerate The conglomerates contain an average of 85% volcanic, 8% sedimentary, and 6% plutonic fragments. Boulders of 2 ft. in diameter occur, but the average size of pebbles is 2—4 in. in diameter. Coarse tuffaceous sandstones are associated with the conglomerates. Fauna—tThe fauna of Bingleburra Formation is dominated by the following forms : Fistulanuna imornata Crockford Gomtocladia laxa (de Koninck) Schizophornia sp. Rhipidomella australis (McCoy) Dictyoclostus sp. Leptagonia sp. Asyrinxia lata (McCoy) Brachythyris sp. Umspirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun). The stratigraphic positions of the fossil localities in the Bingleburra Formation are marked on the Lewinsbrook-Trevallyn strati- graphic column, Figure 1. L.65 Lewinsbrook incorporates L.215, L.216, and L217; 2215 is the lowest horizon. L.65 Lewinsbrook Ramipora bifurcata Crockford Devonoproductus sp. Krotovia sp. Spiriferoid n. gen. A ? Delthyns sp. Balanoconcha sp. Cleivothyridina 3 spp. Athyrs sp. Orbiculoidea sp. CARBONIFEROUS TERTIARY = BASALT =- - -|- e hl jy Rt ee | Mn Sahn, Fas . y 0 NG RE. BROS x SFORD Z 4 ie Vv Vv Vv Vv Va MT BRECON Vv Vv Vv Vv Geological Map of the Gresford District. TERTIARY E55 aasacr CARBONIFE ROUS [ov] SMoRE VOLCANICS ~ 7] WALLARINGA FORMATION 7) FLAGSTAFF — SANDSTONE BONN/NGTON FORMATION ARARAT FORMATION BINGLEBURRA FORMATION CONGLOMERATES I GLENROY 1 GRESFORD IT TREVALLYN IVWALLAROBBA MARTINS CK ANDESI/ITE —OOLITE FAULTS FOLD AXES = SS DIPS § HORIZONTAL + GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY =— ROADS ----- RAILWAY SARNIA EO = ’ — i ‘ \ i) | v | ( \ ae . Bs \ : } 1 Ayan 9 f ae ‘ | { ; 5 { | . ; ’ i t f oe / y : | 1 > ’ ; ‘ , ’ { ist 7 J . , i , ‘ i \ ., sol ~ = ~ a bar Bet ke ony ee: ap thconit GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, N.S.W. 79 BINGLEBURRA FORMATION ARARAT FORMATION 0 P TREVALLYN o O SECTION SECTION L2/8 £50 oO O GRESFORD AGL Og 2 Oo : m7 = 7) N NTO O (e) XS] GLENROY o CGL O K (oe) SANOSTONE CONGLOMERATE 500 FY |] MUOSTONE ee LIME STONE LEW/NSBROOK CRINOIOAL LIMESTONE L2/5 FOSSIL LOCALITIES Fic. | Stratigraphic columns of the Bingleburra and Ararat Formations 80 JOHN ROBERTS — TABLE 2 Distribution of Species in the Lower Carboniferous Formations of the Gresford District, N.S.W. Bon- BINGLEBURRA FORMATION ARARAT NINGTON FLAGSTAFF FM. FM. SANDSTONE SPECIES Lewinsbrook Lewinsbrook Gresford Quarry Antiquatonia Trevallyn Greenhills Lewinsbrook Syncline Toryburn Dunvegan L.208, L.203 L.233, L.53 L.204, L.210 L.211 L.207 L.206 L.65 te ie) =P) Sas om Loo COELENTERATA Auloporoid n. gen. : Cladochonus tenuicollis (McCoy) Cladochonus sp. “iis A Lophophylloid coral .. ad x x x ? Sochkineophyllum P ue x Caninia sp. me ate x x X X x x x POLY ZOA Fistulipora mivart Crockford Fistulamina inornata Crockford xX x x x Goniocladia laxa (de Koninck) x x Ramipova bifurcata Crockford x Hemitrypa clarket Crockford x Streblotrypa parallella Crockford x Ptilopova konincki Crockford Fenestella sp. a ae Fenestella sp. b Fenestalla sp. c Fenestella propinqua de Koninck x Fenestella acavinata (Crockford) x Fenestella sp. (2 species) ay: x x X X KEK OX BRACHIOPODA Orbiculoidea sp. cas ae x Lingula sp. ate be Schizophoria sp. a... ae x Schizophoria sp. b. Schizophoria cf. verulamensis x Cvancara Rhipidomella australis eee Schuchertella sp. : Werria australis Campbell Streptorhynchus sp. a Stveptorhynchus sp. b : Leptagonia sp... 6 ss x Daviesella aspinosa (Dun) Dictyoclostus sp. x Dictyoclostus simplex Campbell Pustula sp. ‘ Pustula cf. abbotti Campbell x Waagenoconcha delicatula Campbell Antiquatonia sp. Devonoproductus sp. Krotovia sp... ia we x Linoproductus sp. a: Unispirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun) Brachythyris sp. Xx Brachythyris davidis Maxwell x } Brachythyris cf. pseudovalis x Campbell x X x X x X X x x x x x x-*X «XX WX HEX XX x x xXx Ke oe Ow eX x x x x x x KO KO OK xX x We BK NS x x x GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, 6 SPECIES & W Sl 5 o = L.65 Asyvinxia lata (McCoy) oF x ? Pseudosyvinx exuperans (de Koninck) Syringothyris sp. Phricodothyris sp. Thomasaria sp. Ptychospiva sp. ? Delthyris sp. sua — Spiriferoid n. gen. x Cletothyridina australis “Maxwell Cletothyvidina sp. a Cletothyridina sp. b Athyris sp. Balanoconcha sp. Camarotoechia sp. a Camarotoechia sp. b x XxX Xx PELECY PODA Aviculopecten tesselatus ome”) x Aviculopecten sp. a Aviculopecten sp. b Streblochondria sp. a .. Stveblochondria sp. b Parallelodon sp. GASTROPODA Bellerophon ae . Baylea sp. : _Euomphalus sp. Loxonema sp. Platycevas sp. Orthonychia sp. Tentaculites sp. CEPHALOPODA Prolecanites sp. Michelinoceras sp. CRINOIDEA Platycrinites sp. TRILOBITA Cyrtosymbole (Waribole) sp. .. Phillipsia cf. dungogensis Mitchell Linguaphillipsia cf. divergens Cvancara TABLE 2—continued BINGLEBURRA FORMATION Lewinsbrook iS (e9) or) x x xX Tt Gresford Quarry do on —S x Antiquatonia Trevallyn x XX xX X or ee N.S.W. FM. 81 Bon- ARARAT NINGTON FLAGSTAFF Fm. SANDSTONE Ae © | q q = oO = oo Ss Se ae ise > 65 | 3 Hw = aay Greenhills L.204, L210 L.21I L.2 x x ? x x x x x? x x x x x x x x Xx 82 JOHN ROBERTS L.86 Lewinsbrook Cladochonus tenuicollis (McCoy) Auloporoid coral Ramipora sp. Fenestella 3 spp. Lingula sp. Orbiculoidea sp. Schuchertella sp. Streptorhynchus sp. Linoproductus sp. Pustula sp. _Devonoproductus sp. Phricodothyris sp. Spiriferoid n. gen. A Cletothyridina 2 spp. Thomasania sp. Ptychospira sp. . ? Delythris sp. Camarotoechia sp. Balanoconcha sp. Aviculopecten tesselatus (Phillips) Aviculopecten sp. Streblochondria sp. Cyrtosymbole (waribole) sp. L.50 Gresford Quarry (including L.218) Cladochonus tenuicollis (McCoy) Platycrinites sp. Schuchertella sp. ? Devonoproductus sp. Spiriferoid n. gen. A Cleiothynidina sp. L.203 Hill above Gresford Quarry (Antiquatonia horizon) Schuchertella sp. Phricodothynis sp. Antiquatonia sp. Syringothyris sp. Euomphalus sp. Onthonychia sp. Trevallyn L.207, L.208, L.233 Prolecamtes sp. Fenestella sp. Ramipora bifurcata Crockford ? Sochkineophyllum sp. Lophophylloid coral Schuchertella cf. pseudoseptata Campbell Werna australis Campbell Cleiothyridina australis Maxwell Phnicodothyris sp. Spiriferoid n. gen. A Ptychospira sp. Krotovia sp. Linoproductus sp. Camarotoechia sp. Rhynchonelloid indet. Balanoconcha sp. Aviculopecten tesselatus (Phillips) Streblochondna sp. Phillipsia ci. woodward: Etheridge Jr. Discussion of Geological Age—In the Lewins- | brook-Gresford Quarry collection the following genera are not older than Tournaisian : Platycrinites Cletothyridina Gomtocladia Dictyoclostus Pustula Linoproductus Unispirifer Streptorhynchus Brachythyns Phillipsia However, the occurrence of Devonoproductus and Thomasaria, both of which are characteristic of the Upper Devonian overseas, suggests a Lower Tournaisian age for the assemblage. Devonoproductus occurs in the Upper Devonian of North America in the Independence Shale of Iowa. (Stainbrook, 1943.) Thomasaria has been found in the Upper Givetian and Frasnian of Belgium (Vander- cammen, 1956) ; and in the Independence Shale of Iowa (Stainbrook, 1945). At Trevallyn the goniatite Prolecamites occurs with a typical Tournaisian fauna low in the Carboniferous sequence. This age for Pvo- lecanites appears to be anomalous, and disagrees with palaeontological and_ field evidence. Prolecamtes is known from the Upper Missis- sippian of U.S.A. (Moore, 1948), and the Middle Visean of Europe and the Middle East (Delépine, 1941). Regional Correlation—The Bingleburra Forma- tion can probably be correlated with the lower portions of the Burindi Mudstones, Merlewood Section, Werrie Basin (Carey, 1937). Ararat Formation Name—tThe name is derived from Mt. Ararat, 54 miles south-east of Gresford. Type Sectton—The type section extends from 46179968-46279968, along Lewinsbrook Creek, on the western limb of Lewinsbrook Syncline and has a thickness of 1,500 ft. The base of the Ararat Formation is taken as the base of oolitic limestone lens “a”. This unit lenses towards the north, and is not represented in the type section. The top of the formation is 66 ,) the top of oolitic limestone lens “ c Lithology—The formation in the type section is composed of three sedimentary units which to date are unmappable away from Lewinsbrook syncline. A basal fine grained sandstone unit approximately 400 ft. thick is often quite thinly bedded in units of 2-4 ft., and has no sedimentary structures. This is overlain by approximately GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, N.S.W. 83 500 ft. of dark brown fossiliferous mudstones with bedding approximately 1 ft. thick, and 550 ft. of coarser grained sandstone with beds always greater than 6 ft. thick which become cross stratified towards the top. This unit is an excellent cliff former. Minor elements in the formation are oolitic limestone lenses a, b, c, and one crinoidal limestone lens. Fine grained tuffaceous sandstones in the lower unit become more lithic in the upper division of the formation. Grainsize ranges from 0-5 mm. in the lower unit to 5 mm. in the upper unit, the grains being sub-angular to sub- rounded, and well sorted. Plagioclase feldspar is oligoclase-andesine Ab,An,. Quartz is minor. Rock fragments are entirely volcanics ; andesitic and dacitic fragments ranging from coarsely crystalline forms to trachytic types. Moderate amounts of volcanic glasses also occur. The cement is calcite and chlorite. All sandstones, with the exceptions of occasional calcareous sandstones, have a _ grey-green colour, and weather to a buff shade. Calcareous sandstones which are pale blue when fresh, and weather to a black colour, frequently contain oolite grains, and are cemented by a coarsely crystalline calcite cement. Oolitic limestones are impure, with feldspar, quartz and rock fragments forming the nuclei of the oolite grains. Regional Variattons—Lewinsbrook Syncline- Mt. Ararat: Rocks of the Ararat Formation crop out along the axis of Lewinsbrook Syncline, from Bingleburra to Mt. Ararat. The steep western scarp of Mt. Ararat is formed by the upper sandstone unit of the Ararat Formation. At the top of the scarp these sandstones are conformably overlain by coarse red zeolitic sandstones belonging to the Wallaringa Forma- tion. The boundary between the two formations is obscured by a basalt residual covering the top of the mountain. Eastern Limb, Lewinsbrook Syncline : Oolitic limestone lenses ‘‘a’’ and ‘‘ b”’ are absent from this section. Greenhills: A thin sequence of fossiliferous siltstones and sandstones, containing a lens of impure limestone, is present on the crest of -Hilldale anticline. The sequence is most prob- ably a facies variation in the upper sandstone unit of the Ararat Formation. Faulting obscures its relationship to the underlying sediments. Fauna—tThe Greenhills fauna probably has approximately the same age as the fauna present at the base of the Bonnington Formation. Polyozoa from L.53 are taken from Crockford (1951). | L.53 Greenhills Fistulipora miran Crockford Fistulamina tmornata Crockford Goniocladia laxa (de Koninck) Fenestella propinqua de Koninck Fenestella acarinata (Crockford) Hemitrypa clarket Crockford Streblotrvpa parallella Crockford Lophophylloid coral Schuchertella sp. Werriea sp. Schizophoria sp. Rhipidomella australis (McCoy) Dictyoclostus simplex Campbell Dictyoclostus paradoxus Campbell Waagenoconcha delicatula Campbell Leptagonia sp. Umspirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun) ? Pseudosyrinx exuperans (de Koninck) Asyrinxia lata (McCoy) Brachythyris davidis Maxwell Phricodothyris sp. Cletothyndina australis Maxwell Streptorhynchus sp. Camarotoechia sp. Balanoconcha sp. Aviculopecten ptychotis (McCoy) Aviculopecten sp. Euomphalus sp. Platyceras sp. Tentaculites sp. Michelinoceras sp. Phillipsia cf. dungogensis Mitchell. Age and Correlation—After comparing bryozoa from Greenhills and Glen William with overseas species Crockford (1951) reached the conclusion that their age was equivalent to the Osage Series of U.S.A., and, consequently, with the Upper Tournaisian. Campbell (1957) notes that the faunas from Greenhills and Babbin- boon are very similar. A comparison of the brachiopods from Babbinboon with overseas material suggests an Upper Tournaisian age. On this evidence it is fairly certain that the age of the Greenhills fauna is Upper Tournaisian. Bonnington Formation Name—The Bonnington Formation is named after the property ‘‘ Lower Bonnington ”, approximately 10 miles north-east of Gresford. Type Section—This section lies immediately above the type section of the Ararat Formation, along Lewinsbrook Creek, 46289970, and has a 84 JOHN ROBERTS thickness of approximately 400 ft. The basal beds of the Bonnington Formation overlie oolitic limestone lens “c”’ of the Ararat Forma- tion, while the top of the formation is conform- ably overlain by massive Flagstaff Sandstones. Lithology—At the base of the formation hard, grey, fossiliferous siltstones in beds 9 in.—1 ft. thick overlie oolite ““c’”’. They are fine grained, grainsize being less than 0:2 mm.; grains are angular and are set in a fine feldspathic and chloritic groundmass. The _ siltstones pass upwards into dense black cherty mudstones, containing occasional beds of soft brown mudstones. Regional Variation—The Bonnington Forma- tion is known only from Lewinsbrook Syncline. Fauna—Two fossil localities, L.204 and L.206, occur on one horizon at the base of the formation. L.204, L.206 Lewinsbrook Syncline Fenestella sp. Cladochonus tenuicollis (McCoy) Lophophylloid coral Schuchertella sp. Schizophoria sp. Rhipidomella australis (McCoy) Dictyoclostus simplex Campbell Leptagoma sp. Umspirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun) Asyrinxia lata (McCoy) Ptychospira sp. Phricodothyris sp. Brachythyris sp. Camarotoechia sp. Cletothyridina australis Maxwell Platycrimites sp. Phillipsia cf. dungogensis Mitchell. Age and Correlation—This fauna is approxi- mately equivalent to the Greenhills fauna and has an Upper Tournaisian age. Flagstaff Sandstone Name—The name is derived from Flagstaff Hill, 1,833 ft., 46121004. Type Section—The type section of Flagstaff Sandstone extending from 46289970-46431015, north-east along an unnamed tributary of Lewinsbrook Creek, has a thickness of 5,500-++ ft. The basal beds conformably overlie mudstones of the Bonnington Formation, and the highest known bedslie against the northern continuation of Lewinsbrook Fault. Lithology—The Flagstaff Sandstone consists of dark green tuffaceous sandstones, and several very minor developments of grey siltstone, and mudstone. The rocks weather from yellow due to iron staining. Sandstones range from fine grained labile to coarse, tuffaceous sand- stones of a dominantly lithic nature, the latter type constituting the bulk of the formation. Bedding is massive, and has a thickness of greater than 10 ft. Sedimentary structures are absent. Grainsize varies from a minimum of 0:3 mm. in labile sandstones, to a maximum of 2mm. in tuffaceous sandstones. The grains are angular and sorting is moderate. Plagioclase feldspar is oligoclase-andesine, Ab,Ang, at the base of the formation, and becomes slightly more basic in the upper parts of the sequence. Quartz is generally minor. Rock fragments are derived from an andesitic and dacitic volcanic source. Glassy and microcrystalline volcanics are also present. The cement consists of two chlorites, a —ve Penninite; pale green in thin section, showing anomalous blue colours under crossed nicols; optically —ve, with small 2V ; pleochroic scheme, X pale green, Y green, Z green; and a magnesium-rich chlorite containing some iron, having a composition of between jenkinsite and delessite; optically negative ; birefringence approximately 0-010 ; usually with a spherulitic habit. to a dark red colour, the latter coloration being : ; Regional Variation—Colstoun Basin: Flag- staff Sandstones underlie a thin development of the Wallaringa Formation on the southern side of Colstoun, 45449938. In this area the Flagstaff Sandstones are usually cross bedded, indicating a shallowing of the marine basin. South of Colstoun, brown fossiliferous mud- stones containing the Dunvegan fossil horizon, L.211, occur 300 ft. below the Martins Creek Andesite. Fauna—The Dunvegan horizon has approxi- mately the same stratigraphic position as the Daviesiella aspinosa horizon, found at Wiragulla, near Dungog, and L.210 Toryburn. Faulting and alluvium obscure stratigraphic relations at the latter locality. L.210 Toryburn Schizophoria sp. Rhipidomella australis (McCoy) Schuchertella sp. Leptagonia sp. Daviesiella aspinosa (Dun) Dictyoclostus sp. Pustula cf. abbotts Campbell Unispirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun) Aviculopecten tesselatus (Phillips) Baylea sp. Euomphalus sp. GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, N.S.W. 85 L.211 Dunvegan Caninia sp. Schizophonia cf. verulamensis Cvancara Rhipidomella sp. Schuchertella cf. pseudoseptata Campbell Phricodothyns sp. Brachythyris cf. pseudovalis Campbell Balanoconcha sp. Euomphalus sp. Loxonema sp. Linguaphillipsia cf. divergens Cvancara. Age and Correlation—The following fossils, occurring at the base of the formation, indicate an Upper Tournaisian age for that portion of the sequence : Daviestella aspinosa (Dun) Pustula cf. abbott Campbell Umspirifer striatoconvolutus (Benson and Dun) Brachythyns cf. pseudovalis Campbell Schizophoriva cf. verulamensis Cvancara Linguaphillipsia cf. divergens Cvancara. Wallaringa Formation Name—The name is taken from “ Wal- laringa ’’’ homestead, 47049855 (new locality). The formation is equivalent to the Basal Stage (Osborne, 1922). Type Section—The section designated as type lies slightly to the east of the region under discussion, and is important in that it shows the transition from marine to non-marine conditions. The type section extends from 47209881—47389888, on the eastern limb of Wallarobba Basin. The base of the formation is approximately 100 ft. below the base of the Wallarobba Conglomerate where coarse red sandstones overlie fine grained marine sediments containing fossiliferous limestone, and _ cal- careous sandstone. The top of the formation is taken as the base of the Martins Creek Andesite. Thickness of the formation is 950 ft. Lithology—The Wallaringa Formation consists of two sedimentary units, the Wallarobba Conglomerate Member, near the base of the Formation, and a coarse red tuffaceous sand- stone sequence. Wallarobba Conglomerate Member This unit was first defined by Sussmilch and David (1919), and is here designated as a member of the Wallaringa Formation. The Wallarobba Conglomerate is best known from the exposures on the eastern end of Wallarobba Tunnel, North Coast Railway, where it is approximately 350 ft. thick. The maximum pebble size is 18 in., with an average of 2-4 in. diameter. A pebble sample reveals a higher percentage of sedimentary and plutonic frag- ments, compared with conglomerates in the Bingleburra Formation. Volcanic pebbles .. 52% intermediate volcanics, felsites. Sedimentary _,, 33% quartzites, siltstones. Plutonic 3 15% granites, syenites. Regional Varniation—The Wallarobba Con- glomerate Member has a variable thickness because of lensing towards the north and north- west. Thin conglomerates occur in the Wal- laringa Formation on the western slopes of Mt. Ararat, and west of Gresford, on the Singleton road. Sandstones. Tuffaceous sandstones, in beds of more than 6 ft. thick, remain coarse throughout the formation. Sedimentary structures are generally absent. Grainsize varies from 0-5-3 mm. ; grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded, and are moderately sorted. Quartz is minor, and is often fractured. Plagioclase feldspar is dominantly andesine, Ab,An;. Rock fragments include andesites, dacites and fine grained sedimentary fragments. A minor amount of chlorite is present in the cement. The major cementing mineral is probably stilbite. It is colourless, stained red by iron minerals, has a fibrous and sometimes pseudorhombic habit, and possesses the following optical properties : biaxial negative; 2V approximately 30-35° ; low birefringence, 0-008; extinction angle between 0-5°; Nz is 1-502, +0-002; X is parallel to the length of elongation. Regional Variation of the Formation—The Wallaringa Formation is a transgressive, non- marine formation intertonguing in the north with the Flagstaff Sandstone. Thickness of the formation decreases to the north and west. The Wallarobba Conglomerate is not repre- sented north of the town of Gresford, while in the same area zeolitic sandstones underlying the Martins Creek Andesite have a thickness of less than 100 ft. Because of lack of exposures in the Mt. Ararat- Mt. Brecon area, mapping of the Wallarobba Conglomerate was not attempted. The Wallaringa Formation overlies the Daviesiella fauna at Wiragulla. Since marine fossils are absent from the formation its exact age 1s unknown. 86 JOHN ROBERTS Gilmore Volcanics Name—The name is taken from Gilmore Hill, 608 ft., 48329683 (Paterson One-mile Sheet), 2 miles south-east of Clarencetown. This formation is equivalent to the Volcanic Stage (Osborne, 1922). Type Section — This extends from 48039683-48189675 (Paterson One-mile Sheet), Gilmore Hill. (Also section A-B, Geological Map of the Clarencetown-Paterson District (Osborne, 1922).) Details of the section may be seen in Osborne, 1922, text-fig. 1, and 1949, pp. 296-297. The base of the formation is the base of the Martins Creek Andesite. Ignimbrites, tuffs, and conglomerates in the upper portions of the sequence are conformably overlain by the Mt. Johnstone Beds. Regional Variation—The extent of regional variation is shown in sections of the Gilmore Volcanics in Sussmilch and David (1919) and Osborne (1922-1949). Mt. Brecon: No detailed stratigraphy has been undertaken on the Gilmore Volcanics. Fine grained tuffaceous sandstones associated with ignimbrites and lavas in the Mt. Brecon section are mainly labile sandstones. Plagio- clase feldspar is generally andesine. Quartz is more abundant than in lower formations, and is frequently rounded. Grainsize ranges from 0-3-1 mm., the grains being well rounded and well sorted. The cement is a colourless zeolite, probably stilbite, stained red by iron minerals. Lavas and ignimbrites which are localized and do not extend far to the north from Mt. Brecon are replaced in the sequence by zeolitic tuffaceous sandstones similar to those in the Wallaringa Formation. Further south the Gilmore Volcanics are conformably overlain by the following units : Mt. Johnstone Beds (Sussmiich and David, 1919), approximately 2,000 ft. of sandstone, conglomerates, and localized varve shales. Paterson Toscanite (Osborne, 1922). Main Glacial Beds (Osborne, 1922), approxi- mately 1,800 ft. of varve shales, tillites, and tuffaceous sandstones. Sedimentation and Palaeogeography During the Lower Tournaisian, marine con- ditions prevailed throughout the Gresford area. Two distinct sedimentary facies were present during the deposition of both the Bingleburra and Ararat Formations. Bingleburra Formation—In this formation the facies are a shallow water platform area of sedimentation in the north, containing oolitic and crinoidal limestones, and a clastic environ- ment in the south, with massive marine con- glomerates. The two facies intertongue. Ararat Formation — Increased activity of source area resulted in the deposition of a thick blanket of tuffaceous sandstones. Oolitic and crinoidal limestones were again generally restricted to the platform area in the north. Towards the end of Ararat sedimentation, the sea shallowed in the Hilldale-Mt. Ararat area, forming a small island or peninsula (text-fig. 2A). During the Upper Tournaisian and at least the lower part of the Visean marine—non- marine environments existed contemporaneously. Marine Sedimentation Rapid deposition of sediment occurred in the north-western part of the region, while the eastern basin tended to shallow, and received less detrital material. Bonnington Formation : This formation overlies the Ararat Formation in the marine area, and appears to be restricted to the north-west of the land area. Flagstaff Sandstone: The Flagstaff Sandstone, a massive marine sandstone unit occurring to the north and north-west of the land area, intertongues with the Wallaringa Formation in the vicinity of Gresford township. Flagstaff Sandstone sedimentation was entirely marine north of Allynbrook. Non-Marine Sedimentation Wallaringa Formation: From the initial emergence it seems likely that sediments began accumulating on the land area, which was for the first part restricted to the small area around Hilldale and Mt. Ararat. Towards the end of the Tournaisian the area of non-marine sedi- mentation increased in the north, west and east (text-fig. 2B). This increase in area was accompanied by a rise in source lands and the deposition of massive conglomerate lenses, viz., the Wallarobba Conglomerate. Gilmore Volcanics : The outburst of vulcanism from a number of centres on the land area in the south provided fresh sources of sediment for both marine and non-marine environments. Osborne (1949) lists the following volcanic centres near Gresford: Mt. Brecon, Martins Creek, Glenoak, and Gilmore Hill. Fresh water sandstones are common in the Gilmore Volcanics. Mt. Johnstone Beds and Glacial Stage: Fol- lowing the slackening of volcanic activity, non- marine sedimentation continued in the southern area. Glaciation commenced, depositing varves and tillites over a wide area of the non-marine environment. 87 N.S.W. 5] GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT JNOLSONYS—IN/YrW YId770 [ee] JNOLSGNW—IN/IYYW MOTTVHS [J JNOLSONYS — IM/YrYW NON BY] I7TVO77IH LVOUVUY iW UOIZLJUSWIIPSS VSULIE]TTEAA JO PUS OY} }e DOUBSIOWIA }Ss0}P0I3 Jo O8eIC “q UOT}EJUSUIpES JEIeIV JO pus oY} je DOUDSIOWIO [eI}IUT “VW JOTIJSIC] PIOJso1x4) oY} JO suleiseIp oryde1800800KR[eg 6 OIA —®, = NOI74G IW - . 79077/H “NOIIVG LW —|- —_-_ lc GYOIS7IY) 88 JOHN ROBERTS The Sandstones Tuffaceous sandstones are difficult to place in any of the accepted classifications. Using the classification of Packham (1954), all sandstones from the Gresford district fall into the Labile Sandstone field. The mineralogy of the sand- stone is as follows. Plagioclase feldspars from the lower and middle portions of the sequence have an average composition of Ab,An,, oligoclase-andesine. They become slightly more basic towards the top of the Flagstaff Sandstone, where they are andesine. Quartz is generally minor throughout the sequence, but becomes more abundant in the Gilmore Volcanics. It is typically shattered, and has an uneven extinction. Rock fragments are almost exclusively of volcanic origin, ranging from andesites to dacites in composition. Fine grained microcrystalline volcanics and glasses occur throughout the sequence. Accessory minerals include biotite, horne- blende, iron ore, zircon, and apatite. Cementing minerals in sandstones provide significant differences in lithology in the various formations in the Gresford District. Formation Gilmore Volcanics Wallaringa Fm. Flagstaff Sandstone Ararat Fm. Bingleburra Fm. Since in this area there is no evidence of altera- tion in the nature of the cements with depth of burial, the composition of cements will depend on the original composition of the rock, and the environment of deposition. The significance of the cementing minerals becomes apparent when the environment of deposition is considered. Sandstones of the Bingleburra and Ararat Formations, deposited in a calcareous rich marine environment, are cemented by calcite and minor chlorite. Non-marine conditions, combined with nearby volcanic activity, produced a chemical environ- ment suitable for the formation of a zeolite cement, in the Wallaringa Formation, and the Gilmore Volcanics. The zeolite cementing mineral does not appear to be due to the depth of burial, but is a localized feature controlled by the chemical environment. Zeolitic rocks intertongue with the Flagstaff Sandstone. The Flagstaff Sandstone, deposited in the marine environment, synchronously with the Wallaringa Formation and Gilmore Volcanics, is cemented by chlorite. The marine environ- — ment to the north of Gresford was no longer © rich in calcareous organisms, possibly because of the onset of a colder climate, and the increased rate of sedimentation. The abundance of intermediate volcanic fragments in all sandstones points to an andesitic island arc source area. Voisey (1959b) suggested this type of source area for most of the New England Eugeosyncline during the Devonian and Carboniferous. Structure The Gresford District is situated in a complex structural position, at the intersection of north- westerly trending fold axes with the basin belt on the north-eastern margin of the Hunter Thrust and the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. The generalized tectonic position is given by Voisey (1959a, Fig. 1). Osborne’s concept of the Gresford-Wallarobba Anticline has been revised. The structure contour map was_ prepared using the height contours on the Dungog One- mile Military Sheet. Zero feet is taken at the top of the Ararat Formation. Datum points Cementing Mineral Colourless zeolite (Stilbite) ,, minor chlorite Chlorite (negative Penninite, Jenkinsite-Delessite) Calcite, with minor chlorite Calcite, with minor chlorite were obtained where this boundary, and other beds at a known stratigraphic distance above or below the top of the Ararat Formation crossed contour lines on the One-mile Sheet. Dotted contours are approximations where datum points were unobtainable. Folding Folds trend generally in a _ north-south direction. Basin structures in the southern portions of the area link up with synclinal axes, at times grading into true synclines towards the north. Carey and Osborne (1939) suggest that deflected fold axes are due to rotational stress caused by movement on the Hunter Thrust. In this area sigmoidal curvature of fold axes occurs between the basins. Lewinsbrook Syncline is a closed, plunging, asymmetrical syncline. For presentation of structural details it is divided into the southern area of closure and the northern area. GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, N.S.W. 89 Southern area of closure: The axial plane has an average dip to the north-west of 55° and strikes at N70°E. The angle between the steep western limb and the axial plane is 65°, while that between the shallowly dipping eastern limb and the axial plane is 35°. Northern area: The axial plane has twisted from its southern orientation, dips at approxi- mately 60° to the east, and strikes at 360°. The angle between the shallow western limb and the axial plane is 32°, while that between the steep eastern limb and the axial plane is 60°. The axis plunges northwards at 5°. Lewins- brook Syncline extends 5 miles north from Bingleburra Homestead before being truncated by Lewinsbrook Fault. To the south the synclinal axis plunges into the Ararat Basin. The Avarat Basin is a shallow structure with an elongate northern closure. All the margins except the northern end are truncated by faults. In the northern area of closure the axial plane has an average dip to the east of 80°, and strikes at 360°. The angle between both the shallow western limb, and the steeper eastern limb, and the axial plane, is 55°. The central part of the basin is symmetrical, and is surrounded by uniformly dipping limbs. In the northern portion of the basin the axis plunges at approximately 3° to the south. The Colstoun and Gresford Basins are two shallow basins situated on a sigmoidal synclinal axis. The change in plunge between the basins occurs at Gresford township. The Colstoun Basin is a long, narrow, symmetrical basin, closed at both ends, extending from Gresford to Allynbrook. The axial plane is sigmoidally twisted, approximately vertical, and has a general strike of 360°. At the southern closure the axis strikes at 150°. The plunge at either end of the basin is less than 5°. Colstoun Basin is flanked on both sides by shallow anti- clinal structures which on present evidence appear to be out of harmony with the major folds in the area. The Gresford Basin is a broader and less well defined structure, all margins except the northern closure being faulted. The axial plane is vertical, strikes at approximately 200°, and plunges to the south at approximately 3°. The Wallarobba Basin has previously been described by Osborne (1950). The western limb is truncated by Hilldale Fault. The axial plane is vertical, the axis having only shallow plunges at either end of the basin. The eastern limb of the synclinal axis, of which the Walla- robba Basin is part, extends almost as far north as Mt. Windeyer, 1,245 ft., 46999985. The Hulldale Anticline is the only major anticlinal structure present in the Gresford area, and is extensively broken by normal and reverse faults. The anticlinal crest is visible at Greenhills, where it plunges slightly to the south-east. This structure was first recognized by Osborne (1922). Faulting Major faults in the Gresford district are long strike faults, usually following anticlinal trends. The larger faults are discussed below. Others may be seen-on the cross section and the geological and structure contour maps. Lewinsbrook Fault has been previously mapped, and named by Osborne (1950). Itisa steep reverse fault, having a strike of approxi- mately 360°, and an estimated throw of 3,000 ft., just north of Mt. Richardson. The fault plane plunges south. Camyr Allyn Fault is named after Camyr Allyn bridge, Gresford. The southern portions of the fault branch and are disrupted by numerous smaller fractures in the neighbourhood of Gresford Quarry. The Camyr Allyn fault is a steep reverse fault, striking at essentially 360°, and has a throw varying from 3,500 ft. near Allynbrook, to 600 ft. near Mt. Brecon. The eastern side of the fault is the upthrow side. Hilldale Fault has previously been mapped in part by Osborne (1950). The author has traced it further to the north, where its strike swings from N 20° E to 360°. Throw in the southern portion is not more than 500 ft. where the eastern side is the down throw side. In the north, the fault has a throw of approximately 1,000 ft. Structural Evolution The views of Osborne (1950) regarding the movements in the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny in the Hunter-Manning-Myall province may be summarized as follows: 1. End of Muree, stress from the east com- menced the folding of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough, and the Lochinvar Dome. 2. Upper Marine time, this stress is renewed, the above structures becoming major tectonic features. 3. Change in stress direction, with maximum compressive stress from the north-east. 4. Movement on the Hunter Thrust caused rotational stress and the formation of the basin belt. The structural trends in the Gresford district roughly parallel the Stroud-Gloucester Trough, but north-west of this area there is a tendency for 90 JOHN ROBERTS trends to assume a north-westerly direction. It is suggested that the presence of the Stroud- Gloucester Trough as an active tectonic feature during the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny prevented folds on its margins assuming the normal north-westerly trends impressed upon the area in the major stages of deformation. Later movements on the Hunter Thrust produced rotational stress forming the basin belt, extending from the southern tip of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough to the Werrie Basin (Voisey, 1959a). The rotational stress may have been responsible for the changes in plunge along synclinal axes, some distance from the thrust, forming narrow elongate basins similar to the Colstoun Basin. The axes of these basins also show a slight sigmoidal curvature. Faults were also influenced by the presence of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough, which inter- fered with the maximum stress direction. Major fractures are steep reverse faults, more or less parallel to the trough, usually situated along anticlinal crests. Fossil Localities The following localities, listed in stratigraphic order, comprise the major fossil horizons in the Gresford District. L.211 Dunvegan, 45109898 Camberwell One- mile Sheet. Dam excavation at the top of a rounded hill south-west of the Paterson River. L.210 Toryburn, 45959855. Creek bank immediately behind the house at /fory burns L.206 Lewinsbrook Syncline, 46279968. Bank of Lewinsbrook Creek 75 yards south of stockyards. Lewinsbrook Syncline, 46409953. Eastern side of the hill forming the nose of Lewinsbrook Syncline; Richardson’s farm. Greenhills, 46609790 Paterson One-mile Sheet. Gully one-quarter of a mile north of the Martins Creek-Dungog road. Trevallyn, 45689862 Trevallyn quarry. Gresford-Paterson road. L.204 L.53 L.207 L.233 Trevallyn, 45759864. Gully to the north-east of Trevallyn Quarry. L.208 Trevallyn, 45759864. Eastern slope of hill one-quarter of a mile north-east of Trevallyn quarry. Antiquatonia horizon, 45989908. Near the head of a gully on the hill half a mile east of Gresford quarry. L.203 L.218 Gresford Quarry, 45809912. Gully 50 yards to the east of Gresford quarry. L.50 Gresford Quarry, 45789913. Lewins- brook road, one mile north-east of Gresford. L.86 Lewinsbrook, 46089885. Gully to the west of the Lewinsbrook-Gresford road approximately half a mile north-east of Lewinsbrook school. L.65 Lewinsbrook, 46089882. Includes L.215, L.216; and L217-> "South pank “of small gully 40 yards east of L.86. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank relatives in the Gresford district for their assistance during field work: Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Wilson, Brink- burn, Gresford ; Mrs. F. J. Lawrence, Gresford ; and Mrs. G. Leggett, “ Gostwyck ’”’, Martins Creek: He is grateful to Professor A. H. Voisey, Dr. K.S. W. Campbell, and Dr. H. J. Harrington, University of New England, for considerable advice on the problem. Dr. Campbell gave valuable advice in the preparation of the manuscript. Finance for the research was provided by a C.S.I.R.O. Junior Post-Graduate Studentship. Bibliography AUSTRALIAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE (8rd Ed.), J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 6, 64-70. CaREY, S. W., AND Browne, W. R., 1938. Review of the Carboniferous Stratigraphy, Tectonics and Palaeogeography of New South Wales and Queens- land. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 71, 591-614. CaREY, S. W., AND OSBORNE, G. D., 1938. Preliminary Note on the Nature of the Stresses Involved in the Late Palaeozoic Diastrophism in New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 72, 199-208. CROCKFORD, J., 1947. Bryozoa from the Lower Carboniferous of New South Wales and Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 72, 1-48. CROCKFORD, J., 1951. The Development of Bryozoan Faunas in the Upper Palaeozoic of Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 105-122. CAMPBELL, K. S. W., 1957. A Lower Carboniferous Brachiopod Coral Fauna from New South Wales. Jour. Paleontology, 31, 34-98. DELEPINE, G., 1941. Les goniatites du Carbonifére du Maroc et des confins Algéro-Marocains du Sud. (Dinantian-Westphalian). Protect. Etat. Franc Maroc Direct. gén. trav. publ. Div. mines et géol. Serv. géol. Notes et Mém., 56, 1-111. Moore, R. C., 1948. Paleontological Features of Mississippian Rocks in North America and Europe. J. Geology, 56, 373-402. OsBoRNE, G. D., 1922. The Geology and Petrography of the Clarencetown-Paterson District. Part I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 48, 161-198. OsBorNE, G. D., 1949. The Kuttung Vulcanicity of the Hunter-Karuah District, with special Reference to the Occurrence of Ignimbrites. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 83, 288-301. GEOLOGY OF GRESFORD DISTRICT, N.S.W. 91 OsBORNE, G. D., 1950. The Structural Evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province, New South Wales. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Monogr. 1, 79 pp. PackHaM, G. H., 1954. Sedimentary Features as an Important Factor in the Classification of Sand- stones. Amer. J. Sci., 252, 466-476. STAINBROOK, M. A., 1943. Strophomenacea of the Cedar Valley Limestone of Iowa. J. Paleont., 17, 39-59. STAINBROOK, M. A., 1945. Brachiopoda of the Inde- pendence Shale of Iowa. Geol. Soc. Amer., Mem. 14, 58 pp. SussMILcH, C. A., AND Davin, T. W. E., 1919. Sequence, Glaciation and Correlation of the Carboniferous Rocks of the Hunter River District, New, South ‘Wales.’ J. Proc.-Roy--Soc. N.S.W., 53, 246-338. VANDERCAMMEN, A., 1956. Révision des Anbocoeliinae de la Belgique. Bull. Inst. voy. Sci. nat. Belg., 32, No. 43, 1-51. VorisEY, A. H., 1957. Further Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 91, 165-189. VoIsEY, A. H., 1959a. Tectonic Evolution of North- Eastern New South Wales. J. Proce. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92, 191-203. VoisEy, A. H., 19596. Australian Geosynclines. Aust. J. Sci., 22, No. 5, 188-198. L. A. Cotton School of Geology University of New England Armidale, N.S.W. Present Address : Department of Geology University of Western Australia Perth, W.A. = fr Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 93-99, 1961 On a Group of Transforms Containing the Fourier Transforms JAMES L, GRIFFITH (Received October 26, 1960) ABSTRACT—The Fourier transforms considered in this paper are those defined by aco)= (ait) | (k(xy)/y) fly dy 0 where the Mellin transform of k(%)/x¥ is K(s)/(1—s) with K(s) bounded on the line s=4+271. By adjoining to this set of transforms a set of transforms of the type OO) a(x) =(d/dx) | (R(y) ly) xflay)ady 0 we can form a group. In this paper, author comments on some of the subgroups which are determined by simple properties of the A(*). 1 The N- transform in L? is defined by N (1.1) 7S) -— lem: x81) dx nao J 1/7 =N{[f(x)] where s=4-+7t (—a8sondy=xteco a) +(0/0) (49) — aye = hy( 2) +4h,(1/x) —2h,(1). 96 JAMES L. GRIFFITH In order to verify that if equation (3.1) holds then K(4+7t)—K(4—1t), we substitute the defining expressions for each of the terms on right side of (3.1) and use the previously determined expression for | yk(y)dy. After collection of terms we obtain 1 2 TEEN Ses 1 | K(s gut) K(3 avid | KG Se) =— u) a, 2 (0 (¢) meee Thus i K (3+) —K(}—11) at C which belongs to L? (0, 00) only if C=0. This gives the required result. The k,(x) of the transform S, can be treated similarly. Since (27)a—2k, (x) = | " RG4i)G—ooae (27) i ; yt y)ay= | hin" cig! = | K (4-it)(4—it)44-2 “Wat 44-1 { K (4—it) (4 —it)—1x +E. — 3) Since K($+7t)=K(}—7t), this may be written as (3.2) i yh, (y)dy=x-* hy (x) +(1/2) Equation (3.2) shows that (3.3) lim [x—1k,(x) +h,(1/x)]=0 and that (3.4) [ y*hy(y)dy=2k(1) —xky (x) —2y (1/*), the last of which corresponds to equation (3.1). Then using equation (1.8) we may obtain (3.5) lim [x—1k,(x) +,(1/x)]=0 x—> 0 A simple but illustrative example is to take K(s)=1, from which we find that 4 Ov male) f5 bend le and 0, 0<*1, 9 ily 0, 01 and =0, otherwise, we have N-1 aa =a hy(x) —K(1) (0) =0 for x>eT and for xe?f oret for x eT. Thus References Boas, R. P. Jnr, 1954. Entire Functions. Academic Tircumarsu, E. C., 1948. Fourier Integrals. Oxford. Press, New York. DoetscHo, G., 1939. Die eigenwerte und _ eigen- funktionen von Integral-transformationen. Math. Ann., 117, 106-128. School of Mathematics The University of New South Wales Kensington TITCHMARSH, E. C., 1944. Theory of Functions. Oxford. a + Pry eee ne Annual Reports by the President and Council PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 5, 1961 The President’s Report At the outset, may: I express my sincere appreciation of the honour conferred on me by the Council in nominating me as your President, particularly since it was made during my absence overseas on extended leave, the annual meeting and installation to office occurring only a few days after my return. It has been a most successful year, and a great privilege to have worked with folk of the calibre of our executive officers, councillors, and office staff, and I thank them heartily for the kindness, encouragement and help which they, individually and collectively, have given me throughout my service as councillor, treasurer, Vice-President, and last year as President. Mr. Harley Wood, Government Astronomer, and Past President of this Society, who had previously served as Honorary Administration Secretary, returned to that office in 1958 and remained therein for me as experienced adviser and friend. Dr. Alan Day, our Honorary Editorial Secretary in 1959, also remained to carry out his difficult job with enthusiasm and ability, not only making the usual arrangements regarding referees, costing, and the printing of papers in our Journal, but introducing innovations such as the publication of the Journal in bi-monthly parts, which is of advantage to authors and assists us financially, and the printing of special notices of our monthly meetings for distribution in those places where our proceedings are, or should be, of interest. These notices contributed, in no small measure, to the marked increase in attendance at our meetings. Mr. Adamson, serving his third term as Honorary Treasurer, has again demonstrated that our finances are in safe hands. The library committee, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Poggendorf, Honorary Librarian, held several meetings, and recommended disposal, to best advantage of ourselves and the recipients, of our holdings of various journals, periodicals and books no _ longer retained on our exchange list or suitable for retention in our library and the acquisition by exchange, or purchase, of those publications considered useful to the Society. The Immediate Past President, Mr. Harper, acted for me at the April Council meeting and the May General meeting when an accident and subsequent sojourn in hospital prevented my attendance. Mr. McCarthy, a Past President, took the chair at the August Council meeting when I was unavoidably absent. The other members of the Council have co-operated with the Executive in making the business of the Council proceed smoothly, expeditiously, and harmoni- ously, and their interest is evidenced in other ways such as the nomination of new members, Father Fynn’s willingness to give an address on “ Chilean Earthquakes ”’ at a general meeting, and so on. We are especially pleased to see that the number of Associate Members, i.e. undergraduates and spouses of members, is steadily increasing, because therein lies future membership potential. In July 1960, the Royal Society of London, senior scientific Society of the world, celebrated the Ter- centenary of its foundation by a great gathering in that city of representatives of the world’s principal centres of research and learning. Such an internationally significant occasion recalls that from its inception the chief concern of the Royal Society of London has been to maintain relations with men of science throughout the world. Even during major wars which England has waged, such as the Napoleonic wars and the American Revolution, here was one Society where nationality did not prevent men of science of every known discipline from friendly communication with each other. We are honoured in that several of our Honorary Members, and Members, are Fellows of that august body and know that some were present at the Tercentenary celebrations, but we were pleased to send the Royal Society of London our heartiest con- gratulations as one of its many daughter Royal Societies of similar aim in the British Commonwealth. During the year the Royal Australian Chemical Institute asked to be supplied with a history of this Society for publication in their Journal. This was kindly prepared by Dr. W. R. Browne, a distinguished Past President of this Society. Council adopted my suggestion that an Addendum, containing the list of Past Executive Officers since our inception in 1821, be added, and that reprints of the whole, available by courtesy of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, be obtained for members. This will be the first record of its kind compiled by the Society, and could perhaps be kept up to date decennially. At our October meeting I had the great privilege of admitting two distinguished Australians as Honorary Members of this Society in the persons of Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S., Nobel Prize winner and President of the Royal Institution, London, and Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn, Chancellor of the University of Sydney, also of world reputation and for whom we hold sincere affection. Sir Lawrence Bragg’s address, later than evening, was a model in substance, interest and delivery, which would be difficult to match. We are proud of the quality of our Honorary Members, most of whom reside abroad, as does Sir Lawrence, and have been unable to receive personal welcome. It can be seen that our Society has never lost interest in the specialist societies and institutions which necessarily have had to form independent bodies in their own disciplines. It remains a society of amateurs of science and, as such, academical qualifications are not essential for membership, but there is required, as in 1821, a desire to learn and to give of one’s know- ledge. It is not surprising therefore to find members of specialist bodies, which do require academic quali- fication, among our most enthusiastic members. Here we can learn something of what is being done in other disciplines and, on the broader knowledge, not only have a better understanding of our own calling but, by lifting our eyes above the rut of our (necessarily in these days) restricted specialized work, be able to see what goes on in the world around us. 102 In company with Mr. Harley Wood I called on our Patron, the State Governor, Sir Eric Woodward, on 28th July, when he stressed the important part that Science and Scientific bodies are playing in the world today. Ialso paid a courtesy call to the then Chairman of the Public Service Board, the late Wallace Wurth, and attended on the Society’s behalf the following functions : Annual Meeting of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute and address by Sir Alexander Todd, 1.9.60. The Opening of the New Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of New South Wales, 6.9.60. The Opening of the new wing to the Australian Museum, 11.8.60. The Opening of the new Chemistry School at the University of Sydney, 28.6.60. The Opening of the Engineering and Metallurgy Building at the Australian Atomic Energy Com- mission Research Establishment at Lucas Heights, 18.11.60. The Annual Conservation Conference, N.S.W., 13.8.60. The Annual Exhibition of the Institute of Physics, 16.8.60. The annual functions of the Sydney division of the Institute of Engineers, 12.10.60, the Chamber of Manufacturers of N.S.W., 15.9.60, and the In- stitute of Surveyors, 29.3.61. The Sir William Macleay Memorial Lecture, under the auspices of the Linnean Society, N.S.W., by Professor Th. Dobzhansky, on 29.6.60. The George Judah Cohen Memorial Lecture by Professor Briggs, 1.11.60. The World Refugee Year Committee, final meeting, 16.9.60. State Reception to delegates International Sym- posium on Chemistry of Natural Products, 22.8.60. The Meeting of the Board of Visitors, Observatory, 20.4.60. Annual Presentation of Medals and Diplomas, Sydney Technical College, 15.6.60. Annual Meeting, Sydney Branch, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 16.9.60. Chaired the Meeting at the School of Chemistry, Sydney University, 13.10.60, when the Liversidge Lecture was delivered by our President-Elect, Professor Le Févre, F.R.S. Sydney Having taken my immediate presidential pre- decessor’s words to heart, I talked personally with our Armidale members, conducted preliminary corres- pondence and visited Armidale on December 12, 1960, when I was pleased to address a well attended meeting at the University of New England regarding the establishment of a branch of the Society in that centre. At the meeting it was decided to form a branch, to be called the New England Branch, and Professor P. D. F. Murray and Dr. R. L. Stanton were elected respectively provisional Chairman and _ Secretary- Treasurer. The inaugural meeting of the Branch was held on March 24, 1961. It was a most successful function to which I was accompanied by Past Presidents Drs.' Ida and W. R. Browne, and other members. Further details are recorded in the Report of Council. It, was my sorrow to represent the Society at a number of sad occasions. During the year the Society suffered the loss of a number of its distinguished members. : Their records will be found in the Obituary, but I feel impelled here to make special mention of ANNUAL REPORTS certain of those for whom our sense of loss is most — keenly felt. Our Patron, Lord Dunrossil, Governor- General, after*a lifetime of service to his country and his fellow men, died in office. He was a gentleman who in his all too short sojourn amongst us had endeared himself to all Australians. and Henry Priestley, both eminent scientists, Past Presidents, and well beloved members, and Sir Hugh Poate, distinguished surgeon, were all members of over 40 years’ standing. We also sympathize sincerely with those scientific bodies of which Dr. A. B. Edwards was a member, and to which he so freely contributed his knowledge, in their loss. Only last year this Society had awarded him the Clarke Medal for distinguished contributions in the field of geology. Finally, I tender on behalf of the Society our heart- felt thanks to all who have contributed to our welfare during the past year, to the Government of N.S.W. for its continued support, and particularly to our lecturers, members of sub-committees of Council, and our full- time Assistant Secretary, Miss Ogle, and Mrs. Huntley our Assistant Librarian, for their ready assistance. H. A. J. DONEGAN, President. Report of the Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1961 At the end of the period under review the com- position of the membership was 321 ordinary members, 8 associate members and 10 honorary members; 25 new members were elected and 12 members resigned. Two names were removed from the list of members under Rule XVIII. It is with regret that we announce the loss by death of The Rt. Hon. Viscount Dunrossil, Charles Edward Fawsitt, Neil Ernest Goldsworthy, Herbert Richard Harrington, Daryl Robert O’Dea, Sir Hugh Poate and Henry Priestley. Nine monthly meetings were held. The Proceedings of the meetings have been published in the notice paper and appear elsewhere in this issue of the ‘“ Journal and Proceedings’’. The members of Council wish to express their sincere thanks and appreciation to the seven speakers who contributed to the addresses, and also to the members who read papers at the September and December monthly meetings. At the meeting on 3rd August a film on Chile and the Andes Mountains, taken by the President during a trip, was shown. The meeting on 5th October was held conjointly with the Institute of Physics, the Chemical Society of the University of Sydney and the Chemical Society of the University of New South Wales and was devoted to a lecture by Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S., entitled ““The Royal Institution ”’. The Annual Social Function was held on 21st March and was attended by 55 members and guests. Mr. M. Tachibana, of the Japanese Consulate, was guest speaker. The Clarke Medal for 1961 was awarded to Mr. C. A. Gardner, former Government Botanist of Western Australia, for distinguished contributions in the field of botany. The Society’s Medal, for scientific contributions and for services to the Society, was awarded to Professor T. Griffith Taylor, F.A.A. No award was made for the James Cook Medal. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1960 was awarded to Professor R. D. Brown, Chemistry Department, ol Professors Charles Fawsitt — ANNUAL REPORTS Monash University, Melbourne, for outstanding con- tributions in the field of chemistry. The Archibald D. Olle Prize was awarded to Mr. H. G. Golding for his paper entitled ‘ Variation in Physical Constitution of Quarried Sandstones from Sydney and Gosford ”’ published in Volume 93 of the Society’s ‘“‘ Journal and Proceedings ’’. The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1960, entitled “ Applications in Chemistry of Properties Involving Molecular Polarizability ’’, was delivered by Professor m=}. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., School of Chemistry, University of Sydney (see Journal and Proceedings, v, 95, pp. 1-11). During the year it was found necessary to have made a new die for the Society’s Medal, as the one made in 1884 could not be located. The total cost of the die and 25 medals was £276. At the June meeting of the Council it was decided, commencing with Volume 94, to publish the “‘ Journal and Proceedings’’ in six parts. Parts 3 and 4 of Volume 93 and the first five parts of Volume 94 were published. To deal with one paper whose rapid publication was thought to be in the national interest a part was published early. The publication of the Clarke Memorial Lecture by Dr. D. E. Thomas was assisted by a grant of £150 through the Commonwealth Scientific Publications Committee. The Royal Australian Chemical Institute requested a History of the Royal Society of New South Wales for publication in the Institute’s Pyvoceedings, and Dr. W. R. Browne must be thanked for preparing a history. An addendum giving the list of executive officers of our Society since 1821 has been added to this and it is planned to make it available to members as a reprint. The Society has again received a gvant from the Government of New South Wales, the amount being £750. The Government’s interest in the work of the Society is much appreciated. The Society’s financial statement shows a deficit of £138 lls. 7d. The Section of Geology held five meetings during the year. Council held eleven ordinary meetings. The attendance of members of Council was as follows: Mr. H. A. J. Donegan 9, Mr. J. L. Griffith 8, Mr. F. N. Hanlon 5, Mr. A. F. A. Harper (absent on leave for 7 meetings) 4, Mr. F. D. McCarthy 8, Mr. Harley Wood me Dr. A. A. Day 7, Mr. C. L. Adamson 7, Father A. G. Fynn 9, Mr. J. W. Humphries (absent on leave for one meeting) 9, Mr. A. H. Low 9, Mr. H. H. G. McKern 9, Mr. W. H. G. Poggendorff 4, Mrs. K. M. Sherrard 10, Mr. G. H. Slade (absent on leave for 2 meetings 3, Mr. W. B. Smith-White 6, Mr. N..W. West 8, Mr. H. F. Whitworth 5. The Society’s representatives on Science House Management Committee were Mr. H. A. J. Donegan and Mr. C. L. Adamson. Dr. Day, on behalf of the President, attended the Commemoration of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell. The President attended the meetings of the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory. On 28th July the President and the Honorary Treasurer waited on His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales. The President and Mr. J. L. Griffith were present at the Official Opening of the Engineering and Metallurgy Building at the Australian Atomic Energy Commission 103 Research Establishment which was opened by the Prime Minister. The President visited Armidale on 13th December to attend a meeting in connection with the formation of a branch of the Society. There were about 30 at the meeting, which decided to form a New England Branch of the Royal Society of New South Wales and elected Dr. P. D. F. Murray, F.A.A., as provisional chairman. The first meeting of the branch was held on 24th March and Professor K. E. Bullen, F.R.S., F.A.A., delivered the Inaugural Address. This meeting, which was a well attended one, included the presence of the President and Past Presidents Drs. Ida A. and W. R. Browne. Sotwl Science Committee—The Committee had pre- pared its report on ‘‘ Post Cretaceous Chronology ”’ and this had been forwarded to the Australian Academy Oly Science, The Libvary—Periodicals were received by exchange from 392 societies and institutions. In addition the amount of £90 was expended on the purchase of 11 periodicals. Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library loan scheme were : N.S.W. Govt. Depts Department of Agriculture, Botanic Gardens, Forestry Commission, Main Roads Board, Department of Health, Sydney County Council, W.C. & I. Commission, Division of Wood Technology. Commonwealth Govt. Depis.—C.S.I.R.O. Head Office, Melbourne; Library, Canberra ; Chemical Research Laboratories, Melbourne; Coal Research Section, Sydney; Division of Fisheries, Cronulla; Division of Food Preservation, Homebush ; National Standards Laboratory, Sydney; Regional Pastoral Laboratory, Deniliquin; The Ian Clunies Ross Animal Research Laboratory, Parramatta; Division of Textile Physics, Ryde; Division of Tribophysics, Melbourne ; Division of Tropical Pastures, Brisbane ; Division of Wool Research, Ryde; Australian Atomic Energy Commission; Bureau of Mineral Resources ; Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics ; Department of Supply, Aeronautical Research, Melbourne ; Research Department, Reserve Bank of Australia, Sydney. University and Colleges—Sydney Technical College ; Wollongong Technical College ; Newcastle University College ; Australian National University ; Mount Stromlo Observatory; University of Sydney ; University of New South Wales; University of New England; University of Melbourne; Uni- versity of Queensland; University of Tasmania ; Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Companies—Australian Iron & Steel Ltd.; J. Bayley & Sons; Lewis Bergers; B.H.P. Co. Ltd. ;. C.S.R. Co. Ltd. ; Wm. Cooper & Bros. ; Electrolytic Zinc Co.; John Lysaght Pty. Ltd.; Monsanto Chemicals; Mount Isa Mines Ltd.; Standard Telephones & Cables; Unilever; Union Carbide Aust. Ltd.; Wheat Industries Aust. Pty. Ltd. ; Philips Electrical Industries Pty. Ltd. Research Institutes—Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra; Institute of Dental Research; Drug Houses of Australia; Medical Research Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital ; N.S.W. Cancer Council. Museums and Public Libraries—The Australian Museum; National Museum of Victoria; Library Board of Western Australia; Bankstown Municipal Library ; Library Board of New South Wales. HARLEY WOoD, Honorary Secretary. 104 1960 200 36 177 8,163 23,423 £31,999 1,224 663 16 1 £31,999 ANNUAL REPORTS Financial Statement BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1961 LIABILITIES Accrued Expenses Subscriptions Paid in Advance Life Members’ Subscriptions — Amount “carried forward ee Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— Clarke Memorial Walter Burfitt Prize Liversidge Bequest 5 Monograph Capital Fund Ollé Bequest Accumulated Funds : Employees’ Long Service Leave Fund Provision .. ASSETS Cash at Bank and in’ Hand ~: Investments— Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock— At Face Value—held for: Clarke Memorial Fund a ae Walter Burfitt Prize Fund ; Liversidge Bequest .. Monograph Capital Fund General Purposes Fixed Deposit Long Service Leave Fund Debtors for Subscriptions ; : Less Reserve for Bad Debts Science House—One-third Capital Cost Library—At Valuation 56 Furniture and Office Equipment—At Cost, less Depreciation : 56 Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation _ Lantern—At Cost, Jess Depreciation 1,908 10 1,129 707 4,42] 157 moa), 1,800 1,000 700 3,000 1,960 Qo © 41 41 aS ap Pa 8,323 11 23,211 2 100 0 £31,843 15 998<3 oooo°o INST 14,835 4 6,800 0 633 17 15 10 L. 0 £31,843 15 ae a) oo-:- of oo J ANNUAL REPORTS TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS Walter Monograph Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Capital Ollé Memorial Prize Bequest Fund Bequest £ Stadia oe Side eso. a s. d. Go @ sid: Capital at 28th February, 1961 ae ad .. 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0700 0 90 3,000 0 O — Revenue— Balance at 29th February, 1960 .. : ; 42 0 2 167 8 9 6 8 3 41,302 1 O 144 16 1 6 2519 1 RES> 7%) 2 4255) 56 Income for twelve months 66 16 10 Sit = all 108 17 0 20410 3 32 7 4 41,421 8 2 187 1 Less Expenditure a 0 6 8 75 6 8 0 Balance at 28th epee 1961 .. : .. £108 10 4 £129 3 7 £7 7 4 £1,421 8 2 £157 1 7 ACCUMULATED FUNDS Ce Sead, £ Seid: Balance at 29th February, 1960... es 23,423 10 6 Add Decrease in Reserve for Bad Debts a 46 2 8 23,469 13 2 Less— Transfer to Long Service Leave Fund Provision <, ae .. LOO O O Bad Debts Written Off =. os .. 19 19 O Deficit for twelve months a3 ov ta 5 ofan Wa ae —_—_—__—_—_— 258 10 7 Balance at 28th February, 1961 ca ae 2 Al Ll ey Auditors’ Report The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position of the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1961, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered. HORLEY & HORLEY, Chartered Accountants, Prudential Building, Registered under the Public Accountants 39 Martin Place, Sydney, Registration Act 1945, as amended. 27th March, 1961. (Sed.) C. L. ADAMSON, Honorary Treasurer. 105 106 1,531 93 26 6 1,218 47 £3,798 —= —_— 37 440 146 30 111 £3,798 ANNUAL REPORTS INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT Ist March, 1960, to 28th February, 1961 Advertising Annual Social Function Audit Branches of the Society Cleaning ae Depreciation Electricity Entertainment Insurance Library Purchases Miscellaneous Postages and Telegrams Printing Journal— Vol. 93, Parts 3-4 Binding : Vol. 94, Parts ]- 4 Printing—General ‘ Rent—Science House Management . Repairs .. : Salaries = Telephone Membership Subscriptions Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions Subscriptions to Journal : : Government Subsidy . Science House Management—Share of Surplus Annual Social Function ite ore ae Interest on General Investments Reprints— Receipts Expenditure Sale of Back Numbers of the Journal Sale of Periodicals ex the ree Publication Grant Deficit for twelve months - 1,300 15 £334 16 35 0 ace £474 19 10 359 1 8 115 296 198 150 138 £5,065 — or Om OW WORPWNHRaOWOCOO RoONoHoae or AS bw Oo bo Obituary Professor Charles Edward Fawsitt, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney and a former President of the Society, died on 16th November, 1960. He was born in Glasgow in 1878, was educated at the Glasgow High School and the University of Edinburgh, and did post-graduate work in the Technische Hochschule, Aachen, and the Uni- versities of London, Birmingham and Leipzig. From 1904 to 1908 he was a lecturer in Metallurgical Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. In 1909 he was appointed to the Chair of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of Sydney—an appointment he held with distinction until his retirement in 1946. His research interests lay mainly in the field of metallic corrosion and chemical kinetics. Professor Fawsitt took a keen interest in educational matters, and had a friendly liaison with the Education Department and secondary schools of New South Wales. A loyal Scot and a quietly religious man, he was also a musician, giving much pleasure in his playing of the piano. ~ The Royal Society of New South Wales was privileged to have Professor Fawsitt as a member for fifty-one years. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the Society, contributed seven papers to the Journal and Proceedings, and, in 1919, served the Society as President. He was one of the original members of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, and was its Federal President in 1924. For long he will be remembered for his old-world courtesy, considerateness, friendliness and helpfulness to all. Dr. Neil Ernest Goldsworthy died after a short illness on 26th September, 1960, at the age of sixty- three. He was elected to membership of the Society in 1947. At the time of his death he was Director of the Institute of Dental Research, United Dental Hospital, Sydney, a post which he had occupied with distinction from 1946. Dr. Goldsworthy was educated at Newcastle High School and the University of Sydney, and proceeded to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and then to Cambridge University for post-graduate work. He held the following degrees and distinctions: M.B., Ch.M. feydney, 1921), D.I.M. & H., D.P.H. (Camibridge, 1926), Ph.D. (Cambridge, 1928), M.C.P.A. (1956). After a short period as a consultant pathologist, Dr. Goldsworthy joined the staff of Sydney University as lecturer in bacteriology in 1931. In addition he was an Honorary Assistant and later Honorary Consultant at the Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney. Among many other services to the community he was a member of the Medical Research Advisory Committee and of the Dental Research Advisory Committee; he was also a co-opted member of the Nutrition Committee of the National Health and Medical Research Council. He published many scientific papers and always found time to encourage those who showed an interest in research. In honour of his twenty years’ service as Honorary Secretary of the Society for Experimental Biology of N.S.W., that society inaugurated in 1955 the triennial Goldsworthy lectures. Neil Goldsworthy will be remembered for his wide range of knowledge, meticulous attention to detail, integrity and tenacity in research. Herbert Richard Harrington, a member of the Society since 1934, died on 20th April, 1960. Mr. Harrington was employed throughout the greater part of his career as a teacher of Electrical Engineering in the Sydney Technical College, and later, as a lecturer in the University of Technology (now the University of New South Wales). His speciality was electrical laboratory measurements. He had, too, a remarkable knowledge of botanical and biological subjects, so much so that he could give an extempore address in these fields and hold one’s interest for an hour without trouble. His deepest interest was in the field of optics, particu- larly in the microscope and the camera, both of which he applied most effectively in the botanical and biological work. He originated a new system of colour photography, the further development of which was interrupted by war-time conditions. His recog- nition as an authority on optical matters led to his requisition by the Army Authorities to assist in the development of a special high-speed camera to investi- gate field-gun recoil, movement and mechanism. Similarly he was able to assist the New South Wales Police Department in setting up microscopic and other scientific equipment in that Department’s Scientific Bureau. He also acted in an advisory capacity on photomicrography to the Department of Dentistry in the University of Sydney. Daryl Robert O’Dea died on 19th February, 1961. He was elected to membership in 1951. Sir Hugh Raymond Guy Poate was elected to Membership of the Society in 1919 and in recent years was a Life Member. He died on 27th January, 1961. Throughout his career, Hugh Poate devoted himself to the service of his country and of surgery with great enthusiasm and boundless energy. He was educated at Sydney Grammar School and Sydney University and in 1907, upon graduation, became resident medical officer at the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. He visited England the following year and in 1909 gained a Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons. (He was the first graduate of the University of Sydney to do this.) Poate was early recognized as a brilliant surgeon whose speed and dexterity were combined with a thorough knowledge of anatomy. His operative work covered an extraordinary range, including orthopaedic, cranial, thyroid and abdominal surgery. For his work on diseases of the thyroid gland, especially in the treatment of hyperthyroidism, he was widely honoured and is now best known. During the Great War he was in Europe, including Gallipoli, on active service with the Australian Army Medical Corps. Although invalided home in 1917, he continued active work for the A.A.M.C. in Sydney hospitals. From 1929 to 1947 he was a consulting surgeon to the Royal Australian Air Force. 108 Poate was a Foundation Feilow of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons and in 1945 was elected president of the College. He joined the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1913 and gave much service to the Order. In 1955 he received from Her Majesty the Queen the Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order, a very high and rare honour. In 1947 he was created a Member of the Royal Victorian Order, and in 1952 was created Knight Bachelor. Sir Hugh Poate’s attractive personality, warm friendliness and integrity drew to him a wide circle of friends and admirers, even though at times he forth- rightly, and on occasion bluntly, expressed his judgment of what was just and right. By his passing the Society has lost a member admired as a man, respected by his juniors as an adviser and above all honoured as a surgeon. Professor Henry Priestley, Emeritus Professor of Biochemistry in the University of Sydney, died at the age of 77 on 28th February, 1961. He was born in England but came to Australia with his parents at the age of two. After a brilliant undergraduate career at Sydney University he spent three years at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, London, and then was appointed lecturer in physiology in his alma mater. From 1921 to 1938 he was Associate Professor and head of the Department of Biochemistry in the Uni- OBITUARY x 1 oS Sc: yy versity, and in 1938 was appointed Professor. From 1945 to 1948, when he retired, he was Dean of the Faculty of Science. He was responsible for an important innovation in the Science courses at Sydney University in the introduction of compulsory work in the History and Philosophy of Science. He continued to act as an examiner in this subject after his retirement. He was known throughout the University by the affectionate title “‘ Uncle Henry ’’, and his friendliness and generosity towards both students and staff were widely appreciated. Professor Priestley was elected to membership of the Society in 1918 and served as President in 1942. He contributed one paper to the Journal and Proceedings. During the Second World War Professor Priestley was called upon by the Commonwealth Government to act as nutrition adviser; in the course of this work, additional to his normal academic duties, he was able to give public expression to several important observa- tions on dietary deficiencies of Australian meals in both peace and war. After his retirement Priestley gained some renown as an amateur weaver, ultimately becoming president of the Spinners and Weavers’ Guild of N.S.W. In this period also he continued to serve his University as a member of its Senate. By his death the community has lost a generous and well- loved man whose work in many fields contributed sub- stantially to the common welfare. Abstract of Proceedings, 1960 6th April, 1960 The ninety-third Annual and seven hundred and fifty-fifth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Forty-two members and visitors were present. Desmond Leslie Strusz and Howard Gordon Wilshire were elected members of the Society. The following awards of the Society were announced : The James Cook Medal for 1959: Dr. Albert Schweitzer. : The Society’s Medal for 1959: Dr. Ida A. Browne. The Clarke Medal for 1960: Dr. A. B. Edwards. The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1959: Professor F. J. Fenner. The Archibald D. Olle Prize : Professor G. Bosson. The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial Statement were presented and adopted. Messrs. Horley and Horley were re-elected as Auditors to the Society for 1960-61. The following papers were read by title only: “The Measurement of Time in Special Relativity ’’, by S. J. Prokhovnik ; ‘“‘ The Geology of the Parish of Mumbil, near Wellington, N.S.W.”’, by D. L. Strusz ; “Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1959”’, by W. H. Robertson. Office-bearers for 1960-61 were elected as follows: President: H. A. J. Donegan, M.Sc. Vice-Presidents: J. L. Griffith, B.A., M.Sc.; F.N anion, B.Sc.; A. F. A. Harper, M-Sc.; F. D. McCarthy, Dip.Anthr. Hon. Secretaries : Harley Wood, M.Sc.; A. A. Day, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab.). Hon. Treasurer: C. L. Adamson, B.Sc. Members of Council: A. G. Fynn, B.Sc.; J. W. Humphries, B.Sc.; A. H. Low, M.Sc.; H. H. G. INMciKérn,» M.Sc.; W. H. G. Poggendorff, B.Sc.(Agr.) ; Kathleen M. Sherrard, M.Sc. (Melb.) ; G. H. Slade, B.Sc.; W. B. Smith-White, M.A. ; Mr. N. W. West, B.Sc. ; H. F. Whitworth, M.Sc. The retiring President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, delivered his Presidential Address entitled ‘‘ Research Develop- ment and the Maintenance of Standards in Heat at the National Standards Laboratory, Sydney ”’. At the conclusion of the meeting the retiring President oo Mr. H. A. J. Donegan to the Presidential air. 4th May, 1960 The seven hundred and fifty-sixth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. Mr. A. F. A. Harper, Vice-President, was in the chair. Thirty-three members and visitors were present. Bruce William Chappell, Jack Middlehurst, Victoria Ross and Vivian Endel Thomson were elected members of the Society. Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S., and Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn were elected to Honorary Membership of the Society. The following papers were read by title only: “ Kinetics of Chain Reactions’, by R. C. L. Bosworth and C. M. Groden; ‘‘ An Occurrence of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W.’’, by C. A. Hawkins and P. H. Walker. An address entitled ‘‘ The Phytotron and its Work ” was delivered by Dr. L: f. Evans, of the C:S.1-K-O;, Division of Plant Industry, Canberra. Ist June, 1960 The seven hundred and fifty-seventh General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. Thirty-nine members and visitors were present. Maurice James Puttock and Russell George Wylie were elected members of the Society. An address on Blood was delivered by Mr. E. C. Mason, of the Blood Fraction Development Group of the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, Melbourne. 6th July, 1960 The seven hundred and fifty-eighth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. There were present thirty members and visitors. The following papers were read by title only: “‘ Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and ‘ Neutral’ Elementary Particles’, by V. A. Bailey; ‘“ An Inter- pretation of the Lorentz Transformation Coordinates ’’, by S. J. Prokhovnik; ‘ Electrode Shape and Finish in Applied Spectroscopy ”’, by S. C. Baker ; “* Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial Temperature Variation ’’, by A. Reichel and A. Keane ; “Appraisal of Absolute Gravity Values for Gravity Base Station in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide ’’, by I. A. Mumme; “ Stratigraphy of the Tamworth Group (Lower and Middle Devonian), Tamworth- Nundle District, N.S.W.”, by K. A. W. Crook ; ‘ Post- Carboniferous Stratigraphy of the Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W.”, by K. A. W. Crook; “ Strati- graphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian—Lower Carboniferous), Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W.”’, by K. A. W. Crook. Mr. Allen A. Strom, Chief Guardian of Fauna, Fauna Protection Panel, Chief Secretary’s Department, gave an address on “ The Work of the Fauna Protection Panel ~. 3rd August, 1960 The seven hundred and fifty-ninth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. There were present ninety-seven members and visitors. 110 Hugh Francis Conaghan, William Ronald Grant Kemp, Burnett Mander-Jones and R. G. Wenham were elected members of the Society. The following paper was read by title only: “‘ The Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales ’’, by R. Boesen, E. Irving and W. A. Robertson (communicated by Dr. W. R. Browne). Film: ‘‘ Chile and the Andes Mountains ”’, taken by Mr. Donegan during a recent trip. Address: ‘‘ Chilean Earthquakes’’ was delivered by Father A. G. Fynn. 7th September, 1960 The seven hundred and sixtieth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. There were present fifty-two members and visitors. Erwin R. Tichauer was elected a member of the Society. The following paper was presented: ‘“ Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and ‘ Neutral’ Elementary Particles ij, by V. Av Batley: 5th October, 1960 The seven hundred and sixty-first General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr... A; J Donegan, was im the chair. There were present ninety-three members and visitors. The death was announced of Neil Ernest Goldsworthy on 26th September, 1960, a member since 1947. Honorary membership was conferred on Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S., and Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn. The following were elected members of the Society : George Earl Adkins, George Divnich, Allan Richard Horne, Rupert Thomas Leslie, Harry Albert Theodore Scholer. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, 1960 ew ons st ara The meeting took the form of a joint meeting with | the Institute of Physics, the Chemical Society of the © University of Sydney and the Chemical Society of the~ University of New South Wales. A lecture entitled “The Royal Institution’? was delivered by Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S. 2nd November, 1960 The seven hundred and sixty-second General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. There were present sixty-seven members and visitors. The following were elected members of the Society : Alfred Denys Mervyn Bell and Malcolm Charles Galloway. The following addresses were given: ‘‘ The Contri- bution of the Radiocarbon Method to Dating the Past’’, by Associate Professor J7> Hi Greeny of the School of Nuclear and Radiation Chemistry, The University of New South Wales; ‘‘ Carbon 14 Dating in Australian and Pacific Prehistory ’’, by Mr. F. D. McCarthy, Curator of Anthropology, The Australian Museum. 7th December, 1960 The seven hundred and sixty-third General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. There were present twenty-three members and visitors. Raymond Augustine Burg, James Campbell Giffen, Charles Verling Gayer Phipps, Roger Albert Alfred Smith and Coleridge Anthony Wilkins were elected members of the Society. The following papers were presented: “‘ Kinetics of Chain Reactions’, by R. C. L. Bosworth and C. M3 Groden; ‘‘ Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with a Radial Temperature Variation ’’, by A. Reichel and A. Keane; “ An Interpretation of the Lorentz Coordinates ’’, by S. J. Prokhovnik. Members of the Society, April, 1961 The year of election to membership and the number of papers contributed to the Society’s Journal are shown in brackets, thus: (1934; P8). * indicates Life Membership. Honorary Members BLACKBURN, Sir Charles’ Bickerton, kK.C.M.G., O.B.E., B.A., M.D., Ch.M., Chancellor, University of Sydney. (1960) BRAGG, Sir Lawrence, 0.B.E., F.R.S., The Royal Institution, London. (1960) BURNET, Sir Frank Macfarlane, 0.M., Kt., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Director, Walter and Eliza Hall Research Institute, Melbourne. (1949) FAIRLEY, Sir Neil Hamilton, cC.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 73 Harley Street, London, W.1. (1951) FIRTH, Raymond William, M.a., Ph.D., Professor of Anthropology, University of London, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, Aldwych, W.C.2, England. (1952) FLOREY, Sir Howard, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology, Oxford University, England. (1949). O’CONNELL, Rev. Daniel J., S.J., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Director, The Vatican Observatory, Rome, Italy. (1953) OLIPHANT, Sir Marcus L., K.B.E., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor of Physics, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1948) ROBINSON, Sir Robert, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.1.c., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford University, England. (1948) Members ADAMSON, Colin Lachlan, B.sc., 9 Dewrang Avenue, Avenue, North Narrabeen. (1944) ADKINS, George Earl, a.s.t.c., C/o School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, University of N.S.W. (1960) *ALBERT, Adrien, oD.sc., Professor of Medical Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1938; P2) *ALBERT, Michael Francois, ‘‘ Boomerang ’’, Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. (1935) ALEXANDER, Albert Ernest, pPh.p., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1950) *ALLDIS, Victor le Roy, Box 37, Orange, N.S.W. (1941) ANDERSON, Geoffrey William, B.sc., c/o Box 30, P.O. Chatswood. (1948) ANDREWS, Paul Burke, B.sc., 5 Conway Avenue, Rose Bay. (1948; P2) ASTON, Ronald Leslie, Ph.p., Associate Professor of Geodesy and Surveying, University of Sydney. (1930; President 1948) *AUROUSSEAU, Marcel, M.c., B.Sc., 229 Woodland Street, Balgowlah. (1919; P2) *BAILEY, Victor Albert, D.phil., F.A.A,. 80 Cremorne Road, Cremorne. (1924; P3) BAKER, Stanley Charles, ph.p., Physics, Newcastle University College. P3) BANKS, Maxwell Robert, B.sc., Department of Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. Department of (1934 ; (1951) *BARDSLEY, John Ralph, 29 Walton Crescent, Abbotsford. (1919) BASDEN, Keith Spencer, B.sc., School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1951) BAXTER, John Philip, c.M.c., 0.B.E., Ph.D., F.A.A. Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1950) BECK, Julia Mary (Mrs.), B.sc., Department of Geophysics, University of Western Ontario, London, Ont., Canada. (1950). BELL, Alfred Denys Mervyn, B.sc. (Hons.), School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, Uni- versity of New South Wales, Kensington. (1960) *BENTIVOGLIO, Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr., 42 Tele- graph Road, Pymble. (1926) *BISHOP, Eldred George, 26a Wolseley Road, Mosman. (1920) BLANKS, Fred Roy, B.sc., 583 Malabar Road, Maroubra. (1948) BLASCHKE, Ernest Herbert, 6 Illistron Flats, 63 Carabella Street, Kirribilli. (1946) BOLLIGER, Adolph, D.sc., Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of Sydney. (1933; P30; President 1945) BOLT, Bruce Alan, Ph.p., Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. (1956; P3) BOOKER, Frederick William, pD.sc., Government Geologist, c/o Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines Department, Sydney. (1951; Pl) BOOTH, Brian Douglas, Ph.p., 37 Highfield Road, Lindfield. (1954) *BOOTH, Edgar Harold, M.c., D.sc., 29 March Street, Bellevue Hill. (1920; P9; President 1936) BOSSON, Geoffrey, M.sc., Professor of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1951; P2) BOSWORTH, Richard Charles Leslie, p.sc., Associate Professor, School of Physical Chemistry, Uni- versity of New South Wales, Kensington. (1939 ; P25; President 1951) BREYER, Bruno, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Agri- cultural Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1946 ; Pl) BRIDGES, David Somerset, 19 Mount Avenue, Normanhurst. (1952) *BRIGGS, George Henry, pD.sc., 13 Findlay Avenue, Pleasant Roseville. (1919; P1) BROWN, Desmond J., Ph.p., Department of Medical Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1942) 112 BROWNE, Ida Alison, D.sc., 363 Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff. (1985; P12; President 1953) *BROWNE, William Rowan, D.sc., F.A.A., 363 Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff. (1913; P23; President 1932) BRYANT, Raymond Alfred Arthur, M.E., School of Mechanical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1952) BUCHANAN, Gregory Stewart, B.sc., School of Physical Chemistry, Sydney Technical College. (1947) BUCKLEY, Lindsay Arthur, B.sc., 30 Wattle Street, Killara. (1940) BULLEN, Keith Edward, Sc.D., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor of Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. (1946; P2) BUNCH, Kenneth, Government Analyst, Flat 1, 17 Pacific Street, Manly. (1959) BURG, Raymond Augustine, Senior Analyst, Depart- ment of Mines, N.S.W.; p.r. 17 Titania Street Randwick. (1960) BURROWS, Keith Meredith, B.sc., Physics Depart- ment, University of New South Wales. (1959) CAMERON, John Craig, M.a., B.Sc. (Edin.), 15 Monterey Street, Kogarah. (1957) CAMPBELL, Ian Gavin Stuart, B.sc., c/o Wesley Co ege, Prahran, Victoria. (1955) *CAREY, Samuel Warren, D.Sc., Professor of Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. (1938; P2) CAVILL, George William Kenneth, pPh.p., Associate Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1944) *CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 27 Warrane Road, Roseville. (1954) CHALMERS, Robert Oliver, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. (1933; Pl) CHAMBERS, Maxwell Clark, B.sc., 58 Spencer Road, Killara. (1940) CHAPPELL, Bruce William, B.sc., Geology Depart- ment, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1960) CHRISTIE, Thelma Isabel, B.sc., Chemistry School, University of New South Wales. (1953) CLANCY, Brian Edward, mM.sc., 21 London Drive, West Wollongong. (1957) COHEN, Samuel Bernard, M.sc., 35 Spencer Road, Killara. (1940) COLE, Edward Ritchie, B.sc., 7 Wolsten Avenue, Turramurra. (1940; P2) COLE, Joyce Marie (Mrs.), B.sc., 7 Wolsten Avenue, Turramurra. (1940; Pl) COLE, Leslie Arthur, 61 Kissing Point Road, Turra- mutra. (1948) COLEMAN, Patrick Joseph, pPh.p., Geology Depart- ment, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. (1955) COLLETT, Gordon, B.sc., 27 Rogers Avenue, Haber- field. (1940) CONAGHAN, Hugh Francis, M.sc., Senior Analyst, Department of Mines, N.S.W. ; p.r. 104 Lancaster Avenue, West Ryde. (1960) COOK, Cyril Lloyd, ph.p., c/o Propulsion Research Laboratories, Box 1424H, G.P.O., Adelaide. (1948) COOK, Rodney Thomas, Buckley’s Road, Old Toongabbie. (1946) *COOMBS, F. A., Bannerman Crescent, Rosebery. (1913; P5) CORBETT, Robert Lorimer, c/o Intaglio Pty. Ltd., Sirius Road, Lane Cove. (1933) CORTIS-JONES, Beverley, m.sc., 65 Peacock Street, Seaforth.’ (1940) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY *COTTON, Leo Arthur, *CRESSWICK, John Arthur, *ESDAILE, Edward William, 42 D.sc., Emeritus Professor, 113° Queen’s Parade East, Newport Beach, (1909; P7; President 1929) : CRAIG, David Parker, Ph.pD., Department of Theoretical Chemistry, University College, London, W.C.1, England. (1941; Pl) CRAWFORD, Edwin John, B.E., ‘‘ Lynwood ” Bungalow Avenue, Pymble. (1955) CRAWFORD, Ian Andrew, Cr. Barker and O’ Grady Streets, Havenview, via Burnie, Tas. (1955) 101 Villiers Street, Rockdale. (1921; Pl) CROFT, James Bernard, 60 Belmont Road, Mosman. (1956) CROOK, Keith Alan Waterhouse, pPh.p., Geology Department, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (19543 P77) DADOUR, Anthony, B.sc., 25 Elizabeth Street, Waterloo. (1940) DAVIES, George Frederick, 57 Eastern Avenue, Kingsford. (1952) DAY, Alan Arthur, ph.p., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1952) DE LEPERVANCHE, Beatrice Joy, 29 Collins Street, Belmore. (1953) DENTON, Leslie A., Bunarba Road, Miranda. (1955) DIVNICH, George, Engineer Agronom. (Yugoslavia), Engineering Analyst, 7 Highland Avenue, Punch- bowl. (1960) DONEGAN, Henry Arthur James, M.sc., c/o Mining Museum, George Street North, Sydney. (1928; President 1960) DRUMMOND, Heather Rutherford, B.sc., 2 Gerald Avenue, Roseville. (1950) DULHUNTY, John Allan, D.sc., Geology, University of Sydney. President 1947) DURIE, Ethel Beatrix, M.B., ch.m., Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1955) DWYER, Francis P. J., D.sc., F.A.A. Professor of Biolog- ical Inorganic Chemistry, Australian National Uni- versity, Canberra, A.C.T. (1934; P62) EADE, Ronald Arthur, pPh.p., School of Organic Department of (1937; PlGg Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1945) EDGAR, Joyce Enid (Mrs.), B.sc., 22 Slade Avenue, Lindfield. (1951) Iranian Oil Masjid-i- EDGELL, Henry Stewart, ph.p., Co., Exploration and Producing Co., Sulaiman, via Abadan, Iran. (1950) ELKIN, Adolphus Peter, ph.p., Emeritus Professor, 15 Norwood Avenue, Lindfield. (1934; P2; President 1940) ELLISON, Dorothy Jean, M.sc., Roseville (1949) EMMERTON, Henry James, B.sc., Street, East Gordon. (1940) 45 Victoria Street, 37 Wangoola Hunter Street, Sydney. (1908) EVANS, Silvanus Gladstone, 6 Major Street, Coogee. — (1935) - FALLON , Joseph James, 1 Coolong Road, Vaucluse, (1950) FISHER, Robert, B.sc., (1940) FLEISCHMANN, Arnold Walter, Avenue, Double Bay. (1956) FLETCHER, Harold Oswald, m.sc., The Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. (1933) FORMAN, Kenn P., c/o 52 Pitt Street, Sydney. (1932) meet ; 4. 3 Sackville Street, Maroubra 8/25 Guilfoyle MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY FREEMAN, Hans Charles, Street, Rose Bay. (1950) FRENCH, Oswald Raymond, 66 Nottinghill Road, Lidcombe. (1951) FRIEND, James Alan, ph.p., Department of Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. Ph.p., 43 Newcastle (1944; P2) FURST, Hellmut Friedrich, D.mM.p. (Hamburg), 158 Bellevue Road, Bellevue Hill. (1945) FYNN, Anthony Gerard, B.sc., Director, Riverview College Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W. (1959) GALLOWAY, Malcolm Charles, B.B., B.Sc., Geologist, 17 Johnson Street, Chatswood. (1960) GARAN, Teodar, c/o Geology Branch, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. (1952) GARRETTY, Michael Duhan, p.sc., ‘‘ Surrey Lodge ”’, Mitcham Road, Mitcham, Victoria. (1935; P2) GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, ph.p., Department of Organic Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1939; P4) GIBSON, Neville Allan, ph.p., 103 Bland Street, Ashfield. (1942; P6) GIFFEN, James Campbell, B.sc. (Capetown), 28 Tango Avenue, Dee Why. (1960) GILL, Naida Sugden, Ph.p., 45 Neville Street, Marrick- ville. (1947) *GILL, Stuart Frederic, 45 Neville Street, Marrickville. (1947) GLASSON, Kenneth Roderick, B.sc., Road, Beecroft. (1948) GOLDING, Henry George, M.sc., School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales. (1953; P4) GOLDSTONE, Charles Lillington, B.agr.sc., University of New South Wales. (1951) GORDON, William Fraser, B.sc. (1949) GRAHAME, Mervyn Ernest, B.A., Schoolteacher, 161 Parry Street, Hamilton, N.S.W. (1959) GRAY, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.E., Professor of Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaya (1948; Pl) GRAY, Noel Mackintosh, B.sc., 6 Twenty-fourth Street, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. (1952) GRIFFIN, Russell John, B.sc., c/o Department of Mines, Sydney. (1952) GRIFFITH, James Langford, M.sc., School of Mathe- matics, University of New South Wales. (1952; P12; President 1958) GRODEN, Charles Mark, M.sc., 70 Beecroft School of Mathe- matics, University of New South Wales. (1957; P2) GUTMANN, Felix, ph.p., University of New South Wales. (1946; PI) HALL, Norman Frederick Blake, M.sc., 154 Wharf Road, Longueville. (1934) HAMPTON, Edward John William, 1 Hunter Street, Waratah, N.S.W. (1949) HANCOCK, Harry Sheffield, M.sc., 21 Constitution Road, Dulwich Hill. (1955). HANLON, Frederick Noel, B.sc., 4 Pearson Avenue, Gordon. (1940; P14; President 1957) HARPER, Arthur Frederick Alan, m.sc., National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1936; Pl; President 1959) HARRIS, Clive Melville, Ph.p., School of Inorganic Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1948; P6) HARRISON, Ernest John Jasper, B.sc., c/o N.S.W. A ee Survey, Mines Department, Sydney. (1946) EE 113 HAWKINS, Cedric Arthur, B.Sc.Agr., Chemists’ Branch, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. (1956; P3) *HAYES, Daphne (Mrs.), B.sc., 98 Lang Road, Cen- tennial Park. (1943) HEARD, George Douglas, Hornsby. (1951) HIGGS, Alan Charles, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Building Material Division, 1-7 Bent Street, Sydney. (1945) HILL, Dorothy, D.sc., F.A.A., Department of Geology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane (1938; P6) HOGARTH, Julius William, B.sc., University House, B.sc., 17 Hall Road, Canberra, A.C.T. (1948; P6) HOLM, Thomas John, 524 Wilson Street, Redfern. (1952) HORNE, Allan Richard, 7 Booralee Street, Botany. (1960) HOSKINS, Bernard Foster, B.sSc., 227 Waterloo Road, Greenacre. (1959) HUMPHRIES, John William, B.sc., Physicist, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1959) *HYNES, Harold John, D.sc.agr., Director, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. (1923; P3) IREDALE, Thomas, D.sc., Chemistry Department, University of Sydney. (1943) JAEGER, John Conrad, D.sc., F.a.a., Geophysics Department, Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. (1942; Pl) JAMIESON, Helen Campbell, 3 Hamilton Street, Coogee. (1951) JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, ph.p., Depart- ment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1956) JONES, James Rhys, 25 Boundary Road, Mortdale. (1959) JOPLIN, Germaine Anne, D.sc., Geophysics Depart- ment, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1935; P8) KEANE, Austin, ph.p., Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, N.S.W. (1955; P3) KELLY, Caroline Tennant (Mrs.), Dip.Anthr., ‘‘ Silver- mists ’’, Robertson, N.S.W. (1935) KEMP, William Ronald Grant, B.sc., Physicist, 16 Fig Tree Street, Lane Cove. (1960) *KENNY, Edward Joseph, 65 Park Avenue, Ashfield. (1924; Pl) KIMBLE, Frank Oswald, 31 Coronga Crescent, Killara. (1948) KIMBLE, Jean Annie, B.sc., 383 Marrickville Road, Marrickville. (1943) *KIRCHNER, William John, B.sc., 18 Lyne Road, Cheltenham. (1920) KNIGHT, Oscar Le Maistre, B.E., 10 Mildura Street, Killara. (1948). KOCH, Leo E., D.pPhil.Habil., School of Mining En- gineering and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales. (1948) KRYSKO v. TRYST, Moiren, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1959) LAMBETH, Arthur James, B.sc., ‘‘ Talanga’’, Picton Road, Douglas Park, N.S.W. (1939; P83) LANG, Thomas Arthur, M.c.E., Bechtel Corporation, 537 Market Street, San Francisco 5, California, U.S.A. (1955) LAWRENCE, Laurence James, ph.p., Associate Professor, School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales. (1951; Pl) 114 LAWRENCE, Peter, M.a., Ph.D., Department of Anthropology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. (1959) LEACH, Stephen Laurence, B.sc., c/o Taubman’s Industries Ltd., Box 82a, P.O., North Sydney. (1936) LEECHMAN, Frank, 51 Willoughby Street, Kir- ribilli. (1957) LE FEVRE, Raymond James Wood, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1947; President 1961) LEMBERG, Max Rudolph, D.Phil., F.R.S., F.A.A., Assistant Director, Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1936; P3; President 1955) LESLIE, Rupert Thomas, M.a., Ph.D., Statistician, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1960) *LIONS, Francis, Ph.D., Department of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1929; P56; President 1946) LIONS, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.sc., 160 Alt Street, Haberfield. (1940) LLOYD, James Charles, B.sc., c/o N.S.W. Geological Survey, Mines Department, Sydney. (1947) LOCKWOOD, William Hutton, B.sc., c/o Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1940; Pl) LOVERING, John Franci, Ph.p., Department of Geophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1951; P3) LOW, Angus Henry, pPh.D., School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales. (1950; PI) LOWENTHAL, Gerhard, m.sc., 43 Hinkler Street, Maroubra. (1959) LYONS, Lawrence Ernest, Ph.D., Chemistry Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1948; P2) MACCOLL, Allan, m.sc., Department of Chemistry, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. (1939; P4) McCARTHY, Frederick David, Dip.Anthr., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. (1949; Pl; President 1956) McCOY, William Kevin, c/o Mr. A. J. McCoy, 23 Victoria Road, Pennant Hills. (1943) McCULLAGH, Morris Behan, 23 Wallaroy Road, Edgecliff. (1950) McELROY, Clifford Turner, Ph.D., M.sc., ‘‘ Bithon- gabel’’, Bedford Road, Woodford, N.S.W. (1949; P2) McGREGOR, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple Avenue, Pennant Hills. (1940) McKAY, Maxwell Herbert, m.a., School of Mathe- matics, University of New South Wales. (1956 ; Pl) McKERN, Howard Hamlet Gordon, M.sc., Senior Chemist, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris Street, Broadway, Sydney. (1943; P9) McMAHON, Patrick Reginald, pPh.p., Professor of Wool Technology, University of New South Wales. (1947) McNAMARA, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.S., John Street, Singleton, N.S.W. (1943) MAGEE, Charles Joseph, D.sc.agr., Division of Science Services, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Victoria Road, Rydalmere. (1947; 1241 2 President 1952) MALES, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding Street, Dulwich 167 Hill. (1951) MANDER-JONES, Burnett, m.sc., 2 St. Giles Avenue, Greenwich. (1960; P1) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY MARSHALL, Charles Edward, p.sc., Professor of Geology, University of Sydney. (1949; Pl) MARSDEN, Joan Audrey, 203 West Street, Crows Nest. (1955) MAZE, William Harold, M.sc., Deputy Principal, University of Sydney. (1935; Pl) MEARES, Harry John Devenish, Technical Librarian, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Box 483, G.P.O., Sydney. (1949) MEGGITT, Mervyn John, m.a., Lecturer, Depart- ment of Anthropology, University of Sydney. (1959) *MELDRUM, Henry John, B.sc., 116 Sydney Road, Fairlight. (1912) MELLOR, David Paver, D.sc., Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1929; P25; President 1941) MIDDLEHURST, Jack, m.sc., Physicist, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1960) MILLER, James, B.sc., 35 Angus Avenue, Waratah West, N.S.W. (1959) MILLERSHIP, William, m.sc., 18 Courallie Avenue, Pymble. (1940) MINTY, Edward James, B.sc., Cooyong Road, Terrey Hills, N.S.W. (195i°> en} *MORRISON, Frank Richard, 4 Mona _ Street, Wahroonga. (1922; P34; President 1950) MORRISEY, Matthew John, M.B., B.s., 46 Auburn Street, Parramatta. (1941) MORT, Francis George Arnot, 110 Green’s Road, Fivedock. (1934) MOSHER, Kenneth George, B.sc., ¢c/o)joint Coa Board, 66 King Street, Sydney. (1948) MOSS, Francis John, M.B., B.s., 70 Victoria Street, West Pennant Hills. (1955) MOYE, Daniel George, B.Sc., Chief Geologist, c/o Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Cooma, N.S.W. (1944) MULHOLLAND, Charles St. John, B.sc., Under- Secretary, Mines Department, Sydney. (1946) *MURPHY, Robert Kenneth, Dr.ing.chem., 68 Pindari Avenue, North Mosman. (1915) MURRAY, James Kenneth, B.sc., N.S.W. (1951) MURRAY, Patrick Desmond Fitzgerald, D.sc., F.A.A., Zoology Department, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. (1950) MUTTON, Ann Ruth, B.sc., 8 Beta Road, Lane Cove. (1959) NASHAR, Beryl, Ph.p., 23 Morris Street, Mayfield West, 2N, N.S.W. (1946; P2) NAYLOR, George Francis Kinh, ph.p., Department of Psychology and Philosophy, University of Queensland, Brisbane. (1930; P7) *NEUHAUS, John William George, 32 Bolton Street, Guildford. (1943) NEWMAN, Ivor Vickery, Ph.D., Botany Department, University of Sydney. (1932) NOAKES, Lyndon Charles, B.a., British Common- wealth Geological Liaison Office, Africa House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2, England. (1945; Pl Broken Hill, *NOBLE, Robert Jackson, pPh.p., 324 Middle Harbour Road, Lindfield. (1920; P4; President 1934) NYHOLM, Ronald Sydney, D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. (1940; P26; President 1954) OLD, Adrian Noel, B.sc.agr., 4 Springfield Avenue, Potts Point. (1947) PAs ise MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, B.sc., 15 Victoria Street, Grafton. (1950) PACKHAM, Gordon Howard, ph.p., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1951; P83) *PENFOLD, Arthur Ramon, Flat 40, 3 Greenknowe Avenue, Potts Point. (1920; P82; President 1935) PERRY, Hubert Roy, B.sc., 74 Woodbine Street, Bowral, N.S.W. (1948) PHILLIPS, Marie Elizabeth, Ph.p., Soils Conserva- tion Section, S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W.; p.r. 4 Morella Road, Clifton Gardens. (1938) PHIPPS, Charles Verling Gayer, Ph.p., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1960) PICKERING, William Frederick Joseph, Ph.p., Division of Science, Newcastle University College, Tighes Hill. (1959) PINWILL, Norman, B.a., The Scots College, Victoria Road, Bellevue Hill. (1946) POGGENDORFF, Walter Hans George., B.Sc.Agr., Chief, Division of Plant Industry, N.S.W. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. (1949) *POWELL, Charles Wilfred Roberts, ‘‘ Wansfell’’, Kirkoswald Avenue, Mosman. (1921; P2) POWELL, John Wallis, c/o Foster Clark (Aust.) Ltd., 17 Thurlow Street, Redfern. (1938) PRICE, William Lindsay, B.sc., School of Physics, Sydney Technical College, Sydney. (1927) PRIDDLE, Raymond Arthur, B.