¢ a 0. 6 Ra, eae
“ pipet Wobepe tog
1.4 2 acietied
‘yee a ave
i USF eens
PORT et BU
wa
peed
ace Fe ee ag ee ee eee eee ew ix he sare fee
4 Vetus hehe Lae PES Se NCR eT oe iC a
ary deel htt wee Le Pu ruteny 474 8) ”-
beet P|
14.4 € . we het ate P if
tt Oa eT Na nitt , i won Unt ean ere 8
be pede blew ’ ef Natit Wee ain can alg ee r \e
ard ‘ f ave ‘ eae ge = ined! iohaer dite
ESA TS brat f aL} aes % Aid OA ro nha Berton vt
Pompe RR i A a bet) ‘) a : wit Fan tan tn abe) yf $a) ee it Fi eal Co a
‘ On Ve 0 ae 3 ca Dek raed a7 ty om a iychie t rf
ht Ta ELH RU AT PL eee i i Vgzetaate ag RAN heel er Ae Rae a a las
POH NC CR a atiaie.as BUN B aie Es GEO MO Rak et
¥ Paes | " Co aA iy 4
“uy
wath Mal nts Saal
ind eyd ta
ying
Heat datta) 14 ae
Jaan: '‘
UP UR pase ee
r rat Pa! ee | “a .36 ‘ '
uk baad 0am Ladi Naty TN
an etd
aga ‘ Vath LA
‘
cu '
sa a.3 aad ss A a dab eh ta ALU Ay] Lae
’ a 1oia hwy | Taser yi ate OY DAN oe de LoD bode
at A AVAL AWAY GH Wal RL 7 id
Tash a Me oe ee Me a
y4 Daet at i! 4
naan
FA ot wy ' itn. Cr a) ’
eCeU Ma we) to) hea Neethy
re ir, ft sede Ad
Gad ped Pye eat EU AMP ALA i ta
-
ia? inca
ob oe Oe abe
- 6 ae shee
Mase a eae Trt a i ”
aE ab WL el La
Hy tei
ey al Ae ;
ahi} 1 a " t ei aiea acs apes oper}
AC RY Rn MW A CE RA nhs) TS etteye OO
CASH oy A odede pete ie ye6 Tos)
mn
+e aber
palt, as
ag * ay a4 Melk ihetet
" q4 zed:
; mi Af
Hag Oe eds) Hy
4 a } a
wry
H NE | ¥
Fash AiG tpt aD a!
eet as 4 43P 9 ipsh
ve
VE PL ba bo
Me ae tat leaded Wee
¥ Atte : ”
rer aint a REA st
anu
ast Mehanbe
mises
DOO Rd
1 ee
bainaritteta tha
ari) she an iy eq)
ARRAS
sak
ar
A4ay styl)
aH ay
CX AON fe
eben Bie
Sg Fare eee
if
yey Pa 7 Ny
if
re
riGl f ,
¥ ti Of
e v r/.%
Pears nhs
yd apst r i 8
WINTER
vou jee toy
ia)
#A%
<< e
= tr
ee
anahyoarc
stoi
Lal ood Get
paolo ate
Hy i "6 iby
a iy ily deh, rave
aey! “
a
a es rf erty
Weak Sf ty nai ;
my iad at toast iy Ai
Hebe Aid ty HY ste
cash ih tt rah a :
oH aE
waist ganas: eee aren ee bear eatitets
afi ETS deed tee
i ty f Gatine sts sete Wivbied,
Banesake ae 7
‘
3 He hie bene ae septal
con ee
arty A a a opine & as |
eeeecih a ree Birt . arth: ats ae
As
mee ae a
CNet i
Hees ro
d : Ped iiiay
Yer ate Se ok ee er Ye Ye |
j ee ee
Cte eh
aoe
a ry 7G | ‘ inh
‘ au heat bead WA Bep La
drat ws feast ei dood idle
ah
‘
4 ‘ sates f Teale
4 oe ne ote ate ” we
ied eros ie “ .
' naacethay a
Caveat iy) nad 4 Vibes AR de
y 7 ‘ r i 7 TOMY
pt
Wath ae
eh) . ee
at
oveter
woo taht
se Ma
Wh parts
Ayan
Here destd da david
ooh Fase Oa
i Whe) f 7<
y : \ 1 a) i } iw a We
| NS) Oat MA ie al i ek ST? alg
! Ai death ae alll Mh eal TENG os Oe
, Mi i? f i y hi J ' . 7. iy ne, 4 Ait ' “
. fer AU ITY Sit | : 1 \ } ah, A y Pgh ee Aare i / cw ; '
“J ; POA? nae wlan } ‘ me { f , rw.
i _
oa Pai el MNT Te CMGI oa ay a . ; . iH iw
te omey | - ath i dei at er “a 1 dad ‘iy q ; . \
,
a a \
ty 1 “J a.
4 i a f . ; Ved ae
© ie SARS ea aa 4 )
f Th wae f t we i e i ob
fa " hi i Dent ae ‘ » a
WORN Ae M i a ; t iar
Pity ih) an | a, lah a) ; vy
Raa | Huy ys. ; A ; | he
Ort Ve , ie as ; : ee
maid i :
Die y eS, Pa
. €
ire — ‘ ym t
} x t a)
= F y
ta
, ¢ 5 5
ee
ae ; ; (ye
{ D :
5 i +
ii ! : 3
i a i ae ¢ a Ph
i os -
Ny
3 a
ee
}
}
E
era ty
vn ae =|
j
of di t
* of s, S
N
j a
| ‘ :
J. 1
j iS > %
¢ a is ie L
‘4 < 4
’
1,
\ 7. ‘
% /
Pm /
‘
i t
a lis
ES hae } i
— ‘y ! \ '
A i
f M
ie '
N
ad 5 i 2
4j oe
Le A
ie
ss, 2
ij
)
j
y A |
i ‘
; | } F
F
- , if ; ; ; -
aaeot ieee :
- 5
}! ‘
se =)
a“ ~ a
feb Ss
a Ne
eal
id
\ | bs ~
A “
—~= { Bex ae
i
\ 4
\ \
f =
77 rs ht ;
}
Sie xs
# J
i
+
; j H
ire {
VQ
~
GN
-
“))
JOURNAL
AND
PROCEEDINGS
ROYAL SOCIETY
NEW SOUTH WALES,
FOR
1885.
INCORPORATED 1881.
WG i) Se Fe.
EDITED BY
THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS
MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.
——
SYDNEY—SOCIETY’S HOUSE, 37 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH.
LONDON—TRUBNER & Co., 57 LUDGATE HILL.
PRINTED By F. W. WHITte. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1889.
NOTICE.
THE Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as
the “ Philosophical Society of Australasia,” after an interval of
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
-“ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘ Philosophical
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title,
and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South
Wales in 1881.
CONTENTS.
VOLUME XXII.
OFFICERS FOR 1888-9
ART.
I.—Presipent’s AppREsS. By C. 8. Wilkinson, F.G.S. ...
Arr. II.—Forest Destruction in New South Wales and its Effects
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
on the Flow of Water in Watercourses and on the Rainfall.
By W. E. Abbott, Wingen. ae
Ii1.—On the Increasing Magnitude of Eta eG = H.
© Russell, BAL; F.R:S., &c. : Kak aoe ie
TV.—Notes on some Minerals and Mineral Localities in the
Northern Districts of New South Wales. @ D. A. Porter
Tamworth. (One Plate) se on
V.—On a Simple Plan of Hasing Raila Ces By
Walter Shellshear, Assoc. M. Inst., C.E. (One Plate)
VI—An Improvement in Anemometers. By H. C. Russell,
BA. ERS.
VII.—On the eas ve Life Te of Moliaeea
Peculiar to Australia. By the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods,
F.L.S., F.G.8S. (With Plates) .. sats
VIII.—Considerations of Sieoeriee Pewee aa
Arrangements. By Baron Ferd. von Mueller, K.C.M.G.,
aD, PhoD., FR. =f
IX.—Indigenous Australian eee Pests, (AN on- galas)
including Plants Injurious to Stock. By J. H. Maiden,
F.L.S., &c., Curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney
X.—Census of the Fauna of the Older Tertiary of Australia.
By Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S., F.L.8., &e.
XI.—Description of the Autographic Stress-strain ee
used in connection with the Testing Machine at the Uni-
versity of Sydney, for recording the results of testing the
Strength and Elasticity of Materials in Cross-breaking,
Compression and Tension. By Professor Warren, M. Inst.
Cre Wir, Se, (Four Plates). . sie bs Ae
XII.—The Storm of 21st Be anion 1888. By H.C. Russell,
B.A., P.E.S., &e. . ¥ bs ne
XITI.—Some New ‘South Wales oe capes “Part V.
(Including an account of Léwenthal’s process for the
estimation of tannic acid). By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., &c.,
Curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney
76
78
89
103
106
187
204:
240
253
256
259
ART. enV: —Results of Observations of Comets I. and IL., “1888,
} at Windsor, N.S.W. By John Tebbutt, F.R.A.S., &e. ...