£E., 7 Rawson Crescent, Pymble. (1956) PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, B.sc., School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales. (1956; P2) *PROUD, John Seymour, B.E., Finlay Road, Turra- murra. (1945) PUTTOCK, Maurice James, B.sc. (Eng.), A.Inst.P., Principal Research Officer, C.S.I.R.O., Sydney. p.r. 2 Montreal Avenue, Killara. (1960) PYLE, John Herbert, B.sc., Analyst, Mines Depart- ment, Sydney. (1958) *QUODLING, Florrie Mabel, B.sc., Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1935; P38) RADE, Janis, mM.sc., Box 28A, 601 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne. (1953; P4) *RAGGATT, Harold George, cC.B.E., D.Sc., F.A.A., Secretary, Department of National Develop- ment, Acton, Canberra, A.C.T. (1922; P8) RAMM, Eric John, Experimental Officer, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Research Estab- lishment, Lucas Heights, N.S.W. (1959) *RANCLAUD, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.E., 79 Frederick Street, Merewether, N.S.W. (1949; P3) RAYNER, Jack Maxwell, B.sc., Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. (1931; PL) REICHEL, Alex, m.sc., School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales. (1957; P3) REUTER, Fritz Henry, ph.p., Associate Professor of Food Technology, University of New South Wales. (1947) RITCHIE, Arthur Sinclair, Department of Mineralogy and Geology, Newcastle University College Newcastle. (1947; P2) RITCHIE, Ernest, pD.sc., Chemistry Department, University of Sydney. (1939; P19) ROBBINS, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.sc., Waterloo Road, North Ryde. (1939; P3) ROBERTS, Herbert Gordon, 3 Hopetoun Street, Hurlstone Park. (1957) 115 ROBERTSON, William Humphrey, B.sc., c/o Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (1949; P16) ROBINSON, David Hugh, 12 Robert Road, West Pennant Hills. (1951) ROSENBAUM, Sidney, Lindfield. (1940) ROSENTHAL-SCHNEIDER, Ilse, Ph.p., 48 Cam- bridge Avenue, Vaucluse. (1948) ROSS, Victoria (Mrs.), B.sc. (Hons.), 26 Gold Street, Blakehurst. (1960) ROUNTREE, Phyllis Margaret, D.sc., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney. (1945) RYAN, D’Arcy James, B.A., B.Litt., Anthropologist, 3 Ormond Street, Bondi. (1959) *SCAMMELL, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., 10 Buena Vista Avenue, Clifton Gardens. (1920) SCHOLER, Harry Albert Theodore, M.Eng., Civil Engineer, c/o Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department, N.S.W., cr. Bridge and Phillip Streets, Sydney. (1960) SEE, Graeme Thomas, B.sc., School of Mining En- gineering and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales. (1949) SELBY, Edmond Jacob, Box 175D, G.P.O., Sydney. (1933) *SHARP, Kenneth Raeburn, B.sc., c/o S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W. (1948) SHERRARD, Kathleen Margaret (Mrs.), M.sc., 43 Robertson Road, Centennial Park. (1936; P5) SHERWOOD, Arthur Alfred, B.sc. (Eng.), c/o Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uni- Versity Ol “sydney. p.t. 48 David © Street, Greenacre. (1959; Pl) SIMMONS, Lewis Michael, ph.p., c/o The Scots College, Victoria Road, Bellevue Hill. (1945 ; P3) SIMONETT, David Stanley, ph.p., Assistant Pro- fessor of Geography, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A. (1948; P3) SIMPSON, John Kenneth Moore, “ Browie’’, Old Castle Hill Road, Castle Hill. (1943) SIMS, Kenneth Patrick, B.sc., 24 Catherine Street, St. Ives. (1950; P8) SLADE, George Hermon, B.st., ‘‘ Raiatea’’, Oyama Avenue, Manly. (1933) SLADE, Milton John, B.sc., 12 Dobie Street, Grafton. (1952) SMITH, Eric Brian Jeffcoat, D.Phil., Street, Nedlands, W.A. (1940) SMITH, Roger Albert Alfred, 62 Budyan Road, Gray’s Point. (1960) SMITH-WHITE, William Broderick, m.a., Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Uni- versity of Sydney. (1947; P2) SOMERVILLE, Jack Murielle, M.a., D.sc., Department of Physics, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. (1959) *SOUTHEE, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., Tre- lawney Street, Eastwood. (1919) SPARROW, Gerald William Alfred, B.sc., Geography Department, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane. (1958) STANTON, Richard Limon, pPh.p., Geology Depart- ment, University of New England, Armidale. (1949; P2) STAPLEDON, David Hiley, B.sc., c/o Engineering Geology Branch, S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W. 23 Strickland Avenue, 74 Webster (1954) *STEPHEN, Alfred Ernest, c/o Box 1158HH, G.P.O., Sydney. (1916) *STEPHENS, Frederick G. N., M.B., Ch.m., 133 Edinburgh Road, Castlecrag. (1914) 116 STEPHENS, James Norrington, M.a. 40 Pymble Avenue, Pymble. (1959) STEVENS, Neville Cecil, ph.p., Geology Department, University of Queensland, Brisbane. (1948; P85) *STONE, Walter George, 26 Rosslyn Street, Bellevue Hill. (1916; Pl) STRUSZ, Desmond Leslie, B.sc., Geology, University of Sydney. p.r. 2A High Street, Randwick. (1960; Pl). STUNTZ, John, B.sc., 511 Burwood Road, Belmore. (1951) *SUTHERLAND, George Fife, a.R.c.sc., 47 Clan- william Street, Chatswood. (1919) *SUTTON, Harvey, 0.B.E., M.D., 27 Kent Road, Rose Bay. (1920) SWANSON, Thomas (Cantab.), Department of Flat 3, Baikie, M.sc., c/o Technical Service Department, L@VA NZ.) Box Loi, G.P.O%) Melbourne: (1941; P2) SWINBOURNE, Ellice Simmons, Ph.p., 69 Peacock Street, Seaforth. (1948) *TAYLOR, Brigadier Harold B., M.c., D.sc., 12 Wood Street, Manly. (1915; P3) THEW, Raymond Farly, 88 Braeside Wahroonga. (1955) THOMAS, Penrhyn Francis, Suite 22, 3rd Floor, 29 Market Street, Sydney. (1952) THOMSON, David John, B.sc., Geologist, 61 The Bulwark, Castlecrag. (1956) THOMSON, Vivian Endel, B.sc., c/o Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Geological Laboratory, Scientific Services Division, Cooma North, N.S.W. (1960) TOMPKINS, Denis Keith, M.sc., c/o Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney, Sydney. (1954; Street, Pl) TICHAUER, - Erwin R., D.Sc.(Tech.), Dipl.Ing., Department of Industrial Engineering, Uni- versity of New South Wales. (1960) TOW, Aubrey James, M.sc., c/o Community Hospital, Canberra, A.C.T. (1940) TREBECK, Prosper Charles Brian, 54 Great North Road, Fivedock. (1949) UNGAR, Andrew, Dipl.ing., 6 Ashley Grove, Gordon. (1952) VALLANCE, Thomas George, Ph.D., Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1949; Pl) vAN DIJK, Dirk Cornelius, D.Sc.Agr., 2 Lobelia Street, O’Connor, Canberra, A.C.T. (1958) VEEVERS, John James, pPh.p., Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. (1953) VERNON, Ronald Holden, m.sc., c/o Geology Depart- MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY VOISEY, Alan Heywood, p.sc., Professor of Geology and Geography, University of New England. | (1933; P10) *VONWILLER, Oscar U., B.sc., Emeritus Professor, “‘ Silvermists ’’, Robertson, N.S.W. (1903; P10; President 1940) WALKER, Donald Francis, 13 Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood. (1948) WALKER, Patrick Hilton, m.sc.agr., Research Officer, C.S.I.R.O., Division of Soils. p.r. 3 Miller Street, O’Connor, Canberra, A.C.T. (1956; P38) *WALKOM, Arthur Bache, D.sc., 45 Nelson Road, Killara. (1919 and previous membership 1910-1913; P2; President 1943) WARD, Judith (Mrs.), B.sc., 50 Bellevue Parade, New Town, Hobart, Tasmania. (1948) *WARDLAW, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sc., 71 McIntosh Street, Gordon. (1913; P5; President 1939) *WATERHOUSE, Lionel Lawry, B.E., 42 Archer Street, Chatswood. (1919; Pl) *WATERHOUSE, Walter L., C.M.G., M.C., D.Sc.Agr., F.A.A., ‘‘ Hazelmere ’’, Chelmsford Avenue, Lind- field. (1919; P7; President 1937) *WATT, Sir Robert Rickie, m.a., Emeritus Professor, 5 Gladswood Gardens, Double Bay. (1911; Pl; President 1925) *WATTS, Arthur Spencer, ‘‘ Araboonoo’’, Glebe Street, Randwick. (1921) WENHAM, Russell George, B.Sc., B.E., 17 Fortescue Street, Bexley North. (1960) WEST, Norman William, B.sc., c/o Department of Main Roads, Sydney. (1954) WESTHAIMER, Gerald, Ph.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ltd., 33 Hunter Street, Sydney. (1949) WHITLEY, Alice, ph.p., 39 Belmore Road, Burwood. (1951) WHITWORTH, Horace Francis, Museum, Sydney. (1951; P4) WILKINS, Coleridge Anthony, m.sc. (N.Z.), Flat 2, 10 Heath Street, Randwick. M.sc., Mining WILLIAMS, Benjamin, 12 Cooke Way, Epping. (1949) WILLIAMSON, William Harold, m.sc., 6 Hughes Avenue, Ermington. (1949) WILSON, Peter Robert, B.A., M.Sc., Lecturer in Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. (1959) WOOD, Clive Charles, Ph.D., B.Ssc., c/o S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W. (1954) WOOD, Harley Weston, M.Sc., Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (1936; ment, University of Sydney. (1958) P14; President 1949) *VICARS, Robert, ‘‘ Yallambee’’, The Crescent, WYLIE, Russell George, pPh.D., M.Sc., Physicist, Cheltenham. (1921) 11 Church Street, Randwick. (1960) VICKERY, Joyce Winifred, D.sc., 17 The Promenade, WYNN, Desmond Watkin, B.sc., c/o Mines Depart- Cheltenham. (1935) ment, Sydney. (1952) Associates BOLT, Beverley (Mrs.), M.sc., 3/17 Alexander Street, GRIFFITH, Elsie A. (Mrs.), 9 Kanoona Street, Coogee. (1959) Caringbah. (1956) DANCE, Ian G., 22 The Promenade, Cheltenham. McGLYNN, John Albert, 34 Highlands Avenue, ~ (1960) Gordon. (1960) DENTON, Norma, 97 Bunarba Road, Miranda. SMITH, Glennie Forbes, B.sc., 2 Mars Road, Lane (1959) Cove. (1958) DONEGAN, Elizabeth (Mrs.), 18 Hillview Street, STEVENS, Eric Leslie, 99 Trafalgar Street, Stanmore. Sans Souci. (1956) (1961) Obituary, 1960-61 The Rt. Hon. Viscount Dunrossil (1960) Charles Edward Fawsitt (1909) Neil Ernest Goldsworthy (1947) Herbert Richard Harrington (1934) Daryl Robert O’Dea (1951) Hugh Raymond Guy Poate (1919) Henry Priestley (1918) Sir Harold Spencer-Jones (1946) Medals, Memorial Lectureships and Prizes awarded by The Society 1947 1948 1950 1951 1952 1929 1932 1935 1938 1941 1944 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 The James Cook Medal A bronze medal awarded for outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere. J. C. Smuts (South Africa) 1953 B. A. Houssay (Argentina) 1954 Sir N. H. Fairley (U.K.) 1955 N. McA. Gregg (Australia) 1956 W. L. Waterhouse (Australia) 1959 Sir D. Rivett (Australia) Sir F. M. Burnet (Australia) A. P. Elkin (Australia) Sir I. Clunies Ross (Australia) A. Schweitzer (Fr. Eq. Africa) The Walter Burfitt Prize A bronze medal and money prize of £75 awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the preceding six years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in those Dominions. Established as a result of generous gifts to the Society of Dr. and Mrs. W. F. Burfitt. N. D. Royle (Medicine) 1947 C. H. Kellaway (Medicine) 1950 V. A. Bailey (Physics) 1953 F. M. Burnet (Medicine) 1956 F. W. Whitehouse (Geology) 1959 H. L. Kesteven (Medicine) J. C. Jaeger (Mathematics) D. F. Martyn (Ionospheric Physics) K. E. Bullen (Geophysics) J. C. Eccles (Medicine) F. J. Fenner (Medicine) The Clarke Medal Awarded from time to time for distinguished work in the Natural Sciences done in or on the Australian Commonwealth and its territories; the person to whom the award is made may be resident in the Australian Commonwealth or its territories or elsewhere. Established by the Society soon after the death of the Rev. W. B. Clarke in appreciation of his character and services “‘as a learned colonist, a faithful minister of religion, and an eminent scientific man ”’’. The recipients from 1878 to 1929 were given in this Journal, vol. 89, p. xv, 1955. L. Keith Ward (Geology) 1947 R. J. Tillyard (Entomology) 1948 F. Chapman (Palaeontology) 1949 W. G. Woolnough (Geology) 1950 E. S. Simpson (Mineralogy) 1951 G. W. Card (Geology) 1952 Sir Douglas Mawson (Geology) 1953 J. T. Jutson (Geology) 1954 H. C. Richards (Geology) 1955 C. A. Sussmilch (Geology) 1956 F. Wood Jones (Zoology) 1957 W. R. Browne (Geology) 1958 W. L. Waterhouse (Botany) 1959 W. E. Agar (Zoology) 1960 W. N. Benson (Geology) 1961 J. M. Black (Botany) H. L. Clark (Botany) A. B. Walkom (Palaeobotany) Rev. H. M. R. Rupp (Botany) I. M. Mackerras (Entomology) F. L. Stillwell (Geology) J. G. Wood (Botany) A. J. Nicholson (Entomology) E. de C. Clarke (Geology) R. N. Robertson (Botany) O. W. Tiegs (Zoology) Irene Crespin (Geology) T. G. B. Osborn (Botany) T. Iredale (Zoology) A. B. Edwards (Geology) C. A. Gardner (Botany) 118 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1891 1892 1894 1895 1896 1943 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1903 1906 1907 1918 1919 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1931 1933 1940 1942 1944 1946 1948 AWARDS The Society’s Medal A bronze medal awarded from 1884 until 1896 for published papers. The Award was revived in 1943 for scientific contributions and services to the Society. W. E. Abbott 1948 W. L. Waterhouse (Agriculture) S. H. Cox 1949 A. P. Elkin (Anthropology) J. Seaver 1950 O. U. Vonwiller (Physics) Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods 1951 A. R. Penfold (Applied Chemistry) T. Whitelegge 1953. A. B. Walkom (Palaeobotany) Rev. J. Mathew 1954 D. P. Mellor (Chemistry) Rev. J. Milne Curran 1955 W. G. Woolnough (Geology) A. G. Hamilton 1956 W. R. Browne (Geology) Vee DeuCoque 1957 KR. C. L. Bosworth (Physical Chemistry) R. H. Mathews 1958 F. R. Morrison (Applied Chemistry) C. J. Martin 1959 Ida A. Browne (Geology) Rev. J. Milne Curran 1960 T. Griffith Taylor (Geography) E. Cheel (Botany) The Edgeworth David Medal A bronze medal awarded to Australian research workers under the age of thirty-five years for work done mainly in Australia or its territories, or contributing to the advancement of Australian science. R. G. Giovanelli (Astrophysics) 1954 E. S. Barnes (Mathematics) E. Ritchie (Organic Chemistry) 1955 H. B. S. Womersley (Botany) T. B. Kiely (Plant Pathology) 1957 J. M. Cowley (Chemical Physics) R. M. Berndt (Anthropology) J. P. Wild (Radio Astronomy) Catherine H. Berndt (Anthropology) 1958 P. I. Korner (Physiology) J. G. Bolton (Radio Astronomy) 1960 R. D. Brown (Chemistry) A. B. Wardrop (Botany) Clarke Memorial Lectureship The lectureship is awarded for the purpose of the advancement of Geology. The practice of publishing the lectures in the Journal began in 1936. T. W. E. David 1943 H. G. Raggatt E. W. Skeats (two lectures) 1944 W. H. Bryan T. W. E. David (two lectures) 1945 E. S. Hills W. G. Woolnough 1946 L. A. Cotton E. F. Pittman 1947 H. S. Summers W. S. Dun 1948 Sir Douglas Mawson Ke a AS Berny, 1949 W. R. Browne T. W. E. David 1950 F. W. Whitehouse W. G. Woolnough 1951 In undergraduate teaching physiography was being minimized to allow more time for basic science subjects. It had become necessary to think in terms of geology courses of 5 or 6 years duration. Dealing with coal science Dr. Dulhunty said that extended use of coal for the chemical industry depends on elucidating its fundamental characters but research in this field had been disappointing. In the second part of his address Dr. Dulhunty touched on the scenic, physiographic and architectural highlights of his recent travels. Series of slides shown included : Weathering detail of marble, granite and sandstone building-stones in Europe ; Aspects of Swiss Alpine physiography ; Physiographic and tectonic features of the Mohave Desert and the Grand Canyon, and University Buildings in Europe and America. Dr. Dulhunty also exhibited lavas and a volcanic bomb from the Mohave Desert, limestone from the Rock of Gibraltar, a deformed pebble from the Old Red Sandstone of Britain and other specimens collected during his recent travels. 121 NOVEMBER 18th. (1) Exhibits: Mr. F. Leechman showed a series of colour slides illustrating the topo- graphy and surface deposits of opal fields at Coober Pedy, South Australia, and at locations in the extreme south-west of Queensland. Miss P. Males exhibited specimens from Jagersfontein and De Beers Mines, South Africa. These included eclogite, kimberlite and single crystals of chrome-diopside, phlogopite, pyrope and ilmenite. Mr. H. G. Golding exhibited a zoned silica brick from the refractory lining of a glass-melting tank and showed coloured slides of photomicrographs of the tridymite zone. (2) Addvess: ‘‘ The Concept-Structure : Symmetry ~, by L. EK. Koch. When approaching problems of crystal symmetry empirically, i.e., from observation and measurement of geometrical, physical, structural, etc., features, the following concept structure provides the means for the systematic construction, testing, and evaluation of the hypotheses involved : ‘ Crystal ss an cates Ye X Va \ hae (geometrical form) ‘algebraic ’’ representation : (—U,—U,—U,—U,—)=U .. .. (2), where: ~ WU — inversion, U, = rotation, WU. — mirror reflection, and U,=translation, and U denotes the (unitary) concept of a higher order, i.e., “‘ crystal symmetry’. The calculus of composite wholes (embodying the theory of sets, both with and without regard to empirical order of the elements, the theory of relations, and combinatorics), supplemented by other tools of reasoning and calculating embodied in “ Finite Mathematics’ (Kemeny, 1958), can then immediately be applied to the above concept structure and the relations of its constituent elements. H. G. GOLDING, Hon. Secretary, Section of Geology. ¢ i or, in its AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY Ns onorary Secretaries, Royal Society: of oe Snes Hous bod Gloucester ie chegath in fee ee ara he ) paper, with generous side Habra be aides he sel é vant hate S initials Wee ackets to the bea address: ers written aw sti | i i ty NS ‘abolar ‘matter should ‘be ‘eas cage sheets, arranged for the ew on he oe of the columns or rows to. fo which , Manuscripts. ebonla. poh ‘addressed, ee Gevihe to the : shoud: ee enue | ines. nym of ae / ed ae Tae gpelste sheet. ; Notice to Authors References. | Bteodeiees are te be cited in the text by giving the author’s name and the year of publication, eg.: Vick (1934); at the end of the paper they should be arranged alphabetically giving the author’s name and . initials, the year of publication, the title of the paper (if desired), the abbreviated title of the Ue. volume number and pages, thus: ‘Vicx, &, G., 1934. Astr. Nach., 253, 277. ‘The abbreviated form of the title of this journal Is: J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. ae pes Diagrams. Line diagrams should be ‘made with dense black ink on either white bristol board, blue linen or pale-blue ruled graph _ paper. Tracing paper is unsatisfactory because it is subject to attack by silverfish and also af _ changes its shape in ‘sympathy with the atmos- _ pheric humidity. The thickness of lines and the size of letters and numbers should be such as to permit photographic. reduction without loss ofdetaily: iM, ‘Whenever possible iis! or i Ghaparapliic _ copies of each diagram should be sent so that ‘the originals need not be sent ‘to referees, thus eliminating possible cine to the diagrams while in the mail. "Photographs. Piciogiioks should be in- ~ cluded only where essential, should be glossy, - preferably mounted on white card, and should _ show as much contrast as possible. Particular attention should be paid to contrast in photo- | ‘graphs of distant jcaeea Son of geological ua aga - Reprints, “Anthers receive 69 copies: of ab ‘paper free. Additional copies may be _ purchased: provided they are ordered by the | org when ane galley-proofs. i ef rile THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE - ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR” THE Cecephacs aha MADE “AND bbe OPINIONS EXPRESSED Pee: rve ed at Sydney ‘Observatory | During 1959-60. K. P. Sims : dies. on, the Electro-Migration eer Inorganic onan t quence of Tertiary. Volcani ic ‘and ens Rocks of the Mount _ ag Vol raph Shi fe ue os M c chan | i pags) t mi ee Royal Society of New South Wales — OFFICERS FOR 1961-1962 Patrons é. Sy tae THE GovERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF ‘Asreacte. Hs diene 4 His EXCELLENCY THE RicHT HoNOURABLE VISCOUNT Der L’ISLE, v.c.,; P. Coy G C. M Si K. St. Je His EXCELLENCY THE GovERNOR OF NEw SouTH WALES,’ pam SS LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SiR ERIC W. WOODWARD, K.c.M.G., C.B., C. B.E., D,S.0, | rs President R. J. W. Le FEVRE, D.sc., F.R.S., F.A.A. Vice-Presidents | ‘ H. A, J. DONEGAN, Msc. ; KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD, M.Sc. . A, F. A. HARPER, M.Sc. HARLEY W. woop, MSc Hon. Secretaries. J. L. GRIFFITH, 8.a., M.Sc. - ALAN A. DAY, Ph.D., B.Se. . (Baton) Hon. Bees, 3 CNG RR C. L. ADAMSON, B.se. pet Members of Council | ‘IDA A. BROWNE, pis P; D. iF, MURRAY,.D.sc, BA ae A. G. FYNN, B.sc., S.J. W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, Nera uring -N. A. GIBSON, Php. | é + 2 Gah SLADE, eats. FIRS Bose ; . W. HUMPHRIES, B.Sc. - x gen W.-B. SMITH-WHITE, MAL te ‘A. H, LOW, Ph.v., Msc. Fay ovat N. W. WEST, B.se. ; ‘NOTICE eee : eee Sa Nay: The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ef Philosophical Society” of nuetrataei © - after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the’ ‘* Australian Philosophical Society "’, by which title it was known ‘until 1856, when the name was — - changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her - - Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, he was incorporated by Act of shawn ee of New South ‘Wales in 1881. J ig DA ge aN i Omitted from Part 2, between pages 88-89. Binder please note. IVIILGAN NISVG WVEGOUV77VM FAULT ALE \ { RODE RDS 1G. 3 HILLD ee eee / -INITD Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 SBROOK FAULT SUOI}DBS SSOID [BOISOTOI4) 6 “SI c / O SIT/W JITPIDS TVLNOZ/YO IY¥W 7”¥2/907079 NO NMOHS Sv GNI9DI7 . gaia : , eee 4 eee et ee! oe Wie! es sok INI TOILNV ee ee eee IIVOTI/H y cr Ee ee = pape NISWG JTdOsS7g9 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1961 ROBERTS) Pia, 2 OFT — TOP OF ARARAT FM CONTOUR INTERVAL 4OOFT FOLD AXES -f— es FAULTS FAULT ALLYN STRUCTURE CONTOURS CAMYR FAULT « S 9 x gQ Ww = = i bl PATERSON Fic. 4 Structure contour map of the Gresford District contoured on the top of the Ararat Formation Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 123-124, 1961 Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1959-60 Ke P.-SIMs; (Received March 17, 1961) The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory with the 114 inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a chronograph. The reduction elements were computed by the method given in the Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction completed by the method given there. For 1959 the necessary data were taken from the Nautical Almanac for 1959, the Moon’s right ascension and declination (Hourly table) and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. No correction was applied to the observed times for personal effect but a cor- rection of —0-00228 hour was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon. This of +0-00944 hour (84 seconds) was applied to the observed time to convert it to ephemeris time with which The Astronomical Ephemeris for 1960 was entered to obtain the position and parallax of the Moon. The apparent places of the stars of the 1960 occultations were provided by H.M. Nautical Almanac Office. Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on from those of the previous report (Sims 1959). The observers were H. W. Wood (W), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (S). In all cases the phase observed was disappearance at the dark limb. Table II gives the results of the reductions which were carried out in duplicate. The Z.C. numbers given are those of the Catalog of 3539 corresponds to a correction of —4"-5 to the Zodtacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 Moon’s mean longitude. For 1960 a correction (Robertson, 1940). TABLE I Serial 7h Oe No. No. Mag. Date Gel. Observer 384 532 7:2 1959 Jan. 19 12 03 14-7 = 385 1072 6-2 1959 Apr. 15 10 52 59-5 5 386 1428 3-8 1959 Apr. 18 12 14 10°8 WwW 387 2064 6-5 1959 June 17 8 42 31-1 5 388 2555 acto) 1959 Aug. 14 8 15 50-2 R 389 2495 6-0 1959 Oct. 7 10 34 02:8 5 390 2972 6-7 1959 Oct. 10 14 32 02:8 W 391 2975 7-0 1959 Oct. 10 14 45 10-9 WwW 392 214 6-4 1960 Jan. 6 ll 31 50-6 R 393 — 8-7 1960 Jan. 6 Il 32 32-7 R 394 581 6-9 1960 Jan. 9 12 38 52-3 W 395 653 4-8 1960 Feb. 6 9 44 27-3 WwW 396 871 6-9 1960 Mar. 6 9 04 19-4 W 397 1247 6-8 1960 Mar. 9 10 21 44:5 5 398 764 5:0 1960 Apr. 29 7 47 02-4 5 399 1158 5-2 1960 May 2 8 31 11-6 R 400 1386 6-6 1960 May 4 10 45 33-5 R 401 1486 4-6 1960 May 5 8 23 15-5 WwW 402 1600 5-1 1960 May 6 10 42 02-6 R 403 1114 6-8 1960 May 29 7 38 46-4 W 404 1746 Tl 1960 July 1 ll 52 02°5 3) 405 2089 6-8 1960 July 4 7 58 45-9 R 406 2231 6-9 1960 July 5 9 21 49-5 WwW 407 2495 6-0 1960 Aug. 3 10 43 07-2 S 408 454 5:8 1960 Dec. 28 12 22 51-8 R 124 iy Jey ells) TABLE II Serial Lunation Coefficient of No. No. Pp q p? pq Ge Ac pAs. “qite Aa As 384 446 +68 +73 47 +50 53 +0:5 +0:3 +0:4 4+ 7:9 +0-83 _ 385 449 +74 —67 55 —50 45 0:0 0:0 0:0 + 9:6 —O0:74 386 449 +42 —9l 18 —38 82 +1:-9 +0:8 —1:‘7 4+ 2-5 —0-99 387 451 +43 —90 18 —39 82 +1:-3 +0°6 —1-2 + 2-9 —0-98 388 453 +94 — 34 88 — 32 Le, —I1+7 —1-6 +0:6 +13:4 —0-35 389 455 + 84 —55 70 — 46 30 +1-3 +1:1 —0-7 +11:6 —O0-59 390 455 +48 —88 23 —42 AT +2:-1 +1:-0 —1-8 + 9-4 —0-77 391 455 +85 — 53 Ps —45 28 +1:-0 +0:8 —0°5 4+13°:6 —0-36 392 458 +53 +85 28 +45 Te +0:-5 +0:3 +0:4 4+ 3-8 +0-97 393 458 +58 +81 34 +47 66 —2-1 —1-2 —1-:-7 + 4:7 40-95 394 458 +89 +45 80 +40 20 —1:°8 —1-6 —0:8 411°5 40-59 395 459 +95 +30 91 +29 9 —1-0 —1-0 —0-3 +12:9 +0-43 396 460 +84 — 54 a —45 29 —1-2 Se) +0°6 +12:2 —O0-51 397 460 +97 +23 95 +22 5 = OY i = —0:3 4+14:4 40-06 398 462 +66 +75 44 +50 56 —0:6 —0:4 —0°4 4+ 8-4 40-80 399 462 +96 +27 93 +26 ih —1-2 —]-9 —0°3 +14-1 40:15 400 462 +60 +80 36 +48 64 — 1-2 —Q:-7 —1:0 411-3 +0:63 401 462 +99 —13 98 —13 hy —0:l —OQ-l 0-0 +13°6 —0-39 402 462 +83 +55 70 +46 30 —0:5 —0-4 —0°3 +14:3 +0-28 403 463 +95 +32 90 +30 10 —2°3 —2°-2 —0O:7 +13-8 +0-22 404. 464 +98 —22 95 —22 5S +1-2 +1-2 —0°3 +12-:9 —0-5l 405 464 +62 +79 38 +49 62 —2+] —1-3 —1:7 411-8 +0-60 406 464 +44 —90 19 —40 81 +1-9 +0:8 —1-7 + 3:6 —0:-97 407 465 +94 —35 88 —33 12 —3:4 —3-2 +1-2 412-9 —0-42 408 470 +86 —5l 74 +44 26 —0:6 —0°5 +0°3 +14:0 —0-29 The star involved in occultation 393 was not References im’ ZG. ites GAC als ihe apparent place ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the ; ; s American Ephemeris, Vol. x, Part II. was R.A. 1h 26m 21-68s, Dec. +7° 45° 02"-2. caves K.P, 1959. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 98, Z.C. 2495, involved in occultation number 407, 25; Sydney Observatory Papers, 35. is a double star, A 10465, and the observer Sydney Observatory noted that it disappeared in two steps. Sydney — a Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. (25-134, 1961 Some Theoretical Studies on the Electro-Migration of Inorganic Compounds on Paper J. MILLER AND W. F. PICKERING Newcastle University College, Tighe’s Hill, N.S.W. Agpstract—The electro-migration of metal ions on filter paper moistened with various con- centrations of disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate at different pH values has been studied and it was found that the movement of the metal ion could be related to the degree of dissociation to explain the observed behaviour of paper. The major proportion of publications on electro-migration of inorganic compounds on paper describe experiments designed to separate mixtures and a wide variety of reagents have been used as the background or carrier electro- te. Many of the carrier electrolytes used were complexing agents and it was observed that the movement of a particular cation could be varied by changing the pH of the solution (Lederer and Ward, 1951, 1952; Strain, 1952 ; mato, Diamond, Norris and Strain, 1952; Yasunaga and Shimomura, 1953; Sato, Norris and Strain, 1954, 1955; Engelke, Strain and Mepod, 1954; Evans and Strain, 1956; MacNevin and Dunton, 1957). Other studies used unreactive carrier electrolytes on which imorganic compounds were spotted in the form of a complexed species (Macek and Pribil, 1955 ; Miller, Pickering and Ward, 1956; Bruninx, Eeckhout and Gillis, 1956). These studies indicated that the behaviour of the added complexes could not be interpreted completely in terms of the relative stability of the com- Some aspects of the processes involved in the movement of a complexed species on paper ‘under the influence of an electric field have now been examined and the results of these studies are reported in this paper. The com- plexing agent selected was ethylene diamine ime acetic acid since stability data on the “metal complexes of this reagent are well known and the reagent reacts to form 1:1 complexes with metal ions. The influence of factors such as electro-osmosis, saturation current, etc., ‘Were minimised by adopting the apparatus and "procedure recommended by Bruninx e ai. (1956). of the metal complex formed. The diffusion of acid liberated at the anode by electrolysis was found to contribute greatly to dissociation of the metal complexes. equation relating the movement of the metal ion with the stability of the complex and the pH and concentration of complexing agent, was derived. The rate of movement of the metal ions was also found to be influenced by adsorption by the paper and an adsorption mechanism based on the Donnan Membrane Theory has been proposed For the system studied, an The investigation was divided into three main parts and for clarity in discussion these parts have been recorded as separate sections in this paper. Experimental Technique The electro-migration apparatus used resembles that described by Bruninx eé ai. (1956) but was modified by placing a water- cooled copper plate under the lower glass plate used to hold the paper strip. This modification was found desirable to ensure temperature control. In all tests a potential of 90 volts was applied across the electrodes which dipped into two electrolyte reservoirs. The ends of a 6” x44” sheet of Whatman No. 3 paper were enclosed in cellophane, and contact between the cellophane and the electrolyte reservoirs was made by a 2”x4” strip of Whatman No. 3 paper. Before being placed in the apparatus the paper was moistened with the selected carrier electrolyte and excess solution was removed by pressing between filter paper. The apparatus was then pre-conditioned by applying the voltage across the electrodes for an _ hour. Without interrupting the applied field, 0-01 ml portions of deci-normal metal nitrate solutions were placed on the centre line of the paper sheet with the aid of an Agla micro syringe through openings in the upper glass cover of the apparatus. The electric field was applied for a further 120 minutes and the new position of the metal ions was then located by spraying with suitable spot reagents. The movement and degree of dispersion of the ion was noted in each case. 126 J. MILLER AND W. F. PICKERING concomitant interference introduced through diffusion of electrolysis products. This 1. The Effect of Concentration of Com- x ee % % | plexing Agent and the pH of the Carrier = LELSLLS Electrolyte B ar || ea | Electro-migration studies of the movement of seven cations were made using solutions of S| Neoeeeses |e disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate as = | Seon =) carrier electrolyte, the concentrations of electro- — | 2) 7a ial lyte used being respectively 0-25, 0-10 and a) 0) 2 | 0-01 molar in the separate series of tests. The b a Jee ee = pH of the solutions was adjusted to either a) Nance a Ss PU Detee Tae bye ihe aehiton of costar a | Oo g hydroxide and an ionic strength of 1 was S : » eee = maintained by the addition of potassium {le |S&seres 8. nitrate. |S | Ge aa a The movement of the metal ions (in mm) ae wise se < & and the degree of diffusion of the spots (reported a S| Gena aiien e in parentheses as a multiple of the original eS | cr eam : . ay, O me) 3 CON AAA OO (oa) ess spot size) under the different conditions, are 2S.) lie © recorded in Table I. Movement towards the § Ss cathode has been recorded as positive movement a |S |S age eae 6 (e.g. +15mm) and movement towards the B/2/8|sx=esae 2 anode (i.e. due to movement of an anion) e| 4/8 |e et v has been recorded as negative. The distance CA ae g moved by a metal ion was measured from the ~ | a 3 |SSscSace & starting line to the centre of the resultant spot. S| Ci4/a | Serenns = In those cases where the recorded movement is = S| E'S | see eee g small (ie. <-—.10 mm) and is accompanied by el ie a large spot area (i.e. >3) the metal ion was Bes Shilis a s |eonaaane |, [Ss found on both sides of the starting line, indicating Bee = | Sore ovie See that the metal ion was present as both an a Sys Mir ih | lie bs anionic and a cationic species. These systems = = have been marked by an asterisk in Table I. = aacaosrs ei Discussion 8 © | ec iraeaee egal S An examination of the results recorded in a q Table I indicates a number of general trends. 4 g St | Daa oD oD 6 OD ~ (a) The introduction of E.D.T.A. into the oo | aeor ess a carrier electrolyte reduced the rate of oF +111 ltt lg S movement of metal ions towards the cathode. = -- This is in accordance with the tendency of =“ | Ssaneene|5 | f the metal ions to form anionic complexes. = Galina CaS) 202 & a (b) Ihe introduction of KNO, into the carrier oj ae |e electrolytes containing E.D.T.A. had little 3d a ee e = influence on the rate of movement where iS SSSSSSn Ganieg the concentration of E.D.T.A. present was SF | Ge eee ae equal to or greater than the concentration 2 - > of metal nitrate spotted on the paper. 0 |Noscene |e |* However, where the complexing agent was G ONE ODD iS) é : OHO OOM o present in low concentration (e.g. 0-01M) Ss eee Wi Teae e the introduction of the KNO, resulted in a a complete change of direction for the divalent = metal ions. This reversal of direction has Sta a been found to be due to the increased 28o88 | 23a 4 4 current which flows in the circuit with a 2. Gaae Bae oe ee NOTES: ELECTRO-MIGRATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON PAPER aspect is discussed in more detail in Section 2 of this paper. (c) Varying the concentration of E.D.T.A. in the carrier electrolyte produced some unex- pected effects. It was predicted that the movement of the metal ion would become more negative as the concentration of complexing agent was increased (due to reduced dissociation of the anionic complex ions) and this was certainly the case when the concentration was increased from 0-01 to 0-1M E.D.T.A. However, a further increase in E.D.T.A. concentration to 0-:25M resulted in a slightly lower rate of movement from that obtained with 0-1M carrier electrolyte, but the resultant spots were more compact. This slight retardation has been attributed to an adsorption phenomena and this aspect is more fully discussed in Section 3 of this paper. Increasing the pH of the carrier electrolyte was predicted to favour the formation of the anionic complex species and _ thus increase the rate of negative movement of the metal ions. However, it was observed (cf. Table I) that with the exception of silver (which changes direction between pH 4:4 and 8-2), changing the pH had little significant influence on the movement of the ions. The variation in movement obtained at pH 10-7 using 0:01M E.D.T.A. as carrier electrolyte when compared with the values obtained with the same carrier at lower pH values is most readily explained in terms of neutralisation of electrolysis products as will be discussed later. The limited influence of pH on the movement can be attributed to the stability of the metal-E.D.T.A. complexes. a It was shown by Consden, Gordon and Martin (1946) that the degree of separation of weak electrolytes and amphoteric substances depends upon the degree of dissociation. By analogy with the treatment used by these workers for weak acids, the effective mobility of a complexed metal ion can be considered to be controlled by the relative proportions of complex species and hydrated metal ion (due to dissociation) present under the conditions of electro-migration and the following equation has been derived for a 1:1 molar complex. Bei Ke O,.U,.4-C,U,,,.) a Cee where d is distance moved by metal ion in time t under influence of electrical field F, and d ales 127 Kk, =Stability constant of metal-ligand complex k, =Dissociation constant of ligand acid C, Concentration of ligand acid in the carrier electrolyte C, Concentration of hydrogen ions in the carrier electrolyte U,,—=Mobility of complex species on paper. (—ve in sign) U 4m—=Mobility of metal cation on paper. (--ve in sign) The mobility (U) on paper can be measured in terms of a unit such as cm/volt cm™/sec where the distance travelled by the species (in cm) is measured along the surface of the paper from the starting point and includes any retarding effects due to electro-osmosis ete. and where the field strength (volt cm™}) is obtained by dividing the applied voltage by the length of the paper strip. If complex formation involves the displace- ment of more than one proton from the ligand acid, then C, must be raised to the power of the number of protons displaced. Thus, for the E.D.T.A. complexes studied (within the pH range of 4 to 11) C, in equation (1.1) should be: replaced: by .(G,)}*. The mobilities U,,, U,,, can be considered to be of the same order of magnitude even though they may differ in sign, and accordingly, a study of equation (1.1) indicates that the C, term will only be significant when it is approxi- mately equal to or greater than the term TG AIG IC, For the E.D.T.A. system studied, C, ranged from 0:25 to 0:01 molar and K, (for the equilibrium H,y=72H*-+-y-*) is equal to 10-164, A change in hydrogen ion concentra- tion in the solution could thus be expected to cause significant variations only when (C,)2-10* kK. With the series of complexes studied and considering only pH values ranging from 4 to 11, only silver E.D.T.A. complex has a K, value (107-3) which satisfies this relationship and it can be observed from Table I that the direction of movement of silver was reversed when the pH was varied from 4:4 to 8-2. Substitution of appropriate values in equation (1.1) (U,,, being taken from the movement in M.KNOs; solution and assumed equal to —U,,) yielded values for the movement of silver ion under different conditions which compared well with the values obtained by experiment. With more stable complexes (e.g. those of the divalent metals, A,~1018) it can be shown 128 that the direction of movement of the metal ion should change from negative to positive at much lower values of pH (eg. <1-2) but calculation of the exact conditions is compli- cated by the limited solubility of the quadribasic acid (H,Y) which will be present under these conditions. Because of the marked stability of the iron F.D.7.A. complex (K,,—10?5) conditions never became sufficiently acidic on the paper to cause dissociation of the complex and thus no cationic movement was observed in the presence of Epa AY (inches) (Op) 4 O Movement WwW 40.) 50" #68 Time 10) 20,30 J: MILLER AND W.(E, PICKERING migration of hydrogen ions produced at the anode. 4 : | Universal indicator was mixed with a range of the carrier electrolytes used in these two studies and changes in pH on the paper were visually observed. The indicator showed that an acid front slowly spread from the anolyte reservoir and an indication of the rate of move- ment of the acid front using different electrolytes is given in Figure 1. The pH of the electrolytes in the anode and cathode reservoirs was deter- mined at time intervals and the results obtained are summarised in Figure 2. Measurements og KS 70° 80" "90° 400 0s aze (minutes) Hic. Graph showing the variation in the rate of movement of the acid front across the’ paper strip with concentration of carrier electrolyte. Using a complexing agent as carrier electro- lyte, the movement of an added metal ion can therefore be related to the degree of dissociation of the complex which in turn is related to the concentration of complexing agent present and the pH conditions prevailing. 2. The Diffusion of Electrolysis Products A previous study (Miller, Pickering and Ward, 1956) using potassium nitrate solutions as carrier electrolytes indicated that stable metal complexes were decomposing during electro- migration on paper. In this latest study, great difficulty was found in obtaining reproduceable results using solutions containing predominantly potassium nitrate (ee. O701NM Diyas in M.KNO,). In. both cases, the metal ions exhibited cationic movement and the reason for this was traced in the following manner to Field Strength 4 V/cm were also made of the movement of silver and nickel ions when molar solutions of the nitrates of these metals were used as the anolyte and a molar solution of potassium nitrate was used to moisten the paper and act as the catholyte. The rate of movement of the silver and nickel ions across the paper is shown in Figure 3. Discussion The rapid change in pH which can occur in the electrolyte reservoirs in the absence of a buffer salt is clearly shown in Figure 2. The amount of acid or base formed at the electrodes is controlled by Faraday’s Laws and thus the rate and extent of the pH changes varies with the time and the current flowing in the circuit. For a given applied voltage, the current in turn is controlled by the concentration and nature of the carrier electrolyte and the wetness of the paper. ELECTRO-MIGRATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON PAPER The hydrogen ions formed in the anode compartment were free to move under the influence of the applied electrical field and it can be observed from Figure 1 that an acid front moved across the paper at a rate which varied linearly with time. The rate of move- ment of the acid front also varied with the concentration of carrier electrolyte used and from Figure 2 this can be related to the rate at which hydrogen ions were being formed in the anolyte reservoir. Anode Compartment 6@ 50 7 40.30 20° JO 129 which permits the calculation of a “ tortuosity factor ’’ (Lederer, 1955). The calculations are only valid in the absence of adsorption of a species, and the limitations inherent in the application of “ tortuosity ’ or “ obstructive ”’ factors have been emphasised in a recent paper by Bailey and Yaffe (1959). Calculations based on the information shown in Figure 3 gave values for the “factor” of 0-7 (Ni*+), 0-6 (H+) and 0-5 (Agt). The value calculated using the nickel results is similar to pH | v. Cathode Compartment SS —_—__ —— —___. —_—_— ID 3207 36 AS 50) 260 Time (minutes) BiG. 2 Graphs showing the rate of change of pH in the electrolyte reservoirs. The recorded currents (in the order of increasing magnitude) correspond to the use of centi-, deci- or molar solutions of potassium nitrate as carrier electrolyte The effect of concentration of acid in the anolyte reservoir on the rate of movement of the acid front over the paper is inexplicable in terms of the mobility of free ions in solution, and this phenomenon is most readily explained in terms of adsorption of hydrogen ions by the paper. A similar explanation was required in a paper chromatographic study (Pickering, 1958) where it was observed that the height ascended by an acid front varied almost linearly with the concentration of acid in the developing agent. The adsorption of ions by the paper is also indicated by the results recorded in Figure 3, and the large spot areas recorded in many places in Table I. The apparent difference in the rate of move- ment of a species in solution and on paper has been attributed to the species following a tortuous path in between the fibres of the paper and an empirical equation has been derived values quoted for other grades of paper (Lederer, 1955), hence the lower values calculated from the movement of hydrogen and silver ions can be attributed to adsorption of these ions by the paper. Since some of the electro-migration results recorded in Table I indicated adsorption of complex anions as well as cations, the adsorptive properties of filter paper are discussed in the next section of this paper. Studies with neutral sugar molecules con- firmed the claims of Bruninx e¢ al. (1956) that the design of apparatus used in this study minimises, and virtually eliminates, solvent flow along the paper. However, the diffusion of electrolysis products along the paper during the recommended pre-conditioning period may completely alter the pH and composition of the carrier electrolyte before the metal ions are placed on the paper. For example in the series 130 of experiments recorded in Table I variable results were obtained with carrier electrolytes composed of molar potassium nitrate containing centi-molar E.D.T.A. The _ diffusion tests showed that these carrier electrolytes became quite acidic during the pre-conditioning period (even those solutions which were originally adjusted to a pH of 10) and thus the metal ions were actually being spotted on to an acidic ea) W Movement (inches) iN NO lO™ 20° 30) 40) 50 60°70" "80 J. MILLER AND W. F. PICKERING several ways. Some success may be obtained by ‘incorporating mechanical baffles in the — reservoir compartments but the preferable techniques are those based on the use of a buffer solution (of sufficient strength to absorb all products formed), a weak electrolyte or a strong acid as carrier electrolyte. Most of the published electro-migration studies have used such solutions and hence the possible influence OP(O Tie Time (minutes) Fic. 3 Graph showing the rate of movement of hydrogen, nickel and silver ions along the paper. Carrier electrolyte M.KNO,, field strength 4 V/cm. (Graphs for Ag+ and Ni*+ have been displaced upward for clarity) solution of potassium nitrate (most of the E.D.T.A. being precipitated as the sparingly soluble acid) rather than on to an alkaline solution of complexing agent. It is therefore not surprising that the divalent metals exhibited cationic movement with these electrolytes in comparison with the anionic movement observed when 0:01M E.D.T.A. (without added KNOs) was used as carrier electrolyte. The rate of movement of the alkali front from the cathode compartment was very much slower than that of the acid front. In the time intervals used in this investigation, on no occasion did the alkali front extend any distance past the end of the paper bridge from the cathode reservoir. This can be _ partially explained by the difference in mobility between hydrogen and hydroxyl ions and partially due to smaller concentration of hydroxyl ions formed during electrolysis (cf. Fig. 2). The undesirable effects introduced by diffusion of electrolysis products can be overcome in of electrolysis products has not received much attention even though a number of workers have observed that a particular species may change direction during the period of electro- migration. However, this study emphasises that acid diffusion must be seriously considered on any occasion when the use of the chosen carrier electrolyte will result in the flow of more than a few milliamperes of current and where acidic conditions are not desired. 3. The Adsorption of Complexed Species by Filter Paper Recent chromatographic studies (Pluchet and Lederer, 1960; Beckmann and Lederer, 1960) have demonstrated that anions may be adsorbed by filter paper. In the case of the chloro- complexes of a number of metals it was shown that the movement of the metal ion varied with the concentration of HCl in the developing solvent, there being optimum movement within ranges of acid concentration which varied with ELECTRO-MIGRATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON PAPER the metal ion. A similar observation was made by Pucar (1957, 1958) during a study of electro- phoresis on paper involving the halogen com- plexes of a number of metals. The results recorded in Table I indicate that movement of the metal-E.D.T.A. complexes reaches a maximum within an intermediate range of concentration of complexing agent (approxi- mately 0-1M). Further evidence of the adsorption of complex ions was found when spots of deci-normal solutions of a series of metal complexes were developed on paper chromatograms with deci- normal solutions of either nitric acid, potassium nitrate or sodium hydroxide. With the latter two developing agents, adsorption was clearly indicated by extensive tailing along the path of the chromatogram. The magnitude of the effect is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4 by means of the size of the symbols used and unclosed symbols which represent tailing back to the original point of application. The relative movement of the metal ions for all the complexes tested using deci-normal acid as developing agent has not been recorded on Figure 4, since in all cases the movements were similar to the movement of the hydrated metal ion and corresponded to the position of the acid front on the chromatogram. Thus, the presence of a reasonable concentration of acid in an aqueous developing agent can cause displacement and/or destruction of a complex ion. The same effect was observed during the migration of an acid front across the paper support in the electro-migration studies. The adsorption of hydrogen ions and other cations by filter paper has been shown to be due to cation exchange and the cation exchange capacity of untreated filter papers has been found to vary from 3 to 50 microgram equivalents per gram of paper (Schonfeld and Brode, 1951; Ultee and Hartel, 1955; Pickering, 1960). This small exchange capacity can be used to explain the adsorption of cations by paper from dilute solutions but explanation of other adsorption effects such as the retention of anions, the effect on concentration of complexing agent, etc., requires a more general concept. The mechanism of ion exchange by resins of much greater capacity has been explained in terms of the Donnan Membrane Theory and a model based on this theory appears to explain most of the observed adsorption characteristics of filter paper. 131 Proposed Mechanism of Adsorption by Filter Paper The functional groups present on paper can be regarded as non-diffusible ions present in a water swollen paper phase, separated from an external aqueous solution by a cellulose-water interface. This interface can be considered to act as a membrane and by the Donnan theory an electrolyte (e.g. A,B,) from the external solution will pass through the membrane until the relationship (4 42+)3° (4 yy—-)5= (4424) 2-(4py_)% -- (3-1) is satisfied. (Subscripts “ p”’ and “ w ”’ indicate the paper and water phases respectively.) If the aqueous phase contains a number of electro- lytes, each electrolyte will satisfy the same general relationship. For the purpose of discussion, this expression may be simplified by considering only mono- valent ions and by assuming that the activity coefficients of the ions are the same in both phases. The simplified equation may be written : Ee ale a oe 7 - (3.2) Because the paper phase also contains non- diffusible anions, R-, the principle of electrical neutrality requires that [At],—[R-],+12 ], from which 1 can be seen that [A*), > (3B \. Accordingly, if equation (3) is to be satisfied, [B= |, —fe=|,,.. Im other words, the concentra- tion of diffusible anions in the paper phase (as indicated by [B-], will be lower than the concentration of the same anion in the water phase, the difference in magnitude being related to the concentration of non-diffusible anion in the paper phase. For resin ion exchangers it has been shown by Samuelson (1953) that the volume of the resin phase can be considered as the volume of the swollen resin. With an exchange capacity of several milli-equivalents per gram, this cor- responds to a concentration of non-diffusible anion in the resin phase of the order of 5-6N, and since this is far greater than the concentra- tion of ions normally present in the aqueous phase, the concentration of diffusible anion in the resin phase is small enough to be ignored. By analogy, if the volume of swollen paper fibres is taken to represent the volume of the paper phase, the small concentration of negatively charged functional groups attached to the paper corresponds to a concentration of non-diffusible ions (i.e. [R7],) of the order of 10-2N. In this case, the concentration of anions present in the paper phase due to diffusion 132 J. MILLER AND W. F. PICKERING COMPLEXING AGENT PRESENT Relative CATION ; —______—4 Movement li cuun Fic. 4 The Movement of Complexed Metal Ions on Filter Paper using Aqueous Solvents, such as deci-molar KNO, or NaOH. The symbols @ @ indicate the relative positions of the cations after development. A triangular peak (a or “fe \) represents values obtained in alkaline solution which differed from values obtained with KNO, solution. Tailing from the original spot is indicated by an open symbol and the area of the symbol indicates the comparative degree of diffusion of the ion over the paper ELECTRO-MIGRATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON PAPER through the membrane may often be greater that the concentration of functional groups. or example, if {A+],—[B5-],—0-100N, and o,—0-010N, then by equation (3) {[B-],—0-095N =9-5[R7],. It is in this respect that the adsorptive properties of the filter paper differ greatly from those of artificially made resin exchangers. However, if the concentration of functional groups on the paper is increased by any process (e.g. oxidation, phosphorylation, etc.), then the behaviour of the paper will tend to more closely resemble the pattern of conventional resin exchangers. The possibility of such high concentrations of diffusible anion (b-) in the paper phase explains the observed adsorption of anions. The above example also demonstrates that only a small percentage of cations present in the paper phase to maintain electrical neutrality need be attached to functional groups. There- fore, conversion of the functional groups to the less reactive hydrogen form will not necessarily eliminate adsorption of metal ions by the paper. This model also explains why there is an optimum concentration of complexing agent in the carrier electrolyte which ensures maximum rate of movement of the complexed species. When the concentration of complexing anion (e.g. halide or E.D.T.A.) in the aqueous phase is of the same order as the concentration of functional groups in the paper phase, few complexing anions will be present in the paper phase. If a metal ion is now introduced into the system, there will be competition for this ion between the functional groups and com- plexing anion. If the metal forms a stable complex, the anionic species formed in the water phase will move under the influence of the electrical field with little retardation due to distribution into the paper phase. If the complex is unstable, some metal ions will be retained in the paper phase by attachment to the fixed functional groups. At the other extreme, if the concentration of complexing anions in the aqueous phase is much greater than the concentration of functional groups (i.e. [B~]>[R-]), there will be a corresponding high concentration of ligand groups in the paper phase. An added metal ion may then form a stable complex in both phases. Move- ment of the metal complex formed within the paper phase will only occur after the concentra- tion of complex in the water phase has been reduced by migration. The complex in the paper phase may then diffuse out into the water phase to maintain equilibrium and migrate 133 under the influence of the electrical field. This distribution between the two phases will retard the rate of movement of the species. The optimum conditions will thus be those which provide sufficient excess ligand to ensure a minimum of dissociation of the complex with a minimum of excess ligand being distributed into the paper phase. There is evidence that filter paper can be selective in regards to the size of the ion adsorbed (Fouarge and Duyckaerts, 1960) and thus the movement of a complex species can be influenced by size in two ways, (i) through its effect on the mobility of the ion, and (ii) through adsorption effects. Another factor which must be considered is the high degree of swelling of paper in the presence of electrolyte solutions. The degree of swelling will vary with the composition of the aqueous phase and this swelling in turn will control the volume of the paper phase and the selectivity of the membrane in regard to size. For this and other reasons (such as difficulty in assigning values to activity coefficients in the paper phase) the proposed adsorption mechanism (as summarised by equation (2)) is of great value in qualitative explanation of the behaviour of ions on paper but the explana- tions cannot be made quantitative. From equation (2) it can be seen that adsorption will be favoured by any process within the paper phase which reduces the activity of the species being considered. Reduction in activity may result from attraction to functional groups ; bonding to hydroxyl or other groupings in the cellulose molecule; or inter-ionic attractions. In this way, the theory includes mechanisms which have been proposed by other workers. For example, Hanes and Isherwood (1949) proposed that solutes and solvents compete for positions in a water-cellulose complex ; Burma (1953) suggested that solutes were distributed between a “ free ’’ water phase and a “ fixed, non-solvent ’’ water phase ; Pluchet and Lederer (1960) proposed that the adsorption of anions was analogous to a salting out or precipitation process; and Beckmann and Lederer (1960) explained the retardation of chloro-complexes in terms of “solution ’”’ in the paper. Reference to equation (2) also indicates that adsorption of a species on paper will be reduced by any process or reaction in the aqueous phase which reduces the activity of the species in this phase. For a given zone of paper, the activity of a particular ion in the aqueous phase above this zone may be reduced by such processes as complex formation, ion-association, electrical 134 migration or distribution solvent. The proposed mechanism is therefore suf- ficiently general to include mechanisms proposed by previous workers and can be used to interpret the behaviour of ions on paper which is being used as a support in either electro-migration or partition chromatography studies. into an _ organic Conclusions In electro-migration on paper using com- plexing agents as carrier electrolytes, the movement of an added metal ion can be related to the degree of dissociation of the metal complex formed. The extent of dissociation varies with the concentration of ligand present and the pH conditions prevailing in the solution. Variations in pH can occur due to diffusion of hydrogen ions formed at the anode of electrolysis. The rate of movement of a species on paper can also be related to the adsorptive properties of filter paper. The adsorption process can be considered in terms of a model based on the Donnan Membrane Theory and this approach can be used to explain observed adsorption phenomena in electro-migration and partition chromatography studies based on a_ paper support. References BaILey, R. A., AND YAFFE, L., 1959. 37, 1527. BECKMANN, T. J., AND LEDERER, Chromatog., 3, 498. BRUNINX, E., KECKHOUT, J., AND GILLIS, J., 1956. Anal. Chim. Acta, 14, 74. Burma, D. P., 1953. Anal. Chem., 25, 549. CONSDEN, R., Gorpon, A. H., anD MartTIN, A. J. P., 1946. Biochem. J., 40, 33. Canad. |. Chem., M., 1960. /. Jj. MILLER AND WW.) PICKERING ENGELKE, J. H., Strain, H. H., AND Woops) Em 1954. Anal. Chem., 27, 521. = Evans, G. H., anD Strain, H. H., 1956. Anal. Chem., 28, 1560. FOUARGE, J., AND DvuycKaERTS, G., 1960. J. Chromatog., 3, 48. Hanes, C. S., AND ISHERWOOD, F. A., 1949. Nature (London), 164, 1107. LEDERER, M., AND WARD, F. L. W., 1951)” Aust. Ji Set, £3, Lia LEDERER, M., AND WaArD, F. L. W., 1952. Anal.~ Chim. Acta., 6, 355. LEDERER, M., 1955. ‘“‘ Paper Electrophoresis ’’: Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam. MacNEvin, W. M., anp DuntTon, M. L., 1957. Chem., 29, 1806. MacekEk, K., AND PRIBIL, R., 1955.—Czechoslov. Chem. Communs., 20, 715. MILLER, J., PICKERING, W. F., AND WARD, F. L. W.,, 1956. Anal. Chim. Acta, 14, 538. PICKERING, W. F., 1958. J. Chromatog., 1, 274. PICKERING, W. F., 1960. J. Chromatog., in press. PLUCHET, E., AND LEDERER, M., 1906. J. Chromatog., 3, 290. Pucar, Z., 1957. Anal. Chim. Acta, 17, 476, 485. Pucar, Z., 1958. Anal. Chim. Acta, 18, 290. SAMUELSON, 1953. ‘‘Ion Exchange in Analytical Chemistry ’’, J. Wiley & Son, New York. Sato, T. R., Diamonp, H., Norris, W. P., AND STRAIN, H. H., 1952. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 74, 6154. Sato, T. R., Norris, W. P., anp STRAIN, H. H., 1954. Anal. Chem., 26, 267. SATO, T. R., NORRIS, W. P., AND STRAIN, Hi. EL) 19am Anal. Chem., 27, 521. SCHONFELD, T., AND Bropa, E., 1951. ver Mikrochim. Acta, 36/37, 537. STRAIN, H. H., 1952. Anal. Chem., 24, 356. ULTEE, A. J., AND HARTEL, J., 1955. Anal. Chem@ 27, DD. YASUNAGA, O., AND SHIMOMURA, O., 1954. Soc. Japan, 74, 62. Anal. Mikvrochemie J. Pharm. (Received March 24, 1961) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 135-144, 1961 The Sequence of Tertiary Volcanic and Sedimentary Rocks of the Mount Warning Volcanic Shield N. R. McTAGGART Irrigation and Water Supply Commission, Brisbane, Queensland ABSTRACT—In this paper the writer presents the sequence of volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the Mount Warning volcanic shield and also attempts to analyse some aspects of their origin and depositional environment. The shield is composed of basalts which issued from a vent now represented by the Mount Warning central complex. Interbedded in the basalts on the flanks of the shield are a number of local rhyolite flows and associated pyroclastics which were delivered from subsidiary vents, the plugs of which are still evident. Also interbedded are lacustrine sediments which were derived principally from basement country rocks and which give some indication of the age of the shield and of subsequent earth movements. The oldest Tertiary rocks in the area appear to be the volcanic domes around Woodenbong and Mount Barney. However, an argillaceous sedimentary sequence actually forms the basal member of the pile. Then follows 800 feet of basalt which is overlain by an excellent 200-foot marker band of agglomerates, tuffs ,brecciated rhyolite and an associated polymictic conglomerate. Above this, there is over 2,800 feet of basalt which contains thick intercalations of rhyolite and acid tuff in four distinct localities, namely the Binna Burra, Mount Lindesay and Canungra areas and the Nightcap Range. These all appear to be on the same stratigraphic horizon. Introduction Previous work on the Mount Warning Shield has been incomplete mainly due to the influence of the interstate boundary, whereby a quarter of the shield area lies in Queensland and the remainder in New South Wales. Richards (1916), working on the Queensland section, recognized the presence of the rhyolite bands but he erroneously correlated the two acid levels and demarcated Lower (basic), Middle (acid) and Upper (basic) Divisions of volcanic rocks. He also included the acid and alkaline plugs to the west in his Middle Division. This concept has prevailed for almost half a century and was accepted by Tweedale (1951), who worked in the Binna Burra area in Queensland, in part by Crook and McGarity (1956), who carried out surveys in the Minyon Falls area, N.S.W., and by McElroy (1959), who has just completed a survey of the New South Wales section of the Clarence-Moreton Basin. Bryan (1959), using chemical analyses, cor- related the Lower Division of Richards with the Silkstone Formation at Ipswich in Queensland. Recently, Solomon (1959) has elucidated the geology of the central complex of Mount Warning and also has made observations on the geo- morphology of the shield and the erosion caldera. The 1800-square-mile shield embraces the McPherson Range (which constitutes the New South Wales-Queensland border), the Tweed Range and its southerly extension, the Nightcap Range. On the dissected northerly fall of the McPherson Range are the Springbrook and Lamington Plateaux, much of which are set aside as national parks. Both parks are readily accessible by trafficable roads to Christmas Creek, the Lost World, O’Reilly’s, the Darlington Range, Binna Burra, the Numinbah Valley and Springbrook and there is also an excellent network of tracks through both reserves. The Tweed Range is included for the most part in the Wiangaree and Mebbin State Forests and the Nightcap Range in the Whian-Whian State Forest. The southern part of the shield gives way to the gently undulating northern slopes of the Richmond Valley, the lateritized basalt soils of which support an intense dairying industry. The greater part of the shield above the Hillview Rhyolite level is thickly covered with wet sclerophyll and rain forests. In the Tweed Range and the western part of the Lamington Plateau access is extremely difficult and visibility severely restricted in heavy rainforest. Any investigator of these areas needs to be an expert bushman or a member of a party. This survey, from the very nature of the terrain of the area, is necessarily on a regional scale. Much of the area of the McPherson and Tweed Ranges and the Lamington Plateau was mapped during excursions with members of the University of Queensland Bushwalking Club. Within the erosion caldera seven traverses were made up the escarpment. The outer portions of the shield remnants were examined by road traverses, principally, some short foot traverses being made into unserved areas. Geomorphology The present disposition of the lavas depicts a rough concentricity about Mount Warning with a 120-degree sector denuded from the 136 coastal side and a core of seven miles radius partly removed to form a central erosion caldera. The average radius of the outcrop area is about 30 miles, but outliers of basalt over 40 miles from the central plug indicate that the shield originally was of much larger areal extent. The maximum thickness of the pile at any one point is 3,400 feet at Mount Hobwee (3,960 feet) on the caldera rim. On the opposite side of the caldera in the Nightcap Range the thickness is only 2,600 feet, while at Mount Lindesay, a distance of 33 miles from Mount Warning, the thickness is also 2,600 feet. These figures indicate that the shield lavas flowed a con- siderable distance in a westerly direction at least; this will be discussed further later in this paper. The most conspicuous physiographic feature of the area is the erosion caldera in which the three arms of the Tweed River have carved out a gigantic amphitheatre, some fourteen miles diameter, almost perfectly symmetrically dis- posed about the 3,793 feet spire of Mount Warning. Most of the floor of the caldera is below the 400 feet contour, so that the masses of the McPherson, Tweed and Nightcap Ranges, rising in an almost continuous precipitous wall to heights of three and four thousand feet, form an impressive scene. Observations on this unusual topographic pattern prompted Professor Dorothy Hill (1951) to suggest first that it was an erosion caldera and that Mount Warning might ‘be the tocus of a’ volcanic shield’) A description of the caldera and the possible mechanisms of its formation have been adequately discussed by Solomon (1959). Peripherally from the caldera rim, erosion trends are radial, resulting in a digital pattern of spurs and canyons that persists to the outer edge of the shield remnant. The only major exception to” this is) the? upper pane it "the Richmond River where there is a superimposed north-south drainage pattern due to late Tertiary differential uplift in the Richmond Range area. Basement and Tectonic Environment The Mount Warning central stock lies exactly on the boundary between Lower Palaeozoic sediments to the east and Mesozoic basal volcanics to the west. That there is at least a steep unconformity surface between the two is shown by steeply dipping Mesozoic strata around Chillingham. However, there is little evidence for a faulted junction as might be suggested from such a position of the plug, though this may well be the case and such a N. RK. McTAGGART line of possibility would certainly warrant investigation by any future worker on the — Mesozoic rocks in this area. | Much of the eastern Palaeozoic massif formed a basement high for the Tertiary lavas, up to 1,000 feet above the general level of the Mesozoic basement. Section A-B shows that no lavas covered some Palaeozoic areas till the second basalt episode. To the west, the dominant basement structures are the Beaudesert Syneline (Reid, 1922: Morton, 1923), and the Overflow Anticline, the latter being persistent from Flinder’s Peak in Queensland to west of Casino, at least, in New South Wales. These structures are secondary folds of the main Clarence-Moreton Basin (McElroy, 1959) (=Moreton Offshoot Basin, Whitehouse, 1955). Their pre-Tertiary existence is shown by Section A-B wherein there is” demonstrated the considerable unconformity between the Mesozoic and Tertiary strata. The Overflow Anticline formed a slight basement high due to its core of more resistant Marburg Formation sandstone, inliers of which occur in the basalt around Grevillia in the Upper Richmond area. On the other hand, the Beaudesert Syncline was an area of lower relief and it is over this structure that the greatest thickness of the lowest basalt was deposited. Other local highs, now often exposed as inlers, existed in the area, e.g. near the head of the Albert River, the area to the north of Nimbin and at Bexhill, near Lismore. The Tertiary Deposits: (i) Trachytes and the Mount Barney Complex Around Woodenbong there are a number of trachyte domes with limited associated flows. Of these, Glassy and Dome Mountains offer the only evidence of age relationship. Trachytic lava and tuff from the former extends to the north and north-east over Jurassic Walloon Coal Measures and at several points along the Richmond River above Grevillea similar lava underlies the lowest basalt. In some occurrences there is a conglomerate associated with the lava indicating lacustrine deposition. The shield basalts of the Richmond Range appear to have flowed around Dome Mountain though the exact relationship is obscured by a profuse growth of rain forest. The Mount Barney intrusive complex (Stephenson, 1959) is most probably of the same age. It is pre-Chinghee Conglomerate (See later) in age, since that stratum contains an abundance of boulders of granophyre, obviously ROCKS OF THE MOUNT WARNING VOLCANIC SHIELD derived from the Mount Barney central stock, the only local occurrence of that rock type. In Cainbable Creek, nine miles south-east of Beaudesert, a small laccolithic mass of trachyte underlies the lowest basalt and intrudes Jurassic Walloon Coal Measures. Due to soil develop- ment no actual contacts with the basalt can be observed to ascertain its relationship to the Lamington sequence. to be no disturbance of the basalt, indicating a pre-shield age for the intrusion. The Tertiary Deposits: (11) The Lamington Group The Lamington Group embraces the sequence of interbedded lavas, pyroclastics and sediments which is excellently exposed in the Lamington Plateau. The total thickness of the group is 3,400 feet at Mount Hobwee on the eastern edge of the plateau. The name _ replaces Lamington Volcanics (Stephenson, Stevens and Tweedale, 1960). THE NUMINBAH VALLEY FORMATION This name is introduced for a sequence of brown and white shales and mudstones that occurs beneath the lowest basalt along the eastern slopes of Turtle Rock in the Numinbah Malley. Ihe beds are up to 100 feet thick and contain abundant dicotyledonous leaf impressions. Beds of similar lithology and floral content occur in a small outcrop beneath the lowest basalt to the south-east of the Cainbable trachyte. This outcrop was discovered in 1959 by N. H. Simmonds of the Queensland Geo- logical Survey. Apparently equivalent leaf- bearing strata have been noted by the writer below the basalts on the McPherson Range, ten miles west of Coolangatta. Three miles south-west of Beaudesert near the Mount Lindesay Highway an oil bore encountered shales which contained the fresh- water gastropod Melania sp. (Ball, 1924). The area is covered by 100 feet of alluvium but the nearest rock outcrop is the lowest basalt of the Lamington sequence. The shales are therefore considered to be equivalents of the beds described above. THE ALBERT BASALT This name is proposed for the lowest basalt of the volcanic pile since its maximum thickness of 800 feet is attained and its full sequence exposed along the valley of the Albert River. The relationship with both the underlying However, there appears. 137 Numinbah Valley Formation and the overlying Hillview Rhyolite can be seen in Cainbable Creek, a tributary of the Albert River. The formation is a readily defined unit as far south as Wiangaree in New South Wales, where in the southern part of the Wiangaree State Forest both the Hillview Rhyolite and the associated Chinghee Conglomerate lens out. Eastward it becomes very thin, below the Hillview Rhyolite in the Beechmont Range and it does not extend over most of the Palaeozoic basement high that runs beneath the Spring- brook Plateau. Similarly, to the south, in the Tweed Range the sequence thins to 300 feet in the Mebbin State Forest. It probably extends to the Lismore area (whereby it could be the lower part of McElroy’s, 1959, Lismore Basalt), though the writer believes that this area may have been a “high” during early shield times and may not have been covered by the Albert Basalt sequence (see later). Thus the first lavas from the Mount Warning vent filled a shallow depression coincident with the Beaudesert Syncline and flowed over an undulating surface to the north and _ west, piling up to the east against the high of Palaeozoic sediments and possibly having limited extent to the south. THE HILLVIEW RHYOLITE This name covers a band of agglomeratic tuffs and brecciated rhyolite that is well exposed in the Hillview area in the valley walls of Christmas and Chinghee Creeks. The band shows marked outcrop in the escarpment known as Hillview Cliffs. In the type area the basal member is up to 50 feet of acid agglomeratic tuff containing boulders of rhyolite up to one foot in diameter. Eastward of the type locality, particularly around the head of Christmas Creek, a consider- able amount of accessory boulders is included. These comprise Palaeozoic sediments, grano- phyre and basalt cobbles to three inches diameter. The tuff always appears white or buff coloured. in outcrop and can be readily traced at the 1,100-feet contour from the type area to the Beechmont Range where it occurs in the 1,000-1,100-foot interval. It is well exposed around Canungra Creek and in the Coomera Valley where it sometimes occurs in cliffs very much resembling those of Triassic sandstones. The tuff there shows well-defined bedding which is accentuated by limonitic staining and contains numerous pebbles of basalt and rhyolite. The band extends to the Canungra McTAGGART Novis: 138 yoosgbulsds Aasf{2A yoquiwny 2MIOL/ IW /egobuoyig (Yy2u04g 1427) & 14aqT/Y (youosg 246/49) Y 142g/" 2) Triassic @ UI- abply 2404 SUoUDYING UIW parbajbany 1d 1! Sulpouds aaybuly) Iw Fant aseeobed e ¥D Bulvuny 9 Uj}I/}UY . ] e e MO] }4J9DAO @ e . e e@ ue Wee . 1@ Wy \ 7) ai! 6 ~ len e M1 Qu » |W polly e 9 Ads pul7 iw ison S11 ujspDg |e ACROSS LAMINGTON AND SPRINGBROOK PLATEAU X SECTION A-B a NF v0 yas0W-22u240)5 = abuby doo, ybIN ‘s//o.y uoAUI UW YIDIW Aoqgy8nog a/33/7 viprogybnog (wsyy2S) Y paamy bususoy 1p > (Ws PIW) 7 param UIW P/og 2am OF 1W b4jNg ouWig yI0¢ubbFZ 4/2YS 1UOWYIIOG s/ @ SECTION C-D ACROSS THE EROSION CALDERA ¥DUOpusy dulj21quy ee MO|J12A0 2/uu2/5 2h | JJOYD Sasuua/y Aospus7 iw ul$pq ° uo 240/\ ® -22UdIDID ec © a/UN/D IW YOIY SUOS/IY 1) = E be) 2 12] ry) a a) - r= 0 As ‘= io) < SECTION E-F FROM THE MAIN RANGE TO MOUNT GLENNIE Mt Warning Central Comple Walloon Coal Measures 5000 feet O Vertical scale Pee Sediments [5 ; S}PALAEOZOIC Metamorphics ROCKS OF THE MOUNT WARNING VOLCANIC SHIELD area, where it outcrops at 1,050 feet on the southern slopes of Mount Tamborine. Overlying this there is up to 150 feet of brecciated and often silicified rhyolite, though in some cases up to 50 feet of basalt may intervene, e.g.: in the Neglected Mountain area. This rhyolite member does not extend eastward of the Canungra Range but west of there it forms a more prominent marker band forming low buff coloured cliffs and changes of slope. Westward from the Richmond Gap the rhyolite becomes bluish white in colour and extremely silicified. This is attributed to leaching by groundwater since all this area is covered by luxuriant rain forest. Further west, at Mount Glennie, the tuff member has thinned out but the rhyolite reaches a maximum thickness of at least 200 feet and an elevation of 2,000 feet. Occasionally pitchstone or pitchstone breccia is associated with the rhyolite ; up to ten feet of this rock type is exposed in Christmas Creek, under Buchanan’s Fort, and in Chinghee Creek. Both the tuff and the rhyolite can be traced to the vicinity of Mount Lion near Wiangaree. The band occupies the 900-1,000 feet contour interval in that area but it lenses out to the south-east. It is not shown in the face of the erosion caldera nor in any of the high areas south or west of Wiangaree. No vents have been found, proximal to its outcrop, that could have been responsible for the tuffs and lavas of the Hillview Rhyolite. However, the westerly increase in thickness of the brecciated rhyolite suggests an origin in this direction, whereby the rhyolite plug, Mount Gillies, may have been the effusive centre. Since the tuff is water sorted, of fairly uniform thickness and contains much varied, accessory material, no direct indication can be gained of its source ; most likely it also came from the north-west. THE CHINGHEE CONGLOMERATE This is a new formational name in print, though the horizon has been referred to as such, verbally, for quite some time. The lacustrine formation consists of alternating beds of coarse argillaceous current bedded sandstones and polymictic conglomerates with boulders up to two feet diameter. Boulders consist of Palaeozoic sediments, rhyolite and granophyre, the last being similar to that of the Mount Barney central stock (Tweedale, 1951). A maximum thickness of one hundred feet is attained at the head of Chinghee Creek, six miles south of Hillview. There, a basalt inter- B 139 calation occurs near the top, indicating that deposition possibly occupied only a short time interval, being merely a torrential accumulation between successive lava flows. The Chinghee Conglomerate consistently over- lies the Hillview Rhyolite, overlaps it to the south-east and outcrops in the caldera escarp- ment at 800 feet elevation. However, it is only about twenty feet thick at The Pinnacle on the Tweed Range and it lenses out by the southern end of the Wiangaree State Forest, on that range. Argillaceous lenses in the formation contain dicotyledonous leaf impressions, very similar to present-day Eucalyptus laminae. The presence of the coarsest grade of material in the Chinghee Range-Richmond Gap area suggests that this area is adjacent to the principal contributary to the lacustrine depres- sion. It is noted that the area of outcrop of the formation coincides with the southern extension of the Beaudesert Syncline. Thus it might be claimed that a downwarping of the late Mesozoic structure commenced prior to the deposition of the Hillview Rhyolite and that by the time of the Chinghee Conglomerate the subsidence produced sufficient gradient to attract rudaceous sediment of boulder dimensions (see Tertiary Earth Movements). Since the only granophyre in existence in the vicinity is in the central stock of Mount Barney some contribution to the depression from the west must be assumed. THE BEECHMONT BASALT Formational status is hereby given to 900 feet of basalt which overlies the Chinghee Conglomerate and is capped by the Binna Burra Rhyolite (see later). The name is taken from the Beechmont Shelf where the basalt and the consecutive acid bands can be seen in the one section on the eastern wall of the Coomera Valley. In that area the Binna Burra Rhyolite lenses out at 2,000 feet elevation just north of Binna Burra and along the western wall of the Coomera gorge. Thus westward in _ the Lamington Plateau there is no marker to divide the Beechmont Basalt from the succeeding basalt formation (the Hobwee Basalt) until Glennies Chair is reached, 30 miles distant. On this mountain and on Mount Lindesay nearby, 700 feet of basalt between the Hillview and Mount Lindesay Rhyolites (see later) is considered by the writer to be Beechmont Basalt equivalent. Similarly, to the south, the Binna Burra Rhyolite ceases at Point Lookout on the Tweed 140 Range at 1,800 feet elevation. Therefore south of this the only marker is the thinning Chinghee Conglomerate, and, south of its termination in the Wiangaree State Forest there is 3,300 feet of unbroken basalt succession equivalent to the three basalt divisions of the Lamington area. A unique feature of the formation is the prevalence of lenses of diatomite, shales and conglomerates, the latter containing pebbles to six inches long of granophyre, rhyolite and Palaeozoic sediments. Two such lenses, up to fifteen feet thick, one of which contains dicotyledonous leaf impressions, occur on the road to O’Reilly’s Guest House and Tweedale (1951) has described others in the Beechmont and Darlington Ranges. THE LisMORE Basatt (McElroy, 1959) This formation comprises half the outcrop area of the shield deposits. Though pre- dominantly basalt, it contains conglomerates, shales, diatomites and opal (the latter at Tintenbar, near Bangalow). Interbedded shales in the Nimbin area have yielded fish remains, as yet undescribed (C. Shipway, Old. Geol. Surv., verbal communication). The sequence reaches a maximum thickness of 600 feet in the Nightcap Range, where it is overlain conformably by the Nimbin Rhyolite (see later). The exact relationship between the Lismore Basalt and the Albert and Beechmont Basalts is not established due to the lensing out of the Hillview Rhyolite - Chinghee Conglomerate marker in the Tweed Range and to the dis- connection of the overlying Binna Burra and Nimbin Rhyolites. As mentioned previously the Albert Basalt may not have flowed as far as the Nightcap Range; thus the Lismore and Beechmont Basalts may be somewhat equi- valents. The included sedimentary beds and the respective thicknesses of the formations support this correlation (see also under Nimbin Rhyolite below). THE BINNA BURRA RHYOLITE This is a new formational name for a sequence of aerially distributed tuffs and rhyolite that overlies the Beechmont Basalt in the Binna Burra area, from which place the formation is named. The maximum thickness is 1,000 feet in the central part of the area in the vicinity of the junction of the Ship’s Stern and Beechmont Ranges. Detailed work in this area has been done by Tweedale (1951) who recognized up to 300 feet of lower rhyolite tufffoverlain by 700 feet of N. RK. McTAGGARY rhyolite lava. Locally at Mount Roberts (Binna Burra) the lava is overlain by over 200 feet — of upper tuff which is identical with that of the © lower member. However, at this point the lava is thinning out and it terminates in the southern end of the Beechmont Shelf. Tweedale considers that the presence of glass shards in the tuffs is sufficient evidence of aeolian deposition. The present writer agrees and wishes to draw a contrast with the bedded, accessory tuffs of the Hillview Rhyolite sequence. The tuff members are of very limited areal extent, the lower being somewhat symmetrically distributed about two rhyolite plugs (Egg and Charraboomba Rocks) which are quite obviously the points of origin of the whole Binna Burra Rhyolite sequence. The rhyolite member extends to the Beechmont Shelf in the north, Point Lookout and “‘ The Buggrams”’ in the south and eastward to the Springbrook Plateau and Mount Cougal. At Springbrook it is underlain locally by obsidian. To the west it thins out in the western wall of the Coomera gorge (Coomera Crevice being incised in the lava) at an elevation of 2,000 feet. THE Mount LINDESAY RHYOLITE Here again a new name is introduced for a sequence of tuffs, agglomerates, obsidian and rhyolite that forms the cliffs on Mount Lindesay and also on the nearby Mount Glennie. On Mount Lindesay the sequence is 800 feet thick occurring on the southern cliff between 3,100 feet and 3,900 feet elevations. The basal member is 200 feet of rhyolitic tuff and agglomerate (both accidental) which is overlain by obsidian, immediately below the 3,303 feet trigonometrical site. Above this rise spectacular columnar rhyolite cliffs for 600 feet, near the top of which Stephenson (1956) reports some local thin flows of basalt; the succession is capped by basalt of the uppermost basalt sequence (see later). Similarly on Mount Glennie, tuffs and agglomerates, with very occasional accessory fragments, are overlain by a thick sequence of columnar rhyolite which is capped by basalt. A trigonometrical station (3,169 feet) is situated about 300 feet above the base of the sequence. Glennie’s Chair, a marked prolongation from the slopes of the mountain, is a rhyolite plug intruding Beechmont Basalt equivalent ; this plug is undoubtedly a point of origin of the acid lavas and pyroclastics of the Mount Lindesay — Rhyolite sequence. The writer has no hesitation in correlating the Binna Burra and the Mount Lindesay Scale of Miles & “ticline il il / / yes SOUTHPORT D2 4 68 10 | Scale of Miles SURFERS PARADISE Burleigh Heads Qo+ ® Dinseys ~ ~ f Rocks pe 0 Son8 %o Y “AY . ove Wiangaree 3 This area = pio fate; 39 G2) not included ° in mapping Bur ringbar, LUMBIMBY — “LBonalbo Elevated bosolt coppings ~__ YJQUATERNARY Alluvia « [tertiary Basalts strandline deposits BRB rertisry nimbin rhyotttelZ 22] = —Trachyte MtLindesay « [5 2 [Mesozoic Sediments Binna Burra « LOWER PALAEOZOIC Sediments Chinghee P| Central Complex Conglomerate XA4s2x3 ® Rhyolite Focus Numinbah Valley Form. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE MT WARNING VOLCANIC SHIELD UNG Chinghee Cong.e Hillview Rhyolite 7 =~ ¥ is ; 5 "7 j | - ' 7 { ON ; é ‘*- , = ay \ 7 , ; | / 3 : z | ! | , > : J i i hy | \ i : “ ] 5 are, } ‘\ ‘ } | aries. ‘ ! we ; & ‘ { \ \ } 1 Y ‘ a 43 : } k i : | iT mi F X | 5 r } \ “ . | { { | } ; | { | ' } t ’ |. * | “ } ‘ ( | ~° { ’ ‘ {Y * { J i | r } « | at) t i) Ht i ; \ ROCKS OF THE MOUNT WARNING VOLCANIC SHIELD Rhyolites on the basis of similarities in their lithologies, sequences and stratigraphic position in the shield succession. A comparison of stratigraphic columns from Binna Burra and Mount Glennie is as follows : Mount Glennie Basalt to top Mount Lindesay Rhyo- Binna Burra Hobwee Basalt : 1,960 ft. Binna Burra Rhyolite: 800 ft. lites 300) ££: Beechmont Basalt : 900 ft. Basalt: 700 ft. Chinghee Conglomerate Chinghee Conglomerate and Hillview Rhyolite : and Hillview Rhyolite 100 ft. 200 ft: Albert Basalt: 400 ft. Albert Basalt: 800 ft. Canungra Area Rhyolite occurs as a capping on Mount Misery, on the Canungra Range, at an elevation exceeding 1,600 feet. Mount Witheren (1,857 feet) to the south shows no evidence of rhyolite, indicating that the Canungra outcrop is a remnant of a local flow probably contem- poraneous with the Binna Burra Rhyolite. THE NIMBIN RuHYOLITE (McElroy, 1959) This formation includes up to 1,300 feet of rhyolite tuffs and lavas with some obsidian that occur between basalts in the Nightcap Range. The sequence is essentially lava ; the tuffs and obsidian members occur as local intercalations up to 150 feet thick. The units given the local names “ Doroughby Tuff”, “ Boomerang Creek Obsidian’’ and “ Minyon Falls Rhyolite ’’ by Crook and McGarity (1956) are essentially members of the Nimbin Rhyolite. The maximum thickness of 1,300 feet is attained in the Minyon Falls-Peach Mountain area on the southern side of the range. On the northern side, 1,000 feet of tuff and rhyolite underlie Jerusalem Mountain between the 1,400 and 2,400-foot contours. The tuff, there, forms columnar residuals similar to “‘ The Steamers ”’ on the Main Range, Queensland. This sequence forms prominent cliffs to the _west of Mullumbimby and at the head of Doon Doon Creek. Further west, it lenses out in the vicinity of Mount Neville at an elevation of 1,400 feet, but it persists south-west to Nimbin, where it forms residual cappings on several small plateaux. The thickness in that area is some 400 feet and the base of the sequence falls to 800 feet elevation. The presence of several rhyolite plugs within the outcrop area of the sequence indicates a local origin for the Nimbin Rhyolite. Such plugs are Doughboy Mountain and Little 141 Doughboy in the Jerusalem Mountain area, an unnamed hill at the head of Wilson’s Creek and Nimbin Rocks. Lillian Rock, three miles north-west of Nimbin is also a rhyolitic, elongate, plug-like intrusive but there is no evidence that it extruded any lava. On Section C-—D across the erosion caldera there can be seen the dip to the south of the Nimbin Rhyolite. This dip measured on the base of the formation is from 1,400 feet at Jerusalem Mountain to 600 feet at Minyon, a fall of 800 feet in seven miles. Considering this and also the similarity of lithology between the formation and the Mount Lindesay and Binna Burra Rhyolites and the absence of any contiguous formation analogous to the Chinghee Conglomerate, the writer correlates the Nimbin Rhyolite with the Binna Burra and Mount Lindesay Rhyolites rather than with the Hillview Rhyolite. Such a correlation necessitates consideration of the relationship between the 1,600 feet of basalt and sediments that occur below the Binna Burra Rhyolite and the 600 feet of similar strata below the Nimbin Rhyolite. The Albert Basalt in thinning from 800 feet in its type area to 300 feet in the Tweed Range appears to have little, if any, representation in the Nightcap Range. Thus the 600 feet of Lismore Basalt in the Nightcap area compares favourably with and is probably the equivalent of the Beechmont Basalt, 900 feet thick in its type area. THE HOBWEE BASALT This new formational name is used for 1,960 feet of basalt that overlies the Binna Burra Rhyolite. It typically occurs in the Parish of Roberts, which embraces the Lamington National Park, where its greatest thickness is attained on the state boundary at Mt. Hobwee, this point being the highest on the shield. Due to the steep scarps developed on the sequence, excellent exposures can be seen of the successive flows of lava, especially on the face of the erosion caldera. Richards counted at least twenty such outpourings, which would indicate an average of just under one hundred feet for each flow. (In the Binna Burra area the Hobwee Basalt coincides with Richards’ Upper Division of basic rocks.) On Mount Lindesay the Hobwee Basalt forms a thin capping (100 feet according to Stephenson, 1956) and the rain forest soil capping Mount Glennie is almost certainly derived from basalt of the same sequence. 142 THE BLUE KNosB Basatt (McElroy, 1959) In the Nightcap Range the basalt overlying the Nimbin Rhyolite is about 1,700 feet thick beneath Blue Knob. The exact thickness can only be interpolated since the rhyolite does not extend as far westward as Blue Knob, the highest point on the Range. The Blue Knob Basalt is probably equivalent to the Hobwee Basalt of the Lamington Plateau. Correlation between these two disconnected basalt sequences necessarily depends upon the relationship between the underlying Binna Burra and Nimbin Rhyolites (see Nimbin Rhyolite above). The Blue Knob Basalt is probably also repre- sented on high areas such as the MacKellar Range, east of Kyogle, where 1,600 feet of basalt exists, at least 600 feet of which surmounts the elevation of the nearest Nimbin Rhyolite outcrop (namely 1,200 feet elevation at Nimbin). Tertiary Earth Movements It would be expected that the initial out- pourings of basalt from the Mount Warning centre would have tended to fill the low areas in the basement and that subsequent flows would have built up a flat cone, individual flows - showing very low dips away from the centre. However, the converse is seen in the western area of the shield where in the Tweed (e.g., Bar Mountain) and McPherson Ranges (e.g., the Richmond Gap area) the basalts dip eastward at angles up to two degrees (locally). Two alternative explanations can be proposed for this phenomenon : (2) that the basaltic lavas west of Tyalgum and also the interbedded lacustrine deposits had a western source and were deposited on an easterly sloping surface, or (77) that all the basalts issued from the Mount Warning centre and have under- gone subsequent folding. The absence of any large basic eruptive centres to the west supports the second explana- tion. Furthermore, an examination of cross sections A—-B, C—D and E-F shows the pre- vailence over the whole shield area of a south- easterly dip of strata, suggesting differential earth movement. Of considerable interest is the relatively uniform band (about 200 feet) of lacustrine deposits comprising the Hillview Rhyolite and the Chinghee Conglomerate. Uniquely, it occupies an elevated sloping aspect (2,000 feet N. R. McTAGGART above sea level at Mount Lindesay falling to 800 feet in the Tweed Range) on the flanks of a volcanic shield. This horizon, which outcrops over an area of 500 square miles and shows complete conformability with the shield basalts, offers the most conclusive evidence of post-shield tectonism. The problem arises (I) whether these sediments were deposited in their present aspect and have suffered no subsequent movement, or ({Z) whether they were deposited in a low- lying position and were uplifted together with the other shield components. The presence of boulders of metamorphic rocks (of Brisbane Schist lithology) together with granophyre boulders (apparently from the western source, Mt. Barney) in the Chinghee Conglomerate and the accessory tuffs of the Hillview Rhyolite is also problematical since (a) there is no western source area of Palaeozoic metamorphics within 100 miles and (b) the Chinghee Conglomerate rises westward to a height of 1,000 feet above the present (and hence the probable Tertiary) surface of local Palaeozoic rocks. From (a) it appears that the metamorphic boulders had an eastern origin in the Palaeozoic mass of the Southport-Murwillumbah area. On this basis it would have to be assumed that the Chinghee Conglomerate-Hillview Rhyolite band was deposited on a horizontal surface under lacustrine conditions with contribution from both east and west. Following (b) the Palaeozoic mass would have had to project to about 2,000 feet elevation during the Tertiary were it to supply material to the Chinghee Conglomerate at its present Mount Lindesay level, i.e. 2,000 feet. However, there is no evidence to assume that the Tertiary surface of the metamorphics rose to heights so exceeding their existing maximal points, 1.e. 1,400 feet; it would be more reasonable to assume that the Tertiary sediments were deposited at low altitude and were subsequently uplifted to their present position. This con- clusion would satisfy arguments (7) and (JZ) above. Due to the existence of the lacustrine sedi- ments so close (16 miles) to the coastline, the writer considers it most probable that they were deposited at an elevation not much above the prevailing Tertiary sea level. Such an accumulation of rudaceous strata in a large, low lying, near coastal lacustrine depression, associated with basaltic lava flows, would ROCKS OF THE MOUNT WARNING VOLCANIC SHIELD present a strikingly similar environment and succession to that shown by Tertiary deposits in the Brisbane and Bundaberg areas (see Age and Correlation of Shield Components). Thus, considering this and the above evidence, it appears that considerable post-shield uplift of the order of 2,000 feet has occurred in the Mount Lindesay area and possibly over 1,000 feet in the Lamington Plateau area. It would be impossible to make any assessment of actual uplift in any particular area, but it may strengthen the case for relative uplift to quote the variations in the bases of the upper rhyolite sequences Mt. Lindesay Rhyolite: 3,100 ft. Binna Burra Rhyolite : 2,000 ft. Nimbin Rhyolite (north): 1,400 ft. Nimbin Rhyolite (south): 600 ft. Of course the significance of these elevations depends largely upon the correlation of the three sequences. Nevertheless, the figures present attractive data, however superficial, for the proposal of late Tertiary differential folding of the shield. Age and Correlation of Shield Components The presence of dicotyledonous leaf impres- sions in the Numbinbah Valley Formation indicates that the whole shield is post-Middle Cretaceous, most probably Tertiary in age. Bryan and Jones (1946) placed the Lamington “ Series ’’ in the Pliocene, maintaining that the sequence was in age post-laterite, to which phenomenon they assigned a Miocene age. However, the presence of large areas of red-earth residual soils (Bryan, 1939) on the plateaux of Beechmont, Springbrook and Tamborine and of laterite on the latter leaves little doubt that the basalts of the shield have been subjected to intense lateritization. However, the age of this process is much in doubt and cannot really be confined to a more specific age assignment than Miocene to Pliocene. The writer therefore wishes to attack the problem along entirely different lines. In the Brisbane area, where the writer has recently studied interbedded Tertiary lavas and sediments, the sequence argillaceous sediments- basalt-rudaceous sediments in ascending order, is pronounced over an area extending from Petrie to Ipswich and covering four separate Tertiary basins. Thus, in the Lamington Group when the writer was confronted with the Same sequence of strikingly similar lithological 143 components, the possibility of some form of correlation could not be overlooked. The Numinbah Valley Formation has a lithology and contains a _ trifid venated dicotyledonous leaf flora similar to that of the Darra Formation in the Brisbane area and the Redbank Plains Formation of that type area The maximum thickness of the basalt overlying the Redbank Plains Formation is 1,000 feet (writer’s calculation) at Redbank Plains, while that of the Albert Basalt is 800 feet. At Redbank Plains the basalt is overlain by trachyte and fifty feet of boulder conglomerates, while in the Lamington sequence the Albert Basalt is succeeded by rhyolite and up to one hundred feet of boulder conglomerates, namely the Chinghee Conglomerate. The Beechmont Basalt, the upper rhyolite sequence and the Hobwee Basalt do not appear to have any equivalent in south-east Queensland except possibly in the Main Range (see section E-F). According to Hills (1934) the fish Phareodus gueenslandicus which is found in the Redbank Plains Formation and the Archerfield basalt (Cribb, McTaggart and Staines, 1960) at Brisbane, indicates an Eocene, probably Oligocene, age for those strata. The present writer therefore suggests an FEocene-Oligocene age for the Numinbah Valley Formation and the Albert Basalt. Since the remainder of the sequence is 2,800 feet thick and is composed of one major and several minor sedimentary intervals, two thick basalt sequences of possibly thirty separate flows and two rhyolite episodes, it is possible that deposition of the shield volcanics lasted till late in the Tertiary and that the upper part, at least, of the Hobwee Basalt is Pliocene in age. Indeed, much of it seems to be post- lateritic, a feature which may be significant. The age of the alkaline and granophyre plugs to the west cannot be any more accurately dated than Cretaceous-Eocene, 1.e. post-Walloon Coal Measures-pre-Albert Basalt. Since there are plugs and flows of andesite, rhyolite and trachyte of Late Jurassic (post-Walloon Coal Measures)-Cretaceous age in the Maryborough Basin, 250 miles to the north, it cannot be discounted that the imtrusives of the Woodenbong area may be Cretaceous in age. Stevens (verb. com. 1960) has recently investigated the Main Range area between Mount Superbus and Cunningham’s Gap, where he has noted two trachyte lava and pyroclastic bands. The cross section E-F from Mount Glennie to Wilson’s Peak on the Main Range 144 encourages a correlation between the trachyte bands on Wilson’s Peak and Mount Clunie and the Mount Lindesay Rhyolite. It is therefore not impossible that a more definite relationship may be established upon completion of mapping of the Main Range. Acknowledgements The writer wishes to thank Dr. N. C. Stevens of the University of Queensland for his criticisms of the manuscript and for many helpful dis- cussions on the Tertiary volcanic rocks of south-east Queensland. References Barr, .G., 1924. Beaudesert Dertiary Beds: Qi. Govt. min. J., 25, 364. Bryan, W. H., 1939. The Red Earth Residuals and their Significance in South Eastern Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qid.,-50, 21. Bryan, W. H., 1959. Notes on the Early Tertiary Basalts of South Eastern Queensland. /. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,°92; 45, 129) Bryan, W. H., AND JONES, O. A., 1946. The Geo- logical History of Queensland. Univ. Qld., 2 (u.s:)} (Nov WZ. Criss, H. G. S., McTaccart, N. R., AND STAINES, H. R. E., 1960. Sediments East of the Great Divide in Chap. II, Geology of Queensland. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 7, 344. Crook, K. A. W., anD McGarity, J. W., 1956. The Volcanic Stratigraphy of the Minyon Falls District, Pap. Dept. Geol. N. R. McTAGGART N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N-SjW a9 pt cee 212-218. Hirt, D., 1951. Geology. A.N.Z.A.A.S. Handbook @ of Queensland, pp. 1-12. Hits, E. S., 1934. Tertiary Freshwater Fishes from Southern Queensland. Mem. Qld. Mus., 10, pt. 4. McE troy, C. T., 1959. The Clarence-Moreton Basin. Unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Sydney. Morton, C. C., 1923. South Moreton Geology. Qld. Govt. Min. J., 24, 244. REtpy i) ba. 2 922) Petroleum Prospects in the Beaudesert District. Qld. Govt. Min. J., 23, 4381. RicHarps, H. C., 1916. Volcanic Rocks of South East Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qid., 27, 105, SoOLomoN, P. J., 1959. The Mt. Warning Shield Volcano. Unpub. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Qld. STEPHENSON, P. J., 1956. The Geology and Petrology of the Mt. Barney Central Complex. Unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of London, pt. 3. STEPHENSON, P. J., 1959. The Mit, Barney Centram Complex, S.E. Queensland. Geol. Mag., 96, No. 2, 125-136. STEPHENSON, P. J., STEVENS, N. C., AND TWEEDALE, G. W., 1960. Igneous Rocks in Chap. II, Geology of Queensland. jj. Geol. Soc. Aust, 7, 359. TWEEDALE, G. W., 1951. Geology of the Binna Burra Volcanics. Unpub. B.Sc. Honours thesis, Univ. Old. WHITEHOUSE, F. W., 1954. The Geology of the Queensland Portion of the Great Australian Artesian Basin. Appendix G in Artesian Water Supplies in Queensland. Qld. Dept. Co-ord. Gen. of Pub. Works Parl. Pap. A56—1955. (Received November 10, 1960) ! Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 145-146, 1961 A New Study of the Hawkesbury Sandstone: Preliminary Findings J. C. STANDARD Depariment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney ABSTRACT—The Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone has a more restricted distribution than previously thought and large areas formerly mapped as Hawkesbury Sandstone, including the Blue Mountains cliff escarpments and much of the region north of the Hawkesbury River, are in reality Narrabeen Group. The Hawkesbury Sandstone is a uniform formation and shows little change in appearance or composition throughout its entire area of deposition. The edge of the continental mass was in the same position existed during the time of deposition. as it is today, some 15 miles to the east of the present coastline. No basin structure The direction of deposition was remarkably constant throughout the entire formation, being always to the north-east. The Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone, which outcrops in the Sydney Basin, New South Wales, has been studied in local areas by many geologists but not until this present study was commenced was an attempt made to study the entire formation as a single project. Detailed investigation of the Hawkesbury Sandstone has revealed that it is an extremely uniform formation throughout its entire area of deposition and it shows little variation in appearance or composition. The formation is composed of discontinuous layers of highly cross-bedded quartz sandstone which have an argillaceous cement. The cement is generally illite and is probably of detrital origin. The grain size of the sandstone varies from fine to very coarse, with medium to coarse grained sand being the most common. Graphite is a common accessory mineral and is found throughout the entire formation. Scattered pebbles up to 4 inch in diameter are common, but layers of conglomerate are rare. The composition of the scattered pebbles and conglomerate layers is always over 90% quartz and pebble counts with 98-99%, quartz content are common. The cross-bedding is almost always of the forset type with other types of cross-bedding and scour and fill sedimentary structures being much less common. There are a few thin, usually less than 5 feet, layers of clay which are generally not traceable laterally more than a few hundred feet.—The thickest and most extensive shale layers occur in the French’s Forest—Brookvale area and in the Lucas Heights area where they are up to 30 feet in thickness and are traceable for about 1 mile. These thick shale layers are located in the upper quarter of the formation. In the coastal cliff section in the Sydney area layers of black Shale up to 15 feet in thickness are found; these black shales have a high organic content and commonly contain syngenetic pyrite. The result of over 4,000 current direction readings shows that the direction of deposition was remarkably constant throughout the entire formation being always in a_ north-easterly direction. There is no problem in distinguishing the Hawkesbury Sandstone from the overlying Wianamatta shale and the boundary indicated for these two formations on the Sydney and Wollongong 4-mile geological maps remains basically unchanged. More difficulty was encountered in distin- guishing the Hawkesbury Sandstone from the underlying Narrabeen Group, but the present studies have indicated that the base of the Hawkesbury Sandstone can be separated from the underlying Narrabeen Group by the following criteria, which are observed in the Narrabeen Group : 1. Increased number and thickness of clay units. 2. Increased argillaceous content of the sandstone, making it much more friable. 3. Decrease in forset type cross-bedding. 4. The development of interbedded sandstone and clay layers which are flat lying and which can be traced laterally over long distances. 5. Increase in lenticular sandstone units and in scour and fill type structures. 6. In the northern part of the Sydney Basin conglomerate layers become much more common and the quartz content of the pebbles drops from over 90% to less than 40%. The thicker clay layers and more argillaceous sandstones of the Narrabeen Group commonly weather to form flat areas that are capable of supporting small farms and are commonly developed as farming areas. The Hawkesbury 146 Sandstone, on the other hand, seldom weathers to form farmable-type country and, except in the Sydney Metropolitan area, is_ generally uninhabited. Detailed investigation of the Hawkesbury Sandstone has shown that its distribution is much more restricted in area than had pre- viously been mapped by earlier workers. The largest change in distribution of the Hawkesbury Sandstone occurs in the northern and western parts of the Basin. The new State Geological Map now being prepared by the New South Wales Geological Survey shows the modified boundary of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. In the Blue Mountains the western-most outcrop of the Hawkesbury Sandstone is at Woodford, all of the area west of this point, including the cliffs of the Blue Mountains escarpments, are part of the Narrabeen Group. Mount Tomah, Mount Wilson and Mount Irvine areas mark the north-western-most extent of the Hawkesbury Sandstone, all of the large sandstone cliffs in the Lithgow, Newnes, Glen Davis and Rylstone areas are Narrabeen Group. On the Putty Road, Grassy Hill marks the northern-most boundary of the Hawkesbury Sandstone except for a complete section which is preserved underneath the Wianamatta and the basalt capping of Mt. Yengo. The basalt capping at Mt. Warrawolong overlies the Hawkesbury and marks the north-eastern limit of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. J. C. STANDARD North of the Hawkesbury River the dis- tribution of the Hawkesbury Sandstone is_ somewhat restricted. Along the Pacific High- way between the Hawkesbury River and Gosford there are no outcrops of Hawkesbury Sandstone except for a few small remnants. The area traversed by the highway is part of the large Kulnura anticlinal structure which is plunging to the south, from which most of the Hawkesbury Sandstone has been removed by erosion. The area between Calga, Peat’s Ridge, Central Mangrove and Kulnura is entirely Narrabeen (except for one small remnant of Hawkesbury Sandstone north of Calga), and is located along the crest of this structure. Along the limb of the structure to the west, along the Old Great Northern Road and to the east in the Main Range the Hawkesbury Sandstone outcrops. The distribution of the Hawkesbury Sand- stone in the southern part of the Sydney Basin is basically the same as indicated on the Wollongong 4-mile geological map except that the Narrabeen Group outcrops in the canyons near the Nepean, Avon, Cataract and Woronora Dams. The southern limit of the Hawkesbury Sandstone is the escarpment overlooking Kangaroo Valley near Fitzroy Falls. A more detailed and much more compre- hensive paper dealing with the stratigraphy, structure and petrology of the Hawkesbury Sandstone will be published when this project is completed. (Received 6 November, 1961) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 147-152, 1961 On the Number of Collisions to Slow Down Neutrons from High Speeds COLERIDGE A. WILKINS School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, Sydney ABSTRACT—Explicit forms for the distribution of the number of collisions to cross a finite energy interval are given for Hydrogen with absorption, and a single nuclear species without absorption. In the latter case a moment generating function equation is derived. The case of a single nuclide with constant absorption is summarised, and a general equation for the higher moments of the distribution of the number of collisions to escape a narrow resonance for a given initial collision in the resonance region found. 1. Introduction In Monte Carlo investigations of the slowing down of neutrons, a priori estimate of the average computing time per neutron cannot be made without some knowledge of the distribution of the number of collisions suffered by a neutron as its speed drops from the high initial value to thermal speeds. The investigator needs such an estimate to determine the amount of computing time that must be bought and the economic size of his sample of neutron case-histories. A more convenient variable than energy or speed is the “ lethargy ’’, which is defined by u=tIn (E,/E) where £, is the initial (source) energy of the neutron. Use of this variable leads to considerable simplification in many formulae. At the source energy, a neutron has zero lethargy, and as the neutron’s energy decreases, its lethargy increases. If scattering is assumed to be spherically symmetric in the centre-of-mass system, then the mean number of collisions N,(u) suffered by a neutron to achieve a lethargy greater than or equal to “ in an infinite homogeneous non-absorbing system containing one nuclear species of relative mass A, is given by the “‘ renewal equation ”’ = | CAGE Cd ae baa (1) where f (uv) =H (u)H(—log a—u)e“/(l—a), ......2..0 202 (2) te Aa? and H(x) is the Heaviside unit function. De Marcus (1959) has proposed a solution of (1) in terms of the Placzek function. De Marcus’ solution includes the initial collision at ae. 0, which is not counted in equation (1). If it is desired to include this collision, equation (1) must be replaced by u) =1 : f(w’ u'\au’. We will not count the initial collision in the determination of N,(u) or the other moments of the distribution of the number of collisions. An alternative form of the solution which is more useful for small values of wu can be found using Teichmann’s results (Teichmann, 1960). The purpose of this paper is to present certain results concerning the distribution of the number of collisions to cross a finite lethargy interval. The following symbols will be used : 148 COLERIDGE A. WILKINS Un=—!n «, 4 pr(n,u) =the probability that a neutron escapes to lethargies above w after exactly collisions — at lethargies below > plu) =Zpr(na =the total escape probability Pr(n,u) =pr(n,u)[p(u) =the probability that a neutron has exactly m collisions at lethargies below u, given that the neutron does escape 1—h(u) =the probability of absorption in a collision at lethargy w. Thus, if 1—h(u)=0, then p(u)=1, and Pr(n,u) =pr(n,u). Note also that if #(u) is a constant, c, then for 1>0 pr(n,u) =o] flw’yor(n— U—W)dW 2. oe (3) 0 2. Hydrogen with Absorption The probability that a neutron slowing down in hydrogen has collisions in the elementary intervals Au,, Au,,. . .Au,, about the lethargies u, u,,...u, below u, and then escapes to lethargies above 4, is: (Naa h(O) fv) ) ; I fleina—udhluy uy) | F(Un41 Uy) AU AU Aug. . . Atty, priny=WO] |. -[) | fea )T fie Audigy... ditas = noe i} hw )au’') / (4) Summing on ” gives p(u)=h(0)e~” exp ( | h(w dw’) re NP 3S (5) This last result is well-known but is usually derived from the differential equation for the collision density. Equations (4) and (5) yield Pr(n,u) =exp ie | iw du’ ; ( | h(w)au'). / n'. Uu so Pr(n,u) is Poissonian with mean and variance equal to { h(w')du’. 0 3. Single Nuclear Species without Absorption The energy distribution D(n,u) of neutrons which have suffered just collisions is (Marshak, 1947, p. 198): n nN D(n,u) ={e"(1—a)"(n—1) !} 1 & (=a) (a Rae)" HEL uF) Bente anh (6) k=0 5 so (recalling that #(u) is in this case unity) : oe) n—I1 >> Prit.w)=| D(n,u'\du’ 0 u =o) > (aye Jere (a 8 cee (7) h=0 Rk, os elas COLLISIONS TO SLOW DOWN NEUTRONS FROM HIGH SPEEDS 149 where Pwem=| Ce tay: (u—ku,,)H(u—ku,,) If E(e*,u) is defined by (Cn re Pr ki), 0 then from equation (3) Ben) | i ci f(uw’') Pr(k—1, u—w')e®—M'dw’ u it 0) that is E(e*,u =| f(u')du' tel JU) EC”, w—w)dW nee ccc. (8) An equation for the 7th moment N,(u) of Pr(n,u) can be obtained by differentiating the last equation 7 times with respect to ¢, and then setting ¢ equal to zero, thus : (wy (;) eco Cp SNn) DLE Agee occa wei oanraw ore (9) Equation (8) ae the re equation (1) The second moment N, (u) is given by Nal) =2N w+] fl )Nalu—w yaw’ — | Aa. Taking Laplace transforms, substituting #(N,(u)) for L(f(u)) s{1—L(f(u))} Oa ra +100 (1 —a«)(1+s)(1—exp [— Um(1 +s) | )e LSU Fae AO=a) THOM Can and inverting gives at N,(u) Smith (1959) has shown that for a wide class of distribution functions, the asymptotic variance is given by yD) N(a) —(N ,(u ee wi u“- Due “U3 #2 19 1) where uy, -| uif(u)du. 0 From (2), we have nm” ue “du|(1—a) =— un | ure—"“dul(1—a) =2 —a (In «)?/(1 —a) 0 =| we~“du|(1—a) =65 —3« (In «)?/(1 —a) +e (In «)3/(1 —a) 0 in accordance with the general relation t—(—1)**2a( In «)/(1—a)+ky,,, ket. The asymptotic variance can, therefore, be written as a linear function of the asymptotic mean {G7(4) } deymptotic =au]é +5 =a{N ,(u) Wiig ue +d. This result may be derived independently from the fact that all roots of (1—a)(1+S)—1+exp [—u,(1+5)] =0 are simple with negative real parts, apart from zero. | An alternative expression for the second moment which is more useful for small values of can be found as follows : 150 COLERIDGE AY AV iKiINs (1—2) (1-+s)(1 —exp [—ta(1-+s)]) s{(l—a)(1--s) —1-bexp [—w,,(1-+4)]}2 _2(L+8)(1—ae™m) 3, (—B) hoy si—a)s—e)? a UGB) B= 04 ee or P(N (u)) +-L(N(u)) =2 where (borrowing Teichmann’s notation) Inversion term-by-term gives No(u) +N (0) == suk {e8(u — kum) (yu —ku,,)*+1H (u—ku,,) —[oebu— lk +1!) (4—[k +1] u,,)* +10 (u—[k+1]u,,) } [c4— Hh) (1d! — Bt) +L (tt! — Rett) di 0 -«f [el —Uh-+1}e)| (0 — (+ L]ot,) +H (u! — [+1] 4,) di} 0 In particular, for 0a£,) be the lower cut-off energy of the resonance. By the usual differential method, it can be shown that if a neutron has had a collision at E,, then the probability p(£,,£,) that the neutron escapes is : (Eo Ep) =i M(E,) exp { pe ae | a cS | ; exp E | : pie ar'|ae? where h(E) is the probability of non-absorption at energy E. To simplify later expressions, let g(£) and f(£) be defined by flE\= pay g(E)=(Ep—aF)f(£). Let pr(n,E,) denote the probability that the neutron escapes from the resonance after exactly _ m collisions, not counting the ae one at £,, so that p10, Eo) =8(E nm—-1 n—-1 r(n, Eo) ef oo ale It fej bJdE,...dk,n>0. 152 COLERIDGE A. WILKINS and 3p, (1 Eo) |f(Ea)} =pr(—L, Ba), MOS Oe Te ase ee (16) Let Pr(n,E,) be the ratio of pr(n,E,) to p(£,E,). We wish to determine N,(E)==nPr(n,E,) 0 | ={(E)5S(£o)/p Luter), Say. ... 05 (17) (Equation (17) defines S(£,).) From equations (16), (17) and the definition of Pr(n,E,), 0 inet 0) VND) aug al ps MP Ae (18) while from equations (15) and (16) Ey (Ea Ex) =a) +f) || P(E, E,)dE, so that ; 0 9bf Fo Fs) = —af( Eo) +p(£o, Ex) (ie +f) Se ete 2: (19) Combination of equations (17), (18) and (19) gives oN 1(£o)} =f(Eo) +aN (Lo) f(Eo)/P( LoL x) which yields, after some reduction N,(Ey)=)1— 5 = ata! , exp -f. jucyae'|aet ee f(E \(1- ies 5 i_ ; exp - | : feta’ |ae" lar .. (20) If the resonance is very narrow, we can write Eo E;) ~| Ey a result exact at all energies for Hydrogen. Similarly, the higher moments of Pr(n,E,)) can be shown to satisfy 7) Me an, Nr (Eo)t=S(2o) = (ny Ve 4o) +o Eo)N( Eo) /P(Eo, Ex). In particular, the second moment may be written Ba f(E)QN {(E) +1} exp E | el dE If h(E) is put equal to one, this reduces to equation (10), after transforming to lethargy units with zero lethargy corresponding to Ey, and substituting for Nj. The author wishes to express his thanks to Associate Professor A. Keane for his generous assistance and advice. References De Marcus, W. C., 1959. Nuclear Sci. and Eng., MarsHak, R. E., 1947. Revs. Mod. Phys., 19 5, 336-337. 185-238. » j ? SmitH, W. S., 1959. Biometrika, 46, 1-29. DRESNER, L., 1960. Resonance Absorption in Tpricumann, T., 1960. Nuclear Sci. and Eng., 7, Nuclear Reactors ’’, Pergamon Press, New York. 292-294. (Received December 5, 1960) AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. > E..MER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY x { “Notice to Authors eee | “References. References are to be cited in | = of pb orien ‘eg.: Vick (1934); ‘at ript the end of. the paper they should be arranged nd a _ alphabetically | giving the author’s name and fs initials, the year of publication, the title of the . Lae a desired). ‘the IO oe title of the a Proc: het ‘Soe. 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WEST, B.sc. aN pa Ue , 5 : % NOTICE The Royal Society ‘of New South Wales originated i in 1821 as. the “ Phildsophicel. ‘Sig? pe of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of vege Tee a ‘* Australian Philosophical Society ”, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was Me at 3 ia changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her = = Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society. assumed its ee title, and was Mare se" Ae Aa by Act of Parliament. of New South Wales in ASE I Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 153-160, 1962 Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1960 W. H. ROBERTSON Sydney Observatory, Sydney The following observations of minor planets were made photographically at Sydney Observatory with the 9-inch Taylor, Taylor and Hobson lens. Observations were confined to those with southern declinations in the Ephemerides of Minor Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad. On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately 0’-5, were taken with an interval of about 20 minutes between them. The beginnings and endings of the exposures were automatically recorded on a chronograph by a contact on the shutter. Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction, retaining second order terms in the differences of the equatorial ordinates, was used. Proper motions, when the were available, were applied to bring the star ositions to the epoch of the in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between the two positions with the motion derived from the ephemeris. The tabulated results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases 983, 991, 1007, 1060, 1089, 1111, 1114, where each result is from only one image, due to a defect in the other exposure or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but in Table I are given the factors which give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. The serial numbers follow on from those of a previous paper (Robertson, 1960). The observers named in Wable Il are W. Ht. Robertson (KK), K.P. Sims (S) and H. W. Wood (W). The measure- ments were made by Miss E. Kaberry, Miss K. Molloy and Mrs. M. Wilson, who have also assisted in the computation. Reference ROBERTSON, WEL, 1960: J. Proc. hey. Soc. N.SaW., plate. Each expo ure was reduced separately 94, 71; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 38. TABLE I eA. Dec: Parallax No 1960 rar. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors hei . 'S Ce a: S a 941 Aug. 30-61672 5 Astraea 23 18 30-98 — 7 48 04-3 +0:02 —3-8 942 Sep: 6- 56623 5 Astraea 23 12 54:30 — 8 34 47-8 +0:06 —3:8 943 Sep. 28-54264 5 Astraea 22 55 29-10 —10 47 41-8 +0:08 —3:5 944 Apr. 28-57492 12 Victoria 14 23 22-90 —18 55 51-6 —0:-01 —2:-2 945 May 2-57965 12 Victoria 14 19 33:42 —18 17 47-7 +0:05 —2-3 946 Aug. 8- 64246 14 Irene 22 12 28-43 —23 33 39-9 +0:06 —1-7 947 Sep. 6-51843 14 Irene 21 47 09-66 —26 O1 41-2 —0:03 —1:-2 948 Aug. 8-57285 22 Kalliope 20 51 45-88 —36 36 02-8 +0:01 —0:4 949 Sep. 1-49965 22 Kalliope 20 32: 37-77 —37 11 35-9 +0:-04 +0:°5 950 PEpr. 27 - 65332 33 Polyhymnia 16 O1 16-08 —22 42 15-1 +0:-01 —1:-7 951 May 17-59648 33 Polyhymnia 15 44 10-34 —22 06 09-5 +0:05 —1-8 952 Aug. 11- 64666 35 Leukothea 22 23 20-56 —15 40 35-8 +0:03 —2:-7 oad Sep. 20- 52294 35 Leukothea 21 52 21-65 —17 00 22-3 +0:09 —2-6 954 Aug. 30-61672 44 Nysa 23 22 29-10 — 7 33 58-2 +0:01 —3:-9 955 Sep. 28- 54264 44 Nysa 22 57-42-52 —10 39 29-2 +0-08 —3-5 956 May 9- 65362 48 Doris 16 26 13-80 —13 48 31-7 +0-06 —3-0 957 June 9- 52405 48 Doris 16 03 09-17 —12 21 43-3 —0:03 —3-2 958 Aug. 9-57715 49 Pales 21 32 16-97 —l1l1 43 22-6 —0:05 —3-3 3o9 | Sep. 1-52767 49 Pales 21 14 10-19 —12 50 30:8 +0:03 —3-1 960 Mar. 29 - 65434 54 Alexandra 14 05 58-96 —3l1 21 12-6 +0:02 —1:3 154 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued RAG Dec. Parallax No. 1960 10/00. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors — h m Ss ° , 7) s a 961 Apr. 27-53689 54 Alexandra 13 39 07-50 —31 00 35:5 —0:05 —0-4 962 May 10- 67396 90 Antiope 17 11 45-86 —22 52 01-0 +0:-04 —1:7 963 July 4-49802 90 Antiope 16 30 57-27 —22 29 32-6 +0:-05 —1™@ 964 Mar. 30- 63434 94 Aurora 13 02 11-81 — 9 09 01:3 +0:-10 —3-7 965 Apr. 26-52461 94 Aurora 12 42 09-43 — 7 50 01-8 +0:03 —3:8 966 June 9- 66494 96 Aegle 19 11 45-61 —39 08 57-3 +0-01 +0:°8 967 July 6- 56472 96 Aegle 18 44 51-52 —38 46 18-3 —0-:03 +0-8 968 May 10-65180 100 Hekate 16 53 14-17 —13 51 54-4 +0-01 —3:0 969 June 16-51014 100 Hekate 16 24 47-63 —13 25 20-7 —0:06 —34 970 Mar. 24-67510 109 Felicitas 14 21 26-69 —19 00 43-3 +0:-01 —2:2 971 Apr. 19- 60895 109 Felicitas 14 00 23-51 —18 09 58-7 +0:07 —2-4. 972 Apr. 19-56147 112 Iphigenia 13 08 32-07 —11 11 05-4 +0:03 —2-9 973 May 2-50882 112 Iphigenia 12 57 40-77 —10 05 06-0 0:00 —3:5 974 Sep: 6- 54426 113 Amalthea 22 52 51-73 —12 42 40-2 —0:09 —3-2 975 Apr. 27: 60754 118 Peitho 15 O1 54-88 —16 20 40-2 0-00 —2-6 976 May 9-57294 118 Peitho 14 49 37-32 —15 59 48-0 +0-02 —2:7 977 Jae he 28 - 64643 146 Lucina 16 08 34-12 — 9 45 27-4 —0:02 —3*6 978 May 10-63031 146 Lucina 15 58 39-76 — 9 54 54-3 +0:06 —3-6 979 May 4.61812 158 Koronis 15 23 22-09 —19 45 24-0 +0:05 —2-% 980 July 5:57894 170 Maria 18 42 06-68 —31 16 04-7 +0-02 —0:-4 981 July 20- 53803 170 Maria 18 26 27-45 —30 05 40-9 +0:-06 —0-6 982 Mar. 9-61381 188 Menippe 11 46 33-02 —15 17 07:3 +0:-02 —2-8 983 Mar. 24-56070 188 Menippe 11 34 31-41 —13 48 25-4 +0:-01 —3:-6 984 June 7-59963 198 Ampella 17 10 55-81 —25 53 08-1 +0-05 —1:2 985 July 4-52118 198 Ampella 16 44 16-16 —23 12 53-7 +0-09 —1-6 986 Apr. 19- 68228 216 Kleopatra 15 36 19-37 —15 19 30-5 +0:-09 —2°— 987 May 9-59890 216 Kleopatra 15 21 38-90 —13 26 23-9 +0:03 —3-0 988 Apr. 28-53614 220 Stephania 13 31 17-94 —19 10 44-0 —0:02 —2-2 989 May 4+53522 220 Stephania 13 25 44-04 —18 21 46-5 +0-04 —2-3 990 July 6-62178 235 Carolina 19 47 55-94 —31 16 08-5 +0:04 —0-4 991 July 18-56047 235 Carolina 19 36 51-76 —32 11 40-8 —0:05 —0°3 992 Aug. 11-48912 235 Carolina 19 17 41-48 —33 03 07-7 —0-02 —0-l 993 Oct: 26- 64849 273 Atropos 3 59 29-04 — 9 25 58-7 0:00 —3:6 994 Nov. 7-60714 273 Atropos 3 49 34-24 —l1l 04 28-4 —0-01 —3-4 995 May 4-69746 308 Polyxo 16 57 36-14 —16 48 49-6 +0:09 —2°6 996 June 23 - 53496 308 Polyxo 16 18 48-40 —14 51 12-3 +0:-09 —2-@ 997 June 16-59112 310 Margarita 17 17 55-08 —20 20 50-2 +0:08 —2:1 998 June 23 - 56880 310 Margarita 17 11 48-26 —20 08 27-8 +0:08 —2:1 999 June 9-69518 312 Pieretta 19 50 03-15 —36 01 53-8 +0-02 +0-4 1000 July 5-60722 312 Pieretta 19 30 21-91 —37 35 31-9 +0-01 +0-6 1001 Aug. 29-57819 318 Magdalena 22 LOLOL 7S — 8 49 54-2 +0:04 —3-7 1002 Aug. 30-57604 318 Magdalena 22 09 21-33 — 8 56 23-7 +0-:04 —3-7 1003 Aug. 4-66525 328 Gudrun 22 49 40-55 —17 05 12-6 +0-01 —2:°-5 1004 June 16-59112 334 Chicago 17 22 35-63 —18 20 52-7 +0:07 —2:-4 1005 June 2356880 334 Chicago 17 17 48-87 —18 21 58-0 +0:07 —2:-4 1006 Aug. 16- 64305 340 Eduarda 22 51 37-89 —13 40 21-6 +0-04 —3:0 1007 Sep. 28-49498 340 Eduarda 22 17 41-02 —15 50 58-8 +0:-02 —2-7 1008 June 7-63619 364 Isara 17 59 57-74 —19 54 24-6 +0:06 —2:-1 1009 = Mar. 9- 70020 366 Vincentina 13 03 04-15 —13 04 09-5 0:00 —3-1 1010 =Mar. 29-61840 366 Vincentina 12 48 28-24 —12 42 35-5 +0-07 —3-2 1011 May 31-60883 370 Modestia 16 55 09-30 —31 02 52-9 +0-05 —0-4 1012 June 16-54803 370 Modestia 16 37 27-34 —29 41 56-2 +0-04 —0-6 1013 Aug. 9- 60003 372 Palma 21 48 15-24 —16 54 57-6 —0:02 —2-6 1014 = Aug. 30- 54862 372 Palma 21 28 19-34 —16 41 59-2 +0-05 —2-6 1015 Sep. 29- 64012 423 Diotima 1 16 40-77 — 7 02 00-2 +0:-09 —4-0 1016 Oct: 27-54615 423 Diotima 0 54 53-90 — 8 01 33-3 +0-08 —3°8 1017 Oct 11-62278 424 Gratia 2 06 44-24 — 0 51 20-6 +0:03 —4-8 1018 Oct: 27-58015 424 Gratia 1 53 15-43 — 1 52 20-0 +0-06 —4-6 1019 July 6-59090 426 Hippo 18 54 42-74 —37 48 58-3 +0:05 +0-6 1020 July 19-58103 436 Patricia 19 43 24-28 —45 17 31-5 +0:02 +1-8 1021 Aug. 16- 49256 436 Patricia 19 17 56-10 —43 24 05-7 +0:04 +1:-5 1022 Apr. 28-67675 445 Edna 16 35 00-20 —44 23 15-9 +0:-03 +1-6 1023 June 2-59434 445 Edna 16 02 59-64 —42 55 53-3 +0:-17 41-2 No. 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 © 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 AA MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1960 TABLE I—continued 1960 July Aug. Sep: Nov. Dep: Oct. May June Mar. Mar. Mar. Sep. Sep. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Sep. Oct. July July Aug. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. May July Apr. Apr. May Aug. Sep. Apr. May Aug. Aug. Apr. May July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Mar. pr: Mar. Apr. June June Mar. ANG. July SEI: Nov. GOies Aug. June July Aug. July July Wise. Planet 20-61046 447 Valentine 11-53005 447 Valentine 28:-62678 448 Natalie 7-48903 448 Natalie 29 - 60982 449 Hamburga 27:-50557 449 Hamburga 9-62710 454 Mathesis 23°48077 454 Mathesis 7:64347 456 Abnoba 23-57978 456 Abnoba 29-57355 456 Abnoba 1-61502 474 Prudentia 29-54103 474 Prudentia 3°61743 476 Hedwig 9-57357 476 Hedwig 23-53527 476 Hedwig 31-55812 476 Hedwig 26-67709 484 Pittsburghia 26-57767 484 Pittsburghia 5: 64322 486 Cremona 27-60182 486 Cremona 25-68934 488 Kreusa 11-51625 488 Kreusa 10: 63407 505 Cava 26-61345 505 Cava 7°54829 505 Cava 31-64964 508 Princetonia 4-55066 508 Princetonia 27- 56660 514 Armida 28-57492 514 Armida 257965 514 Armida 9: 62286 545 Messalina 5: 50899 545 Messalina 19° 65565 556 Phyllis 3° 58992 556 Phyllis 11-56578 563 Suleika 29-52743 563 Suleika 26° 63361 586 Thekla 31-56209 586 Thekla 20:67739 680 Genoveva 4-62700 680 Genoveva 16:°57113 680 Genoveva 25-56332 680 Genoveva 11-61684 691 Lehigh 30: 52525 691 Lehigh 23: 62008 694 Ekard 19-51862 694 Ekard 24- 63644 695 Bella 26-49994 695 Bella 16-59112 700 Auravictrix 23-56880 700 Auravictrix 23-66577 702 Alauda 27-51050 702 Alauda 20: 61046 725 Amanda 28-66644 729 Watsonia 10°51418 729 Watsonia 28-61567 733 Mocia 2262408 739 Mandeville 16- 66603 752 Sulamitis 27-53993 752 Sulamitis 22-62408 782 Montefiore 5:57894 785 Zwetana 19- 54162 785 Zwetana 155 R.A. Dec. Parallax (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m Ss se ya Ss o 20 20 43-75 —25 06 08-4 +0:04 —1:°3 20 02 35:09 —26 13 52-1 +0:01 —1-1 1 03 49-87 — 3 36 09-9 +0:07 —4:-4 0 33 15-31 — 3 02 53-7 +0:°05 —4-5 0 21 38-74 252 2 +0O-ll —4-5 0 00 13-14 — 4 45 39-2 +0:08 —4:3 16 26 28-08 —26 50 16-8 —0:02 —1:1 15 46 19-09 —26 45 08-5 —0:01 —1:1 12 21 34-24 —20 53 33-1 +0:02 —1-9 12 10 48-29 —19 13 04:6 —0:02 —2-2 12 06 21-10 —18 17 16-6 +0:03 —2:°3 23 23 24°81 — 4 48 07-4 +0:02 —4:°-3 23 06 20:52 — 9 54 56-2 +0:06 —3:6 11 02 51-16 —10 10 53-0 +0:08 —3:5 10 57 21-74 — 9 52 09-6 0-00 —3-5 10 45 15-64 — 8 49 45-3 +0:03 —3-7 10 39 33-72 — 8 07 29-4 +0:18 —3-9 1 49 58:86 — 8 20 33-5 +0:11 —3-8 1 26 41-89 —l1l1 25 30-1 +0O:11 —3-4 20 09 48:54 —26 27 14-1 +0-04 —1-] 19 47 24-41 —29 36 51-3 +0:16 —0:8 0 05 40-58 —16 11 38-0 +0:°-10 —2:-7 23 34 01:56 —19 19 04-3 +0:03 —2-2 2 29 24-36 — 2 28 26-5 +0:01 —4-6 2 16 22-61 — 3 12 24-0 +0:-11 —4-5 2 05 36-50 — 3 10 16:9 +0:03 —4:5 18 17 06-33 —36 16 29-2 0:00 +0:4 17 45 37-80 —38 01 04:7 +0:06 +0:6 14 21 21-52 —18 44 49-9 —0:04 —2°3 14 20 33-61 —18 40 20-1 —0:01 —2:°-3 14 17 24-05 —18 21 58-1 +0:05 —2:3 22 O7 56:45 —15 02 46-1 +0:01 —2-8 21 44 36-05 —14 49 06-9 —0:06 —2:-9 14 56 47-92 —24 42 07-1 +0-10 —1-4 14 43 31-46 —23 42 20-9 +0:04 —1:°5 20 45 38:03 —29 46 38-3 +0:03 —0°6 20 30 32-40 —30 48 41-8 +0:-11 —0°5 15 13 34:82 —18 07 42-0 +0:05 —2:4 14 47 20-70 —16 02 03-3 +0:18 —2:°-8 21 49 30:36 —46 18 54-9 +0:07 +1-9 21 36 03-29 —47 31 06-0 +0:07 +2:1 21 23 39:65 —47 31 01-8 +0:01 —2:1 21 15 21-68 —46 55 19-5 +0O:-11 +1-9 21 18 48:68 —30 56 57-2 —0:02 —0°4 21 03 52-91 —32 19 05-7 +0:03 —0:2 12-35 31-72 —19 22 20-4 +0:06 —2:-2 12 14 18-36 —15 51 25-2 +0°:02 —2-7 12 54 20-98 —27 53 50°5 +0:08 —0:9 12°25 28-77 —24 31 44-8 —0-01 —1-4 17 18 49-88 —19 56 12-0 +0:08 —2:1 17 11 29-47 —20 20 47-6 +0:09 —2-1 13 15 44-57 —38 33 03-5 +0-14 +0-6 12 46 40:33 —36 36 10-4 —0-01 +0:°-5 20 21 31-66 —24 39 58-9 +0:04 —1-4 1 47 46-97 —15 36 22-9 +0:10 —2:-8 1 15 52-82 —18 16 35:1 +0:06 —2:°-4 15 23 03:81 —46 18 45-2 —0:08 +1:9 23 11 46-88 —17 37 03:6 —0:01 —2-4 19 18 56-52 —24 35 46-4 +0:06 —1-4 18 39 50:91 —26 50 28-3 +0:10 —1:-1 23 07 22-65 —15 31 23-3 0:00 —2-7 18 47 41-17 —33 55 08:5 +0:01 0:0 18 33 19-07 —34 57 17-2 +0:05 +0:°2 156 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued R.A. Dec. Parallax No. 1960 OKIE: Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m Ss fo) / uw Ss 7 1087 July 28 -50343 785 Zwetana 18 26 15:98 —35 18 01:1 +0:02 +0 1088 June 16: 62660 786 Bredichina 18 29 56-67 —24 27 20:4 +0:04 —1 1089 July 19-51455 786 Bredichina 18 02 20-73 —27 24 28:4 +0-03 —1 1090 Apr. 26-57724 796 Sarita 14 34 06:76 —18 44 39-4 —0:05 —2 1091 May 17- 55467 796 Sarita 14 11 57-93 —18 32 14-4 +0:12 —2 1092 May 31- 46033 796 Sarita 13 59 51-41 —18 21 45:3 —0:04 —2 1093 Sep. 28-59453 809 Lundia 0 36 49-61 — 4 51 29-0 +0:03 —4 1094 Oct. 11-55018 809 Lundia 0 27 47-98 — 6 52 54-4 +0:-02 —4 1095 Aug. 29-57819 810 Atossa 22 14 29-16 —1l1 05 42-7 +0:-03 —3 1096 Aug. 30-57604 810 Atossa 22 13 41-89 —ll 12 56-2 +0-03 —3 1097 Aug. 16: 64305 825 Tanina 22 50 14-65 —12 26 09-4 +0:04 —3 1098 Apr. 27- 60754 828 Lindemannia 15 00 32-96 —18 15 26-3 0-00 —2 1099 Mar. 24-67510 830 Petropolitana 14 15 29-56 —17 27 57-6 +0:02 —2 1100 Apr. 19- 60895 830 Petropolitana 13 58 05-55 —16 25 03:6 +0:08 —: 1101 May 4- 56962 834 Burnhamia 1419 17-3 —10 00 26-2 +0:03 —3 1102 May 30- 48084 834 Burnhamia 14 03 49-54 — §&.20°1G1 +0-01 —3 1103 July 20- 64650 852 Wladilena 21 45 54-38 —67 33 09:3 —0:10 +4 1104 Aug. 3° 60989 852 Wladilena 21 24 19-51 —67 42 21-4 +0:04 +4 1105 Aug. 24-55323 852 Wladilena 20 53 40-63 —63 36 45:3 +0:-18 —4 1106 July 5°67957 855 Newcombia 20 52 05-21 —39 11 35-9 +0:07 +0 1107 Mar. 24-59976 860 Ursina 12 23 04-95 —2] 24 12-2 +0:-03 —1 1108 Mar. 30-58996 860 Ursina 12 17 35:47 —21 07 49-2 +0:05 —1 1109 Mar. 7: 64347 862 Franzia 12 14 18-11 —21 23 58-8 +0:04 —1 1110 Mar. 9-65092 862 Franzia 12 12 39-05 —21 23 57:6 +0:-09 —1 1111 Mar. 29-1300 862 Franzia 11 54 54:38 —20 37 05:5 +0:05 —2 1112 Apr. 26-63361 910 Anneliese 15 19 55-26 —17 05°17 +0-:03 —2 1113 May 31-56209 910 Anneliese 14 49 08-30 —17 32 18:7 +0:18 —2 1114 Aug. 4-66525 974 Lioba 22 42 16-78 —16 45 25-5 +0:03 —2 1115 Mar. 3°56286 980 Anacostia IO 2759-25 —10 59 29:5 —0:02 —3 1116 Mar. 9-54124 980 Anacostia 10 22 50-32 —10 37 20-0 —0:-02 —3 7 Mar. 29-51495 980 Anacostia 10 08 41-82 — 9 O1 26-7 +0:-10 —3 1118 July 5-57894 982 Franklina 18 36 18-03 —31 18 43-1 +0:04 —0O 1119 July 20- 53803 982 Franklina 18 23 20-22 —29 29 05:5 +0:-07 —0 1120 Mar. 7:60377 983 Gunila 1] 17 14-10 —18 25 30:8 +0:04 —: 1121 Mar. 30: 54086 983 Gunila 11 00 58-99 —16 09 36:1 +0:07 —2 1122 June 16- 66603 986 Amelia 19 12 02-36 —24 32 12:4 +0:-07 —1 1123 July 27-53993 986 Amelia 13937 52293 —28 35 36-9 +0-11 —0 1124 July 5-57894 987 Wallia 18 40 48-75 —33 16 53-9 +0:03 —O 1125 July 19- 54162 987 Walla 18 28 04:85 —32 36 02:6 +0:06 —O 1126 Aug. 24:-69191 1028 Lydina 0 18 10-20 —1l 53 46-2 +0:07 —3 1127 Aug. 30- 65493 1028 Lydina 0 15 09-73 —]2 21 38:7 +0-02 —3 1128 Apr. 27- 65332 1042 Amazone 15 59 15273 —21 46 11-7 +0:02 —1 1129 May 17-59648 1042 Amazone 15 41 43-70 —22 36 14-9 +0:05 —1 1130 May 30: 60077 1092 Lilium 16 47 13-07 —29 39 21-1 +0:04 —O 1131 June 16-54803 1092 Lilium 16 31 52-18 —28 46 00-0 +0:07 —O0 1132 Aug. 29-65717 Ll0O7 Lictora 0 04 49-63 — 8 53 41-5 +0:04 —3 1133 Oct. 10-55810 1107 Lictoria 23 37 02-45 —12 19 32-0 +0:15 —3 1134 Aug. 25- 61356 1111 Reinmuthia 22 06 45-86 —13 35 55:4 +0:-12 —3 1135 Sep. 20: 52294 1111 Reinmuthia 21 50 07-83 —15 32 32-0 +0:10 —2 1136 Sep: 26-67709 1115 Sabauda 151259 — 7 59 25-4 +0:11 —3 1137 Oct. 26-57767 1115 Sabauda 1 28 06-18 — 9 19 13-9 +0:10 —3 1138 July 18-62760 1142 Aetolia 20 31 36-34 —17 56 51:6 +0:05 —2 1139 Apr. 7: 65564 1197 Rhodesia 13 19 00-56 —28 Ol 04:0 +0:22 —1 1140 May 2-53878 1197 Rhodesia 13 02 25-93 —23 59 13-6 +0:09 —1 1141 Aug. 30-61672 1223 Neckar 23 13 25-90 — 8 40 40:4 +0:03 —3 1142 Aug. 30- 65493 1237 Genevieve 0 24 18-78 —13 35 23:5 0-00 —3 1143 Sep. 20- 62273 1237 Genevieve O07 12°75 —15 10 03-2 +0-11 —2 1144 Aug. 29-61692 1310 Villigera 22 48 13-55 —22 59 30-5 +0-:08 —1 1145 Sep. 20-56872 1310 Villigera 22 17 41-78 —22 00 49-1 +0:19 —2 1146 Apr. 27-56660 1319 Disa 14 20 15-01 —17 12 38-5 —0:04 —2 1147 Apr. 28-57492 1319 Disa 14 19 28-04 —17 07 34-2 0:00 —2 1148 Aug. 25- 65392 1390 Abastumani 23 29 21-23 —27 49 04:3 +0:07 —O 1149 Aug. 25-61356 Unidentified 22 14 15-14 —16 04 37-9 +0:-11 —2 COMMS IO SAMEERA OHIO AON WNWOCORAWARARBRAOAMOSDOOOBDWOSOODADRAWNERONWHRWORW MINOR Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1960 TABLE II 16 16 wy 12 12 14 14 18 18 14 13 12 12 16 Li 11 Lt rb Il Lit £7 14 14 16 16 18 18 L2 ae 12 12 11 16 out 12 12 16 16 12 17 13 12 IO 14 14 12 11 12 12 li, 17 Comparison Stars 8277, 8297, 8300 8249, 8255, 8271 8060, 8064, 8083 II 6019, 6031, 6038 I 5324, 5357, 12 II 5994 15140, 15151, 15163 14924, 14954, 14964 10801, 10807, 10833 10662, 10663, 10689 11266, 11292, 11313 I 6506, 6520, 14 11139 I 8359, 8382, 8383 I 8200, 8239 12 II 9343 8300, 8314, 8316 8060, 8064, 8083 5695, 5712, 12 I 5953 5563, 5570, 5584 7645, 7649, 7660 7530, 7532, 7550 7207, 7231, 7249 6939, 6944, 6978 11903, 11909, 11936 11498, 11512, 11535 4701, 4714, 4717 4625, 4630, 4642 9966, 9985, 9993 9699, 9716, 9746 I 6048, 6065, 12 5808 5692, 5698, 5699 II 5995, 6016, 6031 I 5244, 5252, 5270 4712, 4718, 4727 4682, 4690, 4700 8049, 8052, 8066 I 5550, 5562, 5565 I 5471, 5496, 5504 5622, 5624, 5631 5564, 5582, 11 5557 II 6369, 6381, 6389 10149, 10165, 10177 II 11966, 11997, Cape 17 10013 I 4597, 4608, 4627 4316, 4325, 4333 11892, 11894, 11921 11589, 11607, 11628 I 5723, 5728, 5743 5370, 5378, 5387 Il 5750, 5766, 5784 II 5731, 5743, 12 I 5093 10801, 10809, 10823 10690, 10718, 10727 C7 10526, 10551, 10574 16 il 12 12 13 13 18 18 16 16 12 12 12 975, 977, 999 888, 891, 907 I 6066, 6079, 6095 I 5920, 5923, 5933 TOUT, 7107, TLS I 7034, 7066, 12 II 7047 10275, 10287, 10307 10114, 10139, 10164 7954, 7960, 7961 7948, 7954, 7971 I 8470, 8486, 8491 II 7126, 7135, 7154 DEP LOS OTe I08T,, FLL 157 *30557 - 54208 -40331 -44346 -10147 -38978 -43081 - 26066 - 27661 - 23663 16384 -50815 -41920 - 26488 20157 34357 10520 35589 30108 28652 45732 37720 -30787 34811 -28181 » 22967 -35172 °43241 -39914 - 23432 -32390 - 25940 -13277 -41183 - 60323 - 39086 - 25478 - 58204 -40948 -70337 39175 -17252 -51703 - 34545 - 25880 - 34683 -28812 -49472 » 25445 -11657 -18510 - 24090 -38819 - 55866 - 16890 -17024 -48147 - 34537 - 30829 *28655 - 38005 - 09306 -09131 - 36966 -37363 | - 29974 - 09766 44753 26844 46854 34074 25672 41688 40247 42431 32648 24989 34413 18323 22859 23177 59044 -34959 -21297 - 60923 -37698 -42580 -39726 * 32242 -52126 -29821 -37346 - 21020 -41548 -45063 -41113 -43865 -54436 -30778 -33098 - 24639 -40311 - 25883 -16813 -49388 - 25806 -49282 -31537 *35841 -44408 -35806 - 20484 - 23676 > 29915 -59757 44418 -56287 *40315 -04773 67134 42178 -32418 13861 20756 -44992 25904 74807 64656 36163 -31298 Dependences - 39469 - 36026 14916 28810 -43000 - 26948 -31247 - 32246 -32091 -33906 50968 24196 23668 -55189 - 56984 -42466 - 30436 » 29453 -48595 -10425 - 16570 - 19700 29486 32947 19693 47212 » 27482 *35739 -18538 -31505 » 26497 -30194 * 32287 - 28038 -06579 -36275 -34210 -15913 *42239 -79051 -35019 -33466 16760 -29614 202 -29511 -50703 - 26852 44640 - 28586 *37072 - 19623 - 20867 -39361 - 15976 -40799 -19434 -51602 48415 - 26352 -36091 - 15887 » 26213 - 26870 -31339 SV EDHOD INAV AN DANO DSA DVN AHON EDAWN A dON AUDEN SW SRW EY RADA DWAR DOD W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE II—continued 158 No. Comparison Stars 1006 Yale 12 I 8490, 8502, 8513 1007 Yale 12 I 8333, 8342, 8358 1008 Yale 12 II 7411, 7433, 13 I 7421 1009 Yale 1/1 4682, 4698, 4701 1010 Yale 1/1 4619, 4625, 4636 1011 Cape 17 8889, 8906, 8922 1012 Yale 13 II 10406, 10435, 10448 1013 Wale 72 1 Silos Sl0a. S99 1014 Yale 1/2 I 8083, 8090, 8106 1015 Yale 16 254, 273, 275 1016 ValesiGulsie Oia go 1017 Yale 21 429, 436, 438 1018 Yale 17 4389, 440, 448 1019 Cape 18 9791, 9816, 9827 1020 Cord. D 14445, 14468, 14472 1021 Cord. D 14182, 14210, 14233 1022 Cord. D 11574, 11597, 11634 1023 Cord. D 11207, 11252, 11266 1024 Yale 14 14137, 14173, 14175 1025 Yale 14 13960, 13987, 13989 1026 Yale 17 232, 250, 254 1027 Yale 17 119, 126, 134 1028 Valewl/ 712 385,008 1029 Yale 17 8191, 8199, 8203 1030 Yale 1/4 11477, 11496, 11499 1031 Yale 14 11140, 11147, 11164 1032 Yale 13 I 5367, 5383, 5386 1033 Yale 12 II 5296, 5309, 5321 1034 Yale 12 I 4696, 12 II 5274, 5296 1035 Yale 17 8041, 8053, 8063 1036 Yale 77 8101, 8117, 8121 1037 Yale 16 4181, 4185, 4199 1038 Yale 16 4147, 4166, 4171 1039 Yale 16 4087, 4090, 4098 1040 Yale 16 4056, 4059, 4073 1041 Yale 16 373, 394, 396 1042 Yale 11 302, 315, 322 1043 Yale 1/4 14034, 14046, 14053 1044 Yale 13 II 12988, 13010, 13055 1045 Vale 13176) 10,19 1046 Yale 12 II 9851, 9854, 9878 1047 Yale 17 603, 613, 615 1048 Yale 17 553, 559, 572 1049 Yale 17 496, 506, 513 1050 Cape 18 9378, 9396, 9408 1051 Cape 18 8958, 8960, 9032 1052 Yale 12 II 5995, 6019, 6031 1053 Yale 12 II 5995, 6019, 6031 1054 Yale 12 I 5324, 5357, 12 II 5994 1055 Yale 12 I 8286, 8299, 8301 1056 Yale 12 I 8178, 8188, 8189 1057 Yale 14 10725, 10742, 10749 1058 Yale 14 10605, 10622, 10623 1059 Yale 13 II 13685, 13702, 13709 1060 Cape 17 11205, 11209, 11216 1061 Yale 12 I 5603, 5605, 5626 1062 Yale 12 I 5465, 5468, 5497 1063 Cord. D 15573, 15624, 15682 1064 Cape Ft. 19552, 19592, 19595 1065 Cape Ft. 19490, 19494, 19530 1066 Cape Ft. 19438, 19447, 19468 1067 Cape 17 11638, 11664, 11690 1068 Cape 17 11509, 11530, 11553 1069 Yale 12 II 5453, 5456, 5470 1070 Yale 12 I 4728, 4737, 4746 -49800 - 38056 36914 39741 15210 41656 22236 27921 27879 -41602 - 18904 24416 49166 24951 33457 38159 14403 37315 64921 26837 36920 60957 29579 28845 25000 23680 31014 33112 37234 -31822 *37502 -31366 *24175 -44738 - 20963 - 36738 - 17620 -44810 -41582 -35077 -39698 - 31087 55679 23835 30623 50304 36216 56268 43246 47897 -51489 -33750 -48742 -46521 - 30025 43564 24050 38481 31214 47079 25721 35113 -37668 - 16926 -39875 Dependences -31780 -36838 - 25950 - 29194 47340 42239 39443 40455 -37852 - 10697 - 29832 -57127 - 10785 -48916 - 29255 23986 54203 36846 16820 46595 - 20389 - 15666 - 38649 -57035 *35550 *43502 »42834 - 54499 -35770 - 27296 - 28247 -45490 43299 -29731 -48882 - 20493 - 38684 -31095 -19837 - 13000 -09328 -27218 - 21847 -44689 -35387 -14419 -30557 - 16034 - 20333 - 17607 - 23195 - 30552 32671 - 27705 - 22514 -10891 - 65972 » 28427 - 19850 18896 47572 43201 39424 - 39882 -31483 QS SoS SS ooooeoooooeooooqoeqoocooqoeooocooooooo oo oof SoC oo Sooo eo oo oo co oo - 18420 - 25106 -37136 -31065 *37450 -16105 -38321 -31624 - 34269 -47701 -51264 - 18457 -40050 - 26133 -37288 *37855 -31394 * 25840 - 18260 - 26568 -42691 -15277 -31772 -14120 -39450 32818 - 26152 - 12390 - 26996 -40881 -34251 -23144 -32527 - 25530 -30156 -42769 -43695 »24095 *38581 - 51922 - 50974 -41695 - 22473 -31476 - 33990 *35277 > 33226 - 27698 - 36420 -34496 - 25316 35699 - 18586 25774 47461 45545 09977 - 33092 -48936 - 34025 - 26707 21686 22908 43193 28642 SUBWAY SH ADO SO WU DWH ASOD ANUNN EN ZOD AN AN AVONU Re BO WOO DOORN Es eWOH i el No. 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 ~ 1133 1134 1135 MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1960 Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Cord. Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale TABLE II—continued Comparison Stars 13 14 12 13 18 18 14 12 12 D 12 14 13 12 itd hh 18 14 13 12 12 12 17 16 iil gE TH 12 12 12 16 16 II 8268, 8274, 8291 9384, 9389, 9414 Ons ail2. T1ES I 7034, 7066, 12 Il 7047 6355, 6357, 6405 6074, 6075, 6096 14137, 14148, 14175 I 453, 454, 466 II 335, 336, 348 10604, 10639, 10729 I 8590, 8591, 8611 13451, 13470, 13494 II 12150, 74 12982, 13022 I 8560, 8576, 8588 10210, 10214, 10241 10047, 10070, 18 9595 9481, 9501, 9535 12844, 12845, 12905 It 11613, 11651, 11670 II 6075, 6098, 12 I 5411 I 5302, 5312, 12 II 5979 I 5242, 5255, 5281 127, 135, 142 S992, 96 7860, 7867, 7883 7858, 7867, 7871 8039, 8041, 8049 I 5535, 5544, 5558 I 5310, 5324, 5340 I 5232, 5243, 5249 5066, 5080, 5087 5000, 5010, 5013 LPID 4191, 4219, 4220 LPID 4174, 4180, 4191 Cape 20 II 6235, 6266, 6271 Cape 18 10788, 10800, 10835 Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 16 Li. 13 12 12 14 13 17 Mp et itil 13 13 13 13 16 11 12 12 I 5379, 5387, 5404 I 5331, 5350, 5367 I 5315, 5323, 5341 I 5307, 5323, 5331 II 5183, 5212, 13 I 5206 I 5631, 5639, 5653 I 5458, 5489, 5505 I 8440, 8445, 8470 3971, 3983, 3991 3958, 3980, 16 3988 3909, 3922, 3928 10088, 10090, 10105 IT 11920, 11966, 11970 I 4452, 4458, 4471 I 4376, 4384, 4390 13365, 13367, 13413 II 12107, 12145, 12153 10122, 10150, 10154 9983, 10015, 10031 47, 50, 65 32, 45, 58 I 6606, 6608, 6628 I 6506, 14 11112, 11139 II 10536, 10557, 10576 II 10339, 10371, 10403 8465, 7, 19 8239, 8241, 8249 I 8280, 8288, 8290 I 8196, 8200, 8216 IMIS QOS OS a Se SoS eS Sa Sasa Soares SoS ao So So eo Soe aS So SS OO OSS eo oeoe oe Sooeoeee - 19880 -22211 - 28823 -60285 -21671 °44275 -17018 - 24840 -47506 -31550 72546 » 25443 33485 37351 *52485 °40237 32700 -52897 32653 30102 27467 - 64502 -36114 40738 58105 27043 40858 28084 25794 15152 23364 43353 - 24560 42238 - 36685 - 21246 -41663 *34851 - 28190 -41146 - 19673 - 20165 - 25834 25000 13038 -51240 -31484 -21378 -27407 -19571 -39109 - 27049 - 29218 -17237 »49274 - 25502 -62874 - 24903 -54274 - 16637 - 34486 - 32826 - 26160 - 14350 0- 48457 SON'S. S'S OC. SSO OSC CSCO O SC SOC CS SC SSO SCS SSeS SC CSS Se "6 SIS tS OSS SS SS Oo SiS oO ooo e S 159 Dependences - 29698 - 38862 -21314 -17018 -42082 - 34660 -43150 -40094 -34138 - 39662 00169 - 34266 44454 30204 - 22279 29440 35387 - 23031 38087 29084 44878 -11902 33482 39970 72870 40265 12047 15573 19081 64056 -24618 49187 -43522 49834 18963 » 24210 30806 23241 28924 38259 27545 35325 45156 57066 -57307 - 20877 - 31630 - 21405 *22150 - 39349 -35793 -29910 - 26236 -41613 - 23269 -32141 -11780 *27617 -37106 -66860 -31771 *35891 *55979 -33020 -18785 - 50422 -38927 -49863 22698 - 36247 > 21065 39832 > 35065 -18357 - 28789 - 27285 -40292 -22061 -32445 - 25236 -30323 -31913 *24072 29260 40815 27655 - 23596 - 30404 -19293 14765 32692 °47095 -56344 -55125 - 20792 -§2018 -07461 -31918 -07928 -44352 -§4544 -27531 -41908 42886 20595 52782 44510 29010 17934 - 29655 - 27883 - 36886 *57217 -50443 -41079 -25097 -43041 °44545 °41150 -27458 °42357 -48906 -47479 -08620 16504 -33743 -31283 -17861 - 52629 0-32758 ASHWVNSWHWSHUUNS SHUN SSNS SWS SSSUNESHON EN AU DWN WADA NN DN SNN SHAN DDN SENAY 160 No. 1136 Yale 1137 Yale 1138 Yale 1139 Yale 1140 Yale 1141 Yale 1142 Yale 1143 Yale 1144 Yale 1145 Yale 1146 Yale 1147 Yale 1148 Yale 1149 Yale W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE II—continued Comparison Stars 373, 394, 396 297, 308, 11 333 II 8813, 8833, 12 I 7737 II 8456, 8492, 8506 9719, 9743, 9747 8245, 8252, 8271 hin 82 15, 23, 25 15390, 15407, 15417 15169, 15173, 15208 I 5345, 5346, 5363 I 5341, 5345, 5351 II 13946, 13964, 13972 I 8318, 8325, 8331 - 06482 Orati teal 33796 40268 40238 -31644 50617 -19610 *44051 -44077 -44660 -17182 - 23969 -40354 (Received April 27, 1961) Dependences -49255 - 26723 - 16276 27159 -33846 - 12825 -38854 -47880 - 13647 - 19239 -27061 - 26641 -42114 - 16627 Soe Soo Slice oC oo a -44264 -45540 -49927 -32574 - 25916 -55531 - 10528 -32510 -42302 - 36684 - 28279 -56176 *33917 -43019 Sdn AWARD WOM Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 161-166, 1962 Notes on Permian Sediments in the Mudgee District, N.S.W. J. A. DULHUNTY AND G. H. PACKHAM Depariment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney Introduction Large areas of Permian and Mesozoic rocks have long been known to occur some fifteen miles to the north-east of Mudgee (Jones, 1925 ; Dulhunty, 1940), along the western margin of coal measures and other sedimentary rocks of the Sydney and Oxley Basins. The Mudgee district itself is generally regarded as an area occupied essentially by the outcrop of metamorphic basement rocks. However, as early as 1886 Wilkinson referred to Permian conglomerates resting on basement rocks in the Cudgegong valley near Mudgee. Again in 1936 Jones reported the exposure of basal Permian beds in the valley of McDonald’s Creek near Mudgee. More detailed investigations by the present authors have revealed several additional isolated occurrences of Permian sediments in the Mudgee district, and studies of their particular nature and mode of occurrence have thrown some light on problems of Permian palaeogeography, as outlined in this paper. Nature and Occurrence of Permian Sediments The main deposit is in the valley of McDonald’s Creek, to the west of Mudgee (Fig. 1). It lies in the flat valley floor of the creek, to the west of an imposing ridge of Silurian subgreywackes of the Chesleigh Formation (Packham, 1961), a formation which extends continuously north- wards from Sofala. The eastern side of the ridge is bounded by the northern continuation of the Wiagdon Thrust which marks the eastern edge of the Silurian-Devonian sequence of the Hill End Trough; the last movement on this fault is evidently pre-Permian. The McDonald’s Creek Permian sediments include a variety of rock types ranging from siltstones to breccias. The sediments cocupy a depression above which the older Palaeozoic rocks rise to the east, south and west. To the east the ridge of the Chesleigh Formation is perforated in three places by narrow gaps through which the Permian sediments were almost certainly connected to those lying to the east of the Chesleigh Formation. Solid outcrops of the Permian are not abundant in McDonald’s Creek. No exposure is known where more than a few feet of these Permian sediments can be seen at a time. The total thickness 1s thus unknown, but at least 160 feet of these rocks are present at one locality. This is in the valley of McDonald’s Creek just west of the ridge of the Chesleigh Formation and east of the stream about a mile north of the Mudgee- Hargraves Road. The deposit is capped with one hundred feet of basalt. Outcrops on this isolated hill are not good but it appears as if the succession is made up of interbedded sandstones and conglomerates. The siltstones are pale greyish brown in colour and contain plant remains, largely the leaves of Gangamopteris sp. and_ indefinite plant stems. Two localities for these fossils are 150 yards downstream on McDonald’s Creek, from where the Mudgee-Piambong Road crosses it and at the junction of the Hargraves and Yarrabin Roads. The sandstones in the sequence are well sorted, containing abundant rock fragments, and where they are fresh in the floor of the valley towards the north of the outcrop they have a carbonate cement. Con- glomerates in the same locality consist of well- rounded pebbles in a lithic sandstone matrix (Plate Is). The conglomerates on the sides of the valley are much coarser with blocks up to a foot or so in diameter. Sometimes these blocks are sub-angular. The lithologies of the rocks in these conglomerates can be matched in the Silurian and Devonian geosynclinal rocks on the surrounding hills. Large areas of pebbles and boulders derived from the conglomerates give a false impression of the proportion of conglomerate in the Permian sequence. On the old Grattai Road one mile south of where it turns off the Mudgee-Hargraves Road a one-foot band of limestone outcrops; this rock, apparently a chemical deposit, has well developed cone-in-cone structure. This lithology has not been found in any other locality in the area. 162 j. A. DULHUNTY AND Gree ACK WUNSITER Ee | ae WAN: te > I) All lp Se fo) ill ii! I al HI | ( ie: iit q (us 6 nee \ 7s00thl YS * ° GO Q {| LTD " oN Od WY ev Ay | il ST B: y ( Stan o_((| V . 5A Lo) PERMIAN SEDIMENTS OF THE MUDGEE DISTRICT Triassic Sediments (a Pre-Permian Basement 7 Y2 (a) 7 Scale in miles = Permian Sediments dave, Ih PERMIAN SEDIMENTS IN THE MUDGEE DISTRICT, N.S.W. A marked irregularity in the base of the Permian deposits has been found in the north- flowing head of McDonald’s Creek along which a long arm of the Permian sediments extends south from the main mass of the deposit. The valley is narrow and V-shaped with Permian sediments in the base, while the hills of older Palaeozoic rocks rise sharply above it on both sides; it is clear that this is a re-excavated valley which was formed in Permian times. The sediments in the floor of this stream are differerit from those seen elsewhere in outcrop in the McDonald’s Creek area. The rock is extremely poorly sorted; the matrix is a fine sand with angular fragments up to six inches or so scattered through it. This rock is figured m Plate I, D. On the eastern side of the ridge of the Chesleigh Formation there is another strip of Permian sediments similar in general character to those in McDonald’s Creek. This outcrop extends from just north of the Cudgegong River near where the Mudgee-Gulgong Road crosses it southwards almost to Mudgee. At the south- western end of this outcrop, in the westernmost road-cutting containing Permian sediments to the east of the Chesleigh Formation, an occur- rence of varved shale has been found. Specimens of these are figured in Plate I, E and F. The thickness of the varve units is varied, as can be seen in the figures. They are pale brown and pinkish-brown in colour and, like all the sediments in this Permian outcrop, very weathered. Unfortunately the outcrop in the road cutting is not sufficiently fresh to get any idea of the thickness of the varves. Siltstones of similar colour but lacking varve structure occur on the same road about half a mile to the east. About a mile to the north large blocks, probably of erratic origin, occur in fields near the road. Two other outcrops of Permian sediments occur at low level, to the east of Mudgee in the vicinity of Buckaroo. The outcrop of Permian west of the Cudgegong River on the southern boundary of the map is almost entirely massive sandstone differing in lithology from the rocks in the north. It can be seen that this outcrop, too, is considerably lower than the highest points on the ridge of the Chesleigh Formation lying to the west. Likewise the ridge to the east is higher than the Permian sediments. This ridge, which trends parallel to the Chesleigh Formation, is composed of another hard material—Upper Devonian quartzites and slates. This formation and the consequential ridge come to an end just north of Mount Buckaroo. 163 From the present distribution of Permian sediments there is little doubt that at the time of deposition of the basal Permian beds in the area this Upper Devonian ridge stood up as a high feature, as did the Chesleigh Formation. These two formations dominate the landscape in a similar fashion to-day. A minor basement rise is apparent on the map just south of Botobolar, otherwise the base of the Permian in the north-eastern part of the map seems to be nearly planar. The Permian sediments occupying the north- east portion of the map are continuous with those of the Sydney and Oxley Basins. They outcrop from Botobolar through Cooyal to Ulan, dipping and thickening to the north-east. As indicated in the sections in Fig. 2, they appear to have extended over much of the low-lying country between Cooyal and Mudgee. Before removal from this area by relatively recent erosion, the upper portion at least of the Permian appears to have been continuous with deposits in the Mudgee-McDonald’s Creek area. This, and the almost certain continuity of Permian deposits to the north-west of Mudgee along the Cudgegong valley to Guntawang and beyond, indicate a large island of basement rock standing off-shore in the Ulan-Cook’s Gap-Home Rule area at the time of the deposition of the basal Permian. It would appear that this island, which consisted largely of granite, was not as high as others near by, and that the first Triassic sands overlapped the Permian around its shores, and then spread over its surface, while the Upper Devonian quartzite and Chesleigh Formation near Mudgee remained as islands in the early Triassic lakes. Evidences of Glaciation The existence of a Permian glaciation in New South Wales has been firmly established for some time. Erratics are common in the marine sediments and glaciated pebbles are known from Tallong (David, 1950) and Dunedoo (Kenny, 1928). However, additional evidence found recently in the Mudgee district is new and amongst the best yet recorded. Superb soled and scratched boulders occur in _ basal Permian deposits about one mile south-west of the Guntawang Bridge over the Cudgegong River. This is just beyond the north-west corner of the map in this paper. Some of these boulders are figured in Plate I, A and C. In addition there are varved sediments occurring three miles north-west of Mudgee on the Hargraves Road. So far as the present authors are aware, these are the only Permian varves J. A. DULHUNTY AND G. H. PACKHAM 164 ‘JOIYsSIP eospnyy ey} ur (yoeTq) syisodep uemuiog Jo saouermno900 Surmoys SUOT}OES [POISOTOS4 6 SIA 3 SajIpy + iS fe) OOGL O00 ee ees =--- = _— — —— oo ry ae (en sea _-_— _ _ OOS Ze 5 S 000k “a. Q og S ite 9 9 OO Eh ae ated 5. Sone Lee tieda, et” bey ee me eee alee, hee f Ry a ae a Hs a x9 ~ Ms Qi > NS Q 2 . be o00e se u OOS & AY oa © 77 SS 9 tS _ RE ¢ oa ™~N QS QR ais vu y 3 S Q S) . 8 a COG 5s eet AI oe Oe aS ee ae UDINE oose JUAWIASDG UbiWday - avy «/4] DISSP/ ol / year) Spleu0qgr2y lournal Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 95, 1962. DO LITO NIEN G PACKHAM “PLATE J Se aes, 2 iy Bie A Za I i 9 ee ee eee eee Explanation Specimens from Permian sediments near Mudgee, N.S.W., showing evidence of glaciation. lor descriptions and localities see text. A iF i i a i [ é diy i t th ey PERMIAN SEDIMENTS IN THE MUDGEE DISTRICT, N.S.W. which have been recorded in eastern Australia, but undoubtedly more remain to be discovered in the Mudgee district and other areas of Permian shoreline deposition. It is understood that E. C. Andrews collected shales which he believed looked like varves in the vicinity of ~ Wallerawang. The glaciation was apparently not extremely intense since the valley-fill sediments are essentially non-glacial. It also seems unlikely that the valleys had been filled with glacial sediment and reworked, since no sign of residual tillite has been found. The presence of varves indicates that there was a general freeze during winter. The presence of the coarsest boulder deposits on the sides of the valleys may be explained by the existence of cirque glaciers on the ridges above. The scratched boulders figured were found in this type of location and evidently they were not re-transported by water. Wherever the boulder beds were examined carefully it was found that the rock types present outcrop in the basement within a couple of miles of the locality. Thus, so far, there is no evidence of long-distance trans- portation by ice. Correlation of the Permian Sediments The Permian sediments of the McDonald’s Creek area and those to the north of Mudgee can be correlated w th either the marine Capertee Group or the overlying Lithgow Coal Measures. The presence of erratic blocks and fluvio-glacial sediments in the Capertee Group, and the absence of evidence of glaciation from the Lithgow Coal Measures, suggests that the deposits mentioned above should be correlated with the Capertee Group. There is no direct evidence that any of the Permian sediments m the Mudgee -district are marine. Their location in narrow valleys and the presence of beds of plant fossils, in silts similar to those found in the coal measures, suggests that they are fresh-water deposits. One interesting point which might be men- tioned is that the only leaf impressions found after a good deal of searching were those of Gangamopteris sp., whereas Glossopteris spp. are the dominant fossils in the coal measures to the east. This evidence strongly suggests ecological control of the flora since, on the whole, it has not been possible to differentiate a floral succession in the Permian of New South Wales. The small outcrop of sandstone lying to the west of the Cudgegong River near the southern margin of the map is lithologically similar to B 165 the rocks of the coal measures, suggesting that the Capertee Group is here overlapped by the Lithgow Coal Measures. Similar overlaps have been observed on the margin of the main outcrop of the Permian to the east. Structure and Geomorphology The base of the Permian in the area covered by the map dips gently to the north. Along the eastern margin there is a distinct easterly component where the sediments dip down gently into the Permo-Triassic Basin. On the western side there is a general westerly com- ponent into the Great Artesian Basin. The valley deposits of Permian near Mudgee occur generally at about 1,500 feet above sea-level, whilst elevated outliers of similar sediments, situated on a more planar basement surface, occur at about 3,200 feet, some 16 miles to the south-east between Upper Meroo and Mt. Bocoble. It is believed that the present high-level Permian between Mt. Bocoble and Upper Meroo was deposited at approximately the same time as the present low-level Permian deposits of the McDonald’s Creek and others near Mudgee along shorelines of the same sea-level. However, subsequent uplifting, possibly in the early Tertiary, elevated the country to the east and south-east of Mudgee, including the Mt. Bocoble- Upper Meroo area. This produced an upwarped surface rising to a broad anticlinal structure immediately to the east of Mudgee. Drainage to the west, initiating the early history of the present Cudgegong River, produced a mature elevated Miocene surface on which older Palaeozoic rocks outcropped where _ erosion had penetrated the Permian sediments. Post- Miocene uplifting of the Kosciusko Epoch then elevated the country between much wider limits than the earlier uplift, and the present topographical situation was subsequently pro- duced by erosion, leaving the high-level outliers of Permian to the east, and the low-level valley deposits around Mudgee. The thickness of the Permian on the eastern edge of the map is approximately 260 feet (in the vicinity of Cooyal) and it seems improbable that it would have been substantially thicker in the vicinity of Mudgee. It also seems improbable that the high ridges of older Palaeozoic rocks would have survived erosion if they had been exposed since the end of the Palaeozoic Era. In the cross-sections a hypo- thetical surface is shown representing the profile of the older Palaeozoic rocks at the time of deposition of the basal Permian beds. The 166 older rocks rise some 1,500 feet above the base of the Permian at present, and possibly 3,000 feet at the time of deposition of the Permian. In view of this, it seems highly probable that Permian coal measures, Triassic and even Jurassic sediments may have been deposited over the equivalents of the marine Capertee Group near Mudgee, filling up the valleys and producing a level surface of Mesozoic sediments. Beneath this cover Permian base- ment topography remained buried and protected from denudation. Tertiary uplifts and Pleistocene erosion have re-excavated and revealed the old surfaces. Now, some of our present-day streams flow through Permian valleys, possibly sculptured by glaciers, in which J. A. DULHUNTY AND*G] EH? PACKHAM were embedded the morainic materials found — to-day in the boulders and erratics of the basal Permian beds. : References Davip, T. W. E. (Ed. Browne, W. ), 1950. - Tig Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Edward Arnold & Co., London. DULHUNTY, J. A., 1940. J. sPyoce oye ace: Ss. a 74, 88. Jones, L. J., 1925. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Ann. Rept., 129. JONES, L. J., 1936. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Ann. Rept., 86. KENNY, E. J., 1928. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., Rept. 19% Meeting, 99. PackHaMm, G. H., 1961. (In press.) J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.Wq (Received 28 June, 1961) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 167-178, 1962 Further Notes on Assemblages of Graptolites in New South Wales KATHLEEN SHERRARD 43 Robertson Road, Centennial Park, N.S.W. ABSTRACT—The paper commences with a summary of the characteristic graptolitic succession (or graptolite zones) so far recognised in New South Wales. several of these zones are known to occur in slates with a remarkably high silica percentage. Evidence is given that the graptolites of Since a considerable period of time must have elapsed between the first and the last zone, the high silica percentage of the slates cannot be due to a single outpouring of volcanic ash. Several graptolites, including a new variety, are described. ‘The significance of an appendage on a Climacograptus is discussed. cases arranged in tabular form. New collections are allotted to graptolite zones and in two In the light of collections which have become available for descrip- tion since my previous paper (Sherrard, 1954), adjustments have been made to some of the previous allotments to graptolite zones. age was unknown before. preservation did not permit photographing. Introduction and Acknowledgements Since the publication of “‘ The Assemblages of Graptolites in New South Wales ” (Sherrard, 1954) I have had the opportunity of examining further collections of graptolites made by officers of the Geological Survey and other workers. In a number of cases these collections are from new localities for these fossils, while in others, larger collections enabling precise zoning have been made from localities from which only a few specimens had previously been known. In the succession of assemblages of graptolites so far found in New South Wales neither the lowermost nor the uppermost graptolite zone of the Ordovician as known in other parts of the world has as yet been recorded in this State, though zones in the Llandeilo and Caradoc are well represented. In the Silurian, though the presence of only a few zones has been proved so far, new discoveries of Silurian graptolites recorded in this paper are of particular importance since they demon- Strate the Silurian age of sedimentary rocks previously thought to belong to different systems, while on the other hand, Ordovician graptolites discovered recently at Parkes disprove in part the Silurian age previously assigned to rocks there. Apart from the beds at Narrandera with Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus, the oldest Ordo- vician graptolite-bearing slates so far known in the State belong to the zone of Nemagraptus pertenmis. It is characterised by small diplo- graptids such as Glyptograptus teretiusculus, Ovthograptus whitfieldi and Amplexograptus. In some cases the new graptolte discoveries are from rocks whose Illustrations are by photograph or by camera lucida drawing where Small dicranograptids are found, while the zone fossil and Retiograptus geinitzianus occur less commonly. Dendroids are also known. In the succeeding zone of Climacograptus peltifer, what could be called a “burst” of Climacograptus bicornis and its allies usually appears. They are generally not large and are accompanied by a wealth of small dicellograptids, dicranograptids, lasiograptids and Cryto- graptus tricornis. Corynoides sp. though so common in Europe and America at about this horizon has been found at one locality only. The next zone, that of Climacograptus wilsont, is marked by a profusion of diplograptids, all very much larger than those seen earlier. Climacograptids predominate in collections so far made and a large Dicranograptus nicholsont sometimes occurs with them. The zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus nebula is widely represented. Species of Dicellograptus and Dicranograptus, usually fairly large, are especially common as they are in the zone of Dicranograptus clingant in Britain. Since that species has not been recognized so far in New South Wales, its name is not used for the zone. Orthograptus cal- cavatus and its varieties are very common. Climacograptus bicormis is still found. Lepto- graptus flaccidus occurs for the first time and delicate Retiolitidae appear in force, especially Plegmatograptus nebula. In the highest zone of the Ordovician so far recognised with certainty in New South Wales, Orthograptus quadrimucronatus is very widespread but the other zone fossil, Pleuro- graptus linearis, rather rare. Climacograptus 168 tubuliferus is frequently found and Orthograptus truncatus pauperatus occurs while some of the Retiolitidae survive. In the lowest Silurian zone recognised so far in the State, that of Monograptus gregarius, very small diplograptids survive, accompanying early forms of monograptids including as well as the zone fossil, species of Rastrites with their characteristic isolated thecae. In the succeeding zone of Monograptus crispus, near the top of the Llandovery, the diplograptids have gone and the monograptids which are found show more advanced develop- ment such as hooked thecae. Above this in the Wenlock the cladia-bearing cyrtograptids appear accompanying Mono- graptus priodon, in the zone of Cyrtograptus insectus. Beds with the very distinctive Monograptus testis and its variety, tmornatus, and varieties of Monograptus flemingi mark the highest zone of the Wenlock, that of Monograptus testis. The zone of Monograptus nilssoni of Lower Ludlow age has been recognised. It contains abundant Monograptus bohemicus as well as monograptids which have reverted to thecae of simple type developed on a straight stipe. The highest zone so far found, that of Mono- graptus scanicus, contains little else but occasional small specimens of Monograptus salweyt. Acknowledgements Professor C. E. Marshall has kindly allowed me to work at the Department of Geology and Geophysics of the University of Sydney, and I also wish to thank Miss F. M. Quodling of that University for help. Mr, He Os Pletcher, Deputy Director of the Australian Museum, Mr. H. F. Whitworth, Curator of the Mining Museum, and Mr. T. J. O’Brien of the Water Board have been good enough to allow me to study specimens in their care. I am also indebted to Dr. N. C. Stevens, Mr. A. Miller, Mr. D. Maggs and Mr. A. Mangunwidjojo who have lent me specimens for study, and to my son, W. O. Sherrard, for help with photo- graphy, Origin of Black Graptolite Slate In New South Wales as well as elsewhere, Ordovician graptolites occur most commonly in black slates. Joplin noticed this association while making a detailed study of Ordovician rocks (1945). She analysed chemically eleven graptolite-bearing slates from New South Wales KATHLEEN SHERRARD and found that these contained a percentage of — silica varying between 77 and 87, whereas the average slate contains about 60 per cent (Clarke, ~ 1916). She concluded that this remarkably high — percentage of silica must be due to the fact that the slates consist of deposits of volcanic ash or dust. She pictured “ large volumes of volcanic ash. . .suddenly poured on the masses of plankton floating. . . in a geosyncline ’”’. Later Opik (1958) stated that all slates in the southern half of the area “shown on Joplin’s map (of New South Wales). ..contain the same fauna. . . It may be concluded that all the occurrences mentioned by Joplin are remnants of an extended blanket of a single deposit.” I have examined graptolites from nine of the eleven slates analysed by Joplin. I cannot agree that the deposits were formed at one time, nor do I agree with Opik (op. cit., p. 18) that “the same fauna occur in a remnant of an extended blanket of a single deposit’ (my italics). As shown in my paper of 1954, the graptolites in the slates analysed by Joplin belong to four different zones of the Ordovician ranging from the zone of Climacograptus peltifer to that of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus. The time covered from the oldest to the youngest of these zones is considerable (Llandeilo and Caradoc). During that time there would need to have been at least four separate successive out- pourings of volcanic ash burying the sediments containing each successive suite of graptolites, if Joplin’s hypothesis is used to explain the high percentage of silica in each slate. It seems unnecessary to postulate a series of ash showers to account for the high silica percentage in the slates. Carozzi (1960, p. 339) points out that cherts, cherty sandstones and cherty shales may form under normal oceano- graphic conditions. While in some cases the silica is of biochemical origin, in others it is a primary precipitate of silica gel. “‘ Volcanism has been an additional factor but by no means an essential one.”’ Ordovician ARENIG Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus Graptolites of the oldest zone in the Ordo- vician recorded up to the present in New South Wales have been found only at Narrandera. Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus was made the zone fossil of this collection in my previous paper (Sherrard, 1954) and the zone was placed in the FURTHER NOTES ON ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN N.S.W. Arenig in conformity with Table VII of the Geology of Australia (David, ed. Browne, 1950) and with Elles (1937). Collecting since that paper’s publication has not added any different species. Admittedly T. quadribrachiatus has too long a range to serve satisfactorily as a zone fossil, but no other graptolite occurring there is any more restricted and the zone name of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus fulfils its required function in this case, that of indicating that this assemblage stands right apart from any other so far recorded from New South Wales. LLANDEILO Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis Graptolites have been known for many years from the neighbourhood of Junction Reefs in boulders from the Belubula River between Mandurama and Lyndhurst (Hall, 1900; Sherrard, 1954). Neither the early collection nor one made in 1959 was found im situ, but since the specimens were collected close to the headwaters of the river, they cannot have travelled far. Dzicranograptus tardiusculus, a new record for Australia, suggests the top of the zone. The new collection from Junction Reefs contains Dicranograptus tardiusculus Glyptograptus teretiusculus Amplexograptus arctus. Graptolite assemblages belonging to this zone were recorded (Sherrard, 1954) from about 12 miles west of Mandurama in the Malongulli Formation (Stevens, 1952). C. minimus (Carr.) a OX C. bicornis Hall die Ee VEC; C. peltifer Lapw. : x Orthograptus calcavatus Lapw.. Kins K O. calcaratus vulgatus Lapw. O. calcarvatus basilicus Lapw. O. truncatus Lapw. O. truncatus intermedius E. & W. O. pageanus Lapw. O. pageanus abnormispinosus iE. & W. cae x O. apiculatus E. “& W. Retiogvaptus yassensis Sherrard & Keble Ae ~ xxXxXXKXK XxX a PX, DO eee eee KO OS are ee x xX X cf. xX xX x x Plegmatograptus nebula E. & W. x a es P. nebula caudatus (T. S. Hall) x Glossograptus hincksit Hopk. .. xX Neurograptus margaritatus Lapw. X N. fibratus Lapw. ys ae x Cryptograptus tricornis Carr. .. V.C. x Key to Locality Numbers : 1. Junction of Stockyard Flat Creek and Little River, Par. Alexander, Co. Wellesley. 2. Portions 38 and 44, Par. Delegate and “‘ Ingram’s ’’, 5 miles from Delegate, Co. Wellesley. 3. Road material quarry, approximately 7-8 miles west of Bermagui and 7 miles east of Cobargo, Portion 176, Par. Bermaguee 4. Tolwong Mine, Shoalhaven River. Collection) 5. Larbert, Upper Shoalhaven River, 10 miles north- west of Braidwood. (Mining Museum 173 rather larger than R. nebula, was taken as identical with it by Miss Elles in her notes on Table A, facing page 41 of the Explanatory Notes (David, 1932). By that time Plegmatograptus nebula was well-established, but Dr. W. J. Harris and Dr. D. E. Thomas have pointed out (per- sonal communication) that Dr. T. S. Hall’s name, description and exquisite figure of Retiolites caudatus published in 1902 should give his specific name priority over Plegmato- graptus nebula Elles and Wood, 1908. The dimensions given by Hall for Retiolites caudatus would evidently cover the “larger and wider form which. . .may. . . be separated off as a distinct variety ’’ referred to and illustrated by Elles and Wood (1908, p. 341, pl. xxxiv, fig. 14D). Consequently this name is used for the wide variety from Glenfergus State Forest because of its correspondence in dimensions and general description. It should be said, however, that the form from Glenfergus, which is incomplete, may be without the virgula and virgella which are each prolonged 1:5cm. beyond the body of R. caudatus illustrated by T. S. Hall. ? Glyptograptus sinuatus, which has _ been doubtfully identified from the Parish of Montagu, adjacent to Glenfergus State Forest, is recorded from the Bolindian of Victoria (Thomas, 1960), though it does not occur below the Silurian in Britain. The finding near Parkes of graptolites belonging to this zone or the next above confirms the mapping by Andrews (1910) of rocks of Ordovician age in the immediate neighbourhood of the town. The shale containing Ordovician graptolites outcrops very sparingly and fossils were not found there until recently. Since Silurian fossils were well known from west of the town, workers after Andrews assigned a Silurian age to the whole Forbes-Parkes gold- bearing belt (David, 1950). It is now shown that both Ordovician and Silurian rocks occur. The finding of a lamellibranch, possibly a pterinoid, with the graptolites is of further interest. OTHER ORDOVICIAN OCCURRENCES Collections of graptolites of Ordovician age from other localities which have been examined are too poorly preserved for precise zoning but can all be provisionally assigned to the Caradoc. These include : 1. Carboona Gap, between Jingellic and Tumbarumba, 18 miles south-west of Tumbarumba Orthograptus pageanus Climacograptus ? caudatus or ? wilsont. 174 Diplograptids occur at each of the following localities : 2. Portion 145, Par. Coppabella, Co. Goulburn, 17 miles east of Holbrook and about 10 miles west of Carboona Gap. 3. Portions 34 and 35, Par. Ramsay, Co. Bourke. 4. Portion 29, Par. Jillett, Co. Bourke (eastern end) 5. Portion 27, Par. Flinders, Co. Beresford 6. Jingerangle State Forest, Par. Jingerangle, Co. Bland 7. Gibber Trig., Par. Jingerangle, Co. Bland 8. Portions’ 52, and 63.) Par: Umarallayy Co: Beresford 9. In addition to these, a soft, partly bleached shale outcropping near Bateman’s Bay at Surf (Ocean) Beach, south of the mouth of the Clyde River may contain a ? graptolite of a ? retiolid character. Dr. A. A. Opik, who most kindly made this specimen, found by him, available for record, states that chert occurs immediately beneath the shale. KATHLEEN SHERRARD Silurian Graptolites of this age have been found in two localities which were previously unknown as © graptolite-bearing, nor were they known to be of Silurian age. A third example is from a locality already mapped as Silurian (Joplin, 1952). LowER LLANDOVERY Zone of Monograptus gregarius An assemblage kindly put at my disposal by Dr. N. C. Stevens contains besides the type form a number of very narrow (one millimetre or less) diplograptids. The assemblage is : Monograptus gregarius (common) M. atavus M. cf. triangulatus triangulatus Glyptograptus tamariscus Climacograptus innotatus ? Dimorphograptus erectus. This assemblage from The Glen, Canomodine, about 5 miles south of Cargo, proves definitely the Silurian age of the Millambri Formation TABLE II Localities in Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis Form Leptograptus flaccidus Hall Pleurograptus linearis Carr. Dicellogvraptus morrisi es D. elegans Carr. . D. pumilus Lapw. 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Se, (Belton) Hon. Treasurer beh 4 ala ) LN: 8 ADAMSON, BiSc. | - ah i : kay Members of Council a a NA ia BROWNE, Bisentyye4e 7] YY PSs. “MURRAY, D.Sc, Facade AL G. FYNN, B 'Sc., S.J. W. H. G. rile yea perabetY BScae. N. A. GIBSON, Ph.D. M.Sc. ke OG. TAL ISLADE,! Bison ii) Bo J. W. HUMPHRIES, B.se. is Mt W. B. SMITH-WHITE, M.A. H. LOW, Ph.p., Misc. ° Re N. W. WEST, B.Sc, Ae ay A ; { : WA Wd ; ’ 4 [oh | SLUR Noierots e S00 NN Sar a aa | phe Reval Society of New South Wales bieelae in 1821 as. ihe, ri ‘Philosophical sectey- of Australasia *’ ; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name ofthe — ** Australian Philosophical Society *’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was a changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’’. In 1866, by the sanction of ‘Her — uh ‘Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its perry title, and was buena ei tee: Act of Parliament of New Boye Wales in et pares “ed Sate yA thy . ie ab ‘ a : é hy er vs th, i Wes 8 et YA, ‘ i" ty Nail AW pO a t : ta ; r 4 Pe ed FA ; \ eh h { * } / \ ) f ‘. : bf ’ \ Ef i J et i t } { ¥ id ¥ + f ¢ d Ss a ; i Z 438 ‘ 8 LPS at f Rs 5 ; < zy f fs ? ‘ a ‘ ts i i f 4 3 bade Ui Nt f \ : 7 nd = 2 bey) \it \ Sy u : ; } ofa 2 ; t yy) Sekt Ys F Le eee = } Be fo ) ry « rey WARP Ww ' j Te AP 4, Phu ie (' ™, a Aes # fk ( j earn Tah \ f pth ik y Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 179-187, 1962 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory During 1959 and 1960 W. H. ROBERTSON Sydney Observatory, Sydney The programme of precise observations of selected minor planets which was begun in 1955 is being continued and the results for 1959 and 1960 are given here. The methods of observa- tion and reduction were described in the first paper (Robertson 1958). All the plates were taken with the 9-inch camera by Taylor, Taylor and Hobson (scale 116” to the millimetre). Four exposures were made on each plate. For the plates of 4 Vesta a coarse wire grating was placed in front of the lens giving first order spectra which are 2-3 magnitudes fainter than the central image and displaced 0:32 mm from it in an east-west direction. The spectra were measured for the planet and the central image for the stars. In Table I are given the means for all four ‘images for the separate groups of stars at the ‘mean of the times. The differences between the results average 08-023 sec § in right ascension and 0”-34 in declination. This corresponds to probable errors for the mean of the two results from one plate of 08-010 sec § and 0”-14. The result from the first two exposures was compared movement computed from the ephemeris. The means of the differences were 08-011 sec 3 in right ascension and 0”-12 in declination. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but the factors give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. In accordance with the recommendation of Commission 20 of the International Astronomical Union, Table II gives for each observation the positions of the reference stars and_ the dependences. The columns headed ~“ KA; ~ and “ Dec.”’ give the seconds of time and arc with proper motion correction applied to bring the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate. The column headed “ Star”’ gives the number from the Yale Catalogue (Vols. 11, 12 /, 12 I, 137, 18/7, 14, 16). The majority of the plates were measured by Miss W. Bellamy, Miss J. Hawkes, Mrs. Y. Lake and Mrs. M. Wilson, who have also assisted in the reductions. Reference ROBERTSON, W. H., 1958. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.., with that from the last. two by adding the 92, 18; Sydney Observatory Papers 33. TABLE I R.A. Dec. Parailasx (1950: 0) (1950-0) Factors h m S fe} ‘4 a S “/ 1 Ceres 1959 U.T. 241 Apr. 6- 69827 15 49 28-110 —10 25 56-10 —0-006 —3:47 S 242 Apr. 6-69827 15 49 28-101 —10 25 56-22 243 Apr. 2265873 15 40 55-099 —10 10 40-66 +0:-025 —3-50 R 244 Apr. 22-65873 15 40 55-135 —10 10 40-26 245 Apr. 30: 63791 15 34 39-398 —10 03 58-43 +0:042 —3-52 R 246 Apr. 30: 63791 15 34 39-452 —10 03 58:33 247 May 28-53455 15 09 33-560 —10 07 23-36 +0-012 —3-51 R 248 May 28-53455 15 09 33-543 —10 07 23-53 249 June 11-50622 14 59 46:114 —10 34 08-05 +0:064 —3:-46 S 250 June 11-50622 14 59 46-146 —10 34 07-96 251 June 19-46182 14 56 03-650 —10 57 57-38 +0:-002 —3-39 S 252 June 19- 46182 14 56 03-660 —10 57 57-81 253 July 1-42637 14 53 23-030 —ll 44 42-74 0-000 —3:28 R 254 July 1.42637 14 53 23-060 —ll 44 42-88 255 July 2-42210 14 53 19-229 —1l1 49 08-65 —0:005 —3-27 W 256 July 2-42210 14 53 19-264 —ll1 49 08-26 7 SMITHSONIAN ai ny 4 4OR4 Dd aie INCTITHTION °* 180 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284. 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 41703 41703 38937 38937 36995 36995 36334 36334 - 34975 -34975 -35473 - 35473 72237 72237 70017 70017 68017 68017 67195 67195 63372 63372 61875 61875 60725 60725 57151 57151 54982 54982 50879 -50879 46863 -46863 42541 42541 43308 43308 41737 41737 39796 39796 38781 38781 68164 68164 - 65437 -65437 64370 64370 61550 61550 60941 60941 49786 July 10: July 10- July 22: July 22: July 27° July 27 July 31- July 31- Aug. 4 Aug. + Aug. 5 Aug. 5 39 Laetitia 1959 7UrEr. June 18: June 18- June 25° June 25: July 2° July 7a July 9- July we July 22: July 22° July 23° July 23° July 27: July 27° Aug. 4- Aug. 4. Aug. 13: Aug. 13- Aug. 21° Aug. 21 SED: 1l- Sep. 1] Sep. 23: Sep. 23° Sep. 28- Sep: 28- Sep. 30- Sep. 30- Oct. Us Oct: fe Oct. 13: Oct. 13: 40 Harmonia 1959 Ua May 28: May 28: June 11 June 11 June 17: June 17: June 18: June 18- June 25: June 25° July 27° July oil 49786 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued h 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 15 R.A. (1950-0) m 53 53 57 57 59 59 01 01 04 04 04 04 iS) 41- 41- 02- 02- 20: 20: 32: 32: 02- 02- 43- 43° 609 616 392 400 386 386 502 474 694 676 426 382 -508 -499 - 282 -302 -010 -006 -084 -090 -156 - 166 -628 -606 -858 - 869 -616 -588 -652 -636 -467 -448 -742 -768 -788 -786 -130 -134 -876 -844 -070 -057 -088 -076 -176 -048 -618 -660 -028 -068 -036 -056 -443 -416 - 964 -934 —12 27 27-66 —12 27 —13 32 —13 —14 —14 —14 —14 —14 —14 —14 —14 eoomonmotat aaa ta~ Py —_ oo 32 Ol 01 26 26 50 50 57 57 27: 36: 36: 52: 53° 04- 04: 48- 48- 06- 06- 64 24 22 78 02 85 88 57 27 79 38 Ss +0 Parallax Factors -047 Be 18 +0-056 —3-03 +0: +0: +0: +0: 033 041 028 051 -001 -007 -006 °034 -042 -006 ‘O11 “O19 -005 -043 -031 -003 -063 -029 -021 -033 -030 -026 -058 -025 -035 -025 -96 -90 -84 -83 *59 SS PO eae SO OT a i Os eit OO te Re ee MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING TABLE I—continued 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Sep: Seo. 1 Ceres 1960 U.T. May May June June June June June June July July July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Dep: Sep. Sep. Sep. Sep: Sep. Oct! Oct: Oct; Oct. 4 Vesta 1960 U.T. Apr. Apr. May May May May May May June June June June June June July July 31 31 7 7 115) 15 23° 23° Avs 4. iS: 18- 27 27 9 9 30: 30- 31- 31 7. 7 15- 15- 23° 23° Ais 4. -47894 -47894 -47234 -47234 -41140 -41140 -37031 -37031 - 80042 - 80042 ‘78751 - 78751 78304 - 78304 75564 75564 73010 73010 67691 67691 -63939 -63939 -61888 -61888 - 60242 - 60242 -§8273 - 58273 - 54924 - 54924 -53077 -53077 -49178 -49178 -45049 -45049 »42239 »42239 -38831 -38831 -77458 -77458 -75183 -75183 69648 69648 68923 - 68923 66138 -66138 65862 65862 61815 61815 58697 58697 h 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 R.A. (1950-0) m 06 06 04 04 02 02 18 18 12 12 16 16 19 19 20 20 20 20 16 16 06 06 02 02 55 55 50 50 44 +4 39 39 30 30 27 27 26 26 30 30 03 03 10 10 10 10 10 10 07 07 Ol Ol 54 54 43 43 S) 48- 48- 00- 00- 33° 33° 32: 32: ile 2a 09- 09- Ll: li- 52: 52: 46- 46: 3l- 31- 31: 31: 33° 33° 43> 43° 28: 28: 30- 30: Ol: Ol 04- 04- 21- 218 15- LD: 29: 2a )B 32: 32: 10- 10: 45> 45- 24- 24: O7- OT 33° 33° 32° 32: 33° 33° 750 718 783 796 341 316 946 918 —24 —24 —25 —25 —25 —25 —25 —25 Dec. (1950-0) 57 57 08 08 27 27 45 45 46 46 00 00 23 23 55 55 53 53 24 24 17 Ly 50 50 39 39 10 10 38 38 57 57 07 07 57 57 40 40 08 08 32 32 41 4] 32 32 36 36 04 04 43 43 26 26 28 28 1959 AND 1960 Parallax Factors S yy 53-23 —0:018 —1:33 5S 54-42 04:00 +0:022 —1:31 R 04-70 53°54 —0:042 —1:27 § 53:52 53°56 +0-:031 —1-22 W 53:29 39-81 —0:042 —1:98 W 40-25 22°23 —0:-0380 —1-:94 R 22-56 55-47 +0:020 —1-88 S 55-70 59-48 —0:002 —1:80 W 59-67 28-52 +0:013 —1-:66 §S 29-13 14-05 —0:027 —1-43 R 13-93 29-27 +0:017 —1:14 W 29-71 58-34 +0:003 —1:05 R 58-11 31-89 +0:041 —0:94 S 32-63 12:74 +0:039 —0:86 W 13-20 21-85 +0:004 —0:78 R 21-40 32-60 +0:019 —0:73 32-40 47-20 +0:048 —0:72 R 47-60 17-65 —0:014 —0:-73 R 18-08 14-70 —0-042 —0-78 S 13-64 15-68 +0:038 —1:02 W 15-04 47-39 —0-002 —2:30 R 47-86 35:56 +0°015 —2-:28 W 35°49 20-03 +0:-021 —2-15 W 20-20 00-32 +0:007 —2:-14 W 00-41 54:06 —0:014 —2:07 R 53°78 50-70 +0-061 —1:99 S 51-42 55-44 +0:-016 —1:87 W 55-62 38-00 +0:-037 —1:72 S 37°78 181 182 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued July 18-52088 July 18-52088 July 27-50784 July 27-50784 Aug. 3-47022 Aug. 3°47022 Aug. 11- 46628 Aug. 11-46628 Aug. 16- 44435 Aug. 16-44435 Aug. 22-43267 Aug. 22+ 43267 Sep: 1-40562 Sep. 1- 40562 Sep. 6-39196 Sep. 6-39196 18 Melpomene 1960 U.T. May 4-78435 May 4-78435 May 10-77865 May 10-77865 May 31-73177 May 31-73177 June 7-71262 June 7° 71262 June 15-68612 June 15-68612 June 23 - 68276 June 23 - 68276 July 4-65082 July 4- 65082 July 18-59706 July 18-59706 July 27-56678 July 27- 56678 Aug. 3- 55084 Aug. 3° 55084 Aug. 8-53700 Aug. 8- 53700 Aug. 16-52288 Aug. 16-52288 Aug. 22-49350 Aug. 22 - 49350 Dep: 1- 45367 Sep: 1 - 45367 Sep: 6-44477 Sep: 6-44477 Oct: 5-38979 Oct: 5:38979 Oct; 11-38189 Oct: 11-38189 15 S Parallax Factors -025 —1- -029 —1- 026 —1- 038 —1 O11 —l- 025 —l1- 015 —1- 007 —1- 058 —3- 036 —3- 028 —3- 033 —3- 049 —3- 012 —3:- 018 —3:- 007 —3:- 007 —3: 017 —38- 026 —3- 064 —2- 030 —2- 004 —2 012 —2: 050 —2.- 062 —2 ag St) et ee a ee ig Be fate ay 2 ee SP, ee eee iy ats Bees ee OP MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1959 AND 1960 = 183 TABLE: PI No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. Ss 4 S Z 241 5500 0-376024 28-089 49-09 262 5230 0- 290498 52-625 11-19 5527 0- 198688 46-150 02-86 5274 0-331746 43-103 patria: 5525 0-425288 13-581 15:83 5553 0-377756 27-251 10:84 242 5518 0- 208605 31-693 07-54 263 5242 0-23968E 30-730 33°91 5505 0-274173 13-324 25-94 5298 0-313613 16-670 34-32 5517 0-517142 54-734 33°05 5553 0-446701 DT 251 10-84 243 5470 0-184813 00-992 27:80 264 5536 0-382510 09-172 44-22 5496 0- 364222 35-127 22-69 5572 0- 283802 38-796 29-45 5477 0- 450966 21-802 19-86 5279 0- 333688 46-836 27-81 244 5468 0- 180254 48-896 26°16 265 5545 0-336034 52-476 16-47 5494 0- 248884 05-139 59-65 5576 0:-327116 12-211 05-78 5480 0-570862 16-328 20-48 5581 0: 336850 05-517 01-32 245 5424 0- 256310 34-307 10°54 266 5553 0- 144825 27-251 10-84 5463 0-412350 47-779 24-16 5570 0- 488090 21-544 35°99 5457 0-331340 41-321 16:91 5572 0-367085 38-796 29-45 246 5423 0-306924 27-643 45-12 267 5553 0- 186323 27-251 10:84 5458 0- 276782 52-192 07-16 5570 0- 482240 21-544 35°99 5470 0-416294 00-992 27-80 5581 0:-331437 05-517 01-32 247 5286 0-190293 33°507 54°35 268 5545 0-312368 52-476 16°47 5318 0-336913 15-136 26-52 5566 0-256112 49-937 51-12 5324 0-472794 46-466 40-43 5588 0:431520 45°392 17-85 248 5297 0-375498 52-849 12:86 269 7584 0: 428663 07-858 28-82 5312 0-366945 37-018 59-38 7604 0-308578 11-427 03°98 5346 0- 257558 49-140 04-91 7634 0- 262760 37-305 03°91 249 5255 0- 260372 10-751 56:40 270 7590 0-287729 03-253 26-00 5271 0-380672 10-803 26-98 7591 0- 393854 23-345 20:91 5267 0-358956 08-981 47-80 7629 0-318416 52-901 16-63 250 5252 0: 492026 57-122 04-29 271 7584 0:312214 07-858 28-82 5275 0- 140294 56-541 13-97 7593 0-370378 45-717 47-20 5278 0-367680 42-725 09:08 7619 0-317408 20-407 37°05 251 5240 0- 290386 21-351 32°95. 272 7590 0: 335466 03-253 26-00 5246 0- 426154 48-852 58-42 7591 0- 282832 23-345 20:91 5254 0- 283460 09-211 30-39 7614 0-381702 17-976 52-02 252 5235 0- 346364 19-322 23-92 273 7571 0- 252464 16-109 48:06 5252 0- 406249 iniyfce] BAY) 04-30 7580 0- 426503 06-887 16°55 5253 0- 247387 01-702 41-09 7614 0- 321034 17-976 52-02 253 5211 0- 285078 38-190 06-47 274 7564 0- 274924 38-225 01-54 5223 0-378514 57-982 34-70 7573 0-350888 D335 15:93 5253 0-336408 01-702 41-09 7615 0-374187 42-152 34-20 254 5212 0-343950 44-630 57:48 275 7550 0-367630 28-695 48-06 5236 0-388960 29-249 35°21 7563 0-399474 35-015 29-43 5249 0- 267089 28-756 26-08 7590 0- 232896 03-253 26-00 255 5211 0-257387 38-190 06:47 276 7559 0: 351368 03-844 42-15 5223 0-444516 57-982 34-70 7566 0-299805 49-603 03:86 5253 0- 298096 01-702 41-09 7568 0-348827 59-850 22-83 256 5214 0-314924 09-444 45°69 277 7502 0- 367044 52-786 06-25 5235 0-497388 19-322 23-92 7522 0- 272028 15-247 21-38 5247 0: 187688 58-334 08-12 7536 0- 360927 00-859 27-05 207 5214 0- 407806 09-445 45:69 278 7506 0- 266674 32-609 24°15 5229 0- 322209 42-664 12-58 7521 0- 408354 13-392 40:03 5265 0- 269985 00-732 18-89 7525 0-324972 39-982 25-00 258 5224 0-388972 02-795 15°33 279 7502 0-381276 52-786 06:26 5226 0: 405366 09-522 34°91 7520 0- 238808 12-197 37°69 5247 0- 205661 58-335 08-12 7521 0-379917 13-392 40°03 259 5224 0-399818 02-795 15°33 280 7490 0-410475 42-105 08-00 5274 0-260791 43-103 Qe (sae 0: 273746 15-247 21-38 5536 0-339391 09-172 44-292 7536 0-315779 00-859 27-05 260 5225 0: 361225 08-121 56-33 281 7473 0- 239950 47-523 24-83 5262 0-345433 43-011 34-75 7481 0- 360036 40-422 07°32 5545 0- 293342 52-476 16°47 7511 0- 400014 25-593 10-47 261 5242 0- 306546 30-730 33-91 282 7380 0-308706 23-604 40:00 5279 0-310979 46-837 27-81 7491 0-344123 47-037 00:40 5542 0-382474 36-457 30-34 7520 0:347171 12-197 37-69 184 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 Star 7357 7358 7382 7356 7370 7374 7310 7314 7343 7295 7326 7342 7264 7265 7304 7269 7278 7303 7685 7687 7705 7672 7703 7709 7676 7697 7708 7678 7685 ZTE 7678 7709 7714 7688 7701 7719 7678 7701 7719 7695 7697 7725 7708 7713 7748 7711 7724 7725 7732 7737 ES 7724 7757 7766 13188 13284 8056 13217 13257 8069 13110 13136 13185 Depend. SSS Se SOS SS SS SSS SIS SIO) SIS ISIS OS SIPS SISOS SSSI SSS PLS SLES SSS SSS -297313 - 270693 -431994 - 194584 -403706 -401710 -402901 - 305034 - 292066 -372651 - 278572 -348777 - 330280 - 250838 -418882 - 348656 -379126 -272217 - 366014 - 284632 -349354 -377268 »350947 - 266785 -325848 -378291 - 295861 - 308908 -421850 - 269242 - 392228 - 273848 -333924 -510856 - 183010 -306134 - 284611 242440 472949 - 353870 - 346048 - 300082 - 228516 -390733 -380751 -217755 -343416 -438829 - 279492 -412844 -307664 -365614 - 299010 - 335376 -274010 -350821 -375168 - 352252 - 279380 - 368369 -404095 - 268806 - 327099 53° W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I[J]—continued Dec. Ud 48- 12: 1H 44- O7- 35° 57: 23° 45: 44- M7 (3 *55 31 20 Zon 54: 06: 02- 21: 20: O7- 03- Sle De 38: 24- 46: 46- 49- 20- 13: 49- 38: 30: 23° 53° 38: 49- 53° 38: 53° 46: 04: -50 46 59° hi fis 13- 39° 04- 49- 15- 50: 39- 39- 13: 3t- 28° ‘Bl -73 03- 50- 13: 45: 33° 21 20 31 -24 21 61 66 29 51 72 84 45 22 25 56 47 84 Jb 60 09 44 50 49 22 ok 85 50 a4 61 61 44 22 14 81 54 07 44 54 O07 51 85 67 82 98 61 57 63 im 90 98 57 91 4] 34 95 93 59 27 06 61 35 No. 304 305 306 307 308 317 318 319 Star 13114 13134 13172 13042 13085 13086 13053 13057 13110 13039 13042 13090 13044 13057 13098 12942 12992 13005 12949 12959 13024 12510 12556 12598 12532 12541 12578 12485 12502 12578 12466 12510 12607 12456 12463 12532 12395 12497 12503 12369 12463 12472 12414 12432 12485 12690 12705 12737 12667 12728 12748 9438 9449 9474 9428 9456 9473 9450 9479 9483 9459 9478 9488 Depend. SroerorocicooeoooqoocoeooCcooecCcececo coe So Clo SoC So SC So OOS Soo Ooo Oo oo oO oo oS oo oo So oo Sc'1S - 275766 - 388882 - 335352 -312596 -305776 -381628 - 343654 - 28158) -374766 - 277964 - 293529 -428506 -407170 - 288962 - 303868 - 387378 -431721 - 180901 -483660 » 222566 - 293773 -486419 - 248312 - 265269 - 336764 - 358642 »304594 - 278026 - 343628 -378346 -349473 » 358876 - 291652 -315589 445128 - 239283 224058 -436882 - 339060 -219156 -499206 - 281639 - 299576 - 289805 -410619 - 264424 -493958 - 241618 - 358866 -355888 » 285245 - 351970 -314514 - 333516 265171 - 350697 384132 - 248349 -411410 -340241 - 308650 -355914 - 335436 ——— MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1959 AND 1960 185 TABLE IIl—continued No. Star Depend. Earns Dec: = 2 No: Star Depend. KA. Dec. S uw S w” 325 15192 0-279486 24-244 08-19 346 14108 0-501854 26-952 35-50 15212 0- 152949 31-423 04-59 14136 0-210842 52-790 24-74 9487 0-567564 57-785 12-06 14163 0- 287303 04-847 03-79 326 15169 0-378074 28-833 38:90 347 14071 0- 233468 33°331 10-61 15221 0-349070 53-021 11-87 14106 0-468400 10-862 48-58 9490 0-272855 38-101 27-72 14133 0-298132 35-236 43-73 327 9488 0- 255020 12-859 52-52 348 14092 0-242715 48-461 25°14 15201 0-483220 58-883 38-51 14094 0-340052 50-873 13-05 15233 0- 261760 07-033 53-39 14126 0- 417233 29-114 10-02 328 15173 0-283710 11-493 44-79 349 14075 0: 379320 49-842 20-06 15239 0-301457 04-503 32°81 14092 0-332443 48-460 25-14 9494 0-414833 01-015 13-03 14128 0- 288236 59-061 21-03 329 15196 0-365016 51-737 26-86 350 14074 0- 262285 45-855 45-96 15213 0-420606 36-634 41-02 14096 0-481542 54-522 41-60 15217 0-214378 21-447 23-42 14126 0- 256173 29-111 10-02 330 15184 0-329744 33-047 17-77 = 351 14122 0-439665 02-226 44-32 15208 0-297950 09-308 39-78 14132 0- 238808 14-555 50-51 15226 0-372306 18-310 49-45 14155 0-321526 39-632 20-67 331 15166 0-319550 45-293 29-62 352 14112 0: 268594 06-111 37-06 15180 0-475196 53-658 27-66 14146 0-322921 45-016 19-37 15194 0: 205254 27-532 05-35 14824 0- 408485 03-887 04-94 332 15152 0- 205008 31-075 22:90 353 7061 0-467818 52-049 39-39 15171 0: 442463 42-403 53°91 8076 0-303100 14-713 50°72 15200 0-352529 54-216 42-86 8138 0- 229083 40-439 44-73 333 15081 0-366152 16-264 01-91 354 8045 0-331591 13-626 59-47 15115 0-332045 48-451 07-25 8100 0-314458 16-642 32-89 15126 0-301804 02-218 22-19 7097 0- 353950 02-771 53°91 334 15084 0- 243760 25-429 10:10 355 8138 0: 420321 40-439 44-74 15118 0-497734 12-849 15-63 8139 0- 259887 49-358 25-33 14406 0- 258506 10-253 18-95 8184 0-319792 14-688 29-59 335 14365 0:327494 31-613 52°83 356 8105 0- 254158 48-389 00-59 14379 0- 232929 23-827 32-49 8166 0- 338684 27-848 19-80 14393 0-439577 08-761 58-30 8171 0:407157 49-256 50-49 336 14359 0-313221 50-328 32-38 357 8149 0-383972 41-424 48°75 14406 0-323184 10-253 18-95 . 8151 0- 259538 48-471 10°35 15066 0: 363595 40-065 35-75 8179 0- 356490 35-164 20-63 337 14318 0+ 254479 05-685 59:06 358 8139 0-366194 49-358 25°33 14320 0-466492 09-057 14-67 8171 0-257719 49-257 50-49 14359 0-279029 50°327 32-38 8173 0-376088 54-371 17-88 338 14313 0- 246410 30-350 30:39 359 8133 0: 448322 16-152 03-95 14324 0-447130 46-784 32°21 8171 0- 280528 49-257 50-49 14352 0-306461 54-435 43-60 8178 0-271149 29-644 30-13 339 14273 0-339494 11-547 23-96 360 8139 0- 401896 49-358 25°33 14290 0-345884 48-241 16-45 8179 0- 333256 35-165 20-63 14306 0-314622 33-673 27-56 8152 0- 264848 05-328 31-42 340 14279 0-310207 53°437 39°56 361 8108 0-432824 55-822 45-55 14282 0-448095 36-847 03-05 8123 0: 338642 53-556 57-55 14318 0-241698 05-685 59-06 8149 0- 228534 41-514 48-56 341 14228 0-420891 35-185 28-55 362 8100 0- 303652 16-622 32-56 14244 0-363612 22-518 00-38 8125 0- 341326 33-491 12-86 14275 0+ 215497 30-731 27-02 8133 0-355021 16-146 03-59 342 14229 0-444840 38-900 19-67 363 8024 0-220914 36-244 52-89 14248 0- 273464 47-788 59-05 8076 0-523108 14-649 50-16 14266 0: 281696 10-538 26-71 8091 0-255977 25-972 36-38 343 14176 0-323990 36-911 11-98 364 8038 0- 240600 08-252 30-28 14181 0-320421 33° 352 41-79 8067 0-508502 20-893 24-24 14244 0-355589 22-517 00-39 8100 0- 250898 16-623 32-56 344 14189 0-308052 29-918 14-01 365 13141 0-275408 52-883 04-56 14190 0: 403368 36-111 31-64 13225 0-356740 59-510 56°81 14229 0- 288580 38-902 19-67 7983 0-367852 13-922 17-74 345 14106 0-224974 10-862 48-58 366 7966 0-393350 39 +545 51-69 14121 0-441669 01-938 33-19 8042 0-195142 49-242 28-24 14160 0-333357 25-710 35°94 13191 0-411507 13-096 21-97 186 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE II]—continued No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. | 367 13010 0- 335962 22-345 09-50 388 7142 0- 284160 04-445 15-73 13082 0- 308414 39-628 32°52 7185 0- 484265 03-920 34-11 7873 0- 355625 03-890 32°27 7182 0- 231575 56-349 59-93 368 13000 0-337055 41-612 14-77 389 7271 0-375170 12-744 09-14 13074 0- 385008 10-659 24-32 7294 0- 264626 39-785 21-44 7872 0-277938 02-953 50-85 7313 0- 360203 21-986 09-95 369 12833 0- 349646 18-081 06-77 390 7282 0-430190 36-374 56-30 12871 0- 440582 32-014 47-15 7291 0- 275942 13-743 13-38 12912 0- 209772 20-294 07-70 7309 0- 293867 48-152 39-35 370 12824 0-418433 26-883 08-58 391 7298 0- 486238 41-901 24:41 12847 0- 241056 03-518 08-96 7309 0-278517 48-152 39-35 12929 0-340511 47-934 27-54 7314 0- 235245 29-365 17-9¢ 371 12749 0+ 275705 01-276 44-81 392 7291 0- 263288 13-743 13-38 12772 0- 325924 19-304 40-71 7299 0-367684 44-513 00-02 12808 0-398371 12-353 14-05 7327 0- 369028 40-658 30-71 372 12751 0-399774 26° 851 47°23 393 7291 0- 281508 13-743 13-48 12800 0-337053 14-458 02-86 7309 0- 383240 48-152 39-35 12802 0- 263173 40-572 26-65 7327 0- 335252 40-658 30-71 373 12717 0-410372 01-755 53:88 394 7282 0- 257742 36-374 56-30 12725 0- 288624 16-495 59-16 7307 0-431762 41-664 52°42 12776 0- 301004 34°588 16-25 7331 0-310496 17-727 27-18 374 12673 0-396372 58-012 54-53 395 7282 0- 283810 36°374 56-30 12772 0-394610 19-304 40-71 7291 0-384548 13-743 13-38 12774 0-209017 33-562 48-37 7313 0-331642 21-986 09-95 375 12651 0-366311 30-748 40-90 396 7274 0- 364431 24-786 04-98 12737 0- 289130 26-815 53-36 7294 0- 324272 39-785 21-44 12751 0- 344559 26-852 47-23 7327 0-311297 40-658 30-71 376 12655 0- 280283 55-940 05:09 397 7230 0-316734 41-650 04-56 12710 0-322774 52-369 36-38 7240 0- 300807 36-632 17-02 12749 0-396944 OMe2 44-81 7275 0-382459 34-408 36-9F 377 12674 0- 462359 02-877 36:99 398 7229 0- 338400 25-333 25-02 12737 0 - 223866 26-815 53-36 7258 0-473143 38-496 10-02 12749 0-313775 01-277 44-81 7270 0- 188457 09-018 38 - 26 378 12658 0- 322946 03-473 16:52 399 71131 0-325125 58-063 58-35 12667 0-277180 35-785 22-34 7167 0- 270830 00-030 02-43 12774 0- 399874 33-562 48-37 7139 0- 404045 11-059 34°31 379 12667 0+ 246837 35°785 22:34 400 7116 0- 298485 46-307 56-20 12748 0: 363331 03-187 29-81 7145 0-487358 35-900 38-84 12749 0-389832 01-277 44-81] 7199 0- 214157 12-080 36-91 380 12688 0- 295690 58-560 32-79 401 7062 0- 405496 39-199 43-45 12730 0-511406 48-302 51-62 7088 0- 279570 06-708 58-56 12774 0- 192903 33° 562 48-37 7092 0-314934 50-332 08-30 381 12737 0-317366 26-815 53°36 402 7071 0-439138 21-487 10-82 12802 0-316774 40-572 26-65 7086 0- 396272 45-628 34:42 12807 0- 365860 04-900 12-02 7096 0- 164590 22-516 17:99 382 12730 0-328594 48-302 51-62 403 7027 0- 320240 12-228 45:86 12789 0-409512 51-478 29-80 7029 0- 360266 18-106 07-62 12837 0- 261895 34-545 36-41 7061 0-319494 38-200 44-16 383 12789 0-314016 51-478 29-80 404 7036 0- 467058 52-165 06-23 12802 0-335012 40-572 26-65 7041 0- 256163 08 - 204 03-91 12887 0- 350972 43-803 58:63 7053 0: 276779 41-261 26-69 384 12774 0- 302890 33-562 48-37 405 6996 0- 216336 36-044 09-77 12868 0- 365408 31-246 37-82 7006 0-461635 44-869 44-48 12011 0-331702 53-450 26-89 7036 0- 322029 52-165 06-23 385 7100 0- 291340 27-057 34-34 406 6987 0- 300446 20-197 23-47 7134 0- 270766 24-840 09-24 7018 0- 263475 21-354 05-41 7145 0-437894 35-901 38-84 7024 0- 436080 06-875 17-39 386 7107 0- 202668 49-789 59°38 407 7442 0- 330489 44-929 26-25 7139 0- 232083 11-059 34-29 7460 0- 285390 18-570 50:26 7131 0-565249 58-064 58-35 7471 0-384121 38-775 08-83 387 7151 0- 233582 27-137 26-19 408 6952 0- 206323 37-349 34:33 7176 0-389754 11-833 37-82 7454 0-501146 25-480 12-45 7199 0-376663 12-080 36-91 7483 0- 292531 52-580 22-92 MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1959 AND 1960 187 TABLE II—continued Star Depend. Lee wel Deon, No: Star Depend. Ree Dec. S ‘f S s 7420 0-371022 32-369 14-61 414 7386 0-373677 04-540 02-73 7449 0- 285630 42-697 23-12 7444 0-276471 03-332 47-27 7451 0- 343348 10-954 44-03 8467 0- 349852 24-467 05-02 7428 0- 413678 33-260 04:80 415 8566 0-370026 50+ 747 51-80 7429 0-294778 46-669 12-69 8603 0- 263950 54-944 51-97 7461 0-291544 24-290 32-33 8580 0- 366024 48-011 47-16 7386 0- 284266 04-539 02-73 416 8552 0- 294355 44-631 06-68 7428 0-318222 33-260 04-80 8594 0: 447984 50-555 37:90 7434 0-397512 50-182 14-45 8588 0- 257661 58-567 48-37 7398 0-388929 56-494 03-18 417 8612 0-277510 53-869 17-63 7423 0-316983 58-706 Pa ee es 8625 0-366972 51-682 07-36 7449 0- 294088 42-698 23-11 8651 0-355518 41-904 40-26 8441 0- 278822 13-123 19-25 418 8607 0- 266868 33 +625 12-83 7414 0- 406438 14-890 06-48 8636 0-422714 25-841 16-55 7445 0-314741 07-749 16-32 8642 0-310419 20-032 17-55 (Received 19 September 1961) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 189-194, 1962 Conditions for Stability in Chain Reactions R. C. L. BoswortH AND C. M. GRODEN School of Chemistry (R.C.L.B.) and School of Mathematics (C.M.G.), University of New South Wales, Kensington, N.S.W. ABSTRACT—The conditions for stability in chain reactions in 1, 2 and 3 dimensions have been investigated. In each case a critical maximum size of the vessel has been found, beyond which no steady state is possible. 1. Introduction In a previous paper (Bosworth and Groden, 1960) the propagation of a chain mechanism through a reacting system with only first order initiation and termination processes was investigated in cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates approximating to the conditions in long cylindrical and spherical reactors respectively. In the following paper, conditions for the existence of the steady state are analysed and an important extension to a reactor in the form of a spherical shell fully investigated. 2. Steady State Conditions The propagation of a chain mechanism through a reacting system with only linear branching and rupture in the bulk phase is represented by the differential equation a= PEERNALD WANG 4..)...0hllM colle. 1... (1) where WN is the concentration of active centres ; A represents the total initial rate of formation of centres and is always positive ; BN is the net difference between linear branching and linear homogeneous termination ; the factor B accordingly can be positive, negative, or in exceptional cases zero ; D is the mean coefficient of diffusion of the centres through the reaction mixture and is always positive. Assuming circular and spherical symmetry respectively, the following results were obtained : (a) for a cylinder of radius R, where 7 is the distance from its axis, when B>0 (excess of branching over rupture in the volume) a a? ro(°r) a 2a "| wel 38) oe where ne =a- is 07, Dae Seinen 36: (2) =1 hy TR) (OO) IN J) and J, are Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero and order one respectively, and A, are the roots of the equation Be Oat) bere ee eta yee cary via Coy ocd. cudias (3) (Carslaw, 1948, pages 123/4) ; (b) for a sphere of radius R, where 7 is the distance from the origin, when B>O R sin (*,) sin k P a? d 2a2d2 1 & AL CN) a Ee * _.4\k —_ 7 4 — t [822 — 7] (7,2) 72 (° ) 1j+ 5 = (—1) pee O° .... (4) y sin qk where Ta 190 RK. C. L. BOSWORTH AND C. Me GRODEN If now t+ oo, it follows from (2) that a steady state exists only if the coefficient of (¢) in the exponent Is negative, ies, if a2 —}2>0 OT b n> ; | Since A,, the roots of the eqn. (3), form a sequence of increasing numbers, it is sufficient if b or zd {8 R as 1D) This is true if reas [E 6 ee Boo terete Sa ence Similarly, we find from eqns. (4) and (5) that a steady state exists only if ReuV D/B ea. eee (7) It appears, therefore, that for both vessels there exists for each reaction with B>0O a critical maximum size of the vessel beyond which no steady state is possible. It is very well known that gaseous systems involving chain mechanisms, such as those of hydrogen and oxygen or chlorine, will lead to an explosion at a critical pressure—or at a critical value of B for a fixed value of R. The theory, however, as at present given in this paper, goes further and states that the anticipated critical density at a fixed radius or critical radius at a fixed density will be different in spherical as compared to long cylindrical bodies in a fixed ratio of m to Aq and this is a matter which can and will be tested by experimental means. At present, experiments are being devised for the empirical determination of this critical value of & which then could be used for estimation of the constant B. 3. Concentration in a Spherical Shell Of some practical importance is the case in which reaction takes place in a spherical shell bounded by 2 concentric spheres of radi R, and R,>R,, respectively. The problem is to find a solution of equation (1) in spherical co-ordinates, subject to the boundary conditions (a) n=0 when ¢=0 (b) n=0 when 7=R Then (Vesela) 1). 1? 0o2-N 2 a0N 2 Weiss ayy or where 7 is the distance from the centre and Ri<7r0: ; 5 1 0M eM 20M : Ee eae 4s) a ee ee ee (12) The substitution i SEA reece) avy Oe eee Oe ee eee Tae (13) reduces (12) to the form 0 tuo te | mat ae Sg MPA ER NE et ha see Ae ee (14) Using the method of separation of variables ZU Oa 0s (Ne (ON Ra, hates ire 5 See Sas eh et a athe (15) we find that P(0,t) =a) cos p+ Bysin e+ BU e~*“ke-M(a, cos r,0+0, sin Ap) .... (16) k=1 where a, %», A,, and a, and b, are constant to be determined from the boundary conditions. Thus, we have that 1 ; A i oe 2(} 2 E ae oreo unae el ay, Bee Fa cos Ago tb, sin Axe) 2. (17) If now <=0, N=0 and the last equation yields the result Xp —(% cos p+, sin ep) = = Gj COS N64-U; SIM A;O° ins Bhan es (18) which is possible only if a, and 0b, are coefficients of the half range Fourier series of the function F(t cos p+) sin ep) in the half range Py1. This last condition yields in view of (19) the result that PoP ict or 7 R,-Rcn |p See ere ae ee (21) In this case we find that Bogie singh sin dy 0 j5)|| | ec eer en a I Me ee ea eth Pama aia We wee as (22) Q para COS a, COse es sin (P,— P,) ‘| 192 Rk. C. L,. BOSWORTH AND C. M. GRODEN so that finally N(o,2) =— = P,sin (P,—e)+P, sin (e—P,) =i Blo sin (P,—P,) es 3 oF Oe—De (a, cos },0-++-5, Sin A,0) . |. ee (23) For P,—P,<7 the steady state solution is given by the first term of the above equation : VA By sin Oa ot ee N(o,t) 15 |} am (P, ap ) hr eee (24) which has its peak value at the distance p from the centre where 9 is the solution of the equation ; o=tan(o—o) ws. bos Sa (25) with P, sin’ P,— 2, sin P Gaal | So eee a o=tan ie ee a a =| ee sc (26) Equation (25) can be solved graphically or by numerical methods. When P,;=1 and P,=2, we find that o—0-43, and o=1:5 approximately, 1e., near the middle. For P,=1 and P,—3; o—0-74 and o—1-3 approxmately, If B<0 we have to replace 6? by (—0?) in all our equations and we find that A Py sinh (Pye, sink (oe | come Bi ih (P,P) | (7) ts Se Papa (a, cos A,e +5, sin A,0) k=1 Here, as too, steady state always exists and is given by the first term of equation (27). In the limiting case where R,—>0, R,=R, equations (23) and (27) give the same results as those obtained directly in the case of a spherical vessel. Reaction between concentric spherical shells exhibit the same characteristics as those in spherical bodies ; namely, that if the rate of chain branching exceeds the rate of chain termination there is a certain limiting critical size defined by the difference between the internal and external radii beyond which it is impossible to obtain a steady state solution. If the rate of termination exceeds the rate of branching, the process is stable in vessels of all SIZeS. Under steady state conditions, if obtainable, there is a certain region of the annular vessel in which there occurs the highest concentration of active centres. For vessels in which the external radius is about twice the internal radius, this occurs approximately midway between the two shells. The centre of maximum density, however, moves inwards as the internal radius is made progressively smaller. 4. Concentration between Parallel Plates To complete the theory, the case of reaction in one dimension (between 2 parallel plates, the distance 2c apart) was also investigated. If x is the distance, measured from the centre (—c 0: ort b A ING 3c 1) oe sIm (72 +B, cos a) ay + 2 eW (PA —OM “(q,cos A, Lb, Sin. ,f) ; 5:2 eee (28) CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY IN CHAIN REACTIONS 193: where and a,, 0, are coefficients of an appropriate sine and cosine Fourier series in the interval (—c, c). Here, the steady state exists only if, again, d2n2 _}2>0 which is satisfied if a condition identical with that for a sphere. Then the steady state solution is given by the expression If B<0, steady state always exists. 5. Appendix (Expansion in a half range sine Fourier series in the interval P,—P,) In order to expand the function A Fe) = Be —% cos p—f) sin p=k,o +k, cosp+thssino .......... (32) in a half range sine Fourier series in the interval P;