Art. XV.—The Desert Sandstone. By the Rev. J. E. i
Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S., &e. (With Plates) ~~. : :
Arr. XVI.—On a new Self-recording Thermometer. By H. C.
Russell, B.A., F.R.S., &e. (One Diagram) . ie 335
Art. XVII.—The Thunderstorm of 26th Geren ABER By H. rye
C, Russell, BeAv sees nccGa acre : - 338 3
Art. XVIIL.—The Latin Verb Jubere—a neers coe By
John Fraser, B.A., UL.D. ae — B44,
Art. XIX.—Notes on some New South Wales Minos Bie
No. 5). By A. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S., Piotee of a
Chemistry in the University of Sydney. ... i — 862
PROCEEDINGS... je Lae 44, 98, 227, 230, 234, "278, “340, 366
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MeEpIcAL SECTION ... ee $33 we ae 5) ea j
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MicroscopicaL SecrTion ... BP cen eee 4
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY ... _... he ee iss.) lee i
INDEX. re
EXcHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS MADE BY THE ROYAL SOCIETY
oF New SoutuH WaALtLES, 1888.
Ohe Aoval Society of Hew South ales.
OFFICERS saU@asy alsisesi-Se
Honorary President:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. LORD CARRINGTON,
G.C.M.G., &e., &., &e.
President:
SIR ALFRED ROBERTS.
Vice-Presidents:
H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., F.B.S. | C.S. WILKINSON, F.G.S., F.L.S.
, Hon. Treasurer:
ROBERT HUNT, C.M.G., F.G.S.
Hon. Secretaries:
PROFESSOR LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S., &e.
He Be KYNG DON:
Members of Council:
W- A. DIXON, F.C:S., &e. Ph PE DLN
A. LEIBIUS, Ph. D., M.A., F.C.S.| PROF. THRELFALL, M.A.
CHARLES MOORE, F.L.S. PROF. WARREN, M.I.C.E.
Assistant Secretary :
W. H. WEBB.
Wie
~*
ae
‘
AT OGM. Bg :
4
‘
‘
ae hy
oetpioead taaselete
a
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
By C. 8. Wixinson, F.G.S., President.
[Delivered to the Royal Society of N.S.W., May 2, 1888. |
WE are met together this evening to commemorate the sixty-
seventh anniversary of the Royal Society of New South Wales.
On such an occasion it is customary to take a retrospect of the
Society’s proceedings during the year. In doing so our thoughts
are at once directed to those who have passed away from us by
death since our last Anniversary Day.
Ordinary Members.—Hon. Wititiam Bussy, M.L.C., elected
1875 ; Messrs. Epwin Darinrrey, elected 1873; Aveusr
Duckersnorr, M.D., Leipzig, elected 1882; H.'S. Hawkins,
M.A., elected 1877; Artratr T. HoLtroyp, M.D., Edin., F.LS.,
F.Z.S., elected 1876; Anrtruur Lreverr Jackson, elected 1878;
Gro. Knox, M.A. (Cantab.), elected 1874 ; Jamus MaAnnina,
elected 1873; Jamus Marxuy, L.R.C.S., Irel., L.R.C.P., Edin.,
elected 1878; CHrisropaiR RoLLEston, C.M.G., elected 1856 ;
JAMES BuRLEIGH SuaArp, J.P., elected 1876; Witttam Tucker,
elected 1868; W. G. Wes7on, elected 1877.
Honorary Members.—Prot. L. G. DrKontncx, M.D., Lidge,
elected 1876; Sir Junius von Haast, K.C.M.G., Ph.D., F.BS.,
elected 1880.
Correspondiny Member.—¥. B. Miturr, F.C.8., elected 1880.
The Hon. Witiiam Buspy, M.L.C., born 1812, died 23rd June,
aged 75.—The Hon. William Busby came with his father in
the year 1824 from England. Mr. John Busby was the first
A—May 2, 1888.
ys] ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
civil engineer to practice his profession in Sydney ; he received
the appointment of Mineral Surveyor to. the Government, and
when Sir Thomas Brisbane arrived his skill was utilised to
search for water for the supply of Sydney. The result was the
construction of Busby’s Bore, whereby a tunnel was made from
the Lachlan Swamp to Hyde Park. In this work Mr. William |
Busby acted as Clerk of the Works, during the period of its
construction from 1827-1837. In length it is 2} miles, with a
section of 4 feet by 5 feet. The delivery of water averages 3 to
400,000 gallons daily, which was sufficient for the then population
of 20,000.
On the completion of this 1mportant engineering work, Mr.
William Busby engaged in pastoral pursuits in the Northern
Districts and met with considerable success. Some little time
previous to his death he was in ailing health, but the end was
hastened by a severe chill. He died on Thursday, 23rd June,
aged 75 years. He was esteemed by a large circle of friends, and
as a Member of the Legislative Council, to which he was elected
in 1867, he gave close and regular attention to everything that
tended to the public good. He joined this Society in 1875.
ArtTuur Topp Horroyp, born Ist Dec., 1806; died 15th June,
1887 ; aged 81.—Mr. Arthur Todd Holroyd was born in London,
and educated at Ripon Grammar School. At 18 years of age he
commenced to study medicine, first at Cambridge and then at
Edinburgh, where he took his M.D. degree in 1830. He however
preferred the legal profession, and entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but
wishing to travel before being called to the Bar, in 1835 he visited
Rome and Ikgypt. He penetrated beyond the great desert into
the Soudan, and as one of the earliest of English travellers, passed
over the sume route as General Gordon traversed to Khartoum.
“He thence journeyed down the Blue Nile to Senaar, crossed the
desert to the White Nile, thence to Kordofan and Cairo. From
his personal witness of the extent of the slave trade he was able
to make representations to the British Government 1 aid of its
suppression. In 1838 he visited Palestine and Syria; unfortunately
1
.
2
w
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
no record of his travels exists in print. In 1843 he landed in
New Zealand where he remained two years, and then came on to
Sydney where he was admitted to the Bar. In 1851 he was
elected to represent Bathurst in the Old Legislative Council, and
helped to introduce various reforms. He became a member of
the First Legislative Assembly, and in 1860 occupied the post of
Chairman of Committees. In 1863 he accepted office in the
Martin Ministry as Minister for Works. In 1866 he was
appointed Master-in-Equity, and in 1879 Acting Supreme Court
Judge. He was a Fellow of the Zoological Society (London)
since its commencement in 1827, of the Linnean Society (London)
since 1829, and of the Royal Geographical Society since 1839.
He joined this Society in 1876.
In farming matters he was an enthusiast. One of his earliest
ideas was the introduction of flower culture, and in the growth of
choice varieties of fruits he laid great stress, having imported the
best stocks from Europe. In order to improve the land by
draining, he established the manufacture of drain-pipes and
eventually fancy tiles, etc., at the well-known Sherwood Drain.
and Tile Works.
From 1867 to 1877 he held the position of District Grand
Master of English Freemasons in this Colony, and his ability as
an Administrator was apparent in the success of the Society.
Although past 80 years of age, he was strong and active to
within a few weeks of his end, and he passed away on Wednesday,
15th June, from the decay of old age.
CurisTOPHER RouiLEston, C.M.G., born 1817 ; died 9th April,
1888; aged 71. Mr. Christopher Rolleston was my immediate
predecessor in the Presidential Chair. It was this time last year
that he delivered an Address reviewing the general scientific
advance of the year.
You are, doubtless, well aware of his public life. He was born
in Nottinghamshire in 1817, arrived in N. 8. Wales in 1838, and
4 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
engaged for five years in farming on the Hunter. In January,
1843, he was appointed Commissioner for Crown Lands for
Darling Downs. In January, 1855, he became Private Secretary
to Sir Wm. Denison. In March, 1856, he was made Registrar-.
General and inaugurated the present system of registration. In
1858 the Statistical Register was first published, and the
Registration of Deeds transferred to his department. In 1862
the Real Property Act was passed, and its introduction devolved
upon him. In November, 1864, he was appointed Auditor-
General. In 1870 the present Audit Act was passed. In 1874 he
was created C.M.G., and retired from the Public Service in 1883.
He took an active interest’ in the work of the University, and
on the Boards of Insurance Companies and the Mercantile Bank
his financial talents found scope. He was elected a Member of
the Philosophical Society of N.S.W., and contributed several
papers to the Society: 1868—‘“ On the Results of Wheat
Culture in N.S. W. for the last ten years.” _1870--‘ On Post
Office Savings Banks, Friendly Societies, and Government Life
Assurance.” 1870—‘“Statistical Review of the Progress of
N.S. W., 1862-1871.” 1874—* Criminal Statistics: of Ngee
from 1860 to 1873.” 1878—‘“ Anniversary Address.” 1882—
‘‘ Notes on the Progress of N.S.W. during the years 1872-1881.”
1883—“ Anniversary Address.” 1887—“ Anniversary Address.”
He had accepted a position cn the Committee of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, but resigned from a
desire to lessen his engagements. On 6th April he was siezed
with a sudden attack of illness which speedily developed into.
alarming symptoms, so that no hope was entertained of his
recovery. His invariable kindliness of disposition won the
affection of all who had the pleasure of his acquaintance, and his
death will long be felt by a large circle of friends.
LAuRENT GUILLAUME DE Koninoxk, M.D., was for many years.
Professor of Chemisty in the University of Liege, but is far
better known as a Stratigraphical Geologist and Paleontologist.
His chief works have reference to the fossils of the Carboniferous
.
ef
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
Period of Belgium, but he has also contributed several meinoirs
‘on those of the Hastern Hemisphere.
His first important work was “ Description des Animaux
Fossiles qui se trouvent dans le Terrain carbonifere de Belgique”
S1q
{2 vols. and supt., Liege, 1842-57). This was followed, and to
some extent ran concurrently with his “ Monographie du Genre
. Productus” (8vo., Lisge, 1846), which is of interest to Australian
students as containing the description of the Australian species
of that genus. In 1872, Prof. de Koninck published his
“Nouvelle Recherches sur les Animaux Fossiles du Terrain
carbonifere de la Belgique” (4to., Bruxelles, 1872), in which a
)
revised description of the Belgian Carboniferous Coal-fauna was
given. To workers in this continent, however, by far the most
valuable of all this eminent observer’s works is his “ Becherches
sur les Fossiles paléozoiques de la Nouvelle Galles du Sud”
(2 vols. 4to., Bruxelles, 1876-77).* | This is a description of the
gatherings of the late Rev. W. B. Clarke, extending over a long
series of years; and it is deeply to be regretted that the result of
so much profound study was wholly consumed in the unfortunate
Garden Palace fire in 1882. This is the more deeply to be
deplored when we remember that the fossils in question formed
the types of many new species, hitherto unknown to Science, and
of which many specimens have not since been obtained. Of all
his publications, however, that which will carry his name down
to posterity as his “magnum opus” is that truly magnificent
work, “ Faune du Calcarie Carbonifére de la Belgique,” published
in folio in the ‘ Annales du Musée Royal d’Historie Naturelle de
Belgique’ (folio, Bruxelles). He died, July 16th, 1887.
Sir JoHN Francis Junius von Haast, K.C.M.G., Ph.D.,
F.R.S., &., was Professor of Geology in Canterbury College,
Christchurch, New Zealand, and Director of the Museum.
*An English translation of this work, with plates, edited by Mr. Robt.
Etheridge, junr., Paleontologist, is in course of publication by the
Department of Mines, Sydney.
6 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
During the first portion of his residence in New Zealand he was.
occupied in geological surveys in the Province of Canterbury,
and on which he published several voluminous Reports, the most
important being “Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and
Westland” (Svo., Christchurch, 1879).
Dr. Haast’s early geological observations were, in a great
measure, made on the glacial phenomena of the Southern Island
of New Zealand. During later years, when not occupied with
the improvement of his Museum, he devoted himself to the
investigation of the Extinct Wingless Birds, and on which he
wrote several important papers. Amongst these we may
mention ‘‘ Researches and Excavations carried on in and near
the Moa-bone Point Cave, Sumner Road, 1872,” which gave rise
to much discussion at the time of its publication. Several
papers were also written by Dr. Haast on the living Avifauna,
Fish, and Cetacea of New Zealand ; and we are indebted to him
for a contribution to the study of its Extinct Reptilia.
At the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, held in London in
1886, Dr. Haast acted as New Zealand Commissioner, and gave
aiple testimony of his abilities as an organizer and administrator..
For these services he received the honour of Knighthood. He
died, August 15th, 1887.
Francis Bowyer Miuurr, died 17th September, 1887, aged 58.
Mr. Miller was educated at King’s College, London, and after
having accompanied an expedition to the West Coast of Africa,
came out to this Colony in 1854, having received the appointment
of Assayer to the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint on its
formation. He remained in the service of the Sydney Mint until
1870, when he was transferred to Melbourne on the formation of
the Branch in Victoria, receiving at the same time promotion
both in position and salary. On the retirement of Major-General
Ward in 1878, Mr. Miller was again promoted, and was twice
appointed Acting Deputy Master in charge of the Melbourne
Mint. He is weil known to the scientific world as the inventor
of the chlorine process of refining gold, which has ever since been
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. - : rf
in constant use in the Sydney and Meibourne Mints. This
invention caused a complete revolution in the treatment of the
precious metals, and has been of great advantage to the Colonial
Mints, and of considerable profit to the mining interests; but,
like many other originators of most useful inventions, he reaped
but a comparatively small reward for his importaut and valuable
discovery. Mr. Miller was a Fellow of the Chemical Society of
London, and a Corresponding Member of the Royal Society
of N.S.W.
At the end of last year, there were 488 Members on the roll.
Of these, thirteen have been removed by death; seven have
resigned ; and ten have ceased to be Members through
non-compliance with the Rules of the Society. Twenty-four new
Members have been elected during the year; so that the total
number of Members on the roi] on 30th April, 1888, is 482
Michael Foster, M.D. F.R.S., Professor of Physiology,
University of Cambridge, was elected an Honorary Member
on 4th May, 1887.
During the past year the Library of the Society has been
enriched by the donation of 1244 Volumes and Pamphiets, two
Portfolios of Charts, and 30 loose Charts.
During the past year the Society presented its Journal and
Proceedings, Vol. XX. for 1886, to 342 Societies and
Institutions, and Vol. X XI. for 1887, to 338, of which. a list
has been published.
The following new Societies have entered into an exchange of
publications since last year, viz:—Society of Natural History,
Brookville, U.S.A.; Editor cf the Journal of Comparative
Medicine oH Surgery, New York; Wagner Free Institute of
Science, Philadeiphia ; Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg ; German
Meteorojozical Society, Hamburg ;
; Vereins’ ftir Erdkunde,
Leipzig; Sociedad Cientifica ‘“ Antonio Alzate,” Mexico ;
Sociedad Cientifica Alemana Santiago de Chile; Société des
Naturalistes, Kieif, Russia.
8 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
The Society has subscribed’ to 49 Scientific Journals and
Periodicals, and has purchased 90 volumes at a cost of £67 5s. 5d.,
including Vols. I. to XXXVII. of the Paleontographical
Society’s publications. |
During the past session the Society held eight Monthly and
one Special Meeting, at which the following papers were read :—
1887, May 4—Presidental Address, by Christopher Rolleston,
C.M.G. June 1—‘“ Recent work on Flying Machines,” by
Lawrence Hargrave; “Some N. 8. Wales Tan Substances,
Part [.” by J. H. Maiden, F.R.G.S. July 6—“ Notes on the
experience of other countries in the administration of their
Water Supply,” by H. G. McKinney, M.E., M.LC.E. August
3—‘ Notes on some inclusions observed in a specimen of the
Queensland Opal,” by D. A. Porter; “Some N. 8. )Wales
Tan-substances,” by J. H. Maiden, F.R.G.S; ‘The Influence of
Bush Fires in the Distribution of Species,” by Rev. Robert
Collie, F.L.S. September 7—‘“ Origin and mode of occurrence
of Gold-bearing Veins, and of the’ Associated Minerals,” by
Jonathan Seaver, C.E., F.G.8.; “ Results of observations of
Comets VI. and VIL, 1886, at Windsor, N.S.W.” by John
Tebbutt, .R.A.S. October 5—“ Port Jackson Silt Beds,” by
Fred. B. Gipps, C.E.; “Some N.S. W. Tan-substances, Part
Ill.” by J. H. Maiden, F.R.G.S. November 2—On the
presence of Fusel Oil in Beer,” by Wiliam M. Hamlet, F CS:
December 7—‘‘Some N. S. W. Tan-substances, Part IV.” by
J. H. Maiden, F.R.G.S. ; ‘* Autographic Instruments used in the
development of Flying Machines,” by Lawrence Hargrave.
The Medical Section held seven meetings, fourteen papers read ;
Microscopical Section, eight meetings; Sanitary Section, four
meetiigs, five papers read.
The Sanitary Section, after a lapse of seven years, was revived
in 1886. Since then ten meetings have been held, when excellent
papers on sanitary subjects have been read by :—Trevor Jones ;
Reuter E. Roth, M.R.C.S.E.; Dr. Quaife; Dr. Ashburton
Thompson ; G. W. Redfern ; T. B. Henson, C.E.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. )
At the Council Meeting, held on the 14th December, 1887, it
was unanimously resolved to award the Clarke Medal for the
year to the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.5., F.L.S.
A more appropriate award of this Medal could not have been
made. During the last thirty-one years the Rev. Tenison- Woods
has been well known as a writer upon the Natural History of
Australasia. Of his 157 works published since the year 1857 no
less than 74 are upon his favourite branch of Science—Geology.
I well remember with what interest and profit 1 first read in
1864 his valuable work, Geological Observations in South Australia,
_and I know that my experience is that of many, for wherever I
have travelled J have found his name a household word, so wide
an influence have his writings exercised among all classes. His
name may be justly associated with that of the venerated
geologist, whose life work in Australia this Medal commemorates.
We all deplore the illness which prevents him from being present
here this evening.