2(x) =,(* +2.) 4g cos (F+P,] +h, sin (F+2,) Xx ; x =A)x+By)+C, cos (*) +D, sin @ We expand g(x) in a half range sine series in the interval (0, 7) P= MC Vem Ga\" Aes aae cee dies (35) where n=1 Jelie ; Oa | EAB SIO 1/2.90 2 Cae MANOR Og OR SOT Ear Sara (36) Therefore i oe) > C, sin nx H=1 Bet ot oe 194 R. C. L. BOSWORTH AND C. M. GRODEN Or co f(e)= = C, sin n(ap—AP)) na — = ¥ a, COS (NAp) +5, sin (nA) =1 or f(e)= & a, cos A,p-+0, SIN A,0 (2...) . - Seer (37) n=1 where TT In ooh alts Spe w— ) (38) and oC, singers) CpG. - cos aie \ Pe Er ereCericetr ts o 4 Sl oniHo. Go (39) 6. References Bosworth, R. C. L., AND GropEN, C. M., 1960. Kinetics of Chain Reactions. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, 99-108. CarsLaw, H. S., AND JAEGER, J. C., 1948. ‘‘ Operational Methods in Applied Mathematics ’’, Appendix II, Oxford University Press. (Received 14 September 1961) een Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 195-196, 1962 A Note on Selective Fracturing in Vitrain R. G. BuRDON 1 Mutch Avenue, Brighton-le-Sands, N.S.W. Apstract—The regularity of the fracturing of the vitrain bands of some Bulli seam coal was observed. Reference is made to the importance of this fracturing with respect to dust formation and selective concentration. Observations on selective fracturing in vitrain of the Bulli seam were made at a Colliery on the South Coast of New South Wales. The Bulli seam which is at the top of the Upper coal measures is overlain by sandstone, the cover at the area investigated varies from 100 to 1400 feet. The floor is shale and sandstone, and the average seam thickness is six feet six inches. The area is subjected to faults, is intruded by dykes and affected by rolls, elongated sub- parallel ridges in the floor reaching almost to the roof. Slickensides occur, possibly due to differ- ential compaction. At the Colliery investigated, the bord and pillar method of mining is practised, continuous miners being used. The coal is ortho-bituminous. Examination of pillar samples showed 18-9 per cent vitrain, 80:8 per cent claro-durain and 0-3 per cent shale. The vitrain is composed almost entirely of vitrinite and contains a small proportion of spores and fine mineral matter. The bands of Vitrain vary in thickness from 7; to 4 inch. The bands of clarain contain macro and micro spores, cuticles and heterogenously dis- seminated mineral matter, with shreds of vitrite. Fusinite occurs as small blebs and although a few large sections were observed the total quantity is small. All mineral matter appeared as free, fine grains, no sulphides or precipitated salts were observed. The vitrain bands are very fractured and this is associated with the observed tendency of the coal to breakage, producing much fine material. The fine coal from this seam is therefore rich in bright coal constituents, indicating the possibility of selective concentration. It was possible to obtain samples of each coal con- stituent and their compositions are compared with a dust sample from the mine (Table I). These results and a maceral analysis of the dust indicated that vitrain forms an important percentage of the mine dust. B Further examination showed that the vitrain is so fractured that when the large coal is broken a high proportion of vitrain is liberated as fines and dust, while the remainder is firmly adherent to the adjacent clarain; but exhibits a prominent cleavage most pronounced in one direction and less so in another direction at approximately 70° to the first (see Plate I). An examination of polished sections clearly showed the fracture patterns in the vitrain (Plate I). This phenomenon was not apparent in the other coal constituents. TABLE I Comparison of the composition of the dust with the coal constituents of the seam Per cent (air dried basis) Fixed Moisture Volatile Carbon Ash Mine dust 2-0 24°5 62-1 11-3 Fusain 0-4 0-4 88:8 10-4 Clarain 2 17-0 68-9 12-8 Vitrain 1-2 25°4 71:8 1:5 A survey of the mine from which the samples were obtained showed that all the vitrain exhibits the same fracture pattern. The strike of the fracture plane was measured in many sections of the mine and was found to be in a North-South direction with minor variations between --5°. Although the direction of the strike was constant the inclination of these fractures in the vitrain bands varied from vertical at the shaft bottom to 60° to the plane of lamination three miles in bye. The direction of the strike is the same as the direction of the cleat in the coals of the Northern Hemisphere, while the angle of inclination of these fractures is similar to the angle of the slips and backs which are often well developed especially in the anthracitic coals of Wales. 196 Possibly the cause of these fractures was the action of tectonic forces, resulting from the rapid variation in the depth of cover and the existence of mechanically weak clay bands which have permitted the whole to move towards the East with resultant land slides. These forces have been transmitted to the coal seam with the weakest section, the brittle vitrain bands fracturing. The operations of mining have produced further fracturing along the pre- determined planes. Water infusion into the coal seam was successful in pillar coal but not in the solid coal. This supported the observation that the fractur- ing is confined to the vitrain bands and the claro-durain is not fractured until the coal is subjected to further stress. Samples of the coal fines from the operating faces in the mine were beneficiated by froth flotation using kerosene and eucalyptus oil as reagents. Results are shown in Table II. R. G. BURDON These results showed that a high grade concentrate with a high recovery was possible since the coal fines contain a high percentage — of free vitrain which has a low ash content. | TABLE II Beneficiation of coal fines by froth flotation Recovery % Wt. Ash YE We Coal Ash Feed 100 8-0 Concentrate 88:3 4-0 92-1 43°9 Middlings -. 4:3 22-2 3°6 11-7 Reject .. ee 7°4 47-9 4:3 44-4 However, the aerophilic properties of the surface of the fine coal particles makes dust suppression by water sprays difficult and dust suppression in mines working this seam remains a problem. (Received 25 September 1961) BUOIION “PITA ie a SW. TEAS’ HOURNAL ROYAL SOCIE Os X sydeasororuojzoyd ‘tx satdures “UIeIYIA 94} UT uI0z}3ed oINZORIT uorjeueldxy” ey} SUIMOYS UredS TT[NG oY} Woz, [POD Capt Rem r en NSR ER aan afte ae, eh r abe 4 i ab iy ie ; s atieal| ye . . 5 Asie ; Serene ae ” nd era Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 197-215, 1962 Geology of the Bulahdelah - Port Stephens District, N.S.W. BRIAN A. ENGEL | Geology Department, Newcastle University College, Tighe’s Hill, N.S.W. ABSTRACT—The stratigraphic sequence of the Bulahdelah—Port Stephens district is defined and described. New formational subdivisions are related to existing terminology. The oldest strata present are the Wootton Beds, the base of which has not been observed. They are overlaid conformably by the following sequence of Carboniferous formations : Conger Formation, Nerong Volcanics, Crawford Formation, Alum Mountain Volcanics, and by the Permian Formations : Markwell Coal Measures, Bulahdelah Formation. The Carboniferous sedimentary sequences are composed largely of lithic arenites together with lesser amounts of conglomerate and friable and indurated mudstones. flows vary in composition from rhyolite to basalt. Interbedded volcanic Stratigraphical mapping was based upon the presence of several important palaeontological zones which include the following : Wootton Beds—Lower Burindi Series faunas closely compar- able with those of Campbell (1956, 1957) and Cvancara (1958). rvugus barvingtonensis zone, (iil) Pelecypod zone (Voisey, (iv) Levipustula zone. Introduction This paper embodies the results of a strati- graphical study of the area covered by the Bulahdelah, Port Stephens, Seal Rocks and Morna Point One-Mile Military Maps. Outcrops are chiefly Carboniferous strata ; some Permian formations are preserved in the Myall Syncline. Each of the four “series ”’ previously used in classifying the Carboniferous in New South Wales was formerly thought to be represented in the area and stratigraphical re- examination was directed especially towards elucidating facies relationships and investigating the existence and correlation of units regarded as marine and terrestrial. Throughout the text, grid references have been given to localities with the following abbreviations for the One-Mile Military Sheets : Bulahdelah (B.), Seal Rocks (S.R.), Krambach @..), Port Stephens (P.S.), and Morna Point (M.P.). Previous Literature Port Stephens Avea—The study of the geology of the Port Stephens district extends back into the 19th century when Odenheimer and Herbon (1855-7) prepared a series of reports and maps for the Australian Agricultural Company. In 1907, David completed his Memoir upon the Coal Measures of the Hunter Valley, the maps of which extend into the Port Stephens area. Brief reference was made to the Carboniferous Strata of that area. Subsequently, three papers have appeared dealing with this area. The first was by Sussmilch and David (1919) dealing with general aspects of the stratigraphy of the BB Crawford Formation—(i) Margini- 1940), (ii) Thamnopora zone, and Carboniferous, the second was by Sussmilch and Clarke (1928) describing the geology and petrology of the Port Stephens area and the third was a recent paper by Nashar and Catlin (1959) upon the nature and occurrence of basal dykes in the Port Stephens region. | Bulahdelah Avea—In this northern sector, very little stratigraphical investigation has ever been carried out. The Bulahdelah Alunite deposit has attracted attention since its discovery in 1890. Descriptions are given by Pittman (1901), Harper (1923, 1924, 1928), Booker (1940), Osborne (1950) and in the Annual Reports of the Department of Mines, N.S.W. The first attempt at general reconnaissance mapping was carried out by Carey (1934) in the Myall Lakes region. Subsequent to this, Voisey (1940) commenced a study of the district between the Manning and Karuah Rivers but only a summary of the information gathered was published. In 1950 Osborne published his structural study of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province but unfortunately most of the stratigraphy of the Myall region on which this structural mapping was based has not been published. Physiography Relief is mainly controlled by folds which trend from due north to N40°W and by associated faults. The area of highest relief is situated in the northwest portion of the map where the maximum physiographical level (2100 ft.) coincides with the Crawford Anticline. To the 198 south, in the axial portion of the Girvan Anticline, this level falls to an average of 400 ft. whilst to the east, a sharp drop in elevation to 0-200 ft. marks the site of the Myall Syncline, the physiographical valley of the Myall River. East of Bulahdelah, resistant strike ridges rise to just over 1000 ft. in elevation, being separated, particularly in the area of the Bungwahl Anticline, by regions where the level drops to an average of 300 ft. The Crawford Anticline and associated fault structures are drained by the south-flowing Crawford River which joins the Myall River near Bulahdelah. The floor of the Myall River valley is a flat alluvial plain in which the river meanders its way south to Broadwater Lake. The outlet to this lake, also called the Myall River, becomes confined at Tamboy (321748 P.S.) and from here runs approximately south to connect with Port Stephens. The region south of the Bulahdelah-Booral road is drained by the ‘Karuah River and its tributaries which also flow into Port Stephens. ‘Drainage on the eastern side of the Myall Syncline is either by south-flowing creeks such as Boolambayte Creek or by north-flowing streams such as Coolongolook and Wallingat Rivers. Much of the drainage pattern in this area is controlled by the development of strike ridges. Port Stephens is a drowned river valley, extending 13 miles in an east-west direction. The maximum width of 5 miles is reduced to one-quarter of a mile at Soldier’s Point (093568 P.S.) where a resistant toscanite ridge crosses the harbour, almost cutting it into two parts. The remainder of the coastal belt is occupied by extensive brackish lakes separated by large areas of low lying sand dunes and mudflats. Review of Stratigraphical Terminology CORRELATION OF CARBONIFEROUS FORMATIONS The Bulahdelah region was previously con- sidered by Osborne (1950) to contain (a) laterally constant facies of the marine Lower Burindi Series and of the clastic, glacial and volcanic Upper Kuttung Series, and (b) in the Myall Syncline, a concealed lateral transition from terrestrial and volcanic Lower Kuttung Series on the western limb to marine sediments of the Upper Burindi Series on the eastern limb. _ (A) “ Lower Burindi Series ’—The beds pre- viously referred to this Series in the Bulahdelah region differ notably from the type Burindi Series (Benson, 1913) in both lithology and BRIAN A. ENGEL TABLE I Carboniferous Stratigraphic Subdivisions used by Osborne (1950) for the Bulahdelah Region Western limb of Myall Syncline Upper Kuttung Series Lower Kuttung Series Lower Burindi Series Eastern Limb of Myall Syncline Upper Kuttung Series Upper Burindi Series Lower Burindi Series thickness. Whereas the rocks of the type area consist predominantly of friable olive-green mudstones with bands of ‘ tuff’, the facies developed in this coastal region is dominated by lithic arenites (‘ tuffs ’ of Voisey, 1940) with subordinate amounts of indurated and friable mudstones. This lithological change is coupled with an enormous thickening of up to approximately 40,000 ft. Therefore, the term Wootton Beds, in lieu of ‘“‘ Lower Burindi Series ’’, is proposed for this area. The fossil content of the Wootton Beds is rather limited but enough is known of the fauna to establish partial time-rock equivalence with the Lower Burindi Series. (B) “ Lower Kuttung Series—Upper Burindi Series ’’—Contrary to the statements of previous authors, the sequences on either side of the Myall Syncline have been found to be essentially similar, hence the above alternative nomen- clature is unnecessary. 7 The term “ Kuttung Series’”’, as defined by Sussmilch and David (1919) and as amended by Osborne (1922 et seq.) and Carey and Browne (1938), has been used by previous authors to refer to the sequence on the western limb of the Myall Syncline. On that limb, the Wootton Beds are followed by the Conger Formation and the Nerong Volcanics, both of which are defined below. Osborne (1950) placed this portion of the sequence in the Basal and Volcanic Stages of — the Lower Kuttung Series. This naming has been discontinued because (a) the Conger Formation is clearly of marine origin in contrast with the terrestrial nature of the “ Basal Stage ” in its type area and (b) the Nerong Volcanics contain far less lithological variants than does the type “ Volcanic Stage ”’. On the eastern limb, above the Wootton Beds, there is a thin sequence of dacite flows (50-100 ft.) followed by fossiliferous beds pre-— viously known as the “‘ Upper Burindi Series ”’. This marine sequence was separated arbitrarily — from the overlying, essentially similar “ Upper — Kuttung Series’ (Voisey, 1940), there being no lithological break in the sequence. It is herein contended that in this limb there is no develop- GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT ment of the Conger Formation and that the Wootton Beds are succeeded by dacite flows which represent the Nerong Volcanics. There- fore, all the overlying sediments will belong to another formation, defined below as the Crawford Formation, which is developed on both sides of the fold axis. This conclusion is supported by the fauna of that formation. (C) “ Upper Kuttung Series ’’—On the western limb, above the Nerong Volcanics, Osborne (1950) thought he recognized rocks of the Upper Kuttung Series consisting of a lower ‘ Main Clastic Zone ’ and an upper volcanic sequence. From his description it is clear that no glacial sediments were found in this area, hence the term ‘ Glacial Stage’ was not used. It is now established that the ‘ Main Clastic Zone’ is of marine origin for it contains an abundance of marine fossils in this district (see Text-Figure 3). On these grounds it is no longer correct to use the term Upper Kuttung Series since this applies to the terrestrial sequence of the Clarencetown-Paterson-Seaham area. 199. A notable occurrence is that of Marginirugus barringtonensts (Dun), an index fossil for the Upper Burindi Series which has been found on both sides of the syncline. On the western limb it occurs in the basal beds. of the so-called “ Upper Kuttung Series ”’ (‘ Main Clastic Zone’), above the Nerong Volcanics. Similarly in the eastern limb it occurs in sediments immediately above dacite flows in the .‘’ Upper Burindi Series”’. On the grounds of the lithological and palaeontological similarity, it is proposed to abandon the supposed equivalence of the local representatives of the “Lower Kuttung Series-Upper Burindi Series’”’, and in their place substitute the term Crawford Formation to describe all sediments above the volcanic flows on either side of the syncline. It is of importance to note that there are no deposits in this area which have been formed as a result of direct glacial action. On both limbs of the Myall Syncline, the Crawford Formation is capped by volcanic flows TABLE II | Relationship between former and newly adopted Carboniferous nomenclature for the Bulahdelah region. (--?--?--?=undefined boundary ; correlation) New Nomenclature Alum Mountain Volcanics Crawford Kuttung Series Formation Upper Nerong Volcanics Conger Formation Wootton Lower Beds West of Myall Syncline Basal Burindi Series Osborne, 1950 East of Myall Syncline Volcanic | Voleanic Flows a Flows on + © wn Main Main re) ¢ } a ~ e Clastic 2 Clastic te Zone 5 zone joe A. 5 ? ae S Volcanic Noa a Clastic : two o : Stage ® Snr Sediments ’ Beech i Qu bi @ vn fi Stage / Lower Burindi Series 200) COOL OR Ca 2 eo BRAN NG WEST LIMB EAST LIMB Alluvium| o> ! ula hdelah Formation lithic arenites lithic arenites conglom., arenite, shale ,coal conglom., arenite, Shalt lz o 7 See Shale, coal. V rhyolite rhyolite Mountain Vo Lcanics V. | andesite rey basalt andesite eonglorn® rere basalt ies conglom.,arenite lithic arenites WwW) = lithic arenites @ and a Crawford pe canee and Li. Formation mudet ome = Levipustula fauna 4 co black mudstone m Y crystal tuff = lithic arenite, conglom. Levipustula fauna Marginirugus fauna crystal tuff |v toscamte black mudstones Nerong Lithic areni Volcanics andesite ree Vv lithic arenite ,conglom toscanite ae o| Marginirugus fauna Conger Fmi_*__e¢ | lithic arenites—— dacit e toscanite mudstones Feet Wootton Lithic arenites {12000 Beds agrenites, mudstones and 1000 mudstones 0 TEXT-FIGURE | Comparative columnar sections for the east and west limbs of the Myall Syncline GCHOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT previously placed at the top of the ‘ Upper Kuttung Series’ and herein named the Alum Mountain Volcanics. CORRELATION OF PERMIAN FORMATIONS The two Permian formations herein recognized were referred by Osborne to the Greta Coal Measures and the Upper Marine Series. The evidence for this correlation is tenuous and it is preferable to refer to them as independent formations—the Markwell Coal Measures and the Bulahdelah Formation. Should Osborne’s correlation be correct, there must be a consider- able disconformity at the base of the Markwell Coal Measures. The present work suggests that this is unlikely. Definitive and Descriptive Stratigraphy Wootton Beds DEFINITION Synonymy—Lower Burindi Series (Carey, 1934 ; Voisey, 1940; Osborne, 1950). Derivation—Wootton Village (388055 B.). Representative Sections—Road cuttings from Elizabeth Bay (583012 S.R.) to Hewitt’s Lookout (342930 B.) and along the Pacific Highway from north of Coolongolook (366176 K.) to O’Sullivan’s Gap (304107 B.). Lithology—Predominantly grey to brown lithic arenites interbedded with olive-green to brown friable, and black indurated, mudstones. Several conglomerates and one limestone bed are developed within the sequence. Thickness—Carey (1934) estimated the thickness to be 25,000 ft. At present over 40,000 ft. have been measured in the region to the east of Bulahdelah but this figure is suspect due to the possibility of undetected repetition of beds by strike faulting. One section from Wootton to O’Sullivan’s Gap is unfaulted and it contains at least 15,000 ft. of sediments. _ Age and Relations—Lower Carboniferous. The base of the Beds has not been examined but in the region to the north, Osborne (1950) con- sidered the contact with Barraba Series mud- stones to be a conformable one. The overlying Conger Formation is also conformable. DESCRIPTION The Wootton Beds do not contain any distinctive lithological units of sufficient con- tinuity either to permit formational subdivision or to demonstrate the probable presence of Tepetition of beds by strike faulting. The dominant lithological type is the hard, bluish coloured lithic arenite which decomposes 201 to a buff coloured friable rock. The grainsize is irregular being composed of angular mineral and rock fragments, up to 2 mm. in size, set ina finely divided quartzo-feldspathic matrix which is almost impossible to separate from some of the devitrified rock fragments. Mineral frag- ments consist principally of kaolinized feldspar (commonly andesine) and quartz, showing resorption, together with lesser amounts of biotite, chlorite and various iron minerals. With gradual decrease in grainsize the arenites grade into indurated, dark coloured mudstones which are of common occurrence. The remainder of the sequence is composed of friable, olive-green to brown, mudstones of similar lithology to that developed in the type Burindi Series. Sedimentary structures are poorly developed in the Wootton Beds. Some graded bedding and plain cross bedded laminations can be observed on the eastern slope of Hewitt’s Lookout. In some regions there is a regular alternation of arenite beds (2-6 ft.) with mud- stones (2 ft. and less). (i) Section from Elizabeth Bay to Hewittt’s Lookout—The lowest beds examined commence at Charlotte Head (597006 S.R.) as massive conglomerates interbedded with lithic arenites, indurated mustones and strongly laminated shales. These beds appear to be dislocated structurally from the main outcrop. From Booti Hill south to Smith Lake, the sequence is composed of indurated and friable mudstones, coarse arenites and a few con- glomerate lenses all of which show contem- poraneous deformational structures such as folding, contortion and _ truncation. An unidentified spiriferid fauna occurs at the northern end of Booti Hill (M36-557034 S.R.) and a bed containing fragmental pelecypod shells is exposed at Boomerang Point (M35-586988 S.R.). Sediments in the region from Smith Lake to Bungwahl consist of west dipping, black, indurated mudstones interbedded with coarse, medium and fine grained lithic arenites. Exposures of friable grey mudstones become common near the township of Bungwahl, where they are poorly fossiliferous (M6-482943 B.). Immediately west of this township, a coarse dacitic conglomerate is followed by fine grained arenites which dip to the east. This reversal of dip is quite sharp, pointing to the presence of a fault rather than to the possibility of folding. The Bungwahl Anticline is crossed from Bungwahl to the eastern foot of Hewitt’s 202 Lookout (358934 B.), the axis which trends N40°W being situated near Boolambayte Hill. All the strata dip at a low angle of less than 25°. Rocks exposed are mainly olive- green to grey friable mudstones. At the eastern foot of Hewitt’s Lookout the dip changes from 25° W to 65 °W, the exposures being too poor to show the faulting which is presumed to have caused this change. The section exposed up to the crest of the Lookout is an excellent one composed predominantly of lithic arenites together with banded shales, grey-blue mudstones, dark fissile mudstones and fine conglomerates. The arenites show traces of both graded and current bedding, some beds also being very strongly marked by spheroidal weathering. The mudstones are highly car- bonaceous in some places. Conglomerate first appears as very thin pebbly bands passing upwards into coarser and thicker beds until full conglomeratic members are encountered. Just below the eastern crest of the Lookout, a dacite flow of the Nerong Volcanics con- formably overlies the Wootton Beds. (ii) Mvyall Lake District—Around the shores of the lake there are many exposures of the Wootton Beds. Rock types are mainly lithic arenites with minor conglomerates and mud- stones. Isolated outcrops of a keratophyre occur near Burrah Burrah Point. A limestone unit is developed at Bibby Harbour (445878 B.) and Mayer’s Flat (Carne and Jones, 1919). At the latter locality, the limestone bed is 40-50 ft. thick and can be traced along strike for about 400ft. It is a coarsely crystalline variety, being overlain by a thin development of impure limestone and calcareous shales. The unit is interbedded with arenites and shales which dip S$ 70° W at 42°. On the western side of Bibby Harbour there is a very similar limestone bed 15 ft. thick and also capped by impure limestones and cal- careous shales. It has a very low dip and because of its close similarity is thought to be a continuation of the Mayer’s Flat horizon. Both areas have been quarried for commercial purposes. (iii) Section from Coolongolook to O’ Sullivan's Gap—tThis section (B—F) commences on Brearick Range 14 miles north of Coolongolook, where lithic arenites are interbedded with both friable and indurated mudstones. One bed of indurated mudstone contains a profusion of crinoid stems with other fragmental fossiliferous material (M30-366176 K.). From the foot of this range south to Wootton most of the beds are poorly BRIAN A. ENGEL exposed, friable mudstones, with some thin beds of lithic arenite developed between the — Coolongolook River crossing (364085 B.) and Wootton. At Wootton, the headwaters of the Coolongo- look River separate areas of rock with markedly different dip. On the northern side of the river the average dip of 50° W flattens out to 15° W. On the southern side the beds are vertical or even overturned. It is postulated that this anomaly is due to strike faulting, which also is partly responsible for the non-appearance of the Bungwahl Anticline in this region.—It is also possible that this fault is linked with the structural change at the eastern foot of Hewitt’s Lookout range. | From Wootton to the eastern foot of O’Sullivan’s Gap, mudstones are exposed in road cuttings and the dip gradually changes. from vertical to an average of 60° W. Most of the outcrops show strongly developed cleavage. The sequence exposed on O’Sullivan’s Gap range consists mainly of massive lithic arenites with indurated and friable mudstones and minor amounts of conglomerate. The arenite beds vary in thickness from 9 in. to 4 ft. and rarely show any internal stratification. Similar rocks are exposed on the western slopes of the range until a dacite lava flow of the Nerong Volcanics is encountered (Voisey, 1940). At the western foot of O’Sullivan’s Gap, two east-trending transcurrent faults have dislocated a block westwards into the Myall Syncline. The evidence for this faulting is stratigraphic, there being a similar sequence in this block to that already described. Extension of this faulting has not been observed west of the Myall Syncline axis. (iv) The Girvan Anticline—The sequence in this fold is well exposed along the Booral- Bulahdelah road. The western limb is composed predominantly of friable mudstones with lesser development of lithic arenites and conglomerates. Outcrops in the vicinity of Rose Hill are the typical olive-green mudstone which contains a fauna of Brachythyris cf. pseudovalis Campbell, Spirifer cf. livellus Cvancara, Gomtocladia sp., an unidentified trilobite and various fragments of a solitary coral (M8-058836 B.). In this region the Beds are conformably followed by the Conger Formation. The eastern limb, of similar lithology, also contains brachiopod faunas in its upper portion, namely at (M29-141860 B.) and (M31-146858 B.). Sediments at locality M29 contain Dictyoclostus GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT cf. simplex Campbell, Megachonetes sp., Spirifer sp., Brachythyris pseudovalis and Fluctuaria sp. Sediments at locality M31 contain Schizophoria sp., Leptagonia sp., Pustula abbotts Campbell, Daviesiella cf. aspinosa (Dun), Wernea cf. australis Campbell, Phricodothyris untplicata Campbell, Spirifer lirellus and Brachythyris pseudovalis. The beds of this limb are more steeply dipping than those of the western side and the contact with overlying formations is faulted. Several fossil localities have been found in the district south of the Booral-Bulahdelah road (M13-156635 P.S. ; M25-168647 P.S.). Locality M13 has yielded Schizophoria sp., Riipidomella australis, Cleiothyridina sp., Dictyoclostus sp., Brachythyris davidu, Phricodothyris sp., and Goniocladia sp. Fossils found at locality M25 include Schizophoria sp., Rhipidomella australis, Leptagonia sp., Sireptorhynchus sp., Drctyo- clostus cf. paradoxus, Dictyoclostus n.sp. (large form), Spirifer cf. lirellus, Punctospirifer sp. and “ Phillipsia’’ collenst Mitchell. On the Tea Gardens-Karuah road, the fold becomes poorly defined due to plunging of the axis to the south. Lithology is essentially the same as above. Fragments of Lepidodendron velthermianum occur in some of the _ lithic arenites. (v) Upper Crawford River District—On the western side of the Crawford River near its headwaters, a sequence of friable olive-green mudstones with small arenite bands underlies the Nerong Volcanics without the development of the Conger Formation which probably was not developed in this area. These sediments are placed in the Wootton Beds on the basis of their lithology and stratigraphic relationships. Conger Formation DEFINITION Synonymy—Lower Kuttung Series (Basal Stage) (Osborne, 1950). Conger Formation (Campbell, 1959, 1961). Derivation—Conger Hill (045834 B.). I'ype Section—The Branch Road due south from Conger Hill for approximately one and a half miles. Lithology—Chiefly lithic arenites of grey colour (weathering brown) with lenticular con- glomerates. Thickness — Maximum observed thickness 1200 ft. in the type section, thinning to nil eastwards. 203 Age and Relattons—Lower Carboniferous (Visean ?). The formation follows without apparent break upon Wootton Beds and is conformably overlaid by lava flows of the Nerong Volcanics. DESCRIPTION Outcrops on the Branch Road reveal lithic arenites and conglomerates which are also found on the track up to Gundaine Trig. (032798 B.) where overlying lava flows occur. The arenites are commonly found in beds from 1 ft. up to 6 ft. in thickness, and they often show well developed current bedding. At Sagger’s Creek, along the Upper Crawford River-Stroud road, comparable arenites (some salmon pink in colour) and conglomerates occur beneath the Nerong Volcanics. The formation is not developed in the Crawford River Fault block beneath the Nerong Volcanics. Conglomerates and arenites underlie Nerong Volcanics on the Tea Gardens-Karuah road at Bulga Creek (067647 P.S.). The boulders and pebbles are mainly volcanic rocks, including a large percentage of pitchstone boulders, which have an average diameter of 2 to 3 inches but ranging up to 12 inches. The only occurrence of this formation on the eastern side of the Girvan Anticline is at the western foot of Bulahdelah Mountain on the Booral-Bulahdelah road. At this point Wootton Beds are in faulted contact with coarse con- glomerates and arenites which are overlain by Nerong Volcanics. The faulting has produced such intense contortion and dislocation of beds that it is difficult to estimate the thickness. It is suggested that there is not more than 400 ft. exposed in the present outcrop. The formation is not developed on the eastern side of the Myall Syncline. Nerong Volcanics DEFINITION Synonymy—Lower Kuttung Series Stage) (Osborne, 1950). Derivation—Nerong Trigonometrical (195813 P-.S.). Type Sectton—Nerong Forestry Road cuttings between (152862 B.) and (160871 B.). Lithology—Toscanite, dacite, hornblende andesite with minor amounts of ignimbrite, conglomerate and arenite. Thickness—The type section has a thickness of 2400 ft., which diminishes rapidly to the north and to the east to as low as 50 ft. (Volcanic Station 204 Age and Relations—Lower Carboniferous. The formation is conformable with both the under- lying Conger Formation and the overlying Crawford Formation. DESCRIPTION (i) Western Limb of the Girvan Anticline— Physiographically prominent exposures of vol- canic rocks mark the region between the Girvan Anticline and the Stroud-Gloucester Syncline. On the Crawford River-Stroud road, the formation commences with a keratophyre at Sagger’s Creek (031011 B.) on the western edge of the present map. The thickness of the formation in this area is about 100 to 200 ft. In the vicinity of the Branch road on the Booral-Bulahdelah road and extending north towards Sagger’s Creek, the Conger Formation is succeeded by flows of keratophyre, toscanite, andesite and also ignimbrite, together with a variable development of interbedded con- glomerates and lithic arenites. The formation is also exposed on the Karuah- Tea Gardens road west of Bulga Creek (067645 P.S.). The flows which are well developed at Karuah Trig. (036636 P.S.) continue to the southern side of Port Stephens, where an extensive development of lavas is indicated by small inliers cropping out through sand dunes and alluvial deposits. Whilst all these outcrops have been shown on the map as belonging to the Nerong Volcanics, it is not improbable that some of the more westerly beds should be placed in the overlying Crawford Formation. Separation must await the formal description of the sequence in the Stroud- Gloucester Syncline. Sussmilch and Clarke (1928) have given a detailed petrological account of the Port Stephens lavas. (ii) Eastern limb of the Girvan Anttcline/ Western limb of the Myall Syncline—The formation outcrops on the Tea Gardens- Bulahdelah road, where it overlies the Wootton Beds and is overlain by the Crawford Formation, there being no development of the Conger Formation in this locality. Members present include andesitic pitchstones, andesites, tos- canites, an ignimbrite and minor amounts of lithic arenite. The total section is approxi- mately 1500 ft. thick. The type section, on the Nerong Forestry road, shows a sequence which is similar to that on Bulahdelah Mountain about 1 mile to the BRIAN A. ENGEL north. In this area the Conger Formation is present beneath the volcanics. The type section is as follows : Feet Ignimbrite 100 Toscanite : A 550 Lithic arenite (medium grained) A 200 Toscanite hae 300 Andesite (Martins Creek type) 200 Conglomerate : 100 Toscanite (at base) .. 950 2,400 All the toscanite flows have a reddish coloura- tion due to weathering. The uppermost 100 ft. of the section consists of a ‘ toscanite ’ in which there is a progressive reduction in the amount of phenocrysts so that finally the rock is felsitic in texture. Thin sections of this rock consist of kaolinized feldspar, resorbed quartz and oriented biotite fragments set in a quartzo-feldspathic groundmass which has devitrified into welded shards, indicating it to be an ignimbrite. Similar textural variation in the other toscanites in the sequence may exist. On the western side of the upper Crawford River is a ridge extending north from Purgatory Mountain through Winn’s Hill. It consists of a narrow band of Nerong Volcanics dipping to the west, in direct contrast to the same beds at Bulahdelah Mountain which dip to the east. Only toscanite lava of 500-600 ft. thickness is exposed at Purgatory Mountain and Winn’s Hill (Jarrah Road). On the Crawford River- Stroud road about 2 miles west of the river, mudstones of the Wootton Beds are overlain by a thin bed of toscanite, coarse conglomerates, arenites, a crystal tuff, a dacite flow and then further sediments of the overlying Crawford Formation. (11) Eastern limb of the Myall Syncline—A thin development of the Nerong Volcanics crops out on the western edge of the Myall Lake and northwards. At Johnson’s_ Hill (374835 B.) reddish stained toscanites and a dacite flow outcrop beneath the fossiliferous Crawford Formation. Near Violet Hill, the volcanics are represented by dacite flows which extend in a narrow band not greater than 100 ft. thick from Bull’s Bay (376865 B.) north to Hewitt’s Lookout. Due to an east-trending fault, this lava (50 ft. thick) has been moved westward towards the axis of the Myall Syncline where it is found in the Boolambayte Section of Voisey (1940). At both Hewitt’s Lookout and in the Boolambayte Section lithological cor- relation is supported by overlying fossiliferous GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT beds. The same dacite flow is again found in its undisturbed position on the western slope of O’Sullivan’s Gap (O’Sullivan’s Gap Section— Voisey, 1940) and northwards on the Wang Wauk Forest Way. Beyond this, the outcrop is obscured by vegetation. Crawford Formation DEFINITION Synonymy—Upper Kuttung Series (Main Clastic Zone) (Osborne, 1950). Derivation—Crawford River, a major tributary to the Myall River, situated to the west of Bulahdelah. Type Section—Booral-Bulahdelah road from the eastern foot of Bulahdelah Mountain (160871 B.) to east of the former site of the Crawford River School (198880 B.). Lithology—Lithic arenites and friable and indurated mudstones with small amounts of conglomerate, crystal tuff and cherty beds, marine throughout. Thickness—Approximately 8000 ft. in the type section with the possibility that the thickness may be slightly greater on the eastern side of the Myall Syncline. Age and Relations—Middle and Upper Car- boniferous. The formation is conformable with the underlying Nerong Volcanics and _ the overlying Alum Mountain Volcanics. DESCRIPTION (i) Western limb of the Myall Syncline— South of the Booral-Bulahdelah road, poor exposures of lithic arenites and mudstones occur along the Tea Gardens road and as a number of isolated outcrops on the shores of Broadwater Lake. Some beds carry Rhacopteris fragments. The type section commences at the eastern foot of Bulahdelah Mountain where lithic arenites occur interbedded with fine con- glomerates. About 50 ft. above the base of the formation there is a thin weathered arenite bed containing Marginirugus barringtonensis alatus Campbell (M27-163870 B.). This is overlain by further lithic arenites which crop out as far as the Nerong Forestry road turnoff (167872 B.). After a short gap in the section, friable mud- stones and lithic arenites are followed by black indurated mudstones together with several bands of crystal tuff and chert which are well exposed in a quarry (169883 B.). Along the southern side of the river there is 1000 ft. of alternating fine lithic arenites and friable mud- | 205 stones. Arenites predominate in this exposure, individual beds having an average thickness of 1 ft. and a maximum thickness of 5ft. The mudstones contain fragments of Rhacopterts. The remainder of the section is composed of similar sediments with some arenites showing well developed plain cross bedded laminations. In a series of gravel pits, east of the former site of the Crawford River school (198880 B.), fine conglomerates containing uniformly rounded lava pebbles are exposed. They are followed by the youngest member of the formation, a conglomerate which differs from the others in the sequence in that the pebbles vary in com- position and size distribution. This rock forms very bold outcrops and is a valuable marker horizon. The overlying rocks belong to the Alum Mountain Volcanics. (ii) The Crawford Anticline—The exposures in this structure consist mostly of beds belonging to the Crawford Formation. In general, these beds have low dips and are composed of arenites, mudstones (with Rhacopteris fragments) and a few conglomerates. On the axis, near the top of the range (158047 B.) a leucocratic dolerite with patches of a secondary zeolite, probably phillipsite, is exposed. The age and strati- graphic relationships are unknown but it appears as if the dolerite may be a member of the formation. Exposures along the Crawford River indicate a major disturbance in the area. Most of the beds are fractured, steeply dipping and even slightly overturned. No marine fossils were collected from the large area covered by the anticline. (iii) The Crawford River Fault Block—Above the Nerong Volcanics on the Crawford River- Stroud road, there is a sedimentary sequence of lithic arenites and mudstones dipping to the west. Some of the arenites show plain cross bedded laminations. About 500 ft. above the Volcanics, the index fossil M. barringtonensis alatus and _ Luissochonetes sp. were found (M32-088063 B.). Approximately 70 ft. above this again, further marine fossils were located (M33-086065 B.). They include Tornqutstia sp. Alispirifer sp. and a rhynchonellid (with identical internal structures and external form to Rhynchopora sp. but without a punctate shell) herein referred to as ? Rhynchopora sp. Similar sediments outcrop westwards to Black Bullock Creek where further marine fossils were collected (M34-080063 B.) namely Neospirifer cf. pristintrs Maxwell, Austvalosutura gardnert Mitchell and several unidentified gastropods. The above 206 fauna places this bed in the Levipustula zone (see section on Palaeontology, below). Faulting along Black Bullock Creek has brought west dipping Wootton Beds of the Girvan Anticline in contact with this exposure of the Crawford Formation. (iv) Myall Lake District—In the Myall Lake region at Johnson’s Hill, Nerong Volcanics (toscanite and dacite) are overlain by fine lithic arenites and indurated mudstones. Marine fossils occur in abundance in this area. A chonetid-rhynchonellid fauna including Torn- quistia sp., Alispirifer sp., and ? Rhynchopora sp. was collected at (M16-371831 B.) and on the eastern slope of the same hill M. barring- tonensis alatus and Tornqmstia sp. occur at (M2-368832 B.) in a bed approximately 600 ft. above the base of the formation. On Goat Island, indurated mudstones and _arenites contain Thamnopora sp. and Alispirifer sp. (M3-362837 B.). On Sheep Island similar sediments with an interbedded crystal tuff and an ignimbrite are overlaid by beds containing an abundance of Levifustula sp., Fistulamina sp., a fenestellid and some crinoid stems (M14-355837 B.). Outcropping on the peninsula between the two segments of Boolambayte Lake are mudstones and arenites which on the shore of the lake near bBombah -Point (M1-342805 B.) contain a marine fauna which has been recently described by Campbell (1959, 1961). This bed may well be the faulted equivalent of that occurring on Sheep Island. Rocks similar to those on Johnson’s Hill, containing marine fossils, occur to the north at the following localities : (M15-374855 B.)—M. barringtonensis alatus and Tornqutstia sp. (M17-372851 B.)—M. barringtonensis alatus and a large punctate spiriferid (a new species of ? Punctospirifer sp., width up to 6 cm.). (M18-373867 B.)—M. barringtonensis alatus, Alispirifer sp. and the large punctate spiriferid. (M19-369870 B.)—small unidentified _ pele- cypod (as occurs between M. barringtonensis and Levipustula sp. in the Barrington Section—Voisey, 1940). (M20-369870 B.)—Thamnopora sp., Frstula- mina sp. and an unidentified athyrid. Stratigraphically M20 is about 70 ft. higher than M19, which in turn is about 2000 ft. above M18. BRIAN. A. ENGEL (v) Section from Hewitt’s Lookout to Bulah- delah—Stratigraphically above the dacite flows” at Hewitt’s Lookout, lithic arenites and indurated mudstones occur interbedded with considerable thicknesses of conglomerate and conglomeratic sediments. Fossil horizons similar to those mentioned previously are developed in this section : (M22-342930 B.)—Tornquistia sp., Alispirifer sp. and ? Rhynchopora sp. (M23-339925 B.)\—Alispirifer sp., Spinuliplica spinulosa Campbell, Composita magnicarina Campbell, Levipustula sp., Booralia ovata Campbell, Peruvispira kuttungensis Camp- bell, and Streblochondria histion Campbell. This fauna from the Levifustula zone contains elements of the Booral Formation (Campbell, 1961) and of the Kullatine Series on the north coast. Rocks following the LeviPustula bed include a crystal tuff and then further arenites and mudstones in outcrops extending as far as the township of Boolambayte. The road section | from Boolambayte to the Pacific Highway consists mainly of green grey mudstones with arenite beds near the top of the sequence. Faulting is evident in a quarry (284940 B.) where arenite beds are contorted. The dip of the beds from Boolambayte to the Highway is almost vertical. (vi) Exposures from the Boolambayte Section (Voisey, 1940) to Bulahdelah—This sequence commences above the dacite horizon of Voisey’s (1940) Boolambayte Section. Rock types include friable and indurated mudstones, lithic arenites (some of which have an apple green colouration), crystal tuffs and ignimbrites. Again a number of important fossil localities occur in this region : (M21-285968 B.)—M. barringtonensis barring- tonensis and Tornquistia sp. (M12-279981 B.)—M. barringtonensis alatus, Alispirifer sp., 2? Rhynchopora sp. and Lissochonetes sp. (M28-284966 B.)—M. barringtonensis alatus, Alispirifer sp. and ? Rhynchopora sp. ‘(M11-277960 B.)—Unidentified pelecypods. (M24-276986 B.)—Levipustula sp. and Com- posita magnicarina Campbell. Most of the beds are vertical with some minor synclinal and anticlinal features. (vii) O’Sullivan’s Gap Section (Votsey, 1940)— Voisey has described the section above the Nerong Volcanics on the western slope of the | An maintains its development. GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT O’Sullivan’s Gap range. The lithology of conglomerates, arenites and mudstones is similar to that on the Forestry roads (Wang Wauk Forest Way) to the north of the Highway. Alum Mountain Volcanics DEFINITION Synonymy—Upper Kuttung Volcanic Stage (Voisey, 1940 ; Osborne, 1950). Derivation—Alum Mountain (259916 B.) situated immediately east of the village of Bulahdelah. Type Section—Southern end of Alum Mountain (273903 B. to 262899 B.). Lithology—Rhyolite, andesitic _— pitchstone, trachy-andesite, andesite, basalt and _ inter- bedded sediments. Thickness—Maximum observed thickness 1600 ft. in the type section. Age and Relations—Upper Carboniferous (?). Contact with the lower Crawford Formation and the overlying Permian sediments is apparently conformable. DESCRIPTION (i) Western limb of the Myall Syncline— Succeeding the Crawford Formation at the Gap (231845 B.) on the Tea Gardens-Bulahdelah road is a small thickness of volcanics composed of a bluish amygdaloidal basalt, a trachy- andesite and a purple tinted rhyolite, together with some arenite beds. Permian beds are encountered immediately above the rhyolite. To the south at the mouth of the Myall River, basalt is overlaid by rhyolites which include both massive and banded varieties. South of Black Camp Creek, flows of weathered andesite and basalt occur. To the north of the Creek, the flows thin markedly and are replaced by a group of Rhacopteris bearing arenites. andesite flow near Markwell, however, At Upper Myall the sequence consists of arenites and con- _ glomerates together with a greenish trachytic rock exposed west of the Upper Myall School (217087 B.). (i) Eastern limb of the Myall Syncline—The most conspicuous feature of the Alum Mountain range is the physiographic expression of the vertically dipping rhyolite member. It is a grey-white rock, sometimes massive, sometimes showing excellent flow structure. It outcrops from north of Bulahdelah for some 8 miles to the south near Bombah Point (342804 P.S.). The thickness varies considerably. A few bands 207 of pitchstone are closely associated with the rhyolite and are best developed at the southern end of Alum Mountain. Near Bulahdelah, the rhyolite contains minor deposits of alunite along its joint planes and these have been exploited commercially. Beneath the rhyolite are irregularly developed andesitic and basaltic flows. On the highway to the north of Bulah- delah where the road crosses the rhyolite, it is underlain by an arenite and then a basalt flow ; whilst south of Alum Mountain, andesites and trachy-andesites are developed beneath the rhyolite. South of Alum Mountain there is an occurrence of Permian coal measures situated between the basalt-andesite flows and the overlying rhyolite flow. Various theories have been advanced to explain this development. Pittman (1901) first recorded the occurrence in Portion 119 and in the northwest corner of Portion 67, Parish of Bulahdelah. Carey (1934) described the outcrop as a conformable development, but Osborne (1950) considered that these measures were trough faulted into the Carboniferous sequence. The beds themselves consist of a thin develop- ment of conglomerate, soft white arenite and about 20ft. of banded coal. None of these rocks shows extensive signs of disturbance. If it is accepted that the sequence is conformable then there must be some doubt that the Alum Mountain Volcanics are Carboniferous in age. At present the evidence is insufficient to warrant departure from the age accepted for the volcanics. North of Bulahdelah, beyond the two east trending faults, the lavas thin out and disappear. A rhyolite flow (20ft.) outcrops north of Voisey’s Boolambayte section for a _ further distance of approximately 3 miles beyond which its extension is concealed. The flow is associated with a vitric tuff, the rest of the sequence being a considerable thickness of lithic arenites and minor conglomerates. Markwell Coal Measures DEFINITION Synonymy—Lower Coal Measures 1950, p. 29). Derivation—Markwell village (216015 B.). Type Section—Exposures at the Gap (231845 B.) on the Tea Gardens-Bulahdelah road. Lithology—Conglomerates, pebbly shales and impure coal seams. Thickness—As exposed this formation does not exceed 40 ft. (Osborne, arenites, 208 Age and Relations—Permian. In most of the exposures, the measures conformably follow the rhyolite or arenites of the Alum Mountain Volcanics (see exception mentioned above). DESCRIPTION The oldest Permian strata within the Myall Syncline consist of a sequence of lenticular conglomerates, pebbly arenites, shales and a few impure coal seams. Mapping of the formation was based largely upon a_ basal conglomerate member. On the western limb of the syncline, south of the Booral-Bulahdelah road, the only outcrop is found at the Gap on the Bulahdelah-Tea Gardens road. In this locality, Carboniferous rhyolites are succeeded by a steeply dipping group of conglomerates, arenites, plant-bearing shales and several decomposed bands of coal. The pebbles and boulders of the conglomerates are usually not greater than 3 in. in diameter. Laterally and vertically the conglomerates are replaced by more sandy beds which show current bedding or by impure coal seams. Above these sediments shales containing an abundance of Glossopteris occur. On the northern side of Booral road the outcrops are poor as far as the old road junction (217975 B.) just north of Rosenthall where there is a quarry in the basal conglomerate. This member extends northwards’ through Markwell almost as far as Upper Myall. No further coal was observed on this western side of the syncline. On the eastern limb of the syncline the measures commence a little south of Upper Myall where the outcrop is found on the banks of the Myall River (218062 B.). Here coal is associated with other sediments. The outcrop continues south to cross the ‘ back road’ along the Myall River at the cross road (233033 B.) leading to Markwell. At this locality 20 ft. of conglomerate is exposed in a quarry and a little further south carbonaceous shales with some soft mudstones crop out on the roadside. No further measures crop out as far south as Bulahdelah. As mentioned previously, Glossopteris-bearing sediments (including coal) occur in Portions 67 and 119, Parish of Bulahdelah beneath Car- boniferous rhyolites. Carey (1934) recorded outcrops of at least two coal seams in Portion 67 together with conglomerate, arenite and fossil- iferous shales which dip S45°W at 60°. Outcrop in Portion 119 is presumably a con- tinuation of the same horizon, there being approximately 20-25 ft. of coal seams and BRIAN A. ENGEL arenites present. Some doubt exists as to the structural position of this bed. If it is conform- able, then it is overlain by rhyolites and arenites, the latter bearing Khacopteris fragments. The other unsatisfactory alternative is to postulate, without much evidence, the presence of trough faulting. Neither solution can be accepted as satisfactory at present, although it is possible palaeontologically for this to be a normal sequence as has been recorded in the Itarare Group of South America (Caster, 1952), where Rhacopteris flora is found stratigraphically above Glossopteris flora. Bulahdelah Formation DEFINITION Synonymy—Upper Marine Series (Osborne, 1950, p. 29). Derivation—Bulahdelah Village (245925 B.). Type Sectton—This formation is very poorly exposed so that the type section is composite, being made up of the creek and road sections from the foot of Alum Mountain (at the southern end) down to the Myall River. This includes the exposures along the Bulahdelah-Bombah Point road just out of Bulahdelah. Lithology—Arenites (grey-green and _ brown, some with pebble bands) and shales. Thickness—Maximum approximate thickness is a little less than 3000 ft. Age and Relations—Permian. | Conformable with Markwell Coal Measures. No overlying formations are developed in this region. DESCRIPTION The outcrop of this formation is generally poor. Stratigraphically above the Markwell Coal Measures, where they are developed, is a sequence of weathered arenites largely concealed in the axial region of the Myall Syncline by alluvial deposits of the Myall River. The sandstones in the type section on the eastern side of Bulahdelah have yielded a marine fauna. These fossiliferous beds occur about 100-150 yards past the Old Court House on the Bombah Point Road (M4-246911 B.). Fossils were first collected from this locality by Pittman (1901). The faunal list (by Dun) is quoted without alteration from the original—“ Platy- schisma oculum, Aviculopecten tenuicollis, Avicu- lopecten leniusculus, Merismopteria macroptera, Chaenomya (?) etherrdget, Aphanaia and Spirifera duodecimcostata ”’. In the type section the lowest observed strata include grey-green, fine grained arenites which carry distinct pebble bands. These beds are GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT quite resistant and can be traced for some distance south. Overlying these rocks are silty and sandy shales succeeded by considerable thicknesses of iron stained, crumbling arenites which are in places quite calcareous and in which the above fossils occur. On the northern side of the east-trending faults, near Bulahdelah, a conspicuous ridge composed of arenites extends for nearly 3 miles parallel to the ‘ back road’ to Upper Myall. On the western side of the Myall Syncline the area of development is more extensive. Unfor- tunately the rocks are largely concealed by shallow alluvium. Road cuttings on the Booral road at locality (208883 8B.) display badly weathered arenites. Further exposures occur on the Upper Myall road near the Myall River (226955 B.) and in the vicinity of Markwell, where the branch road crosses the River (219022 B.). As stated elsewhere, correlation of these Permian beds with the standard section in the Hunter Valley is unreliable. Tertiary to Recent Deposits Recent Alluvial Deposits—As can be seen on the geological map, a large portion of the region is covered by alluvial and aeolian deposits. Where relatively high ground occurs in the coastal belt, it undoubtedly consists of bed rock that is obscured by a shallow sand cover. A series of sand dunes are developed parallel with the coastline and their pattern is excellently pictured on the aerial photographs. This region has been the subject of geomorphological study by Thom (1960). Alluvial deposits are developed along the Myall and Boolambayte Rivers. Tertiary (?) Dykes—Along the coastline, par- ticularly south of Port Stephens, there occurs a swarm of basalt dykes intrusive into the exposed lava sequence (Nashar and Catlin, 1959). The dykes are fairly regular bodies varying from a few inches up to several feet in width. They are intruded along joints of the flows. Partly assimilated blocks of Carbon- iferous lavas are of quite frequent occurrence. At various places inland, several dykes have been observed. Generally these are found in excavations where their state of decomposition is quite advanced. : These dykes are intrusive into Permian strata in the Newcastle area and into Mesozoic beds further south. On this evidence, it seems most likely that they were associated with the widespread basalt extrusions of the Tertiary Period. ; 209 Structural Geology The main structural features consist of a number of subparallel synclines and anticlines trending from due north to N 40° W, most of which have been subsequently disrupted by faulting of normal, transcurrent and_ thrust types. FOLDING (i) The Girvan Anticline—The rocks on the western edge of the map dip to the west into the adjoining Stroud-Gloucester Syncline, a structure in which the sequence is closely comparable with that of the area under investi- gation. The Girvan Anticline, which exposes Wootton Beds in its crestal area, is an asym- metrical fold with the beds dipping more steeply on the eastern flank. Nerong Volcanics on the western flank extend south to Port Stephens in a broad arc which suggests probable closure of the fold in that region. On the northern side of the Bulahdelah-Booral road, the anticline loses its simple nature. Faulting has concealed the axis and the eastern limb beneath the Crawford River Fault block. The beds of the western limb exposed in this area dip more steeply than do their southern equivalents. The above faulting, which follows Black Bullock Creek, is assumed to extend down the eastern side of the anticline. Its effects are exposed in the Conger Formation on Bulah- delah Mountain and in view of the probable magnitude of the fault in the north, it seems that a considerable portion of the sequence may have been lost in the vicinity of Bulahdelah Mountain. () The Crawford Anticline—In the region from Purgatory, north to Cabbage Tree Mountain this anticlinal structure is developed. The Crawford Formation is exposed in the crestal area from the Crawford River to the adjoining Myall Syncline. The western limb of this fold is truncated by a fault developed along the Crawford River causing the Crawford Formation to come in contact with Wootton Beds. The southern termination of the anticline is complex. The beds on the eastern limb continue south where they join with the Nerong Volcanics of Bulahdelah Mountain to form the connecting limb between the Girvan Anticline and the Myall Syncline, whilst the beds of the western limb are lost in the thrust fault along the Crawford River. The position of the axis is clear between the head of Black Camp Creek and Purgatory but thereafter its southern termination is conjectural. The position of the > “MSN ‘Q01GSIC Susyde}s Hog-yepepye[nNEg oy} FO dew jeorsojoes Aueduros0e 0} SU0T}IES Z AANDIA-LXAL 4-@ =NOILO3SS 3-G 4 =NOILIAS SNITDILNY Linv3 1inv3 A33Y¥5 Linw3 Linvs GYOIAMVYD BAIN GYOSMVYD ywooting \5v18 11Nw4 NOLLOOM dv S.NVAITINS.O W3A3YND «S,YONAVUL 3NNSNAS T1VAW 3NiTSNAS TIVAW x) Sitios Jaaly Qos. S ] ayDISIW iA JaAly 110AW P4sojyMdI9 yooying 421g ov 'Z, ea6uoy 42359 (x) yal sDevg U0 2} 00AA S,UDAITINS.O aj 4oqwipjoog UIDJUNOW WNW pe aa! SalIW Ul 3109S JOH nv Ava Linvs Linvs Linvs Linvs 43389 H138VZIN3 THYMONNE 3NITDILNY THYMONNG iv13 SYBAVW = SLAVEWV1008 3NIIDNAS V1VAW yooming xov1E8 BNITDILNY NVA8IS | WH 2497 WH 3no0H7007 abuoy | UIDJUNOW 13008 SITIO ajApquipjo0g 5,3]! M3} 490UD]00y JaAly }]DAW ypjapyoing afuoy auippung 210 ivi! : THE v | = | Jo Forster \ WALLIS ae M30 to Ep opzctco] ay atte! wae jorna Point ASF iocth Head 8 Mewcost\e Geological Map of the Bul PACIFIC faungo Brush GNM 80 -LEGEND- QUATERNARY Alluvium and Sand Dunes PERMIAN Bulahdelah Formation Markwell Coal Meosures CARBONIFEROQUS Alum Mountain Volcanics Crowford Formation Nerong Volcanics Conger Formation Wootton Beds Faults - approximate Sa ~ - inferred ie Ss ~ Fold Axes - approximate ee - inferred > Geological Boundaries - approximate ~~ -inferred = =9--~ 0 1 Scale in Miles Qo =] Strike and Dip ~30 Fossil Locality =M6 Roads - Ist Class ~ 2nd Class ahdelah-Port Stephens District GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT _ axis shown on the map is the best interpretation on present evidence. (i) The Myall Syncline—The structure of this fold is well defined by the lithological marker horizons which occur on both sides of the Myall River Valley. The fold appears to close to the north near Upper Myall, this being illustrated by basal Permian conglomerates which swing markedly in their strike, for example, at Markwell the strike is N 15° W whilst at Newell’s Creek it is N 20° E. Due to the steep dips which persist in the area, it is essential to postulate the occurrence of normal faulting. From south to north the axial trend changes from N 25° W to N5°W and back again to N 25° W, the deflection being presumably related to the faulting of the steeper eastern limb. The marker beds on the western side of the syncline bend in a broad arc from Black Camp Creek to the Gap on the Tea Gardens-Bulahdelah road. This feature is not reflected in the eastern limb of the fold which has suffered considerable deformation by faulting. Most of the east flanking Carboniferous beds are in a vertical or near vertical position. (iv) The Bungwahl Anticline—An anticlinal axis east of the Myall Syncline occurs in the Boolambayte Hill area on the northern shore of Myall Lake. Evidence for this fold may be observed in the road section from Hewitt’s Lookout to Bungwahl. Here, beds dipping steeply west (65° W) at the eastern foot of Hewitt’s Lookout are abruptly replaced by shallow dipping beds (20° W) which gradually flatten in the axial region and turn over to dip to the east as far as Bungwahl where a fault has brought them in contact with beds dipping regionally to the west. The position of the axis can be inferred on the southern side of Myall Lake but it does not extend as far north as the Pacific Highway at Wootton. This implies that it has plunged or faulted out in the intervening country or that the fault at Wootton has been responsible for its disappearance. Apart from this small fold, the rocks east of Wootton and Bungwahl dip within the range of 30° to 60° W. This results in the exposure of a large section of Wootton Beds across to the coastline. FAULTING (i) The Crawford River Fault Block—In the Upper Crawford River area, thrust faulting has seriously disrupted the stratigraphic sequence. This is illustrated by the geological cross section D-E where the Nerong Volcanics appear twice 211 in the one section with both exposures dipping to the west. This anomalous structural attitude has been interpreted by placing a thrust fault along both the Crawford River and Black Bullock Creek thus enclosing a wedge of strata which has been called the Crawford River Fault Block. The thrust fault along the Crawford River is inferred from the presence of contorted and pulverized sediments along the river and by the juxtaposition of the Crawford Formation, exposed in the Crawford Anticline, with Wootton Beds which occur to the west and whose strati- graphic position was established by overlying fossiliferous sediments. The sequence in the fault block from east ta west consists of Wootton Beds, Nerong Volcanics and the Crawford Formation, all of which dip to the west. As this sequence is repeated on the western side of Black Bullock Creek forming the eastern limb of the Stroud-Gloucester Syncline it was inferred that thrusting was again responsible for the structural attitude. The linear nature of Black Bullock Creek has led to the placing of the western thrust in that position. This fault is inferred to extend south to the Booral-Bulahdelah road at the western foot of Bulahdelah Mountain where the deforma- tion of the Conger Formation conglomerates provide definite evidence of faulting. (ii) Faulting associated with the Myall Syncline—At the northern extremity of the syncline, a fault has been postulated to explain closure of this fold. Two east trending faults on the eastern limb have brought a wedge of Carboniferous strata towards the axis of the syncline, and there is an unconfirmed possibility that the Alum Mountain ridge has been pushed westwards into its present position. The wedge, bound by the east-trending faults north of Bulahdelah, contains strata in a vertical or overturned position. Some subsidiary folding is present. No evidence has been found to support the contention of Osborne (1950) that Alum Mountain is an horst block bound on both sides by vertical faults. A further anomalous occurrence is that of the Permian. coal measures, within the Alum Mountain Volcanics, south of Bulahdelah. On present evidence these beds are presumed to have been strike faulted into their present position. (111) Faulting east of the Myall Syncline— A strike fault is tentatively placed along Boolambayte Creek to explain the excessive 212 thickness of the Crawford Formation in that area. This position for the fault is supported by the duplication of the Levipustula horizon at M14 (355837 B.) and M1 (442805 B.). Three strike faults have been observed in the Bungwahl-Wootton area. The first of these at Bungwahl brings east dipping beds of the Bungwahl Anticline in contact with west dipping Wootton Beds. The possibility of a synclinal structure in lieu of this fault is con- sidered to be unlikely. The fault in the vicinity of Wootton brings vertical to overturned beds in contact with similar strata which dip at 15° W but which quickly return to the regional dip of 50° W. This fault appears to mark the site of what should have been the northern extension of the Bungwahl Anticline. The third fault is developed at the eastern foot of Hewitt’s Lookout on the Bungwahl- Bulahdelah road where shallow dipping beds (20° W) of the Bungwahl Anticline are overlain abruptly by steeply dipping beds (65° W) of the Lookout Range. It would appear probable that strike faulting is responsible for the change in dip. It is possible that this faulting may be connected with the dislocation of bedding at Wootton. Formation Fauna Johnson's Hill Thamnopora zone Crawford Pelecypod zone M. barringtonensis zone Bull's Bay BRIAN A. ENGEL At Johnson’s Hill on Myall Lake, a sharp swing of strike in the bedding has prompted the placing of a fault between Violet Hill and Johnson’s Hill. This dislocation was previously noted by Carey (1934). Dislocation of bedding indicates the presence of further small faults along the coastline and in some of the offshore islands. Palaeontology In this district, fossils occur abundantly throughout the Crawford Formation and in the upper portion of the Wootton Beds. Thirty- six localities (M1I—M36) were investigated and of these only ten had been previously recorded. The five faunal zones listed below have formed the basis for most of the mapping and correlation. Wootton BEDS Fossils are found mainly in the upper beds and at present the lower portion cannot be divided on the basis of the few contained fossils. Important forms present in the upper beds include Schizophoria sp., Rhipidomella australis (McCoy), Leptagonia sp., Dictyoclostus cf. simplex Campbell, D. cf. paradoxus Campbell, Clezo- thyridina sp., Brachythyns davidu (Dun), B. pseudovalis Campbell, Pustula abbott: Campbell, Hewitt's Boolambayte Crawford Lookout Section Fault Block Bulahdelah Mountain ft 3000 - TEXT-FIGURE 3 A correlation chart for fossil localities in the Crawford Formation GEOLOGY OF THE BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT Daviestella cf. aspinosa (Dun), Wernea cf. australis Campbell, Phricodothyris uniplicata Campbell, Spirifer livellus Cvancara, and Gonio- cladia sp. Collectively the faunas present at M8, M13, M25, M29 and M31 are very similar to those found at Babbinboon (Campbell, 1957), in “Zone U’ of the Barrington Section (Voisey, 1940), and in the horizon on the western limb of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough recently described by Cvancara (1958). It is evident that there is a close palaeonto- logical correlation between these regions which indicates that the Wootton Beds have at least a partial time-rock equivalence with sections that have been previously assigned to the Lower Burindi Series. CRAWFORD FORMATION This formation contains four important zones which can be correlated with established Carboniferous sections. (i) Marginirugus barringtonensis zone—This lowest zone in the Crawford Formation contains the following species: Marginirugus barring- tonensis barringtonensis Campbell, M. 6. alatus Campbell, Tornquistia sp., Lissochonetes sp., ? Rhynchopora sp., Alispirifer sp. and ? Puncto- spirifer sp. This fauna has been found at seven localities on the eastern side, and two on the western side, of the Myall Syncline. Within the Boolambayte Section (Voisey, 1940), M. barringtonensis and its subspecies has been found to occur over a stratigraphic range of some 600 ft. from the base of the Crawford Formation, this being equal to the greatest observed range in both N.S.W. and Queensland. The chonetid which is commonly associated with Margimirugus is provisionally assigned to the genus Tornqumstia Paeckelmann on the grounds of their close internal similarity despite the fact that Tornquistia as originally defined is much smaller than the present specimens. As well as the alate Alispirifer sp., there is a large punctate spiriferid of width up to 6 cm. This is much larger than any other known Punctospirifer and will probably form a new species. (i) Pelecypod zone—At_ several distinct localities, there occur at least two unidentified pelecypods very similar to those contained in the Barrington Section of Voisey (1940). There is no associated fauna. 213 (iii) Lhamnopora zone—This zone is characterized by the coral Yhamnopora sp. together with Alispirifer sp. and Fistulamina sp. The excellent moulds of Zhamnopora sp. belong to a large species which has a branch diameter of from 10 to 18 mm. and a corallite diameter of from 2 to 4mm. (iv) Levipustula zone—This zone has been the subject of a detailed examination by Campbell (1959, 1961) in the Myall Lake area (M1-342805 B.) and near Booral (M9-018840 Dungog). From the various localities in the present area the following important forms have been collected: Alispirifer sp., Neospirifer cf. pristims, Spinuliplica spinulosa, Composita mag- nicarina, Levipustula sp., Booralia ovata, Peruvi- shiva kuttungensis, Streblochondria listion and Australosutura gardneri. It is evident from the study of these faunas that they contain elements of both the Booral fauna (M9) and another fauna recently collected and described by Campbell (personal com- munication) from the Kullatine Series (Voisey, 1938, 1939) near Taree. No further faunas have been located above the Levipustula zone in the present area. Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank Dr. Beryl Nashar, Newcastle University College, Professor A. H. Voisey and Dr. K. S. W. Campbell, University of New England, for their guidance, help and encouragement throughout this investigation. References AUSTRALIAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE, 1959, (8rd Edition), J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 6, 63-70. Benson, W. N., 1913. The geology and petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New South Wales. Part I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 38, 490-517. Booker, F. W., 1940. Progress report on Alunite deposits at Bulahdelah. Ann. Rep. Mines Deft. N.S.W., 1939-45, 75. CAMPBELL, K. S. W., Productid Brachiopods ; Paleont., 30, 463-480. CAMPBELL, K. S. W., 1957. A Lower Carboniferous brachiopod-coral fauna from New South Wales. J. Paleont., 31, 34-98. CAMPBELL, K. S. W., 1959. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Queensland. (Unpublished.) CAMPBELL, K. S. W., 1961. Carboniferous fossils from the Kuttung rocks of New South Wales. Palaeon- tology, 4 (3), in press. CaREY, S. W., 1934. Report on the geology of the Myall Lakes Region. Sci. J. (Sydney University), 13, 42-48. 1956. Some Carboniferous New South Wales. /. 214 CAREY, S. W., AND BROWNE, W. R., 1938. Review of the Carboniferous stratigraphy, tectonics and palaeogeography of New South Wales and Queens- land. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 71, 591-614. CARNE, J. Ej AND Jiones, L. j., 1919.- he limestone deposits of New South Wales. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.., Min. Res., 25, 237-242. CasTER, K. E., 1952. Stratigraphic and paleontologic data relevant to the problem of Afro-American ligation during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 99 (3), 105-152. CvancaRa, A. M., 1958. Invertebrate fossils from the Lower Carboniferous of New South Wales. /. Paleont., 32, 846-888. Davip, T. W. E., 1950. The geology of the Common- wealth of Australia. Vol. I. (Ed. by W. R. Browne), London, Arnold. HarRPER, L. F., 1923. Bullah Delah Alunite. Rep. Mines Dept. N.S.W., 1923, 84. HARPER, L. F., 1924. Aluminium. Bull. Geol. Surv. N.SaW:, 8. HARPER, L. F., 1928. Alunite and Bauxite. Industry, Dept. of Mines, 186. NasHAR, B., AND CATLIN, C., 1959. Dykes in the Port Stephens Area. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.., 93, 99-103. ODENHEIMER, F., 1855. Report to the Australian Agricultural Company. (Private circulation.) _ OsBoRNE, G. D., 1922. Geology and petrography of the Clarencetown Paterson District. Part I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 47, 161-198. OsBORNE, G. D., 1922a. Geology and petrography of the Clarencetown Paterson District. Part II. (Pyo6e) Lainwinsoc. INeSiW.. 47, 521-534. OsBORNE, G. D., 1925. Geology and petrography of the Clarencetown Paterson District. Part IV. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 50, 112-138. OsBORNE, G. D., 1950. The structural evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province, N.S.W. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Monogr. 1. PITTMAN, E: F., 1901. Mineral South Wales, 415. SussMItGH, ©. A... and ‘CLrARKE, W., -1928.. The geology of Port Stephens. J. Proc. Roy. Soe. N.S.W., 62, 168-191. SUSSMILCH, C. A., AND Davip, T. W. E., 1919. Sequence, glaciation and correlation of the Car- boniferous rocks in the Hunter River District, New ssouth Wales. J. Proc. Roy. soc. NSW, Ann. Minerval resources of New 53, 246-338. Hom, Be ol960s as Scion.” Dhesis; UU niversivye. (08 Sydney. (Unpublished.) VoisEy, A. H., 1938. The Upper Palaeozoic rocks in the neighbourhood of Taree, New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 63, 453-467. Voisrty, A. H., 1939. The Upper Palaeozoic rocks between Mount George and Wingham, New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 242-254. VoIsEy, A. H., 1939a. The geology of the Lower Manning District, New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 394-407. VolsEy, A. H., 1940. The Upper Palaeozoic, rocks in the country between the Manning and Karuah Rivers, New South Wales. Pyvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 65, 192-210. VolisEy, A. H., 1945. boniferous sections in New South Wales. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 70, 34—40. Correlation. of ~ some Car- Proc. BRIAN A. ENGEL Appendix A List OF PALAEONTOLOGICAL LOCALITIES M1 —(342805 B.) M 2—(368832 B.) M 3—(362837 B.) M 4 (246911 B.) M 5—(305005 B.) M 6—(482943 B.) M 7—(115677 P.S.) M 8—(058836 B.) M 9—(018840 Dungog.) M10—(090847 B.) M11—(277960 B.) M12—(279981 B.) M13—(156635 P.S.) M14—(355837 B.) M15—(374855 B.) M16—(371831 B.) M17—(372851 B.) M18—(373867 B.) M19—(369870 B.) M20—(369870 B.) M21—(285968 B.) M22—(342930 B.) M23—(339925 B.) M24—(276986 B.) M25—(168647 P.S.) M25a—(180653 P.S.) M26—(152860 B.) M27—(163870 B.) Shore of Boolambayte Lake, opposite and just north of Bombah Point. (Campbell, 1961.) Western side of Johnson’s Hill, Myall Lake. (Osborne, 1950.) Goat Island, Boolambayte Lake. (Carey, 1934.) Bombah Point Road, 150 yards past the old Court House in Bulahdelah. (Pittman, 1901.) O’Sullivan’s Gap. (Voisey, 1940.) Bungwahl township. Bundabah Creek crossing, Tea Gardens-Karuah road. (Osborne, 1950.) Rose Hill Quarry, Booral-Bulah- delah road. Quarry 2 miles east of Booral on Booral-Bulahdelah road. (Osborne, 1950; Campbell, 1961.) Road quarry west of Girvan on Booral-Bulahdelah road. 200 yards up Flooded Gum road, 4 miles north of Bulahdelah. One-half mile on track east of point 2 miles along Koolnock road, 4 miles north of Bulahdelah. Western bank of Kore Kore Creek, 2 miles south of Tea Gardens-Karuah road. Sheep Island, Boolambayte Lake. Southern side of Bull’s Bay, Myall Lake. Eastern side of Johnson’s Hill, Myall Lake. East of Violet Hill, Myall Lake. Northern side of. Bulls) Bay, Myall Lake. One-half mile west along spur on the northern side of Bull’s Bay, Myall Lake. 30 yards west of locality M19. Lower Marginirvugus horizon in Boolambayte Section. (Voisey, 1940.) Western side of Hewitt’s Lookout, Bulahdelah-Bungwahl road. One-half mile west of locality M22 on the same road. Two miles along Koolnock road, 4 miles north of Bulahdelah. Quarry 2 miles north of Tea Gardens on the Tea Gardens- Karuah road. Quarry 2 miles north of Tea Gardens on the Tea Gardens- Bulahdelah road. Road cutting in the Conger Forma- tion on Bulahdelah Mountain. Eastern foot of Bulahdelah Mountain on the Booral-Bulah- delah road. he ses GEOLOGY OF THE: BULAHDELAH-PORT STEPHENS DISTRICT M28—(284966 B.) M29—(141860 B.) M30—(176366 K.) M31—(146858 B.) Upper Marginirugus horizon above M21 in the Boolambayte Section. Road cutting 1 mile west of Bulah- delah Mountain on the Booral- Bulahdelah road. One and a half miles north of Coolongolook on the Pacific High- way. Road cutting at the western foot of Bulahdelah Mountain, Booral- Bulahdelah road. (Received 21 M32—(088063 B.) M33—(086065 B.) M34—(080063 B.) M35—(586988 S.R.) M36 July 1961) (557034 S.R.) 215 Road cutting on the Forestry Commission road from Crawford River to Stroud. As above. Road cuttings on the eastern bank of Black Bullock Creek on the above forestry road. Southern side of the headland at the northern end of Bluey’s Beach. Quarry at the northern end of Booti Hill, Bungwahl-Forster road. Astronomy : Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observ cere during 1960. By W. H. Robertson Minor Planets, Precise Observations of, at Sraney Observatory gone 1959 and 1960. ay W.. Gi. Robertson . Occultations bserred Bi Sedney Observatory during 1959-60. By K. P. Sims Authors of Papers : Bosworth, R. C. L., and C. M. Groden—Conditions for Stability in Chain Reactions Burdon, R. G.—A Note on Selective Fracturing in Vitrain Chappell, B. W.—The Chaneriphy and Sime airal Geology of the Manilla-Moore Creek District, INGS IW. os Donegan, H. A. J. (eee bia the “Mining Industry. (Presidential Address) Dulhunty, J. A., and G. H. Packham—Notes on Permian Sediments in the Mudgee District, N.S.W. : Engel, B. REC Sibey of ene Stephens District, N.S.W. ; Griffith, J. L—On a Group of TEaMEIORnS con- taining the Fourier Transforms Groden, C. M., R. C. L. Bosworth nad Coneiene for Stability in Chain Reactions Lawrence, L. J.—Notes on Some Additional Minerals from the Oxidized Portion of the Broken Hill Lode, N.S.W., with Observations on Crystals of Coronadite Le Févre, R. J. W.—Applications in Chemistry of Properties involving Molecular Polarisability MacCracken, L. G.—Reflection of Plane Waves by Random Cylindrical Surfaces Mackay, Robin M.—The Lambie Group at Mount Lambie. PartI: Stratigraphy and Structure McTaggart, N. R.—The Sequence of Tertiary Volcanic and Sedimentary Rocks of the Mount Warning Volcanic Shield Miller, J., and W. F. Pickering—Some hearehical Studies on the Electro- pr cael of oe ta Compounds on Paper .. Packham, G. H., J-.A. Dulhunty pnaee ors: on Permian Sediments in thie es District, N.S.W. Pickering, W. F., J. Miller ane=eGome aheoretical Studies of the Electro- meen of eae Compounds on Paper .. Prokhovnik, S. J.—The Nature a Light Propa- gation Quodling, F. MA ei Tomacon es tHe Graphical Proof of the Biot-Fresnel Law Roberts, J.—The Geoleey. of the Gresford District, NGS. Wi. Ck. Robertson, W. H. PAV ee terse aseeved at Sydney Observatory during 1960 Bulahdelah-Port INDEX 161 189 153 Robertson, W. H.—Precise Observations of Minor Planets at oe Sea te ae 1959 and 1960 : Sherrard, Kathleen M. = Srarther Notes on ne semblages of Graptolites in New South Wales Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Serie Observatory during 1959-60 Standard, J. C—A New Study of the Hawkesbury Sandstone: Preliminary Findings Vernon, R. H.—The Geology and ce ad of iG Unallaz Area, N.S oan ai Wilkins, C. A.—On the Number of Gales to slow down Neutrons from High Speeds Chemistry : Applications in Chemistry of Properties involving Molecular a eae me Ke. i We Eeicyre= Chemistry and the Anti Fadicean Prendedtal Address by H. A. J. Donegan Some Theoretical Studies on the Bice osnneration of Inorganic Compounds on Paper. By J. Miller and W. F. Pickering - Crystallography : A Useful Variation of the Graphical Proof of the Biot-Fresnel Law. By F. M. Quodling Fuels : A Note on Selective Fracturing in Vitrain. By R. G. Burdon . fe we oe Geology : Broken Hill Lode, N.S.W., Notes on Some Additional Minerals from the Oxidized Portion of the, with Observations on Crystals of Coronadite. By L. J. Lawrence Bulahdelah-Port Stephens District, N.S.W., ee ology of the. By B. A. Engel Gresford District, N.S.W., The Bey of ie: By J. Roberts Hawkesbury Sandstone, ne Nee nae oi thee Preliminary Findings. By J. C. Standard Manilla-Moore Creek District, N.S.W., The Strati- graphy and Structural Pee ‘of the. ae B. W. Chappell Mount Lambie, The amie Group ate eae ie Stratigraphy and Structure. ae Robin M. Mackay Mount Warning Volcanne Sarcl The Seqnence o Tertiary Volcanic and Sedimentary Rocks of the. By N. R. McFaggart Mudgee District, N.S.W., Notes on Permian Sadi ments in the. ze ie ae Piao and G. H. Packham Uralla Area, N.S.W., The esiogs ana Petrology of the, By i: ‘H. Vernon 61 13 197 rigs 145 63 17 218 INDEX Mathematics : Edgeworth David Medal for 1960, Award of .. 102 On a Group of Transforms containing the Fourier Financial Statement for 1960-61 ie .. 104 Transforms. By J. L. Griffith ee 93 Geology, Section of. Report for 1960 .. .. 120 On the Number of Collisions to Slow mown History of the Society, Publication of .. .. 103 Neutrons from ae Pee ae C. A. Library. Report for 1960. ee bi he JOS ° ie eat 4 as a “, eee c ee oll Liversidge Research Lectiee 1960 M4 1 eflection o ne V i Subtaces) eBby ne 1G by Randon 4 43 apa ones yeaa oe ee Awarded lll New England Branch, Formation of oe, LOS Palaeontology : Obituary, 1960 fy POEs HO Further Notes on Assemblages of Graptolites in Officers of the Society for 1961- 62 oe sas ae New South Wales. By K. M. Sherrard Gi Ollé Prize for 1960, Award of a ee o> 10 7 Presidential Address 2 : 47 Physics : Science House Ntanagoeienil Conaniiee. Goniety Reflection of Plane Waves by Random apa Representatives on i 5 ae 3. LOR Surfaces. By L. G. MacCracken .. 43 Society’s Medal, Die for .. oe: .< 103 Society’s Medal for 1960, Award of ya cx TOR Proceedings of the Society : Soil Science Committee a an ue ;. 10% Abstract of Proceedings, 1960 109 Annual Reports by the President and Council, Relativity : 1960-61 .. : - 101 The Nature of ch aco By i. 7]; Clarke Medal for 1961, hates of Se aes Prokhovnik i EY .. oa “Notice to » Authors iP. Ménuseripes hgnld be addressed a sipetereupen.\; Ce eiee are to be cited in. orary Secretaries, Royal Society of “the text by ae ‘the. author’ S name and the aa Science Sioa ed Gloucester _ year. of publication, eg.: Vick (1934); at Two: n script the end of ‘the | paper they should be arranged te alphabetically. giving the author’s name and initials, the year of publication, the title of the ‘ “paper (if desired), the abbreviated title of the ’ ont huis number, and | ‘pages, thus: c, 1934. _Astr. Nach., 253, 277. Be apbreetated form of the title of this journal ae te Proc. Roy. Soc. NOS i ig he Line! Diagrams. | Line diagrams should be made Fath. ‘dense black. ink on ‘either white ead board, blue linen or pale-blue ruled graph ~pa er. ‘Tracing ‘paper is unsatisfactory because ‘tt. as, subj ect to attack by silverfish and also ice . changes’ ‘its shape in sympathy with the atmos- ae ‘. pheric humidity. The thickness of lines and the iF y - size ‘of letters and numbers should be such as eg text: otk poe Photographic reduction without loss WE reeves! possible: Avetibe. or hatOnraohic copies of each diagram should be sent so that : ats originals need not be sent to referees, thus — eliminating possible Haibaee, to the pares while in the mail. te : i ee Preheat | Photographs. | Tmatieydohs' enanta’ bé in- fal sect hl a cluded only where’ essential, should ‘be glossy, ie and for. use in ~ preferably. mounted on white card, and should el gt at show as much. contrast. as possible. Particular mes : . attention should be paid to contrast in photo- sets, i aay bop a gtaphs. of A aa ny and of geological tation on the printed — ve cue id “nol. “be. ruled ‘in. ; Repent! elas | receive 50 copies of ot paper free. Additional copies may be jhiehy ; “purchased provided they are ordered by the | author when pcanatey Bley ee Ce Neo, t Vea # uy i JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME 96 1962-63 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1962-1963 Patrons His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE VISCOUNT DE L’ISLE, v.c., P.c., G.c.M.G., G.C.V.0., K.St.J. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC W. WOODWARD, K.c.M.G., K.C.V.0., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O. President ASSOCIATE-PROFESSOR W. B. SMITH-WHITE, o.a. Vice-Presidents H. A. J. DONEGAN, msc. R. J. W. Le FEVRE, D.sei, &.R.S. BAe. A. F. A. HARPER, M.sc. W. H. G. POGGENDORFYF, B.sc.agr. Honorary Secretaries J, L.-GRIPEPIGCE, B:A;, MSc. ALAN A. DAY, Ph.D., B.Sc. Honorary Treasurer C. L. ADAMSON, B.sc. Members of Council IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. A. H. LOW, ph.p., M.Sc. A. G. FYNN, B.Sc., S.J. H. H. G. McKERN, Msc. N. A. GIBSON, M.sc., Ph.D. Pp. D. F: MURRAY, D.sSceeE en: H. G. GOLDING, M.sc. G. HB. SLADE, BSc: Jj. W. HUMPHRIES, BSc. A. UNGAR, Dipl.ing., Dr.Ing. NOTICE The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. CONTENTS Part 1 Aerodynamics : On the Theory of Two-Dimensional Slotted Wind Tunnels. A. H. Low .. Geology : Zircons in Some Granites from North-Western aaa Germaine A. ae ae Rudowski and M. Abbott A Note on Stratigraphical Nee nie —Riosneteapnts Zones and Time-Rock icone eA W. Crook. . Parts 2-6 Aeronautics : Lawrence Jargrave—An Appreciation. W. Hudson Shaw Astronomy : Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1961. W. H. Robertson Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1961. kK. P. Sims Chemistry : Nucleic Acids, Their Structure and Function. D. O. Jordan Some Chemical and Scientific Problems of the Late Twentieth Century. R. 7. W. Le Feévre The Volatile Oils of the Genus Eucalyptus (Fam. Myrtaceae). 1. Factors Affecting the Problem. jf. L. Wills, H. A. G. McKern and R. O. Hellyer Geochemistry : The Geochemistry of Some Swiss Granites. Th. Hiigi and D. J. Swaine Geology : Upper Devonian Stratigraphy and Sedimentation in the Deg oe! Molong District, N.S.W. | J. R. Conolly Geology of Lord Howe Island. i Cc. Suen _ The History of Vulcanism in the Mullally District, N.S.W. 4. C. Wilshire oe 7 C. rer _ Geophysics : _ The Palaeomagnetism of Peat’s Ridge Dolerite and Mt. Tomah Basalt. G. O. Dickson _ Seismic Investigations on the Foundation Conditions at the Royal Mint Site, Canberra. DV. Hawkins .. | The Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rocks of the Sydney Basin. FE. A. Manwaring 15 aleve 65 133: 141 182 CONTENTS Mathematics : On Mellin Transforms of Functions Analytic in the Neighbourhood of the Origin. Griffith Relativity : The Nature of Light Propagation. /. E. Romain Proceedings of the Society Index Title Page and Contents, Volume 96. Dates of Issue of Separate Parts Part “i: June 29; 1962 Parts 2-6: November 1, 1963 AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY James L. 153 161 163 177 ermaine A. h-Western Queensland. G Gait nit <5 Zones and Time- . ¥ ical Nomenclatur ¥ rook. if a Tue Beets | His EXCELLENCY. THE aia = . (Oe Sours ¥ Waxes, baci SIR ERIC w. EERE _ DONEGAN, M. $0, A HARPER M.Sc. v, A GIBSON, ‘M.SC., Ph. ia : » GOLDING, M.So. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 1-8, 1962 On the Theory of Two-Dimensional Slotted Wind Tunnels A. H. Low School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, Kensington, N.S.W. I. Introduction In his recent book, Woods (1961) has revived the problem of determining the drag on a symmetrical aerofoil placed midway between the parallel walls of a slotted wind-tunnel. Essen- tially, the problem is that of finding the flow past a two-dimensional aerofoil of given shape symmetrically placed in a stream of finite width, 2h ; the average boundary condition on the stream is taken to be, for a wall parallel to the undisturbed direction of the stream, where ¢ is the perturbation potential of the flow in the tunnel ; x is the direction of the undisturbed stream ; 7 is the direction of the outward normal to the wall (and hence to x) ; and A is a constant related to the slot geometry (see Woods (loc. cit.)). Previously to Woods, discussions of this problem have been given by Baldwin, Turner and Knechtel (1954) and Maeder and Wood (1956). In each of these treatments, a similar method is employed. This method may be summarized as consisting of three basic steps : (i) an approximation to the flow (e.g. a doublet representation of the aerofoil thickness etc.) ; (ii) a transform method (Laplace or Fourier) to solve the perturbation problem involved ; and (iii) numerical integration to obtain the interference effects at a suitable point on the aerofoil surface. However, the work of Baldwin, Turner and Knechtel is incomplete to the extent that it deals only with the solid blockage component and neglects the wake blockage. Further, the method of Maeder and Wood only allows the calculation of the blockage at a suitable point on the aerofoil, namely the centre of the aerofoil. The following discussion, which has something in common with each of the methods of the previous investigators, enables the blockage, at any point of the aerofoil surface, to be calculated. The results are found to be in complete agreement with those already established. Also, an alternative method of evaluating an integral which determines the blockage is given in terms of an infinite series of incomplete Gamma functions. It is found that the blockage, in a slotted tunnel, can be eliminated by suitable choice of the tunnel constant A. It is to be expected that, even if the blockage interference vanishes, corrections may still be necessary to the lift and moment forces acting on the aerofoil. These corrections will be discussed in a subsequent paper. 2. Statement of the Problem Figure 1 shows a slender aerofoil, whose surface is symmetrical about the chord line, placed at zero incidence on the centre line of a straight-walled slotted wind-tunnel. The presence of these walls will affect the velocity of the flow over the aerofoil surface and it is the magnitude of this velocity increment, the blockage factor, which will be calculated. If the values appropriate to the flow of an inflnite (free) stream past the aerofoil are denoted by an asterisk and the values at x=-0o by the subscripts -+-oo, then then the blockage factor at any point (x,y) on the aerofoil surface, ¢(x,y), is defined by acy (2) Gree Ngee bo a aa et oe) = Fie: 1 where (9,0) is the velocity vector of the flow in polar coordinates. It is convenient, and moreover loses nothing in generality, to let both g_, and q__ » equal a suitable reference velocity U so that equation (2) becomes 3. Mathematical Formulation It will be assumed that the shape of the aerofoil profile, 0,, is known and is given by 6, (x) =tan-2 (2) ; a (4) where the subscript a denotes values on the aerofoil surface, and that the wake is a semi-infinite solid sting of thickness § attached smoothly to the rear of the aerofoil so as to avoid discontinuities in the flow at the trailing edge. The further assumption of a slender aerofoil permits the use of linear perturbation theory in determining the effects of the tunnel walls on the flow and, as these effects are important at high subsonic speeds to enable the defect of choking to be delayed, it is convenient to use the two- dimensional linearized equation of subsonic compressible (steady) flow (Robinson and Laurmann, 1956, p. 304) eo Pp Pp 1S oti P Ox? a where @ is the perturbation velocity potential and Bt=1— MM, «ge ee (6) M being the Mach number of the flow at infinity upstream (i.e. x=—00). Also, from (4), we then have dy 0) = 2 i Go! © 0: ae, @ V0 “© 0-6, 8 « © ‘s: (o) 6 jolie! alle nets eitstieieuenisule’ (7) Moreover, if 2/ is the tunnel height, symmetry about the tunnel axis, y=0, enables us to regard the flow as being through two adjacent channels of height 4. The solution of the boundary value problem in either of these two channels will determine the flow in the tunnel. Considering the upper channel (see Fig. 1), the problem is to determine the function @ satis- fying (5) as well as the conditions, on taking the origin of the z (=x-+zy)-plane at the aerofoils mid- chord point, do Chg) = — = = he ote tha 8 BE abe 0, ra (8) oy a MM ? | | =0 y=0, |x|> ON THE THEORY OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL SLOTTED WIND TUNNELS 3 4. Determination of the Perturbation Potential The perturbation potential will be determined by means of the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform of the function (x,y) will be defined by the equation = 5 ee eae (uy) =n. played SI i eaitaia eae Sie le hb a Sek (10) oes—|_ (ure irdu. Equations (5) and (10) yield ae ep =p'wrp from which o(u,v) =B(w) cosh (Byun) +C(u) sinh (Byp). 6... eee eee (11) The transforms of equations (8) and (9), using (10), are p+Az—0, vi, SOD Oho Decco Gad 6 (12) and do U C2, . —=—- 14 * * a ov Zl. 0,(% Je 2 ax ) vy 0, OL (6) Tale) el (elmel ie y.0) .6- se Tel eig «me eit e ite (13) respectively. Substitution of (11) in (12) then gives ae 2 sinh (Bh) + cosh (Bh) ? te a PRCcHM MESES Ee ee cee (14) where we have written 1 jae Sige’ foijiet ol ele, of ieiieuis: Veils! ollie” allie) .e)Me! eels Tomey e cal \s\ esi: fe (15) From equations (11) and (13) Ua ts | ee ee *) ptx* * snl. Ce ACh aa ee arte (16) which, together with equations (11) and (14), gives = Gp (ce ie (u..») =n). acre sinh (Bye) Asinh (6iu)+pcosh (Phu) ~~ cosh (Bhu) + sinh (Bh) * cosh (yp) Nay ~ On substituting (17) in (10) we find = ce Cea) On eee (x* — x) Gey) er) —c/2 sinh (8h) ash TAIT), cosh (@iu) +p sinh (Bhy) i 4 AG ELON From (18), or alternatively the form of the integrand in (17), it can be seen that, as u>+00, 1 A sinh (8[4—y]u) +p. cosh (B[/—y]u) _9 _ Iu ) U A cosh (Bhu) +p sinh (Bhp) ene Further, near the origin u=0, provided ,0, 1 Asinh (8[4—y]u)+u cosh (BlA—y]u) A+ UL i cosh (BAw)-+u sinh (Bip) Ko c/2 Hence, as i 0. (x*)dx* converges absolutely, it is permissible to change, for A40, the order —c/2 of the integrations in (18). Thus, we write c/2 a Ne : eu(**—*) sinh (B[A—y]u)-+u cosh (B[h—y] UL A cosh (8hy)+y sinh (Bh) This last equation may be written in the form GIN) a eer “[- Be) lu / Ip —o)2 a ae e~ PA # (| w| —A) cosh on AIG Meo ase and, hence, in order to preserve the convergence of the integral oe ae = —Byu oter)—xea den cos ule) _ [eb —e7 Bi) fein] (4A) cosh (Byy) cos u(x* —x) F | te L E i yw. sinh (Bu) +-A cosh (Bh) | hata eee) Using the results (e.g. Edwards (1922), p. 213) that co e—4% —e—pb% p +6? i) a aS bx dx=4 log | aoe and . 0 OOS a?+q?) I. € Sea ax=% log ae equation (20) becomes c/2 ober) =—3 J. Bil) og [let —x) +8494] —log Bh —M((e*—m.a)aa* 2D where , aay De Cee (et eos icosnemecaley rates ay)=|, i earn (meee Oa sine! (oo) lolol stiroh airoottel oles (22) From (7), cf2 5 i 6 (x*)dx* a cree (23) —c/2 me ee — OO ee ON THE THEORY OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL SLOTTED WIND TUNNELS 9) where 6 is the thickness of solid sting of the wake, so that, on integrating by parts, (21) gives (4,9) = eh log (|< -x| +P*y* —log (Bh) —1 ( f —| 2) a ae ne Tyx([o* Lat = aa x ame ae Tae |p Vip WN wee cc 0 «3 6 wf aM aera TM ian ee flyer g where Lae 5 Cr ch fe Os Rees Se Ps COR ad TW ae ae OO en ee Ree ge (25) The solution of the boundary value problem defined by equations (5), (8) and (9), O(x,¥), say, is clearly of the form DO SO RC 8 iain orks te he ota ane ie was (26) where 0(%,/) is given by (24) and C isa constant. The appropriate value of C can be found from the condition that the limit, as h->0oo, of O(x,y) exists. That is, from (22), (23) and (25), so that we may write (x,y) -2i1 log ( E —x| +6421 |$ 2 y) ON is ( x — x we Mi * x]? Bey? 0) ae I «([x* —x],y) me Qu R * — bo ice) — where 9(%,v) has been written, without ambiguity, for O(x,y). 5. The Blockage Factor The value of @ pertaining to an aerofoil in a free stream, @*, is obtained from (28) by taking the limit 4->0o; thus, 6 : 22 9 ie * u* —X | y) p*(%,9) = sal ee oe ee Oe peer neniaget ' --++ (29) The increment to the perturbation potential due to the presence of the tunnel walls is then given by ie c/2 ; ote9) Mea) = 59431 E —x| ») —2 yale Tell —x],y)dx* . .... (30) Therefore, from (3), € =a! AE —| y) =|] 5 OU aL (bee —x) ghd. essere (31) Since the blockage factor is defined for points on the aerofoil surface it follows that, for a slender aerotoil, we may take y=0. A further simplification can be obtained by assuming that a Gl (an assumption consistent with practical wind-tunnel investigations) so that terms of higher order 2 than (;) may be ignored. The determination of the blockage factor then depends on the evaluation of the functions r,(|S —| 0) and Iy*,([x*—%x],0). 6 AVEC LON: To this end, we put s F p=hu | an Be (32) ran in equation (22). That is, Ca eats (p—Bha) cos (af) 1a)=| ty ee ee ap. ove! 6) alte, we nemeliaeioh atts (33) | The derivatives, of all orders, with respect to a of I(a), as given by (33), are uniformly convergent — so that we may write I(a) =1(0) +aI'(0) ei *(0) +0(@5) 2... 4.5... (34) where I')(a) = = {I(a)}. From (33), i aes p—Bin Sf . -| » p Ut psinh p+BM cosh p)” say otal Le Oe ee [(2n) (0) =(—1) i" ennenrsann coskon n=1 Dey Pee eee een) and [t2n—1)(0) = 0, M=152,.6.5 deena ech Ges See (36) Equation (34) becomes, using (22), (32) and (36), x —X% ” I([2*—2],0) =1(0) + Fae I"), . “KF—X% to second order in Bh and therefore © C Tas r(|§ —| 0)= a2 1 hid (\) Sree 8 ro (37) and | eae pS 2g (38) KEX 5 == Nal = R272 aS vanid, © 6, 0 0) 0 16. elves onion Ronen ete are Motte From (35), it can be seen that /”(0) converges uniformly for A>0. Substituting (37) and (38) in (31) we have that stp [§ —* [8-42.20 Lt (39) where A, is the area of cross-section of the aerofoil and [”(0) is given by (35). Equation (39) is identical with that obtained by Woods (1961) and is in agreement with the results of the other investigators. The more usual form for the blockage factor can be obtained by using the relation between the ~ thickness of the wake, 3, and the drag, D, on the aerofoil, namely (Robinson and Laurmann, 1956, p. 161), ON THE THEORY OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL SLOTTED WIND TUNNELS Defining the drag coefficient, Cy, by the equation 1D) Ca TRO wa rr ee ca (41) we have, from (40) and (41), _ cp OS or ee eee ee eee (42) Therefore, from (39) and (42), = 1 CG. cE -x| ” Oe Beh? a ; =) I (0) SH oon soo dD oO OOOO C (43) 6. Evaluation of the Blockage Factor For the evaluation of the blockage factor in a particular tunnel, the value of /”(0) is required and the value of this function, in turn, depends, as can be seen from (35), on the parameter A It is, therefore, convenient to obtain a series expansion for J"(0) to appropriate to the tunnel. enable calculation of its value for any value of A (+0). An expansion can be obtained by writing (35) in the form rm og J nol] (PBB nm v—>0 y) Ux) ae +(e) e—2mpt. |, Jar. This becomes, on letting g=f+ AA, * 2 ge—24 (1 — am) (1 — a) I’ (0) = —2e26% lim v—>0 v+BhA q 9 r+(1- 720) eoie—20 4. q >) n +(1- eanbiie—angt | | dq. «... (44) Equation (44) may be expressed in terms of the incomplete Gamma function I'(a,~) defined by (Erdelyi, 1953, p. 266) riax)=| CAT Ui iita ako aha a Mae ee ec ee (45) x and we find | am E D(2,2(0 +1) BAA) ”(0) = —2¢e28 > eee I"(0) =—2e2 Be x pip? 4°) 92r-3( 441)r-2(2n 1-44) A a v7=1 ! T(2—7,2(n +ypi) t ete tre, Sree Te 8 Ae. EL OXY, From (45) it is easily shown that (i) [(a,x) =x2-1e-*-+(a—1)T(a—1,x) G23 45 ee (iit) oN (ie) ee es Cartan pill (iii) Dee ae — 21(—(a—1),2) a1 2) aes and, by definition (Erdelyi, op. cit., p. 267), (iv) D(0,4)=—E,(—%), where —£,,(—x) is the exponential integral. These four properties, together with (46), allow the determination of /”(0) from tabulated functions. 7. Special Values of the Slot Parameter With completely open walls A=0 (see, for example, Woods (1961)) so that from (15) A=oo. Using the result (Erdelyi, op. cit., p. 278) that, for large | x |, ! N aR T(2—1,x) =e-2 & (—1)e Dagar 4 0( 4% |-7—"—N) Ni =0)12) ee n=O : ['(vy+n—1) where (7y—1),= , equations (46) and (47) yield P(v—1) : = 1 ro=3 5} That is; 2 I"(0)= on iio! (48) Substituting (48) in (43) gives the well-known result for the blockage in an open wind-tunnel (Woods, 1955) __ TC y ‘) aes “~~ 968372" 2) 4883/2" For a completely closed (solid wall) wind-tunnel A=oo and A=0. Equation (46) gives, in this case, (ee) al t 2 " Oe Neel See yee, tt Wale Se oe: Dae 12} Substituting this value in (43) we find C noCp( x <} mae €=——_____—_ + —_*_, 488%)? 2483/2 References BALpDwIn, B. S., TURNER, J. B., AND KNECHTEL, E.D., MaerpeEr, P. F., and Woop, A. D., 1956. Z.A.M.P., 1954. N.A.C.A. Washington, Tech. Note 3176 Ih ALTE Epwarps, J., 1922. The Integral Calculus. Macmillan Ropinson, A., AND LauRMANN, J. A., 1956. Wing and Co., London. heony-: ChU-2 ErDELY1, A. (Ed.), 1953. Higher Transcendental Woops, L. C., 1955. Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 233, 74. Functions, Vol. 1. McGraw-Hill, New York. Woops, L. C., 1961. Subsonic Plane Flow, C.U.P. (Received October 9, 1961) yu L Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 95, pp. 9-13, 1962 Zircons in Some Granites from North-Western Queensland GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, R. RUDOWSKI, AND M. ABBOTT - Geophysics Department, Australian National University, Canberva, A.C.T. (G.A.J. & R.R.) ; and Geology Department, University of New England, Avmidale, N.S.W. (M.A.) Introduction Nine Precambrian granitic bodies have been mapped and formally named in North-western Queensland (Carter, Brooks and Walker, 1961), and though most of them are probably magmatic granites, Joplin and Walker (1961) have suggested that the southern end of the Wonga Granite, north of Duchess, and a part of the Sybella Granite, near Waverley Creek, have a metasomatic origin. Poldervaart (1950) has suggested that statistical studies of zircon in granites might prove useful as a criterion in distinguishing magmatic and metasomatic granites, and it was decided to apply this method to the granites of North-western Queensland. The work was commenced by Abbott, whilst working as a vacation student at the Australian National University. He examined a number of specimens of the Kalkadoon Granite, and as this gave promising results it was decided to continue with other specimens. Measurements of zircon, according to methods used by Poldervaart (1955, 1956), were then continued by Rudowski, but before much work had been done, all Abbott’s results and most of the granite specimens from this area were lost in a fire. However, we continued with the limited material that was available, and as our results appear to have some significance and we are unlikely to do further collecting in this area, we present them in the hope that they may prove of some use to those who may consider it worth while continuing with this study. Of the nine granitic masses mapped and named our specimens come from only four, there being only a single specimen of three of them and three specimens of the Kalkadoon Granite. One of the specimens from an area mapped as Kalkadoon Granite (K,) comes from a mass that Joplin and Walker (1961) have suggested may be a southern continuation of the Wonga Granite. The specimens examined for zircon come from : The Kalkadoon Granite (K,) Duchess-Dajarra Road. 17 miles south-west of Duchess and 3-8 miles south-west of Butru Railway Siding. (Ss) 20 miles south of Duchess and 11 miles from Mayfield Homestead. (K,) Kurbayia Railway Siding, Mt. Isa- Duchess Road, 22 miles from Mt. Isa. The Williams 27 miles east-south-east of Selwyn, Granite North McKinlay River. The Naraku Police Water Hole, Urquhart Creek, Granite about 5 miles south-east of Quamby on Quamby-Cloncurry Road, 22 miles from Cloncurry. 8 miles north of Duchess and east of Lady Fanny Mine. The Wonga Granite Separation and Mounting About 3,000 gm. of each specimen were crushed in a jaw crusher, and then ground to pass through a 100 mesh B.S.S. sieve, and about 200 gm. of each was then superpanned. From each of these, three concentrates were obtained, and each was treated separately on an iso- dynamic separator, and finally concentrated by boiling in concentrated hydrochloric acid. Aliquot parts of the three fractions, so obtained, were separately mounted in Lakeside cement, and the best mount, that contained at least 300 zircons, was selected for measurement. This method of separation gave a high degree of purity (about 90°), and in most samples 300 zircons could be found quite readily. Observations and Measurements Observations were made on colour, inclusions, zoning, crystal form and perfection, overgrowths and rounding; and measurements were made on length and breadth. In all six specimens examined most of the zircons were colourless or light yellow though many of these were clouded with dark fibrous 10 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, R. RUDOWsSKI AND M. ABBOTT inclusions. No hyacinths nor malacons were observed, though a few light brown zircons were present in most specimens, the Kalkadoon Granite (K,) containing 12 of the 300 zircons observed, the Williams Granite 11, and the others less. Zoning is a very common feature and with the exception of the Wonga Granite, unzoned zircons are in the minority. The Wonga Granite contained 45%, zoned, the Kalkadoon (K,) 53% zoned and the percentage of zoned crystals in the other granites ranged from 70-90%. In all specimens zircons showed perfect crystallization and no corrosion. A_ large number of the zircons are prismatic and _ bi- pyramidal, but many also show a basal pinacoid and have only one pyramidal termination. Overgrowths are not common, but from 2% to 3% have been observed among the zircons of each specimen examined. As may be seen in the following table rounding of the zircons is present in all specimens, but is most prominent in the Wonga Granite (see also Fig. 1). =e) 38 : ‘ Sis Sis - ie sz “328 8 S fe = | > wa Silas 4o aS } i Kalkadoon Granite (1 65 — 14 = (2) 155 —— 19 — (3) tee ce 64 1 34 — Williams Granite 105 2 25 = Naraku Granite.. 87 6 2? —— Wonga Granite .. 106 = 134 3 Reference to Figs. 2 and 3 will show that the elongation ratio of unsorted zircons is approxi- mately 2 in the case of the Kalkadoon Granites (1) and (2) and slightly over 2 in the Williams Granite, but in the Naraku, Kalkadoon (3) and Wonga Granites the maximum lies between 1 and 2; moreover in these same three granites the histograms (Fig. 3) show that the maxima of the different length ranges are almost co- incident, whereas they differ slightly in the William and Kalkadoon (1) and (2) Granites. Further, reference to Fig. 3 will show that the length range, c, 0:004-0:06 mm, is the most common in all granites except the Wonga, and in the Naraku and Kalkadoon (1) and (2) Granites the length d, 0:06-0:08 mm, is the next most common. The range 0, 0:02-0:04 mm, is present only in the Kalkadoon (3), Naraku and Williams Granites and though only a very small number of crystals ranging in length from 0-12-0-4mm (i.e. g) are present in all granites, this length of crystal is relatively common in the Wonga Granite. Furthermore, the Wonga Granite contains a number of Fie. | Zircons from two granites showing ee in rounding of crystals. 11 ZIRCONS IN SOME GRANITES FROM NORTH-WESTERN QUEENSLAND |kado Wonge Granite G fanite 7 1'O ale ilk Bone —— O 5z.0 ane) gO-0E aoe eS + ” an) O ASUSND Ag i O an ee BO-0E © AsouenbessjO oo O O aN] = a, VIkO fo) E J 80:O€ © Aouenbss4 O woe O O Si N — rea) _—.. (28) =| rat : © Aduanbasy O on, O O fat! — van as re ee eee be OE ‘aue) 3 ZOO a BE O O O © Kouenbas4 © = bet AGH®) O Kouanbas4 2 O Oo ©) Be “ = | Y ! a © O = o Aouanbasy O i Q) = Fe faa) — Bs =a Fe 5 Aouenbes 4 2 O © Aeuenbs10 ) O O ; a Y rI-O mt bd yO:O oO OE 80:0 E co BO-OE ACYS) O fduenbes4O eo S fee at ¥1-O VIO : | SOO= GOOF 4 CF) = ZOO = 2 0 Aduanbos4 . Ae Kouanbas4 O Bere) . a : ) © = 3 5 a9) eee 3 —_— 2 a e = N a x = nN = zi eb e ouen 3445 ©) ¥ O fduanbes4O ae oO O rot he Zircon size frequency curves. 12 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, R. RUDOWSKI AND M. ABBOTT © 1S Kalkadoon Granite a No.| No.3. (.