In respouse to the offer of prizes and its Medal by the
Society for communications containing the results of original
research or observation upon given subjects, the following were
received :—
On the Silver Ore Deposits of N.S.W. ... oe eee paper:
Origin and Mode of Occurrence of Gold-bearing Veins
and of the Associated Minerals _... ae ... @ papers
Influence of the Australian Climate in producing
Modifications of Diseases... ne ifs i. le paper
On the Infusoria peculiar to Australia ... bis tte, NOUR
The Council at its Meeting on the 27th July, 1887, awarded
the prize of £25 and the Society’s Medal, which had been offered
for the best communication on the “Origin and Mode of
Occurrence of Gold-bearing Veins and of the Associated Minerals”
to Mr. Jonathan C. B. P. Seaver, C.E., F.G.S., M.P.
aa pe Jae eat ed a ee 4 ~~ ud “
hee ter are te TD 4 a wr, :
»
10 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
The Council has since issued the following list of subjects, with
the offer of the Society’s Bronze Medal and a prize of £25, for
each of the best researches if of sufficient merit :—
Series VIT.—To be sent in not later than Ist May, 1888.
Nos?
and Life History of the Echidna and
Platypus.
25.—Anatomy and Life History of Mollusca peculiar to-
Australia.
26.—The chemical composition of the products from the
so-called Kerosene Shale of New South Wales.
Sertes VITT.—To be sent in not later than Ist May, 1889.
No. 27.—On the Chemistry of the Australian Guins and Resins.
28.—On the Aborigines of Australia.
29.—On the Iron Ore deposits of New South Wales.
3U.—List of the Marine Fauna of Port Jackson, with
descriptive notes as to habits, distribution, We.
Series [X.—To be sent in not later than Ist May, 1890.
No; 31:
Influence of the Australian climate, general and local,
in the development and modification of disease.
2,—On the Silver Ore deposits of New South Wales.
33.—-On the Occurrence of Precious Stones in New South
Wales, with a description of the deposits in which q
they are found.
Tam happy to have to congratulate the members upon the
favourable financial statement of the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. R.
Hunt, F.G.S8., which has been submitted to you by the Council.
? ed
From this it will be seen that, after transferring £192 to the
Building and Investment Fund, a balance of £59 18s. 6d stands —
to the General Account for the next year. The Building and
Investment Fund now amounts to £384 Ils. 1d., which is invested
in fixed deposit.
Until last year the Society’s Journal had been printed at the
Government Printing Office ; but the Government having notified
that this practice would be discontinued, it devolved igs oo
Society to undertake the work at its own expense.
—
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 11
of the Society were tendered to the Government for the great
privilege it has hitherto enjoyed.
Weare glad, on this our first General Meeting since his return,
to weleome back Professor Liversidge in good health. We feel
sure, knowing his deep interest in the Society's welfare, that his
tour through Japan, America, England, and Europe, affording
opportunity for meeting his confreres in.Science, and visiting
some of the principal Scientific Institutions in the old world, will
not only have been of interest to himself, but of advantage to
this Society. But for the unremitting attention and energy of
Mr. F. B. Kyngdon and Mr. 8. H. Cox,—the other Hon.
Secretaries, to whom our thanks are specially due,—I fear that
in the Professor’s long absence we should have experienced
somewhat the position of a ship’s crew without 1ts captain.
Another active Member of the Society, Mr. H. C. Russell,
Government Astronomer, also visited Europe during the year to.
take part in the Congress of Astronomers lately held in Paris.
We may be congratulated on again having his valued counsel and
services as a Vice-President for the ensuing year.
Professor LIVERSIDGE in his Presidential address drew particular
attention to the necessity for Scientific Education and to the
means afforded for such education in this colony, chiefly in the
Sydney University and in the Technical College. Many amongst
us will, I am sure, also endorse the Professor’s remarks in regard
to the importance of introducing scientific teaching into our
Public Schools. No doubt many a boy with latent abilities for
science would rise to be a power for good to his country, were his
early educational environment such as to favour the development.
of his faculties for scientific observation. We cannot deny that
in most children the faculty for investigating objects of nature is
very great ; and if this faculty were directed first upon simple lines,
what important avenues of usefulness might not its development
lead some individuals into! Thus, to take one useful branch of
science, can the elementary knowlelve of sanitary laws be too
1
early lmpressed upon all children whatever may be their future
12 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
avocations ? For may not any individual possessed even of such
elementary knowledge be the means of preventing in one or more
instances the growth of germs of some disease which perhaps,
originating in the stagnant water of a small house-drain, would
spread through a town with such direful efect as we sometimes see
to be the case, especially in reference to typhoid. Enlarged
dixgrams illustrative of the forms and rapid mode of growth of some
of the dreaded organisms, explained with the aid of a microscope
in a simple manner appropriate to the reason of a child, would
afford lessons never to be forgotten, and perhaps, in many cases,
would awaken more interest or wonder than that created by fairy
tales (which I acknowledge has in itself a special value) and with
the manifest advantage that the child afterwards realizes that his
imagination has not been deceived, and that his reasoning powers
have been strengthened for exercise in fields of usefulness for
himself and for his fellows. We know that children often
communicate to their parents at home what they learn at school,
and if such elementary sanitary knowledge were more taught and
disseminated, especially to the children of the uneducated classes,
our Public schools would less frequently than now be closed,
because they become the means, owing chiefly to the ignorance of
the parents, of spreading infectious diseases amongst the children —
In some less useful though, perhaps, more interesting branches of
science might. elementary teaching be also given. It is not,
however, my present purpose to refer further to science-teaching,
but to the main scope of the work of this Society—science-
harvesting, the ingathering of fruit cultivated in the fields of
knowledge.
The object of the Society, as stated in the Rules, is one of very
wide range, viz.: “To receive original papers on Science, Art,
Literature, and Philosophy, and especially on such subjects as
tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate its
Natural History Productions.” This plan of work has been well
conceived, for commerce which is, so to speak, the physical
strength of a nation, depends upon the development of the
va
_
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 13
country’s natural resources, and this development must proceed
proportionately as Science, Art, Literature and Philosophy are
promoted. And as we see in Australia’s unlimited natural stores
of wealth a practically boundless field for internal and international
commercial enterprise ; so we perceive the necessity, nay our duty,
at the present time when the foundation of our national greatness
is being laid, to determine that the gradual erection of the
superstructure be carried out with the precision and solidarity
that Science can demonstrate ; with the symmetry and adornment
which the refining guidance of Art affords; and with that
recognition of world-wide relationship which Literature inspires ;
while Philosophy, all-embracing, in giving purpose and aim to all,
engenders that spirit of seli-denying co-operation, which not only
advances the knowledge of Truth, but also rewards each worker
with the assurance of participating in the culminating unity
which Truth reveals.
How, for instance, would the necessities of our iron
manufacturing branches of commerce be met, if the latest
scientific methods of reducing the raw ironstone to metal were
disregarded for the employment of the primitive blast forges?
Is not refinement in the character of an individual or a.
community to be found expressed, and being expressed intensified,
In exhibitions of painting, music, floriculture, and architecture—
in the adornment, if only for mutual admiration and sympathy,
of the varied palatial buildings which the modern exigencies of
home life, trade and commerce require? How could we have
inherited that knowledge which is dispelling the darkness of
ignorance and in its freedom-giving light revealing the relationship
of every branch of mankind, were it not for the cultivation of
Literature? And whence would the self-sacrificing seekers after
Truth derive encouragement and hope, did not Philosophy indicate
the interdependence, fellowship and unity of all.
Here then is the great work for our Society—a work based
upon true principles of progressive civilization, and advancing the
welfare of this country, not only for the country itself, but because
14 ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
of its connection with all other countries, and of its growing
influence for good amongst them. Fulfilling such a position the
Royal Society will, no doubt, continue to receive that private and
State recognition and support which it now enjoys. But its real
vitality and influence do not so much depend upon such aid, as
upon the personal work of its Members, however simple or abstruse
that work may be. One Member may have some important
discovery to reveal ; another may have but a single specimen to
exhibit to illustrate, perhaps, only the mode of its occurrence: both
may be equally worthy of record in the interests of Science.
What a rch and vast field for scientific research have we not
in this portion of the globe, on the land and in the fertile
Australasian Ocean. Its tropical jungles and its alpine heights ;
the wide-spread open grassy plains and the splendid forest-clad
mountains ; its beautiful sheltered harbour inlets from the great
water-way of the globe, and its interior rivers awaiting
engineering enterprise to convert them into navigable highways ;
its varied and rich agricultural, pastoral and mineral lands, yet
to be occupied by millions of people whose profitable labour
therein is assuredly indicated; its lowlands and _ high-lands
ranging within both tropical and temperate latitudes, with their
concomitant climates suited to incomers from almost any other
part of the world ; its geographical position and physical features
offering for the astronomer and meteorologist a terrestrial position
for celestial observation without which the science of astronomy
would be incomplete; its peculiar fauna and flora embracing
living forms of ancient types long extinct in other regions ; its
branches of the human race; its rock formations, with their
included remains of the past hfe upon the earth, furnishing. their
data to render more complete the ‘ geological record ;” the shallow
estuarine and deep sea resources of the surrounding ocean ;—these
and other interdependent objects in nature justify the most
sanguine anticipations as to the great importance and interest
attaching to the science work our Soviety has undertaken.
Nor do we forget that this Society is not alone in the field,
though it is the oldest. The kindred Scientific Societies of this
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. LS
Colony, as well as of Victoria, South Australia, Queensland,
New Zealand, and Tasmiunia, are equally with us in object and
aim. The twelve yearly volumes of the Linnean Society of New
South Wales afford a rich store of contributions to the Natural
History of Australasia, including work of special value, as it
embraces much original research.
The recently formed Economic Association, of which Dr.
Maclaurin, Vice-Chancellor of the Sydney University, is
President, is one which should exereise much good influence upon
the present national growth of this country, its object being the
discussion of questions arising out of the Science of Kconomics.
The Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science
may now be considered established, and promise is given of its
operations being attended with great success. Thirty learned and
Scientific Societies in the different Colonies have joined the
Association, and the majority have appoint delegates to
represent them on the General Council. It is expected that all
the Societies which have not yet joined will do so before the
General Meeting. A satisfactory list of papers as already been
received, and many other papers have beeu promised. » 10° 058
Insurance ... ase le a8 baa sien .. 20 Toa
Prize Essay Award .. sia an wal ae ae . 25 Oe
Postage and Duty Stamps ae oh ae see .. 4510 0
Petty Cash Expenses se Ret sie a 535 16 10g
Carried forward es ae sie .. 637.12 3
PROCEEDINGS. 45
PaymMENTS—continued. doy Sn Ge
Brought forward ma: - ae < 63712 3
Printing in tas ine aes Bee) ae 7h 8
Printing and Publishing ¥ oumnal Os a sae Ae SLO A 8
Rates . or see ma She er seam elo. 0
He frachimerts, &e.,; at Meetings ae aes Rete 2.3 coed: sla Au @)
Repairs 32 wat ha a. ant ts. ast #41 746° 5 11
Stationery ... ase BAG ase See ac ade oat 315 5
Sundries Se ase 6h eae a. Sep ads dae) Se eos a)
Total Payments _... F BES sa £1,007 1 5
Transfer to Building and Investment Fund aaa bi ace LO! Fou)
Balance on 31st March, 1888—
( Union Bank ... iu A918 6
UGashin hand .. =, 10 0 o} dele
el 25905 32 11
Aupitep—H. O. WALKER. ROBERT HUNT, Honorary Treasurer,
HARRIE WOOD. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary.
SYDNEY, 22nd April, 1888.
BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND.
RECEIPTS. £ s. d-
Donations ee ie 30
Parliamentary Grant on Balance of Ponations reeeredt
during 1886... ; Re Les sed ual Sr Ge 20
Interest on Fixed Deposit... ut oe side ae ate 815 0
Total Receipts... $e: st ae Unaigtweligie LO)
Transfer from General Account ... ae eA As ee RODEO
Balance on 1st April, 1887 ey, oo eas: oe Lon lio 25) fll
£384 11 1
PAYMENTS. oS ele
Fixed Deposit in Union Bank ... oe ae Bae sos 384 11 1
£384 11 1
Aupitrep—H. O. WALKER. ROBERT HUNT, Honorary Treasurer,
HARRIE WOOD. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary.
Sypney, 22nd April, 1888.
CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND.
Se GS. 0ds
Amount of Fund on Ist April, 1887 __... ate eye ac) 200) 10) 59
Interest accrued to 3lst March, 1888 .... Bee ae gt PORT) 3.
£267 1 9
——
46 PROCEEDINGS.
2 Bee
Fixed Deposit in Union Bank ... aa ae a .. 2a 07s
Balance due from Oriental Bank... i A nee .. | Oana
£267.19
AupiTtEp—H. O. WALKER. ROBERT HUNT, Honorary Treasurer.
HARRIE WOOD. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary.
Sypney, 22nd April, 1888.
SMITH MEMORIAL FUND.
£ 8 ae
Amount of Fund on 1st April, 1887 ce se tk wy L120
Interest on Fixed Deposit : nae au ae fhe 614 4
£119 O10
£8. oe
Amount remitted for Painting ... ze ie * --. , SOL TOS
Balance in Union Bank ... fo ao) sla che ee wie oo OOD
£119 0 10
Avupitep—H. O. WALKER. ROBERT HUNT, Honorary Treasurer.
HARRIE WOOD. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary.
Sypnezy, 22nd April, 1888.
Messrs. J.T. Wilshire and P. N. Trebeck were elected Scrutineers
for the election of officers and members of Council.
A ballot was then taken, and the following gentlemen were duly
elected officers and members of Council for the current year :—
Honorary President:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. LORD CARRINGTON, G.c.m.a.
President:
SIR ALFRED ROBERTS.
Vice-Presidents:
H. C. RUSSELL, B.aA., F.R.S. | C. S. WILKINSON, F.G.S., F.L.s.
Hon. Treasurer:
ROBERT HUNT, F.a.s., &c.
Hon. Secretaries:
Pror. LIVERSIDGH, m.a., F.R.s., &c. | F. B. KYNGDON.
Members of Council:
W. A. DIXON, F.c.s., &. P. R. PEDLEY.
A. LEIBIUS, Pu. D., M.A., F.C.S. Pror. THRELFALL, m.a. Cr
CHARLES MOORE, F.1.s. Pror. WARREN, M.1.¢.E
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society :—
O’Neil, G. Lamb, m.s., o.m., Adin. ; Sydney.
Smith, Charles Atkinson, B.C. S., F.1.c.; Sydney.
Thring, Edward T., F.R.C.s. Eng. aks O.P. Lond. ; Petersham.
The certificates of two new candidates were read toe the second
time, and of three for the first time.
PROCEEDINGS. 47
The names of the Committee-men of the different Sections were
announced, viz. :—
Chairman ... Dr. Knaggs.
MEDICAL Secretaries.. Dr. MacCormick and Dr. Jenkins.
SECTION Committee... Dr. W. Chisholm, Dr. Crago, Dr. E.
| ‘ Fairfax Ross, Dr. Hankins, Dr. W. H.
Goode, Dr. P. Sydney Jones.
Meetings held on the Third Friday in each month, at 815 p.m.
Chairman .., F. B. Kyngdon.
MICROSCOPICAL | Secretary ... Percy J. Edmunds.
SECTION. Committee... H. G. A. Wright, u.x.c.s.z., H. O. Walker,
S. MacDonnell, and Dr. Morris.
Meetings held on the Second Monday in each month at 8 p.m.
Chairman ... J. Trevor Jones, c.z.
SANITARY Secretary ... Reuter E. Roth, u.R.¢.s.z.
SECTION, Committee... R. Hunt, Dr. W. Chisholm, E. E. Sager,
W. A. Dixon, F.c.s., Dr. Ashburton
Thompson, J. B. Henson, c.z.
Meetings held on the Second Tuesday in the month at 8.15 p.m.
The following letter was read from the Rev. J. H. Tenison-
Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S.:—
533 Elizabeth Street, Sydney,
5th March, 1888.
To C. S. Wilkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
President of the Royal Society of New South Wales.
My dear Sir,
I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter and
medal, conveying to me the Society’s award of the Clarke Medal for this
year. In thanking the Society for this distinguished mark of their
estimation, I feel myself quite inadequate to express my sense of the
honour thus conferred upon me.
If any services that I have rendered to Science were deserving of a
reward this more than amply satisfies my greatest anticipations, and I
trust it will be a new stimulus to exertion.
_Lregret exceeding that my present state of health prevents me from
taking a more active part in the labours of the Society, but I have every
hope and confidence that I shall yet be able to labour for its interests,
and I shall ever consider myself honoured by being associated even in
the humblest way with its labours.
Pray convey my warmest thanks to the members of the Council, and
believe me, Mr. President
Yours very faithfully,
J. HE. TENISON-WOODS.
Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.G.s., F.L.S., President, then read his
address.
A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and Sir
Alfred Roberts was installed as President for the ensuing year.
48 PROCEEDINGS.
EXHIBIT.
Mr. Lawrence Hargrave exhibited a compressed air engine
for driving a flying-machine, deseribing it as follows :—the
cylinder is 13 inches diameter and the stroke is 2 inches:
the engine weighs 2 lbs 7 0z. The receiver for the compressed
air is *21 cubic feet capacity, made of ; inch steel, single
rivetted, and brazed: the bursting pressure is about 900 tbs”
per square inch: the working pressure will be 500 ibs per
square inch, and the reduced pressure 100ibs per square inch ;
and there will be 9,200 foot-pounds available for work : this
power will have to be expended in from half to three-quarters
of a minute. The charged receiver weighs 6ibs 12 ozs. A small
Richard’s indicator has been made for adjusting the piston valve.
The wood and paper work will weigh about 2 tbs. The machine
is intended for a flight of 200 yards. As it will be some time
before the whole of the apparatus is in a condition to offer to this
Society in the form of a paper, anyone wishing to assist in the
development of artificial flight may have a tracing of the working
drawing now, and make sketches of the deviations : and from these
a double sized machine could be made introducing more steel and
less brass, and using triple expansion with a receiver pressure of
1,500 tbs, and a factor of safety of 2. [am indebted to Mr. James
Richard Thomson for much information that has been of great
assistance to me.