©;© Wonge Granite Kalkadoon Granite No, 2 lOO (oe <— een == — =e O O = | | Z 3 4 Fic. 3 Histograms showing elongation ratios of crystals of different length ranges. a—unsorted crystals, b—(0-02-0:04 mm), c—(0:04—0:06 mm), d—(0-06—0:08 mm), e—(0-08—-0-10 mm), f—(0-10-0-12 mm), g—(0-12-0-14 mm), h—(0:14-0-16 mm), i—(0-16-0-18 mm), j—(0-18—-0-20 mm). 9 The range “‘ g’’ occurs in all granites, but as there are very few crystals of this size in all granites, except the Wonga, these curves have been omitted for the sake of clarity ; similarly the size range “7? has been omitted in the histogram of the Wonga Granite. ZIRCONS IN SOME GRANITES FROM NORTH-WESTERN QUEENSLAND 13 Ge 1OO Se a eos eee oe ee er ~— ee ee ee Se ey “N = = . : LSE x St . ot AP HK HK RK RO WE eine ape Ae oct rae 4 S te — > Fig. 3—continued crystals of still greater length ranging from h, 0-14-0:16mm, 7, 0-16-0°18mm, and 7, 0-18-0-20 mm. Conclusion This work is only a beginning to the study of zircons in the granites of North-western Queens- land and no final conclusions can be reached. It can be pointed out, however, that the elongation ratio seems to suggest that some of the zircons in the Wonga, Naraku and Kal- kadoon (3) Granites may be of sedimentary origin, and that this ratio might be even lower in the Wonga Granite had not the original zircons been so elongated. Furthermore, it is shown that the Wonga Granite differs from the others in containing these elongated zircons and also in containing a fewer number of zoned zircons. The Kalkadoon Granites (1) and (2) are very similar, yet (2) comes from an area that (Received 10 Joplin and Walker (1961) believe to be Wonga Granite. Their assumption was based on the examination of a number of slides and several modal analyses, and though the idea cannot be outruled by the examination of zircon in a single specimen, it is obvious that this area should be more closely examined. References CaRTER, E. K., BROOKES, J. H., AND WALKER, K. R., 1961. The Precambrian Mineral Belt of North- western Queensland. Bur. Min. Res. Aust., Bull. 51, 1-350. Joprin, G. A., AND WALKER, K. R., 1961. The Precambrian Granites of North-western Queens- land. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 72, (2), 21-57. POLDERVAART, A., 1950. Statistical Studies of Zircon as a Criterion in Granitization. Nature, 165, 574-575. POLDERVAART, A., 1955. Zircon in Rocks. I. Sedi- mentary Rocks. Amer. J. Sci., 253, 433-461. PoLDERVAART, A., 1956. Idem. II. Igneous Rocks. Tbid., 254, 521-554. October 1961) ft . 4 1 . —— . ‘ ' . * * : * . a ' = = 3 . : ’ ' + ~ . = - - + . bs ~ ‘ & o « a ‘ - = Z - . . oa - « > ‘ ~ =. a - = - Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 15-16, 1962 A Note on Stratigraphical Nomenclature-- Biostratigraphic Zones and Time-Rock Stages k. A. W. Crook Geology Department, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. Stratigraphy in Australia took a valuable step forward with the general recognition that rock units differed fundamentally from time- rock units. The value of recognizing a similar distinction between biostratigraphic and time- rock units deserves consideration. In this connection Chappell’s recent treatment (Chappell, 1961) of part of the Tamworth Group, in which he erects three biostratigraphic units which he terms “ stages ’’, is most thought- provoking. The Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomen- clature (1959), which defines “stage’’ as a time-rock unit, devotes only four lines to biostratigraphic units (zones), under the heading eelinie and lLime-Rock Units’’, in which no clear definition of a biostratigraphic unit is given. This perhaps reflects a tendency among Australians to think that biostratigraphic zones and time-rock stages are virtually synonymous— for are not the Ordovician graptolite zones of Victoria used to subdivide the Ordovician System into Series and Stages ? If this virtual identity between time-rock units (stages) and biostratigraphic units (zones) Were true in every case, there would be no cause for concern. However, the virtual identity in the case cited above is accidental, and depends on the graptolite zones being zones of the “ time-concordant ’’ type. There are other zones, mostly of local significance, which are ecologically controlled and are _ time-trans- gressive (Young, 1959). A biostratigraphic unit is to the palaeontology of a sequence what a lithostratigraphic (rock) unit is to its lithology: a mappable, objective unit without any necessary time connotation. A time-rock unit, although delimited by bio- stratigraphic units, involves a subjective judge- ment that the biostratigraphic units are of the “ time-concordant’’ type. Our knowledge of the faunas of the Tamworth Group is not yet sufficiently detailed to enable a judgement to be made in the case of the units Chappell has termed “stages’’. The term “assemblage-zone’’ (American Code, 1961) would seem more apt for these entities, and would eliminate the possibility of confusion which the time-connotation of “stage’’ might cause. An expansion of the article on zones in the Australian Code would seem highly desirable. This could define biostratigraphic units, describ- ing the various varieties, and could distinguish them from time-rock units. The terms Creek Limestone ’’, ‘““Sulcor Limestone ’’, ‘“ Loomberah Limestone ”’ and ‘‘ Nemingha Limestone’’ were originally proposed for rock-units, although they were distinguished from each other chiefly on palaeon- tological grounds. Later work enabled the recognition of three of them (all but Sulcor Limestone) by their stratigraphic positions, and these three are now formally defined rock units (Crook, 1961). Their usage in Chappell’s area, in those places where neither mappable con- tinuity with the type sections nor similarity of position within a recognized sequence can be established, should in my opinion be considered informal, as it involves a confusion between lithostratigraphic (rock unit) correlation and biostratigraphic correlation. ‘“ Moore ) Units correlated stratigraphically solely on the basis of fossils should not bear the same rock unit names; they should share a_ bio- stratigraphic unit name. Thus the obvious faunal relationships between the limestones in the Tamworth Group should be expressed by referring them to appropriate ‘‘ assemblage JP} ZONES The faunal assemblages recognized by Hill (1942) make available a basis for such a nomen- clature. Thus the limestones encompassed by the names “‘ Moore Creek Limestone Member ”’ ‘““Crawney Limestone Member’’ and ‘“ Timor Limestone’ (Crook, 1961) and “‘ Moore Creek Stage ’’ (Chappell, 1961), along with any other unnamed limestones bearing the same fauna, 16 KAS W. should, I consider, be described formally as “Limestones of the Samnidophyllum davidis Assemblage Zone’’, rather than as “ Moore d ) Creek limestones ”’’. References AMERICAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE, 1961. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 45, 645-665. AUSTRALIAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE, 1959. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 6, 63-60. (Received 10 CROOK CHAPPELL, B. W., 1961. The Stratigraphy and Structural Geology of the Manilla-Moore Creek District, N.S.W. 95, 63-75. CROOK, K. A. W:, 19 worth Group (L Tamworth-Nundle Roy. Soc. N.S.W. Hii, D., 1942. The J. Proc. Roy.” Sog> NS. ae 61. Stratigraphy of the Tam- ower and Middle Devonian), District, N.SIWIpgC) Prog , 94, 173-188. Devonian Rugose Corals of the Tamworth District, N.S.W. J. Pyoc. Roy. Soe N.S.W., 76, 142-164. Youne, K., 1959. Te Texas Cretaceous. October, 1961) AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY chniques of Mollusc Zonation in Amer. J. Sci., 257, 752-769. | S oiviig he author’s s name and the ear of publication, e.g.: Vick (1934); at th of the paper they should be arranged alpt ally giving the author’s name and he year of publication, the title of the f desired), , the abbreviated title of the oe tarot il aan and ad thus : = Sree ie “dense ee ink on ae ‘white ' ‘bristol board, blue linen or pale-blue ruled graph ‘paper. Tracing. paper is unsatisfactory because t is” subject to. attack ‘by silverfish and also changes its shape in sympathy with the atmos- pheri c humidity. The thickness of lines and the ize of letters and numbers should be such as : Pele eaipaphc. reduction without loss of detail. : on Whenever pete. dyeing’ or photoreabhic seme ek - copies of each diagram should be sent so that ne usion of - the originals need not be sent to referees, thus ie sie Bone eliminating possible Renee to the diagrams dress — Dae ile in the mail. ae Photographs. Giggiavts should be in- cluded only where essential, should be glossy, preferably mounted on white card, and should show as much contrast as possible. Particular ee attention should be pes to contrast in photo- \ se ee Authors receive 59 copies of each paper free. Additional copies may be purchased ‘provided they are ordered by the : thor when. Ee galley-proofs. V es rs Y gh CONTENTS es Armin Ww. “Hudson Shaw . we, es se Sh eee S / ilis, a. ae G Mekern and B ae eel eee es SS 0 cat = * and "Sedimentation in “the ‘Wellington-Motong District, me oe re on the I F oundation Conditions at the ap ee Mint Site, Canberra. Ser . heb . ee James L. Ww. H. Teeon pee ea he Pe Sims! a Genus Eucalypius (Fam. Myrtaceae), =F Srateots Affecting Site of Some ee re a me and De fi Swaine Se of Peat’s 1 Ridge L Dolerite ani Mt. Tomah Basalt? GO; Dickson .. . tis 1 of Somé neous Ki Rocks of the 1 Sydney 1 Basin. E. 4. 1. Manwaring ere —_ ee A re i!) 65 oe a _ts ExcnuEncy THE Seen rea OF = Cove oe pee ers , Ci, GiC.M.G. r a ak Bese e: oe " Assocrats-Prorssson Ww. B. ae % : ot ee is oe ee ce ie a ‘Vice-Presidents “ HOA i a: DONEGAN, Pn a cate pe s A. F, A. HARPER, se. £ ag ee egestas he ee "Honorary Secretaries _ sen a L. GRIFFITH, B.A, M.Sc, S pee VATA S ve IDA ‘A. BROWNE, p. so iy é ~ SASGSEYNN, ise, 2S.J. 3 ee oN AG ‘GIBSON, M.Sc., nee re -H. G. GOLDING, misc. — tere Sees ae Ww. HUMPHRIES, B.So. : _ of ‘Nye ee : e “ Australian cea . ~ changed to the “‘ Pilosgphi figs ge: esty Que ict on 5 Soct eB Act of Panisment of h’ Wales : -, ak ae pa et FRIES Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 17-30, 1963 Lawrence Hargrave—An Appreciation* W. HUDSON SHAW Qantas Empive Atrways, Lid., Sydney Tonight we are concerned with the past, so I want you to step with me into the time machine and travel back into the middle of the last century to enable us to picture the background essential to our story and better understand the difficulties and so make a more reasonable judgment of the events. Victorian Engiand is in its heyday. The middle class has come into its own. Their splendidly equipped riders and carriages crowd the roads. The horse is still the chief medium of transport, but the railways are beginning to take over. The motor car is fifty years away. The candle is the main light source. On the Thames, some miles from London, lies Greenwich, made famous by Samuel Pepys and Christopher Wren, and our journey ends at a rather severe Georgian house on a grey day, the 29th of January in the year 1850. We arrive just in time to hear the cries of a new-born child. Lawrence Hargrave’s career has begun. He comes from a long line of Yorkshiremen who are thought to have come to England from Holland in the seventeenth century. Huis father is a London barrister. Shortly after Lawrence is born, the Hargraves move to nearby Otford. In 1856, doctors advise Lawrence’s father to go to Australia for health reasons. That he decided to stay on after his recovery and became a prominent judge and one of the giants of the early political life of N.S.W. is another story. Lawrence, at the age of 16, decided to follow his father and arrived in N.S.W. in 1866. The judge proposed a law course for his son, and after about a year’s study and a failure to matriculate, it was decided that his future lay elsewhere. In 1868 we find him in the drawing office and later in the workshops of the Australian Steam Navigation Company, where, for the next four years, he learned much that was to be * Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5 December, 1962. Opinions expressed are not necessarily those of Qantas Empire Airways, Ltd. A fundamental in his future career. He, in the company of 75 other young men of Sydney town, in 1872 chartered the unseaworthy brig Mara to search for fame and fortune in New Guinea. The wreck of this ship on the Barrier Reef and his part in two other New Guinea expeditions is yet another story. 1877 and 1878 were important years for young Hargrave as they saw him settling down in a steady job with the Sydney Observatory, become a member of the Royal Society of N.S.W. and his marriage to Margaret Preston Johnston. For many years Hargrave had been thinking deeply about the possibility of human flight. The thought was probably born by his observations of the albatross encountered in the “ Roaring Forties ’” on his voyage out from England. It is known that he devoted a good deal of his spare time to watching bird flight and also the study of the movement of snakes, fishes and ocean waves. This study resulted, in 1882, in the production of his famous Trochoidal Theory of Serpentine propulsion. A year later he made the important decision to devote his life’s work to the conquest of the air, and as he then had sufficient income to be self-supporting, he resigned from the Observatory. Huis first paper on the Trochoidal Plane was read to the Royal Society of N.S.W. in 1884. Judge Hargrave, Lawrence’s father, passed away after a prolonged illness in 1885. In this year, Lawrence built his first home, a block of three terrace houses with four floors in Rushcutter’s Bay Road. He occupied No. 40 and it was from this home that all his important work on model aeroplanes was carried out. The terrace is still standing, but the street has been renamed Roslyn Gardens. In 1892 his only son, Geoffrey, was born, and the following year the family, consisting of four daughters, son, nurse and governess, moved to Stanwell Park to a house left to him by his brother, Ralph. This move was made partly to reduce expenses, partly to obtain steady winds and 18 permit experiments into supporting surfaces to be made without interruption from the public. It was at Stanwell Park that the famous Box Kite was conceived and developed in 1893. The whole family left for England in February, 1899. High costs, lack of opportunity and interest in his work caused them to return to Sydney after a stay of only six months. The family, now growing up, were no longer prepared to accept the isolation of Stanwell Park, so they occupied another of the terraces in Roslyn Gardens, this time No. 44. Hargrave’s experi- ments were well into the third stage of engine development so that the decision to live in Sydney had some advantages as materials and foundries were close at hand. It meant, however, a most unfortunate rise in living costs. Hargrave was still hopeful that he would soon be building a full-size aeroplane. As flight trials were to be made on water, the land at the end of Woollahra Point was acquired for this purpose and a house of three floors built and occupied in 1902. The house is still standing near the end of Wunulla Road, Point Piper, and apart from being converted into two flats is little changed. The period which followed was undoubtedly the most frustrating of his whole life. His continuing efforts to produce a satisfactory engine were unsuccessful. His carefully con- sidered and well supported theory that the Spaniards had discovered the east coast of Australia in 1595 was ridiculed. Unfortunately, time does not permit me to more than mention this fascinating subject tonight. His plan for the Port of Sydney appears to have been ignored. His only son, Geoffrey, was killed in action at Gallipoli on the 24th May, 1915. Lawrence Hargrave passed away two months later, on the 16th July, at Lister Hospital, as a result of acute peritonitis. I hope that this brief background will assist in your understanding of the events I am about to relate, which have been arranged in the following order : (1) A series of slides showing Hargrave’s major inventions in chronological order. ) association with your Society. ) Highlights of his aeronautical work. ) Background on personality. ) His attitude to his work and patents. ) Some inconsistencies. ) Clearing up some misunderstandings. ) Vision. ) His place in aeronautical history. W. HUDSON SHAW Major Inventions The following slides have been made from Hargrave’s records to provide some idea of his achievements : Slide 1. Shoes for walking on water 1870 2. One-wheel velocipede 1871 3. Screw-driven airship 1872 4. Mechanical snakes 1882 5. Trochoided boats .. 1883 6. Manpower operated flapper test ubgrge a 1887 7. First propeller driven flying machine 1888 8. Three cylinder radial engine 1889 9. Wave-propelled vessel 1891 10. Some early model flying machines 1893 11. First box kite designs 1893 12. First full size monoplane- glider .. 1894 13. Design of steam turbine for an aeroplane .. 1895 14. Jet propeller engine—steam 1895 15. Second design for full size powered aeroplane—on floats 1896 16. Third design for full size powered aeroplane—on floats 1902 17. Compressed air motor contra rotating propellers quatre plane .. 1904 18. 18-foot steel hulled boat . 1906 19. Design for deep water a Sydney 1906 20. One wheel car 1907 Royal Society Lawrence Hargrave became a member of the Royal Society of N.S.W. in 1877 and contributed the remarkable total of 24 papers. The papers were printed and sent to many parts of the world and were largely responsible for Hargrave’s work being known in other countries. It is indeed a pity that a contemporary account does not exist of members’ reactions to a Hargrave lecture. Newspaper cuttings of the time do not do justice to these sometimes exciting occasions. Perhaps we can picture the scene in “ The Society’s House ”’ with the small hall filled with serious, bewhiskered gentlemen. Hargrave’s report of one such occasion con- cludes: “I will now wind up the machines and let them speak for themselves. . .if one of them threatens to strike any gentleman present, would he kindly hold up his hands—so—this will stop the flight and the machine will fall harmlessly to the ground.” Aeronautical Work—Model Period I think it would be safe to say that this was the most productive and satisfying period of Hargrave’s aeronautical experiments. | Work LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 19 commenced in earnest in 1883 and was spread over ten years. During the majority of this time, aviation experiments elsewhere were at a standstill. Even if it cannot be said with any certainty that the success of Hargrave’s experi- ments triggered off the important work of Lilenthal, Pilcher and Chanute in the 90’s, it is certain that they gained a great deal of encouragement from his work and his unselfish sharing of his discoveries. The record is an impressive one. Hargrave demonstrated conclusively the practicability of flight by designing and building of some 50 model flying machines up to 10 feet in length. The majority of these machines were powered by india rubber on a most ingenious and original principle and obtained their thrust from flapping wings. The movement of the wings represented the mechanical reproduction of his conception of the action of a bird’s wing in flight—the trochoical principle discovered in 1882. He stated his case for flappers on the Ist June 1892, as follows: 1. Currents initiated by the up stroke increase the efficiency for the down stroke. 2. Only one cylinder needed for both flappers. (Referring, of course, to a compressed air motor.) 3. No tendency to veer. 4. Less liability to damage on landing. His first steam engine was built in 1888, but this was not a success. Then followed a number of different types of compressed air engines of ingenious design. The hollow wooden spar which formed the body of the elastic powered machines gave way to a lghtweight metal tube which also formed the container for the compressed air. Engine cylinders were made of tin and were of single and triple cylinder types. His famous three-cylinder radial rotary engine was invented in 1889. The greatest distance flown by an elastic powered machine was 270 feet, and 368 feet by a compressed air model. Difficulties in experimentation are indicated by the following extract from a letter dated 8th December, 1891: “‘ No. 16 has just been tried and wrecked for the 5th time, there was a terrible smash ; however, no real advance can be made without flying the machine free so I plod on with renewed stubbornness.” At the conclusion of a paper to this Society on Ist July, 1891, Hargrave said: ‘‘ It may be said that it is a waste of time to make machines of such small capacities and no practicable good can come of them. But we must not try too much at first, we must remember that all our inventions are but developments of crude ideas, that a commercially successful result in a practically unexplored field cannot possibly be got without an enormous amount of unre- munerative work.” One of the many interesting developments of this period was the chronograph designed and built by Hargrave to make simultaneous recordings on a chart, of time in seconds, flapper vibrations and air pressure. Many other devices were built for testing purposes. A vital consideration in all MHargrave’s aeronautical work was lightness. He expressed his philosophy on this subject to your Society in June, 1890, in these words: “It should be remembered that flying machines are only to battle with the air and not for knocking down fences or ploughing up the ground. It is not usual to proportion the plating of ships so that they will stand beating on the rocks, but only to safely resist the strains produced by the wind and the waves. Perhaps much of the writer’s success has been due to the avoidance of this fault, although it is somewhat of a trial to see a month’s work knocked out of all shape in a moment.” There was a sharp division of opinion amongst the earlier experimenters on the subject of weight which may seem strange to us today. Aeronautical Work—Supporting Surfaces I quote from paper to Royal Society, 7th June, 1893: “ Before beginning another motor, it was thought advisable to try whether a_ better disposition of supporting surfaces could be found and at the same time see if any foundation could be discovered for the assertion that birds utilised the wind in soaring. No amount of observation of birds will solve the soaring problem. It can only be done by making some form of soaring apparatus that will advance against the wind without losing its elevation.” He thought the expense of constructing a large whirling arm machine too great and it would not produce true conditions. He con- sidered kites as best means towards the desired end. He knew that the experience of Wenham, Philips and others favoured superimposed planes for supporting surfaces. The first box kite was produced on 15th February, 1893, and made of circular cells. The following day a square celled box kite was constructed. This was the true ancestor of the more sophisticated box kites, four of which lifted Hargrave 16 feet off the ground on 12th November, 1893. Asa result of this experiment, Hargrave stated that there is no limit to the weight that may be buoyed up in a breeze. The exhibits in the hall include models of the 20 W. HUDSON SHAW squared cell kite and the standard box kite eventually evolved from it. When Hargrave received news of Lilenthal’s successful gliding experiments, he constructed a full size monoplane glider with the same wing area as Lilenthal’s but only half the weight. When testing this glider it was turned over by a cross wind and wrecked. Fortunately, Hargrave was not injured. This was the beginning and the end of his gliding experiments. He saw that safety was of paramount importance and that such an accident could cost him his life and put an end to his work. Both Lilenthal and Pilcher were to lose their lives in gliding accidents before the end of the century. Hargrave’s first full scale powered aeroplane was designed in 1895. This was to be doubly supported, firstly by a string of kites, and secondly, on its own wing surfaces when it got under way. This aircraft was not built, as the engine was a failure. On the 20th April, 1896, the second full size power operated machine was designed. It was also to use box kite wings powered by a steam engine driving flappers. This machine was of particular interest as it incorporated a dual elevator rudder control and was to operate off water (a most original concept), supported by light wood or papier maché floats. The all-up weight was to be only 300 lb. Three engines, two steam and one petrol, built to power this machine were all failures. His third full size powered machine was also to be a float plane. The proposed wing design was still on the box kite principle, but of curved section, showing evidence of his experimental work on soaring machines. The wings were further modified and improved in the final design for this machine developed in 1903. The arrangement of the floats was also improved and these were built, together with engine and wing supports. All the structure was made by Hargrave of tin sheet patiently soldered. A section of the main float was designed to carry water for the steam boiler. The design of this machine was in advance of the first generation aeroplanes built in Europe and U.S.A. Hargrave calculated that 40 lb. of thrust was needed to drive this machine. The best he could obtain after several years of effort was only 17 lb. In a letter to Octave Chanute on the 6th March, 1902, he said of this machine: “ My new apparatus is merely a steamer if it does not lift out of the water and a flying machine if it does.”’ The Wright Bros.’ aircraft made its first powered flight at the end of 1903. We cannot be certain that Hargrave’s first and second machines of 1895 and 1896 would have flown had Hargrave been able to develop a suitable engine. There can be little doubt, however, that his 1903 machine would have been a success. It was indeed a tragedy that Hargrave could not afford to outlay the funds necessary to build the wings and control surfaces until he was sure of the engine. Hargrave carried out important experimental work on curved surfaces. This work began in 1892. At the beginning of 1893, he discovered that the curved sails of a windmill when turned so that the blade was edge-on to the wind, rotation was maintained and the whole sail assembly also moved forward on its axle. The full significance of this discovery was not realized until 1897 and valuable time was lost. He then began a full series of experiments from which he deduced that wind striking a curved wing produced a reversal of air flow under the leading edge providing an aspirational effect on the wing. He designed simple wings balanced by a weight, which he called soaring machines. He found that these machines, when tethered, would advance beyond the zenith or perpendicular. It would appear that no further work has been done on this by others. If Hargrave’s findings were correct, an important power source used by the soaring birds has been overlooked by later generations. This effect would be of vital importance in man-powered flight. Aeronautical Work—Engines Between 1896 and 1906, Lawrence Hargrave constructed five engines to power full size flying machines, and every one was a failure. It is interesting to speculate on the course of history should any one of these engines have been a success. Additionally, he constructed and exhaustively tested countless component parts, such as boilers, heat lamps, pumps, valves and propellors. It is almost unbelievably sad that such tremendous labour, originality and skill did not receive their due reward. The two engines fitted with propellers, on display, are worth your inspection. The four cylinder motor in the test rig is petrol engine No. 24, built for the 1896 machine. The other is perhaps the most interesting. It was also built for the 1896 machine and its noteworthy features are light weight, compactness and the rotary movement. The tubular frame was designed to act as a container for water for the boiler and kerosene for firing. This engine was designed to produce five to six horsepower and must be one of the most unique steam engines ever built. LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 21 An extract from a letter to the Superintendent of the Railway Workshops, Sydney, written in March, 1900, indicates some of Hargrave’s difficulties: ‘“‘I am making a four cylinder oil (petrol) engine for my flying machine and on receiving the work that I had had done in a Sydney shop, I find the workmanship and material of sausage machine quality and on enquiry have not as yet found anyone who is likely to give me any more satisfaction.” On 29th October, 1900, he wrote: “ Do you not see the crux of the whole matter is the engine. The motor car men are now helping by giving attention to light oil engines. I am driving at the same thing and although constantly failing, still see the certainty of success.” Two months later he wrote: “I have just had a bad knock in discovering some radical defects in my first attempt at a 4 cylinder oil engine, No. 24. This means 12 months work to do over again.”’ Hargrave was not to be beaten by his failures, for even when he was reluctantly obliged to give up full-time work on aviation in 1906, he designed and constructed yet another engine for his 1903 machine. A two-stroke petrol motor of two cylinders with recoil springs designed to operate flappers. This, too, was a failure. Personal Some very interesting material has recently been discovered, some of which I propose to quote in order to provide an insight into the range of Hargrave’s interests and perhaps his character. To his daughter in 1907: ‘I have been stuck over the drawing board for about two months and my twin two-stroke flapping flying machine motor looks as if it would work ; Mum has lost all faith in me as an engineer owing to my long list of failures ; she does not realise that a little success is only reached by climbing over piles of duffing jobs.”’ About the same time, and in reply to a letter which commented upon his brevity: “I understand your remarks about my_ short sentences, I find, the people who care to know do not misconstrue, those who want to carp have more scope if the writer is wordy.” One of his many letters to a newspaper : “Your leader in Saturday’s issue traverses much ground but however good the idea of a universal language is, it is foredoomed from the jump because it is at variance with the funda- mental truth that all living organisms are prone to vary. It is this law that always wrecks well-meaning socialistic efforts and makes an ideal universal religion a hopeless impossibility. But onward rolls the river of life, cutting away the bank on one shore and making a sand bar elsewhere, ever changing, ever forgetting, let us hope ever improving. An advertisement contemplated for publica- tion in Aeronautics, London, 1910: “‘ Lawrence Hargrave—After almost 25 years of continuous effort in assisting to make flying practical: finds that his present income is inadequate to meet the calls made upon it. He is 60 years of age, and still has considerable technical con- structuve ability, his is weak on theory. He wants to know if his services are of value to any one and, if so, what is their value— Continental papers please copy.”’ A letter to his daughter, 1914: “I never seem to have any news to tell you, it is very curious that when I take up my pencil to write on your letter, and all around are deep in various books, there seems to be instantly a buzz of talk, and jangle on the piano, of course the disturbance is only accidental and my noticing it is a sign of old age creeping on me.”’ A letter to the Secretary of the Royal Aero- nautical Society, London, is probably an unequalled summing up of British character : ‘IT note with pleasure all English aeronautical news that dribbles to me. It is typical of the English character throughout. Ridicule and intolerance of independent thought. Slowness to grasp the impact of a new idea. Opposition if a vested interest is assailed, curiosity if things are done in a far country. Tardy appreciation of danger when a neighbour threatens. A rapid and thorough seizure of that situation and then supremac Hargrave’s contribution to the Royal Society’s Symposium on the feeding of man—‘* What Man should eat’: “The nutriment that a reasoning man should eat and drink in order that death should not be hastened by excess, can be regulated to any degree of accuracy. But our diet is rarely determined by reason, except in hospital or prison. We eat a pretty woman's cake and she smiles, we refuse and are dubbed bores, we drink a man’s hard liquor and pretend we like it and henceforth rank as jolly good fellows, we reject his hospitality and lose a possible life-long friend. Strong indeed is he who adjusts his eating and drinking solely to work long and well—the intelligent man’s eating and drinking are merely factors in the battle of life. The higher the intellect the greater the number of factors that enter the equation of the most trivial act.” A letter in 1915: “I wonder if the winners in this war will be any happier than the losers, 22 W. HUDSON SHAW one must exterminate the other or spend all their time in making or using arms. The other must do the work of providing the necessities of life or be shot down. Treaties are no use and if made no one can be trusted to keep them if there is any advantage in breaking them. I hope we shall know how it turns out, but the world is old enough to have seen all this before and left no traces in our geological strata.”’ Team Work and Patents Throughout his life, Hargrave was a champion of free enterprise, especially free trade, and wrote many letters to the newspapers on these subjects. As would be expected, he fought against monopoly in every form. However, he obtained reports on four occasions on the possibility of patenting various inventions. This action was probably taken against his better judgment and as the only way open to him of supplementing his slender income in order to provide the funds needed to more adequately carry out his experiments. In a letter to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Society of 8th December, 1891, Hargrave said : “Will you impress upon your co-workers the fallacy of secrecy—co-operation and the full interchange of ideas will hasten success in which all will share—there are so many forms of flying machine possible that it is hopeless to think any inventor will be able to monopolise the profits by a corner.” Anjextract of ailetter an 18838" But bear in mind I am not working with any idea of making money by my results, I simply have leisure, inclination and constructive ability and use them in a field where I am sure of success.”’ In’ a) paper to your Society mcad ane june, 1890, he said: ‘‘ The writer thinks the act of invention to be a sort of inspiration and a pleasure that the individual does not seek to be rewarded for undergoing—it is followed by a greedy sensation or a wish to obtain money from others without giving an_ equivalent. Inventors will always invent—they cannot help it—you cannot stop them and a patentee is nothing but a legal robber.”’ Inconsistencies There are several major inconsistencies in Hargrave’s work which are difficult to under- stand, particularly in such a period when the tempo of life provided adequate time for reflection. The chief of these was his failure to capitalize on his discovery of the lifting power of the curved surface in 1892. In 1893 he found that a box kite with curved surface planes pulled twice as hard as one with flat surface planes. However, he came to the rather extraordinary conclusion that ‘a machine with curved surfaces would come to grief when flying against the wind if the wind fell calm unless surface area or driving power was increased, therefore he was on surer ground by making supporting surfaces as flat as possible ”’ About this time, too, Chanute advised Hargrave that Lilenthal experiments with curved surfaces showed added lift of from three to seven times that of flat wings. Five vital years passed before he again took up experimentation with curved surfaces, but even then they were not incorporated in the design of a full size machine until 1902. In 1890 he announced in a paper to the Royal Society he had discovered that more than 50% of the supporting surface of his model aircraft was not necessary and that two separate areas were equally satisfactory. Although he built several models after this, none incorporated this discovery, which meant, of course, reduced drag and increased range. Notwithstanding advice from a consulting engineer, whom he paid to report on the possi- bility of patenting his Trochoidal Plane pro- pulsion methods in 1882, Hargrave persisted in his endeavours to apply this theory to aircraft. Even his last engine, built after he had virtually given up aviation work, was designed to drive flappers. A portion of the consulting engineer’s report referred to reads as follows: ‘‘ Propelling principles adopted by animate nature need not necessarily be the best for artificial pro- pulsion and the probabilities are the other way.” Yet Hargrave persisted to the end. Again, Octave Chanute advised that propeller efficiency could be expected to be between 50% to 70%. Hargrave’s propellers were generally under 20% efficiency. It is interesting to record, some thirty years later, the maximum efficiency obtained from fixed propellers was only 85%. Misconceptions Many people have not been able to understand why Hargrave gave 77 of his models to the Munich Museum in 1910. This caused much bitterness during the war years. The facts of the matter are that for eight years Hargrave endeavoured to interest the Sydney Techno- logical Museum and the University in Sydney in them for permanent exhibition without suggestion of payment, even though some additional funds at that time were sorely needed. They were also offered to the Melbourne Museum, Commonwealth Government, Royal Aeronautical Society in England, Science LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 23 Museum, Liverpool Museum, Smithsonian Institute and others. The famous Technolo- logical Museum at Munich did not hear of this offer until 1910. Their immediate application by cable was accepted, after which, of course, both the Commonwealth Government and the Sydney Technological Museum became interested, but it was too late. The Munich Museum have now very generously returned all but four of the models, and several of them are on display tonight. Unfortunately, the major part of the collection was destroyed in the last war. This is perhaps a true measure of Hargrave’s considered worth in this country when he could not even give away results of his work. Yet here was a man who, but for an unfortunate chain of adversity, would have been one of the truly great in history. Since Hargrave’s death, many references have been made, particularly in the press, to the Wrights’ indebtedness to Hargrave for their success. There is no foundation for these statements. Hargrave wrote only two letters to the Wrights. One was of congratulation after he had learned of their first flight. Both were short and to the point. Investigations lead me to believe, however, that there is a strong, indirect link through Octave Chanute. Records suggest that the significance of Hargrave’s early work on curved surfaces, which was not missed by Chanute, influenced the design of his famous gliders. There is little doubt that the design of the Wright glider was based initially on the Chanute glider, which preceded it by several years. It is an interesting speculation. Vision Not by any means the least of Hargrave’s contributions to aviation was his well-developed sense of history expressed in many ways, but particularly in preserving his models for the guidance of experimenters and the information of the public, and in the meticulous record of his work contained in his notebooks and the papers given to your Society. Notwithstanding an almost unbelievable record of failures, Hargrave never wavered either in the course he had set himself or his conviction that man would fly in a heavier than air machine and that the aeroplane was the chosen instrument for transportation in the future. ‘‘ Let no man be disheartened by the sneers of know-all acquaintances. Rely on it that the first man who paddled across a creek astride a log was thought a hare-brained fool by his contemporaries.” Two letters written in 1902 are of interest : “We should have been flying long since had it not been for the unfortunate invention of the balloon.”’ “T can fully appreciate the splendid work of those engaged in driving balloons, but they must see as clearly as I do that such machines, however successful they may be, cannot be a type that will have any permanence.” In a letter to the Smithsonian Institute dated 1891, he said: ‘‘ Very few have the slightest idea of the results of our work, but there are some here who can actually speak about flying machines without that pitying smile that is so galling to the recipient.’’ The reply is equally interesting: “‘I congratulate you on your success. Work done by experimenters like yourself is to be regarded as most valuable and the success you have achieved gives renewed hope to all in the final solution of a problem which, when solved, will produce an effect upon civilisation greater than any since the invention of the steam engine.” A fitting conclusion to this part dealing with the vision of Hargrave is to be found in a letter to Chanute in 1892: “There is an opinion that the principal work of the flying machine will be to destroy lfe—this idea may pre- dominate amongst men in the trade (referring to Maxium who was then building a huge machine at a cost of £20,000) but it is erroneous. The flying machine will tend to bring peace and goodwill to all, it will throw light on the few unexplored corners of the earth and will herald the downfall of all restrictions to the free inter- course of nations.” His Place in Aeronautical History Some thought was given to the title of this paper, and it was considered that “‘ An Apprecia- tion ’’ was adequate, although in modern usage the word “‘ appreciation’ tends to be regarded as ““speaking in favour of’’. The dictionary, however, gives the meaning intended of “a just estimate’”’. History has not been just to Lawrence Hargrave. The aim of tonight’s paper has been to attempt to redress the balance. You will have noted that many quotations have been given from his records. This has been done partly to permit you to form your own opinion, but mainly because a number of the references have been taken from papers he gave to your Society 70 to 80 years ago. Before concluding, I would like to attempt to draw together some of the threads of this broad canvas. An important feature of Hargrave’s work was his planned and logical approach. Firstly, 24 W. HUDSON SHAW he set out to prove his assumption that human flight in a heavier than air machine was possible. He decided that proof could best be demon- strated by the use of models. Concurrently with this work, he began experimenting with power plant design as he realized it was in this direction that the main difficulties lay. He resisted the temptation to develop and improve his model aircraft and turned instead to the next step, stability and safety aloft. Hargrave realized that an accident could put an end to his work, so he made safety a major requirement. It was also clear to him that the first navigator of the skies in a heavier than air machine would have his hands very full indeed. He set out to minimize the problems with which he would have to contend and considered the achievement of stability was of paramount importance. His box kites were the brilliant realization of that aim. Today, the box kite sounds a very simple affair—a child’s toy. Hargrave had developed his box kites to become quite sophisticated flying machines. His three-deck box kite, for instance, had a surface area of 158 sq. ft., with 11 ft. 6 in. span, 10 ft. long and 2 ft. 6 in. high. There can be little doubt that Hargrave would have flown had he been able to obtain a satis- factory motor. We have the first generation of European aviators to bear witness, as their wing design was purely the box kite invented by Hargrave some 15 years earlier. There is one essential difference, however. The Europeans did not have Hargrave’s know- ledge of the subject. They snatched Hargrave’s wing design in almost desperation and instead of developing and improving the wing as Hargrave would have done, persisted with it in its original form and for several years could not turn corners until the Wrights showed them how in 1909. It is certain that once Hargrave had achieved flight and had learnt to control his machine, he would have progressively modified the stability factors he had designed for safety. In a paper to the Royal Society as far back as 1885, it was clear he could see the road ahead. Speaking of control, he said: “In larger machines this will have to be done by making the area of the tail variable for ascending or descending and tilting one corner up and down for turning to either side.’’ He had anticipated aileron control which the Wrights reinvented 20 years later. Perhaps the most significant of Hargrave’s many contributions to man’s final conquest of the air was his taking up the torch of experi- mentation when it had been dropped by the Europeans in the 80’s and keeping it burning brightly for 25 vital years. His approach was a scientific one and it was made quite unique by his sharing of the results of his work and thinking with anyone who expressed a genuine interest. His dogged perseverance and unfailing optimism were an inspiration to many. Strangely enough, these virtues were to some extent a handicap, as they caused him to persist in unrewarding endeavour when his energies may have brought better results in other directions. He was a superb draftsman, and his engines were all built firstly on the drawing board, often after weeks of work. Many of these drawings are in the library of the Royal Aeronautical Society, London. His skill as a draftsman was almost equalled by his skill as an engineer, as you may see by examination of the equipment in the hall, which has been very generously lent by the Trustees of the Museum of Arts and Sciences. The originality of MHargrave’s designs is quite remarkable, but originality was not enough when it came to engines and associated equipment. This problem could have been overcome had Hargrave had a larger income, been assisted financially in his work, or had had a fellow worker to help him, as Orville Wright had in Wilbur. His income was fixed at approximately £600 per annum. The combined effects of inflation and family growth meant that his surplus funds dwindled to extinction when they were needed most for full-scale work. In 1902, when he was so near to success, he sent a desperate appeal for funds to the London Times—without result. This is a sad story with a tragic end, but it demonstrates, once again, the slender margin between success and failure. Hargrave had the attributes of character, skill, enterprise and hard work which deserved a better result. However, had he flown, it is certain he would not have claimed the success for himself. Due credit would have been generously given to the contributions made by many others, without whose work of dedicated endeavour, spread over 100 years, the brilliant achievement of the Wright brothers would not have been possible in December, 1903. In conclusion, one final quotation from the American Octave Chanute, who was unquestion- ably the greatest aviation authority of this period. He said in a public gathering in 1894: “Tf there is a man more than another who deserves to fly through the air, that man is Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, N.S.W.” LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 25 seated Arrangement of the Pach : of LHergrave’s ye Plying Packines. AY Td 20OvT. Parte OF Fie f oa. new GOUT WALES SKF -85- Fic. 1 Hargrave’s perspective drawing of india rubber powered flapper operated flying machine of 1885 Fic. 2 Hargrave’s drawing of the three cylinder radial rotary compressed air engine invented 1889 26 W. HUDSON SHAW Side View of Kites. Weights aloft The 4 kites: 34 Ib 13 ozs Lines & toggles: 3 Ib Sling seat: 3 |b 8 ozs Anemometer: 1 Ib . Man: 166 Ib *@ Total: 208 Ib 5 ozs \ Kite area: 232 sq ft =e Velocity of Wind at E: 21 miles A ER. ety fr EiG..3 Fic. 4 Hargrave’s sketch of the monoplane glider built 1894 LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 27 IG. Hargrave’s sketch of his second design (1896) for a full-size power operated aeroplane for operation off the water. The machine was not built, as four engines designed to power it were all failures CULE Oe ae a Ree Fic. 6 Hargrave’s drawing of his third design for a full-size powered aeroplane of 1902. The steam engine built to drive it was a failure. Note the sophisticated design and arrangement of the supporting surface which many years later was adopted by most aeroplane manufacturers. The floats were built in a much improved form in the 1903 machine 28 W. HUDSON SHAW Gans Actual photograph of the modified design of the floats of the 1902 aeroplane. Main float 25’ 7” long, weight 25 lb. also served as a container for water and fuel for the steam boiler. Designed all-up weight of this aeroplane, 471 lb. with a wing loading of 1 lb. per sq. ft. Photograph taken in 1905 at the rear of the Hargrave home on Woollahra Point. Note alternative propellor in foreground ame a Gulls wing E Fic. 8 Section of wing forms showing Hargrave’s discovery of reverse air flow under the leading edge demon- strated by the movement of a candle flame and smoke. (Redrawn) LAWRENCE HARGRAVE—AN APPRECIATION 29 TO2 toe oye say, wea wnt wera stores, fen 2 Shia eopleivctrseal, ahreercreevmn aad 7 hast obslinelion Lo casas hrf << Bic See D 2189 = (Sih or. lead pomap fh Bs ant tay Ogee omy A Se This, pelacie & coarreng ne © aN Fie. 9 Portion of a page of a Hargrave notebook of 1897 showing one of the early types of soaring machines Fic. 10 No. 23 steam operated twin cylinder rotary engine built to power the 1896 aeroplane, showing steam boiler and tubular frame which also served as a container for water and kerosene for the operation of the boiler. Engine built in 1898 30 W. HUDSON SHAW WSBtat Glelsr Ath Me ental ems po: By eres Sete OF geen ter Bemety cordenl Sewers oe he I gon or Lenya (@w Ge aeole, het bomen, Ben el Oe wuchtle at ) a MingAt (behcwre. decks ) r} ri Jongh feicoon the ancks, 2 Mhagtt ¢ Mein (mo DAnud Con - + + Beome © Mor x aes) a s : famtay Sate 4 Total mm. ght a» les gel Hargrave’s drawing of his 158 sq. ft. triplane box kite of only 25 lb. weight of 1895, showing the. development in the design of supporting surfaces culminating in the 1902 aeroplane Fie. 12 The first aircraft to use the Hargrave box kite wing design was the Voisin- Archdeacon float glider built in Paris. It flew successfully when towed by a. launch on the River Seine Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 31-36, 1963 Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1961 W. H. ROBERTSON Sydney Observatory, Sydney The following observations of minor planets were made photographically at Sydney Observatory with the 9-inch Taylor, Taylor and Hobson lens. Observations were confined to those with southern declinations in the Ephemerides of Minor Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad. On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately 0’-5, were taken with an interval of about 20 minutes between them. The beginnings and endings of the exposures were automatically recorded on a chronograph by a contact on the shutter. Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction retaining second order terms in the differences of the equatorial coordinates was used. Proper motions, when they were available, were applied plate. Each exposure was reduced separately in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between the two positions with the motion derived from the ephemeris. The tabulated results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases 1155, 1172, 1206, 1211, 1227, 1281 where each result is from only one image, due to a defect in the other exposure or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but in Table I are given the factors which give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. The serial numbers follow on from those of a previous paper (Robertson, 1962). The observers named in Table II are W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S) and H. W. Wood (W). The measure- ments were made by Miss J. Hawkes and Mrs. Y. Lake, who have also assisted in the computation. Reference Rosertson, W. H., 1962. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.., to bring the star positions to the epoch of the 95, 153. Sydney Observatory Papers, 41. TABLE [| REA Dec. Parallax No. Planet Oh i (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors hme is Nes Sf s i 1150 32 1961 Jun 19-63670 18 42 08-57 —15 39 07-8 +0:06 —2:-7 1151 32 1961 Jun 27-63759 18 34 42-26 —15 32 37-2 +0°15 —2:8 1152 45 1961 Aug 22-61778 22 53 26-74 —08 50 57-7 +0:-01 —3-7 1153 45 1961 Sep 26-52860 22 28 18:93 —12 35 34:3 +0:08 —3:2 1154 71 1961 Jun 19-57181 17 40 48-17 —53 57 25-2 —0:01 +3:0 1155 71 1961 Jul 0383-54252 17 23 00-72 —51 25 23°3 +0:09 -+2:-6 1156 76 1961 Jul 03-66137 20 23 49-09 —16 34 31-9 +0°04 —2-6 1157 76 1961 Jul 04-64013 20 23 13-68 —16 36 14:9 —0:02 —2-6 1158 91 1961 Aug 01-56832 19 38 21-65 —24 40 55-2 +0-10 —1-4 1159 91 1961 Aug 08-51203 19 32 30-05 —24 49 10-7 —0-01 —1-4 1160 94 1961 Jun 20-55722 17 O1 44-22 —33 53 01-4 +0-05 0-0 1161 94 1961 Jul 0838-51278 16 51 23-33 —33 28 13-0 +0-04 0-0 1162 98 1961 May 15-60062 16 16 03-12 —44 50 23-2 —0:05 +1-7 1163 98 1961 Jun 07-57193 15 47 56-88 —44 21 58-0 +0-18 41-4 1164 98 1961 Jun 15-53351 15 40 03-42 —43 43 54-9 +0-14 41-6 1165 100 1961 Sep 21-61898 00 56 52-08 —03 11 52-8 0-00 —4:-5 1166 103 1961 Jul 24-64348 22 04 15:17 —12 08 57-2 —0:03 —3-2 1167 104 1961 May 08-62012 15 16 26-34 —18 42 19-1 +0°10 —2:-3 1168 124 1961 Jun 26-53613 17 10 39-26 —18 06 49-1 +0:-01 —2-4 1169 124 1961 Jul 04-50276 17 04 45-52 —18 03 45-9 —0:02 —2-4 1170 144 1961 May 04:55021 14 20 23-88 —O09 23 27-4 —0:03 —3-6 1171 144 1961 May 16-55048 14 10 21-02 —08 47 23-0 +0:09 —3:7 32 W, fe ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued R.A. Dec. Parallax No. Planet UNE. (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m S ° / uw S wu 1172 146 1961 Sep 21-57406 23 41 26-24 —23 51 41-7 +0:02 —1 1173 150 1961 May 08-58358 14 38 16-20 —14 28 58-7 +0:07 —2 1174 150 1961 May 2383-52438 14 27 15-11 —13 29 25-3 +0:03 —3 1175 151 1961 May 08-62012 15 14 55-81 —20 13 29-8 +0:10 —2 1176 159 1961 Jul 10-63341 20 00 58°51 —17 40 28:0 +0:06 —2 1177 161 1961 Jul 24-61601 20 56 55:09 —35 02 51:6 +0:01 +0 1178 161 1961 Aug 21-52607 20 28 34:13 —34 43 14:3 +0:03 +0 1179 162 1961 Jul 03 - 62722 19 41 59-72 —29 40 02-6 +0:03 —0O 1180 162 1961 Jul 19-59742 19 27 50-71 —30 16 36-7 +0:-11 —0O 1181 178 1961 Jul 04: 60874 19 32 44-57 — 24 32 27-8 —0-01 —1 1182 178 1961 Aug 01-53308 19 06 17-29 —25 28 54-7 +0:06 —1 1183 188 1961 Jun 26-66926 20 05 06-14 —04 53 19-6 +0:05 —4 1184 191 1961 Jul 04: 56743 18 31 20-75 —08 03 03:3 0:00 —3 1185 191 1961 Jul 11-54024 18 25 41-88 —08 24 51-1 —0-01 —3 1186 193 1961 Aug 22-61778 22 56 12-05 —12 3411-3 0:00 —3 1187 193 1961 Sep 26-52860 22 19 35-68 —12 17 58-3 +0:10 —3 1188 208 1961 May 08-66671 16 36 26-60 —24 18 53-4 +0:08 —l 1189 208 1961 Jun 07-60959 16 10 46-85 —23 32 18-0 +0:21 —1l1 1190 229, 1961 Jun 07-68808 18 25 41-19 —23 49 13:3 +0:17 —l 1191 229, 1961 Jul 0453230 18 03 43-30 —24 20 07-0 —0:06 —l 1192 233 1961 May 04-52606 13 41 31-08 —12 25 37-1 —0:02 —3 1193 233 1961 May 23-4924] 13 30 15:75 —10 27 48-9 +0:06 —3 1194 240 1961 May 09-58278 15 06 35:90 —14 34 36-4 +0:-01 —2 1195 250 1961 May 04-52606 13 49 38-09 —14 34 55-7 —0:04 —2 1196 250 1961 May 09-54524 13 45 44-75 —14 27 21-3 +0:07 —2 1197 254 1961 May 22-63788 17 07 52-82 —29 02 01-4 +0:03 —0O 1198 254 1961 Jun = 14-55378 16 43 24-63 —29 36 26-4 +0:02 —0O 1199 278 1961 May 08-58358 14 38 54:33 —10 58 30:4 +0:07 —3 1200 278 1961 May 23:52438 14 26 29-45 —ll 03 34-7 +0:04 —3 1201 298 1961 Jul 19-63810 20 36 13-92 —28 44 34:3 +0:09 —O 1202 306 1961 Sep 26-55998 23 54 04-92 —09 41 29-3 —0:01 —3 1203 331 1961 May 17-67908 17 29 21-76 —30 11 20-5 +0:08 —0O 1204 331 1961 May 22-63788 17 25 47-90 —30 19 53-1 +0:01 —0O 1205 334 1961 Aug 01-64487 21 50 14-31 —14 13 27-7 +0:05 —33 1206 338 1961 Aug 22-55729 21 02 12-97 —ll1 51 39-2 +0:06 —8 1207 342 1961 Jul 05- 63653 19 45 31-10 —I} 32, 11-3 +0:06 —3 1208 342 1961 Aug 08-47406 19 16 10-60 — 12 21 124 —0:09 —3 1209 346 1961 Jun 26-60525 18 55 19-61 —24 38 14-7 0:00 —I1 1210 366 1961 Jun 20-63647 18 50 43-54 —38 03 37:8 +0:06 +0 1211 366 1961 Jul 10-57209 18 31 20-08 —37 57 59°8 +0:08 +0 1212 374 1961 Apr 11-55272 12 42 39-91 —10 40 23-4 —0:01 —3 1213 374 1961 May 02-50120 12 30 10:05 —07 50 19-0 +0:04 —8 1214 382 1961 May 02-55955 13952 57-91 —24 18 15-0 +0:04 —I1 1215 382 1961 May 08-54724 13 48 25-11 —23 50 59°3 +0:07 —l 1216 382 1961 May 16-51219 13 43 14-67 —=23 Pl 55-2 +0:03 —l 1217 384 1961 Aug 21-66230 23 23 44-24 —12 49 47-4 +0:07 —8 1218 384. 1961 Sep 20-55092 22 58 13-59 —15 03 50-7 +0:04 —2 1219 392 1961 May 23-59474 15 52 13-51 —09 34 37-3 +0:07 —8 1220 392 1961 Jun 19-52752 15 33 28:45 —07 41 48-0 +0:13 —3 1221 410 1961 Sep 21-59134 00 16 12-21 —17 29 00:3 0:00 —2 1222 410 1961 Oct 19-50890 23, 54 47-26 —18 26 42-9 +0:03 —2 1223 413 1961 Oct 10:64369 02 30 50-79 —28 24 23-8 +0:04 —O 1224 413 1961 Oct 25:61487 02 18 02-12 —27 49 02-8 +0:-1l1 —I 1225 442 1961 Jul 03- 66137 20 16 39-37 —15 47 04-4 +0:06 —2 1226 442 1961 Jul 11-61843 20 09 52-94 —16 29 06-7 0:00 —2 1227 451 1961 May 04-64353 16 14 22-30 —09 22 28-2 +0:01 —3 1228 451 1961 May 23-59474 15 59 05-56 —09 24 04-9 +0:05 —38 1229 455 1961 Jul 05:59471 19 17 07:33 —33 10 09-0 +0:07 —0O 1230 455 1961 Jul 26- 54392 18 55 51-89 —36 00 15-0 +0:07 +0 1231 471 1961 Oct 19:-55828 Ol 44 10-35 —14 24 46-0 —0:05 —2 1232 471 1961 Oct 31:°51588 O01 33 38-26 —13 58 04:0 —0:06 —3 1233 508 1961 Sep 20-58030 23 57 04-69 —16 49 16:6 0:00 —1 1234 508 1961 Oct 12:-52360 23 40 15°27 —17 O1 19-4 +0:05 —2 NAIDOSWHARBDDAOCWWNOADN AME DRODHRNWWOMADWDPRONSCOOUNHEPUBDNANWNWDOHNWKROOHNNHOON No. 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1961 Planet 514 514 524 524 528 528 532 532 550 550 554 554 554 567 569 573 576 576 579 579 586 586 615 634 644 674 674 674 679 679 702 702 735 735 737 780 785 785 786 800 800 828 834 834 844 844 860 860 888 888 892 901 901 914 927 927 934 934 934 980 980 980 983 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 UE: Jul Jul Jun Jul May May Sep Oct May May May May Jun Jul Jul May May Jun Jun Jul Jul Jul Aug Aug Aug May May Jun Jul Jul Jun Aug Jul Jul May Sep Oct Nov Oct May May Jul Aug Sep Aug Sep Jun Aug Sep Oct Oct Jul Jul May May May Aug Aug Sep Apr May May Jun TABLE I—continued -66137 -63341 - 64502 -55298 *62012 *55815 -61432 -53378 -54724 -51219 - 66260 - 66671 -60959 -59471 -67400 -51219 -62398 -50332 -68808 -53230 -63116 -66715 -61778 -64487 -64487 - 66260 -66671 -60959 -63341 -57182 -64228 -50400 -59471 -59120 -61175 -61478 -58482 °47138 -55870 -67908 -63788 -67400 -65590 -52515 -61778 -52860 -68834 - 56832 -67986 - 55094 - 60832 -63116 -66715 -61434 » 54724 -51219 -60675 > 55262 -48884 -68158 -58307 -55903 -59697 R.A. Dec. (1950-0) (1950-0) la, Prades) ee 20 16 21-84 —17 11 19-9 20 11 13-01 —17 18 25°5 18 38 28-24 —33 26 06-1 18 16 24-04 —33 12 46-8 15 25 49-22 —19 12 15:4 15 13 30°77 —19 11 26:8 00 24 51-57 —21 17 41-7 00 02 55-57 —22 58 25:6 13 50 49-63 —25 15 41-3 13 44 27-25 —24 07 36-9 16 50 54°18 —25 59 26-1 16 47 50-81 —25 55 11-1 16 17 55-97 —24 42 54-4 19 17 26-72 —32 22 29-4 21 09 13-52 —16 14 35:1 13 53 34-59 —24 15 56-1 15 59 24-08 —34 34 31-2 15 26 53-06 —3l1 43 28-4 18 29 24:94 —25 12 56:7 18 05 53-02 —27 06 37:8 20 28 40-02 —16 48 44-1 20 24 02-75 —17 03 04:3 23 O1 04:54 —09 12 44-4 21 46 18-62 —15 00 54-1 21 47 29-46 —14 14 38-6 16 46 07-58 —24 22 07-5 16 43 09-76 —24 29 41-4 16 16 08-30 —25 02 25:4 20 O1 44:38 —21 25 27-4 19 47 19-52 —25 17 50:7 19 24 29-94 —25 09 45-4 18 52 12-51 —22 37 04-1 19 09 34-98 —49 02 46-6 18 57 59-32 —50 10 24-4 15 46 24-21 —04 24 28-4 00 24 39-39 —15 09 47:4 O1 13 38-55 —09 23 34:8 00 49 39-58 —09 48 48-9 00 06 17-34 —20 53 32°6 17 22 46-11 —31 26 59-4 17 19 18-98 —31 32 57-0 21 12) 43°25 —17 34 52-7 23 31 38-34 —00 57 21-6 23 07 04-17 —04 25 03-8 22 53 27-28 —10 16 25-8 22 26 43-45 —ll 01 56-9 20 19 34-06 —27 27 07-4 19 39 45-10 —25 38 58-3 00 43 54:45 —15 50 57°8 00 23 42-8] —19 50 32-9 02 02 19°65 —03 55 36-1 20 26 02:84 —15 02 28-6 20 21 10-72 —14 54 53-7 15 31 42-36 —39 03 43-2 13 55 23-58 —23 35 02-1 13 49 09-26 —23 20 32-2 21 18 14-51 —21 26 32-4 20 56 40:66 —20 45 15-0 20 44 29-68 —19 53 30:9 15 31 22-94 —38 36 27-8 15 12 35:60 —38 06 30°8 15 O1 25-49 —37 10 50:2 17 54 49-50 —16 18 11-7 33 Parallax Factors S wv +0:06 —2°5 +0:04 —2-°-5 +0:06 —0O-1 —0:01 —0O-1 +0:08 —2-2 +0:04 —2-2 +0:05 —1:9 +0:09 —1-7 +0:06 —1:°:3 +0:03 —1:5 —0:01 —1-2 +0:05 —1-2 +0:20 —1-6 +0:07 —0O:2 +0:06 —2-7 +0:O01 —1:°4 +0:03 +0-1 +0:04 —0-°-3 +0:16 —1-4 —0:06 —1:0 +0:01 —2:6 +0°:19 —2-7 —0:01 —3-:7 +0:06 —2°-8 +0:06 —2-9 0-00 —1-4 +0:06 —1:4 +0:20 —1:6 +0:06 —1-9 +0:02 —1:3 +0:05 —1:3 —0:-01 —1:7 —0:01 —2°3 +0:13 —2°-4 —0:03 —4:3 +0:03 —2:8 +0:02 —3:6 —0:03 —3-6 +0:-10 —2:-0 +0:08 —O0O-4 +0:01 —0:3 +0:05 —2:°:5 +0:04 —4:8 —0:01 —4:3 +0:01 —3:°5 +0:08 —3:4 +0:02 —1:0 +0:10 —1°3 +0:14 —2°8 +0:02 —2-1 0:00 —4:-4 +0:02 —2:°8 +0:19 —3-0 —0-01 +4+0°8 +0:05 —1:-6 +0:02 —1:6 0-00 —1-9 +0:05 —2:-0 —0-01 —2-1 +0:03 +0:°8 —0:05 +0:°6 0:00 +0°-5 +0:05 —2°6 34 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued R.A. Dec. Parallax No. Planet Ura: (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m Ss [e) / Y Ss A 1298 983 1961 Jul 05-51534 17 42 47-22 —15 13 20-2 —0:05 —2-8 1299 1015 1961 Aug 22-58206 22 04 08-91 —18 30 22-7 0:00 —2°-3 1300 1042 1961 Aug 21-62721 22 45 01-08 —42 08 07-4 +0:05 41:3 1301 1117 1961 Aug 21-58548 22 03 41-77 —12 08 51:2 0-00 —3-2 1302 1117 1961 Sep 13-51050 21 49 00-50 —14 58 39-4 0-00 —2-8 1303 1127 1961 Oct 30-59824 03 08 45-55 —13 06 54:5 —0:02 —3-1 1304 1127 1961 Dec 05-48352 02 44 27-05 —1l 11 44-6 —0:02 —3-4 1305 1146 1961 May 16-65502 16 16 24-18 —08 03 38-2 +0-14 —3:8 1306 1146 1961 Jun 14-51853 15 56 24-81 —03 34 02-2 +0:01 —4:-4 1307 1167 1961 Jun 19-63670 18 46 25-90 —16 37 14-0 +0:06 —2:-6 1308 1186 1961 Sep 19-62123 00 14 47-21 —1l 43 02-8 +0:08 —3:3 1309 1186 1961 Oct 11-54199 23 56 36-36 —12 05 21-4 +0:06 —3:-3 1310 1281 1961 May 08-58358 14 46 42-17 —12 20 33-5 +0:05 —3-2 1311 1289 1961 May 09-58278 15 00 01-09 —15 35 59-6 +0:03 —2:-7 1312 1315 1961 Jul 06-59896 19 05 39-61 —14 26 38-7 +0:04 —2-9 TABLE II No. Comparison Stars Dependences 1150 Yale 12 I 6905, 6908, 6916 0- 29970 0- 30382 0-39648 S 1151 Yale 12 I 6844, 6849, 6869 0-44997 0:34465 0: 20538 W 1152 Yale 16 8144, 8176, 11 8055 0-39868 0- 54827 0-05305 S) 1153 Yale 11 7931, 7942, 7960 0-31084 0-31958 0: 36958 S 1154 Cape 19 6964, 6976, 7014 0-34717 0-49724 0- 15560 S 1155 Cape Ft. 16539, 16560, 16676 0:57346 0- 18026 0: 24628 R 1156 Yale 12 I 7678, 7694, 7700 0-28191 0-39641 0-32169 R 1157 Yale 12 I 7664, 7688, 7695 0-13214 0:53500 0-33286 R 1158 Yale 14 13708, 13712, 13732 0-39578 0-33202 0: 27220 ) 1159 Yale 14 13629, 13631, 13659 0-46947 0-31708 0- 21345 WwW 1160 Cape 17 8949, 8961, 9011 0:41481 0: 20046 0-38473 S 1161 Cape 17 8826, 8860, 8876 0- 28442 0:37979 0-33578 R 1162 Cord. D 11345, 11349, 11390 0- 40008 0:17751 0-42241 Ww 1163 Cord. D 10995, 11068, 11070 0-27434 0- 20969 0:51597 WwW 1164 Cord. D 10897, 10934, 10973 0: 22415 0-36318 0:41267 R 1165 Yale 17 196, 210, 228 0-20171 0:36401 0:43428 R 1166 Yale 11 7806, 7814, 7828 0-19787 0:45527 0-34686 R 1167 Yale 12 II 6320, 6337, 12 I 5633 0-21904 0:32298 0:45798 S 1168 Yale 12 II 7028, 12 I 6157, 6184 0: 46467 0-28758 0: 24775 WwW 1169 Yale 12 I 6112, 6136, 12 II 6988 0-46277 0-27111 0: 26612 R 1170 Yale 16 5082, 5086, 5097 0- 56349 0- 26930 0:16721 R 1171 Yale 16 5013, 5033, 5040 0-17898 0-31975 0-50127 WwW 1172 Yale 14 15815, 15824, 15844 0-32064 0-31528 0: 36408 R 1173 Yale 17 5139, 5147, 5153 0:-42956 —0-38207 0:95251 S 1174 Yale 11 5079, 5087, 5094 0-13488 0-51685 0: 34827 R 1175 Yale 12 II 6321, 6322, 6336 0- 26986 0: 23370 0-49644 S 1176 Vale sic viola, 7562) 12 ie sa82 0-33644 0: 32632 0:33724 S ie 7 Fzi Cape 18 10844, 10845, 10874 0-12013 0:60270 0-27718 R 1178 Cape 17 11184, 11185, 11226 0-28994 0-40749 0:30257 S 1179 Yale 13 II 12929, 12951, 12971 0-26120 0: 48906 0: 24973 R 1180 Cape 17 10614, 10634, 10637 0-33464 0-27809 0-38727 WwW 1181 Yale 14 13622, 13646, 13651 0:33468 0-25017 0:41515 R 1182 Yale 14 13293, 13307, 13330 0-30242 0:45184 0: 24574 S 1183 Yale 17 6910, 6931, 6934 0: 19264 0:49416 0-31320 WwW 1184 Yale 16 6215, 6225, 6231 0:41363 0:34712 0: 23926 R 1185 Yale 16 6195, 6196, 6212 0: 20880 0:53512 0- 25608 ) 1186 Yale 11 8057, 8064, 8073 0-26881 0-14801 0:58317 S) MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1961 TABLE [J—continued Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Yale Yale Cape Cape 11 14 14 14 14 11 16 12 12 L2 13 13 11 11 13 Ll 17 17 12 1g 11 11 14 18 18 11 16 14 14 14 11 12 16 16 12 12 13 13 12 12 16 16 17 18 12 12 12 12 12 L2 17 17 12 12 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 Lei 12 14 dg, df Comparison Stars 7882, 7887, 7911 11544, 11551, 11559 11372, 11377, 11396 12785, 12798, 12822 12437, 12467, 12502 4868, 4877, 4885 4823, 11 4814, 4829 I 5573, 5591, 5595 I 5195, 5204, 5208 I 5182, 5199, 11 4893 II 10839, 10856, 10866 II 10480, 10523, 10524 5140, 5155, 5165 5081, 5086, 5093 II 13582, 13591, 13597 8297, 8307, 16 8440 9261, 9293, 9311 9225, 9236, 9261 I 8196, 8198, 8210 7463, 7469, 7481 6935, 6959, 6965 6698, 6710, 6735 13169, 13178, 13205 9762, 9771, 9791 9559, 9562, 9584 4591, 4611, 16 4638 4584, 4587, 4596 10132, 10167, 10182 10117, 10120, 10132 10061, 10071, 10097 8178, 8186, 8191 I 8514, 8534, 8540 5529, 5545, 5549 5442, 5445, 5455 II 64, 68, 74 II 9953, 9961, 9979 II 969, 984, 1000 II 894, 895, 908 I 7629, 7635, 7652 I 7576, 7578, 7596 5636, 5654, 5660 5564, 5580, 5582 10526, 10551, 10574 9807, 9813, 9838 I 433, 434, 445 I 391, 394, 411 I 8801, 8807, 8815 I 8720, 8728, 8735 I 7615, 7637, 7651 I 7592, 7594, 7607 10099, 10110, 10145 9827, 9835, 9896 II 6387, 6389, 6410 II 6316, 6318, 6337 I 83, 100, 105 15971, 5, 13 10125, 10149, 10151 10071, 10088, 10101 11664, 11679, 11706 11615, 11646, 11664 11430, 11442, 11450 10532, 10551, 10559 I 7979, 7980, 8010 10152, 10167, 10182 8318, 8319, 8339 8000, 8016, 8026 -47178 - 56372 - 23021 -37373 - 22648 - 30922 -32215 57191 16160 -25153 -36071 - 36644 - 21030 -44016 - 22863 -31183 -58370 -31404 - 06042 -26211 - 27809 - 22041 - 19858 - 23831 -46256 -40920 -31472 -28105 27937 -30885 -43464 24311 52974 15250 -19774 -40449 -39244 *47597 -43596 23241 26147 45672 42251 19061 28316 -40719 - 27838 - 16372 - 28587 -47294 -18853 -30161 36080 -51020 -08941 - 24866 -33774 - 20438 °43515 - 26261 - 29686 20539 -31138 -40849 - 10728 “19172 Dependences - 20804 -23797 30854 23041 -36421 -46366 - 34768 24941 19630 -42132 - 20863 - 17656 - 55306 -31931 -33158 34209 - 19763 33656 - 39066 - 39890 - 20508 -39977 -65917 °43717 -31140 - 25573 32571 - 38680 -54713 -38375 -13691 © 42276 21665 56491 -64722 -40789 -31093 -34019 -23748 41801 37123 34743 43968 43468 18060 - 36765 -40102 20525 -36129 30266 -41153 -38693 40896 -34011 *28515 -54244 -47653 -48164 - 20455 - 19064 - 26262 64145 -50225 - 25403 - 28093 - 24896 32018 -19831 46125 39586 -40931 22712 -33017 17868 64210 -32715 -43066 -45700 23665 > 24053 -43978 -34608 -21867 - 34934 -54893 - 33900 -51683 -37982 - 14225 -32453 * 22605 33507 -35957 -33215 -17351 -30741 °42845 -33413 - 25362 28259 - 15504 - 18762 - 29663 -18384 - 32656 34958 36730 19585 13781 37471 53624 » 22516 - 32060 63102 35284 22440 39994 -31146 23024 - 14969 62544 - 20890 -18573 -31398 - 36030 -54674 °44052 15316 18637 -33748 -61179 -55932 AP APAHAODENMPADY AAO DADDY AAAAY DSH DMD DN SN DBWNN SHAN D SVN SHODDY AAAS SUM 35 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I]—continued No. Comparison Stars Dependences 1253 Yale 14 12827, 12845, 12886 0- 28672 0:41947 0- 29380 1254 Yale 13 II 11685, 11717, 14 12505 0- 24668 0-18661 0-56670 1255 Wale 72 I 7h, Wil2ii4o 0-44483 0- 24892 0- 30626 1256 Yale 12 I 7678, 7680, 7712 0-36183 0-32339 0-31478 1257 Yale 16 8176, 8211, 11 8088 0-24018 0-55029 0- 20953 1258 Yale 12 I 8188, 8189, 8196 0: 36351 0-45722 0-17926 1259 Yale 12 I 8188, 8190, 8198 0-41880 0-09278 0-48843 1260 Yale 14 11616, 11627, 11634 0- 36826 0- 14895 0-48279 1261 Yale 14 11582, 11596, 11634 0-28281 0-47490 0- 24229 1262 Yale 14 11406, 11430, 11442 0-30450 0-33096 0- 36455 1263 Yale 13 I 8578, 8612, 8615 0-53463 —0-03385 0: 49922 1264 Yale 14 13798, 13826, 13830 0-43712 0- 24582 0-31706 1265 Yale 14 13500, 13552, 13561 0-28331 0-46164 0- 25505 1266 Yale 14 13121, 13147, 13174 0- 29616 0- 56987 0-13397 1267 Cape Ft. 18480, 18519, 18531 0- 19455 0-48107 0-32438 1268 Cape Ft. 18380, 18394, 18460 0- 34650 0- 26268 0-39082 1269 Yale 17 5485, 5491, 5511 0- 24251 0-37636 0-38113 1270 Valen? V08; 1215 128 0- 28489 0- 36746 0-34765 1271 Yale 16 253, 258, 266 0-65501 0-15111 0-19388 1272 Wales7159) 160.181 0-35724 0:34987 0+ 29289 1273 Yale 13 I 8, 15, 24 0-07507 0: 60550 0-31943 1274 Cape 17 9193, 9214, 9223 0-31846 0-37615 0-30539 1275 Cape 17 9145, 9182, 9189 0-31395 0+ 32667 0-35938 1276 Yale 12 I 8002, 8005, 8020 0- 28885 0- 40869 0: 30247 1277 Yale 21 5843, 5847, 5854 0- 28485 0-27196 0-44318 1278 Yale 17 7976, 7986, 7990 0- 16326 0- 40706 0-42968 1279 Yale 11 8051, 8055, 8065 0- 26670 0: 44254 0- 29076 1280 Yale 11 7918, 7945, 7950 0-33697 0+ 27302 0-39001 1281 Yale 13 II 13391, 13412, 13424 0- 30306 0-37221 0-32472 1282 Yale 14 13714, 13739, 13749 0- 36687 0: 45539 0-17773 1283 MWalee77 a0 s189, 2197199 0- 24870 0-31914 0-43216 1284 Vales 73 178); 201l, 98 ehhO 0- 54312 0-21773 0-23915 1285 Yale 17 485, 496, 498 0- 26249 0-55332 0-18419 1286 Yale (2° 17701, 7705, 7721 0-37499 0: 42043 0- 20458 4287 Yale 12 I 7666, 7667, 7685 0+ 45352 0-16749 0-37899 1288 Cape 18 7667, 7690, 7694 0-35701 0: 46344 0-17955 1289 Yale 14 10173, 10183, 10190 0-30492 0-42172 0- 27336 1290 Yale 14 10108, 10130, 10135 0- 18056 0-52991 0- 28953 1291 Yale 13 I 9130, 9158, 14 14722 0-25878 0-26139 0:47983 1292 Yale 13 I 8977, 9007, 9017 0-32928 0-33901 0-33170 1293 Yale 13 I 8913, 8915, 8926 0-33008 0-36974 0-30017 1294. Cape 18 7667, 7669, 7701 0-37124 0-27287 0-35589 1295 Cape 18 7473, 7495, 7505 0- 28843 0-37953 0-33204 1296 Cape 18 7358, 7375, 7394 0- 24734 0- 46295 0-28971 1297 Yale 12 I 6440, 6462, 6465 0-14108 0-27134 0:58758 1298 Yale 12 I 6375, 6387, 6399 0- 26405 0-21997 0-51598 1299 Yale 12 II 9403, 9406, 9425 0-32661 0-38902 0- 28437 1300 Cord. D 16047, 16056, 16090 0- 29547 0-37022 0-33432 1301 Yale 11 7806, 7814, 7819 0- 28347 0- 22672 0:48981 1302 Yale 12 I 8189, 8198, 8208 0- 26463 0-34215 0-39322 1303 Valet i1Ou, 20; 129 0- 22431 0-30129 0-47440 1304 Yale 11 633, 639, 648 0- 40054 0- 30874 0- 29072 1305 Yale 16 5651, 5661, 5670 0-17012 0-64574 0-18414 1306 Yale 17 5523, 5534, 5545 0-13754 0-56533 0-29712 1307 Yale 12 I 6931, 6937, 6951 0-21885 0- 43442 0-34673 1308 Yale JJ 41, 46, 49 0-39906 0-16117 0-43977 1309 Yale 11 8312, 8314, 8322 0-43875 0- 40947 0-15178 1310 Yale 77 5191, D197 no2ts 0-46581 0-28461 0: 24958 1311 Yale 12 I 5539, 5547, 5550 0-21760 0- 60678 0-17562 1312 Yale 12 I 7072, 7102, 7106 0+ 24573 0-34919 0: 40508 (Received 27 February 1962) HANA ANA AN ASNNUN AN SH WASNN SN WIN WWANNNNNNN RADA AAAAAV SDV SV TANNN EUS Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 37-38, 1963 Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1961 IK SIMs Sydney Observatory, Sydney The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory with the 114 inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a chronograph. The reduction elements were computed by the method given in the Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction completed by the method given there. seconds) was applied to the observed time to convert it to ephemeris time with which The Astronomical Ephemeris for 1961 was entered to obtain the position and parallax of the Moon. The apparent places of the stars of the 1961 occultations were provided by H.M. Nautical Almanac Office. Table I gives the observational material. For 1961 a correction of +0-00944 hour (=34 The serial numbers follow on from those of the TABLE I ie ae Mag. Date WE Observer 409 3437 6-7 Jan. 20 9 47 01-01 S 410 2454. eo Jul. 24 14 11 39-9 R 411 2460 6-1 Jul. 24 16 00 03:6 R 412 2578 6-4 Jul. 25 8 49 24-6 W 413 2113 7:0 Aug. 18 10 44 56-1 S) 414 2680 5-8 Aug. 22 8 00 39°3 WwW 415 2685 7:0 Aug. 22 8 35 04°5 W 416 2687 7°3 Aug. 22 9 13 42-8 WwW 417 2649 6:9 Sep. 18 12 58 26:6 R 418 Pet 8:5 Sep. 18 13 02 51-7 R 419 meat. 9-0 Sep. is 13 03 58-0 R 420 2653 6°4 Sep. 18 Ta20; 24-0 AR 421 aes 8:0 Sep. 18 13 26 59-9 R 422 2828 6-0 Sep. 19 14 55 37°5 R 423 2115 6:5 Nov. 12 10 40 47-8 R 424 ae 9-0 Nov. 12 10 48 23-0 R TABLE II Serial Lunation Coefficient of No. No. p q p? pq q Ac pAs qAc Nees Ad 409 47] + 90 —43 81 —39 19 ==(%2 --0-2 +0-1 +14-8 —0:-13 410 477 + 97 +26 93 +25 rf —0-8 --0-8 —0-2 +14-2 140-14 411 477 +100 — 7 100 — 7 i) —0-6 —0-6 0-0 +14-0 —0-19 412 477 + 64 —77 41 —A49 59 —0:4 —0-3 +0:3 + 8:4 —O-8l 413 478 + 76 —65 58 —49 42 +1-2 +0-9 —Q-8 + 8-2 10-83 414 478 + 89 +45 80 +40 20 = 1-5 eG —0-7 +12-8 4+0-43 415 478 + 99 —12 99 —]2 ] +0:7 +0-7 —OQ:l1 +14-1] —0-13 416 478 + 53 —85 28 —45 ne +1-5 +0-8 —1-3 + 7-5 —0:85 417 479 +100 — 6 100 — 6 0 —0:9 —0-9 +0-1 +14-1 —0-09 418 479 + 96 +28 92 = 27 8 +0-2 +0-2 +0-1 +13-7 +0:-26 419 479 +100 + 6 100 + 6 0 -+2-6 +2-6 +0-2 +14-2 +0-03 420 479 + 86 +51 74 +44 26 —0°6 —0-5 —0-3 +12:3 +0-49 421 479 + 88 —48 qa =A, ae —2-0 18 +1-0 +12°3 —0-50 422 479 +100 — 3 100 — 3 0 —1-2 —1-2 0-0 +14-2 40-04 423 481 + 86 —5l 74 —44 26 +0°2 +0:°2 —0:1 +12-3 —0-50 | 424 48] + 94 —33 89 —3l1 11 —2=6 ee. +0:9 +13°-4 —0Q-32 38 Kae previous report (Sims, 1961). The observers were W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S), and H. W. Wood (W). In all cases the phase observed was disappearance at the dark limb. Table II gives the results of the reductions which were carried out in duplicate. The Z.C. numbers given are those of the Catalog of 3939 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson, 1940). The stars involved in occultations 418, 419, 421 and 424 were not in Z.C. They are SIMS Yale 12 JJ 7605, Yale 12 II 7607, G.C. 24979 and Yale 12 JJ 7858. Their apparent places are R.A. 185 15™ 428-89, Dec. —18° 42’ 56”-4; R.A. 188 15™ 478-72, Dec. —18° 46’ 32”-8; R.A. 182 16™ 288-71, Dec. —18° 37’ 50’-9% R.A. 182 41™ 018-60, Dec. —19° 15’ 49”-4. References ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Part II. Sims, K. P.,. 1961. J. Proc.’ Roy. Soc. NvS.W., Ome 123; Sydney Observatory Papers, 40. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 39-46, 1963 Nucleic Acids, Their Structure and Function* D. O. JORDAN Department of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Adelaide, South Australia Introduction Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to thank the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales for the honour they have conferred on me by inviting me to give the Liversidge Lecture for 1962. In his will, Archibald Liversidge refers to the “vastness of the subject’’, the subject being chemistry, and in my lecture this evening I have chosen a subject which well illustrates the vast scope of modern chemistry. The great progress in our knowledge of nucleic acids has only come during the last twenty years through the application of a great number of techniques, chemical, physical, biochemical and _ biological. These techniques have all been aimed at deter- mining the structure and behaviour of nucleic acids at the molecular level, or in other words, at their chemical structure and_ behaviour. In another part of his will, Liversidge directs the lecturers not to give “popular lectures dealing with generalities and giving mere reviews of their subjects ’’, but rather that they should “primarily encourage research and stimulate the lecturer and the public ’’. Although part of my lecture might almost be classified as a review, I trust that this will not be contrary to the directions of Liversidge. The develop- ment of our knowledge of the nucleic acids over the last two decades affords almost a perfect example of how the parallel contributions of organic chemistry, physical chemistry, bio- chemistry, biology and genetics can contribute to the solution of a single problem. It is just over twenty years ago since the late Professor J. M. Gulland, F.R.S., persuaded me to investigate the physical chemistry of nucleic acids, and I would like to pay tribute to his encouragement at a time when our ideas on the macromolecular structure of nucleic acids were just developing. My own contribution to nucleic acid chemistry has been through the application of the methods of physical chemistry * Liversidge Research Lecture delivered on 19 June, 62. to the problems of structure and behaviour and I trust that if I emphasize this aspect of nucleic acid chemistry tonight I will be acting in conformity with the wishes of Liversidge. The discovery of nucleic acids was a result of work by Miescher in 1868 in Hoppe-Seyler’s laboratory. It created particular interest because it was only the second organic compound known at that time containing phosphorus : the other being lecithin. The preparations of Miescher were undoubtedly of high molecular weight, although most probably not free of protein, and the early workers were fully aware of the care needed in preparation to preserve the macromolecular properties. However, at that time chemists were not prepared to accept high molecular weight substances as worthy of study and in 1899 Neumann described a pre- paration which involved the use of concentrated sodium hydroxide which was to set the pattern for preparations for the next thirty or forty years. There thus followed an intensive study of the chemistry of the breakdown products of nucleic acids and the study of the macro- molecular structure had to await the develop- ment of new techniques which were initiated by the study of protein chemistry and the development of synthetic high polymer chemistry. The Structure of the Nucleotides The nucleic acids are copolymers of the nucleotides, which in many _ respects are analogous to the role played by amino acids in the proteins. The nucleotides are phosphoric esters of the nucleosides which are N-glycosides of purines and pyrimidines. All the main structural features of the nucleotides have been determined by the classical methods of organic chemistry through the work of Levene, Gulland, and more particularly Todd, who has achieved the chemical synthesis of all the main nucleotides. The nucleic acids fall into two main groups which differ in their chemical composition, their macromolecular structure and in_ biological 40 D. O. JORDAN function. These are the deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and the ribonucleic acids (RNA). These are named after the sugar moiety which occurs in the two groups, 2-deoxy-D-ribose in one (DNA) and p-ribose in the other (RNA). In both nucleic acids it is usual to find at least four nucleotides, these being the phosphorylated N-D-ribosides of guanine, adenine, cytosine and uracil in RNA, and the phosphorylated N-2- deoxy-D-ribosides of guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine (5-methyl uracil) in DNA. From the synthetic work of Todd and his collaborators (1944, 1947, 1951) and from the X-ray work of Furberg (1950) and Huber (1957) we know that the point of attachment of the sugar is at N, in the pyrimidines and at N, in the purines. The configuration of the glycosidic linkage is always 6 and the sugar is always in the furanose form. Other nucleotides have been isolated, generally in small amounts, from some nucleic acids, the incidence of these will have biological significance. The Internucleotide Bond Various possibilities exist for the lnkage between the nucleotides, but from titration evidence all possibilities except that of a phosphoester linkage can be eliminated. This is confirmed by the isolation of the three isomeric 2’, 3° and 5’ phosphates of the ribonucleosides on chemical or enzymic hydrolysis of RNA and on the isolation of the 3’ and 5’ phosphates of the deoxyribonucleosides from DNA. In DNA the linkage is thus clearly a 3’—5’ phosphoester linkage, whereas in RNA it could be a linkage between 2 or 3° and the 5 position, present evidence favours the 3’-5’ linkage as in DNA. We thus see that the polymeric “ backbone ”’ of the molecules of RNA and DNA consists of a repeating unit of the following atoms (OCG, ODO) We may call this the primary structure of the nucleic acids. The Secondary Structure of DNA Our present ideas on the secondary structure of DNA stem largely from the structure suggested by Watson and Crick (1953, 1954). In the nine years that have elapsed since the introduction of this formula, only minor modi- fications have been made to the structure and it is now widely accepted as explaining the transfer of genetical characteristics at cell division although the full story is not yet known. The main features of this structure are: (1) the DNA molecule consists of a double helix con- sisting of two polynucleotide helices wound round a common axis; (2) the double helix is regular ; (3) the two polynucleotide molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds, which by virtue of the regular nature of the double helix must be specific in that adenine is always bonded to thymine and guanine to cytosine (Fig. 1). Watson and Crick suggested only two hydrogen bonds in the guanine-cytosine base pair, but Pauling and Corey (1956) later pointed out that three bonds are possible. In view of the importance of this structure, let us examine the experimental evidence on which it rests. The presence of hydrogen bonds between the bases was first suggested by Professor Gulland, Dr. Taylor and myself (1947) to explain the anomalous titration curve we observed with calf thymus DNA. When solutions of the sodium salt of DNA originally at pH 6-7 are first titrated to pH 2-5 or to pH 12, the titration curves differ markedly from the back titration curves. The addition of acid or alkali to the deoxyribonucleate does not at first bring about the ionization of acid and base groups and the unbuffered region in the initial titration curves extends from pH 4:5 to 11-0 compared with pH 6 to 9 in the back titration curve. Outside the pH range 4-5-11-0 a rapid liberation of groups occurs in the pH range 2:0 to 6-0 and 9-0 to 12:0. The same back titration curve is obtained whether the back-titration is commenced at pH 12 or 2:5. These observations were originally interpreted in the belief that the amino groups of guanine, adenine and cytosine were titrated in the range pH 2-0 to 6-0 whilst in the pH range 9-0 to 12-0 the —NH-CO- groups of guanine and thymine were dissociated. Whilst the latter assumption is still regarded as correct, it is almost certain that the ring nitrogens of the purines and pyrimidines are more basic than the amino groups. In the protonated form of adenine it has been established by X-ray and nuclear magnetic resonance studies that the proton is located at N, and not on the amino group, and the same result is reached from theoretical calculations (Broomhead, 1951 ; Cochran, 1951; Jardetzky and jjardeizla- 1960). The location of the proton on cytosine will also be at N,, but in guanine since N, is already linked to hydrogen, the —NH—CO- group being in the keto form, the proton most probably is attached to N, or the amino group. In spite of the change of viewpoint concerning the groups titrated in the acid range, the interpretation that the groups titrated in the two ranges were linked by hydrogen bonds NUCLEIC ACIDS, THEIR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 41 To chain To chain Fic. 1 which thus weakened the dissociation of the groups is still valid. That the bonds were intermolecular and not intramolecular was determined by viscosity and streaming bire- fringence studies (Creeth, Gulland and Jordan, 1947 ; Mathieson and Matty, 1957). A very marked decrease in the viscosity and streaming birefringence was observed at those pH values where the ionization of the groups occurred. This result could be explained only by a break- down of the hydrogen bonded structure to yield either smaller molecular units or a less asymmetric molecule. More detailed information on the structure of DNA comes from the X-ray studies of the Randall and Wilkins group at King’s College, 42 D. O. JORDAN London. Franklin and Gosling (1953), using oriented fibres of DNA, produced by with- drawing a fibre slowly from a concentrated solution at constant humidity, obtained good X-ray diffraction patterns for sodium deoxy- ribonucleate. | More recently more detailed patterns have been obtained with the lthium salt (Wilkins, Langridge, Wilson, Hooper and Hamilton, 1960). From the analysis of the diffraction pattern, and in particular from the cylindrical Patterson function, it was evident that the model consisted of a regular double helix and the essential parameters could be deduced, the distance between the nucleotide residues is 3-4 A, the repeat of the helix occurred every 34 A or ten nucleotides, and the diameter is 17 A. These dimensions are dependent on the water content of the fibre but are unlikely to be greatly different in solution. The contribution made by Watson and Crick, which led to the well known formula, arose from attempts to construct models of DNA. In order to do this it was necessary to know the structure and configuration of the nucleo- tides. Previous attempts to construct a model of a nucleotide by Astbury and others had been made on the assumption that the purine or pyrimidine ring lay in the same plane as the sugar ring. This was shown not to be so by Furberg (1950), who determined the structure of cytidine (cytosine-N-riboside) and showed that the angle between the rings was almost a right angle. On this basis Furberg (1952) had constructed models of nucleic acid which were single stranded and showed that the chain was twisted in the form of a helix. By extending this structure to the double helix and intro- ducing the specific hydrogen bonds Watson and Crick were able to obtain their structure. That this structure is maintained in aqueous solution has been demonstrated by the small angle X-ray scattering studies of Luzzati, Nicolaieff and Masson (1961). The specific pairing of the bases in the hydrogen bonded double helix carries with it the implication that for every guanine residue in the DNA molecule there must be an exactly equivalent number of cytosine residues. Similarly adenine and thymine must be present in equivalent amounts. The analytical figures for a large number of samples of DNA show that this is approximately true even though, in nucleic acids from different samples, the ratio of adenine to guanine can vary very considerably. This had been observed by Chargaff (1950) who, prior to the publication of the Watson and Crick structure, had suggested the specific pairing of guanine and cytosine and adenine and thymine in DNA. Z Before leaving this discussion, we should consider possible modifications of the Watson and Crick structure. The main possibility is that instead of the two polynucleotide chains in the double helix being continuous, they possess random or specific breaks. Such breaks would not affect the X-ray structure and if occurring at less frequent intervals than once every twenty or thirty nucleotides, could not be detected by titration. Experimental evidence that such breaks do occur has been produced by Dekker and Schachman (1954) from enzymic degradation studies. However, molecular weight studies on the native and denatured DNA do not agree with this view and it is now generally believed that such breaks, if they occur, are artifacts produced during preparation and that in the native material the two intertwined strands are continuous. Size and Shape of DNA DNA is a polyelectrolyte inasmuch as it possesses two charged phosphate groups every 3°4A along the chain. Synthetic polyelectro- lytes such as polymethacrylic acid show marked changes in shape on charging and discharging, being approximately rigid rods when charged and random coils when discharged. However, the presence of the hydrogen bonds and other interactions between the chains greatly modifies the expected polyelectrolyte behaviour with the result that DNA polyion behaves in solution as a stiff rod. Even when discharged, in high concentrations of sodium chloride, there is no collapse of the polyion to the random coil form. On denaturing, however, and the ruptur-_ ing of the bonds between the chains, the stiffness is lost and single stranded DNA, either produced from twin stranded DNA by denaturation, or from the ®X174 virus of Sinsheimer, shows normal polyelectrolyte behaviour. The stiffness of the DNA double helix is demonstrated by the viscosity data at zero shear in various solutions of sodium chloride obtained by Dr. Porter (1960). The molecular weight of DNA samples has been regarded until recently to lie in the range 6-10 x10®. Such values have generally been obtained from light scattering data or from a combination of sedimentation coefficient and either diffusion or viscosity values. However, recently it has become clear that even these values are too low and that the DNA in the cell possesses molecular weights more in the region of 110 x10® or higher. Dr. Cairns (1961), by NUCLEIC ACIDS, THEIR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 43 using an extremely mild technique, has been able to isolate DNA in this way and by labelling the DNA with tritium to determine the molecular weight autoradiographically. It has been known for some time that long molecules may be reduced in length by placing them in a shear gradient and the chemist has yet to learn how to handle these very long asymmetric molecules. One of the most important discoveries which has greatly aided the study of nucleic acids in recent years was made as far back as 1944, when Avery, Macleod and McCarty (1944) isolated transforming DNA. This biologically active DNA transforms one bacterial cell type into another. This property has been investigated and transforming DNA has now been isolated from many different bacteria. Denaturation of DNA If, as we believe, the DNA twin helix separates during cell division and each strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a second strand of DNA to complete the double helix, the study of the denaturation of DNA is of great importance. I shall now discuss the various ways in which DNA can be denatured and the mechanism of the various processes. DNA may be denatured in aqueous solution by (a) heat, (6) acid or alkali, and (c) solution in very dilute solutions in the absence of sodium chloride. It is worth noting here that ultra- sonic degradation does not denature DNA and that y irradiation also does not denature DNA. Both these forms of radiation produce covalent bond breakage, generally of both chains, so that the DNA is broken down into undenatured smaller fragments. However, in some circum- stances denaturation can occur and the behaviour is very dependent on the extent of the irradiation and its intensity. The heat denaturation of DNA may be brought about by heating the DNA in solution above a certain critical temperature. Zamenhof, Alexander and Leidy (1953) were the first to observe that the viscosity of DNA solutions remained constant as temperature was increased until a certain critical temperature is reached, when the viscosity falls rapidly with further increase of temperature. The activity of trans- forming DNA also falls at the same temperature. Instead of observing the viscosity, it is prefer- able, and certainly more convenient, to follow the change in optical density. The ultraviolet absorption of DNA at 259my is much less than that calculated from the known absorption coefficients of the nucleotides. This hyper- chromic effect is believed to be due to the interaction between the purines and pyrimidines stacked one above the other in the double helix. Removal of the hydrogen bonded structure markedly reduces the hyperchromic effect and the absorption markedly increases. Thus fol- lowing the absorption at 259myu is a very convenient way of determining the denaturation or “melting ’’ temperature. This temperature is related to the composition of the DNA, those possessing a high guanine and cytosine content have high melting points, and those with a high adenine-thymine content, low melting points. The denaturation process is analogous to the melting of a hydrogen bonded crystal in which the structure passes from the ordered arrange- ment in the crystal to the disordered state in the melt. On denaturing DNA we pass from the ordered Watson-Crick structure to the random coils of single or intertwined polynucleotide chains with an analogous entropy change to that occurring in the melting of the crystal. As the temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of the segments of the DNA molecule will also increase until the energy is sufficient to overcome the interaction energy. Although the denaturation by acid and alkali was observed first, since the titration curves illustrate irreversible denaturation, we know less about the mechanism than we do for other methods. The effect of acid or alkali addition is to affect the N----H-—N bonds of the adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine base pairs, addition of protons or removal of protons will produce positively or negatively charged nitrogen atoms respectively, but will only bring about the rupture of one hydrogen bond, the other bond in the adenine-thymine pair and the other two in the guanine-cytosine pair remaining unaffected. It is difficult to see immediately whether this will be sufficient to lead to dis- sociation. However, it must be remembered that dissociation by heat cannot be neglected and both these forms of denaturation will be present at the same time. Thus Cavalieri and Rosenberg (1957) have shown that as the temperature is increased it is necessary to titrate less groups in the acid region (and the same will occur in the alkaline region) to produce denaturation. The last method of denaturation is one which Dr. Inman and I (1960) investigated a year or so ago. Thomas (1954) showed that if sodium chloride was removed from a solution of DNA the optical density increased and on increasing the sodium chloride concentration again the optical density, although reduced, did not return to the original low value. This process he described 44 as denaturation ; he was, in fact, the first to apply this term to nucleic acids. Dr. Inman and I were able to show that denaturation occurred on reducing the DNA concentration of a salt-free solution and if this was followed either by the change in conductivity or by the change in optical density a critical concentration was observed at which denaturation occurred. This critical concentration was dependent on the electrolyte concentration, in agreement with the findings of Thomas. The mechanism of this method of denaturation is most probably that of electrostatic repulsion between the charged groups of the two polynucleotide chains. The effective charge on the phosphate groups will vary with the counterion concentration and dilution of the DNA or removal of electrolyte will bring about the dissociation of the ion pairs which exist at higher concentrations, the charge will thus increase until at infinite dilution the phosphate groups are fully charged. The repulsion energy between the charged groups can be calculated as a function of the charge fraction and from the experimentally determined value of the charge fraction at the critical concentration we can obtain the bonding energy per phosphorus atom; this comes out to be 3:1 k.cals., which is not unreasonable for 1 to 1-5 hydrogen bonds per phosphate group. Protein denaturing agents such as urea and guanidine hydrochloride do not denature DNA, but do aid denaturation by other means. Thus the melting temperature is lowered in the presence of 8M urea. The Reversibility of DNA Denaturation From early studies of the denaturation of calf thymus DNA, it was concluded that the denaturation process was irreversible and the double helix gave an intertwined random coil which could contain some non-specific hydrogen bonds. However, with the realization that the sequence of nucleotides determines the genetic code, it became appreciated that the likelihood of producing reversible denaturation was dependent on having a nucleic acid preparation which did not contain too many different kinds of genetically, and therefore chemically, different DNA. The DNA from mammalian glands such as calf thymus is very complex as has been shown by the fractionation work of Bendich, ~ which has been confirmed and extended by Mr. Colvill and myself. Whether this fractionation is the type which is genetically significant, I very much doubt, but it nevertheless shows that the DNA is complex. Bacterial DNA is less complex genetically and has the advantage D. O. JORDAN of being biologically active, virus DNA would be simpler still since each virus contains only one ~ DNA molecule. The very brilliant researches of Doty (1961) have demonstrated beyond doubt that bacterial DNA can be denatured reversibly. The process used is a simple and obvious one. We have already likened the denaturation by heat to a melting of a crystal, so the reverse process of renaturation should be possible by a process akin to crystallization. Heat denatura- tion followed by a slow cooling should therefore reproduce native DNA. This is what Doty observed. The slow cooling process allows the individual polynucleotide chains to seek out their partners in the solutions and form the specific hydrogen bonds with the complementary sequence. DNA which has been denatured by heat and slowly cooled is found to regain its. original melting temperature and also much of its original biological activity. Renaturation of DNA in this way does not necessarily involve strand separation during the denaturation process. That strand separa- tion does occur was brilliantly proved by Doty (1961) by using two preparations of DNA obtained from the same bacteria, one grown on media containing N!4 and H! and the other N™ and D. Such DNA’s can be separated analytically by the technique of density gradient ultracentrifugation. A mixture of N14 and N!® labelled DNA was heated so as to produce denaturation; if strand separation did nol occur only two species would result, but if strand separation did occur five species would result, viz. single strand N14, double strand N}4, double strand hybrid N14,N15, single strand N15, and double strand N!5. Five strands were observed in density gradient ultracentrifugation and if the renatured solution was treated with. an enzyme which hydrolyses only single strand DNA, the single stranded moieties are removed. and also any single strand “ tails’’ at the ends. of double strands. Three sharp fractions of the double stranded molecule are then obtained. The Rate of Denaturation Now that the mechanism of the denaturation process is firmly established, the rate of this. process and the renaturation process warrants. examination. Kinetic studies on the denatura- tion and renaturation of DNA have not been made, but Sturtevant and Ross (1960) have shown that the reaction between synthetic polyadenylic acid and polyuridylic acid is very rapid. In this reaction there is no slow process. such as there is in DNA renaturation when the DNA strands have to seek the complementary NUCLEIC ACIDS THEIR SERUCTURE AND FUNCTION 45 sequence, since any adenylic acid residues on one chain can bond to a uridylic acid residue on the other. However, it does show that the formation of the double helix can be a rapid process. From theoretical considerations, Kuhn (1961) and Longuet-Higgins and Zimm (1961) have concluded that a Watson-Crick helix can unwind by partial rotational or torsional Brownian movement round the axis in 50 to 80 seconds. In the renaturation process, there is not only the problem of forming the helix which is rapid, as shown by the formation of the polyadenylic acid-polyuridylic acid complex, but also the problem of forming the helix of minimum free energy which will have the maximum interaction between the strands. The Macro Structure of RNA Compared to DNA, our knowledge of the structure of RNA is still rather rudimentary, evidence exists for the formation of both single stranded and double stranded RNA. In the single stranded RNA there is also evidence for twin stranded sections, but whether these are biologically important or artifacts formed due to the ease of helix formation, is not clear. Future Work In his will, Archibald Liversidge directs the lecturer to draw “ attention to the research work which should be undertaken ’’. In the nucleic acid field, immense possibilities exist and I will confine my comments to those aspects which we are developing. One of the main difficulties confronting a physical chemist in nucleic acid chemistry is the difficulty that arises in handling a large, charged macromolecule in aqueous solution. Some years ago it was observed that the cetyl trimethyl ammonium salts of DNA were soluble in non-aqueous solvents and recently it has been shown that these salts can be reversibly formed from nucleic acids and polynucleotides. This opens up the possibility of making studies in non-aqueous media. We expect this technique to help greatly in the elucidation of the size and shape studies and also in the study of denaturation mechanism. We are furthering our studies of denaturation by extending the dilution method to other nucleic acids and have already observed that the critical concentration is dependent on composition. _ Much can be done with rapid reaction techniques on denaturation and renaturation mechanisms and we are particularly interested in the possibilities of studying reactions by suddenly altering the environment, either as regards concentration or temperature. Then there is the problem of fractionation. Procedures so far have employed basic columns which have thus used only phosphate groups as points of attachment. fractionation has thus largely been concerned with molecular size. What is required is a surface which will specifically adsorb only certain DNA molecules. Perhaps the answer is DNA supported on cellulose or combined and held in an oriented structure by some other means. It is important to realize that the problem of fractionation must be completely mastered before sequence determinations will have any significance. A knowledge of the precise location of the protons is protonated DNA and polynucleotides in solution is required before the mechanism of acid and alkali denaturation can be elucidated. We hope nuclear magnetic resonance will help us here. We also have to learn how to handle large, asymmetric molecules such as have been isolated by Dr. Cairns, since subjecting these to even low shear gradients causes degradation. Finally, there remains the problem of the small chemical difference between DNA and RNA which appears to cause a fundamental difference in the biological function. There is thus much to do; the main problem therefore is what should be done first. This emphasizes the most important aspect of research, the proper design of meaningful experiments. References AVERY, O. T., MAcLEop, C. M., ano McCarty, M. J., 1944. J. Exp. Med., 79, 137. BROOMHEAD, J. M., 1951. Acta Cryst., 4, 92. CaiIRNS, J., 1961. J. Mol. Biol., 3, 756. CAVALIERI, L. F., AND ROSENBERG, B. H., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 79, 5354. CHARGAFF, E., 1950. Experientia, 6, 20. CLARK, V. M., Topp, A. R., AND ZUSSMANN, J., 1951. J. Chem. Soc., 2952. CocHRAN, W., 1951. Acta Cryst., 4, 81. CREETH, J. M., GULLAND, J. M., AND JorDan, D. O., 1947. J. Chem. Soc., 1141. Davo.L., J., LYTHGOE, B., and Topp, A. R., 1944. J. Chem. Soc., 833. 1957. DEKKER, C. A., AND SCHACHMAN, H. K., 1954. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sct. Wash., 40, 894. FRANKLIN, R. E., AND GOSLING, R. G., 1953. Acta Cryst., 6, 673, 678. FURBERG, S., 1950. Acta Cryst., 3, 325. FURBERG, S., 1952. Acta Chem. Scand., 6, 637. GULLAND, J. M., Jorpan, D. O.; anp TaytLor, H. F. W., 1947. J. Chem. Soc., 11381. HuBeEr, M., 1957. Acta Cryst., 10, 128. INMAN, R. B., AND JorRDAN, D. O., 1960. Buochim. et Biophys. Acta, 42, 421, 427; 43, 9, 206. jARDETZKY, ©: °D!, AND) JARDETZKY,. ©, 1960. f. Amer. Chem. Soc., 82, 222. Kuun, W., 1961. J. Mol. Biol., 3, 473. 16 D. O. JORDAN LoNGUET-HiGeins, H. C., AND ZimMm, B. H., 1961. J. Mol. Biol., 3, 475. LuzzaTI, V., NICOLAIEFF, A., AND Masson, F., 1961. J. Mol. Biol., 3, 185. LYTHGOE, B., SMITH, H., anp Topp, A. R., 1947. J. Chem. Soc., 355. MaTHiEsoN, A. R., AND Matty, S., 1957. J. Polymer Sts 5 2o uae PAULING, L., AND CorEY, R. B., 1956. Biophys., 65, 164. Porter, M. R., AND JORDAN, D. O., 1960. Jn Jordan, Dy ©, Chemistry of Nucleic Acids 7) Butter- worths, London, p. 200. SCHILDKRAUT, C. L., MARMUR, J., AND Doty, P., 1961. J. Mol. Biol., 3, 595. Arch. Biochem. STURTEVANT, J. M., AND Ross, Polymer Sct., 47, 111. THoMAS, R., 1954. Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 14, 233. Watson, J. D., AND Crick, F. H. C., 1953. Nature (London), 171, 737; Cold Spring Harbour Symp. quant. Biol., 18, 123. Watson,. J. D., AND Crick, F. H: ©3954). Proc: HOY MSOC, Na Zao OU: WILKINS, M. H. F., LANGRIDGE, R., Witson, H. R., Hooper, C. W., AND Hamitton, L. D., 1960. Je Mol. Biol. 25219) ZAMENHOF, S., ALEXANDER, H. E., AND LEIDy, G., 1953. J. Exp. Med:, 98, 379. Pi Dy A960. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 47-57, 1963 Some Chemical and Scientific Problems of the Late Twentieth Century* R. J. W. LE FEVRE School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney Many of my predecessors in office have taken the traditional Presidential Address as an opportunity to review or summarize the investi- gations with which they and their associates had been actively engaged. The rules of our Society, however, give the President no instruc- tion on the matter, and I propose to reject the temptation to talk about the particular research fields now being explored by my collaborators and me within the Chemistry School of the University of Sydney. There are a number of reasons for this decision. Firstly, only eighteen months ago you appointed me to be the “ Liversidge Research Lecturer ”’ for 1960 and the (printed) text of my lecture describes the main lines of work now proceeding ; secondly, I believe the chief vaison d’étre of the Royal Society of New South Wales today to be the encouragement of a catholic attitude to science, and specialist topics at its meetings are no longer appropriate, necessary, or popular ; and thirdly, there are problems looming which endanger all scientists, as such and as members of the human race, before which our daily and separate interests and preoccupations seem to lose some of their significance or justification. Before speaking about such questions let me make a few remarks on the general state of chemistry. As a branch of science its growth has been orthodox: from prehistoric technology and observation came perceptual data from which the synthetical and analytical operations of human minds formulated conceptual schemes (theories) which in turn suggested experi- mentation the results of which, when unexpected, led to revised conceptual schemes ; so by many repetitions of such cycles chemistry with the rest of science has become the comprehensive network of more or less correlated facts and theories we know today. During the first seven thousand years progress was _ slight ; modern chemistry is the fruit of three centuries only. As Read said in 1947, “Alchemy was static. Chemistry is dynamic. Never, in the * Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 4, 1962. whole gamut of intellectual and_ practical achievement, has mankind made a greater advance than in chemistry, in so short a time.”’ Actually its growth rate over the last 150 years has had an exponential character. A central theme through this period has been the development, from vague ideas of atoms and the ways they combine together, of detailed and quantitative theories of molecular structure. In 1962 we believe our knowledge of molecular architecture to be metrical and our techniques for measuring the sizes and shapes of molecules to be well-founded and accurate ; giant molecules involved in the processes of life, heredity, and disease are coming under investigation more and more. . . the central theme of molecular structure remains stronger than ever. “* Pursuit of the details of molecular structure and molecular environment is the occupation of all chemists part of the time and part of the chemists all of the time ”’ (Wertz, 1955). This is inevitably so, since, in their simplest expressions, the principal objectives of theoretical chemistry are to relate molecular structures with physical properties on one hand and with reactivities and reaction mechanisms on the other. “Molecular engineering ’’ becomes possible in proportion as these objectives are attained. By molecular engineering I mean the deliberate planning and construction of molecular species which will, by design, form materials in bulk with properties required by some particular situation. In the past, useful substances have often emerged by chance. Hundreds of examples could be quoted, from Glauber’s discovery of the salt bearing his name, through Faraday’s isolation of benzene, Perkin’s accidental forma- tion of the first coal-tar dyestuff, Kipping’s investigations on the organic chemistry of Silicon, etc. to Fleming’s recogniton of penicillin in culture filtrates of Penzcilliwm notatum. The present-day benefits of many materials are by-products unforeseen by earlier workers, whose objectives were in the realm of “ pure ”’ d 48 Ro). Wee PE VRE ¢ rather than ‘“‘ applied”’ science. If Liebig and Dumas between 1831 and 1835 had not been interested in chloroform as a_ substitution product of methane, it would not have existed for Simpson to use as an anaesthetic in 1848 ; aspirin and antipyrine were not found because analgesics and febrifuges were being sought ; “plastics ’’ and artificial fibres—now so uni- versal—have followed, rather than preceded, academic research on polymers and_ poly- merizations. Such has been the past. Today, knowledge concerning the dependence of properties on molecular structure and molecular shape is already sufficient to permit the “ tailoring ”’ of molecules to suit specified needs. Thus from the readily available molecule cholesterol we know how to make four hormones to control four important but different vital functions, the androgenic, oestrogenic, progestational and adreno-cortical. Starting from 6-amino- penicillanic acid (which occurs in large quantities in fermentation liquors) a series of new and partly synthetic penicillins can be prepared. Several of these are superior to the natural penicillins in having broader antimicrobial actions or reduced side-effects, and in resisting staphylococcal penicillinase, the intervention of which is one of the most serious problems of antibacterial chemotherapy. The research field in which physiological properties are being related to molecular structure contains many such examples. We know which groups of atoms are likely to produce the effect desired. The sorts of molecules likely to be useful against tuberculosis or dysentery or leprosy or syphilis or malaria, or typhus, or to be efficacious as antiseptics, anaesthetics, hypnotics, anticonvulsants, — tranquillisers, diuretics, analgesics, anthelmintics, etc., as well as those potent as fungicides, weedicides and insecticides, can all be forecast with reasonable certainty by the chemist. Topically we may entertain hopes that virus diseases will shortly receive a setback when the molecular nature of “‘interferon’’ becomes better understood. This substance, discovered in 1957 by Isaacs and Lindenmann, is capable of interfering with viruses different from that from which it was isolated. Its molecule has a protein nature. It appears to be non-toxic in effective doses. It could be the starting point of another major breakthrough in chemo- therapy, analogous to that following the recognition in 1935 of the bacteriostatic action Oli, Prontosil: However, it is when we turn to research fields in which purely physical properties are being related to molecular structure that we find opportunities for molecular engineering to be most numerous and varied. Let me mention only two examples. The connections between colour and constitution have attracted chemists for over eighty years; the “rules” in this classical problem are well established; the atom-groups which carry colour are known; the ways in which they should be put together in a molecule are clear. Today substances with specified colours can indeed be planned on the drawing board. By adding other groups carry- ing the ability to attach the coloured molecules to fibres, surfaces, etc., dyestuffs are produced. Thirty or so years ago, when fibres not composed only of cotton, silk, or wool began to be used, the dyer encountered new problems which were overcome by the use of a priorv1 knowledge. A very recent instance is the dyeing of glass fibres; ordinary organic molecules cannot be chemically bonded to glass, towards which certain silicones, however, are known to have high affinity. By preparing monomeric alkoxy- silane azo dyes under anhydrous conditions, and then polymerizing them with water, polysiloxane azo dyestuffs are produced which retain the affinity for glass and which conse- quently can be used for dying fabrics of this material. Synthetic fibres and “ plastics”’ offer great opportunities for molecular tailoring or engineer- ing. Surprising materials for old and new purposes have emerged, and will continue to do so, from these families of substances. If you want a lightweight alternative to steel, an isotactic polypropylene fibre will give you a tensile strength of over 70 kg./sq. mm., a high- tenacity Nylon 66 fibre up to ca. 80 kg./sq. mm. ; epoxy resin adhesives are suitable for the bonding of concrete kerbs to road surfaces or for the joining of broken bones; plastics of all kinds have entered building practice. . . The sudden withdrawal of macro-molecules developed during the past 25 years would leave many of us toothless and near-naked ! Some of the strongest challenges to molecular architects and engineers must today be foreseen — from aviation, the newer vehicles of which are | being planned to operate under conditions as yet sometimes explored only theoretically. Speeds are increasing rapidly. It took 35 years for aeroplanes to reach 400 m.p.h. “ First generation’”’ jet airliners (the investment in which by Western nations is estimated at £2 10°) fly at 500 m.p.h. Bigger and faster CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY = 49 “second generation ’’ machines will be appearing in a year of two—such as the Convair Coronado 990, the Boeing 727, or the de Havilland Trident, which will cruise at 600 m.p.h. with a hundred or more passengers. France is planning the Super Caravelle to travel at twice the speed of sound, while her Mirage III is described as a Mach 2.2 interceptor. An aero- dynamic test vehicle (Jaguar) for speeds of about 7000 m.p.h. was displayed at the last Farnborough Air Show. Operational heights have also risen in 50 years from a few thousand to a hundred thousand feet. Problems are many. Rates of climb and descent must put stresses of 50g. or more on materials of construction. Rapid rises of skin temperatures will occur (at 100,000 ft., the skin temperature at Mach 2-5 would char rubber, at Mach 4 would equal that of red-hot iron, above Mach 4:5 would melt aluminium!). Wings fuselages, etc. therefore should have high melting points, good thermal conductivities, and ability to retain their tensile strengths when hot; moreover, since rates of change of skin temperatures may easily exceed 40° per minute, materials with low thermal expansion coefficients are most desirable. At present, stainless steel is contemplated for the first supersonic aircraft. Apart from the vehicle itself, the conditions of life must be preserved for crew and passengers. Noise at take-off may be 200 db. (90 db. is equivalent to a pneumatic road-drill at 20’) ; sound insulating materials must be developed. The ozone content of air even at 20,000’ is ten times that at sea level, sealers, windows, etc. must be resistant to this reactive substance ; it is poisonous and should be reduced to safe concentrations by any pressurization system. Cosmic and other radiation is greater at high altitudes when the normal screening effect of the atmosphere is absent ; external or internal protection must be provided, for “ astronauts ”’ at least. If the air in the boundary layers is heated much above 500° C it will begin to ionize and begin to prevent communication to and from the vehicle. Any electrical components working in the ambient atmosphere will suffer the tendency to corona discharges well known at low pressures, with consequent risks of deterioration of insulation, radio interference, and fire; new barriers must be _ devised. Temperature-resistant transparent window materials (or lens materials, if closed circuit T.V. observation is to be used) will be needed. Engines, instruments, lubricants, fuels—the difficulties are formidable and numerous ; they c are all, directly or indirectly, challenges to chemistry. The extent to which the challenges are topically being taken up is difficult to gauge ; in the present international climate much of such work, if successful, would be “ secret ’’. From the literature it is clear that a good deal of frantic product-searching is_ proceeding. Notably, recent demands for polymeric material complying with exacting specifications of resistance to a heat of 500°, to oxidation, and to hydrolysis have encouraged the investigation of inorganic polymers, e.g. those incorporating atoms such as P, N, B, Si, Ti or Sn in their molecular skeletons; Russian chemists have described backbone units of —Al-O-Al- and —Al—O-Si-, but details of the products and their applications are not disclosed. Likewise it is obvious that considerable attention is being given to fuels and propellants. Some of these sound frightening to an ordinary chemist : nitronium perchlorate, hydrocarbons with mixtures of liquid oxygen and fluorine, liquid hydrogen with liquid ozone. . . The chemist’s long-range hopes of improving rocket thrust are said to involve free radicals or free atoms. ..physicists say that the _ specific impulse obtainable with accelerated plasma from exploding wires greatly exceeds that from present chemical systems. A propos radiation dangers, not only during space flight but generally, it is interesting that during the last few years a number of substances have shown promise as internal protective agents. The most active contain a sulphydryl group and an amino or guanidino group separated by not more than three carbon atoms, e.g. cysteamine HS-CH,CH,-NH,. They reduce the biological damage from ionizing radiations not only in isolated cells but also in intact animals; they are most effective against X- and gamma-rays and high-energy electrons, less against «-particles. A typical report states, e.g., that 8007 of X-rays will kill ten out of ten mice within 15 days but if the mice are given an injection of a good protective agent shortly before irradiation all will be alive several months afterwards. A few experiments with monkeys suggest that primates can be protected. Unfor- tunately, at present, to obtain a significant degree of protection the doses have to be such as come close to giving pharmacological side- effects. . . nevertheless, the development is encouraging. Turning to other fields, one of the most exciting challenges to the student of molecular architecture is now being met in the _ border- 50 R. J. W. Le FEVRE land between chemistry and biology. Since the subject concerns the fundamental processes of heredity, its development holds great potential for future good or evil. It is well known that hereditary factors are carried in the chromosomes of cell nuclei, and that the chromosomes are replicated during cell division, one set being passed to each daughter cell. Inherited characteristics are associated with definite positions on the chromosomes, arranged in order “like beads on a rosary ”’ ; these positions are genes. A gene is no longer thought to be an abstract term for a unit factor of heredity, but rather a definite type of macro-molecule belonging to the deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) class; these DNA’s between them contain chemically coded genetic information and directions for nearly all living organisms (the only exceptions appear to be certain small viruses, in which the DNA is replaced by the very similar nucleic acids from ribose instead of deoxyribose). The deoxyribose nucleic acids are condensation polymers derived from nucleotides, units com- posed of a sugar (deoxyribose) chemically bonded to a base and a phosphate grouping; poly- nucleotides such as DNA are nucleotides joined through these phosphate groupings. Examined by the electron microscope and by other physical methods, DNA’s appear as fairly straight rod-like macromolecules with lengths of 1000 A or more and diameters ca. 20 A. One macromolecule may contain 25,000 bases. Early chemical work showed that hydrolysis of DNA’s provided only four bases, two purines (guanine and adenine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine) ; moreover—and this was surprising—while the proportions of the four bases from DNA’S of different species could vary, the ratios of guanine/cytosine and adenine/thymine were always close to unity. A pairing of bases in the macromolecule was thus indicated. Gene replication is characterized by its accuracy. This—and other details—is explained by the DNA model proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953. DNA is envisaged as a double helix formed from two polynucleotide chains intertwined. On the outer aspect of the resulting column are the sugar and phosphate units ; the bases are inside. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the purines and pyrimidines of one strand with the appropriately paired pyrimidine and purine respectively of the other. The genetic message is conveyed by the sequence order in which the nucleotides occur. The reproduction process is pictured as a partial unwinding of the double helix, then the H-bonding of nucleotides to the bases thus — exposed in the single strands, followed by an enzymic “zipping up’ of the phosphate residues of the entrant nucleotides to complete a new double helix. The fresh macromolecule is thus formed on the old as on a template; it replicates its predecessor precisely. Thus in a way the units of heredity are the four bases, guanine, cytosine, adenine and thymine, and the guiding principle during repro- duction may be stereo-chemical in that only guanine will pair with cytosine, or adenine with thymine. Certainly a door is opening; what are the prospects seen through it? Will man be able to manipulate the genes and thus interfere— for good or evil—with the principle of natural selection hitherto operative on the human gene pool ?._If so, the 1 per cent of congenital abnormalities among births may be avoided. We who have heard Pauling speaking about the sickle cell gene and its association with immunity against juvenile malaria, or on phenylketonuria and its transmission, will realize that a start has. already been made in relating unfortunate inheritance to details of molecular structure. The fundamental role which the nucleic acids appear to play in the processes by which life is continued in a regulated way prompts the question : how did they first originate on this planet ? It is thought that perhaps the crust of the earth formed about 5x10°® years ago. The early atmosphere was a reducing one in which the atoms in it were attached more to hydrogen than to oxygen; photosynthetic organisms based on carbon dioxide may not have appeared until roughly half a million years ago. Could chemical evolution have started from methane, hydrogen, water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and perhaps monoxide, under the action of ultraviolet and ionizing radiations from the sun and outer space and/or radioactivity from the rocks of the earth ? The answer from experiment is “ yes’. Garrison et al. (1951) have formed formic acid by irradiating a solution of carbon dioxide in water in the Berkeley cyclotron. Urey and Miller (1955, 1959) have demonstrated the production of acetic, succinic and certain amino- acids by passing an electric discharge through a mixture of methane, ammonia, water and hydrogen. Thus, theoretically, these simple starting materials could lead to polypeptides, proteins, and a host of naturally important CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY D1 molecules known today. Random synthesis could therefore have started the organic chemistry of the earth. For life to start among such organic com- pounds, however, it seems that the organizers of protein synthesis and development—the nucleic acids—must be present. Could they— or primitive prebiotic forms of them—have come from astral bodies other than the earth ? Here again the answer appears to be “ yes’. Some years ago, spectroscopic examination suggested that fragments such as CH, CN, C,, etc. are in comets and widespread throughout the Universe, that infra-red bands corres- ponding to C-H bonds can be seen in the dark regions on Mars (Sinton, 1959). ..We may hope that, with rocketry, closer inspection of the Moon, Mars and Venus will soon give more precise information. In the meantime, tons of meteorites are annually falling on to the earth, and some of these contain carbon as organic matter extractable by solvents. _ Calvin has recently (1959) analysed some of these extracts, using the sensitive and refined techniques available today, and has characterized one of the compounds present as—most prob- ably—cytosine. Here, then, is an important component of DNA of extraterrestrial origin, presumably available from somewhere in the solar system or from outer space. Can this discovery be irrelevant to the fascinating questions concerning the origin of life on earth or elsewhere ? All the matters mentioned so far can be viewed with optimism; their study satisfies the in-built curiosity of man ; their applications can be used for the benefit of mankind. They constitute progress. Can such progress continue ? It is submitted that the outlook for science in general, should, today, be one of pessimism. Difficulties are increasing at every turn. Consider the “training”’ of young research scientists. They must come from the ranks of undergraduates, but these are being crammed into our universities in a way such that their standards of opportunity, of laboratory experience, of study, of staff contact, are being reduced year by year. Who says these standards are sinking? It is the people best qualified to judge, those appointed to spread teaching and research in their particular branches of know- ledge. . .not Councils, Senates, Administra- tions, or Education Departments. On the evidence before us these bodies often value quantity before quality. . (Students do not protest because they do not know what to expect from a university; and ‘because the majority wants, at any price, to be stamped with the B.Sc.).. Schools are suffering similar troubles. No political party seems prepared to deal with the problems of education on realistic lines or to risk the unpopularity which might be involved thereby. Equality of opportunity is a noble claim; should not those making it be required to demonstrate better, than at present, their ability to use the opportunities adequately ? Watering down matriculation and graduation requirements, like so much else visible in public policies, encourages the increase of the less educable or adaptable persons, and tends to undermine incentive and slacken the will to work. Sir Charles Darwin has remarked that paying attention to the inferior types “is the most inefficient way possible of achieving the perfectibility: of the .human: race’; If in education we could give our best: services to the most deserving, the numbers of first-class scientists emerging from our universities would not be reduced, but—having avoided dilution of their opportunities by the mediocre mass— their quality would be improved. (In the Sydney Chemistry School, swollen classes in Years I-III are not producing any growth at all in the [Vth Year Honours group.) When a box-office sells more tickets than its theatre has: seats, how can everyone have that view of the stage for which he has paid, and which the building was designed to give? The manager, anxious to preserve the standards which he understands is at once in conflict with the directors if they press him to overfill the house. For seats, read laboratory places and facilities, for manager, read Professors and Heads of Science Departments. ..and you will under- stand one of the reasons why the “ training ”’ outlook is gloomy ! The extraordinary—almost exponential— recent growth of science exacerbates the situa- tion. To speak only of chemistry: its ever- growing literature and ever-widening range seems likely to impose a major brake on progress. Under the title “ Knowledge Lost is Ignorance Increased ’’’, I gave some facts and figures in 1957. In pure chemistry alone two to three new papers are appearing per hour. Only about half these are in English. A chemist who thinks he will keep abreast of current research by perusing “‘ Chemical Abstracts”’, which tries to have world-wide coverage, must read and understand about 46 columns of tersely written small print each day. This would be an extremely arduous task; in practice, an 52 impossible one. The “information services ”’ of chemistry today are geared above the human and mental powers of chemists. Other scientists make similar complaints about their fields. Our minds being limited, all we can hope to do is to keep up with some small part of our subject, perhaps only with the literature of our own research fields; over-all knowledge is passing more and more out of our reach. Remembering how often, in the past, advances have followed — cross-fertilization between different disciplines (how chemistry has benefited from the ideas and techniques of physics, for example), it seems inevitable that future progress must be handicapped. Thus the outlook on all matters touching the recording, distribution, accessibility, digestion and _ correlation of information is dismal indeed ! Faced with events during the last decade we cannot be blind to the deleterious effects on science of political pressures or—in the future— of a change in social attitudes. Already, during the last decade we have seen political pressure applied in two of the largest countries of the world: Russia and the U.S.A. In the earlier 1950’s basic ideas accepted by most non-Russian geneticists were, within the Soviet Union, declared incompatible with the doctrine of the Communist Party. Chemists will remember how the approaches of Pauling and Ingold to problems of molecular structure were Officially condemned as “ bourgeois and anti-democratic ”’. Nor can we forget the well-organized attempt to paralyse independent thought, discussion, dissent, or protest about certain matters in the U.S.A. The national hysteria of the McCarthy period occurred among English-speaking people not dissimilar to us. The fever may now have lost its heat, but it has not entirely gone. According to Margaret Gillett, writing in “Vestes’’ recently, the American Association of University Professors has reported that during 1959-60 external attempts at “ interference, molestation, or penalization ’’ were still coming to academic people from three main areas— government, the courts, and, less formally, public opinion, and the Press. Among various instances she notes dismissals of instructors on racial grounds, or even—as in the case of a Professor of Mathematics at Fisk University— because he invoked the Fifth Amendment and because the authorities feared public opinion. Prominent and valuable research workers have not escaped. In 1954, Dr. J. R. Oppen- heimer was, by a 4:1 vote, denied access to “restricted ’’ data, because he did not have the R. J. W. Le FEVRE continued confidence of the U.S. Government ; — yet, as is well known, he had taken a distin- guished and leading part in the development of © the atom bomb at Los Alamos and within the — Atomic Energy Commission. Oppenheimer’s motives were questioned when he advised against the hydrogen bomb project; he was accused of “lack of enthusiasm’. Nature made editorial comment at the time that the Oppenheimer enquiry had analogies with the case of Dr. Dreyfus two generations earlier ! I recall these events, not in detraction of the U.S.A. or U.S.S.R., but to illustrate that having occurred elsewhere, or in the recent past, they could recur anywhere now or in the near future. Their hindrance to the advance of science is indisputable ; that the motivation behind them was given out as “ loyalty ’’ or “patriotism ’’ is also well known. Of course, a new situation was created by the construction of atomic weapons. Until these appeared the development of weapons depended on the specific application of published facts and principles, largely of physics and chemistry. ..any new scientific knowledge involved had no revolutionary consequences for the advance of science. Now nuclear research is depending on the expenditure of vast sums of public money (justified at first by war needs). Inevitably, such investigations, born of war-time necessity, have been covered from birth by the secrecy which was anathema to science in the nineteenth century, when no government would have known or worried about what was going on in the research laboratories of a country. Today, therefore, the advances in one area of science are equated with national security. . . the old assumption that science has no frontiers is, in reality, untenable. This secrecy has consequences not dangerous only to the progress of science. It virtually deprives the public of accurate and authentic information without which sound judgment of public policy is impossible. ““ Democratic government ’’, if it cannot run on knowledge, is liable to do so on prejudice. The last point bears on the dangers to science from a future change in social attitude. Poorer and poorer education through greater and greater shortages of science teachers in our schools will increasingly produce populations unable to understand the significance of new discoveries in science or to undertake the hard job of thinking for themselves and of honestly and courageously stating and facing their conclusions. CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY = 53 Serious science, unlike science fiction, 1s not really popular today. (Only 7% of adult education in the U.K. in 1952 was in scientific subjects; in all the Australian universities together, between 1950-59, Arts students have increased their proportion from 27% to 30%, but Science students only from 13 -2% to 13-9%, according to the 1960 report of the Australian Universities Commission.) Governments are not in general controlled by the governed. The basic patterns of human behaviour are much the same today as they were before the external circumstances of life were altered—for a minority of mankind—by the applications of scientific discovery and invention, and before some of the jargon of science entered the vocabularies of daily conversation, and before the superficial appear- ance was created that we are living in a “scientific age’’, when people think and act “ scientifically ’’. If people really did so act, they could not be easily misled. A. V. Hill has spoken of science thus: “‘ The fundamental principle of scientific work is unbending integrity of thought, following the evidence of fact wherever it may lead, within the limits of experimental error and honest mistake. On this there can be no compromise ; and since science is a universal interest of mankind, recognizing no_ barriers of race, class, religion or opinion (provided that it is honest), a necessary condition of its advance and application is one of friendliness, frankness and equality. Goodwill and integrity, therefore, are indispensable alike to scientific progress itself and its successful employment for the benefit of mankind. Those who look to scientists as magicians, able to conjure a universal formula out of a hat, may be dis- appointed to find only so ancient a doctrine : and admittedly, there zs far more to science than integrity and goodwill. But these are the qualities chiefly required to utilize the opportunities, to resolve the problems and difficulties, which science has provided for present-day society ”’. Knowledge, understanding, integrity, and goodwill. . . these qualities together cannot often be seen in governments or governed ; the first two alone may have powerful and disastrous results if used by the ruling clique ms? a totalitarian state. A placid public, accustomed to having its emotions aroused by advertising agencies, can be stimulated to violent fanaticism by propaganda bureaux (as we saw in pre-war Germany). Can we trust the relatively ignorant and uncomprehending nations of the world to resist attempts to limit or proscribe or even to persecute science and scientists ? Politicians take a short view— three or five years—of their policies ; 1f and when catastrophic and uncontrollable changes begin to become apparent to everyone, could not a shallow analysis seem to show science to blame ? Scapegoats will then be needed. (We might remember Rome in the third century: the Christians were not understood, they challenged the social and political convictions of the world around them, they refused to do sacrifice to the Emperor. ‘When political troubles were unusually grave. . .it was thought prudent to persecute the Christians ’’—Fisher, pp. 91, 95.) Will it not be easy to say that although every alleged benefit to mankind has brought also its own dangers, the latter may outweigh the former? AsA. V. Hill put it in 1952: “ With- out our present knowledge of bacteriology and preventive medicine, gigantic armies could never be kept in the field, and land war on the recent scale would be impossible . . . The indiscriminate use of insecticides, by upsetting the balance of Nature, can quickly do more harm than good. Radio communication may be used for spreading lies and disorder. . . Developments in micro- biology. . .may be used in the future for biological warfare, with effects at present unpredictable ; and control by international agreement and inspection might be very difficult. . .’’ He goes on to comment that “Science is not alone in this: liberty may lead to licence, religion can be used to inflame passions, and laws can be exploited to protect wrongdoing. . .”’ We know that all knowledge, not only that of the natural world, can be used for evil as well as good, that bacteriology and medicine are not to be blamed for modern war, nor radio- communication for les and propaganda; but how will our fellow men react ? To restrict licence, we restrict liberty; to restrict religion we persecute. Already there are sincere and thoughtful non-scientists among us who think that certain lines of research Should be banned; such _ people would probably—from the MIghest motives—support and justify the limitation or repression of scientific activity. . .from fear of the conse- quences of uncontrolled experiment. Science could thus find itself in a universal police state where no scruples would be permitted; and who then would choose the “safe ’’ subjects, and by what authority ? As scientists, we would undoubtedly reject such ideas, continue to act as though the seven Bd R. J. W. Le FEVRE | capital sins were not implanted in man, note that good use as well as misuse of knowledge is possible, and leave applications to the value judgments of other people. This way has led to what A. V. Hill has called the ethical dilemma of science, lo quote: ~~ The dilemma as this: All the impulses of decent humanity, all the dictates of religion and all the traditions of medicine insist that suffering should be relieved, curable disease cured, preventable disease prevented. The obligation is regarded as uncon- ditional: it is not permitted to argue that the suffering is due to folly, that the children are not wanted, that the patient’s family would be happier if he died. All that may be so; but to accept it as a guide to action would lead to a degradation of standards of humanity by which civilization would be permanently and indefinitely poorer. Conduct usually falls short of principles; but that would be the worst reason for abandoning principles altogether. “In many parts of the world advances in public health, improved sanitation, the avoidance of epidemics, the fighting of insect-borne disease, the lowering of infantile death-rates and a prolongation of the span of life have led to a vast increase of population. Not only is the population increasing, but also in many places its rate of increase is still rising; and these processes will take so long to reverse that for many years to come the shortage of natural resources, particularly of food, is bound to provide increasing deprivation and disturbance.”’ He then refers specifically to the 1951 “ First Five Year Plan’ produced by an Indian Government Planning Commission, and says : ‘A doubling in the past thirty years of the survival-rate (births minus deaths) has led to a rate of increase of nearly 14 per cent a year, a total of 5 million every year in a population of 360 million. ‘“ With all the effort that the First Five Year Plan will represent, it will be possible barely to restore by 1955-1956 the pre-war standards in regard to food and clothing. Increasing pressure of population on natural resources retards economic progress and limits seriously the rate of extension of social services so essential to civilized existence. ‘The pre-war standard, in fact, was very poor ; much of the population existed below the level of a decent life, scores of millions only just above that of famine. Yet the gigantic national effort proposed in the Five Year Plan, even if successful, may only just restore that miserable standard. Can it sustain it then if the rate of population increase continues? It is easy to answer that a higher standard of life has led in other countries to a gradually falling birth-rate ;~ but a higher standard requires a far greater charge on natural resources of all kinds, which cannot be met until the pressure of population is reducedi, =. “Malaria is admitted. . . to take an annual toll of a million lives, and tuberculosis of half a million. The resolute use of insecticides and anti-malarial drugs could soon reduce the former to a small fraction; tuberculosis is bound to require more effort and a longer term. Nobody would dare to say that steps to combat these diseases, and others such as cholera, to improve rural and industrial health, to increase the > supply of drugs and medical equipment and ~ services, should not be taken on the highest | priority: but the consequence must be faced — that a further increase of a million people a year would result. Thus science, biological, — medical, chemical and engineering, applied for motives of decent humanity entirely beyond reproach, with no objectionable secrecy, has led to a problem of the utmost public gravity which will require all the resources of science, humanity and statesmanship for its solution. “The example of India has been taken because of the sheer magnitude of the problem and because its seriousness is now admitted by humane and responsible men; but the same conditions exist already in many parts of the world and will soon exist elsewhere. It is not a question only of food ; if a higher standard of life is to become universal, with education, communications, housing, reasonable amenities and public health, a far greater demand will be made on all such natural resources as power, chemicals, minerals, metals, water and wood. One is left wondering how long these can possibly take the strain... “. . But education alone would not have been enough, or indeed possible itself, without a substantial measure of material and social betterment; and the expense and_ effort involved in this would have been infinitely greater than in the application of medicine and hygiene, which after all has been relatively cheap. Had it been possible to foresee the enormous success of this application, would humane people have agreed that it could better have been held back to keep in step with other parallel progress, so that development could be planned and orderly? Some might say yes, taking the purely biological view that if men will breed like rabbits they must be allowed to die like rabbits, until gradually improving education and the demand for a higher standard CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY 5D of life teach them better. Most people would still say no. But suppose it were certain now that the pressure of increasing population, uncontrolled by disease, would lead not only to wide-spread exhaustion of the soil and of other capital resources but also to continuing and increasing international tension and disorder, making it hard for civilization itself to survive : would the majority of humane and reasonable people then change their minds? If ethical principles deny our right to do evil in order that good may come, are we justified in doing good when the foreseeable consequence is evil? ”’ This lengthy quotation is from A. V. Hill's Presidential Address to the British Association on September 6th, 1952. It summarizes not so much a dilemma for science as a problem ior mankind which, as no other has _ so fmperatively done before, demands international and concerted action. In bare essentials the problem is not new. More than one and a half centuries ago Malthus, in his “ Essay on Population ’’, drew attention to the conflict between the geometrical increase of the human species and the arithmetical increase of areas under agriculture; but Malthus did not foresee food production increas- ing faster than the population, through the introduction of chemical fertilizers and scientific methods during the nineteenth century, and his threatened consequences did not arrive. His arguments were reconsidered by C. G. Darwin in 1953 when attempting a projection over “The Next Million Years’’. Adopting the estimate that man doubles his numbers in a century he will have multiplied by 21° in a millenium or by roughly a million in 2,000 years. If the present population is about 3 X10°, two millenia hence it will be 30 x1014. There are about 52-7 million square miles of land on the earth’s surface, i.e. ca. 1-63 x10 sq. yards. The theoretical population density for A.D. 4000 is thus roughly 18 per sq. yard ! Actually, Darwin’s assumed growth-rate is far too small; quadrupling in a century seems nearer the truth. According to the Demographic Yearbook for 1957, the net increase from 1955-56 was 47 million persons, close on 130,000 per day. . .at least 1-6% per year. years from 1930-1960 the increase in the world’s population has been three times the world’s total in the New Testament period, or twice the global total at the time of the Reformation. The rate of growth continues to accelerate. Even if the rate of growth were constant, the net annual increase would expand (by compound In the thirty interest, so to speak) as the base is enlarged ; but in fact all evidence shows the rate itself to be rising. The numbers resemble those for the kinetics of a non-stationary chain reaction. . . when the rate becomes infinite, the reaction is over! Likewise, should a population’s growth rate become infinite, the population must annihilate itself. A paper by von Foerster, Mora and Amiot in 1960 has relevance and significance; it con- cludes that on presently available data the human doom-date is A.D. 2026-87 +-5-50. These authors state that “ A bibliographical search produced 24 estimates. . . of the world population, ranging over approximately 100 generations from the time of Christ (¢=0) almost to the present (¢=1958). These estimates were carefully checked with respect to their independence, and those which were suspected of being merely cross-references in the literature were eliminated from the statistics in order to avoid improper weighting. Then, with “doomsday ’”’ written as %, N the population at time ¢, and m=/,—? (ie. the time left until doomsday), the data fitted the equation N= Kak when K=(1-79+0-14) x104, k=0-990+0-009, and 4,=2026-87-+5-50; A.D. 2026-87 is the 13th November, 2026. . . the date when the rate should become infinity ! The authors make this interesting comment regarding the equation just quoted: if Charle- magne had used it “‘ with the evidence he could have had with respect to the world’s population, he could have predicted doomsday accurately within 300 years. Elizabeth I of England could have predicted the critical date within 110 years, and Napoleon within 30 years. Today, however, we are in a much better position, since we are required to extrapolate our evidence only 4 per cent beyond our last point of observation : we can predict doomsday within approximately 10 years.” I have reported two extreme treatments of the situation. Both are alarming; the point of the second is that ultimate catastrophe need not be delayed for millenia. Undeniably present statistics warn us as to what lies immediately ahead—that in the next 10 years more than another India (some 450 millions) will be added, largely to the underdeveloped nations of the world. The U.S.A. and Australia have annual growth rates (neglecting immigration) of 1-7% and 1:4% respectively; Europe shows less inane deo India, 1-395. ~Alrica, ica: 2%, ; South America, 2°4%; S.W. Asia, 2°5%. For certain smaller areas the rates are over 3%, 56 R. J. W. Le FEVRE e.g. Costa Rica, 3-9% ; the Dominican Republic, 3°4% ; Syria and Taiwan, 3:8%; Malaya and Venezuela, 3:1%. — (Remember, an) annual increase of 3%, means a doubling of population within 24 years, and 4% a doubling in 18 years.) Population, more than any other threatening international crisis, has been apparently ignored by governments. The United Nations cannot be said to have brought it strongly before world attention. Probably world agreement to attempt to control population could never be attained: an aggressor nation or bloc would never permit its people to restrict their numbers. Hill recalls “asking an eminent Indian who had taken part in drawing up the so-called Bombay Plan of 1944 why there was no mention of the gravest problem of all, overgrowing population ; he replied that his colleagues and he had indeed discussed it, but had decided to leave at to) God, Without the intervention of miracles, this means that Man, as a wild animal, will tend to multiply up to the limit of available food supplies ; these, despite our increased scientific and technical know-how, cannot keep us today, let alone tomorrow! Subsistence levels, already very low in many of the countries just mentioned, must become lower; larger starving marginal populations will appear. Dangers to peace are obvious. Have not some of the present tensions demographic roots? I think of Indonesia’s desires on West New Guinea, of Nasser’s efforts to form a United Arab bloc. Is it coincidence that Algeria has a net annual increase of 2-75° and that in the Caribbean region the figure is even higher? Perhaps “ tomorrow is already here ’’ in some places ! We must expect present political systems to be altered. Democracy lacks survival value. Darwin comments that the state of parasitism on the community engendered by modern social conditions is impermanent because in the end the parasite destroys its host and then itself perishes: the process is likely to be hastened by the concomitant reduction of the more intelligent, these being driven to have fewer children than the others. The non-parasite containing communities will survive, and those that multiply most will dominate the earth by sheer numbers. Government may be by some “ hero’’ who has sufficient sense to adapt himself to a society of dense population. Intellect’ (may, count, Womty mou hmoralipyae: “in a highly competitive world the sinner has many advantages over the Saint’’. Conditions of work will be more severe for the less efficient ; there will be more discontent and less happiness. People will look back regretfully on the prodigious stores of energy and other natural — resources that have been so lavishly wasted. . . back to days when human life had a higher value. Can such a gloomy future be avoided? The answer is simple: only if birth rates are diminished and/or death rates increased. To be effective the numbers involved need—each year—to be ca. 50 million. Even in the near future, redistribution by emigration would not suffice (if all the world’s shipping were used to take people from China, China’s population would still increase; the net immigration to Australia of 97,000 per annum is less than one day’s world increase!). Without going into details, no evidence at present suggests that birth-rates can be reduced significantly, or in time to restore population stability (for which an average of 1:43°% is required; no country at present shows such a low figure). The “haves ’’ are mostly nations whose population increases occurred hand-in-hand with their industrial revolutions, the “‘ have nots’”’ are being suddenly hit by increases before achieve- ment of large-scale economic, social, and technical development. I cannot imagine the “have nots’”’ so rapidly using and improving the accumulated knowledge of the “ haves ”’ that: they will be able to increase their food and other essentials by geometrical progressions which even equal the progressions by which their populations will grow. 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HUGI AND D. J. SWAINE TABLE 4 Contents of trace elements in various granites (in parts per million) 1 2 3 + Be <5- 15 (c. 4) 2-20 (c), 3 (A) 1-16 (4) 4 Ga 15-— 25 (20) 22 (c), 74 (7) 7— 350 (45) 75 Cr <1- 200 (35) 2(b), 2-6-8 (4) <1- 200 (30) 35 Li 15-— 300 (170) 40 (g), 180 (2), 460-690 (Z) 4— 575 (115) 25 Ni 3-— 70 (14) 2:4 (b), 2-8 ( l1- 70 (8) 2 Co <3- 25 (7) 8 (b), 0-8 ( 3000 (1800) 630-670 (7) 45-3500 (1300) 900 Rb 200-— 700 (500) 520 (a), 830 (d), 170 (g), 455-910 (4) 200-2600 (800) 1500 1. Range and mean value for granites of Aarmassif (this paper). 2. Range or mean values from (a) Ahrens, Pinson and Kearns (1952), (6) Goldschmidt (1937), (c) Goldschmidt (1954), (2) Goldschmidt, Bauer and Witte (1934), (e) Hevesy and Hobbie (1931), (f) Hevesy and Wiirstlin (1934), (g) Horstman (1957), (2) Noll (1934), (2) Rankama and Sahama (1950), (7) Sahama (1945a), (Rk) Sandell (1952), (7) Strock (1936), (m) Wedepohl (1956). 3. Range and mean value for granites from Indonesia, Borneo, New Guinea, Finland, Russia, Norway, Germany, Scotland and U.S.A. (references in text). 4, Mixture of 54 Rapakivi granites from various parts of East Fennoscandia (Sahama, 19450). In general, average values indicate that chromium, nickel, vanadium, scandium, yttrium, strontium, lanthanum and barium tend to be higher in the Aarmassif samples. However, the results in Table 3 show that the uncon- taminated granites (Zentraler Aaregranit and Mittagfluhgranit) have much lower contents of chromium, nickel, vanadium, scandium, strontium and barium, the values being of the same order as those for other granites (Table 4, column 2). Thus, as far as is known, it appears that the Aarmassif granites tend to be high in lanthanum and yttrium. This is probably a regional difference. Gallium, zirconium and lead tend to show similar contents to other granites, except the Rapakivi, which have higher contents. The contents of beryllium and cobalt in granites are fairly constant, although higher values for cobalt were found for the Innertkirchnergranit which is_ con- taminated by gneissic material. In the Aarmassif samples, rubidium tends to be lower than in the Rapakivi granites, while lithium is about the same as in some German samples, but higher than in the Rapakivi. Horstman’s values for rubidium and lithium are lower than those reported by most other workers. Minerals in Fissures As in other Alpine massifs, the mineralogical and chemical composition of the Aarmassif granites were changed during Hercynian and Tertiary orogenic activities. There was intense mixing of granitic and gneissic materials, and, in some cases, earlier inclusions of country rock are no longer clearly discernible. Uplift and tectonic movements caused the formation of lenticular fissures which are very common in Alpine granites. These fissures (from a few metres long by a few decimetres wide) may contain well-developed crystals of quartz (“ Bergkristall”’, smoky quartz), adularia, chlorite, calcite, fluorite, sphene and several rare minerals. There is a correlation between minerals present in the fissures formed during the late Tertiary and elements present in the surrounding rocks. The occurrence of some rare minerals can be explained by a higher trace-element content of the granites. Beryllium minerals, e.g., beryl, milarite, bazzite (scandium- beryl), have been found where the parent granites contain about 5 or more p.p.m. Be. In the Aarmassif, milarite was originally found only in Val Giuv, but it is now realized to be a more common mineral in granites of the Aarmassif and of the Gotthardmassif (Hugi, 1956b). The crystals are not usually more than a few millimetres long, but a large crystal from the Grimsel area is 4 cm. long and weighs 12 g., ie., it contains 0-2 g. beryllium. Many observations indicate that elements in fissure minerals may come partially from a so-called GEOCHEMISTRY OF SOME SWISS GRANITES 71 leached zone around the fissure and partially from farther off. A “‘ pure” leaching theory is no longer valid. During the formation of the Alps, hot solutions (about 200-300° C) rich in silica and carbon dioxide, percolated along fine fissures in the granites. Such solutions became enriched in various elements, leached the neighbourhood of the fissures and helped to form fissure minerals. The formation of the large milarite crystal mentioned above requires all the beryllium from about 50 kg. of Grimsel- granit. Similar considerations apply to other elements such as scandium, molybdenum, lanthanum, yttrium and lead, which are con- centrated and fixed in fissure minerals (bazzite, molybdenite, kainosite, fluorite and galena). Summary The results for the trace-element contents of the various granites in the Aarmassif indicate that there are increases in chromium, nickel, cobalt, vanadium and scandium from _ the uncontaminated types (late Hercynian) to the contaminated ones (early Hercynian). These higher contents are explained by the increase in ferromagnesian minerals as a result of the introduction of gneissic material. Samples of normal Gasterngranit from different places and different altitudes show a remarkable constancy in trace-element contents, but a_ biotite-rich sample has more chromium, nickel, vanadium and scandium, and a muscovite-bearing sample has less of these elements than the normal granites. The higher contents of chromium, nickel, cobalt, vanadium and scandium in the older granites support the hypothesis that there was intensive mixing of granitic and meta- morphic material in the early Hercynian orogenic cycle. There are definite trends in the contents of trace elements in the different granites, e.g., the high contents of chromium and vanadium and the higher ratio of nickel to cobalt in the Innertkirchnergranit, and the higher ratio of rubidium to strontium in the Zentraler Aaregranit and the Mittagfluhgranit. The contents of some elements, e.g., gallium (15-25 p-p.m.) and zirconium (200-500 p.p.m.), are remarkably constant throughout the massif. When the trace-element results are compared with relevant information for granites from other parts of the world, the Aarmassif granites appear to be higher in lanthanum and yttrium. Samples of the contaminated granites (early Hercynian) are also higher in chromium, nickel, vanadium, scandium, strontium and barium. The occurrence and formation of minerals in fissures are discussed with special reference to the beryllium mineral, milarite. Acknowledgements The spectrochemical analyses were carried out at the Macaulay Institute for Soil Research as part of a series of geochemical investigations of trace-element contents of rocks. The authors desire to thank the previous Director of the Institute, Dr. D. N. McArthur, and Dr. R. L. Mitchell, Head of the Department of Spectro- chemistry, for permission to carry out the work. References AHRENS, L. H., Pinson, W. H., anp KEaArns, M. M., 1952. Geochim. et cosmoch. Acta, 2, 229. BiLuines, M. P., AND Rassitt, J. C., 1947. Bull. geol. Soc. Amer., 58, 573. GOLDSCHMIDT, V. M., 1937. J. chem. Soc., 655. GOLDSCHMIDT, V. M. (Ed. Muir, A.), 1954. Geo- chemistry. Clarendon Press, Oxford. GOLDSCHMIDT, V. M., Bauer, H., AND WITTE, H., 1934. Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, IV, N.F. 1, No. 4, 39. HeEvEsy, G., AND HosBIE, R., 1931. Nature, Lond., 128, 1038. HEvESy, G., AND WwUrRSTLIN, K., 1934. Chem., 216, 305. Horstman, E. L., 1957. Z. anorg. Geochim. et cosmoch. Acta, 12, 1 Hta1, Ty., 1956a. Beitr. geol. Karte Schweiz., N.F., 94 Lfg. Huta, TuH., 1956b. Schweiz. min. petrogr. Mtutt., 36, 497. Kuropa, P. K., AND SANDELL, E. B., 1954. Geochim. et cosmoch. Acta, 6, 35. MITCHELL, R. L., 1948. Tech. Commun. Bur. Soil Sci., Harpenden, No. 44. NockKOLps, S. R., AND MITCHELL, R. L., 1948. Tvans. voy. Soc. Edinb., 61, Part II, 533. Noi, W., 1934. Chem. d. Erde, 8, 507. ONISHI, H., AND SANDELL, E. B., 1957. cosmoch. Acta, 12, 262. RANKAMA, K., 1946. Bull. Comm. géol. Finl., No. 137. RANKAMA, K., AND SAHAMA, TH. G., 1950. Geo- chemistry. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Geochim. et SAHAMA, TH. G., 1945a. Bull. Comm. géol. Finl., No. 135. SAHAMA, TH. G., 1945b. Bull. Comm. géol. Finl., No. 136. SANDELL, E. B., 1952. Geochim. et cosmoch. Acta, Pay SA bal be SANDELL, E. B., AND GOLDICH, S. S., 1943. J. Geol., 51, Part I, 99, and Part II, 167. StTrock, L. W., 1936. Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Géttingen, IV, N.F. 1 No. 15, 171. TONGEREN, W. van, 1938. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Composition of the Earth’s Crust in the East Indian Archipelago, D.B. Centen’s, Amsterdam. TUREKIAN, K. K., AND Ku tp, J. L., 1956. et cosmoch. Acta, 10, 245. WEDEPOHL, K. H., 1956. Geochim. et cosmoch. Acta, 10, 69. Geochim. (Received 24 July 1962) ' i y 4 ~- ' A i! 1 * ' ‘ ~ ‘ ) ‘ ( 1 - 7 % F FA ‘ = ‘ ‘ / vi 4 7 ~ ‘ ‘ %, +e ’ a 1 " a : ' ) s ‘ = — i , =~ . , ' ‘ ‘ XN in ‘ 4 ‘ 4 4% « Cd - 4 bi “sS z ! z - “ t ' PA ‘ ~ Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 73-106, 1963 Upper Devonian Stratigraphy and Sedimentation in the Wellington-Molong District, N.S.W. J. R. CoNOLiy School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geolog’ University of New South Wales, Sydney ABSTRACT—The Upper Devonian sediments of the Wellington-Molong district are placed in the Catombal Group. Five formations, the Paling Yard Formation, the Brymedura Sandstone, the Macquarie Park Sandstone, the Kurrool Formation and the Curra Creek Conglomerate, are defined within the Catombal Group. The Paling Yard Formation, Brymedura Sandstone and Macquarie Park Sandstone represent the Black Rock Sub-Group, while the Kurrool Formation and the Curra Creek Conglomerate represent the Canangle Sub-Group. Two geological maps show these formations over fifty miles of strike length from Molong to north of Wellington. The Catombal Group is preserved in open synclines and anticlines elongated along the strike and often strike-faulted in the region of the limbs of the folds. Detailed petrology of nearly three hundred thin sections shows that the sandstones of the Catombal Group vary from well sorted “clean ’’ orthoquartzites at the base to poorly sorted ‘“‘ dirty’ lithic sandstones in the higher formations of the Canangle Sub-Group. Authigenic silica is the main cementing mineral in the rocks of the Black Rock Sub-Group while iron oxide is the most important cement in the rocks of the Canangle Sub-Group. Heavy mineral studies indicate that the sediments of the Catombal Group have a common heavy mineral suite with leucoxene, ilmenite, zircon, garnet, rutile, tourmaline, hornblende and apatite the persistent heavy minerals. Correlation of rock units is achieved not only from field lithology and palaeontological evidence but also from statistical petrological methods. During the Lower to Middle Devonian a shallow marine basin extended from Wellington to Molong with extensive deposition of limestones, marls, shales and the development of thin localized reefs (the Garra Beds). Relative uplift of this basin stopped limestone deposition and during the Upper Devonian the rocks of the Catombal Group were deposited. Marine sedimentation in shallow off-shore environ- ments typical of the lower Black Rock Sub-Group formation gradually gave way to the estuarine and terrestrial sediments of the Canangle Sub-Group. In the northern region near Wellington the last preserved phase of sedimentation was a large and extensive alluvial fan system with a thickness of at least 3,000 feet of the red conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones developed from a land mass to the west. Introduction This study is an attempt to elucidate the palaeogeography and sedimentation history of the Upper Devonian sediments in central western New South Wales. A linear belt of these sediments over a hundred miles of strike length outcrops from Cargo to Wellington (Fig. 1). In order to obtain as much information as possible, detailed studies in thin section petrology and heavy mineralogy were carried out with normal field investigations. GEOLOGICAL SETTING, TOPOGRAPHY STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY The Upper Devonian sediments in the Molong- Wellington area outcrop over a strike-length of fifty miles and have an average width of five miles (Figs. 13, 14). These sediments are sand- AND stones, shales and conglomerates and form a series of rugged hills called the Catombal Range. The Catombal Range has a high relief one mile west of Wellington at Mount Arthur, which is 900 feet above the alluvial plain of the Macquarie River. The relief increases to the south, and the highest feature, Mount Catombal, occurs in a large isolated syncline to the west of the main range. Mount Catombal is 2,600 feet above sea level and 1,400 feet above older Palaeozoic sediments which outcrop half a mile to the west on the edge of the range. South of Mount Catombal the relief of the range is more subdued, and in the Larras Lee- Molong region, only a series of low but steep hills remain. Near Wellington, the sediments of the Catombal Range conformably overlie limestones and marls of the Lower to Middle Devonian 74 JAX: CONOLIEN MUDGEE oF BATHURST \ LITHGOW KATOOMBA SYDNEY WOLLONGONG CANBERRA LOCALITY MAP SHOWING THE CATOMBAL GROUP (STIPPLED) IN THE CARGO-WELLINGTON AREA AND THE AREA MAPPED (INSET). — SS S| 0 10 20 30 40 80 Seale in Miles Fic. 1 Garra Beds. To the south, near Molong, there is a slight angular unconformity between the Garra Beds and the Upper Devonian sediments. The Garra Beds thin to the east, and in many regions do not outcrop under the Upper Devonian sediments. In these regions the Upper Devonian sediments unconformably over- lie limestones, shales and volcanic rocks pre- viously described by Matheson (1930), Basnett and Colditz (1945), Joplin and others (1952), Adrian (1956) and Strusz (1959). In the Molong region the author has only modified the geological and structural boundaries previously mapped by Adrian (1956) and Walker (personal communication). The Catombal Range between Wellington and Molong can be divided into three distinct geographical and structural units. The con- clusions are mainly based on field evidence obtained during mapping and continual reference should be made to the geological maps (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14). Some of the rock units shown on the geological maps are not defined. Since the relationship of the Upper Devonian to these units is important they have been shown in quotation marks. 1. A Main Eastern Belt—This belt originates two miles north of the Macquarie River, west _ of Wellington, and continues south through Curra Creek, Catombal Creek, Two Mile Creek, Native Dog Creek to where the Bell River first crosses the Upper Devonian, four miles north of Larras Lee (Fig. 13). It measures thirty-seven miles along the strike and has a width that varies from one mile at the northern and southern extremities, to three and a half miles through Curra Creek. To the north this belt is a broad syncline with minor folding in the topmost beds preserved in its centre. South from Curra Creek, the syncline is terminated on the western side by a major fault which persists along this side to the southern boundary at Larras Lee. On the eastern side of this belt, near Blathery Creek, a synclinal structure, six miles long and an average of three-quarters of a mile wide, is faulted on its western margin where the structure is becoming anticlinal. This structure is the only main divergence that the Catombal Range makes from the eastern margin of this belt. 2. The Catombal Syncline—This syncline is fully preserved and lies to the west of the Main Eastern Belt (Fig. 13). The syncline first out- crops about fifteen miles south-south-west from Wellington, and is separated from the Main Eastern Belt by Garra limestones and older Palaeozoic rocks. The length of the syncline is ten miles along the strike, with an average width of two miles, and its eastern margin is only one-half to one and a half miles from the western margin of the Main Eastern Belt. 3. The Larras Lee-Molong Region—This region starts about two miles north of Larras Lee and passing south, has an average width of four miles for a distance of thirteen miles to Molong (Fig. 14). The area is characterized by thin, elongated, well preserved synclines and faulted anticlines. Strike faulting and poor outcrops in the valleys help to make this region difficult to interpret both stratigraphically and structurally. The tectonic style that is characteristic of the Upper Devonian sediments of the Catombal Range is probably closely related to that of other areas of Upper Devonian in western New South Wales. The following points are of greatest interest : (a) Most areas of Upper Devonian sediments outcrop as strike ridges and dip slopes. This is essentially due to the highly resistant nature of the rocks deposited during the Upper Devonian. UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 15 (6) Most outcrops of Upper Devonian sediments consist of a series of strike ridges often making a prominent range of rugged hills. Examples of ranges similar to the Catombal Range are the Cocoparra Range near Rankins Springs and the Hervey Range twenty-five miles west of Wellington. Numerous other ranges of Upper Devonian sediments occur further west towards Cobar. (c) Open folding is achieved by bedding plane sip in the more resistant and competent formations (conglomerates and sandstones). (@) Minor open folding is achieved by failure along closely spaced fracture cleavages in less competent formations (shales and silt- stones). The folding and the faulting pattern is often controlled by the thickness of individual formations. Where individual formations are thin the folding tends to be more concentrated and faulting more common. Individual folds are elongated along a north-south axis and may be several miles long in this direction although only one-tenth or less of that distance in an east-west — direction. (g) The folds are doubly plunging and often bear a kind of “‘en echelon’ arrangement to adjacent folds. Strike faulting is common, particularly on the limbs of steep folds. — as) wa (f “ (h “— MEASUREMENT OF STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS The thickness of individual formations was measured in creek and road sections where good outcrops were available. Measurements of thickness were made with tape and compass traversing along the sections. Enlargements of aerial photos were always used as an aid to field mapping. Measurements that were over one thousand feet were considered to be accurate to within fifty feet. Fairly large errors in accuracy would be caused by localized areas of minor folding and faulting that were hidden by alluvium. SAMPLING PROCEDURE Over four hundred rock and fossil samples were collected from measured creek and road sections, although many traverses were also made along the strike. Sandstones were sampled in preference to siltstones because when studied in thin section they could provide more detail than the finer sediments. Representative col- lections of pebble types from conglomerates were also made. Previous Investigations Sussmilch in 1911 completed the first satis- factory compilation of geological information and suggested the geological history of the State. He included the area of Devonian rocks that he had previously described from Spring Creek (Sussmilch, 1907) in the Upper Devonian or Lambian Stage. This was based on the recognition of a fauna described by De Koninck (1877) containing two species, Cyrtospirifer disjyunctus and Camaro- toechia pleurodon, which was found in both the Lambian province and at Spring Creek, and considered characteristic of the Upper Devonian. In 1922 Benson described the Lambie faunal province and considered it to be definitely of Upper Devonian age. The first geological map of regional importance in the Wellington district was published by A. J. Matheson in 1930. Matheson describes the “‘Catombal Series’’ as beds that contain Lepidodendron australe and overlie the Spirifer disjunctus horizon or “Transition Stage ”’ Matheson suggested that the “ Transition Stage ’’ may be Lower or Middle Devonian, and that the ‘“‘ Catombal Series ’’ may be Upper Devonian. Joplin and Culey (1938) published a report showing the geological structure and stratigraphy of the Molong-Manildra district; however they did not distinguish the Upper Devonian in the Molong region from that of the “‘ Lambie Stage’’ occurring near Bathurst, whereas Matheson had noted that there existed a different type of deposition in the Wellington area. From 1939 to 1945 E. M. Basnett and M. J. Colditz worked in an area of about 500 square miles around Wellington and summarized their work in several important papers. A considerable amount of fossil collecting was carried out by Basnett and Colditz during their field work in the Wellington district, and these collections, together with those collected by Dr. G. A. Joplin, Miss Alma Culey and Dr. Dorothy Hill, were described by Hill and Jones in a series of three papers from 1940 to 1943. The palaeontological evidence from these papers suggested a Lower to Middle Devonian age for the limestones called the Garra Beds flanking the Upper Devonian sediments of the Catombal Range in the Wellington district. Stevens (1947) mapped considerable areas of Upper Devonian sediments in the Cargo region south of Molong. He suggested that the sediments at the top, which contained plant 76 fossils resembling Rhacopieris, may extend into Lower Carboniferous. Joplin and others (1952) compiled a map of the area between Wellington and Canowindra, in which the Upper Devonian sediments are called the “ Catombal Formation ”’ Stevens (1955) presented a map of the Upper Devonian sediments in the Cargo region and named the upmost red measures containing the Rhacopteris plant remains, the Canangle Formation, and kept this formation in the Lower Carboniferous. In 1956, D. B. Walker commenced an investi- gation of the Upper Devonian sediments of the Cargo region in an attempt to present a sounder interpretation of the Upper Devonian history, basing his work on detailed petrology and stratigraphy. Walker’s succession for the Upper Devonian in the Cargo region was: CATOMBAL GROUP: Canangle Sub-Group : Waree Creek Shale Carlton Conglomerate. Black Rock Sub-Group : Columbine Sandstone Paling Yard Formation. These formations were defined as follows: The Paling Yard Formation—Lenticularly bedded conglomerates, red friable sandstones and red and green shales. This formation was normally 200 to 800 feet thick and was characteristic of a basal formation although the conglomerates were not extensively developed. Columbine Sandstone—A massively bedded formation with extensive development of fine protoquartzites and orthoquartzites with shales characteristically present at the top. Carlton Conglomerate—Thick bedded, dark coloured, coarse conglomerate, the pebbles being mainly of orthoquartzite and _ proto- quartzite. Thickness variation 20 to 200 feet. Plant remains of Archaeopteris sp. and Lepidodendron australe occur in interbedded green shales. Waree Creek Shale—Green shales and silt- stones, with plant remains and red conglomerates similar to those in the Carlton Conglomerate. Average thickness 300 to 750 feet. Walker also completed mapping the Upper Devonian sediments as they outcrop north of the Cargo region towards Molong (Walker, 1958, personal communication). In this more northerly area the composition of the Catombal Group J. R. CONOLLY remained essentially the same, the succession am Molong being : a Canangle Sub-Group : (No subdivision.) Black Rock Sub-Group : Columbine sandstone Brymedura sandstone Paling Yard Formation. The subdivision of the Canangle Sub-Group into the Carlton Conglomerate and the Waree Creek Shale was not possible here although the topmost sediments remained essentially the same; red conglomerates, red shales, red sandstones and the characteristic plant bearing green shales. In the Black Rock Sub-Group, the Paling Yard Formation and Columbine Sandstone remained at the base and the top respectively ; however, another rock unit, the Brymedura Sandstone, was intercalated. The Brymedura Sandstone is 150 to 400 feet thick and consists | of coarse current bedded red and white sand- — stones. This sandstone is an easily mapped unit south of Molong, where it stands out on air photos as thickly wooded ridges. Stratigraphical Nomenclature Walker (1958) first suggested the name proposed by Joplin (1952), “‘ Catombal Forma- tion’’, be changed to the Catombal Group, and he maintained that this could be further subdivided into two Sub-Groups : 1. The Canangle Sub-Group 2. The Black Rock Sub-Group. In the Cargo region the Canangle Sub-Group could be split into two formations, the Carlton Conglomerate and the Waree Creek Shale, but further to the north in the Molong area it was impossible to divide the Sub-Group into two such formations and it was mapped as a Sub- Group only. The Black Rock Sub-Group could be sub- divided into two formations in the Cargo region : (1) the Paling Yard Formation, and (2) the Columbine Sandstone, while further to the north, in the vicinity of Molong, a third formation, the Brymedura Sandstone, appears above the Paling Yard Formation and below the Columbine Sandstone. The same lithology that appears in these two Sub-Groups was found to continue in the Catombal Range north of Molong to Wellington. At Wellington, the writer proposes to keep the Group name, “Catombal Group”, as thé lithology in the Cargo-Molong-Wellington strip UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION T7 remains essentially the same, and it is also possible to delineate two separate lithological units that correspond to the Black Rock Sub- Group and to the Canangle Sub-Group. The name ‘“ Catombal’”’ originates from the Catombal Range, in the Wellington district, while the names “Canangle’’ and “ Black Rock ”’ originated from localities in the Cargo region and were first named by Stevens (1955). The proposed stratigraphical nomenclature for the sediments of the Catombal Range in the Wellington-Molong district is as follows : WELLINGTON DISTRICT ( CANANGLE CATOMBAL ) SuB-GROUP Soot |) BLACK Rock | SuB-GRoupP The term “Macquarie Park Sandstone ”’ is preferred to ‘‘ Columbine Sandstone ”’ mainly because the type section of the Columbine Sandstone lies outside the area studied and has not been published. THE BLACK ROCK SUB-GROUP The Paling Yard Formation The Paling Yard Formation was described by Walker (1958) as the basal formation of the Upper Devonian in the Cargo region. The Paling Yard Formation in the Molong region is also the base of the Upper Devonian succession ; however, its thickness is more often inferred than seen and because of this lack of outcrop has not been described in detail. Thicknesses of the Paling Yard Formation shown on the geological maps and stratigraphical columns are normally inferred by measurement of the distance between the topmost Garra Bed limestones and the base of the Brymedura Sandstone. The Paling Yard Formation one mile west of Molong consists of fine buff to green shales and siltstones with occasional very fine pebbly or conglomerate layers. In the Cargo region the conglomerate lenses in the Paling Yard Formation were quite thick (10 to 15 feet) (Walker, 1958) and contained pebbles of underlying Garra Bed limestones and shales. In the Molong area the Paling Yard Formation is much thinner with fewer or no conglomerate lenses. The Brymedura Sandstone seems to have taken the place of the coarse conglomerate lenses that outcrop in the Paling Yard Forma- tion near Cargo. Jf Macquarie Park Sandstone \ Brymedura Sandstone The green and buff shales and siltstones of the topmost Garra Bed shales are very similar to the Paling Yard shales in the Molong area. This similarity in. lithology is probably due to the fact that the Garra Beds and the Catombal Group become conformable just west of Molong, whereas to the south of Molong a slight uncon- formity existed between the two units. Further to the north the Brymedura Sandstone and then the Macquarie Park Sandstone are the basal formations of the Catombal Group. Motone DISTRICT Curra Creek Conglomerate Kurrool Formation Canangle Sub-Group Macquarie Park Sandstone Brymedura Sandstone Paling Yard Formation The Brymedura Sandstone STRATIGRAPHY The Brymedura Sandstone has been mapped to the south of Molong by Walker in 1958 (personal communication). The writer has mapped the Brymedura Sandstone north from Molong accepting the boundaries mapped by Walker to the south of Molong. The type section for the formation was taken in the vicinity of the Brymedura trig. station, two miles south-west of Molong. The thickness of the Brymedura Sandstone in this locality is 480 feet. It is conformably underlain by the shales and fine siltstones of the Paling Yard Formation and conformably overlain by the protoquartzites and _ ortho- quartzites of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. The Brymedura Sandstone has a remarkably uniform lithology in the type locality and throughout its entire outcrop. It is essentially a coarse grained sandstone with an average grain size of 0-5 mm. It is also well current- bedded, and these current-bedded units are normally two to four feet in thickness. Larger pebbly layers often occur and very rarely beds of finer sandstone are interbedded with the coarser layers. The colour varies from red to white but a red colour is predominant. It forms very prominent outcrops and dominates the topography of the Larras Lee-Molong region, where it stands out above the other formations, forming prominent strike ridges and dip slopes. Variations in thickness in the Brymedura Sandstone have been noted from Molong, north to Larras Lee, and then further north in the region of Two Mile Creek and the Catombal Syncline (Fig. 2). In this northern 6 ‘SI Sd1iW 2 31 0 [31V9S IWLNOZINOH NOILVWHYOS GYVA OINITVd Eee. al fie wal lea) al Lal \ | | adnoud -Gns 0001 3NOLSGNVS VUNGSHAYE fy wo0u NoV1a WES 3NOASGNVS Wud JIYVNDIVH ( o0s'! dnoyd IV@WOLVO anows-ans NOILVHYOS TooNUNy Ea kp — aTONVNYD ] dnow9 vaNolvo —_ 3LVUaSHOI9NOD wagND VuUNd ea Scat 3H1 40 3SV@ 3H1 3A08V 1334 NI 31V9S 1VOILYSA GN3931 ba (NOI9SY SNOTOW 4 — 331 SVY¥YV1 3HL 30 dVW 1V91901039 33S ‘S3NI7 NOILOSS SNO1V G3yNSv3aw SNwn10d) S) NOISSY SONOIOW —3371 SVYYV1 SHL NI dNOYS IWEWOLVD 3HL JO AHdVYSILVYLS '@ =) 43345 43349 od 900 3AllVN 33949 S31eVIS SW OM1 33ND Y3NYOD WUVG 433Y9 AYSZHIVIG 43349 Ivawolv) W3auyd VYYUND YWIIND SYIONVYHSNG WUVd SINVADIVW JTIVAAYWH SR RR Pe | es | i) —_— —_—_— — Aol OSH egSoe S59 9,9 esoebeses] | 950 EIST 9° oe? dnoud IWEWOLVvS 3HL1 JO 3SVG@ J3HL FA0RV “Maga NI 31V9S IV9ILYSA NOIS3NY NOLONITISM S3HL NI dNO¥9 IVEWOLVD SHL OINIMOHS SNOILI3S GVOYN GNV W33Y¥D ONOTY G3SYNSV3SW SNWN109 TVIIHdVYOIIVYLS ooor aoSy ooos UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION (9 region the Brymedura Sandstone is overlain by protoquartzites and orthoquartzites of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. The Brymedura Sandstone outcrops in two areas : (1) A northern outcrop area which takes in the southern end of the Catombal Syncline and passes over to the east to Two Mile Creek, whence it can be traced northwards to a point just north of Blathery Creek. From _ this locality the sandstone exists in small isolated patches amongst the Macquarie Park Sandstone north to Curra Creek. There is not much variation in thickness in this northern area and from the southern limit at Two Mile Creek, where the thickness is only 40 feet, to Blathery Creek, where it is 130 feet, and then north of Blathery Creek it is only developed as sporadic lenses, five to ten feet thick. (2) A southern outcrop area, including the Larras Lee-Molong area and the southern extension of this area mapped by Walker, where it attains a maximum thickness of 810 feet four miles south-west of Molong. North from here the Brymedura Sandstone thins steadily to a thickness of 140 feet at the Gap, west of Larras Lee. On the eastern side of the Larras Lee-Molong region, the Brymedura Sandstone thins very rapidly from a thickness of 480 feet near Molong to 80 feet only five miles further north, and is missing completely in the Larras Lee section. CURRENT BEDDING The Brymedura Sandstone is characterized by current bedding. The style of current bedding changes from place to place, but is normally of large units, two to three feet thick, with the preservation of bottomset beds and moreset beds. The top parts of the current bedded units are always sharply truncated along a straight line, the truncation often having quite an angular contact with the previous line of truncation. This type of current bedding has been called ‘‘ diagonal cross bedding ’’ or “ diagonal inclined bedding ”’ (Pettijohn, 1949). When the preserved inclined beds are curved they are called either concave or convex current bedding, depending on whether they are concave or convex towards the younger layers. This type of current bedding is also common in the Brymedura Sandstone, particularly in the smaller units of one to two feet in thickness. Large-scale current bedding in the form of continuous banks of inclined strata are rare but occur in a few localities. At the Gap, Larras Lee, such a unit attains a maximum thickness of ten feet and has a visible outcrop of some hundreds of feet. In general, the style of current bedding fluctuates between the “ diagonal-inclined ’’ and concave types. This seems to depend wholly on whether the curved part of the bottomset beds is preserved. When they are preserved a concave cross bedding results, but when current conditions are stronger the formation of flat bottomset beds seems to be favoured. Grain size was found to vary with the nature of the current bedding. Thick coarse current bedded units have a higher average grain size than the thinner concave cross bedded units. In many cases, layers of coarser grain size, up to five to ten millimetres in diameter, were preserved in bands at the base of a current bedded unit along the line of truncation of the previous unit. In thick diagonal cross bedded units lines of pebbles were often laid down at sporadic intervals through the units. It seems likely that this type of variation in grain size is due to the way in which coarser layers could be deposited in the current bedded slopes at times when the currents were stronger. The fluctuation in grain size within such a current bedded unit suggests that the current conditions on the sea bottom were changing rapidly and had some kind of a periodicity. These types of currents would be expected to exist close to the shoreline, where very local variations would be effective enough to produce grain size variation in coarse sand banks. About fifty measurements made in _ the Molong-Larras Lee area show a southerly to south-westerly origin for the currents producing the current bedded units. It is believed that although this is below the number needed to make the results statistically reliable, the measurements provide some indication that the currents that deposited the Brymedura Sand- stone originated from the south or south-west. PETROLOGY Grain size distributions of the Brymedura Sandstone were studied by two methods : (a) Friable samples of sandstone were gently crushed with a pestle and mortar and sieved on a standard Ro-Tap machine for ten minutes using a 100-200 gramme sample. W. S. Tyler standard screens were used (Table I). (b) Many samples of Brymedura Sandstone were too hard to crush mechanically without breaking across grains, and size analysis of 80 J. R. CONOLLY TABLE I Statistical Parameters of Eight Sieved Samples of Brymedura Sandstone Coefficient Sample Median of Skewness Kaurtosis No. (mm) Sorting 085 (a) 0-50 6 0-96 0-23 085(d) 0-53 1-6 0-96 0-22 084(a) 0-70 1-56 0-82 0-23 084(d) 0-81 1-53 0-94 0-25 058 0-46 1-42 0-99 0-29 148(a) 0-51 1-21 0-84 O17 148(d) 0-50 1-43 0-67 0-24 235 (a) 0-55 1-33 1-34 0-23 Statistical Parameters from Thin Section Size Analysis of Brymedura Sandstone Coefficient Sample Median of Skewness_ Kurtosis No. (mm) Sorting 172(a) 0-49 1-41 0-86 0-17 172(d) 0:53 1-43 0-75 0-22 171 (a) 0-64 1-52 0-70 0-23 173(a) 0-65 1-49 0-98 0-17 173(d) 0°53 1-45 0-98 0-24 173(c) 0-55 1-41 0-95 0:24 these samples was studied by measuring grains in prepared thin sections. In this procedure traverses were made across the thin section and the maximum diameter measured. The minimum diameter at right angles to this maximum diameter was also measured and grain sizes were calculated by taking the mean of the two measurements for each grain (Table I). These results show that the Brymedura Sandstone is a fairly well sorted sand with an average coefficient of sorting of 1-45. Stetson (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 24) points out that most recent near shore marine sediments of sand grade have a coefficient of sorting of 1-45. Roundness of grains was calculated by comparing grain outlines with standard round- ness charts (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 52). (1) Quartz—Most quartz grains were rounded to well rounded (Plate I, 1), particularly the larger grains, which are more easily abraded than smaller ones. Estimates of roundness from all sampled sections showed little variation. (2) Rock Fragments—The rock fragments present in these sandstones tend to be extremely well rounded, particularly soft shaly fragments and saccharoidal lava fragments (Plate I, 1). PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS A point counter analysis was made of 41 selected thin sections representative of 23. localities over 45 miles of strike length. The point counter was set at a spacing of 0:3 mm and six channels were available for counting and 500 counts were made for each thin section. Chayes (1956) states that the confidence limits for 500 counts are +3°% for 95°% of the analyses, The following six components were counted: Quartz: including all quartz types except quartz of obvious metamorphic origin. Metamorphic quartz: quartz fragments made up of a fine mosaic or small quartz grains often with undulose extinction. | Volcanic rock fragments and_ felspar: including acid and intermediate lavas, | tuffaceous sandstones and felspar. : Sedimentary rock fragments. Matrix: fine silt size quartz, clay, and iron oxide cements. | Secondary quartz: all authigenic quartz outgrowths and pore-fillings. Since the Brymedura Sandstone was character- istically a coarse current bedded sandstone, a mineralogical composition study was made by plotting point counter results on a modification of the triangular diagram proposed by Packham | (1954) for the arkose-quartzose suite of sand- stones (Fig. 3). Secondary quartz which was present as a cement filling available pore space was not included in the plotted mineralogical composition. Several varieties of detrital quartz have been recognized from thin sections of Brymedura Sandstone. 1. Quartz of ultimate plutonic or granite | origin : These quartz grains are strain free with planes of liquid and gaseous inclusions, and with larger cavities or vacuoles. They often | have smooth curved borders and tend towards an equant shape. Inclusions of zircon have been found in several grains. They are the » commonest constituent of the detrital quartz | fraction. : 2. Metamorphic quartz: These grains show either extreme strain shadows or consist of a | mosaic of interlocking crystals. They often | have an elongate shape and are usually extremely well rounded. Quartz derived from a © metamorphic terrain makes up one to five per | cent of the detrital quartz fraction (Plates II, 3, | (ll, td and3): 3. Volcanic quartz: This type of quartz often has inclusions of lava rock fragments and well- | developed embayments. The volcanic quartz | io BOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. COIN GTI ia ee adel, CONNOLLY: PEATE T—- JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. SEAS s Ay = & . Ss (fine sit 4 clau) a NORTH SOUTH LITHIC SANDSTONE FELSPAR + ROCK FRAGMENTS TRIANGULAR DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF BRYMEDURA SANDSTONES FROM NORTH, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHERN SAMPLED AREAS OF THE CATOMBAL RANGE, WELLINGTON TO MOLENG sarees CENTRAL QUARTZ + CHERT Fic. 3 is extremely hard to distinguish from other quartz types, for although it tends to be clear with few bubble trains or inclusions, only three or four grains can be positively identified from some thin sections, while in most thin sections no grains can be identified. 4. Sedimentary or reworked quartz grains: These grains show a primary detrital grain which has been rounded, secondarily enlarged and then rounded again, indicating erosion from a pre-existing sediment in which secondary enlargement has occurred. They are often composite grains, in which two or three quartz grains have been cemented by secondary quartz, rounded and then enlarged again by overgrowth. They are not very common, but it is probable that many of the quartz grains of primary igneous origin are actually second cycle grains, but do not show recognizable dusty boundaries that would indicate a previous secondary , enlargement. _ The rock fragments could be subdivided into _ two distinct groups: a sedimentary group and a volcanic group. _ The sedimentary group has several distinctive _ types that persist in all sampled sections : (a) Dark siliceous shale fragments: These fragments are black to brown in hand specimen E UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 81 and are extremely hard. In thin section they consist of very fine siliceous material with illitic clay minerals of the same size. They are often traversed by veins filled with a fine-grained mosaic of vein quartz and this feature is diagnostic for the fragments (Plate III, 1). The veins suggest that the original rock was well consolidated and had been subjected to folding or to some process that caused it to fracture in many places. These fractures must have been closely spaced for one in every three has a vein mosaic of quartz crossing it. An X-ray analysis of several of these fragments gave the following results : quartz, 75°% approx.; illite, 25% approx. ; hematite, trace. (b) Szltstone rock fragments : These fragments are abundant, although not as abundant as the dark shale fragments. ‘They vary in grain size from a fine sand to a fine siltstone although most seem to be of medium to coarse siltstone size. They consist of small angular detrital quartz grains with very few other components except clay matrix and iron oxide cement. They often show bands of iron oxide, but these bands may not always coincide with original bedding planes (Plate III, 1). (c) Reworked sandstone rock fragments : This type of rock fragment is rare but has been noted particularly when two or three detrital quartz particles are cemented together, rounded then cemented again (Plate II, 3). (qd) Clay shale rock fragments: These fragments are very soft and very well rounded. Their composition consists of an abundance of clay mineral, mainly seritic illite with a little chlorite. Quartz percentages in these fragments are low and always less than 50°% (Plate III, 1, He): The volcanic group has one distinctive type but many other different types have been described. The distinctive member of this group is an acid saccharoidal lava. These fragments are brown to dark brown and consist of a mosaic of interlocking quartz grains of fine sand to coarse siltstone size with a very small percentage of orthoclase (Plate III, 1). The mosaic is peppered with anhydrous iron oxide. Under the microscope fragments of this type often show a good “rhyolitic’”’ flow senuctunes (Plate Il, 1). About one.an” every ten fragments shows this banding. X-ray analysis of these fragments gave the following fesults<, quartz, Sb°% (approx.)'; illite; 15% (approx.) ; kaolinite, trace; hematite, trace. Other types of volcanic rock fragments have been observed, including badly weathered 82 Jo CONOELY andesitic and tuffaceous rock fragments con- sisting of relic felspar laths, idiomorphic and angular quartz grains and often incorporating other badly weathered igneous rock fragments of the same nature; however, these grains are very rare, one or two grains only recognized in any one thin section. The mineralogy of the Brymedura Sandstone determined from petrographic analysis of thin sections (Fig. 3) shows that almost all sand- stones plot on the protoquartzite field on the triangular diagram. Detrital quartz varies from 55% to 80%, rock fragments from 10% to 35%, while matrix varies from 5% to 30%. The average com- position of the sandstones is 67% quartz, 18% rock fragments and 15°, matrix. No great variation could be found in the quartz percentages although there is a suggestion that to the north in the vicinity of Curra Creek and Catombal Creek, where the Brymedura is known to diminish in thickness, the quartz percentage tends to be higher and hence the sandstones are more mature. All thin sections have a certain percentage of volcanic rock fragments, mostly acid type, and all but a few thin sections have more sedimentary rock fragments than volcanic rock fragments ; however, there seems to be a definite increase in the percentage of volcanic rock fragments towards the south. This would be the case if the volcanic detritus was derived from the south, for with the increase in transport more and more volcanic fragments would be weathered away, and there would be a corresponding drop in percentage volcanic fragments towards the north. Hence, petrographic analysis shows that the Brymedura Sandstone is essentially of the same composition over the sampled strike length, although it tends to mature to the north with a corresponding decrease in matrix and unstable rock fragments, and an increase in detrital quartz. The Macquarie Park Sandstone The Macquarie Park Sandstone is a succession of white and red orthoquartzites, protoquartzites and lithic sandstones with a lesser proportion of white and red siltstones, and occasional shaly bands. It forms the basal formation of the Catombal Group in the northern part of the Catombal Range, where the Brymedura Sand- stone is missing. To the south it conformably overlies the Brymedura Sandstone. Walker (1958) has mapped a similar formation, the Columbine Sandstone, in the Cargo region. The writer feels that the Macquarie Park Sandstone is essentially of a slightly different lithology from the Columbine Sandstone, with more siltstones and lithic sandstones. Since the two formations outcrop in geographically distinct areas (although along the same north- south trend) it seems more reasonable to keep them separate till further detailed work between Molong and Cargo is carried out. The Macquarie Park Sandstone is typically of a marine facies at the base, with preservation of species of Cyrtospirifer and Camarotoechia within the first 300 feet of sediments. The basal sandstones of the formation are character- istically white and spotted with rock fragments. Towards the middle and top of the formation, intercalation of red siltstones and sandstones becomes more frequent. The top of the Macquarie Park Sandstone is defined on lithology alone, and the boundary is arbitrarily defined where there is a dominance of red siltstones and sandstones over white sandstones and siltstones and necessarily cor- responds with the base of the Kurrool Formation. The type section for the Macquarie Park Sandstone was measured across the western limb of the main synclinal structure of the Catombal Range, north of Wellington, where the Macquarie River crosses the range. The formation was called after the station property ““ Macquarie Park ’’, where the type section was measured. The type stratigraphic section was : Top: Fine red and white protoquartzites with ? Bothniolepis sp. : 115’ White protoquartzites with red siltstones * 50’ Massive white and red protoquartzites and lithic sandstones 190’ Coarse white protoquartzites and lithic sand- stones with species of Cyrtospirifer and Camarotoechia : 35’ White protoquartzites and orthoquartzites .. 5 White protoquartzites, lithic sandstones and red and white siltstones . 12% White protoquartzites and lithic sandstones 80’ Green and buff shales and siltstones with preservation of Lepidodendyon australe .. 20’ Base : Total thickness 660’ In this region, the lower sandstones of the Macquarie Park Sandstone rest conformably on massive limestones belonging to the Garra Beds. These limestones contain massive Tabulate and Rugose corals and their age has not yet been determined although a general range from Lower to Middle Devonian has been given to the Garra Beds by Hill and Jones (1940) and Hill (1942). UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 83 A study in the variation of lithology and thickness of the Macquarie Park Sandstone was made by measuring stratigraphic sections along main creeks and roads, from Maryvale in the north to Molong in the south (Fig. 2). The Macquarie Park Sandstone does not vary much in thickness along a north-south line. The formation is thin to the north at Maryvale, where it is 520 feet thick, thickens to a maximum recorded thickness of 920 feet at Curra Creek, and from there thins gradually southward to 460 feet at Native Dog Creek. The formation appears to rest conformably on the marls, shales and limestones of the Garra Beds from Maryvale south to Catombal Creek, where it rests conformably on Brymedura Sandstone. In the northern area from Maryvale to Bush- ranger’s Creek calcareous sandstones are inter- calated with limey siltstones and sometimes with the normal protoquartzite lithology. At Bush- rangers Creek on the western side of the Catombal Range, the junction between the lowermost protoquartzites of the Macquarie Park Sandstone and the fossiliferous limestones of the Garra Beds is transitional. About 100 feet of sediments in this area represent a transition stage between true limestone and true sandstone lithology with preservation of sandstone, limestone, calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone. This transition between the two different lithologies has only been found in this locality. Unfortunately, outcrops along the side of the range in the area of the limestone- sandstone break in lithology are often extremely poor and covered with alluvium. South of Two Mile Creek, the Brymedura Sandstone is missing from the succession and the Macquarie Park Sandstone rests uncon- formably on the “Bell Volcanics’’. The unconformity could be recognized on _ the eastern side of the Catombal Range, but nothing is known of the relation on the western side, for the Catombal Group is terminated by the Curra Fault on this side. A considerable thickening can be seen in the Macquarie Park Sandstone towards the west. A thickness of 450 feet was measured at Blathery Creek. Two miles to the west of the eastern limb of the Catombal Syncline the thickness was 1,600 feet, and further to the west on the western limb of the Catombal Syncline the thickness was 1,800 feet. The Macquarie Park Sandstone rests con- formably on the Brymedura Sandstone in the region of the southern nose of the Catombal Syncline ; however, the Brymedura Sandstone lenses out quickly to the north, where the Macquarie Park Sandstone rests conformably on shales and limestones of the Garra Beds. The Garra Beds thin considerably to the east and are only preserved in isolated lenses underneath the Macquarie Park Sandstone on the eastern side of the Catombal Syncline, while further to the east they are missing. Six sections were measured in the Larras Lee-Molong region, three on the western side of the area of outcrop and three on the eastern (Fig. 2). On the eastern side the thickness decreases slightly from 480 feet at Larras Lee to 350 feet at Molong. On the western side the Macquarie Park Sandstone is only 150 feet thick in the north but thickens to 350 feet to the south near Molong. The bedding in the Macquarie Park Sandstone tends to be even with very few cut and fill structures, but with gradual thinning and thickening of individual units. Current bedding is common in the coarser sandstones of this formation but is not the dominant sedimentary structure as it is for the Brymedura Sandstone. The current bedded units vary greatly in size from micro-current bedding (which may be of a few inches wide and several inches along the direction of transport) to macro-current bedding, usually from three feet to tens of feet long. Lenticular bedding is very common among the coarser grained sandstones, although small tabular units also occurred. Micro-current bedding generally occurred in very fine sand- stones or coarse siltstones and consisted of curved wedge-shaped units produced by very gentle scour and fill action. Ripple marks are the characteristic sedimentary structure of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. They are _ best seen in thinly bedded slabs of fine grained sandstones or siltstones and are particularly well preserved in many creek sections. Some writers (Shrock, 1948, pp. 92-123 ; Potter and Glass, 1958, p. 19) describe three main types of ripple marks: (1) asymmetrical or current ripple marks; (2) symmetrical or oscillation ripple marks; (3) interference ripple marks. All three types of ripple marks were found, but asymmetrical and interference ripple marks were the most common. Most asymmetrical ripple marks were produced by aqueous currents. These marks had ridges that were close together in proportion to their height above troughs (Shrock, 1948, p. 93). The ripple marks often constituted a system of parallel ridges, but in many cases they exhibited a fan arrangement in 84 J. R. CONOLLY which the current directions radiated from the centre of the fan. Most Macquarie Park sandstones are extremely hard, and for this reason only a few samples could be used for size analysis study by sieving. The sorting coefficient tends to be lower (1-34-1-49) than that found for the Brymedura Sandstone, indicating a higher degree of sorting than is present in the Brymedura Sandstone ; values for skewness vary considerably, and in many cases this is just a reflection of the varia- tion in clay matrix. Sandstones with low clay matnx tend to have a more perfect size distribution, and hence a near perfect skewness. Sandstones with a high clay matrix percentage have a large amount of material in the fine admixtures and usually have a skewness greater than one. Study of the size distribution of the finer and more common sandstones was accomplished by measuring grains in prepared thin sections. By comparison with prepared thin sections made from the four sieved samples, it was concluded that a maximum degree of sorting was reached in a sandstone that had a median grain size of about 0:2 mm. and that sandstones of greater or less median grain size had a slightly poorer sorting. PETROLOGY The petrology of the Macquarie Park Sand- stone was studied in detail from over 100 thin sections ; however, although sandstones were the dominant lithology, siltstones were almost as common and there were many shaly horizons. Since sandstones offer a better medium for study more emphasis was placed on these than on the finer sediments. Detrital quartz of ultimate igneous origin, free of strain shadows, with occasional gaseous or liquid inclusions made up almost 90% of all detrital quartz. Quartz of metamorphic origin was the next most common variety but was not as abundant as it was in the Brymedura Sandstone. No quartz of obvious volcanic origin was noted in this formation although it was present in the Brymedura Sandstone. Volcanic rock fragments persist, however, and it would be expected that volcanic quartz would be present. This may be because embayed quartz grains are hard to recognize when they reach a certain size range, with the embayed sections being broken away with increase in transport and decrease in grain size. Studies in roundness of clastic quartz particles were limited by increase in interpenetration of grain contacts. Many sandstones have lost their original detrital boundaries because of extreme suturing of adjacent grain borders (Plate I, 2). In samples with little suturing and more secondary enlargement the original grain outlines could be easily discerned and the following results were found : Most samples of lower Macquarie Park Sandstone contained well rounded to sub- rounded quartz. Samples taken from higher in the formation, particularly the red sandstones, had quartz grains that were definitely of a more angular nature, being subrounded to subangular. The detrital quartz in the fine grained sandstones is more angular. When the grain size approached that of a coarse siltstone (0-06 mm.) detrital quartz was always angular to subangular. The increase in angularity of detrital quartz with increase in stratigraphical height within the Macquarie Park Sandstone implies that the — detritus suffered less transport with increase in time. This transition from rounded clastic quartz also coincides with the increase in inter- calation of red sandstones and siltstones towards the top of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. With this increase in intercalation of red sandstones and siltstones the “average’’ size of detrital quartz will become less because of a greater proportion of silt size quartz. The effect of an increase in finer sediments towards the top of the formation will necessarily mean a decrease in roundness. ‘This factor is probably the most important factor controlling the decrease in roundness of clastic quartz from the top to the bottom of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. Detrital felspar is an extremely rare component of Macquarie Park Sandstones, particularly along the main eastern belt of the Catombal Range. However, felspar is an important constituent of Macquarie Park Sandstone within the region of the Catombal Syncline. Several samples on the eastern limb of the Catombal Syncline have small amounts of potash felspar and occasionally plagioclase. The total percentage of felspar in these sand- stones is always less than one. On the western limb of the Catombal Syncline, many sandstones have quite a high percentage of felspar (one to 20). Plagioclase seems to be more abundant than potash felspar. Both felspars are often badly weathered. and in some slides clusters of kaolinite completely clouded the original grain. No authigenic felspar was recognized. The increase in detrital felspar from east to west UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 85 across the Catombal Syncline also coincides with an increase in the total thickness of the Macquarie Park Sandstone from east to west. The rock fragments that occurred in the Macquarie Park sandstones were essentially the same as those that were found in the coarser Brymedura Sandstones. Two groups could be distinguished: a volcanic group, and a sedi- mentary group. There is no essential difference in the mineralogy of the sandstones of the Macquarie Park and Brymedura Sandstones (Figs. 3 and 4). The distinction between the two formations is one of grain size distribution only. The Brymedura Sandstone is a coarse grained unit with little variation in texture, while the Macquarie Park Sandstone consists mainly of finer grained sandstones, siltstones and some shales. The spotted appearance that is so character- istic of the Macquarie Park Sandstones is due to occurrence of brown rock fragments amongst the detrital quartz. Weathered andesitic and toscanitic rock fragments that could be recog- nized in some Brymedura Sandstones could not be recognized in Macquarie Park Sandstones. Once again the smaller grain size of the Macquarie Park Sandstone would make it hard to recognize such composite rock fragments. The lower sandstone members of _ the Macquarie Park Sandstone appear to be much richer in volcanic rock fragments than the upper sandstones. Sedimentary rock fragments are more predominant in the upper sandstones than in the lower. It is possible that changes in source rock composition could be mainly responsible for the progressive change in rock fragment composition ; however, it may only be due to the gradual change in the environment of deposition, i.e. from marine conditions with extensive washing and rounding of quartz and hence diminution in soft shale fragments, to estuarine conditions with less washing and reworking of grains enabling the softer shale fragments to persist. THE CANANGLE SUB-GROUP The Kurrool Formation The Kurrool Formation conformably overlies the Macquarie Park Sandstone, conformably underlies the Curra Creek Conglomerate, and is a transitional formation between them. The lithology of the base of the Kurrool Formation is similar to that of Macquarie Park Sandstone, while the lithology of the top of the formation is similar to that of the Curra Creek Con- glomerate. The junction between the Kurrool Formation and the Macquarie Park Sandstone occurs where red siltstones and sandstones dominate the white siltstones and sandstones of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. The top of the Kurrool Formation is also the base of the Curra Creek Conglomerate, being the first prominent conglomerate (two to ten feet thick) developed in the Canangle Sub-Group. The type section for the Kurrool Formation was measured in the vicinity of Blathery Creek, 12 miles south of Wellington on the station property of “ Kurrool’”’. The Kurrool Forma- tion was 450 feet thick in this section and the type succession measured from the top was: Red siltstones and red lithic sandstones 100’ Red protoquartzites and lithic sandstones with some red siltstones é 50’ Red siltstones and red eeetoqnour ee with some white protoquartzites 180’ Red and white Deere lithic sand- stones and red siltstones. 