The following donations received since the last meeting were
laid upon the table :—
List or Donations RECEIVED sINCE DECEMBER 7TH, 1887.
(The Names of the Donors are in Italics.)
TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c.
ABERDEEN—University. Catalogue of the General Library,
Vols. i. and i1., and Supplement 1873—87. Cata-
logue of the Library, Vol. iii., Law Medicine,
1874. The University.
ADELAIDE—Forest Flora of South Australia, Part 8.
Government Printer, S.A.
Royal Society, Transactions of the Intercolonial Medical
Congress of Australasia, First Session held in
Adelaide, 8.A., August to September, 1887. The Society.
University. The Adelaide University Calendar for the
Academical Year 1838. The University.
Acram—Société Archéologique. Viestnik hrvatskoga Arkeo-
logickoga Druztva, Godina ix., Br. 4, 1887; x.,
Br. 1, 1888. The Society.
AmsTERDAM—Revue Coloniale Internationale, Tome v., Nos.
5 and 6, November and December, 1887. The Editors:
PROCEEDINGS. 49
AucxLAnp—Auckland Institute and Museum. Report for
1887—88. The Institute.
Annapouis (Mp.) United States Naval Academy. Annual
Register, Thirty-eighth Academic Year 1887—88. The Academy.
BaLLaaRat—The Ballaarat School of Mines, Industries and
Science. (In the University of Melbourne.) Annual
Report for 1887. The School of Mines.
BautTimorE—Johns Hopkins University. American Chemical
Journal, Vol. ix., Nos. 1 and 2, 1887. American
Journal of Mathematics, Vol. ix., Nos. 2 and 4, 1887.
American Journal of Philology, Vol. vii., Part 4,
1886; Vol. vili., Part 1, 1887. Historical and
Political Science, Fifth Series, Nos. iv.—vil., 1887.
University Circulars, Vol.vi., Nos. 56 aud 57,1887. The University.
Bercen—Museum. Aarsberetning for 1886. The Museum.
BERLIN— Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten. Sitzungsberichte, -Nos. 40-52, 22nd October
to 17th December, 1885; Nos. 19-39, 14th April
to 28th July, 1887. The Academy.
Konig]. Preuss. Meteorologisches Institut. Ergebnisse
der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen im Jahre,
1886. The Institute.
Brerne—Société de Géographie de Berne. Jahresbericht,
Vol. viii., 1885 to 1887. The Society.
Schweiz Department des Innern. Graphische Dars-
tellung der Schweizerischen hydrometrischen Beo-
bachtungen, Bl. i.,1ia., 1b., 11., lia., 110., 1i1., 1V., V., Vi.
The Department.
BirnuincHam—Birmingham and Midland Institute. Pro-
eramme for Session 1887-88. Report of the Council
for the year 1887. The Institute.
Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol.
v., Part 2, Session 1886-87. The Society.
Botoegna—k. Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di
Bologna. Memorie, Serie iv., Tome vi., 1884, and
vil., 1886. The Academy.
BRAUNSCHWEIG—Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaft. Jahres-
bericht, Vol. v., 1886 bis 1887. The Society.
Brispane—Acclimatisation Society of Queensland. Cata-
logue of Plants in the two Metropolitan Gardens,
the Brisbane Botanic Garden and Bowen Park, by
F. M. Baily, F.L.S. List of Plants usually available
for Distribution at the Acclimatisation Society’s
Gardens, Bowen Park, Brisbane.
Bristot—Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings, New
Series, Vol. v., Part 2, 1886-7. Annual Report for
the year ending 30th April, 1887.
CatcuTTa—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. liv., —
Part ii., No. 4, 1885; Vol. lv., Part ii., No. 5, 1886;
Vol. lvi., Part ii., No. J], 1887. Proceedings, Nos.
6, 7, 8, June, July, August, 1887.
D—May 2, 1888.
33
33
5O PROCEEDINGS.
CatcurTra—Continued. |
Geological Survey of India. A Manual of the Geology : c
of India, Partiv. Mineralogy, 1887. Memoirs of 7
the Geological Survey of india, Vol. xxiy., Part 1,
1887. Memoirs (Paleontologia Indica), Series x.,
Vol. iv., Part 3, 1887. Records, Vol. xx., Part 4.
1887. The Director. —
CAMBRIDGE—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceed- °
ings, Vol. vi., Parts 2 and 3, 1887. The Society.
CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at
Harvard College. Annual Report of the Curator
for 1886-87. Bulletin, Vol. xiii., Nos.5and6, 1887.
Memoirs, Vol. xvi., Nos. 1 and 2, 1887. The Museum.
Psyche, Vol. v., Nos. 141-142, Jan.-Feb., 1838. The Editor.
CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA. Universityof Virginia. Annals of
Mathematics, Vol. iii., Nos. 4 and 5, 1887. The University.
CincinnatTI—Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal,
Vol. x., No. 4, Jian., 1888: The Society.
CoPpENHAGEN—Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
Mémoires, Nouvelle Série, 1887. Tilleg til Aarboger
for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie Aargang,
1886. ae
Corpopa—Academia Nacional de Ciencias.—Actas, Tomo v.,
Entrega Tercera, 1886. 5 The Academy.
Drespen—Kodnielich Sichsische Statistische Bureau. Statis-
tische Mittheilungen tiber die Grundstticken-
Zusammenlegungen im Koénigreiche Sachsen vom
Jahre, 1833, bis zum 30 Juni, 1887. [Supplement
heft zur Zeitschrift, xxxuli., Jahr., 1887. The Bureau.
Dustin—Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Journal,
Vol. xvili., Part 2, New Series, Vol. vii., Part 2,
1886-1887. The Society.
Epinspureu—Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The
Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. iti., No. 12,
1887; Vol. iv., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1888. ms
Frorence—Societa Atricana d’ Italia (Sezione Fiorentina).
Bullettino, Vol. iii., Fase. 7, 1887, Fasc. 8, 1888. e
Societa Entomologica Italiana. Bullettino, Vol. xix., )
Trimestri 3 & 4, 1887. 9 ;
GEELONG—Gordon Technical College. Constitution and Pro-
gress Report, 1887. The College.
GoTTiInceEN—KoOniel. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und
der Georg-Augusts-Universitit. Nachrichten, Nos.
1-20, 1886. The Society.
Hatirax—Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.
Proceedings and Transactions, Vol vi., Part 3,
1884-5. The Institute.
Hamsure—Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. Meteoro-
logische Zeitschrift, Heft 11 and 12, 1887; Heft
1, 2 and 3, 1888. The Society.
PROCEEDINGS. HL
HamBurcu—Cont nued.
Deutsche Seewarte. Aus dem Archiv der Deutschen
Seewarte, vil., Jahrgang, 1884. Deutsche Ueber-
seeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen, Heft 1,
1883-87. Meteorologische Beobachtungen in
Deutschland, fiir 1878-1885, Jahrgang, 1.-vili., incl.
Resultate Meteorologischer Beobachtungen von
Deutschen und Hollindischen Schiffen fiir Hingrad-
felder des Nordatlantischen Ozeans, Nos. i.-vil.,
1880-1887. The Observatory.
Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. Mitthei-
Iungen, Heft iii., 1885-86. The Society.
Naturhistorisches Museum zu Hamburg, Bericht fiir das
Jahr., 1886. The Museum.
Haritem—Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives des
Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Tome xxii., Liv.
2 and 38, 1887. The Society.
Hermetserc—Naturhistorisch Medicinischer Verein. Ver- ‘
handlungen, Neue Folge, Band iv., Heft 1, 1887. as
Hozart—Royal Society of Tasmania. Abstract of Pro-
ceedings, 21st Nov. 1887. et
Towa City—lowa Weather Service. Report for the year
1886. The Director.
JENA—Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Jenaische Zeitschrift, Band xxi., N.F. Band xiv.,
Heft 1 to 4, 1887. The Society.
Kierr—Société des Naturalistes de Kieff. Mémoires,
Supplément au Tome viii., 1887. ik
Lztpziea—Koniglich Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften. Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen,
Mathematisch-Physische Classe, Nos. i., ii., 1887. ve
Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mittheilungen, Heft 1, 2and3,
1886. »
Lizge—Société Royale des Sciences. Mémoires, Série 2,
Tome xiv., 1888. a
Loxpon—Geological Society. List of the Geological Society
of London, Nov. 1, 1887. Quarterly Journal,
Vol. xliii., Part 4, No. 172, Nov. 1, 1887; Vol. xliv.,
Part 1, No. 173, Feb. 1, 1888. re,
Institution of Naval Architects. Transactions, Vol.
XXVlll1., 1887. The Institution.
Tron and Steel Institute. Journal, No. 2, 1887. ne
Linnean Society. Journal—Botany, Vol. xxiii., Nos.
152-154,-1887; Vol. xxiv., Nos. 160, 161, 1887.
Zoology, Vol. xx., No.118, 1887; Vol. xxi., No. 130,
1887; Vol. xxii., Nos. 186-138, 1887-8. List of the
Linnean Society of London, Session 1887-1888,
Dec., 1887. The Society.