120’ The Kurrool Formation is thickest in the northern part of the Catombal Range, where it attains a maximum thickness of 1,000 feet at Bushranger’s Creek (Fig. 2). From Bushranger’s Creek the formation thins towards the south, and from Stables Creek to Larras Lee the top- most beds are missing due to the displacement caused by the fault on the western boundary of the Catombal Range. The poor exposures and lack of persistent horizons in the Larras Lee-Molong region make it impossible to subdivide the Canangle Sub- Group into separate formations with any degree of accuracy. The lithology of the Kurrool Formation persists southward from Native Dog Creek into the Larras Lee-Molong region, where the boundary between the top of the Macquarie Park Sandstone and the base of the Canangle Sub-Group is still a transitional boundary between red and white sediments. Although many very small (up to one foot in thickness) conglomerate lenses are developed throughout the Canangle Sub-Group, there is a more frequent occurrence of calcareous arenites and rudites and there is an absence of the great thicknesses of massive red conglomerates with large quartzite pebbles which are typical of the Curra Creek Conglomerate farther north. Strike faulting, minor folding, and erosion make it impossible to judge the thickness of the Canangle Sub-Group in the Larras Lee-Molong region, but the writer considers that at least 1,000 feet of sediments representing this Sub- Group outcrop throughout the area. 86 jek CON OER 5G ZI MARVVALE A a ver \ So a = MICU A iota niee —-— —- —BVSHRANGERS CREEK SCALE: \"= 4 MILES le \ LIN GION CATOMBAL GROUP — FISD Ar iG hy Enea oS ROCK WA FRAGMENTS CMe. ae NORTH “BLATHERY CREEK MATRIX BLATHERY CREEK SOUTH DARK CORNER CREEK \ ye — TW MILE -tREbe FRAGMENTS Take BM io" CENTRAL wee MATRIX PS CUMNOCK 1 — — NATIVE. DiGi tire Kk a i oe ee NO MANS CREEK foal J ABI 57 SS PS ee \\ ——— ae \ ROCK 25 10 FRAGMENTS aN SOUTH SANDSTONE TVPESS A. ie LITHIC oes. e [h > PROTO QUARIZITE Ef S32 oA yes _ a ae ©: ORTHDQUARTZITE eed a : Eee A: PeELIte — Sheer MOLONG a Fic. 4 Map showing sampled localities for thin sections of Macquarie Park Sandstone ; the composition of the sandstones after grouping into three broad regions, North, Centr with triangular diagrams showing al and South UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION ruin Size SANDSTONES >0°06 mm Detrital quartz Mostly strain free and irregular in shape. A small percentage (1) of the poly- crystalline variety that has suffered folding or recrystallization was de- detected in most thin sections SILTSTONES <0Q-06 mm The fine grain size made it difficult to recognize separate varieties with any degree of certainty although strain free quartz was the dominant type Roundness Subrounded to subangular irregular Mainly subangular elongated and angular types were more predominant in these sandstones than in the Macquarie Park Sandstone rock although Rock fragments Sedimentary predominant fragments traces Saccharoidal lava fragments similar to those found in the lower formations were Sedimentary rock fragments were of dominant, but tended to merge with the clay matrix. Saccharoidal lava fragments rare were found in most samples (Table II). Two types existed : 1. Fine red siltstone consisting of fine angular quartz cemented by iron oxide 2. Shale consisting of colloidal size quartz and illitic clay Matrix A high matrix content compared with the sandstones of the lower formations A very high matrix percentage is characteristic (average thirty per cent) Plant remains resembling the genera Archae- opterts or Rhacopteris are abundant in the green siltstones and shales. There is a considerable increase in thickness in the Kurrool Formation from Blathery Creek, westwards to the western limb of the Catombal Syncline (Fig. 2). The Kurrool Formation increases in thickness from 450 feet at Blathery Creek to 1,000 feet three miles further west in the vicinity of the western limb of the Catombal Syncline. This increase in thickness towards the west corresponds with a similar increase in thickness to the west in the underlying Macquarie Park Sandstone. Bedding in the Kurrool Formation is poorly preserved in the exposed outcrops due to the easy erosion of finely fractured siltstones. Where the bedding is preserved, it has a similar nature to the bedding of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. Coarser members of the Kurrool Formation (medium to fine sandstones) are often quite massive with beds from one to two feet in thickness. However, sandstones are poorly developed and dispersed between greater thick- nesses of siltstones which often fail to outcrop. Where the siltstones do outcrop, their bedding thickness is often obscured by the development of a closely spaced fracture cleavage. Current bedding was only observed in the very coarsest sandstone members and most of these beds were less than two feet in thickness. Ripple marks were the dominant sedimentary structure, being preserved on the faces of many coarse siltstone and fine sandstone beds. Grain size studies were made from thin sections as the rocks of the Kurrool Formation were too hard for mechanical disintegration. The Kurrool Formation is characterized by sediments with a median grain size between 0-15 and 0:05 mm. and most samples have a sorting coefficient within the range 1-25 to 2-0, indicat- ing that they are reasonably well sorted and have undergone a considerable amount of reworking within the area of deposition. PETROLOGY Sandstones and siltstones were examined. The results are shown in the above table. Point counter analysis (Fig. 5 and Tables II and III) shows that orthoquartzites are rare and that most samples plot in the protoquartzite and lithic sandstone fields on the triangular diagram. It is interesting to note that although the triangular diagram was only proposed for sandstones, medium to coarse siltstones of the Kurrool Formation have the same type of distribution as the sandstones. The fine sand- stones and coarse siltstones of the Kurrool Formation are mainly protoquartzites. They contain slightly less rounded clastic particles than earlier formations in the Black Rock Sub- Group and have a slightly higher sorting coefficient and percentage matrix. They have an abundance of sedimentary but very few volcanic rock fragments and have a red colour due to the dominant iron oxide cement. 88 MATRIX (fine silt +clay} M SAWDSTONE O SILTSTONE LITHIC ROCK FRAG ’ oF FELSPAR QUARTZ + CHERT COMPOSITION OF I5 SANDSTBNES AND MO SULTSTONES ROM Te Kuleieo or FORMATION CRE CIDIEA TED FROWN POINT COUNT ER. “ANP AMEN SoS -ye0. Ere. 2b The Curra Creek Conglomerate The Curra Creek Conglomerate is the topmost formation of the Catombal Group in _ the Catombal Range. The formation consists of massive red conglomerates interbedded with red and green siltstones and sandstones. The Curra Creek Conglomerate is_ best developed in the northern part of the Catombal PRS J. R. CONOLLY Range along the main eastern belt. As the formation is not overlain by any other formation, erosion must have removed some, or most of its topmost members, and hence measured sections only show a preserved thickness. The type section for the Curra Creek Con- glomerate was measured along the main west road to Yeoval out of Wellington, where Curra Creek cuts through the Catombal Range. The Curra Creek Conglomerate has a total thickness of 3,200 feet and can be subdivided tentatively into three members in the type area. These members are : 1. An upper member with a thickness of 1,050 feet. This member consists of lithic sandstones and siltstones with four distinct thick conglomerate beds. . A middle member with a thickness of 450 feet. This member consists of massive conglomerates which are interbedded with several thin sandy and silty layers. 3. A lower member with a thickness of 1,700 feet. This member consists of many thin but massive conglomerate lenses inter- bedded with red and green siltstones. Coarse sandstones are rare in this lower member. ho The writer proposes to call the middle member the Blathery Creek Member, for it is best preserved 12 miles to the south of Curra Creek where Blathery Creek cuts across the eastern part of the Catombal Range, and where it attains a maximum recorded thickness of 500 feet of massive red conglomerate. This member can be traced from Bushranger’s Creek in the north southwards for 20 miles to Two Mile Creek, where the Curra Creek fault truncates it. TABLE II Composition of Sandstones from the Kurrool Formation Calculated from Point Counter Analysis of Thin Sections Sample Number and Locality Quartz eae cias Bushranger’s Creek 028(a) 40 3 iS », 028(d) 57 1 s », 029 64 3 5 », 025(a) 33 Catombal Creek 261 66 0-5 Blathery Creek 119 70 3 4 Pe BAPASNS 59 s ad 297 65 trace 3 is 298 68 trace Dark Corner Creek 142 71 0-5 Catombal Syncline 203 57 n 5 204 62 trace a sy 209 79 ~ ie. 212 74 trace Stables Creek 124 76 Sedimentary Volcanic Rock Rock Matrix Bei TY, Fragments Fragments nae 25 trace on trace 14 trace 28 trace pap 0°5 10 0:5 | 60 19 0:5 14 trace 14 trace 13 trace 33 trace 8 trace 18 trace 17 trace 7 trace 15 trace 19 1-0 3 5:5 23 trace 20 trace 20 0:5 17 0°5 11 10 13 trace 13 trace 12 trace ips trace UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 89 TABLE III Composition of Siltstones from the Kurrool Formation Calculated from Point Counter Analysis of Thin Sections E oa 8 Sample Number Rie OF gon 1 © and Locality 5 Sey ck eee yee gees @ Bae) OO SO 2 8 5} oO OFS fe) (eynty ss) CO nahh Fee & Maryvale 272 Aeoret LO) dl trace 23 Bushranger’s Creek 030 66 13 trace 21 Dark Corner Creek 143 .. hs -2 66 14 trace 20 14d: ai. sce wy, (OD ike 18 145 .. oes a 80 15 trace 25 Catombal Syncline 198 55 20 25 - WA 200 35 6 59 a a 201 45 ti trace 48 fs - 202 64 12 trace 24 208 55 27 18 99 2) The Blathery Creek Member thins rapidly to the southern of Blathery Creek and at Two Mile Creek only a few thin conglomerate lenses remain. The lower and upper members of the Curra Creek Conglomerate may come together north of Bushranger’s Creek for the middle massive conglomerate similar to the Blathery Creek Member is missing. The Curra Creek Conglomerate thins southward to Two Mile Creek. Massive conglomerate does not occur in the sequence in the Larras Lee-Molong area. To the west in the vicinity of the Catombal Syncline the Curra Creek Conglomerate seems to thin rapidly, and massive red conglomerate lenses are not developed. Two or three buff coloured conglomerates are formed at the very top of the Curra Creek Conglomerate in the centre of the Catombal Syncline, but these conglomerates do not resemble the type of red conglomerate developed in the eastern part of the Catombal Range. The massive red conglomerates vary consider- able in thickness. Individual layers of the Blathery Creek Conglomerate Member are often 40 or 50 feet thick. Normally conglomerate beds tend to be between five and 15 feet in thickness and beds thinner than three feet thick are extremely rare. Massive coarse to fine sandstones are well developed within the Blathery Creek and upper members. Sandstone beds are usually one to three feet in thickness but coarser sandstones may be 10 feet in thickness. The red and green siltstones are finely bedded. Small layers of very fine sandstone are often interbedded with small layers of siltstone. The thickness of these layers varies from three inches to one foot, and the small siltstone-fine sandstone cycle may be repeated dozens of times within 50 feet of sediment. Sedimentary structures such as_ current bedding and ripple marks are rare within the Curra Creek Conglomerate. Occasionally sand- stones may show evidence of current bedding in small units, while some wave and current ripple marks have been observed on the bedding planes of siltstone slabs in the lower member of the Curra Creek Conglomerate. Mud cracks have been observed on several occasions in fine silt- stones. Scour and fill structures are the characteristic sedimentary structure of the Curra Creek Conglomerate. These structures are often developed at the base of large con- glomerate beds and were probably formed when the erosive power of streams had been strong enough to scour out unconsolidated siltstone before depositing the main conglomerate mass. They tend to occur over a large area (hundreds of feet) with gradual angular contacts with the underlying beds. 50 aN L—J P aed WwW o o PERCENT (VoLuME) be FT ha Lib GRAIN ijt se fas.” Siz& IN MMS, IML (VOLUME) PERCENT GRAIN S'tZ& IN Nowa STOGRAMS OF HI CONGLOMERATE WEMBERS C 0 FROM THE CURRA CREEK NGDOMERATE - Fic. 6 90 J. R. CONOLLY oe | /y if 1/8 iv Av 1. aye fee Ot iD) OF FOUR SEIVED SAMPLES DF CURRA GREEK TU. 079. (5) HISTOGRAMS CONGLOM MATRIX Size in mms. ERATE © percentage by weight plottecl against grain Fic. 7 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Conglomerates—The conglomerates of the Curra Creek Conglomerate consist of well rounded pebbles which range in size from 16 to 250 millimetres (half an inch to 10 inches). Most pebbles have a diameter from 75 mm. to 25 mm. (four inches to one inch). The ratio of pebble percentage to matrix percentage also varies considerably. Most con- glomerates have a high pebble percentage with little matrix. Histograms of two_ typical conglomerates are shown in Fig. 6. The first conglomerate (No. 1) is a conglomerate of high pebble content (80°) and a matrix which is fairly well sorted coarse sandstone. The second conglomerate (No. 2) has a higher matrix content than the first and tends to be finer grained in both the primary and secondary modes. Most authors explain the coarse primary mode as the traction load rolled along by currents carrying the finer sandy material of the secondary mode in suspension. Bimodal histograms such as these are reported by Pettijohn (1949, p. 40) to be of a fluvial origin, while most marine conglomerates are unimodal. General con- clusions can be made about the grain size distribution in Curra Creek Conglomerates : Most thickly bedded conglomerates contain large pebbles (about four to 10 inches in diameter) and have a high pebble content (80% or more). They normally have coarse sandstone as a matrix. With decrease in bedding thickness the size and number of the pebbles decrease until UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION thinly bedded conglomerates (three to four feet) may have only 30% pebble content and the rest would be interstitial medium sand. All conglomerates have a bimodal distribution with a coarse pebble primary mode and a medium to coarse sand secondary mode. For this reason the writer considers they are of fluvial origin, the pebbles repre- senting a traction load with the sandstone matrix representing detritus that later settled between pebbles. Sandstones—Sandstones of two main types occur: (a) Associated or interbedded with conglomerate beds; (b) dispersed throughout the formation at sporadic intervals. Figure 7 shows histograms of four typical sandstones from the Curra Creek Conglomerate. The median grain size ranges from 1-02 to 0-47 mms., so these samples are coarse grained sandstones. Sorting coefficients range from 1-73 to 1:58 mms. These values are higher than any values recorded from samples from previous formations of similar grain size. They are not well enough sorted to be marine sand- stones, but are more probably river or flood plain sands closely associated with conglomerates. Sandstones belonging to the second group have not been studied in detail by sieving, but some general results have been obtained from thin sections. They are normally fine to medium grained sandstones with a tendency for most to be fine grained. They have a similar grain size to the sandstones from the Kurrool Formation. It is possible that the Kurrool Formation lithology will continue on into the Curra Creek Conglomerate, particularly in the lower member and that with intercalation of coarser detritus (such as beds of conglomerates) there will be a tendency for an increase in grain size amongst associated sandstones. Silistones—Siltstones make up a great pro- portion of the bulk of the Curra Creek Con- glomerate. From comparison with thin sections of siltstones from the Kurrool Formation, the following conclusions could be made: The siltstones of the Curra Creek Conglomerate have a similar grain size distribution as the siltstones of the Kurrool Formation, being coarse grained siltstones with median diameters that range from 0-06 to 0:03 mm. The siltstones in the middle and upper members of the Curra Creek Conglomerate are not as well sorted as the siltstones of the lower members. Sit MATRIX ORTHOQVARTZITE seer ARKOSE-QUARIZITE SUITE HEN TRIANCOLAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF 6" COARSE SIDIS TONES AND FIN& SANDSTONE PEBBLES FROM THE GCURRA [Vat dal sa ea CONGLOMERATE - Fic. 8 PETROLOGY The petrology of the conglomerates was studied by collecting samples of various matrix and pebble types from many different localities. Two types of conglomerate were found. The first and main type was the massive oligomictic red conglomerate that is characteristic of the whole formation. The second type was found in small lenses interbedded with the rest of the formation and contained many reworked lime- stone fragments. Oligonuctic Red Conglomerates—Pebbles of these conglomerates consist almost completely of one rock type only, a very fine quartz sand- stone to coarse quartz siltstone. The only other pebble types recorded are fine cherts and large quartz pebbles. The pebbles are mainly ellipsoidal or pear-shaped and _ well-rounded, indicating lengthy transport and consolidation in the source area before transportation. Twenty-six petrographic analyses were made from characteristic pebble types over the total outcrop area (Fig. 8). These analyses show : 1. A variation in grain size from 0-02 to 0-13 mm. with a definite mode for most samples at about 0-07 mm. 92 J. R. CONOLLY 2. All samples are orthoquartzites consisting of subangular quartz grains in a clay matrix and often cemented by hematite. It is probable that most of the clay matrix is a disintegration product of sedimentary rock fragments, although not many actual fragments could be found. The pebbles have a different composition to any other rock type found in the Catombal Group (Fig. 8). In the Catombal Syncline area the con- glomerates are only sparsely developed. They contain a fairly high percentage of siliceous or chert pebbles. This suggests that there is a change in facies in an east-west direction across the Catombal Range, but since there is a possibility that most of the Curra Creek Con- glomerate which was originally in the centre of the Catombal Syncline, has been eroded away, no definite conclusions can be reached. The matrix of the conglomerates consists of coarse to medium lithic sandstones. These are discussed in detail with the other sandstones of the Curra Creek Conglomerate. Calcareous rudites—These rocks occur in the lenses one to two feet in thickness. These lenses are not very persistent, some persist for only about 25 yards along the strike. They are composed of irregular calcareous and siltstone fragments and their median grain size varies from eight to one millimetre, but is normally between two to four millimetres. The rocks are cemented by hematite, giving them a rich red colour (Plate III, 4). Six thin sections of samples from different localities within the Two Mile Creek-Molong area have the following range in composition : Calcareous rock fragments 55-85% Siltstone rock fragments 10-30% Shale rock fragments 0-10% Detrital quartz 4-15% Iron oxide cement .. 1- 8% Calcite cement 0-15% The calcareous rock fragments are quite often recrystallized and in some cases it was hard to tell whether they were rock fragments or just accumulations of calcareous material. Recent publications by various authors on the com- position of limestones enabled Folk (1959) to propose a most useful and practical classification of limestones. The use of this classification has enabled the writer to recognize definite relic structures in the calcareous fragments, hence showing that the calcareous detritus was derived mainly from previous limestone (Plate III, 4). The main type of relic structure was one where pellets or algal fragments of finely crystalline calcareous material were cemented by a more largely crystalline calcite cement — called “‘sparry calcite’’ by Folk. Other relic limestone fragments were hard to identify. Another fairly common type of limestone fragment consists of very fine calcite and clay material, with a massive texture. Folk calls this type of limestone a “ micrite ’’ or a ““ micritic limestone ’’—resembling an accumulation of lime-mud. Detrital quartz is always present and is normally of coarse silt to fine sand size. The grains are subangular to angular. Siltstone and shaly rock fragments are also common components. Hematite coloured the matrix, siltstone and shaly fragments, and often the limestone fragments. Calcite cement was some- times present, replacing the hematite cement. The detrital fragments of this rock are always extremely angular and often showed crumpling and bending that must have occurred during, or just after deposition. Quite often siltstone rock fragments are completely bent around calcareous detritus. There is no obvious alignment of particles along bedding planes. The overall texture of the rock suggests that it is a local ‘““dump’” deposit where partly consolidated limestone and siltstone fragments, were buried under other detritus before they could be dissolved away. The beds above and beneath these calcrudite lenses were usually coarse siltstone or fine sandstone similar in grain size to that of the small amount of detrital quartz which is present in the calcrudite. No calcareous material was found in the rocks above or beneath the calcrudite lens, hence it must be assumed that the advent of limestone detritus was caused by floods carrying limestone derived from a nearby partly consolidated source rock. The limestones of the Garra Beds are extremely abundant in the Larras Lee-Molong area. The writer has observed pelletal lime- stones amongst the Garra_ Beds, while Brachiopod and Gastropod bearing limestones are also abundant. The Garra Beds may have formed local highs close to the area of deposition that were eroded to form the limestone detritus for the calcrudite lenses. Sandstones— 1. Quartz: Once again, non-stressed quartz with numerous gaseous and liquid inclusions is more abundant than the polycrystalline variety which was never greater than 3% and normally less than 1% of the total volume of the rock. Most grains were subrounded to subangular, only the larger grains ever showing extensive rounding (Plate I, 4). UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 2. Rock fragments : Two prominent types of rock fragments occurred : (a) Siltstone rock fragments: These fragments consisted of fine angular quartz in a clay or iron-stained clay matrix and are probably smaller ‘relatives’? of the orthoquartzite pebbles that dominate the lithology of the oligomictic conglomerates (Plates II, 3 and 4). (0) Shale rock fragments: These fragments consisted of fine colloidal quartz and illitic clay. They were very fine grained (one to 10 microns), brown or buff coloured, or, occasionally, had a red colour caused by iron oxide staining. They must have been partly consolidated or very soft, for they were normally flattened along the bedding plane (Plate I, 4). 3. Matrix: The matrix of these sandstones consisted of broken pieces of shale and siltstone rock fragments and patches of authigenic kaolinite. The matrix percentage was never very high for shale fragments were able to accommodate open spaces by bonding or breaking into them (Plate I, 4). 4. Textures: Two predominant textures were observed in thin section : (a) The coarse sandstones that occurred associated with conglomerates had a _ high siltstone rock fragment percentage and _ less shale fragments. Tangential contacts between grains or “ floating’’ grains in a clay matrix is a common texture (Plate II, 4). (b) The medium to fine sandstones that were associated with the lowest and uppermost of the Curra Creek Conglomerate had a high shale fragment percentage. The shale fragments were not very competent and during consolida- tion they were crushed between more competent quartz and siltstone fragments producing a pewelded ’ texture. The shale fragments eventually became lineated with their long axes orientated parallel to the bedding plane (Plate I, 4). Petrographic analyses of 24 sandstones show that no definite changes in mineral composition could be found along the strike (Fig. 9). The sandstones that plot closest to the rock fragment end member are normally fine to medium grained sandstones with a “ welded’’ texture and an abundance of shale fragments. The coarse sandstones that are associated with con- glomerates plot closer to the protoquartzite meld. Ihe sandstones of the Curra Creek Conglomerate are “‘dirty’”’, lithic sandstones with a high unstable rock fragment percentage. They are not as well sorted as the marine sandstones of the Black Rock Sub-Group and ROCK FRAGMENTS + FELSPAR TRANG UGA MATRIX (fine silt +clay) Ge Hae SANDSTONE QUARTZ ARKOSE - QUARIZITE SUITE + CHERT DIAGRAM QHOWING THLE k4 SANDSTONES FROM CREEK CONGLOMERATE COMPOSITION OF HOLY CURR A Fic. 9 contain angular to subangular quartz, suggesting that they are terrestrial sandstones with a high proportion of unstable detritus. GENERAL Heavy Minerals Heavy mineral separations from 40 samples of outcropping sandstone within the Catombal Group were prepared on slides and analyses made by counting of grains. The following heavy minerals were recog- nized: leucoxene, rutile, limonite, ilmenite, hematite, garnet, zircon, hornblende, tourmaline, apatite, biotite and pyroxene. Of these, leucoxene, leucoxene-limonite and leucoxene- ilmenite complexes are by far the most dominant, totalling in most separations far greater than 50% of the heavy minerals. In some samples, particularly the red sandstones, hematite and hematite-limonite occur as a cement coating the grains. Only random grains of magnetite occur in a few samples and are completely missing in others. Ilmenite is a very persistent mineral tending to be well rounded and smaller than associated tourmaline, hornblende or garnet. 94 J. R. CONOLLY In most samples ilmenite represented from 5% to 10% of the heavy mineral concentrate and was frequently associated with leucoxene and leucoxene pellets. Golding (1955) recognized four basic types of leucoxene in recent dunes at Stradbroke Island, Queensland : 1. Ilmenite-leucoxene complexes ; 2. ‘White opaques ” 3. Amber-like grains ; 4. Rutile-leucoxene complexes. ) The first three groups are present in’ the Macquarie Park Sandstone, groups 1 and 2 being the most abundant. Rutile-leucoxene complexes are not present and amber-like grains are very rare, while amongst the second group of “white opaques’’, pitted leucoxene-quartz aggregates are by far the dominant type. As Golding referred to this last group as one that represented ultimate formation in situ from ilmenite, it would seem that the bulk of the leucoxene types represented have reached a stage of maturity and may well be derived from pre-existing sediments. However, it is noted that in a few samples the ilmenite- leucoxene group is larger than the pitted leucoxene-quartz pellets, and this could then be regarded as almost primary material that has only just started its diagenetic and depositional cycle. Zivcon is a very abundant species tending to concentrate in only the finer fractions. Most of the grains are colourless and euhedral showing slight rounding. Crystals with first and second order prisms and bipyramids are common. Inclusions of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, gaseous and liquid cavities frequently orientated parallel to the crystallographic axes occur in many crystals (Fig. 10). In some samples, two distinct types of zircon occur: (1) Euhedra with little rounding ; (2) oval and elongated grains with extreme rounding. This immediately suggests that the zircon was derived from at least two distinct rock types, one of which is sedimentary. Tourmaline is the most abundant species next to zircon. Brown to brown-green grains predominate with rarer blue grains. Pleo- chroism is most intense in the common brown variety. Most grains are extremely well rounded oval shapes, but some rounded striated, prismatic and irregular subangular grains also occur. The tourmaline in this suite is typically without many inclusions but with characteristic vacuoles or cavities. Krynine (1946) considers that this type of tourmaline is of ultimate igneous origin. ~ Rutile is a very persistent, although a not so abundant mineral. Grains are well rounded to subrounded with elongate, oval and irregular outlines. Colour tends to be a soft brown-red to red. No extremely dark or black varieties occur. Most rutile grains are dichroic with intense absorption parallel to the C axis. Hornblende grains occurring as elongated and. irregular platy cleavage flakes are common in the larger fraction of almost every sample and also occur in the fine fractions. The mineral has strong pleochroism from green and olive- green shades to a very strong brown colour. In this case it was hard to distinguish brown pleochroic tourmaline from hornblende ; how- ever, grains with biaxial negative figures and extinction angles of two to three degrees were identified as the basaltic hornblende, basaltine. The grains are fresh, sometimes with inclusions of iron ores, and prismatic needles of zircon. Several platy grains have frayed ends deter- mined by the (110) cleavage, but mainly the grains showed evidence of some _ transport, having an irregular shape with some portions slightly rounded (Fig. 10). Garnet. This mineral occurs in several samples. and in each case it is one of the abundant heavy minerals. In one sample 55% of the heavy mineral fraction (after extraction of iron oxides) was garnet. The garnet has a large variety of external form and shape, with grains mainly of an irregular shape, bounded by conchoida fracture surfaces. These surfaces are pitted, grooved, spotted, or had patterns of pits of different sizes, and on many occasions are shaped by a pseudo-cleavage of a rectangular nature (Fig. 10). The colour ranges from almost colourless to pale pink, so the mineral probably belongs to the spessartite-almandine series. Inclusions occur in most grains, iron ores, zircon, rutile, quartz and felspar being noted. Almost all grains are confined to a size between 0:3 mm: to Olt ima Apatite. Most apatites were pea-shaped. grains with well rounded pitted surfaces. Elliptical to sub-spherical forms are dominant, although the hexagonal prismatic habit is sometimes seen in some grains that have equant or hexagonal outlines (Fig. 10). Their refractive index is high but birefringence low, only whites. and occasionally browns of the first order being developed. They are uniaxial negative and they have a dull white appearance due to many liquid or gaseous inclusions. UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 95 100 ha 4a Ss . ie ——_4_4 mes 4 6 6-5 0-2 SCALE Iw Mm, Le vo 2d Fic. 10 Typical heavy mineral grains from the Catombal Group. (c) Apatite ; Biotite. This is not a very common heavy mineral in this suite, but occurs in characteristic irregular cleavage flakes which tend to lie with the (001) cleavage on the plane of the slide. Pleochroic haloes can be recognized and the dominant colour is a deep brown. The grains tend to be quite small but not a sufficient number of grains was seen to be sure that this small size is an important feature. Heavy Muneral Accessories. Other heavy minerals that were identified included: pyroxene, sapphire, monazite, chalcedony, white mud and frequent rock fragments and com- posite grains of heavy minerals with quartz. Van Andel (1959) discussed the use of heavy minerals as an aid to studies in sedimentary correlation and provenance. He listed four factors that could modify the composition of the heavy mineral assemblage and hence give poor results : 1. Weathering, either in the source area, or after deposition above the watertable in permeable sands or gravels. 2. Selective mechanical destruction during transportation. 3. Selective sorting during transportation, many species showing a preference for certain size ranges. (a) Zircon ; (6) Hornblende ; (d) Garnet 4. Post-depositional solution. Pettijohn (1957) considered this to be one of the greatest factors against the use of heavy minerals for correlation but other authors regard this phenomenon to be of only very local importance. Van Andel concludes that in any compre- hensive study with many samples the four factors mentioned will not impair the quality of the results obtained. The only extraneous heavy minerals found in the studies in the Catombal Group were limonites, most of which were probably formed due to weathering above the watertable in permeable sandstones, although some may be authigenic formed in an earlier stage of sedi- mentation. It is also possible that many limonites are actually goethites, for in some badly weathered samples goethite was found in the matrix fraction and gave characteristic peaks on differential thermal analysis. Leucoxene and leucoxene-ilmenite composites seem to be partly detrital and partly authigenic originating from detrital ilmenite. Hematite occurs as a coating or detrital grains and as such forms a cement in many sandstones and siltstones. The remaining heavy minerals are the more important for correlation and pro- 96 J. R. CONOLLY TABLE LV Approximate Percentages of Common Heavy Minerals in the Catombal Group, Wellington (Leucoxene, Limonite, Hematite and Ilmenite are excluded) Formation Zircon Garnet Brymedura Sandstone 40 30 Macquarie Park Sandstone 35 25 Kurrool Formation 75 ) Curra Creek Conglomerate 30 45 venance studies, the most common minerals among this category being: zircon, garnet, rutile, tourmaline, hornblende and apatite. It is noteworthy that all these minerals (except apatite) are persistent throughout all formations in the Catombal Group (Table 4). Pettijohn (1947, p. 98) lists typical heavy mineral suites. Among those heavy minerals found in_ reworked sediments, leucoxene, tourmaline, zircon and rutile are prominent. These minerals are well represented in the Catombal Group, and can be correlated with the abundance of sedimentary rock fragments. Provenance The occurrence of garnet was interesting. Although the source rocks for this mineral usually are high rank metamorphic or pegmatitic, the author considers that the garnet is derived from the abundant garnetiferous tuffs and lavas that occur in a north-south trending belt about five to 10 miles west of the Catombal Range. The reasons for this are : 1. The garnet in these “ tuffs ’’ is an almandine variety, the same as that found in the heavy mineral suites. 2. The high proportion of garnet in the heavy mineral suite suggests that it has not travelled very far. If it was derived from reworked sediments, a much lower percentage of garnet would be expected. 3. The garnet is not rounded, also suggesting that it has undergone little transportation. The basaltic hornblende which presumably was derived from basic lavas or intrusives is common throughout the succession. Thin sections show that tuffaceous and basic igneous rock fragments are fairly common throughout the Catombal Group.’ The occurrence ot pyroxene and biotite also suggests that rocks of a basic or intermediate igneous origin were present in the source area. The hornblende is not very rounded, suggesting a close source area. Such a source area is not hard to find, for belts of andesite and associated lavas are common Rutile Tourmaline Hornblende Apatite 20 5 5 15 15 5 5 trace 5 5 10 15 10 trace trace both to the immediate east and west of the Catombal Range. Well rounded apatite grains are most probably reworked from sedimentary rocks or they may well have suffered extensive transportation from a primary granite. Hence, the heavy minerals of the Catombal Group are of not much use for correlation between one formation and another but they represent a suite of their own (Table IV). They do suggest an area of provenance containing the following source rocks : 1. Sedimentary rocks, with zircon, rutile, tourmaline, apatite, leucoxene and ilmenite. 2. Basic to intermediate lavas, yielding basaltic hornblende, with scattered grains of biotite and pyroxene. | 3. Garnetiferous tuff horizons, yielding fresh faintly pink almandine garnet. Diagenesis Dapples (1959) considers that quartzose sandstones tend toward equilibria under three different stages of diagenesis. (a) During deposition, there is a distinct pitting and rounding of quartz grains by solution. (6) Early burial is characterized by precipitation of quartz as overgrowths. (c) Late burial is characterized by addition of carbonate cement, sometimes as a replace- ment of quartz grains. When carbonate is absent interpenetration of quartz grains increases with depth of burial or application of pressure due to tectonic forces. Examples of sandstones representing all three stages are found in the sandstones of the Catombal Group. In general the rocks of the Black Rock Sub-Group are more quartz-rich and have larger amounts of authigenic silica than the quartz-poor rocks of the Canangle Sub-Group which have considerably high per- centages of authigenic iron oxide. Within the Black Rock Sub-Group the problem of diagenesis involves cementation by silica and the deposition and subsequent alteration of clay minerals. Carbonate is absent except in the calc-silicate UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION rocks at the base of the Macquarie Sandstone at the northern end of the Catombal Range, where it replaces earlier quartz overgrowths in a similar fashion to stage three (mentioned above). The Brymedura Sandstone is a loosely packed well sorted sandstone with tangential or straight grain contacts or “ floating ’’ grains. Pore space between the detrital grains is mostly filled by secondary silica (Plate I, 1, III, 3). An average of 5°% by volume of secondary silica is estimated to be present in most Brymedura Sandstones. Although interpenetration of grains is not common, it occurs in the vicinity of strike faults. Kaolinite and illite are present as authigenic clay minerals. In some sandstones illite occurs between original detrital grain outlines and secondary quartz outgrowths, but mostly kaolinite and illite are present in patches between secondary quartz. Iron oxide is rarely present except as a thin coating on detrital grains. The Macquarie Park Sandstone also has large amounts of authigenic silica and clay matrix and little iron oxide cement. However, the finer grain sized Macquarie Park Sandstone characteristically has a sutured or interlocking texture caused by interpenetration of quartz grains (Plate I, 2). Petrographic analyses of many thin sections show that with a decrease _ in grain size there is an increase in the percentage clay matrix and a corresponding decrease in the percentage of authigenic silica (Fig. 11). The volume of silica lost due to pressure solution processes is probably deposited in the more porous sandstones within the sequence. Pre- liminary clay mineral investigations show that the finer sandstones and also the shales of the Macquarie Park Sandstone contain mostly illite, some kaolinite and a fair amount of chlorite or mixed layered materal, whereas the more porous coarser grained sandstones have a higher proportion of kaolinite, most probably due to surface leaching processes. In the sediments of the Canangle Sub-Group, authigenic silica is only a minor constituent, whereas iron oxides are the important authigenic minerals. The abundance of clay matrix and sedimentary rock fragments enabled most detrital quartz grains to ise kept apart (Plate I, 3 and 4), hence the amount of pressure solution between adjacent quartz grains was low in comparison to the rocks of the Black Rock Sub-Group. Iron oxide is the dominant authigenic mineral apart from clay and is characteristically developed in patches. Most of the iron oxide is hematite, which alters to limonite and sometimes geothite when the rock has been subjected to surface i QUARTZ PERCENT SECONDARY weathering. It seems to originate from iron-rich detrital sedimentary particles with which the iron oxide cement is closely associated in the present rock. The finer sediments (siltstones) have a higher iron oxide content than the coarser sediments (sandstones). Most of the clay matrix of the sediments of the Canangle Sub- Group is primary detrital material that has been subjected to strong leaching processes with the necessary formation of kaolinite and hematite. CORRELATION WITHIN THE CATOMBAL GROUP The detailed correlation of rock units estab- lished in the field was made from both palaeonto- logical and petrological correlations. PALAEONTOLOGICAL APPROACH The Black Rock Sub-Group could be correlated from Molong to Wellington on the presence of a brachiopod fauna with the common genera, Cyrtospirifer and Camarotoechia. In certain localities plant remains belonging to the genus Lepidodendron and fishplates referable to the genus Bothriolepbis occur within the same sequence. The age of this fauna is Upper Devonian. The Canangle Sub-Group sediments can be correlated from Molong to Wellington because 98 JOR CONOLEN plant fragments referable to the genera Avchae- opterts or Khacopteris are restricted to these rocks. The age of this flora is considered to be the top of the Upper Devonian), but {the author considers that this may be extended into the Lower Carboniferous. PETROLOGICAL APPROACH Two petrological parameters have been described in detail and can be used for cor- relation. They are: 1. The mineralogical composition plotted on triangular diagrams. 2. Amount and type of cementing agent. Mineralogical Composition—Detailed descrip- tions of the variety and characteristics of these parameters have already been discussed for each rock unit or formation. Petrological correlation has been mainly based on mineralogical composition in terms of three end members (quartz and chert, rock fragments and felspar, and clay matrix). Point counter analysis of these components from many thin sections sampled over the outcrop area for each formation have been plotted on the triangular diagram proposed for the arkose-quartzite suite. The usefulness of this technique is well illustrated for the Brymedura Sandstone (Fig. 3). The homogeneity of this formation found from study of field outcrop material such as grain size, bedding, cross bedding and thickness is found to be exemplified by thin section study. All samples from over 50 miles of strike length le within a small area on the triangular diagram. This shows that for this formation thin section study is just as useful in correlation as field lithology comparisons. The writer considers that the identification of the Brymedura Sandstone could be made from any other formation in the Catombal Group by examina- tion of thin sections. The range of mineralogical variation found within four formations of the Catombal Group is shown in Fig. 12. The following results are apparent : (a) The Brymedura Sandstone and Macquarie Park Sandstones have a similar modal mineralogical composition, but the Kurrool Formation and Curra Creek Conglomerate have different modal compositions. (b) The Brymedura Sandstone and the Mac- quarie Park Sandstone form a distinctive mineralogical suite. They have a similar modal composition with a high percentage of quartz (average 70%), relatively low COMPOSITION OF WOLONG - WELLINGTON, CALOULATED FROM POINT COUNTER ANALYSIS OF matrix (15%) and relatively high rock fragments (15%). There is more variation_ within the Macquarie Park Sandstone, mainly caused by the wider range in variation | in grain size within this formation. The Kurrool Formation is mainly fine grained — and mineralogical compositions plot in the proto- — quartzite and orthoquartzite field with a high percentage of matrix (Fig. 12). They have am fairly wide range of rock fragment composition. This is a reflection on the nature of the sediments within the formation for sandstones at the base of the formation are similar to Macquarie Park Sandstones, which average 15°% rock fragments but, towards the top of the formation, lithic sandstones with a high percentage of rock fragments become more frequent. The Curra Creek Conglomerate sandstones are completely different to sandstones from earlier formations. They are lithic sandstones with a high rock fragment content (20% to 50%), a low quartz content (40% to 60%), and a relatively low matrix content (5% to MATRIX LITHIC SANDSTONE FELSPAR + ROCK FRAGMENTS QUARTZ + CHERT CURRA CREEK CONGLOMERATE CANANGLE SOB -GROUP KORROOL FORMATION MACQUARIE PARK S-S- BUCK ROCK SUB- GROUP “sina BR MEDDRA, S-S- SANDSTONES FROM THE CATOMBAL GROUP, THIN SECTIONS Fie. 12 UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 99 15%). Hence it is possible to distinguish the above formations on the basis of the typical mineralogy and texture displayed by sandstones (Fig. 12). Cement—Two cementing agents are common throughout the Catombal Group : (a) authigenic silica, (b) iron oxide. The amount of iron oxide cement has been used in an indirect fashion, to subdivide the Canangle Sub-Group from the Black Rock Sub-Group. The “red measures”’ of the Canangle Sub-Group have an abundance of hematite cement giving the rocks a pronounced red colour, whereas any red colour produced in the Black Rock Sub-Group is caused by a relatively high percentage of coloured rock fragments. Sedimentation BRYMEDURA SANDSTONE The homogeneous nature of the Brymedura Sandstone immediately suggests that it has been aormed under conditions of source rock and fransportation stability. It is coarse grained, tontaining extremely well rounded particles cnd characterized by coarse current bedding. It was probably formed in a high-energy environ- ment perhaps in the form of a low offshore sand bar where strong longshore currents swept away all but the course sand of a grain size of 0-5 mm. or greater. Small but regular varia- tions in stratigraphic thickness, the percentage drop in volcanic rock fragments and matrix, and palaeocurrent directions suggest that the sand bar was derived from the south. Not only did these variations suggest that the main “bar’’ was developed in the south but that with increased transport (i.e. with the currents) the percentage of volcanic rock fragments decreased and the sandstones belonged to a more mature type, although still not of orthoquartzite composition. In several localities tO the north of Larras Lee where the “ bar”’ thins, banks of broken shells of Cyrtospirifer and Camarotoechia are preserved. MACQUARIE PARK SANDSTONE Although this formation is characterized by fine to medium grained protoquartzites and orthoquartzites which are well sorted sandstones, it is transitional into the red siltstone lithology of the Kurrool Formation. The basal two or three hundred feet of the Macquarie Park Sandstone is interpreted as being mainly sand- stones deposited in an offshore marine environ- ment with preservation of shoal banks of species of Crytospirifer and Camarotoechia. These sandstones are well sorted, and show a high degree of particle rounding in contrast to the red sandstones and coarse siltstones that are intercalated with the upper part of the Macquarie Park Sandstone. During deposition of this formation the environment fluctuated between “ high energy ”’ (offshore or beach) to “ lower energy ”’ (lagoonal or lacustrine). The degree of sorting, the amount of rounding and the increase in less resistant sedimentary rock fragments and clay pellets is associated with low amplitude wave ripple marks and small current bedded units. In several localities lenses of green or red shale are intercalated in the sandstones. These bands represent areas within the basin in which only detritus of fine silt or clay size was deposited. Similar areas are commonly found in present offshore and estuarine environments and are dependent on the topography of the basin floor and the direction of the prominent currents. Variation in stratigraphic thickness and petrology show that the lower Macquarie Park Sandstone is a long narrow strip of sediments thickening considerably to the west in the Wellington region but to the east in the Molong region. There was probably an area of relatively higher elevation of the floor of the basin at Larras Lee, separating two main areas of deposition to the north and south. With increase in time there was a gradual regression of the sea to the east and estuarine and lagoonal con- ditions prevailed, the greatest thickness of sediments being developed in a faster subsiding area, now preserved in the western region of the Catombal Syncline. KURROOL FORMATION AND CURRA CREEK CON- GLOMERATE The most remarkable feature of the Kurrool Formation is that almost all sediments are coarse siltstones or fine sandstones cemented with iron oxide. Basal Kurrool sediments are characteristically less angular, contain less shale or siltstone fragments, and have a lower clay matrix percentage than the topmost sediments. The environment was probably transitional between “‘low energy’’ lacustrine to wholly terrestrial alluvial or fluvial deposits. The presence of hematite cement in almost all sediments indicates an oxidizing environment. Towards the north near Wellington large thicknesses of typical river gravel beds accumu- lated to form the Curra Creek Conglomerate. Because of erosion in most parts of the succession sion, no definite facies changes could be traced. 100 i RCONOLEN GEOLOGICAL MAP SHOWING THE CATOMBAL GROUP IN THE WELLINGTON REGION. TO DUBBO “Ac ayalRie RIV 2 ——_— = LEGEND Ny : | oa QUATERNARY- RECENT ALLUVIUM AND GRAVELS ES; | TERTIARY BASALT = | \ CURRA CK. CONGLOMERATE[o 0 9] | \ | KURROOL FORMATION mes | MACQUARIE PARK S.S. \ \ UPPER DEVONIAN \ \ BRYMEDURA S.S. 50000] | \ \ \ (CATOMBAL GROUP) LOWER-MIDDLE DEVONIAN GARRA BEDS — 27LOWER-MIDDLE DEVONIAN “NEWREA FORMATION’ EX peneeee| LA | | MIDDLE-UPPER SILURIAN “STABLES CK. EM” Nee \ MIDDLE SILURIAN “BELL LIMESTONE” UPPER ORDOVICIAN “WELLINGTON FORMATION Lzzz-JJ 2LOWER ORDOVICIAN- “BELL VOLCANICS" SILURIAN GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY -—--- GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY- POSITION INTERPRETED ome ome == FAULT omme 2 mew 2 FAULT-POSITION INTERPRETED —F— roo axis 0 t 2 Scale in Niles Fic. 13 (continued opposite) UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 101 ‘4 Vusl5ys-. Fic. 13 (continued) 102 J. R. CONOLLY GEOLOGICAL MAP SHOWING THE CATOMBAL GROUP IN THE LARRAS LEE-MOLONG REGION LEGEND TERTIARY Basalt — Canangle Sub-Group UPPER DEVONIAN ; eal Geological Boundary Macquarie Park Sandstone (CATOMBAL GROUP) Brymedura Sandstone -~-~=- Geological Boundary- Paling Yard Formation Sa Position Interpreted LOWER-MIDDLE DEVONIAN Garra Beds ==] em ame Fault MIDDLE SILURIAN " Molong Limestone” ZZ ies Fold Axis UPPER ORDOVICIAN "Matachi’s | Hill Formation 0 { 2 MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN “Reedy Creek Limestone G===3J Seale in Miles ? LOWER ORDOVICIAN- "Bell Volcanics” SILURIAN TN MN Fic. 14 (continued opposite) UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION 103 4 oe <2 i, AW | ee ee - 22S SS e ir ¢ ~2b Seer 229 GOsGoe® e o* ers Po @ Pp °° © @ © @ 09098 — VR) 190 A) os HO 18 hese Nes alt 1 Ne ABNER Vilgqtay! vy! yyy! \ vty Fic. 14 (continued) 104 J. R CONOLLY STRUCTURE SECTIONS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS SECTIONS AB’ EF FROM THE IMATE AND EXAGGERATED) AND CD’ FROM THE WELLINGTON REGION LARRAS LEE - MOLONG REGION. (VERTICAL SCALE B) AND AB-~ AND APPROX- Fre. 15 However, the conglomerates probably thin to the south and south-east from Wellington and received the bulk of their detritus from the west. Recent investigations of a northerly extension of the Upper Devonian sediments preserved at Mt. Lambie (R. Mackay, personal communica- tion) indicate that a similar succession to the Catombal Group exists to the south-west of Mudgee. This succession has an initial marine phase with preservation of brachiopods belonging to the genus Cyrtospirifer. This first phase is then followed by a “red bed”’ facies with preservation of many hundreds of feet of conglomerate. It is possible that the sediments of the Mudgee-Mt. Lambie region and the sediments of the Molong-Wellington region were deposited in the same basin. Further west of the Wellington-Molong region another large belt of Upper Devonian sediments outcrops from just east of Peak Hill southwards to Grenfell. These sediments have no definite basal marine and top terrestrial phases nor have any definite marine fossils been found. Instead fish plates (Hills, 1932) are relatively common alongside with Lepidodendron plant remains. In most cases the basal sediments are thin arkoses or their equivalent. On top of the thin UPPER DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION ‘ 3 basal terrestrial facies was laid a “‘ rhythmic ’ sequence of red and white sandstones with finer red siltstones. This suggests that it is possible that the Peak Hill-Grenfell belt of Upper Devonian sediments is an inland facies of the Catombal Group. Acknowledgements The writer wishes to thank the teaching and technical staff of the School of Mining Engineer- ing and Applied Geology at the University of New South Wales for help in the preparation of the manuscript. Helpful criticism and advice were received aroma Mr. J. C. Cameron and Dr. A. N. Carter (University of New South Wales), Dr. G. H. Packham (University of Sydney) and Mr. D. B. Walker (British Petroleum) during the work and the writing of the manuscript. References ADRIAN, J., 1956. Geology of the Molong District, Nes. VV. Unpub. BSc.,(Hons.) thesis, Univ. of Sydney. BasNneETT, E. M., anD CotpiTz, M. J., 1945. Geology of the Wellington District, J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 79, 37-47. BEnson, W. N., 1922. Materials for the Study of the Devonian Palaeontology of Australia. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 10, 83-204. CHAYES, F., 1956. Petrographic Modal Wiley, New York, 113 pp. DappLes, FE. C., 1959. Behaviour of Silica in Diagenesis. Soc. Econ. Pal. & Mun., Spec. Pub., 7, 36-54. DE Koninck, L. G., 1877. General N.S.W. Analysis. Recherche sur les fossiles Paléozoiques des Nouvelles Galles du Sud (Australie), English ‘Translation, 1898. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. Mem. 6, 297 pp. Fotk, R. L., 1959. Practical petrographic classifica- tion of limestones. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol., 43, 1-38. GoLpInG, H. G., 1955. Leucoxenic Grains in the Dune Sands at North Stradbroke Island, Queens- land. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 89, 219-231. Hii, D., AnD JonEs, O. A., 1940. The Corals of the Garra Beds, Molong District, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 74, 175-208. Hitt, D., 1942. Middle Palaeozoic Rugose Corals from the Wellington District. J. Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 182-189. 105 FiLis, EF. S., 1932. Upper Devonian Fish from N.S.W. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond., 88, 850-858. JopLin, G. A., AND CULEY, A. G., 1938. The Geological Structure and Stratigraphy of the Molong- Manildra, District. ' J. Hoy.” Soc. N.S.W.; 71, 267-381. Jorpitin, G. A., AND OTHERS, 1952. Notes on the Stratigraphy and Structure of the Wellington- Molong-Orange-Canowindra Region. Pyroc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 77, 83-88. KrRyYNINE, P. D., 1946. The Tourmaline Group in Sediments. /. Geol., 54, 65. MaTHEson, A. J., 1930. The Geology of the Wellington District; Nes. W. with Special Keiterence to the Origin of the Upper Devonian Series. /. Pyroc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 171. McKee, E. D., 1940. Three types of cross lamination in Paleozoic rocks of Northern Arizona. . : ’ ; = Ww 7 : - i .’ ; i ee Js ie a : } ; i ! a i ‘ a ae . es ; { i} i e 1 ; , a _ ; ; ‘ie 7 7 iy i “4 = . he ', : | = : ; st (i : . f 1 ‘i 7 1 H / i i j i a > i 4 we Admiralty [sie GEOLOGICAL MAP OF Tron LORD HOWE LSLAND XTpn = — ae ; 4M oOMN Mutton Bird Islond Tq, 265.0, Aen Mutton Bird Point LEGEND Red Point a i ird 2504’ Qr | Allin, including beach and talus deposits Mt. Lidgbird 2. Qrss| Sand dunes of calcarenile Qrl | Lagoonal sediments - sandy bottom Qrlo p 2 - black mud & silt boltom RECENT PLEISTOCENE TO RECENT |Qec| Coral reef PLEISTOCENE Qpen| Ned's Beach Calcarenite PLEISTOCENE -=— TO PLiocENg 127 | North Ridge Volcanics PREPLIOCENE [preTo| M2. Lidgbird Volcanics preTp a Mt. Gower 2638" A) Boundary of Coral Reef — Geological contact fa e ct tiferred & Triangulation .stalion height tr feel 75" p>) Gower Islond preTp Fic. 2 Geological map of Lord Howe Island i re a ee es i ee ' : — o : 4 fis 5 ; ® 4 he: ° e — ral . . f : F % aia rs ' - r ‘ " ~ \ ‘ > — 7 q 3 - . x i x 4 res \ t 7: rm e > \ ih : . pot 2 ao 4 : = i j . y < ” / * 2 . fe é ke } : A oy rd x I. a j a - ‘ } — . = Hy, i wher 7 a . . f J aa a o 1 3 : Koa o. - j a Mi -* 7 1 . 2B) 5 . ‘. 7 t ; > o8 a aya ‘Dal 7 oy te. « x : . 4 ‘ ‘ 7 7 * . ‘ rs “« od 7 * S - - - fi 6 i) GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND 109 the older Mt. Lidgbird volcanics contain a much higher percentage of olivine rich rocks, oceanites or rocks approaching oceanites. Twelve of the 47 specimens of the older Mt. Lidgbird volcanics were olivine rich while only one of the 71 specimens of younger North Ridge volcanic rocks was olivine rich. The older rocks are generally coarser grained and also contain a BALLS PYRAMID LORD HOWE ISLAND 8 A Miles Fic. 3 East-west profile of the Lord Howe Island and north-south profile of Lord Howe Island and Ball’s Pyramid 5 8 X - Q) s 3 19) _ Nautical Vertical LORD HOWE PS LAN D aaa Ball’s Pyramid 12 miles south of Lord Howe S 3 3 8 8 8 S 8 Island, this erosional remnant rises to a height SWOHLY4 oa of 1,811 feet and is located on top of a large wave-cut platform which is 11 miles long and 9 miles wide 110 much higher percentage of zeolites than do the younger rocks whose cavities are generally open or filled with clay and/or carbonates. Mr. LIDGBIRD VOLCANICS Mt. Gower and Mt. Lidgbird when viewed from a distance (Fig. 5) appear to be composed of flat lying sedimentary rocks, this layered effect being caused by series of nearly horizontal layers of igneous rock which range in thickness from a few feet up to 4o feet. Flows: Dominantly alkali olivine basalt with phenocrysts of olivine, plagioclase and diopsidic clinopyroxene phenocrysts in an inter- granular or intersertal groundmass of plagio- clase, olivine and diopsidic clinopyroxene, magnetite, and ilmenite. Many of the basalts are very rich in olivine and contain deformed olivine grains and spongy clinopyroxenes. A few small peridotite xenoliths were found which Wilshire and Binns (1961) consider of mantle origin. Dykes: Alkali olivine’ basalts. Altered olivine phenocrysts, plagioclase and diopsidic clinopyroxene phenocrysts in intergranular or intersertal groundmass composed of plagioclase, olivine, diopsidic clinopyroxene, magnetite and ilmenite. The age of Mt. Lidgbird volcanics, which will also be the age of Lord Howe Island, is unknown, but they are considered to be early Tertiary. Paleomagnetic results from a rock sample from Mt. Lidgbird indicate a pre-Tertiary age (G. A. Dickson, personal communication). [tymis realized that no conclusion can be drawn from a single sample, but this perhaps gives some indication of age. NorTH RIDGE VOLCANICS These rocks which are much younger in age than Mt. Lidgbird volcanics contain some pyroclastic scoria and ash beds. Remnant flow structures, which give the flows a very recent appearance, are locally found in the basalts. No definite age can be given to the North Ridge volcanics, but in one location, east of Old Gulch, at the northern end of the island, the calcarenite, which is considered Pleistocene in age, has been tilted and broken and much of the calcareous material has been dissolved and redeposited as travertine. This indicates that there has been some volcanic activity, or at least some hydrothermal activity, since deposition of calcarenite. An attempt has been made to date the North Ridge volcanics on a _ geomorphological or TC. STANDARD erosional basis such as has been done on the North Island in New Zealand (Kear, 1959). While it is realized that the rate of erosion due to climatic conditions may not be exactly the same for Lord Howe Island and the North Island of New Zealand still the two areas are similar enough that the Pliocene to Pleistocene age indicated by this method appears reasonable. Flows: Dominantly alkali olivine basalts with phenocrysts of olivine, plagioclase and diopsidic clinopyroxene phenocrysts, the pro- portion of the three is extremely variable, in an intergranular or intersertal groundmass of plagioclase, olivine, diopsidic clinopyroxene, magnetite and ilmenite. Most are fine grained, many are glassy. Those with the coarser groundmass become doloritic with development of subophitic pyroxene-plagioclase intergrowths. A few basalts contain little or no olivine. Vesicles are commonly open or filled with clay and/or carbonate material. Dykes: Alkali olivine basalts. Altered olivine phenocrysts, replaced by clay and carbonate or occasionally with epidote, quartz and tremolite (?), plagioclase and _ diopsidic clinopyroxene phenocrysts in intergranular groundmass composed of plagioclase, olivine, diopsidic clinopyroxene, magnetite and ilmenite. Pyroclastic rocks: These consist entirely of fragments of glassy vesicular olivine basalt which may range in size from less than 2 mm to greater than 14 inches and which are cemented with clay or carbonate. A single fragment of sanidine trachyte was found in one rock, this being the only non-basaltic rock found. Sedimentary Rocks All of the sedimentary rocks of Lord Howe Island are Pleistocene or Recent in age. NEpD’s BEACH CALCARENITE The calcarenite which forms the bulk of the sedimentary rocks on the island is composed almost entirely of calcium carbonate. The most widespread occurrence of calcarenite is found behind Ned’s Beach where a ridge, which is up to 150 feet in height, is composed almost entirely of calcarenite. The ridge slopes to the south and the calcarenite which is found in the lagoon near Signal Point is below sea level. During the Pleistocene period when the sea level dropped 300 feet the size of the island was greatly increased and a broad flat wave-cut terrace up to 20 miles in diameter was exposed above sea level (Fig. 1). This wave-cut terrace GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND Fic. 5 View from North Ridge of older volcanic rocks of Mt. Lidgbird and Mt. Gower in distance behind lagoon. Rounded younger North Ridge volcanics of Intermediate Hill, upper left. Breakers behind Rabbit Island, central right, indicate position of coral reef. Rocks exposed in lagoon between land and Rabbit Island are calcarenite. Photo K. Gillett 111 112 J. C. STANDARD Fie. 6 View of Lord Howe Island from the top of Mt. Gower. Older Mt. Lidgbird volcanics on the right. North Ridge volcanics in distance. The coral reef, which separates the shallow water of the lagoon from the ocean, can be traced by the waves breaking on it;, Photo Ede Villa GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND supplied the calcareous material which was deposited by the wind around the base of the existing hills. The calcarenite is composed largely of frag- mental detritus from Lithothamnion (coralline algae or nullipore) and Halimeda with pulverized coral, foraminifera, fragmented mollusca shells, etc. comprising only a small portion of the total composition of the rock. Wolf and Warne (1961) tested several specimens of the Lztho- thamnion collected by the author and noted that they were high-magnesian calcite. The calcarenite is a ‘‘ sandstone ’’ comprised of calcareous grains which when viewed from a distance looks very much like a typical cross- bedded quartz sandstone found on most continents (Fig. 9). The calcarenite is aeolian in origin and vector analysis of the cross-bedding has indicated that the prominent direction of wind during time of deposition was south 10° east. On the southwestern portion of the island which was protected from the prevailing winds by the already existing North Ridge, Transit Hill, and Intermediate Hill the uniform direction of the wind was disturbed and on the lee side of the hills a greater diversification of direction of deposition of sand is noted (Fig. 9). The highest location at which calcarenite has been found is on the northeast slope of Transit Hill where outcrops are found at elevation of 250 feet, this indicates that sand dunes accumulated on the windward side of Transit Hill to a height of at least 250 feet above present sea level. The calcarenite is extremely susceptible to subaerial weathering and most of the outcrops are ‘“honeycombed ”’ and contain up to 70% pore space (Fig. 10). Vertical “‘ solution pipes ”’ which are formed by downward percolation of ground water and which have walls of redeposited calcite up to several inches thick are common (Fig. 11). The effect of subaerial weathering stops abruptly at high water mark and a single rock which is honeycombed and extremely porous above high water mark may a few inches lower, beneath a high water mark, be very solid and without noticeable porosity. At the north end of the island northeast of North Bay Beach several caves are found in the calcarenite. The largest of these is accessible only by a collapsed vertical “solution pipe ”’ which is about 3 feet in diameter and 15-20 feet deep. The area of the caves is in the drainage of North Ridge and the ground water easily flows through the extremely permeable cal- carenite until it reaches the underlying basalt ; it then flows downward along the top of the G 5] 113 basalt to the lagoon. It is in the calcarenite above the basalt contact where the largest cave, which is several hundred feet in length, has been formed. It is quite unusual to see caves formed in highly cross-bedded “ sandstone ”’ though occasionally the more typical cave appearance is found in the areas where stalactites and stalagmites are formed. Several periods of deposition are noted in the calcarenite deposits which are separated from one another by soil accumulation of several feet (Fig. 12). These soil horizons, which commonly contain fossils of bird bones and of the land snail Placostylus vibaricosus, have been found in elevation ranging from 8 feet to 65 feet. SAND DUNES The only sand dune on the island is found behind the Blinkenthorpe Beach. This dune which is appr-ximately 300 feet long and 80 feet wide is about 30 feet high and contains calcareous sand grains jhat have been blown by the prevailing wesiward winds from Blinkenthorpe Beach. The steeper lee side of the dune faces east towards the lagoon. The dune is composed of much the same material as the calcarenite and the beach sand, but the grain size 1s somewhat smaller than the beach sand. CoRAL REEF The coral reef which is found on the west side of the island is the furthest south that a true coral reef has been recorded. This reef has grown on top of a wave-cut platform, which was formed during he Pleistocene lowering of sea level and is therefore about 300 feet thick and of Pleistocene to Recent age. Coral growth is common on all sides of the island but only on the west side has a reef formed. Probably because of colder water the coral reef and the shallow water around Lord Howe Island contain a much higher percentage of Lithothamnion than do the waters around Great Barrier Reef and the cementation by the Lithothamnion is perhaps more important to the formation of the reef than that of the coral itself. Lithothamnion growth is especially notice- able at extreme low tide in the southern part of the lagoon at Lover’s Bay and Johnson’s Beach where large areas are covered with a pinkish mauve carpet of Lzthothamnion which in places form pools that resemble terraced pools such as those found in thermal springs areas (Fig. 13). These pools, which are about 2-3 feet wide and up to a foot in depth are surrounded by rims of Lzthothamnion and Lithothamnion precipitated CaCOs. J. C. STANDARD 114 (yj10u) UoO8eT puRisy aMoZ pri0oyT jo dey L “SIY ‘£g6l AINA $LOI'CH Gow HoI2PIAY 2IAID 1927 40 pasuyg 7 Oates. 2? Ree of TON ~ O00! (HLUON) NOOSY1 GNV1SI AMOH Guo7 115 GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND (yjnos) UCOSe] puris, omoZ{ psoT jo dep § “OL (QjeM M07 *MO7) ATA 298f U? JAD Eco ny YJuws yowag L\S ®@ a/Juiws t40}3}09 HOOLPT ZZ e@ fe, aypuuxoagye u0I000) > Y29eg ~~___-- XB Mook) 4? sJoAIjno Jipseg CESS HOLD) Ul SJOAIZNO I}IUdADIJOD AM AAJ2M MO? 2D pesogxa f9e1 JDAOD Ce (HLNOS) NOOSVT GNV1SI JMOH dao7 QL0L 3—?2 PHxD/E/ BM OL/ p40 GZ WO 048 Ya 72D 24? Du nOS A0f W722 DT 116 J. C. STANDARD The coral reef almost completely blocks the lagoon with only three passages existing that are suitable for boats’ passage (Figs. 7, 8). The North Passage, which is about 40 feet deep, Rabbit Island Passage which is about 30 feet deep, and Erscott’s Passage which is about 75 feet deep. These passages are very narrow and much of the large volume of water that covers the reef and fills the lagoon at high tide must pass out through these openings as the tide recedes. This produces very strong rip currents in these passages as the tide lowers and this has an effect upon the distribution and shape of the coral growth within the lagoon. The coral polyps have arranged themselves in an arch-like pattern parallel to the flow of the strongest current (Fig. 14). The coral reef acts as a breaker for storm waves that might have otherwise cut the island in half at its narrowest point, between the lagoon and Blinkenthorpe Beach, and have eroded away much of the alluvial material and much of the calcarenite. Probably because of the colder water the underwater scenery of Lord Howe Island is quite different from that of the Great Barrier Reef. Most of the Lord Howe Island reef is made up of massive type corals such as the Acropora brueggermannt and _ Gontanstrea benham. The fine branching types of coral such as the staghorn coral Acropora pulchra so commonly found on the Great Barrier Reef are almost completely missing. Much of the associated reef life, especially the mollusca, are much smaller and the amount of algae and seaweed growth is much greater. In the deeper waters, 60 to 100 feet, on the sea-side of the reef no sandy material was noted, the bottom being covered by large coral boulders and living coral growth which formed a very rugged topography with many large over- hanging ledges, caves and _ steep walled “gullies”: The tidal fluctuation of Lord Howe Island is about ro feet and except for the passages most of the reef is exposed at low tide. The top of the reef has been bevelled by wave action and is covered by dead coral; living coral is rarely found above the low tide level (Table 1). LAGOON SEDIMENTS The lagoon is extremely shallow, being an average of only about 3 feet deep at maximum low tide (Figs. 7, 8). Sandy bottom: The floor of almost the entire lagoon is covered with calcareous sand that except for the coarser grainsize is basically the of redeposited calcium carbonate developed in highly cross-bedded calcarenite Fic. 12.—Soil horizon, 34 feet thick, developed between two layers of cross- Fic. 11.—Vertical “solution pipes ”’ Fic. 9.—Highly cross-bedded calcarenite near Johnson’s Beach The direction of deposition of both upper and lower beds of calcarenite is identical bedded aeolian calcarenite. Fic. 10.—‘‘ Honeycomb ”’ weathering developed in calcarenite, Middle Beach. Note two-shilling coin for scale 117 GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND C, STANDARD J 118 JSUT | “Sytio gulseut UdgdA0 $¥ D4Feety UA 4571 out we yu ane vu+ tv ~4+r vt iiiiisilieses Vee VUt FY +H°L rut +e PI+EYYUL gGVTD Aue ‘[e109 JO SY}ZMOIS potoj}eOS [PUOISLI0O PUL PULS Y}IM PoIIAOD SPIEMO} ‘OPT} OY} FO SULIOMOT SULINP ‘SsjUSTING 9} JO MOT Su0ns oyy Aq SI UOOS] 9} JO UL0}}0q MOTTeYS oY “Avg S.toyuUNPY Ul Yoveq 1vou posnes oq 0} poAdljoq SI YZMOIS [eIOO Jo odeys yensnun sIyy, ‘TTH u10}}0q pnur xorlq & YALA [ood poyzeost ue fo ojoyd jeliee [e019 A—'‘9T ‘DIY JISULIT, WLOIF POMOSIA UOOSL] OY} UI [eIOD JO YMOIS JLIJUODDUODQ—'FT ‘OL uoose, puodAsq punoisyorq Ur SOURIJOA OSPR YON Jo ST[Ty popunoy “syooI oruwopoa Fo setqqed punoisyoeq oY} UI UOCOSL] OY} JO IOOPY OY} WLOIF SUISII OJTUDILO JO posoduioo ,, Sd}eIOULO[SUOD JUSeI ,, Ppo}PUOUIOD WOLMMBYJOYJVT— CT “OIA -[eo Jo syueUUoI ‘aptly MOT ye podojfsaop sfood wormmpyjoyzvT— gl “D1 66 seg det PREIS GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND same composition as the calcarenite, being composed primarily of coralline algae and Halimeda material with pulverized coral mollusc shells and foraminifera, etc. forming only a minor portion of the total material. The sand is much coarser near the beach in the area of wave action and becomes finer both landward and seaward. Detailed samples of the entire lagoon reveal little change in composition except that in the deeper, 40 to 70 feet, and faster moving water of the passages there is little sand size material and most of the bottom is covered with broken coral debris. The following list of foraminifera have been identified by D. A. Belford, micropalaeontologist with the Bureau of Mineral Resources, from samples collected by the author. In the beach and lagoon samples little variation was noted in the species present, but a change in the frequency of occurrence of species was noted. The wind-deposited specimens from the cal- carenite were poorly preserved. Foraminifera identified in lagoon samples : Hauerina ornatissima (Karrer) Polysegmentina circinata (Brady) Peneroplis planatus (Fichtel and Moll) Sorites marginalis (Lamarck) Marginopora vertebralis Quoy and Gaimard Pavonina flabelliformis (d’Orbigny) Sigmavirgulina tortuosa (Brady) Lagena radtato-marginata Parker and Jones Uvigerina porrecta Brady Orbulina universa d’Orbigny Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny) Globigerina subcretacea Lomnicki Pulleniatina obliquiloculata (Parker and Jones) Patellina corrugata Williamson Epistomaroides polystomelloides (Parker and Jones) Baculogypsina spherulata (Parker and Jones) Ivetomphalus bulloides (d’Orbigny) Elphidium jensent Cushman E. poeyanum (d’Orbigny) Quinqueloculina polygona da’ Orbigny Spiroloculina corrugata Cushman and Todd Triloculina tricarinata d’Orbigny Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny Reussella spinulosa (Reuss) Conorbella patelliformis (Brady) C. Pyramidalis (Heron-Allen and Earland) Tviloculina twregularus (ad Orbigny) Articulina pacifica Cushman Buliminoides williamsoniana (Brady) Siphoninordes echinatus (Brady) 119 Stphogenerina raphanus (Parker and Jones) Cymbaloporetta squammosa (d’Orbigny) Discorbis rugosus (d’Orbigny) Heterostegina suborbiculans d Orbigny Amphistegina madagascariensis d’Orbigny Ivifarina bradyt Cushman. Foraminifera identified in beach samples: Hauerina ornatissima Polysegmentina circinata Peneroplis planatus Sorites marginalis Marginopora vertebralis Pavonina flabelliformis Sigmavirgulina tortuosa Uvigerina porrecta Baculogypsina sphaerulata Tvetomphalus bulloides Elphidium jensent E. poeyanum Tviloculina tricarinata Spiroloculina corrugata Conorbella patelliformis C. pyramidalis Buliminoides williamsoniana Siphoninotdes echinatus Stphogenerina raphanus Heterostegina suborbicularis Amphistegina madagascariensis A. radiata (Fichtel and Moll) Anomalina maculosa Todd. Foraminifera identified in land samples : Amphistegina radiata Elphidium jensent. At low tide in the southern part of the lagoon, near Lover’s Bay, an unusual outcrop of “ recent conglomerate’’ was noted (Fig. 15). This “recent conglomerate ’’ is composed of sub- angular to sub-rounded fragments of igneous rocks which average about 3 inches in diameter. Upon first glance the rocks seem to be lying loose on the surface, but closer examination reveals that these rocks are completely cemented together by calcium carbonate which has been precipitated by Lithothamnion. Several rounded nodules up to I inch in diameter which were coated by lithothamnion material and which had nuclei of either igneous or sedimentary rocks were found. Black mud: Located near the northern end of the lagoon, in Hunter Bay, there is an isolated pool of water which has a depth at maximum low tide of about 12 feet and which is surrounded by water only two feet deep (Fig. 16). Due to the reducing environment which exists 120 in this nonoxygenated body of water the bottom of this pool is covered with black mud. This mud is extremely high in sulphur content, the smell of H,S being very noticeable. Small specks of syngenetic pyrite were noted in the samples collected in this location. In the 75-foot deep hole in Erscott’s Passage, which is beneath the level of the affect of tidal currents (Fig. 8), and in the sandy sediments a foot or so beneath the floor of the lagoon reducing conditions were also noted. Possible Origin of Fauna and Flora of the Island Paramonov (1959, 1960) entitled his paper on Lord Howe Island “ Riddle of the Pacific ’’. A large part of this riddle is connected with the fact that while Lord Howe Island is closer to Australia than to New Zealand a large number of plants and animals, many of which are not supposed to be able to travel over large distances of water, are more similar to New Zealand types than to Australian types. If we consider the size and distribution of the islands that existed during the lowering of sea level, 300 feet, associated with Pleistocene glaciation this does not present such a great problem. An investigation of the British Admiralty Oceanographic Chart No. 780 reveals the presence of several sea mounts 320 miles northeast of North Island, New Zealand, which were exposed during the Pleistocene lowering of sea level. These islands may have acted as stepping stones for New Zealand type fauna to migrate to both Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. With more detailed oceanographic soundings it is probable that other shallow sea mounts, which were islands during the lowering of the sea level associated with Pleistocene glaciation will be found along Lord Howe Rise and these islands may have also acted as stepping stones. Several specimens of an extinct turtle Mezolania have been found embedded in the calcarenite. Since the same species of turtle have been found in Australia, and since this turtle is thought to be a land turtle, previous workers, both biologists and _ geologists, erroneously concluded that Lord Howe Island and Australia were once connected. Recent geophysical and oceanographic work showed that no connection between Lord Howe Island and the Australian continent ever existed (Standard, 1961). Evolution during the prolonged isolation before and since the Pleistocene has probably J. C. STANDARD been responsible for the development of the large number of endemic species found on the | island. Many species, especially among the | bird population, have become entirely extinct since the island was discovered in 1788. There is no record or indication that the Polynesians or any other race of man ever lived on the island prior to 1788. Many other isolated islands throughout the Pacific probably had a similar number of endemic species prior to the coming of man. The rapid extinction of the weaker species probably occurred on many isolated islands, just as it did on Lord Howe Island, after the arrival of man but it was not recorded by the Polynesians or other native people who first settled the isolated islands. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Prof. C. E. Marshall for making the facilities of the Depart- ment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, available; the Hydrographic Office of the Royal Australian Navy and the officers and men of the HMAS Warrego and Barcoo for making available the sounding data from which the bathymetric map was compiled ; Dr. H. G. Wilshire for the assistance rendered in the study of the petrology of the igneous rocks; Mr. D. J. Belford for identifying the foraminifera; and to Mr. Jim Brown for originally stimulating my interest in Lord Howe Island. References Apams, R. D., 1962. Thickness of the earth’s crust beneath the Campbell Plateau. N.Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 5, 74-85. BropiE, J. W., 1952. Features of the sea-floor west of New Zealand. N.Z. J. Sci. Tech., 33, 373-384. Bropviz, J. W., 1958. Structural significance of sea- floor features around New Zealand. Geol. Rundschau., 47, 662-667. Dietz, R. S., AND MENARD, H. W., 1951. Origin of abrupt change in slope at continental shelf margin. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologist Bull., 35, 1994-2016. Erpy, G. A., 1957. Crustal structure “project) ) Tire Wellington Profile. Geophys. Mem., 5. N.Z. Dep. Sci. Industry. Res. E1sy, G. A., 1958. The structure of New Zealand from seismic evidence. Geol. Rundschau., 47, 647-662. Lord Howe Island, its ETHERIDGE, R., JR., 1889. Aust. zoology, geology, and physical character. Mus. Mem., 2, 1-132. Frint, R. F., 1957. “ Glacial and” “Pleistecene Geology.” New York: John Wiley and Sons, 553 pp. GEOLOGY OF LORD HOWE ISLAND Kear, D., 1959. Stratigraphy of New Zealand’s Cenozoic volcanism northwest of the volcanic belt. N.Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 2, 569-589. Kinema, J. T., 1959. The tectonic history of New Zealand. N.Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 2, 1-55. OFFICER, C. B., 1955. Southwest Pacific Crustal Structure. Tvans. Amer. Geophys. Un., 36, 449-459. Pore, E., 1959. Lord Howe Island, 141-159 in “The Great Barrier Reef and Adjacent Isles ”’ by K. Gillett and F. McNeill. Sydney, Coral Press, 194 p. PARAMONOV, S. J., 1958. Lord Howe Island, a riddle of the Pacific. Pacific Science, 12, 82-91. PARAMONOY, S. J., 1960. Lord Howe Island, a riddle of the Pacific. Part II. Pacific Science, 14, 75-85. 121 STANDARD, J. C., 1961. Tasman Sea. Bull. 1777-1788. THomson, A. A., AND Evison, F. F., 1962. Thickness of the earth’s crust in New Zealand. N.Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 5, 29-45. WILSHIRE, H. G., AND BINNS, R., 1961. Basic and ultrabasic xenoliths from volcanic rocks of New South Wales. J. Pet., 2, 185-208. Wo tr, K. H., AND WARNE, S. ST. J., 1960. Remarks on the application of Friedman’s staining methods. J. Sed. Pet., 30, 496-497. WyrRTKI, K., 1960. The surface circulation in the Coral and Tasman Seas. Aust. Com. Sci. Industyr. Res. Org. Div. Fisheries and Oceanography, Tech. Paper 8, 1-44. Submarine geology of the Geol. Soc. Amer., 72, (Received 5 June 1962) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 123-128, 1963 The History of Vulcanism in the Mullally District, New South Wales H. G. WILSHIRE* AND J. C. STANDARD Depariment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney ABSTRACT—Deeply dissected remains of an extensive volcanic field in the Mullally District consist of dolerite, alkali basalt, and minor trachyte flows and pyroclastic rocks. These were deposited on a mature erosional surface on Permian sandstones and shales, and are separated from the main Warrumbungle volcanic field, with which they are comagmatic, by a relatively high ridge of sedimentary rocks at the western margin of the area. Many trachyte and phonolite bodies occur as dome intrusions in the sediments and overlying flows, and most are independent of conduits which fed surface eruptions. Two cryptovolcanic dome structures in the sedimentary rocks are attributed to unexposed acid intrusions. Petrographically, the rocks comprise a typical alkali basalt-trachyte-phonolite province, the basic members of which contain peridotite and gabbroic xenocrystal material. discovered. Introduction Mullally is located 23 miles southwest of Gunnedah on the Oxley Highway. The most prominent volcanic features, which often rise over 1,000 feet above the surrounding flat countryside, are located west and southwest of Mullally. Neither the state geological map of New South Wales (First Edition) nor a regional study encompassing the Mullally District (Dulhunty, 1940) recorded the abundant remnants of volcanic rocks in the area described (Fig. 1), although the major physiographic features are caused almost entirely by the volcanic rocks. Brief mention of the occurrence of basalt flows and trachyte intrusions in the area was made by Kenny (1928). An area of approximately 400 sq. mi. was mapped; mapping was done on 2 inches=1 mile aerial photographs and the information transferred to an uncontrolled aerial photographic mosaic of the same scale which served as the base map. Geological Setting Sedimentary rocks in the area are composed of interbedded quartz sandstones, conglomerates, and shales. Kenny (1928) considered the sediments to be of Lower Mesozoic age, and later Dulhunty (1940) referred to them as Jurassic. However, the occurrence of Glos- sopteris and other plant fossils in many shale * Present address: United States Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado. No specific order of eruption from acid to basic lavas was units indicates a Permian age. This age is the same as that found for sediments in the Warrum- bungle Mts. (Jensen, 1907a) and in the Nandewar Mts. (Jensen, 1907b). The nature of the sediments suggests a flat, low-lying depositional environment. The volcanic rocks are identical with those of Tertiary age in the Warrumbungle Mts. and actually are part of a nearly continuous belt of volcanic rocks between the Warrumbungle Mts. and Nandewar Mts. (Fig. 1). Kenny (1928, p. 118) considered the lavas to be interbedded QUEENSLAND Nandewary ts. eaunnedah Armidale ° Warrumbungle x Mes. NEW SOUTH WALES VICTORIA gyy Mullally District Fic. 1 Location map of the Mullally District, New South Wales 124 with sediments of Lower Mesozoic age and that the trachyte plugs represent feeders to these lavas. Detailed mapping has shown this to be incorrect, and that the lava flows everywhere overlie the sediments. No definite evidence of the age of the volcanic rocks has been found, but similarity of these rocks to those of the Warrumbungle Mts. which are known to be Lower Tertiary (Jensen, 1908, p. 592), suggests the same age. The physiography of the region during vulcanism was similar to that of the present sedimentary exposures which exhibit very mild relief with broad, shallow stream channels. This is evident from the distribution of the earliest lava flows. The absence of volcanic remnants on the relatively high ridge of sedi- mentary rocks at the western margin of the area suggests that this area was a physiographic high during vulcanism. Consequently, it is believed that the aggregate thickness of volcanic rocks to the east of this ridge was not great and that erosion has not removed more than a few hundred feet (possibly less than 200 feet) of volcanic rocks since their formation. Evidence of block faulting accompanying vulcanism in the Warrumbungle Mts. (Jensen, 1907a) was not found in the Mullally District. The magnitude of dips recorded by Jensen in support of this suggestion is within the range of initial dips of cross-bedded units measured by the writers. Although subsequent erosion has considerably altered the original appearance of the terrain, it is likely that the area was covered by small coalescing cones, the largest of which was centred at Mt. Bulga (Fig. 2). This is suggested in part by the fact that most of the acid intrusions are not conduit fillings of volcanic cones but are rather isolated masses which penetrated and deformed the sediments in their presently observed sizes and forms; the tops of some are well below surrounding sediments and still others are not yet exposed. Bedded Volcanic Rocks In the northern part of the area, the first eruption formed an extensive dolerite flow ranging in thickness from 30 feet to more than 60 feet. No chilled margins were observed at the base of the flow and it is everywhere overlain by basalt. Although the coarse granularity of this rock is similar to that of nearby dolerite sills (see Wilkinson, 1958), it has evidently been erupted at the surface and filled in topographic lows of the old erosion surface. Inspection of Fig. 2 shows many places where overlying basalt flows overlap the edges of the dolerite H. G. WILSHIRE AND J. C. STANDARD so that both rest on sedimentary rocks. Both basalt and dolerite dykes occur at strati- graphically lower levels than the flow which suggests that something other than rate of cooling has conditioned grain size and that granularity is not a reliable guide to intrusive emplacement. The location of feeders to the dolerite is not definitely known, but gentle dips of the lower contact with sediments away from Mt. Ruth (Fig. 2) suggest a location in this vicinity. Accompanying the extrusion of basaltic lavas, which covered wide areas as relatively thin flows, was eruption of basaltic pyroclastics. Fragments of scoria are commonly found near the base of the basalts and rarely, as might be expected from the time available for erosion, small remnants of cinder cones are found. Several basalt intrusions of irregular form were found (Fig. 2), but from the extent of the basalt flows it seems likely that most were erupted from numerous, now buried, fissures. In the southern part of the area trachyte and phonolite eruptions occur along with basalts, for they are locally interbedded and either may rest on the sediments over short distances. In the Mt. Bulga area, probably the only sizeable volcano in the district, the earliest eruptions consist mainly of trachyte pyro- clastics (dominantly lapilli tuffs with some ash and breccia) with a few interbedded basalt flows. The younger Mt. Bulga Formation in most places stands out as a prominent ridge above the older pyroclastic rocks, and overlies the earlier basalt flows at the northernmost exposures. This unit consists dominantly of massive trachyte flows with some interbedded pyroclastic units. From their distribution, both the younger and older units were probably erupted from a crater now occupied by the Mt. Bulga phonolite dome. Among the latest eruptions are very small remnants of a remark- able porphyritic basalt (Twin Peaks type, Fig. 2). In nearby volcanic terrains it has been supposed that a consistent order of eruption from acid to basic lavas has occurred (Sussmilch and Jensen, 1909; Jensen, 1907a, 19070; Browne, 1933). In the Mullally District such a generalization does not hold and no specific order of eruption was discovered. Intrusive Rocks Intrusions of basalt and dolerite are relatively uncommon and generally are of irregular shape. Two of the basalt intrusions may have been plugs, but others of similar shape occur well — below the level of surrounding sediments and ~ TERTIARY = Ss { Ay ‘a ae ' ee HISTORY OF VULCANISM IN MULLALLY DISTRICT, N.S.W. are best referred to as small stocks rather than infillings of conduits which fed surface eruptions. The same is true of the 34 trachyte and phonolite intrusions which are, with the excep- tion of Mt. Bulga and possibly a few others, stocks or dome intrusions in sediments. Mt. Bulga is a dome intrusion within the lava sequence and, because there is no significant deformation of the bedded volcanic rocks, it is thought to have been injected into the main crater through which earlier trachytes were erupted. Elsewhere, where contact relations may be observed, the acid intrusions deform the surrounding sediments and have been intruded as masses independent of principal extrusive conduits or of conduits which were feeders to basic lavas. In one example (Ratz’s Castle, Figs. 2, 3), the acid intrusion deformed both the sediments and overlying basalt flow and acid tuffs which stand out as prominent cuestas for 2 mile from the intrusion. As the age relation- ships between such intrusions and_ the surrounding flows are so rarely determinable in New South Wales, a detailed map of Ratz’s Castle is shown in Fig. 3d. | Two cryptovolcanic structures were observed (Fig. 2) and have the form of dome structures in the sediments. That these were produced by as yet unexposed intrusions is clear from the occurrence of three other similar structures (Fig. 3) which are locally breached by trachyte intrusions. Ratz’s Castle represents a late stage in the dissection of such _ structures. Local breaching of the sedimentary dome structures also provided a clue to the cause of the unusual response of several intrusions to erosion. Some of the domes have topographically high margins and central depressions, while others are deeply incised by stream channels. This is believed to reflect an original irregular top of the intrusion as shown in Fig. 3. Most of the acid intrusions have at least locally developed flow foliations expressed in alignment of tabular feldspar crystals, flow layers represented by concentrations of pheno- crysts, and sheet joints parallel to flow foliations. These structures are best developed near the margins of intrusions and show dips between 30° and 80° towards the centre. Such structures strongly suggest a dome shape for the intrusions, a shape which is common in volcanic terrains (Williams, 1932). It is likely that the domes were fed by dykes and expanded to their present shape only when the magma approached very close to the surface of the sedimentary rocks or penetrated a thin cover of lavas. 125 Petrography BASALT All of the basalts, both intrusions and flows, are members of the alkali olivine basalt group and consist, in varying proportions, of olivine, titansalite, plagioclase, and magnetite. Minor accessories include interstitial analcite, alkali feldspar, and apatite. Amygdules filled with clay or anisotropic zeolite are common. Olivine (average composition about Fog,) is frequently partly altered to green clay which is readily oxidized to red clay by weathering. A preferred orientation of clay fibres or sheets in pseudo- morphs represents structural control of origin olivine on its alteration product (see Brown and Stephens, 1959; Gay and LeMaitre, 1961), but many occurrences were noted in which fibres had random orientation. Olivine is the only common phenocryst in basalts and also occurs as anhedral to euhedral grains in the groundmass. Plagioclase (Ans 9 ..) occurs most commonly as flow banded laths showing normal oscillatory zoning, while pyroxene and magnetite granules occupy interstitial spaces between plagioclase laths. Quartz xenocrysts with radial clinopyroxene coronas are common, and cognate basalt xenoliths are present in some flows and intrusions. More than half of the basalts studied contain xenocrystal material of peridotite origin; in basalts which might otherwise be classed as limburgites, this material makes up a significant percentage of the rock. Peridotite xenoliths as such are rare and none larger than 2 inches in diameter was found. Xenoliths show the typical signs of solid deformation described by Wilshire and Binns (1961) which consist of deformation lamellae in olivine and_ ortho- pyroxene. Marginal reactions of the component minerals include normal zoning of olivine, incongruent melting of orthopyroxene to form granular coronas, and partial fusion of clino- pyroxene to produce a spongy zone followed toward the host basalt by a newly precipitated salite rim. The fabric of some xenoliths is not strictly allotriomorphic-granular and some olivine grains have dome faces which dovetail with neighbouring olivine grains, while prismatic faces are sometimes developed adjacent to orthopyroxene grains. Both the deformational features shown by individual mineral grains and their characteristic reactions with the host rock were used to identify xenocrysts of the same origin. The occurrence in some rocks of subhedral olivine grains with deformation lamellae does not preclude an origin from peridotite as the same forms are found within 126 H. G. WILSHIRE AND J. C. STANDARD 3B Alluvium N — Alluvium B Sandstone, \ ee oy Shale, \ Conglomerate, a n - JS Conglomerate + : : N ya) De Me |ina.5 I| | “HOsden! Me.’ Foe ee Bulga Trachytes . a | lf @ Cong lomerate | i ENN Fics 3 Different stages of breaching of sedimentary dome structures by trachyte intrusions. (a) Cryptovolcanic structure, (b) partly breached structure, (c) early stage of development, (d) late stage of intrusion and dissection HISTORY OF VULCANISM IN peridotite xenoliths. The peridotite is con- sidered to be of mantle origin, and not of cognate origin as suggested by Brothers (1960). Small gabbro fragments consisting of a few interlocking grains of very spongy clinopyroxene grains and plagioclase showing strong marginal resorption and reversed zoning are rare. Although no spinel was found in the small xenoliths, some basalts contain rounded grains of turbid green spinel with opaque reaction rims. Occasionally newly precipitated magnetite has produced serrate margins on spinel xenocrysts. Twin PEAKS BASALT This rock type has a very distinctive appear- ance in hand specimen due to abundant clots of plagioclase, opaques, pyroxenes, and olivine. In thin section the host rock exclusive of large grains is seen to be olivine basalt not differing significantly from those described above. Large grains consist of spongy, anhedral clino- pyroxenes which are often in aggregates of interlocking grains, plagioclase (An,;_;3 core) with rounded cores showing undulose or very patchy extinction and serrate rims more calcic than the cores, anhedral olivines with deforma- tion lamellae, and abundant irregular or oblong, rounded opaques with serrate rims. Turbid green spinel grains were found in some sections and opaque aggregates occasionally enclose prisms of spotty grey apatite. Similar large apatites, sometimes with pink tinted rims, are sparsely scattered through the basalt. These mineral grains and aggregates are interpreted as xenocrysts derived from gabbroic rocks of deep- seated origin and are similar to constituents of xenoliths from other basic rocks of New South Wales (see Wilshire and Binns, 1961) and from the Kerguelen Archipelago. DOLERITE Dolerites consist of normally zoned olivine (average core composition about Fo. 9_,;) either in equidimensional, subhedral grains or in markedly elongate prisms, titansalite, plagioclase {Anss_¢9), Magnetite and ilmenite, and analcite. Pyroxene generally subophitically encloses plagioclase and sometimes encloses anhedral olivine grains. In severely altered rocks, plagioclase is extensively altered to alkali feldspar, interstitial analcite and anisotropic zeolites are abundant, and alteration of magnetite to leucoxene reveals octahedral exsolution lamellae. The fabric and quantity of olivine vary considerably laterally in the large MU RPA IY sDISTRICT, N.S UW. 127 dolerite flow (Fig. 2), but vertical sections in specific localities did not show conspicuous variation. TRACHYTE The dominant acid rock type, both as intrusions and flows, is trachyte, which consists largely of sanidine phenocrysts and olivine microphenocrysts set in a trachytic groundmass of sanidine laths, clusters of small aegirine or aegirine-augite and magnetite granules, analcite, anisotropic zeolites, and apatite. Badly altered plagioclase phenocrysts are present in some, and sanidine phenocrysts are frequently composite grains. Most trachytes contain elongate ageregates of aegirine and magnetite which probably pseudomorph amphibole phenocrysts though no relict amphibole was found. Large spotty grey apatite prisms are locally abundant, and aggregates of apatite prisms and anhedral Opaques are rare; these are at least super- ficially the same as xenocrysts in the Twin Peaks type basalts. In two trachytes, aegirine prisms are elongate at a high angle to flow lines in sanidine laths, but nevertheless subophitically enclose the feldspar microlites which suggests crystallization of the aegirine after cessation of movement of the magma. PHONOLITE Three of the dome intrusions, the most prominent of which is Mt. Bulga, are nepheline phonolites. Mt. Bulga rock is crudely banded with layers rich in flow banded sanidine micro- lites alternating with those rich in euhedral nepheline microlites. Sanidine phenocrysts are sporadically present, but no olivine was found in any of the phonolites. Groundmass aegirine and magnetite occur in all, and elongate aegirine ageregates after amphibole are present in two of the phonolites. It is noteworthy that tuffaceous rocks extruded from the vent now occupied by Mt. Bulga phonolite are trachytes. References BROTHERS, R. N., 1960. Olivine nodules from New Zealand. Repts. 21st Intern. Geol. Congry., Pt. 13, 68-81. Brown, G., AND STEPHENS, I., 1959. Iddingsite from New South Wales. Amer. Muneralog., 44, 251-260. BROWNE, W. R., 1933. igneous activity in New South Wales. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 67, 9-95. Dutuunty, J. A., 1940. Structural geology of the Mudgee-Gunnedah region. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 74, 88-98. Gay, P., AND’ LE MaITRE, R., 1961. Some observa- tions on ‘‘iddingsite’’. Amer. Mineralog., 46, 251-260. An account of post-Paleozoic J Proc. 128 Kenny, E. J., 1928. Geological survey of the Coona- barabran-Gunnedah district with special reference to the occurrence of subsurface water. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., 1927, 117-118. JENSEN, H. I., 1907a. The geology of the Warrum- bungle Mountains. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 557-626. JENSEN, H. I., 1907b. The geology of the Nandewar Mountains. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 842-914. JensEN, H. I., 1908. The alkaline petrographical province of Eastern Australia. Pvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 33, 589-602. H. G. WILSHIRE AND J. C. STANDARD SUSSMILCH, C. A., AND JENSEN, H. I., 1909. The geology of the Canobolas Mountains. Pyvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 157-194. WILKINSON, F. G., 1958. The pettolosy of a differentiated teschenite sill near Gunnedah, New South Wales. Amer. J. Sci., 256, 1-39. WILLIAMS, HowEL, 1932. The history and character of volcanic domes. Univ. Calif. Pub., Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci., 21, 51-146. WILSHIRE, H. G., AND Binns, R. A., 1961. Basic and ultrabasic xenoliths from volcanic rocks of New South Wales. /. Pet., 2, 185-208. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 129-132, 1963 The Palaeomagnetism of Peat’s Ridge Dolerite and Mt. Tomah Basalt G. O. Dickson Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney ABSTRACT—The palaeomagnetism of basic igneous rocks at Peat’s Ridge and Mount Tomah, N.S.W., have recently been reported by Manwaring (1963) ; after partial demagnetization in alternating magnetic fields the directions of magnetization of the specimens from Peat’s Ridge were consistent but those from Mt. Tomah remained scattered. The author has studied specimens from the same occurrences using partial theymal demagnetization techniques and has obtained results closely comparable with those of Manwaring. The unsuitability of the Mount Tomah basalt for palaeomagnetic purposes is discussed briefly. The palaeomagnetism of certain igneous rocks of the Sydney Basin was discussed by Manwaring (1963) and in particular reference was made to the fine grained olivine dolerite intrusion at Peat’s Ridge (near Gosford, N.S.W.) and the basalt flows capping Mt. Tomah (in the Blue Mountains of N.S.W.). Manwaring calculated a palaeomagnetic pole position for the specimens obtained from Peat’s Ridge and from this was able to make an estimate of the geological age of the intrusion. He was also able to show that the specimens so far collected from Mt. Tomah are unsuitable for palaeomagnetic purposes. Even after partial demagnetization in fairly high alternating magnetic fields there was very little reduction in the scatter of the magnetic vectors of these specimens. The author has been engaged in a study of thermal demagnetization of material and in the course of this study laboratory-induced magnetic moments of igneous rock and “‘ thermal washing’ or partial thermal demagnetization experiments were carried out on a number of specimens from Peat’s Ridge and Mt. Tomah. The purpose of this note is to compare the results of these experiments with those of Manwaring. Methods Employed In these experiments the specimens were progressively demagnetized by heating them in a non-inductive electric furnace, through which a supply of nitrogen was maintained, and then cooling them in magnetic field free space. The earth’s magnetic field was cancelled by passing currents through a system of large Helmholtz-type coils. The maximum magnetic field that may be left uncompensated by the coils, without resulting in a thermo-remanent moment, is readily calculated by extrapolating the TRM data of Dickson (1962) to very low fields. For specimen T5C a value of 5x108 oersteds is indicated, which is substantially larger than the uncertainty in cancellation of the earth’s field with the Helmholtz coils. However, as an additional precaution against the influence of stray laboratory fields, the Specimens were rotated continuously about a vertical axis as they cooled; it was thus impossible for a stray horizontal field to have any effect unless it fluctuated coherently with the rotation of the specimens. The magnitude and direction of magnetization of each specimen was measured before and after each individual heating with an astatic magnetometer described by S. A. A. Kazmi (unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney, 1960). It was thus possible to remove the unstable magnetization and leave only the original thermo-remanent magnetization of the rocks. Peat’s Ridge The NRM of a total of 20 specimens from five oriented samples collected by Manwaring was measured and then thermally washed in late 1961 ; all specimens were found to be reversely magnetized. The relative change in the intensity of magnetization, M,/Mo,, with rise in temperature is shown in Fig. 1 for a typical specimen from all but one sample; the curves obtained from the specimens of the remaining sample are very similar to those of Fig. 1 and only tend to confuse the diagram. Curve 3 is of particular interest as the initial rise in M,/M, is due to the removal of a relatively unstable component of magnetization. The directions of magnetization were statistically analysed using Fisher’s treatment of dispersion on a sphere (Fisher, 1953) and & is an estimate of Fisher’s precision parameter. 130 G. O. DICKSON 200 400 600 Temperature Fic. 1 The relative change in the intensity of magnetization with increase in temperature for the Peat’s Ridge specimens. Mog is the value of the NRM and MT is the value of the intensity of magnetization at temperature T TABLE I Average direction of magnetization and comparison between unwashed and thermally washed specimens from Peat’s Ridge S=number of samples; N=number of specimens; D=declination of average direction; f=inclination of the average direction; AR;—vector resultant of sample means; ARy=vector resultant of specimens; k »=within- sample precision ; kj =between-sample precision ; #9 =over-all precision ; a=half-angle of cone at 95% confidence (P=0:05) calculated from ko S: N D [ Rs Ryn hy ho Ro a IN RMS. a ae 5 20 176 +72 4-07 14-96 4 4 16 35° Demag. 1502 J 5 20 193 +71 4-98 19-86 136 161 620 56° PALAEOMAGNETISM 131 | 350-400 C e | Fic. 2 Change in the direction of magnetization of the Peat’s Ridge specimens with thermal washing There is a considerable scatter in the NRM of the individual specimens ; so much so that even the within-sample precision is very low (k,,=4), Table 1. A calculation based on the data given for the NRM in Table 1 indicates that the half-angle of the cone of confidence at the 95° level is 35°. This is larger than that reported by Manwaring and is probably due to the fact that the specimens may have been exposed to stay laboratory fields during the early stages of the investigations. However, after washing the specimens at progressively higher temperatures the scatter of the magnetiza- tion vectors was reduced. The change in the direction of magnetization with rise in temper- ature is displayed in Fig. 2 and the best agreement was observed to occur at 150° C. The results of the investigations made on Peat’s Ridge have been presented in Table 1 in exactly the same form as that used by Manwaring to allow an easy comparison of the data to be made. However, if the procedure of fet taking only the sample mean directions is used, a slightly larger value (6°) is obtained for the half-angle at the cone of 95% confidence. This is due to the fact that there is a large difference in the number of specimens used within each sample ; this would also explain the fact that the within-sample precision is a little less than the between-sample precision after washing. After thermal washing to 150° C the palaeo- magnetic pole position calculated was 66°S, 134° E; this compares very favourably with 70° S, 184° E, calculated by Manwaring. It is of further interest to note that the close agree- ment of results has been obtained by using entirely different methods of treatment ; alter- nating magnetic field ‘‘ washing ’”’ on one hand and thermal “‘ washing ’’ on the other. Mt. Tomah In the middle of 1961 the effect of thermal demagnetization was observed on the NRM of 16 specimens taken from Mt. Tomah and it was 132 noted that “‘washing’’ did not reduce the scatter of the directions of magnetization, even at fairly high temperatures. At the end of 1961 a fresh set of specimens, a total of 33 from three different sites, was collected from a new quarry face at Mt. Tomah. It was realized from previous experience that samples taken from the top ot Mt. Tomah would be unsuitable and it was thought that these later samples would be satisfactory, palaeo- magnetically. All 33 specimens were gradually demagnetized in the same way as before. The precision of specimens (two from each sample) chosen to represent their sampler, was iniilally very low, 2-3, and at no stage during dem? gnetization did this situation improve; even at 175°C the precision was only 2-5. On applying the randomness test given by Watson (1956) it is seen that the distribution of directions was random (at the 5% level of significance) both initially and at 175°C. It is not understood why there should be such a scatter in the direction of magnetization ; however it was noticed that one sample taken from a road cutting at the top of Mt. Tomah was very strongly magnetized, the average intensity of magnetization being 78-5 x10-3 emu/cm’, whereas the average for other samples taken from the same area was only 13-5 x10-3 emujem®, (“Experiments similar to + those described by Dickson (1962) showed that the TRM produced by cooling the specimens, with the high value of NRM, in 1-0 oe. was much smaller than their NRM; and assuming that the earth’s field was 0-6 oe. at the time when the original magnetization was induced, the present G. O. DICKSON NRM is approximately five times the expected value. It seems likely, therefore, that the relatively high intensity of magnetization of — this sample is due to lightning strike or possibly to some large man-made disturbances. The magnetization of the specimens from Mt. Tomah is held by a mineral phase with a fairly low Curie temperature (150°-200° C) and this has made it difficult to remove spurious effects without destroying the original magnetization. Also, as Manwaring suggested, the scatter in the direction of magnetization is probably due © to the original thermo-remanent magnetization — decaying with time leaving only randomly directed magnetizations. Therefore it must be concluded, from the existing evidence, that the Mt. Tomah basalt is unsuitable for palaeomagnetic purposes. References Dickson, G. O., 1962. tion of Igneous Rocks. 912. Dickson, G. O., 1961. Thermal Demagnetisation and Thermo-magnetic Properties of Igneous Rocks. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney. FISHER, R. A., 1953. Dispersion on a Sphere. Proc: Roy. Soc., A, 217, 295. Kazmi, S. A. A., 1960. On the Measurement of the Permanent Magnetisation of Rocks. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney. MANWARING, E. A., 1963. The Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rocks of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 96, T4ie Watson, G. S., 1956. A test for Randomness of Directions. Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophys. Suppl. 7, 160. Watson, G. S., AND IRVING, E., 1957. Statistical Methods in Rock Magnetism. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Geophys. Suppl. 7, 289. Thermoremanent Magnetisa- J. Geophys. Res., 67, (Received 30 August 1962) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 133-139, 1963 Seismic Investigations on the Foundation Conditions at the Royal Mint Site, Canberra L. V. HAWKINS School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology University of New South Wales, Kensington ABSTRACT—An example of the application of the seismic refraction method to the investigation of foundation conditions on a limited building site is presented together with a discussion on the basis of detailed analytical methods of interpretation and the evaluation of measured seismic velocities in terms of rock strength. Introduction It is proposed to publish a number of examples of seismic surveys for the investigation of foundation conditions at proposed engineering or construction sites. The first of these examples is of the Royal Mint building site on the north- eastern corner of Commonwealth Avenue and King Edward Terrace, Canberra. The seismic survey was conducted during July, 1956, for the Department of Works, Canberra, by a geophysical party of the Bureau of Mineral Resources under the leadership of the author. The survey illustrates the application of con- ventional twelve channel equipment (Century Geophysical Corp.) to investigations of small sites in busy areas. Explosive charges, placed in auger holes at depths of about five feet in sandy alluvium, were used as the source of seismic energy. Shot nets were not necessary as the depth of the buried charges reduced the noise and likelihood of damage. An unpublished record of the survey exists in the Bureau of Mineral Resources (Hawkins and_ Stocklin, 1957). Method A number of variations of the seismic refrac- tion method may be used in the investigation of the shallow subsurface conditions which are important in foundation considerations. All methods are based on the recording of the first arrival travel times of elastic waves and there is a Close similarity between the detailed methods which yield an analysis of the depth of and velocity in the buried refracting layers. recorded travel time data may be interpreted graphically by the construction of wavefront diagrams (Thornburgh, 1930 ; Hagedoorn, 1959) or more simply and rapidly by analytical methods. The analytical methods are based on the isolation of time-terms at individual shotpoint and recording stations. They involve The. some approximations not required in the graphical methods but which are acceptable under most survey conditions. For a brief explanation of the detailed analytical methods, consider the two-layer case shown in Fig. 1 in which a surface layer of seismic velocity V, overlies a bedrock layer of higher velocity V,. A shotpoint S acts asa source of seismic compressional waves which spread directly through the surface layer at the velocity V», and are critically refracted through the top of the bedrock layer at the velocity V,. The critically refracted waves travelling along the interface produce wavefronts which are returned to the surface at the critical angle 7). The wavefronts and raypaths of the waves arriving first at any point are shown in Fig. 1, together with a time-distance graph of the recorded travel times of the waves arriving first at the geophone stations placed on the surface. The slope of the segment of the time distance curve for the direct ray through the surface layer is 1/V, and for the critically refracted ray is 1/V, where V, is the apparent velocity of the refracting layer. The true velocity V, may be calculated from the apparent velocities recorded from opposite directions. The critically refracted rays arrive first at geophone stations beyond the critical distance A. These rays have accepted a time delay in travelling down to the refractor beneath the shotpoint and a further time delay in travelling from the refractor to the surface at the geophone stations. The time lost has been recovered in travelling through the higher velocity (V,) refracting layer. Each time delay is equal to the travel time for the segment of the raypath between the refractor and surface less the time saved by the lessened travel path in the refractor which results from the raypath to the surface being inclined at the critical angle %,. The 134 time-terms used in the analytical methods are of two similar types, either equal to or closely related to this time delay. The first is the time-depth which was introduced by Edge and Laby (1931) and defined by Hawkins (1961) and is equal to the time delay. In Fig. 2, the time-depth to the refractor at point G, ¢,, may be written tg=(GX/V)—PX/Vj) (1) from which the expression for the depth to the refractor along the normal to the refractor, Z, may be readily obtained. It is apparent from Fig. 2 that for the time-depth the refractor is assumed to be plane in the limited region below the geophone station G, between the points X and Y from which the TRAVEL TIME t IN MILLI- SECONDS L. V. HAWKINS Fic. 2 Ray paths in definition of time-depth recorded rays leave the refractor. This approxi- mation is not as great as for the classical time- term, the zntercept-time T,; in Fig. 1, for which the refractor is assumed to be plane over the entire length of shotpoint and geophone spread. The second time-term commonly used in the detailed analytical methods is the delay-time DISTANCE X IN FEET lmices ii The two-layer case of a surface layer of velocity V) with an underlying refracting layer of higher velocity V,. The wavefronts and ray paths of the direct or critically refracted rays arriving first at any point are shown together with the time-distance graph of travel times of the first arrival waves at the surface 135 This is The method of presented in the general form for a refractor of isolating the time-depth and the treatment of However, the nomogram refractors with multilayered overburdens will The nomogram also has application to not be discussed here. for obtaining the velocity term V,/Cos%, in velocity V,, with an overlying layer of velocity equation 2 is reproduced in Fig. 3. and. described by Hawkins (1961). The delay-time differs in the nature of the approximation made by the assumption that the refractor is horizontal The effect of dip is neglected. The Reciprocal Method which was used in SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS AT ROYAL MINT SITE, CANBERRA the survey of the Royal Mint site is based on which was introduced by Gardner (1939) at the points from which the recorded rays leave the use of the time-depth and has been fully V,,. defined by Nettleton (1940). the refractor. CACHES RSC FT YT AAR HY RO EVTS EIN 8 Ee es Ds as mee [ = = ie = a Z = ge ee LA Ae Scat Es i El ea | & = : | AP CUTTY YANNIS TT %, rT An a PRBS FTAA eT tA BANUONG ° a) 2 000! oO (o> a o> I = ao) @2 oOo aocncoo oooceo (a) oo Se eo Co o (om) 5 oOooeo SoS eo Cc oCqoca ao o:-o© e oe Svasiacs So ©o 62 Oo ON ST OWS woowmono aoqnanano0noce9aa0qacga0eo70sd So o0°0 ae rae Ge N N OM mMmMvwWTMm WO ROMAN vw wo@WO wo owMm sae UUW UW JIS/LS UI! 1So9/ A YOLIVA NOISYSANOD Hld3d n Fic. 3 Nomogram of ‘depth conversion factor’? Vjm/Cos imn for a layer of velocity V», and underlying refractor of velocity V 136 i LN 20000 L. V. HAWKINS = es at ee ae le ee ea |e “se fo oS eeeee tt Ae A Be \- Ee oatea eee RS GRERe meee ai: a age PCE CEU aes (A) GNOOAS dY3d 135d NI ALIOOTSA SIWSISS INCHx 108 (E) IN POUNDS PER SQUARE YOUNG'S MODULUS To convert millions of pounds/sq inch to dynes/sq cm multiply by 6-89 x 10! Fic. 4 Approximate empirical relation between the Young’s Modulus and the compressional wave velocity in consolidated rocks SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS AT ROYAL MINT SITE, CANBERRA cases with multilayered overburdens (Hawkins, 1961, pp. 808-809). For surveys under “ normal ’’ conditions and without drilling control, the errors in depth determinations usually expected may reasonably be stated as having an equivalent random error within +10 to 15 per cent with a possible bias within about 10 per cent of the calculated depths. The analysis of the velocities in the refractor in the Reciprocal Method is carried out by the subtraction of the time-depths from the recorded travel times at geophone stations beyond the critical distance. This removes the effect of dip and of variations in depth and/or overburden velocity. The refractor velocities may be determined directly from the slope of the corrected time-distance curves. These velocities refer to waves travelling in the plane of the refractor and in the direction of the traverse and can vary for anisotropic rocks. Velocity as a Guide to Rock Strength The accurate determination of seismic velocities is important in engineering considera- tions since the velocity is controlled by the fundamental parameters of elastic strength and density. If both shear and _ compressional waves velocities and the density are known, the dynamic elastic constants may be calculated directly from a number of well known equations (Swain, 1962). The dynamic moduli correspond to the initial tangent moduli of the stress-strain curves for an instantaneously applied load and are usually higher than those obtained in static tests. However, in the normal seismic method only the compressional wave velocities are deter- mined. The measured velocities may be evaluated qualitatively in terms of the degree of weathering and fracturing of a known rock type, Or an approximate empirical relation with rock strength may be sought. Such a relation between the compressional wave velocity (V) and the Young’s Modulus (£) is shown in Fig. 4. This was presented as a graphical relation by Brown and Robertshaw (1953) from some early and sometimes questionable results of Reich (1930). The relation has been replotted on logarithmic scales and the derived formula is i V2" x 1052 Ibisq. inch, The data used to derive this relation is not comprehensive and the application in the range of low velocity unconsolidated rocks is doubtful. 137 It has been included only as a general guide to evaluating the measured velocities in con- solidated rocks. Geology The Royal Mint site is located on the Riverside Formation which consists of calcareous shales and mudstones, fine-grained sandstones, prominent limestone lenses, tuffaceous sedi- ments, tuffs and rhyolites (Opik, 1955). This formation is part of the Canberra Group and is of Lower Silurian age. Results The locality and traverse plans of this survey are shown in Fig. 5 and the results of the seismic survey showing the calculated profiles of the weathered and unweathered bedrock are shown in Fig. 6. The seismic results show the presence of a surface layer with average seismic velocities ranging from 2,400 to 2,800 ft/sec and a thickness of 26 to 38 feet. The low velocities indicate unconsolidated material. Below the surface layer, an intermediate layer with seismic velocities of 6,000 and 8,000 ft/sec was indicated which extended to depths between 69 and 118 feet. Velocities in this range indicate weathered and/or broken rock (8,000 ft/sec) to decomposed rock (6,000 ft/sec), and this layer is interpreted as a weathered layer. A detailed depth profile of the top of this weathered layer was not requested and the depths were not determined at all stations. The layer underlying the intermediate weathered layer shows distinct areas with two velocity ranges: 8,000 to 11,500 ft/sec and 16,000 to 17,000 ft/sec. Since experience has shown that anomalous low velocity zones within the bedrock correspond with zones of shear or fracture, the lower velocity range is interpreted as weathered to partly weathered rock occurring within a zone of shear or fracture. The thickening of the weathered layer and the occurrence of the lower velocities within the weathered layer (6,000 ft/sec) over this zone support this interpretation. The postulated shear zone is indicated as low velocity bedrock in Fig. 5 with close hatching. The areas of high velocity (16,000 to 17,000 ft/sec) are interpreted as unweathered rock outside the zone of shear. The high velocities probably represent unweathered limestone lenses, but it is reasonable to assume that underlying inter- bedded sediments would also be unweathered. In Fig. 6 the intermediate weathered layer is L. V. HAWKINS 138 Cae ao te ae | y — ree op ae / vit) eae Aaa ai —— XN va Pe ae wie ! NG Y 0% , ! = | | ‘ | \007 Ve ) L A S ald 2 " = Sia V_ 3S ~ I oO —<116000?) Zi V7 TOPOGRAPHIC LEVEL CHAINAGE DEPTH TO WEATHERED BEDROCK DEPTH TO UN - DEPTH TO UN- AgATHERED BEDROCK WEATHERED BEDROCK TRAVERSE A TRAVERSE B LEGEND 7 LL Surface layer (Completely weathered or unconsolidated rock). RSS Weathered bedrock. _—_—_—= TRAVERSE B Unweathered or slightly weathered and sheared bedrock. SCALE (N FEET 100 0 100 200 300 TOPOGRAPHIC LEVEL DEPTH TO WEATHERED BEDROC DEPTH TO UN- WEATHERED BEDROCK. TRAVERSE C Fic. 6 Results of seismic survey showing calculated depths to weathered and “ unweathered ”” bedrock SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS AT ROYAL MINT SITE, CANBERRA referred to in general terms as weathered bedrock and the underlying layer of increased velocity as “ unweathered ”’ bedrock. Conclusions The seismic investigations disclose the presence of a surface layer of unconsolidated material and a thick weathered layer overlying “ un- weathered’ bedrock. The distribution of low seismic velocities in both the weathered and “unweathered ’’ bedrock layers indicates the presence of a zone of shear of fracture on the western part of the proposed site. The alternative to very deep foundations on ‘unweathered bedrock (at depths exceeding 69 feet) is the use of the weathered bedrock layer which is indicated at depths of the order of 26 to 38 feet. The measured seismic velocity in this layer outside the zone of shearing (8,000 ft/sec) indicates weathered rock, and within the zone of shearing (6,000 ft/sec) indicates very weathered to decomposed rock. Subsequent Drilling Some subsequent check drilling is available from a limited check drilling programme on the adjacent Acton Weir site, which was carried out in 1958 (Gardner, 1958). A single borehole (DDH3) was located on the proposed Royal Mint site to check the zone of shear or fracture. The approximate location is in the vicinity of stations A550 and A600. The borehole entered a zone of shearing and fracturing in which weathering of the bedrock could be expected to continue to considerable depths (Gardner, 1958, p. 6). The hole was terminated at a depth of 33 feet in soft, decomposed bedrock (siltstone) which was first encountered at a depth of 18 to 19 feet. A second borehole (DDH4) was located just off the site to the west between the Acton and Royal Mint sites, on the southern extremity of 139 the centreline traverse of the Commonwealth Avenue bridge site. The Commonwealth Avenue traverse showed the unweathered bedrock refractor at a depth of approximately 35 feet with a measured velocity of 16,000 ft/sec. This shows close agreement with the drilling which encountered hard impure limestone at a depth of 36 feet. Acknowledgements The author acknowledges with thanks the permission of the Director of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Department of National Development, and the Director of the Depart- ment of Works to publish material in this paper. References Brown, P. D., anpd ROBERTSHAW, J., 1953. The in-situ measurement of Young’s Modulus for rock by a dynamic method. Geotechnique, 3, 7, 283. EpGE, A. B., anD LaBy, T. H., 1931. The Principles and Practice of Geophysical Prospecting. Cam- bridge University Press, London. GaRDNER, D. E., 1958. Geological investigations of the weir sites at Acton and Yarralumla, Canberra, A.C.T. Bur. Min. Res. Aust., Records 1958/91 (unpublished). GARDNER, L. W., 1939. An areal plan of mapping subsurface structure by _ refraction shooting. Geophysics, 4, 247-259. Hawkins, L. V., 1961. The reciprocal method of routine shallow seismic refraction investigations. Geophysics, 26, 806-819. Hawkins, L. V., AND STOCKLIN, A., 1957. Seismic survey of the Royal Mint site, Canberra, A.C.T. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. Records 1957/33 (un- published). NETTLETON, L. L., 1940. Geophysical Prospecting for Oil. McGraw-Hill, New York. Opik, A. A., 1955. The geology of the Canberra city district. The Australian Capital Territory as a@ Region, A.N.Z.A.A.5. Reicu, H., 1930. Geologische Unterlagen der Angewandten Geophysik. Handbuch der Experi- mentalphystk, 25, 3. SwaIn, R. J., 1962. Recent techniques for deter- mination of in-situ elastic properties and measure- ment of motion amplication in layered media. Geophysics, 27, 237-238. (Received 12 June 1962) a i err ‘Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 141-151, 1963 The Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rocks of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. E. A. MANWARING Department of Geophysics, Australian National University, Canberra Introduction In the area of the Sydney Basin there are a large number of basic igneous rock bodies whose ages are defined only within wide limits. They are intruded into or extruded upon the Triassic Hawkesbury and Wianamatta Groups. These rocks are thus either Upper- or post- Triassic in age, and have generally been con- sidered as Tertiary (David, 1950). A _ palaeo- magnetic study was made of three of these rock bodies (Fig. 1) with a view to obtaining a more precise estimate of their age. (1) A dyke of porphyritic olivine dolerite at Luddenham, N.S.W. (33° 53'S, 150° 40’ E ; map ref.: 703120, Liverpool 1-mile Military, No. 422, Zone 8). (2) An intrusive (? laccolith) of fine grained Olivine dolerite at Peat’s Ridge, N.S.W. Soe 19 5, 1bl° 12’ EE; map ref.: 217805, Gosford & Norahville 1-mile Military, Nos. 410 & 411, Zone 8). (3) The basalt flow or flows capping Mt. Tomah in the Blue Mountains of N.S.W. (83° 32'S, 150° 26’E; map ref.: 415550, Katoomba 1-mile Military, No. 415, Zone 8). . This study was begun as part of an Honours thesis in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Sydney, and completed in the Department of Geophysics, Australian National University, Canberra. I wish to thank Dr. A. A. Day at Sydney, and Mr. E. Irving at Canberra, for much help and advice on this work. Methods Employed In each case, samples were distributed as evenly as possible over the total exposures of rock available. At Luddenham, exposure is restricted to three small excavations made some years ago when the rock was quarried as road metal for a short time. Seven oriented samples were taken along about 50 yards of the dyke. At Peat’s Ridge, five oriented samples were taken from different places on the working face of the road metal quarry in operation there. On Mt. Tomah, six oriented samples were taken from cuttings on a road (Bell’s Line of Road) which crosses the basalt outcrop. Between one and three cylindrical specimens (14 inches in diameter ; between 4 and 13 inches in height) were cut from each oriented sample. The intensities and directions of the natural remanent magnetization (N.R.M.) of the specimens were measured firstly on the astatic magnetometer in the Department of Geology and Geophysics, Sydney University, in 1960, and later on an astatic magnetometer in the Department of Geophysics, Australian National University, in 1961-62. The stability of the specimens was studied by demagnetization in alternating magnetic fields (Thellier and Rimbert, 1954 and 1955), using the apparatus and procedures described by Irving, Stott and Fic. l Sketch map of Sydney area—sampling sites indicated by stars 142 E. A. MANWARING TABLE 1 Average directions of magnetization and statistical data for Luddenham dolerite dyke and Peat’s Ridge dolerite intrusion S=number of samples ; N=number of specimens ; D=declination of average direction ; J =inclination of average direction ; Rs=vector resultant of sample means ; Rn=vector resultant of specimen directions ; kw=within-sample precision; ky=—between-sample precision; k g=over-all precision ; a=half-angle of cone of 95% confidence (P=0-05) Luddenham Peat’s Ridge NRM NRM Demag. NRM NRM Demag. Sydney Canberra 225 oe. Sydney Canberra 225 oe. 5 v x 7 5 5 5 | N 15 15 15 10 10 10 D 117° 117° 314° 172° 175° ier. Jé — 84° — 84° —79° +70° +66° +69° Rs 5:70 5-86 6-72 4-97 4-95 4-96 RN 12-33 12-19 14-06 9-93 9-86 9292 Rw 294 25 27 1500 147 362 kp 5 6 30 128 100 132 ko 34 36 138 614 373 558 a 24° 24° 12° 6° (ae 6° Ward (1961). The method adopted was to select a single specimen from each of a number of samples (from four to six) from each of the rock bodies ; these sets of specimens are defined dase the ss pilot. —speemens: sinesens piloc specimens were then treated in progressively stronger alternating magnetic fields, their mag- netizations being measured after each treatment. The alternating field strength (H,~) quoted is always the peak value. For each set of pilot specimens the variation of the precision of the directions with treatment was studied. The changes in the intensity of magnetization of the pilot specimens with progressive partial demagnetization are plotted as a graph of the ratio M/M, against the alternating field (H,,~), where M, is the initial (N.R.M.) intensity of the specimen, and & is the intensity remaining after treatment. The directions were analysed statistically using Fisher’s treatment of dispersion on a sphere (Fisher, 1953). The precision used is A, the estimate of Fisher’s x. In order to study the precision of the directions within- and between-samples for the same rock unit, the two-tier statistical analysis given by Watson and Irving (1957) was used. The estimated precision of the specimen directions from samples (within-samples precision) is denoted by 2,,; the between-sample precision by k,; and the over-all precision by k,. The half-angle (a) of the cone of 95° confidence is calculated from k,. This rather sophisticated analysis was carried out in order to make comparisons between the Sydney and Canberra measurements. All directions of magnetization are plotted on polar stereographic projections (Wulff net). Negative inclinations (N pole up) are plotted as circles on the upper hemisphere of the pro- jection; positive inclinations (N pole down) are plotted as dots on the lower hemisphere. Pole positions are plotted on a Lambert polar equal-area projection (Schmidt net) of the Earth’s southern hemisphere. Results from Luddenham Dyke The directions of the N.R.Me) of ‘the Luddenham specimens as measured in (a) Sydney, and (6) Canberra are plotted in Fig. 2, A comparison shows that the two separate measurements for individual specimens do not, in most cases, agree. This is_ particularly evident in the directions in the SE quadrant. A statistical comparison of the results from the two sets of readings is given in Table 1. The average direction for both sets is exactly PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SYDNEY BASIN, N.S.W. TN 143 ™N Fic. 2 Directions of magnetization of the specimens from Luddenham dyke (a) N.R.M. directions as measured in Sydney in 1960 (b) N.R.M. directions as measured in Canberra in 1961-62 (c) Directions of magnetization after treatment in an alternating magnetic field of 225 oersteds (peak) The average direction is indicated by “‘A”’ and the direction of the present Earth’s field by “F” the same, and the between-sample precision and over-all precision of each are very similar. Yet the within-sample precision is much less for the Canberra readings than for the Sydney ones. This could be due to the Canberra readings being of lower accuracy, but repeat measurements on specimens at both Sydney and Canberra give results whose standard deviation is approximately 2°, which is too small to explain the differences observed in Fig. 2. It would appear therefore that the scatter of the individual specimen directions has increased in the period of one year between measurements. This shows an instability of the magnetizations of the specimens which would be due to a randomly directed component of viscous mag- netization imposed on them during this period (the specimens were stored in random positions in the earth’s field). In Fig. 3 are plotted the changes in the directions of magnetism of the six pilot specimens as the alternating field strength was increased. The variation of the precision between the directions of these specimens is plotted in Fig.4. Itis apparent that the greatest precision is obtained after partial demagnetization in a field of 225 oersteds (peak). The other specimens from Luddenham were treated in this field, and their directions are plotted in Fig. 2 (c). The average direction and statistical data are given in Table 1. It can be seen that there is little increase in the within-sample precision, but that there is a large increase in the between- sample precision and in the over-all precision. There are two methods by which the optimum partial demagnetization field may be chosen, and it is of interest to compare them. Firstly, there is the method used above. Secondly, there is the method used by As and Zijderveld (1958), in which the changes in the directions of specimens are studied individually. These workers found that with progressive demag- netization the unstable component of magnetiza- tion diminishes and even vanishes without greatly affecting the direction of the original stable magnetization. If the unstable component 144 FE. A. MANWARING A13a@ ° 9200A8a Ada - Al2a Hic. 3 The changes in the directions of magnetization of the Luddenham pilot specimens (A4a, A8a, Al0a, Al2a and Al3a) with treatment in alternating fields The directions plotted are: (a) N.R.M.’s (o) After treatment in 75 oersteds (peak) (c) After 150 oe. (d) After 225 oe. (e) After 300 oe. (f) After 375 oe. PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SYDNEY BASIN, N.S.W. 145 1000 100 precision k standard deviation in degrees 0 100 500 900 Hp~ in oersteds Fic. 4 The variation of the precision k (Fisher, 1953) of the directions of the pilot specimens from (a) Luddenham, (b) Peat’s Ridge, and (c) Mt. Tomah, with treatment in alternating fields (Hp~). The precision & is plotted on a logarithmic scale. Also shown are the values of k at which the standard (circular) deviation (Creer, Irving and Nairn, 1959) has values as indicated on the figure. Thus the variation of this circular standard deviation with Hy~ can also be seen down Fie. 5 Vector plot of the changes in the directions of specimen Al0a with treatment in alternating fields. The vectors are plotted in the vertical plane which lies in the azimuth of 160° (true). The lengths of the vectors are proportional to the remaining intensity of magnetization after each treatment, and the angles of inclination are plotted in the vertical plane. The alternating field strengths and intensities of magnetization (M) are as follows: (a) N.R.M.; M=191x10-* enmmjce 9)/)/(0)'75.0e; M=33x10-* emu/cc; (c) 150 0e.; M=11-5x10-*emujcc ; (d) 225 oe. ; M=3-8x 10-4 emujcc ; (e) 300 0e.;5 M=2-5x 10-4 eamjce; (f) 375 oe.; M=1-9x10-* emujcc. Inset are shown the vectors c, d, e and f, to a larger scale is at some angle to the direction of the stable one, the direction of the total magnetization rotates with demagnetization, until a stage is reached where the resulting magnetization remains constant in direction and decreases in magnitude. It is then assumed that the unstable component has been completely removed, and that the constant direction obtained is that of the original, stable magnetiza- tion of the rock. The final constant directions of all the specimens are then combined to give the average result. This process of obtaining a final, relatively constant direction can be seen in Fig. 5, where the changes in direction and intensity of specimen Al10a are plotted as vectors. (A10a is the only specimen which has a sufficiently large change in direction for such a figure to be drawn.) It can be seen from this figure that the field strength chosen for treating the remainder of the Luddenham specimens (225 oe.) gives a direction which lies within the range of this final, constant direction. Thus the two methods agree in this particular case. The manner in which the intensities of magnetization (moments) of the pilot specimens change is shown in Fig. 6 by a plot of M/M, against H,~: the values of M/M, at 225 oe. are compared with the total angular change in direction of magnetization for each specimen in Table 2. It is apparent that, in a general way, the smaller the ratio—i.e. the greater the relative decrease in moment—then the less the stability—i.e. the greater the change in direction. Thus, referring to Fig. 6, specimen A10a is the least stable and specimens Al2a and Al3a the most stable. ratio M/M, Hp~ in oersteds Fic. 6 The variation of the ratio M/M, with alternating field strength (Hp~) for the Luddenham pilot specimens. WM, is the initial (N.R.M.) intensity of magnetization, and M the intensity after treatment 146 TABLE 2 Comparison of the total angular change in the divections of magnetization of the pilot specimens from Luddenham (after treatment at 225 oersteds) with the ratio of the intensity remaining (M) to the initial (N.R.M.) intensity (Mo) : M/Mo Angular Specimen (225 oe.) Change Alda 0-02 74° A8a 0-04 28° A4a 0:07 27° A9a 0-41 25° Al2a 0-43 1° Al3a 0-43 8° Results from the Peat’s Ridge Dolerite The magnetizations of the Peat’s Ridge specimens differ from the Luddenham ones in that they are all reversely magnetized (inclina- tions positive), and that the precision of their N.R.M. directions is greater. The N.R.M.’s were measured initially in Sydney, and then again in Canberra after a TN E. A. MANWARING lapse of almost two years. The two sets of directions obtained are plotted in Figs. 7 (a) and 7 (0b). The precision of the Canberra measurements is less than that of the Sydney ones (see Table 1)—the within-sample precision shows a large decrease whereas the between- sample precision remains sensibly the same. For the same reasons given before, this increased scatter of individual specimen directions is considered to be due to instability caused by a random component of viscous magnetization. Four pilot specimens were selected and treated in alternating magnetic fields. The changes in directions are shown in Fig. 8, and the variation of the precision among these specimens is shown in Fig. 4, together with the variation in circular standard deviation. The greatest precision is obtained, once again, by treatment in a field of 225 oersteds. The directions of all the Peat’s Ridge specimens after treatment are shown in Fig. 7 (c), and the average direction and statistical data are given in Table 1. In this case, the within-sample precision is increased, but does not regain the value it had ™N BIG. te Directions of magnetization of the specimens from the Peat’s Ridge intrusion (a) N.R.M. directions measured in Sydney (o) N.R.M. directions measured in Canberra (c) Directions after treatment in an alternating field of 225 oersteds PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SYDNEY BASIN, N.S.W. A23c° _A22c A20c @ A26c Fic. 8 The changes in the directions of the Peat’s Ridge pilot specimens (A20c, A22c, A28c and A26c) with treatment in alternating magnetic fields. The directions plotted are: After 225 oe. d) After 300 oe. e) After 450 oe. (f) After 750 oe. 14 148 ratio M/M, °o on Hp~ in oersteds Fic. 9 The variation of the ratio M/M, with alternating field strength (Hp~) for the Peat’s Ridge pilot specimens when the N.R.M.’s were measured in Sydney. On the other hand, the between-sample precision increased to a value slightly greater than originally. And so the over-all precision is not appreciably less than that of the Sydney measurements. It would thus seem that the greater part of the random viscous magnetiza- tion imposed in the period between the N.R.M. measurements was removed by the treatment in alternating magnetic fields. Also, since the E. A. MANWARING average direction has changed, a common and more-or-less constant unstable component has been removed from all specimens. The ratio M/M, is plotted against H,~ in Fig. 9 for the pilot specimens. Results from the Mt. Tomah Basalts Both the Sydney and Canberra measurements of the N.R.M.’s of the Mt. Tomah specimens gave a very large scatter of directions. These directions are plotted in Figs. 10 (a) and 10 (6). Six pilot specimens were selected and treated in alternating magnetic fields. The changes in their directions are shown in Fig. 11, and the variation of the precision of these directions is shown in Fig. 4. The precision remains very low at all stages of the treatment. There is no optimum treatment field indicated by the curve in Fig. 4, as was the case for both Luddenham and Peat’s Ridge, and so the remainder of the specimens were not treated at all. The variation of M/M, for Mt. Tomah is plotted in Fig. 12, and shows a very swift decrease in the intensities of the pilot specimens (compare with Figs. 6 and 9). On applying the randomness test of Watson (1956) to the directions obtained from the pilot specimens during treatment, it was found that the distribution of directions was random (at the 5% level of significance) initially and at all stages of the treatment. The ratio k/Rgig (Rsig 18s the minimum value of & for the distribu- tion of directions to be significant, as calculated from the tables of the significance points of R given by Watson) varied between 0:7 and 0-5. The cause of this wide scatter is not known, Fic. 10 Directions of magnetization of the specimens from the Mt. Tomah basalts (a) N.R.M. directions as measured in Sydney (6) N.R.M. directions as measured in Canberra PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SYDNEY BASIN, N.S.W. OAl6e3 . o. OA27c. A28d Fie. 11 The changes in the directions of magnetization of the Mt. Tomah pilot specimens (Al4a, Al5b, Al6e3, A27c, A28d and A29a) with treatment in alternating magnetic fields. The directions plotted are: (a) N.R.M.’s (ob) After treatment in 75 oersteds (peak) (c) After 150 oe. (d) After 300 oe. (e) After 450 oe. (f) After 600 oe. 149 150 0 200 400 600 Hp~ in oersteds Fie. 12 The variation of the ratio M/M, with alternating field strength (Hp~) for the Mt. Tomah pilot specimens but it is clearly not due to viscous components of magnetization or to lightning strikes alone, as these would be removed at least partially by the treatment. It could possibly be due to the original thermo-remanent magnetization decaying away completely with time, leaving only randomly directed magnetizations behind. Discussion The directions of magnetization of Luddenham and Peat’s Ridge after treatment in an alternat- ing magnetic field of 225 oersteds (peak) are stable, and their average directions may be considered to be coincident with the directions of the geomagnetic field at the time these bodies cooled. For a comparison between these, and for comparison with the results obtained by other workers on similar bodies, pole positions were calculated from these average directions, assuming the earth’s field to be a geocentric dipole. A comparison of pole positions eliminates differences caused by differences in the geo- graphic positions of sampling sites. Some error is most probably present in the pole positions calculated, since the secular variation of the earth’s field is probably not averaged out in the samples taken, due to the comparative E. A. MANWARING shortness of the time the bodies would take to cool. The Luddenham and Peat’s Ridge southern — hemisphere pole positions are given in Table 3, together with the poles of those rock bodies with which they are compared. Also given in this table are the ages of four of these bodies as determined by radio-isotopic means (McDougall, 1961 ; Evernden and Richards, 1962). oo to 9(s) (say), the Mellin transform of f(x). Also (2) fx, a) =(1/27) | __ Hels) converges in the mean square over (0, 00) to f(x) almost everywhere. In addition the Parseval formula @) [> feo Parmayem [| ot-tin pa holds. The Paley-Wiener Theorem (Boas, 1954, p. 103) can be written in the form The entire function 9(w) is of exponential type a and belongs to L? on the real axis, if and only if (4) o(w) = { * yeo—1f x) dee where f(x) belongs to L? (e—-4, e*). In this modified form the Paley-Wiener Theorem states a necessary and sufficient condition for a function to have a Mellin image which is an entire function of exponential type a. This suggests that we should examine the Mellin transform of an entire function. However, it will be found profitable to assume that f(x) is analytic only in a neighbourhood of the origin. 1. In this section we will prove the theorem. Theorem A In order that (a) flx)= 3 a,x", x0 as |t|—+o; (iv) p(s—a)—>¢(s) in the mean square as «>0-+, where s=4-+it¢ ; (v) In Rew<0O when w=(m-+3)e, rRew (1), | m—O|>e | p(w) |= for all 70o, where ¢ may be chosen arbitrarily small ; Proof We note immediately that in order for the theorem to be meaningful (5) lim | a, |-W"0 as a«>0-+. We now extend the definition of f(x). Let f(z)= 4 a2" for | z| a,vet"!(w+n). n=0 Now put w=(m-+4)e®, Rew<0, m a non-negative integer. Thus | ex(w) | <(rim+9 <0 0/(m-+-) sin 8) © | a, | 7 when | Im w|<#, | z—0|>e, ini (11a) =f 7 C0200) (l) as m—>oo. Also | ex(w) |<2rm+neore Y | a, | when | Im w|<4, | z—0|oo, with | z—0|0 as | w |oo (Titchmarsh, 1939, §10.73). Provided that | sin 6 |>¢, the convergence is uniform with regard to both # and 9. We have thus proved that when | sin 0 |>e, (12a) | a(t) | =r! les ®o(1) as | w |—oo. When | sin 8| 0 and f(x, 8) =im(1/2n) { x-S¢(s—B)dt. MELLIN TRANSFORMS 157 There will be a subsequence of the {m}, such that the integrals will converge to the right sides almost everywhere. Denote the elements of this sequence by {m}. Now consider the integral | x—-*o(w)dw taken around the rectangle with sides Re w=4—a, Rew=}$—6, Imw=-+m. Then let m—>oo and use (ill). There are no singularities inside the contour and the contributions from the upper and lower sides vanish. Thus xf, (%, «) =xPfo(x, B), which shows that for 00. An analogous procedure shows that the contribution J, from the arc in the third quadrant also vanishes as m—>oo. By assumption (ili) the contribution from the arcs of the circle between Re w=0 and Re w=4—« also vanishes as m-—>00. Hence (17) lim am) | 4 S*¢o(S—a)ai— Do ax. n=0 m— 0 = But we know from our results consequent on equation (16) that if we restrict x to lie between 0 and R, then Lim(t/2x) 4-8—9(s—a)dt=x-“f (x). m—> 00 = 770 Thus when x a,x which was required. Suppose that in the theorem in Section 2, f(z) were an entire function, 1.e. the R in (a) would be replaced by oo. It is easily seen that the proof will hold in this case. So we have Corollary The Theorem A of Section 2 holds when all reference to R is deleted. 4, This section will show a situation in which the Mellin transform is continued to the right. By a simple change of variable we see that a O(S) 1 lem xs—1f(x)dx ao” la tim 4 -S(x (1 / x) ax a>od i/a Then noting that 1—s=4—11, a (19) ©,(S) =1.1.m HS1(4 f/x) ax. a>o, lfa where (19a) $1(s) =9(1—S). Also 20) [> fee Perm] | aap lr. 0 0 We further assume that f(x) is analytic at oo, that is to say (21) fla)—= ZS b,x-"-1, x>1/U, n=0 which means that (21a) BG EG == 2) O28", x1/U and that (b) f(x) pees to?) (0, co); it is necessary and sufficient that there should exist a g(w) with the following properties : (i) @(w) is meromorphic in the half plane Re w> 3; (ii) the poles of o(w) in Re w>} are all simple and can only lie at the points w=n (n=1, 2,. . .) with residue —byj41; (iii) o(w)=o(u-+72) as a function of ¢ belongs to L? (—oo, o0) for $0-+, where s=}-+7; (v) In Rew>1 when w=1+(m-+$)e*, u-Rewo(1), | O|>e = Re? O) 4 '0| =e uniformly in 0 as | w |->0o, where ¢ may be chosen arbitrarily small ; (vi) o(s) is the Mellin transform of /(%). We close this section with the note that if f(x) is analytic in a neighbourhood of the origin and a neighbourhood of oo, as well as belonging to L? on the x-axis. Then sola fef Jenne is analytic in the strip 0R and /,(x)=0 for x0, 9,(s—8) is the Mellin transform of x—®/,(x). From what has been said at the end of Section 4, 9,(w) is analytic along a strip enclosing the line Re w=. It is also obvious that x—*/,(x) belongs to L1 (0, 00). We can then simplify the work by using the L1-theory (Titchmarsh, 1937, Th. 28), that is to say, by using lim ayn) | %-S@(s)at—f, (x) (except possibly when x=). | Take the integral (1/277){x-*’gp(w)dw around the rectangle with sides Rew=3—8 (m+4 CO —= 91 n=O ™m In other words, the Mellin transform of x-8(fA(v)— & a,x”) is p(s—f). Combining the results 0 for f,(x) and f(x) we obtain the n= 160 JAMES L. GRIFFITH Corollary If f(x) satisfies the assumptions of the theorem in Section 2, then for m+4<8 b,x-"-1), n=0 References Boas, R. P., 1954. Entire Functions. Academic TitTcHMarRsH, E. C., 1937. Fourier Integrals. Oxford. Press, New York. TITCHMARSH, E. C., 1939. Theory of Functions. DUFFIN, Ky J., AND SCHAEFFER; ~D. “H., 1960: Oxford. Asymptotic Expansions of Double Fourier Trans- GOLDBERG, R. R., 1961. Fourier Transforms. Cam- forms. Duke Math. J., 2 7, 581. bridge Math. Tracts, No. 52. (Received 9 April 1962) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 96, pp. 161-161, 1963 The Nature of Light Propagation J. E. ROMAIN General Dynamics Corp., Fort Worth, Texas In a series of three papers published in this Journal, S. J. Prokhovnik (1960, 1961) has proposed an unconventional approach to the problem of length and time measurements in inertial frames. His argument leads namely to “the inequality of the out and return paths of a light-ray travelling between observers in relative motion’’. He concludes his third paper, going by the same title as above, by stating that special relativity involves a contra- diction in that respect, and that only his system is free of such a contradiction. Although I do not wish to discuss Prokhovnik’s general argument, I would like to make it clear that the alleged contradiction is not present in special relativity. Indeed, Figs. 2 and 3 in B Fic. 1. (Note : The axes labelled X , and Xz should be interchanged) Prokhovnik’s third paper are _ inconclusive because they disregard the difference between the time setups in the two inertial frames, as expressed by the Lorentz transformation. The proper graphic way to describe motion phenomena in special relativity is by a space- time diagram. The attached figure is the relevant space-time diagram that should replace Prokhovnik’s Fig. 2; t4 and tg mean the times, as measured from A’s and B’s systems, of the successive reflections FR? of the light ray on two perfect mirrors A and B6 in relative uniform motion in the direction of propagation of the light ray. The following equalities appear immediately : tt ta a tp—th—ta—te; tp—tp—lp—tp;... Likewise, the out and return paths RR? and R?R3, or R?R* and R*R®, are equal when measured from A’s reference frame, while the paths R?R? and R?R*4, etc., are equal for B. But the latter paths are not equal for A, and indeed no one would expect them to be. The same diagram also replaces Prokhovnik’s Fig. 3 because it actually puts both observers on the same footing since, as is well known, the actual perpendicularity of space and time axes in a Minkowski diagram is physically meaning- less; the only meaningful property (Min- kowskian orthogonality) is that the x,- and t,-axes are conjugate with respect to the light cone, as are the x,- and ¢,-axes. A similar diagram can be sketched from the point of view of a third observer, with respect to which A and B have equal and opposite velocities. It would be similar to Prokhovnik’s Fig. 1, tilted 90° counterclockwise. But the times of reflection would be the squares of those shown by that author. That suggests another experimental check of Prokhovnik’s system against the conventional special relativity. References PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1960. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 93, 141; 94, 109. PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1961. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.., 95, 35. (Received 18 June 1962) Annual Reports by the President and the Council PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 4, 1962 The President’s Report The activities of the year have been described in the Council’s statement. There are a few _ personal comments I wish to add. Firstly, in comparison with 1947—-when I joined this Society—finances, and attendances at meetings, are now much healthier. We certainly should thank our Treasurer, his predecessors and previous Councils for avoiding the bankruptcy which seemed inevitable 14 years ago. Regarding attendances, the average per meeting is gratifying from one point of view. Numerically it represents about a fifth of the membership, but we must remember that a considerable number of guests and visitors, who are non-members, are included in the monthly attendance figures. During 1961, you approved certain amendments to our Rules whereby Associates and Students could join us at reduced annual subscriptions. JI invite non-members present tonight to consider whether they could not take advantage of these changes, and I ask members to give the Society their strongest support in recruitment to all the grades. Secondly, it seems to me that the future role of this Society is today much clearer than formerly. Is it not to be a common meeting ground for scientists and other thoughtful people from all disciplines ? Specialist bodies now exist and cater for their own specialists. Could not one aim be explicitly to become the “‘ Royal Institution ’’ of Sydney ? No such centre for general lectures—‘‘ popular science ’’ lectures in the best sense of the word—has yet emerged in Sydney. Here, I submit, is an opportunity for the R.S.N.S.W. Following this thought, I hope that future Councils will consider the appropriateness of our continuing to maintain the Library and Journal in their present forms, now that other libraries have grown up in this city and that other specialist journals exist in Australia. Both these activities are heavy monetary drains and prevent us lowering our subscriptions. The Journal particularly is unattractive in its contents already to many members, and to non- members it cannot appear as an inducement to join us. Having witnessed the recent death of the “‘ Australian Scientist ’’, I wonder whether it would not be a service to science for us to contemplate filling the gap by printing all lectures given before the Society, and attempting to sell the Journal in the open market at a price suitably calculated to make membership with receipt of the Journal financially worthwhile ? Thirdly, I want to express gratitude to Mr. H. A. J. Donegan (immediate Past President), to Mr. J. L. Griffith, Dr. A. A. Day, Mr. C. L. Adamson, Mr. W. H.G. Poggendorff, and all of the Council, for the generous and self-sacrificing ways they have devoted their times and energies to the Society during the past year, and for the help and kindnesses they have given me per- sonally. Every officer knows that behind the scenes is Miss M. Ogle, and I am only one more President J that has learned that he can depend on her experience, knowledge, and action at all times; it is a pleasure to make this public acknowledgment. R. J. W. Le Fevre, President. Report of the Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1962 Presented at the Annual and General Monthly Meeting of the Society held 4th April, 1962, in accordance with Rule XXVI. At the end of the period under review the composition of the membership was 348 members, 21 associate members and 9 honorary members ; 38 new members were elected (28 being members of the New England Branch) and two members were reinstated. Eight members and one associate member resigned and two names were removed from the list of members under Rule XVIII. It is with extreme regret that we announce the loss by death of three very senior members of the Society : Mr. A. E. Stephen (elected 1916), Mr. R. Vicais (elected 1920), Mr. M. F. Albert (elected 1935). At the General Monthly Meeting held 2nd August, motions regarding alterations to the Rules of the Society were adopted. Such alterations dealt mainly with categories of membership. The full text of the motions is contained in the Abstract of Proceedings of the meeting held on 6th September. Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts of all addresses have been printed on the notice papers. The proceedings of these meetings will appear later in the issue of the “‘ Journal and Proceedings’’. The members of the Council wish to express their sincere thanks and appreciation to the eight speakers who contributed to the success of these meetings, the attendances at which were most gratifying, the average being 62. The Annual Social Function was held on 20th March at the Sydney University Staff Club and was attended by 60 members and guests. The Council has approved of the following awards : The Clarke Medal for 1962 (for Zoology) to Professor H. Waring, D.Sc., F.A.A., of Western Australia. The Society’s Medal for 1961 to Dr. A. Bolliger of Sydney University. The James Cook Medal for 1961 to Sir John Eccles, It. Phil eR S.A A. OL Canberra’. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1961 to Dr. R. O. Slatyer of Canberra. The Archibald D. Ollé Bailey, ‘D:Phil., F A.A. The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1961 entitled ‘‘ Our Permian Heritage in Central-Eastern New South Wales ’’ was delivered by Dr. J. A. Dulhunty, of the Prize to Professor V. A. 164 Geology Department, University of Sydney. This lecture will be published in a forthcoming issue of the “Journal and Proceedings ”’. The Society has again received a grant from the Government of New South Wales, the amount being £750. The Government’s interest in the work of the Society is much appreciated. The Society’s financial statement shows a deficit of £195 13s. 8d. The deficit was due in some measure to a large decrease in the returns from Science House. The New England Branch of the Society met six times during the year and the proceedings of the Branch follow. Mr. H. A. J. Donegan represented the President at the Commemoration of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell and at the Official Opening of the New Laboratories of the Division of Science Services of the Department of Agriculture, Rydalmere. The President attended the Annual Meeting of the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory and the Official Opening of the Stony Range Floral Reserve. On 27th July, the President and the Honorary Secretary waited on His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales. The President and the Honorary Secretary were present at the ceremony held in the Mitchell and Dixson Libraries on 15th February to mark the publica- tion of the Journal of Sir Joseph Banks. They also represented the Society at the Official Opening of the Medical/Health Physics Building at the Australian Atomic Energy Commission Research Establishment at Lucas Heights on 23rd March. We congratulate Professor Elkin, who has been awarded the first Herbert E. Gregory Medal by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. He has also been made the first Honorary Life Member of the Pacific Science Association. We also congratulate Professor K. E. Bullen, F.R.S., F.A.A., on the award of the William Bowie Medal of the American Geophysical Union and the American Meteorological Society. The Society’s representatives on the Science House Management Committee were Mr. H. A. J. Donegan and Mr. C. L. Adamson. Seven parts of the “ Journal and FProceedings’’ have been published during the year. These parts contain 28 papers. In the volume just completed (Vol. 95) 23 papers were published. The numbers for previous volumes were: Vol. 91 (1957-8), 19; 92, 23; 93, 15; 94, 16. Average yearly numbers of papers published for five yearly periods since Volume 51 (1917) have been : 1917-1922 20-4 1942-1947 .. 26-0 1922-1927 27-0 1947-1952 .. 34-6 1927-1932 20-0 1952-1957 .. 19-2 1932-1937 27-8 1957-1962 .. 19-2 1937-1942 .. 32-4 Total over 45 years: 1,133 papers. Circulation (in round figures): Exchange, 400; Members, 360; subscriptions, 90. The order of cost of publication for papers in the main fields we have covered lately has been : Mathematics £40-60 Chemistry .. £50-— 100 Astronomy £10-30 Geology . £80-— 200 Physics £40-70 Geophysics £20- 60 Relativity £30-50. The Section of Geology held five meetings, and abstracts of the proceedings will be published later. ANNUAL REPORTS Council held eleven ordinary meetings and attendance — was as follows: Prof. R. J. W. Le Fevre 9; Mr. H. A. J. Donegan 8; Mr. A. F. A. Harper 10; Mrs. K. M. Sherrard 9; Mr. Harley Wood 7; Mr. J. & Griffith 11; Dr. Alan A. Day 10; Mr. C. L. Adamson 9; Dr. Ida A. Browne 10; Father A. G. Fynn 8; Dr. N. A. Gibson 6; Mr. J. W. Humphries 9; Dr. A. H. Low 2; Dr. P. D. F.’Murray"P Mie ws A. Gs Poggendorff 9; Mr. G. H. Slade 5; A/Prof. W. B| Smith-White 9; Mr. N. W. West 8. The Library. Periodicals were received by exchange from 399 societies and institutions. In addition the amount of £101 was expended on the purchase of 11 periodicals. During the year Mrs. R. Huntley resigned from the position of Assistant Librarian. She has been replaced by Mr. A. F. Day, who commenced duty on 26th March. Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library loan scheme were: N.S.W. Govt. Depts—Department of Agriculture, Botanic Gardens, Conservation Department, Joint Coal Board, Forestry Commission, Department of Health, Soil Conservation Service, Sydney County Council, Maritime Services Board, M.W.S. & D. Board, Division of Wood Technology. Commonwealth Govt. Depts—C.S.1.R.O._ Library, Canberra; Chemical Mesearch Laboratories, Mel- bourne; Coal Research Section, Sydney; Division of Food Preservation, Ryde; Division of Plant Industry, Canberra; Division of Protein Chemistry, Victoria; National Standards Laboratory, Sydney ; Division of Animal Physiology, Prospect; Division of Textile Physics, Ryde ; Division of Tropical Pastures, Brisbane; Australian Atomic Energy Commission ; Commonwealth Acoustics Laboratory ; Commonwealth Department of Works ; Forestry and Timber Bureau ; Department of Civil Aviation ; Commonwealth Office of Education; Postmaster-General Engineering Library. Universities and Colleges—Sydney Technical College ; Newcastle University College; Australian National University ; University of Sydney; University of New England; University of New South Wales; University of Queensland; Waite Agricultural Re- search Institute, University of Adelaide ; University of Tasmania; University of Western Australia. Companies—Australian Consolidated Industries ; Austral Bronze Co. _Ltd.; A: WA id) =) eywas Bergers ; B.H.P. Co. Ltd. ; Wm. Cooper & Nephews ; C.S.R. Co. Ltd. ; James Hardie & Co) ira Johnson & Johnson; Lysaght Ltd.; Mauri Bros. & Thomson Pty. Ltd. ; Mount Isa Mines Ltd.; Parke Davis & Co. Ltd.; Polymer Corporation; Reichhold Chemicals ; S.T.C. Ltd. ; Unilever"Ltd.; -~Union Carbide ‘Go, Ctd= W.D. & H. O. Wills Ltd. Research Institute—N.S.W. Cancer Council. Museums and Public Libravies—The Australian Museum; W.A. Library Board. J. L. GriFFitH, Honorary Secretary. The Honorary Treasurer’s Report The Society this year has recorded a deficit of £195 13s. 8d. As the publication of a short report from the Honorary Treasurer is a new departure it might be well to review the state of the Society’s finances over the past ten years. In 1952 the deficit was £736 and the assets £31,922. Since that year there have been iii ANNUAL REPORTS two years which recorded surpluses and, in general, the deficits have been at a much reduced rate so that from the lowest recorded value of assets in 1955 of £31,067 they have now risen to £31,868—almost the figure of 1952. Some details of this vear’s balance sheet might be mentioned. Certain changes have been made in the form of presentation of the Journal expenditure and revenue. These aspects have been consolidated as shown, so that the actual cost of the Journal is now readily seen in the expenditure column. It might also be mentioned that last year another change was made. This was in the presentation of 165 Science House accounts. In previous years the income from Science House was expressed as a surplus after deduction of the Society’s rent. In 1961 the Society’s share of income appeared in the income account while all rents paid appeared in the expenditure account. This is the reason for the large apparent discrepancies between the 1960 and 1961 figures. This is the first year for some time that there has been no income from sale of unwanted material from the library and also no publication grant from any source was received. Last year income from these combined sources amounted to £349. C. L. ADAMSON, Hon. Tvreasurer. Financial Statement BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1962 LIABILITIES 1961 £ SFG: £ Si ds 42 Subscriptions Paid in Advance = 33 «1 6 Life Members’ Subscriptions — Amount “carried 167 forward a 104 2 O Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— Clarke Memorial 1942 2 2 Walter Burfitt Prize 1170 8 7 Liversidge Bequest : 736 4 5 Monograph Capital Fund 4,562 6 11 Ollé Bequest : 169 7 1 8,324 8,580 9 2 23,211 Accumulated Funds .. mA 23,021 14 3 100 Employees’ Long Service Leave Fund Provision .. 129 10 O Contingent Liability (in connection with Per- petual Lease). £31,844 £31,868 16 11 ASSETS 998 Cash at Bank and in Hand .. 1019 5 5 Investments— Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock— At Face Value—held for: Clarke Memorial Fund : 1,800 0 O Walter Burfitt Prize Fund 1,000 0 0O Liversidge Bequest .. 700 0 O Monograph Capital Fund 3,000 0 0 General Purposes 1,960 0 0 8,460 8,460 0 O 100 Fixed Deposit—Long Service Leave Fund 129 10 0 Debtors for Subscriptions .. ae ce 52 16 0 Less Reserve for Bad Debts 52 16 0 14,835 Science House—One-third Capital Cost 14,8385 4 4 6,800 Library—At Valuation rae 6,800 0 0 Furniture and Office Equipment—At Cost, less 634 Depreciation : 609 2 8 16 Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation ; 4 14 14 6 1 Lantern—At Cost, less Depreciation i a 1 0 0 £31,844 £31,868 16 11 166 ANNUAL REPORTS TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS Walter Monograph Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Capital Ollé Memorial Prize Bequest Fund Bequest £ Sead | 2 Ss. de 8 Sa ad. eee S$: ede £ Jotsmrd: Capital at 28th February, 1962 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0 700 0 O- 3,000 0 O — Revenue— Balance at 28th February, 1961 .. a ae 108 10 4 12973" 7% 7 FT _ 4&4 1,420 mS eo alse Income for twelve months Aw ao) A: AV oF Oe Shit 140 18 9 42 5 6 182 15:8 170 8 °-%. 36 4. 5 . 1,562 G2 290 Less Expenditure sae 40 13 6 — -— —- SUELO GO Balance at 28th February, 1962 .. : £142 2 2 £170 8 7 £36 4 5 £1,562 6st cio ACCUMULATED FUNDS £ Ss. id: £ ee al Balance at 28th February, 1961 .. AE oe Zon eer Add— Transfer from Provision for Life Members’ Subscriptions .. a ae te 55 13 0 Transfer from Subscriptions Received .. 6 6 0 23, aie eel Less— Increase in Reserve for Bad Debts .. 1115 8 Transfer to Long Service Leave Fund Provision a ae ne ee soe 8) Bad Debts, Written off .. ane vo A818 “0 Deficit for twelve months Fe ol So ks 8 257 tee: £23,021 14 3 Auditors’ Report The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position of the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1962, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered. HORLEY & HORLEY, Chartered Accountants, Prudential Building, Registered under the Public Accountants 39 Martin Place, Sydney, Registration Act 1945, as amended. 27th March, 1962. (Sgd.) C. L. ADAMSON, Honorary Treasurer. 987 167 1,084 + 1,310 38 £4,381 1961 844 9 750 2,196 7 87 199 150 139 £4,381 ANNUAL REPORTS INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT Ist MARCH, 1961, to 28th FEBRUARY, 1962 Advertising Annual Social Function PAUL os Branches of the Society Cleaning Depreciation Electricity ' Entertainment Insurance Library Purchases Miscellaneous Postages and Telegrams Printing Journal— Vol. 94, Parts 5-6 Binding .. 7 Vol. 95, Parts 1-4 Reprints Postages Adjustment—Subscriptions (to Journal) : Less— Sale of Reprints Subscriptions (to Journal) , Back Numbers Donation to Refund Postages Printing—General Rent—Science House Management Repairs Salaries Telephone Membership Subscriptions Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions Government Subsidy Science House Management—Share of Surplus - Annual Social Function Interest on General Investments Sale of Periodicals ex the Library Publication Grant Deficit for twelve months POCO oP eo SS) ,263 19 7 697 OU 195 16 991 14 9 16 1,401 16 41 15 £4,081 16 SoeS: 934 10 1.4 750 O 2,087 18 106 6 195 13 £4,081 16 SaHooonooonn & == laa! ay — — im) oooo: Phe SH AOAaNW = Obituary Michael Francois Albert was elected to membership of the Society in 1935 and was for many years engaged in music publication. Alfred Ernest Stephen, a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales since 1916, was the son of Ernest Farish Stephen and the grandson of Sir Alfred Stephen, Lieutenant Governor and Chief Justice of New South Wales from 1844 to 1873. Alfred Ernest Stephen was born in 1879 at Newtown, Sydney. He was educated at Sydney Grammar School and trained as an analytical chemist at the Sydney Technical College. He assayed the first samples of phosphate rock to reach Sydney from Nauru and Ocean Island. His interest in the phosphate deposits of the Pacific Islands and Chile continued and he travelled extensively among the Pacific Islands on this business and served in London on a Chilean Nitrate Commission and in Sydney as Manager for Nitrate Propaganda. He was also assayer for Lachlan Gold- fields at Forbes and for the Great Cobar Copper Mines in 1907. - Through his mother, he was descended from James Taylor, who first tried to apply steam power to ships at Loch Dalswinton, Ayrshire, in 1788. He also had wide interests in the early history of Australia and at various times filled the positions of President and Honorary Secretary of the Royal Australian Historical Society. He died on 25th November, 1961. Robert Vicars was born in Rockhampton, Queens- land, in 1867. His parents came from Scotland in the early 1860's. He was associated with John Vicars & Co. Limited for about 75 years. The company was originally a partnership, and when in 1914 it was converted to a limited liability company he became joint Governing Director with his brother Sir William Vicars. This continued until the death of Sir William in 1940, and Robert Vicars remained Governing Director until 1947, when he relinquished that position but remained a Director of the company until his death. He was for a number of years a Director of the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney Limited, Bonds Industries Ltd., and Carpet Manufacturers Ltd. Outside his business he was Trustee of Sydney Grammar School and a member of the Councils of the Presbyterian Ladies’ Colleges, Croydon and Pymble. He was elected to membership of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1921. Members of the Society, April, 1962 A list of members of the Society up to 1st April, 1961, is included in Volume 95. During the year ended 31st March, 1962, the following were elected to membership of the Society. ANNISON, Ernest Frank, Ph.D., F.R.I.S., Senior Lecturer in Chemical Pathology, School of Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale. BAGNALL, Mary, M.A. (Melb.), Mary White College, University of New England, Armidale. BEAVIS, Margaret, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 2/94 Beach street, Coogee. BLUNT, Michael Hugh, M.R.C.V.S:, Veterinary Surgeon, 185 Markham Street, Armidale. BURNS, Bruce Bertram, B.D.S., Dentist, P.O. Box 60, Armidale. BULLAND: Gilbert James, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.GS., Professor of Geography, University of New England, Armidale. COALSTAD, Stanton Ernest, B.Sc., Chemist, 54 Bridge Street, Sydney. DAVIS, Gwenda Louise, B.Sc., Ph.D., A/Professor, Department of Botany, University of New England. DAVIS, Iain Horwood, Department of Geography, University of New England. ENGEL, Brian Adolph, M.Sc., Geology Department, Newcastle University College, Tighe’s Hill, 2N. FAYLE, Rex Dennes Harris, Dip.Pharmacy, Pharma- ceutical Chemist, 141 Jeffrey Street, Armidale. PP LerHER Neville Horner, B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., Department of Physics, University of New England, Armidale. GHEES, “Edward _Thomas, M:Sc., Ph.D., _D.I.C., IK. E.S.,, senior Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale. GRANT, John N. G., Dip.Eng., Billong Court, Billong Avenue, Vaucluse. GUTSCHE, Herbert William, B.Sc., Geology Depart- ment, University of New England, Armidale. IZSAK, Dennis, 5 Ormonde Gardens, Coogee. IPACISSON, © Robert). James, M.A. (Q’ld.), Ch.M. (Syd.), 132 Faulkner Street, Armidale. LANDECKER, Kurt, D.Ing. (Berlin), Department of Physics, University of New England. LEAVER, Gaynor Eiluned, B.Sc. (Wales), (Lond.), 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga. Metallurgical MB: EtG:s. McCLYMONT, Gordon Lee, B.V.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale. McMAHON, Barry Keys, B.Sc., Island Bend, N.S.W. MORGAN, Jascha Ann, M.Sc., Department of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale. O’FARRELL, Antony Frederick Louis, A.R.C.S., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale. PLUMMER, Brian Alfred George, M.A., F.GS., Department of Geography, University of New England, Armidale. PRIEST Y. john Henry, Mobs Bis. Bsc, lor Dangar Street, Armidale. RIGGS, Noel Victor, B.Sc. (Adel.), Ph.D. (Cantab.), F.R.A.C.I., A/Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of New England, Armidale. ROBERTS, John, B.Sc.Hons., Geology Department, University of Western Australia, Nedlands. ROYLE, Harold George, M.B., B.S. (Syd.), 161 Rusden Street, Armidale. RYDER, Michael Lawson, M.Sc., 183 Markham Street, Armidale. SOURRY, Charles, Zoology Department, University of New England, Armidale. SPIIZER, Hans, r. Phil. (Vienna), Senior Kesearch: Chemist, Monsanto Chemicals (Aust.) Ltd., Rozelle. p.r. 35 Redan Street, Mosman. STOCK, Alexander, D.Phil., Ph.D., A/Professor of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale. STOKES, Robert Harold, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.A.A., 45 Garibaldi Street, Armidale. TAYLOR, Nathaniel Wesley, M.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (N.E.), Department of Mathematics, University of New England, Armidale. TISHER: Richard Paul) Mose, Dip.Ed:, Lecturer sm Physics, Teachers’ College, Armidale. WILKINSON, John Frederick George, M.Sc. (Q’Id.), Ph.D. (Cantab.), A/Professor of Geology, Uni- versity of New England, Armidale. WRIGHT, Anthony James, B.Sc., Department of Geology, University of Sydney. YEATES, Neil Tolmie McRae, D.Sc.Agr. (Q’Id.), Ph.D. (Cantab.), A/Professor of Livestock Husbandry, University of New England, Armidale. Ph D,, MU Biol; The following member having returned from abroad was reinstated : CHURCHWARD, John Gordon, boc er, Phi: 6 Kareela Road, Chatswood. 170 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY During the same period resignations were received from the following : Bolt, Barbara (Associate) Bunch, Kenneth Craig, David Parker Knight, Oscar Le Maistre Lawrence, Peter Maze, William Harold Meggitt, Mervyn John Reuter, Fritz Henry Smith, Eric Brian Jeffcoat and the following names were removed from the lst of members under Rule XVIII: Burrows, Keith Meredith ; Murray, James Kenneth. Medals, 1961 1962 1961 1961 1961 1961 Obituary, 1961-62 Alfred Ernest STEPHEN (1916) Robert VICARS (1920) Michael Frank ALBERT (1935) Memorial Lectureships and Prizes James Cook Medal Sir? John Eccles; Xt.) DPhil RS. ae Clarke Medal Horace Waring, D.Sc., F.A.A. (Zoology) The Society’s Medal Adolph Bolliger, D.Sc. (Biochemistry) Edgeworth David Medal Ralph Owen Slatyer, D.Sc.Agr. Clarke Memorial Lectureship John Allan Dulhunty, D.Sc. Archibald D. Ollé Prize Victor Albert Bailey, D.Phil., F.A.A. Recipients of Society Awards, 1962 Sir John Carew Eccles, M.B., B.S., M.A., D.Phil., Piece 2 a R.o.N.Z., B.A-A., F.R.S., Professor and Head of the Department of Physiology, Australian National University—the James Cook Medal. For 30 years the main aim of Eccles’ work has been to provide a complete account of the processes which occur at the junctions between one nerve cell and another. Using physical and electronic techniques of great delicacy and refinement, together with imagination, experimental ingenuity, enthusiasm and_ sustained energy beyond the ordinary, he has made the cellular mechanisms of the neurone accessible to precise analytical study. His laboratory in Canberra, through its achievements under his inspiration and leadership, has acquired the reputation of being in the forefront of neurophysio- logical effort in the world. The researches of Eccles, described in many papers, are summarized in two books, ‘“‘ The Neurophysiological Basis of Mind ”’ (1952) and ‘‘ The Physiology of Nerve Cells’’ (1957). They have placed the study of the central nervous system on an entirely new plane. Professor Horace Waring, F.A.A., Department of Zoology, University of Western Australia—the Clarke Medal. Professor H. Waring came to Australia in 1949 to the Chair of Zoology in the University of Western Australia. Prior to this, he was Acting Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. Since coming to Australia, he has built up a very active research school in Western Australia, with the emphasis on the physiology and ecology of Australian marsupials. He himself has published a number of outstanding papers on this research, and his associated colleagues have published extensively. I think it can be said that as a result of Professor Waring’s enthusiasm, insight and skill, it can no longer be said that Australian zoologists do not study their own distinctive marsupial fauna. The emphasis of the physiological studies has been on nutrition, endocrinology and reproductive physiology. The emphasis of the ecological studies has been an original one of using physiological health as an indicator of environmental stress. The work is centred on the Rottnest Wallaby, but has included quite a wide range of marsupials. The work has brought international acclaim, both to Professor Waring and his school. Professor Waring has published 39 papers on chromatophores in amphibia and fishes, reproductive physiology and endocrinology (especially the hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary) of a variety of vertebrates, nutrition of marsupials and marsupial ecology. He has made a most distinguished con- tribution to the natural sciences in Australia. Adolph Bolliger, D.Sc., Director Gordon Craig Research Laboratory, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney—the Society’s Medal. Dr. Bolliger has worked as Director of the Gordon Craig Research Laboratory since 1929. During a long and active life in basic research he has investigated many chemical problems, notably those concerned with Keratin Chemistry. To the Royal Society of New South Wales he is perhaps best known for his important contributions to the literature and study of Australian marsupial animals, on some aspects of which he is undoubtedly among the foremost world authorities. He has been a Member of this Society since 1933, has served on its Council, and was President in 1945. Ralph Owen Slatyer, D.Sc.Agr., C.S.I.R.O., Canberra—The Edgeworth David Medal. Dr. Slatyer’s papers on plant-soil-water relations have provided a more fundamental and dynamic basis for interpreting plant responses to soil and atmospheric stresses. This has led to a more basic understanding of the effects of water stress on plant growth and of the factors affecting the availability of soil water to plants. Victor Albert Bailey, D.Phil, F.A.A.—the Archibald D. Ollé Prize, which is awarded each year for what is adjudged the best scientific contribution to the Society during the year. The Ollé Prize has been awarded to Professor V. A. Bailey for his paper entitled ‘‘ Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and ‘Neutral’ Elementary Particles ’’. In this paper Professor Bailey sets out in detail for the first time a hypothesis of considerable originality which is both stimulating and intriguing with far- reaching implications in astrophysics and cosmology. Professor Bailey has a long record of major contribu- tions in diverse fields of science and this, his latest contribution, if fully proven, would rank as his most notable. Abstract of Proceedings, 1961 5th April, 1961 The ninety-fourth Annual and seven hundred and sixty-fourth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan, was in the chair. Sixty-one members and visitors were present. Stanton Ernest Coalstad and Barry Keys McMahon were elected members of the Society. The following awards of the Society were announced : The Society’s Medal for 1960: Professor T. Griffith Taylor, DSc, (ALA. The Clarke Medal for 1961: Mr. C. A. Gardner. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1960: Professor R. D. Brown. the Archibald D.:OUe Prize: MryHG. Golding: The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial Statement were presented and adopted. Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected as Auditors of the Society for 1961-62. Office-bearers for 1961-62 were elected as follows: President: ik... le Peyme. DSce Maks. bakes Waice-Presidents:: VE. A. ]- Donegan M-Sc,, vale eA: Harper, MSc., Kathleen IM: “Sherrard, (MSc; Harley Wood, M.Sc. Hon.) Sectetaries: jj, “IL. Grifaith, BrAe MeSes Alan A. Day, B:sc. (Syd); PhD. (Cantab.). Hon. Treasurer: C. L. Adamson, B.Sc. Members of Council: Ida A. Browne, D.Sc., A. G. Kynny i Bisc, mine eA] “Gibson; -*PhaDe |e Ww. Humphries, (BSc; Ay He Low, M.se. PF. sir Murray, (Disc5. baAck., WH. G. Porsendori, B.Sc.Agr., G. H. Slade, B.Sc., W. B. Smith-White, M.A., N. W. West, B.Sc. (The: retiring, “President, Mr, EH. A. J Donegan; delivered his Presidential Address entitled ‘“‘ Chemistry and the Mining Industry ’’. At the conclusion of the meeting the retiring President welcomed Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., to the Presidential Chair. 3rd May, 1961 The seven hundred and sixty-fifth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. Fifty-four members and visitors were present. An address entitled ‘“‘ The Indians of the Andes ’”’ was given by Dr. E. R. Tichauer, of the University of New South Wales. 7th June, 1961 The seven hundred and sixty-sixth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. Firty-two members and visitors were present. John N. G. Grant, Mary Bagnall, Gilbert James Butland, Herbert William Gutsche, Robert James Jackson, Gordon Lee McClymont, Anthony F. L. O’Farrell, John Henry Priestley, Michael Lawson Ryder, Charles Sourry, and Robert Harold Stokes were elected members of the Society. It was reported that at its meeting on 5th May the New England Branch had elected the following officers for 1962-63 : Chairman: . Dr. P. D: Fo Muang secretary: Dr. R. UL. Stanton Committee: N. K. Fletcher, [eo seiescley Ie Ryder, N. W. Taylor, RK. Visher: An address entitled ‘“‘ Advances in Radio Astronomy ”’ was given by Dr. B. Y. Mills, Chatterton Astronomy Department, School of Physics, the University of Sydney. The address was illustrated with sldes. 5th July, 1961 The six hundred and sixty-seventh General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre; F--S., F.A.A., was in the chair. Forty-five members and visitors were present. The following were elected members of the Society Iain Horwood Davis, Neville Horner Fletcher, Kurt Landecker, Jascha Ann Morgan, Brian Alfred George Plummer, Noel Victor Riggs, Nathaniel Wesley Taylor. Notice of Motions : The Hon. Secretary gave notice that at the next General Monthly Meeting the following motions would be put: 1. That Rule 8b should be deleted and replaced by— 8b Council, on the nomination on a prescribed form of certificate of one member of the Society, may admit as an associate a person under twenty-seven (27) years of age who does not desire to receive the Journal and Pro- ceedings. 8c Council, on the nomination of a prescribed form of certificate of one member of the Society, may admit as a junior member (i) an undergraduate attending a course for his/her first degree at a university or technical college, (ii) any other person under twenty- one years of age. 8d Council, on the nomination on a prescribed form of certificate of one member of the Society, may admit as a family member any close relative of an ordinary member. An associate, junior member or family member shall not be a member. Such persons shall have the privileges of a member except that he/she may not vote, sign the Obligation Book, receive the Journal and Proceedings, or hold executive office. That Rule 9, subscriptions, paragraph 1, should be replaced by the following : Ordinary member- ship, £3 3s.; Absentee membership, £2 2s. ; Associate fee, £1 1s.; Junior and Family fee, 10s. 6d. ee ABS PRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 173 2. That Rule 9, paragraph 2, dealing with life membership, should be deleted and that the subscription for life membership should be determined by a formula which gives the present value of thirty-five annual subscriptions. An address entitled ‘‘ Forestry in New South Wales ”’ was delivered by Mr. J. L. Henry, of the Forestry Commission of New South Wales. 2nd August, 1961 The six hundred and sixty-eighth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. There were present forty members and visitors. The following were elected members of the Society : Margaret Beavis and Gaynor Eiluned Leaver. The following motions were carried : 1. That Rule 8b should be replaced by— 8b Council, on a prescribed form of certificate of one member of the Society, may admit as an associate (i) a person under 27 years of age who does not desire to receive the Journal and Proceedings; (ii) an undergraduate attending a course for his/her first degree or its equivalent at a university or technical college; (iii) a close relative of an ordinary member; (iv) any other person under 2] years of age. An associate shall not be a member. An associate shall have the privileges of a member except that he/she may not vote, sign the Obligation Book, receive the Journal and Proceedings, or hold executive office. That Rule 9, subscriptions, paragraph 1, should be replaced by the following : Ordinary membership Absentee membership Associate fees : category 1 be ats ad | categories 2, 3 and 4 .. 2. That Rule 9, paragraph 2, dealing with Life membership, should be deleted and replaced by— “The subscription for Life membership shall be determined by a formula which gives the present value of thirty-five annual subscriptions.’’ An address entitled ‘‘ Whale Research and _ its Relation to Whaling’’ was delivered by Mr. W. H. Dawbin, of the Department of Zoology, the University of Sydney. 6th September, 1961 The six hundred and sixty-ninth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A.,. was in the chair. There were present 62 members and visitors. The following were elected members of the Society : Ernest Frank Annison, Michael Hugh Blunt, Bruce Bertram Burns, Gwenda Louise Davis, Brian Adolph Engel, Rex Dennes Harris Fayle, Edward Thomas Giles, Alexander Stock, Richard Paul Tisher, John Frederick George Wilkinson, Anthony James Wright and Neil Tolmie McRae Yeates. Alterations to the Rules carried at the meeting held 2nd August, 1961, and quoted in the Proceedings of that meeting, were confirmed. An address entitled ‘‘ The Search for New Drugs ”’ was delivered by Professor R. H. Thorp, of the Depart- ment of Pharmacology, the University of Sydney. 4th October, 1961 The six hundred and seventieth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. There were present 75 members and visitors. Members were informed that there are certain numbers of the Journal and Proceedings of the Society which are now out of print or of which we have only very few copies. These are: Volumes 76, 78, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91. Since overseas and Australian libraries periodically request complete sets of the Journal and Proceedings, it is most regrettable that incomplete sets must be sent. If members have copies for which they no longer have use, we would be very grateful to have them retuned torthe Society. An address entitled ‘“‘ Changing Concepts in Human Cancer’’ was delivered by Dr. Kenneth W. Starr, Honorary Director, New South Wales State Cancer Council. 1st November, 1961 The six hundred and seventy-first General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F-R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. There were present 100 members and visitors. The following were elected members of the Society : Dennis Izsak, John Roberts and Hans Spitzer. An address entitled ‘‘ Developments in Knowledge of the Planet Earth ’’ was delivered by Professor K. E. Bullen, F.R.S., F.A.A., of the Department of Applied Mathematics, the University of Sydney. 6th December, 1961 The seven hundred and seventy-second General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, F.R.S., F.A.A., was in the chair. Sixty-five members and visitors were present. Harold George Royle was elected a member of the Society. An address entitled ‘“‘The Evolution of Modern Cardio-Vascular Surgery ”’ was delivered by Mr. Rowan Nicks, of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Medical Centre, Newtown. Annual Report of the New England Branch of the Royal Society of New South Wales The first meeting of the Branch was held at the University of New England on Friday, 24th March. 1961. Just over 120 people attended and heard the Inaugural Address, ‘“‘ The Planet Earth’’, delivered by Professor K, E. Bullen, F.R-S. At a meeting on 5th May, 1961, the first formal business of the Branch was transacted, and the following officers elected : Chaiaman:, 2: D. ES Murray. Secretary. ix. 12. Stanton Committee 2 Ni... sbletcher- i]. ie, Priestly. M. L. Ryder, N. W. Taylor, R. Tisher. During the year six meetings were held, as follows : 24th March—Professor K. E. Bullen, F.R.S.: Inaugural Address, ‘‘ The Planet Earth ’’. 5th May—Associate Professor N. T. M. Yeates: “Seasonal light changes and their effect on animal functions ’’. 22nd May—Sir Rudolph Peters, F.R.S.: “‘ Biochemical lesions ’’. Ist July—Sir Alister Hardy, studies in the North Sea’’. 29th September—Professor J. M. Somerville: “‘ An outline of research in the Physics Department, University of New England ’’. FURS... ~~ Plankton 17th October—Professor C. TT. Watson-Munro : “ Prospects of thermo-nuclear power ’’. The Royal Society of New South Wales New England Branch Balance Particulars Grant, parent Society .. Cost of meetings : Interest on bank account Cheque, parent Society Refund of Assoc. to D. Jj. Cameron Vand Busbridge of Exchange Credit Balance Membership Sheet Debit Credit £ 'S) ad: Cees wae Do. OI 50 AL 1G. 6 1l Po 6 Ne x L. 20 6 8-7, 9. 26. 8,5 18 0 8 £26. 87 b' £26) 8 2b R. L. STANTON, Hon. Secretary. Section of Geology Cuanman ; iL, E. Koch, Dr.Phil.Habil.; Hon. Sec.: H. G. Golding, M.Sc., A.R.C:S. Abstract of Proceedings, 1961 Five meetings were held during the year 1961. Average attendance was 17 members and visitors. MARCH 17th (Annual Meeting). Election of office-bearers : Dr. L. E. Koch was re-elected Chairman and Mr. H. G. Golding was re-elected Honorary Secretary of the Section. (1) Notes and Exhibits: Professor L. J. Lawrence reported on ‘blooming in sphalerite’’. — Polished sections of ore from Webb’s Silver Mine near Emmaville developed blue-grey patches, believed to be films of goslarite, on exposure. He also showed slides of a recently discovered recumbent anticline or large slump structure, in Hawkesbury Sandstone, at Dobroyd Reserve near Seaforth. Mr. H. G. Golding exhibited fulgurites collected by Mr. G. E. Gabriel and himself south of Port Macquarie, root-concretions from Avalon dunes, and specimens of jaspilites collected by Dr. Markham and himself from the Middleback Ranges, South Australia. Mrs. K. Sherrard paid a tribute to the late Miss Elles and noted the recent discovery of Ordovician graptolites near Parkes. (2\Addvess: . Whe Teschenites of # Eastern Australia’’, by Dr. W. R. Browne. Dr. Browne referred to the teschenites which have been noted at intervals from the Ipswich district (Q’ld.) to north- western Tasmania, most known occurrences being in New South Wales. Some intrusions have ultrabasic differentiates and some are accompanied by alkaline syenites. J. Lawrence exhibited well-crystallized grossularite overgrowing a grossularite crystal of slightly different crystal habit, the specimen being from Duckmaloi, New South Wales. (2) Address : ““ The Application of Phase Equilibrium Studies to Problems of Ore Genesis’’, by Dr. N. L. Markham. Dr. Markham noted that phase equilibrium studies involving metallic sulphides, sulphosalts and related minerals aimed at the elucidation of prevailing temperature-pressure-composition parameters during the formation of sulphide ores, provided evidence as to the extent to which chemical equilibrium has been reached in a natural system, explained the common occurrence of certain mineral assemblages and textures and, ultimately, are of the greatest importance in discussions of ore genesis. The stability field of a sulphide mineral or assemblage may be considered a function of temperature, pressure and partial pressure of sulphur. The systems Cu-S, Fe-S and Cu-Fe-S were then briefly reviewed. Mutual solubility of one sulphide mineral in another as a function of temper- ature, the best example being that of the FeS-ZnS system, and high-temperature phase transitions offered the best hope for future advance. JOLY 2\st (1) Dr. Ie. &. Koch exhibited a pair of Chinese sun-glasses purchased in Shanghai in 1898, consisting of two plane discs of smoky quartz mounted in a metal frame, the former being cut from a crystal in a plane approximately normal to its optic axis, and showing cracks and flaws and a patchy distribution of the brownish pigment. (2) Addvess: ‘‘ Fractionation of Tin in Natural Silicate Systems ’’, by Mr. J. Rattigan. Mr. Rattigan, after describing the granites associated with tin in the Australian tin provinces, pointed out that field, petro- graphic and chemical data show that the “‘ tin granites ”’ are magmatic products. Variation diagrams of the Larson and Nockholds type suggest that only magmas which have fractionated to produce significant volumes of residual magma, corresponding in composition with melts at the thermal minima of the synthetic Q-Or-Ab system, show an association with tin. JReasons for the association of tin with “tin granites’’ were suggested in terms of the trace content of tin in mineral structures. Wa Tk SEPTEMBER 15th: (1) Exhibits: Dr- Browne exhibited a specimen of Banded “ Billy ’’ or ‘““ Greybilly ’’ sent to him by Dr. Jones, probably from the Beaudesert area. The rock probably underlies basalt and the banding suggests a Liesegang effect. Dr. A. Carter exhibited specimens of Tentaculites from Buchan, Victoria, and from ‘“‘ Shearsby’s Wall- paper ’’, Taemas, N.S.W. Mr. H. G. Golding exhibited violarite-bearing ore and sulphide-impregnated asbestos from Goobaragandra, N.S.W., serpentinite coated with malachite and chrysocolla on shear planes, and micro- stylolitic picrolite both from the Brungle district, N.S.W., and chromite veined with pink chrome clinochlore and chromite coated with hyalite both from Mount Lightning, N.S.W. Dr. Koch exhibited specimens of shale breccia collected during the excava- tion for the Warragamba Dam foundation site in 1954, and showing exfoliation of contorted, finely laminated shale fragments, with sand (now lithified to sand- stone)—intimately interfingering with the exfoliated shale laminae. He also showed kodachromes of calyx bore cores which have since perished by exfoliation. (2) Address: ‘“‘ The Stratigraphic Value of Two Enigmas: Graptolites and Tentaculites’’, by Mrs. K. Sherrard. Mrs. Sherrard referred to the value of graptolites and of tentaculites as Index Fossils despite doubt as to their zoological status. Dendroidea found in Poland show a relation to Rhabdopleura as elucidated by Kozlowski. Bulman follows Kozlowski, but some American workers would place the Graptoloidea among the Bryozoa. Tentaculites as well as Hyolithes, Styliolina and Conularia have been placed among the 176 Pteropoda, but Pteropods are not certainly known before the Mesozoic and differ from Tentaculites in shell characters. Recent French and Russian workers have erected new Moluscan classes to hold Tentaculites, etc. Some workers placed Tentaculites among the Polychaeta, a view supported by the frequent occur- rence, in Silurian and Devonian strata, of Scolecodonts. However, present day tube-building worms, excepting Onuphis, do not possess jaws, nor are their tubes so regular as those of Tentaculites. NOVEMBER lth: (1) Note and Exhibit by Dr. Koch : Dr. Koch spoke of the co-deposition of mica, graphite and plant debris, frequently found together in paper-thin layers, in Hawkesbury Sandstone. A tentative working hypothesis proposed for the co- incident deposition of the above particles invoked the combined action of saltation, flotation by reason of a specific gravity lower than that of water, and the SECTION OF GEOLOGY flotation of flaky minerals due to colloidal clay and organic matter acting as flotation agents. Experiments to test the hypotheses were envisaged. (2) Address: “A Geologist in the WWeserr*. by Dr. F. W. Booker. Dr. Booker spoke on his recent travels in Syria, illustrating his remarks with a series of outstanding colour slides. These included views of the rugged lmestone mountain, stony desert and oil-field country, telephotos of snowcapped Lebanon and shots of the Rift Valley System along the Jordan River. He also showed a series of archaeological subjects of exceptional interest including the Roman ruins at Baalbek, various Mohammedan shrines on the sites of former Christian churches, and other famous historical locations. H. G. GOLDING, Honorary Secretary, Section of Geology. Aerodynamics and Aeronautics : Two-Dimensional Slotted Wind Tunnels, On the Theory of. By A. H. Low Lawrence Hargrave—An Appreciation. By W. Hudson Shaw ae <. Astronomy : Minor Planets Observed at Sydney mabe during 1961. By W. H. Robertson Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1961. By K. P. Sims ; Authors of Papers : Abbott, M., G. A. Joplin, R. Rudowski and— Zircons in some Granites from North-Western Queensland Conolly, J. R.—Upper Devowan Sieatipraplty, “al Sedimentation in the sie aes eae District, N.S.W. Crook, K. A. W.—A Net on Seaeerpiical Seer eae Zones and Time-Rock Stages Dickson, G. O.—The ata oeetewetea of Pee S Ridge Dolerite and Mount Tomah Basalt Griffith, J. L—On Mellin Transforms of Functions Analytic in the Neighbourhood of the Origin. . Hawkins, L. V.—Seismic Investigations on the Foundation Conditions at the ee Mint Site, Canberra : Hellyer, R. O., J. L. Willis, H. Ee G. Moker an The Volatile Oils of the Genus Eucalyptus (Fam. SO eed 1. Factors pada the Problem .. Hiigi, Th., and ye De [athe Geochemistry of Some Swiss Granites Z Joplin, Germaine A., R. Rudowski and M. Ret Zircons in some Granites from North-Western Queensland Jordan, D. O.—Nucleic eae RHer Sats: and Function .. PevRevre, Ky. W- ae Ome and Scienpic Problems of the late Twentieth Century Low, A. H.—On the pate of Two-Dimensional Slotted Wind Tunnels - McKern, H. H.G., R. O. Hele Je L. Willis or ae The Volatile Oils of the Genus Eucalyptus (Fam. eae 1. Factors affecting the Problem . ; ye Manwaring, E. A. othe Eaieeoriienetarn of Some Igneous Rocks of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.. Robertson, W. H.—Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1961 . Romain, J. E.—The Nature of Light Propagation Rudowski, R., M. Abbott, G. A. Joplin and— Zircons in some Granites from North-Western Queensland Shaw, W. H.— eamrenee: | Hargrave os ae Ap. preciation INDEX 17 31 37 39 47 161 Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Bea Observatory during 1961 Standard, J. C—Geology of Lord Howe ital Standard, J. C., H. G. Wilshire and—The Petry of Vulcanism in the Mullally District, N.S.W. Swaine, D. J., Th. Hiigi and—The Cees of Some Swiss Granites Willis, J. L., H. H. G. McKern and R. O. peters! The Volatile Oils of the Genus Eucalyptus (Fam. ay gaan 1. Factors eae | the Problem: .. Wilshire, H. G., and J. G: Standard sone retont of Vulcanism in the Mullally District, N.S.W. Chemistry : Nucleic Acids, their Structure and Function. By D. O. Jordan Some Chemical and Scientific Deb Tes of the res Twentieth Century. Presidential Address Oy R. J. W. Le Feévre The Volatile Oils of the Genus ie aeaty pts (ham Myrtaceae). 1. Factors affecting the Problem. By J. L. Wills, H. H. G. McKern and R. O. Hellyer : ‘ Geochemistry : The Geochemistry of some Swiss Granites. Th. Hiigi and D. J. Swaine .. By Geology : Lord Howe Island, Geology of. By J. C. Standard Mullally District, N.S.W., History of Vulcanism im the. (iy bl G. Wilshire and de: Standard Es ; Stratigraphical Nomenclatare — Biermann Zones and Time-Rock ace A Note on. By K. A. W. Crook +. Wellington-Molong District, NS.W,, sane Devonian Stratigraphy and Sedimentation in the. By J. R. Conolly Zircons in some Granites from North- Wess Queensland. By Germaine A. Joa Re Rudowski and M. Abbott is Geophysics : Palaeomagnetism of Peat’s Ridge Dolerite and Mt. Tomah Basalt, The. By G. O. Dickson... Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rocks of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. By E. A. Manwaring Seismic Investigations on the Foundation Con- ditions at the Royal Mint Site, Canberra. By L. V. Hawkins Mathematics : Mellin Transforms of Functions Analytic in the Neighbourhood of the Sica On. By J.'L. Griffith es a : 39 47 15 73 129 141 . 133 . 153 178 Proceedings of the Society : Abstract of Proceedings, 1961. Annual Reports by the President Ande Coameit 1961-62 : Clarke Medal for 1962, Award ae Cook Medal for 1961, Award of Edgeworth David Medal for 1961, Award 5 Financial Statement for 1961-62 Geology, Section of, Report for 1961 Journal and Proceedings, Statistics on Library. Report for 1961 Liversidge Research Lecture, 1962 Medals, Memorial Lectureships and Prizes aeantied by the Society. Supplementary List of INDEX 172 163 .. 163 2. 163 . 163 eet HGS . 175 .. 164 . 164 39 5 a Members of the Society, April, 1962: a ee mentary List of New England Branch, Annual Report af, Obituary, 1961 se Bt Officers of the Society for 1962- 63 Ollé Prize for 1961, Award of Presidential Address Recipients of Society els 1962 Science House Management Committee, eociey Representatives on Me oi ae Society’s Medal for 1961, Award of Relativity : The Nature of ee ees Byane Romain i sts L6L Supplement to Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Volume 96, Parts 2-6, 1963 ERRATA “The Zonal Distribution of Australian Graptolites ’, by D. E. Thomas, Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Volume 94, Part 1, 1960, pp. 1-58 base 1, column 2, line 8: For “ Archaeolafoeia’’, vead ‘ Archaeolafoea ’’. Page 15, near bottom column 1: | For “‘Samphire No. 1 Bore”, vead ““Goldwyer No. 1 Bore’”’. For “ Goldwyer No. 1 Bore”’, vead “‘Samphire No. 1 Bore ’”’. Page 21, Literature Cited: In Harris and Thomas, 1955, reference should read Ibid., 5, part 5, p. 35. Page 39, Bibliography references : No. 153 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 1, pt. 1, pp. 64-67. No. 155 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 1, pt. 2, pp. 70-81. No. 157 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 1, pt. 3, pp. 62-72. Page 40, Bibliography references : No. 176 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 3, pt. 3, p. 43. No. 178 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 3, pt. 5, p. 52. No. 186 should read J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 85, p. 127. No. 191 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 5, pt. 3, p. 34. No. 192 should read J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 87, p. 73. No. 194 should read Min. and Geol. J. Vic., 5, pt. 6, p. 35. Page 40, Explanation of Plates: Fig. 1.—x1 should read x2. Fig. 9.—x1 should read x. Fig. 10.— x1 should read x}. Fig. 12.—Should read Tetragraptus acclinans x1. Fig. 13b.— x1 should read xt. Page 41, Figs. 31, 38, 39, 44, 54, 55, 56, 70, 71, 74, 79, 80, 81: <1 should read x2. Page 41: Fig. 89.— x2 should read x4. Fig. 95.— x2 should read x4. Figs. 101, 102, 103, 104, 105.— x1 should read x2. Page 42: Figs. 124, 126a, 127, 128, 129, 1385.— x1 should read x2. Fig. 143.—Magnification x4 for both figures. Figs. 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 153, 154, 155, 159, 160, 161.— x1 should read x2. Fig. 162.— x2 should read x4. Figs. 163, 165, 174, 179.— x1 should read x2. Fig. 180.— x1 vead X2 and x4. Plates : Fig. 74.— x2. Fig. 180a.— x2. Fig. 1800.— x4. Fig. 192.— x4. = ‘ \ f 4 oe ’ c \ ; bert ee WE: Bete, f A a \ S y . ) Nei ; Y ve, i ‘ 1% ; ih d 7 f ‘ v ' , } x S| an i i Pane 5 tare | ww Bi s j * é * ry 4 ce ve i , ° ; .” Jane es ‘ . i 2% s » ‘ + . * eA t f A ¢ 1 ° 3 \ | | f t } i Fi * j ’ & ’ &4 \ t ; by i Pee Oa ' ‘, } j ~ f mi vs 4 : j peony a ‘ bya é ‘ yee nl el Ss ; : 5 7 hI XN ater, THO: GAS eyed hvenase Inca fore a. - I ! N a i ' CX pare 9 ‘ P: ioe eink oa” ae ' a Are ~ j 4 ‘ f oF A SOOT CEE PAE tee Fes ins oy ye RA Re, Sake VR en 7 ¥ fas ., " Ue ¥ Pk ‘ ¥ . oy « t ‘ j , ‘: qs 4 > « e% \? F 4 —~ { hs a nes 3 ] feo ® ; * ’ % Pen —. doc heii — me So Witt y + Hy i ' 4 Pe : Seta wandh we i ita ft 2 jae ee 7 ' ees raVe 4 Wid astad eit eae TOES Heat 4 ic er or “ P re mas” \ 2 “eg 4 Sia od oN) Seon 1; of ol BS? cotter < ie "i P80) Qai Viel Bees ba Ser Whaahe =i ‘ Si i ae) ye if Se mies ata f Be SY i e i . bx” Bae Np hae £ ee s 3 : “Notice 1 to peg “3 Gegteak. 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