52 PROCEEDINGS.
Lonpon— Continued.
Meteorological Office. Hourly Readings, Part iv.,
Oct.-Dec., 1884, Official No. 70; Part i., Jan.-Mar.,
1885, Official No. 74. Monthly Weather Report,
December, 1886, Official No. 68. Quarterly
Weather Report, Part iv., Oct.-Dec., 1878, Official
‘No. 55; Partsi. and i., Jan.-June, 1879, Official
No. 49. Weekly Weather Report, Vol. iv., Nos.
12-45, 28th Mar.-14th Nov., 1887. Quarterly Sum-
mary of Ditto, Vol. iv., Appendix 1, Ist, 2nd, and
3rd Quarters. The Meteorological Office.
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Calendar,
1888. Journal and Transactions, Vol. xviii. (Third
Series), Parts 208-210, Oct.-Dec., 1887; Part 211,
Jan., 1888.
Quekett Microscopical Club. Jonrnal, Ser. ii., Vol. iii.,
No. 20, Dec., 1887.
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Journal, New Series, Vol. xix., Part 4, 1887;
Vol xx. Parc lei sss:
Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol.
xlviu., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1887-8.
Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings, New Monthly
Series, Vol. ix., No. 12, 1887; Vol. x., Nos. 1 & 2,
1888.
Royal Historical Society. England and Napoleon in
1808. Edited by Oscar Browning, M.A., 1887.
The Teaching of History in Schools, by Oscar
Browning, M.A., 1887.
Royal Institution of Great Britain. List of the Mem-
bers, 1887. Proceedings, Vol. xii., Part 1, No. 81,
The Society.
The Club.
The Society.
33
1887. The Institution.
Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol.
xiii., No. 63, July, 1887. The Meteorological Record,
Vol. vii., No. 26, 1887.
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Part 6a, No. 61,
Dec., 1887; Part 1, No. 62, Feb., 1888. List of
Fellows, 1888.
Royal Society. Proceedings, Vol. xl., No. 245.
Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xxxi.,
Nos. 141 and 142. Index of the Lectures and Papers
contained in Vols. xxi.-xxx. List of Members to
1st January, 1888. A Brief History of the Royal
United Service Institution, by Captain Boughey
The Society.
33
3)
Burgess, 1887. The Institution,
Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Part iii.,
1887.
MancuHeEstER—Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xix.,
Parts i.-x., Session 1886-87.
Marpurc—University. Seventy-six (76) Inaugural Dis-
sertations, 1886-87. The University.
The Society.
33
PROCEEDINGS. 53
MeEtsourne—Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist, Vol. iv., Nos. 8-12, 1887-8. The Club.
Government Botanist. Iconography of Australian
Species of Acacia and Cognate Genera, by Baron
F. von Mueller, K.C.M.G., M. & Ph. D., F.BS.,
Decade v., vi., Vil., Viil., 1887. The Govt, Botanist.
Government Statist. Victorian Year Book for 1886-7.
The Govt. Statist.
Mining Department. The Gold-Fields of Victoria.
Reports of the Mining Registrars for the Quarter
ended 31st December, 1887. The Secretary for Mines.
Public Library, Museums and National Gallery of Vic-
toria, Report of the Trustees for 1886. Natural
History of Victoria. Prodromus of the Zoology of
Victoria, by Frederick McCoy, C.M.G., M.A.,
Se. D., Cantab., F.R.S., Decade xv., 1887.
The Director of the Museum.
Mexitco—Sociedad Cientifica “‘ Antonio Alzate.’? Memorias,
Tome i., Cuaderno num 4 & 5, 1887. The Society.
Minneapouis—Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences.
Bulletin, 1875, 1878 and 1879, Vol. ii., No. 1, 1880.
Constitution and By-Laws, with Address of Pre-
sident, List of Officers and Committees for 1873. The Academy.
Moprna—Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in
Modena. Memorie, Serie i., Tome xx., Parte iii.,
1882 ; Serie 11., Tome iv., 1886. *s
Montreat—Natural History Society. The Canadian Record
of Science, Vol. iu1., No. 1, 1888. The Society.
Moscow—Société Impériale des Naturalistes. Bulletin,
Nouvelle serie, Tomei., 1887. Beilage, Nouvelle
serie, 'l'ome i., 1887. 23
MuxuHovuse—Société Industrielle. Bulletin de Septembre-
Decembre, 1887. 2
Muncuen—K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhand-
lungen der Mathematisch-Physikalischen Classe,
Band xv., Abth. 2 & 3, 1885-6; Band xvi., Abth. 1,
1887. Sitzungsberichte Mathematisch-Physik-
alischen Classe, Heft. 11.-iv., 1884; Hefti.-iv., 1885;
i Heft i.-i1i., 1886. Inhaltsverzeichniss der Sitzungs-
berichte, Jahrgang, 1871-1885. Gedachtnissrede
auf Carl Theodor v. Siebold; von Richard Hertwig,
1886 ; Gedaichtnissrede auf Joseph von Fraunhofer ;
von Carl Max v. Bauernfeind, 1887. The Academy.
Napues—Societa Africana d’Italia. Bollettino, Anno v1.,
Fasc. 9-12, 1887; Anno vii., Fasc. 1-2, 1888. The Society.
Societa Reale di Napoli. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia
delle Scienze Fisiche e matematiche, Anno xxv.,
Fasc. 4-12, 1886. The Academy.
Stazione Zoologica. Mittheilungen, Band vii., Heft
3 & 4, 1887. The Station.
54. PROCEEDINGS.
NewcastLe-upon-Tyne—North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Transactions,
Vol. xxxvi., Part iv.; Vol. xxxvii., Part i., 1887. The Institute.
New Yorx—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. ix.,
Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 9, 1887. The Society.
American Geographical Society. Bulletin, Vol. xix.,
Nos. 8 and 4, 1887. a
Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery. Vol. ix.,
No. 1, 1888. The Editor.
Science. Vol. x., Nos. 246-256, 1887; Vol. xi., Nos.
257-265, 1888. ie
New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. iv.,
Nos. 1 and 2, 1887. The Academy.
New York Microscopical Society. Journal, Vol. iii.,
No. 4, 1887; Vol. iv., No. 1, 1888. The Society.
School of Mines, Columbia College. School of Mines
Quarterly, Vol. ix., Nos. 1 and 2, 1887-8. The School of Mines.
OrrawA—Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada.
Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part iii., Apetale,
by John Macoun, M.A., F.L.S. The Director.
Oxrorp—Radcliffe Library. Catalogue of Transactions of
Societies, Periodicals and Memoirs, Fourth Edition,
1887.
Radcliffe Observatory. Results of Astronomical and
Meteorological Observations in 1884, Vol xlii.
The Radcliffe Trustees.
Paris—-Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France.
Comptes Rendus, Tome cv., No. 10 and Nos. 14 to
26, 1887. The Academy.
Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série iii.,
Tome x., Fase. 3, 1887. The Society.
Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires,
Série 8, Tome iv., Nos. 33 to 42, 1887; Tome v.,
Nos. 1 to 10, 1888. a
Société de Géographie. Bulletin, Série 7, Tome viii.,
Trimestre 2,3 & 4, 1887. Compte Rendu, Nos. 13
to 16, 1887; Nos. 1 to 8, 1888. f
Société Entomologique de France. Bulletin, Nos. 13
to 24, 1887. “
Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, Série 3,
Tome xv., No. 6, 1887. "-
Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome x.,
Nos. 7, 8, 9, 1887; Tome xi., No. 1, 1888. pr
Société Francaise de Physique. Réunion, 2nd & 16th
Dec., 1887, 6th & 20th Jan., 3rd & 17th Feb.,
2nd & 16th Mar., 1888. Séances, Avril-Juillet, 1887. iy
Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Vol. xii.,
Parts 5 & 6, 1887; Vol. xiii., Part 1, 1888. Fe
PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings,
Parti., January-April, 1887. The Academy.
American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol.
xxiv., No. 125, 1887. The Society.
Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxxv., Nos. 745, 746,
747, 1888. The Institute.
PROCEEDINGS. 5D
Port Lovuis—Royal Alfred Observatory. Annual Report
of the Director for the year 1886. Mauritius,
Meteorological Results for 1886. The Observatory.
Rome— Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno
XXXVli., Sessione 6a-8a, 1884; Anno xxxviil.,
Sessione la-4a, 1884-5; Anno xl., Sessione 7a-8a,
1887; Anno xli., Sessione la-3a, 1887- 8. The Leer
Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Giornale del Genio
Civile, Serie 5, Vol i., Nos. 9-12, 1887; Vol. i1.,
Fascicolo 1, 1888. The Minister of Public Instruction, Rome:
R. Comitato Geologico d’Italia. Bollettino, Nos. 7 to 12,
1887. The Committee.
Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Serie 2, Vol. xii.,
Fasc. 10-12, 1887; Serie 3, Vol.i., Fasc. 1 & 2, 1888. The Society.
Rio DE JANEIRO—Imperial Observatorio. Revista do Ob-
servatorio, Anno ui., No. 1, Jan., 1888. The Observatory.
Saint Ht1eEnnNE—Société de lIndustrie Minerale. Bulletin,
Série 2, Tome xv., Liv. 3 & 4, 1886, and Atlas ;
Série 3, Tome i., Liv. 3, 1887, and Atlas. ‘Table
Générale des Matiéres, Série 2, Tome i.-xv.,
1871-86. Comptes Rendus Mensuels, Nos. 14, 15, 16,
Oct., Nov., Dec., 1887, and Jan., 1888. The Society.
St. PerersBuRGH— Academie Impériale des Sciences. Bul-
letin, Tome xxxi., No. 4, 1887. The Academy.
Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines. Bulletins,
Tome vi., Nos. 8-10, and Supplement. Mémoires,
Vol. ii., Nos. 4 & 5, Vol. iii., No. 3. The Committee.
SALEM—Essex Institute. Bulletin, Vol. xviii., Nos. 1-12,
1886. Historical Collections, Nos. 1-12, 1886. The Institute.
San Francisco—California Academy of Sciences. Bulletin,
Vol. ii., Nos. 6 & 7, 1887. The Academy.
S1z~nA—Regia Accademia dei Fisiocritici. Atti, Serie 3,
Vol. iv., Fase. 1-4, 1885-7.
Sincapore—Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Journal, No. 18, December, 1886. The Society.
32
Sypney—Australian Museum. Descriptive Catalogue of
the Meduse of the Australian Seas, by R. von
Lendenfeld, Ph.D., 1887. History and Description
of the Skeleton of a New Sperm Whale lately set
up in the Australian Museum, by W. S. Wall,
Curator, 1851; reprinted by order of the Trustees,
1887. The Trustees.
Free Public Library. Report from Trustees for 1887-8. an
Linnean Society of New South Wales. Proceedings,
Second Series, Vol. ii., Part 4, 1887. The Society.
Mining Department. Royal Commission—Conservation ©
of Water—Third and Final Report of the Com-
missioners. The Department.
56 PROCEEDINGS.
SypnEy—Continued.
Royal Geographical Society, N.S.W. Branch. Pro-
ceedings of the Geographical Society of Australasia,
New South Wales and Victorian Branches, Vol. i.,
Ist Session, 1883-4; Vol. ii., 2nd Session, 1884.
Proceedings of the South Australian Branch, Vol.i.,
Ist Session, 1885-6. Special Record of the Pro-
ceedings of the Geographical Society of Australasia
in fitting out and starting the Exploratory Expedi-
tion to New Guinea, July, 1885. Annual Addresses
to the N.S.W. Branch, 1884-5 and 1885-6, by Sir
Edward Strickland, K.C.B., F.R.G.S. New Con-
stitution of the N.S.W. Branch, adopted 17th June,
1886. The Society.
Sturreart—Konigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Wiirt-
tembergische Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landes-
kunde, Jahreang, 1886, 1. Band, 1 Halfte ; 1 Halfte, :
1 Heft & 3 Heft; ii. Band, 2 Hilfe. The Bureau.
Tox1io—Seismological Society of Japan. Transactions,
Vol. xi., 1887. . The Society.
Toronto—Canadian Institute. Proceedings, Third Series,
Vol. v., Fasc. 1, 1887. The Institute.
TouLousr—Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres. Mémoires, Série 8, Tome ix., 1887. The Academy.
TRIESTE—Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali. Bollettino,
Vol. x., 1887. The Society.
VenicE—Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
Atti, Serie 6, Tomo i., Dispensa 10, 1884-5 ;
Tomo iv., Dispensa 1-10 and Appendice, 1885-6 ;
Tomo v., Dispensa 1, 1886-7. The Institute.
Vienna—Anthropologische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen,
Band xvi., Heft 1 & 2, 1886 ; Band xvii., Heft 1&2,
1887. The Society..
_ Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungs-
berichte (Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche
Classe), Abtheilung 1, Band xcill., Heft 4 & 5,
1886 ; Abtheilung 2, Band xciii., Heft 3 to 5, 1886 ;
Abtheilung 3, Band xciii., Heft 1 to 5, 1886;
9 1, 39 XCiV., ” 1 to 5, 2”
39 2, 35 33 bE) 1 to 5, 33
3° 3, 3) 33 33 il to 5, 33
es 2, sa CWE » Ll & 2, 1887. The Academy.
K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseum. Annalen, Band ii.,
Nos. 3 & 4, 1887; Band ii1., No. 1, 1888. The Museum.
Wasuineron—Bureau of Education. Circulars of Infor-
mation, Nos. 1 & 2, 1887. The Bureau.
Bureau of Ethnology. Fourth Annual Report, 1882-82. x
Commissioner of Agriculture. Report for 1886. The Commissioner.
PROCEEDINGS. 57
W AsHINGTON— Continued.
Director of the Mint. Annual Report for the Fiscal
Year ended June 30, 1887. Report of the Director
of the Mint upon the Production of the Precious
Metals in the United States during the Calendar
Years 1883, 1884, 1885. The Director.
Hydrographic Office. Annual Report of the Hydro-
erapher to the Bureau of Navigation for the Fiscal
Year ending June 30, 1887. Notice to Mariners,
Nos. 28, 35 to 51 incl., 1887; Nos. 1 to 6, 1888.
CHARTS.
Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic Ocean, October
to December, 1887, January, February, 1888 ;
No. 1016, N.A., West Coast of Central America,
San Juan del Sur to Judas Point; No. 1037, C.A.,
West Coast of Costa Rica, Gulf of Dulce.
The U.S. Hydrographer.
National Academy of Sciences. Memoirs, Vol. iii.,
Part 2, 1886. The Academy.
Secretary of the Treasury. Annual Report on the State
of the Finances for the Year 1887. (No. 1028,
Ist Edit.) and (No. 1028, 3rd Edit.) The Secretary.
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board
of Regents to July, 1885, Part 1. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, No. 480, 1883 (viz.,
Classified List of Publications of the Smithsonian
Institution.) Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry,
Vols. i. & ii., 1886. The Institution.
United States Geological Survey. Annual Report
(Sixth) of the U.S. Geological Survey to the
Secretary of the Interior, 1884-85. Bulletin,
Nos. 34 to 39 incl. The Director.
We .uineton, N.Z.—Colonial Museum and Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Annual Report (Twenty-second)
on the Colonial Museum and Laboratory, 1886-87.
Reports of Geological Explorations during 1885,
1886-87. Index to Reports of the Geological
Survey of New Zealand, from 1866 to 1885 inclusive.
Studies in Biology for New Zealand Students,
No. 3. The Anatomy of the Common Mussels
(Mytilus Latus, seen and Magellanicus), by Alex.
Purdie, M.A. The Director.
Winnieec—Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
Annual Report for the Year 1886-7. Transactions,
Nos. 22 to 29 incl., 1886-7, The Society.
MISCELLANEOUS.
(Names of Donors are in Italics.)
Allen, T. F., M.D., LL.D.—The Characez of America,
Part 1. The Publishers.
Ashburner, Charles A., C.E.—The Geologic Distribution of
Natural Gas in the United States. The Geologic
Relations of the Nanticoke Disaster. The Author.
58 PROCEEDINGS.
Compte Rendu des Séances dela Commission Internationale
de Nomenclature Géologique tenues 4 Manchester
en Aotit et Septembre, 1887, par les soins de
J. Capellini, Président de la Commission.
Profr. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.
Esperanto, Dr.—Langue Internationale Préface et Manuel
Complet. (Por France, 0, j.) The Author.
Export Journal, Vol. i., No. 6, Dec., 1887. The Publisher.
Macadam, Profr. W. Ivison, F.S.A., Scot.—Notes on the
Ancient Iron Industry of Scotland. The Author.
Maiden, J. H., F.R.G.S.—Notes on some Indigenous Sago
and Tobacco from New Guinea. The Olive, and
Olive Oil; being notes on the culture of the tree
and extraction of the oil, as carried out in South
Australia and the Continent of Europe. af
Merck, E.—Notes on some Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Preparations. 2
Peek, C. E., M.A.—Report of the Rousdon Observatory, . |
Lyme Regis, England, for 1887. Bs )
Praktische Physik, 1 Jahrgane, 1888, Heft 3. The Publisher.
Roscoe, Sir Henry E., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S., &e.—Presiden-
tial Address to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Manchester, 1887.
Profr. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.
Schwerer, Emile.—Les Relations Récipreques des Grands
Agents de la Nature, d’aprés les Travaux récents
de MM. Hirn et Clausius. The Author.
Tebbutt, John, F.R.A.S., &c.—History and Description of |
Mr. Tebbutt’s Observatory, Windsor, N.S.W. Ag
The Australian Century, Vol. i., No. 3, April, 1888. The Publishers.
The Chemist and Druggist of Australasia, Vol. iv., No. 3, |
April, 1888. rf |
The Illustrated Sydney News, Vol. xxiv., No. 6, June, 1887 ;
Vol. xxv., No. 3, Mar., 1888.
The Publisher, Nos. 7 & 15, 1887; No. 17, 1888.
Tribner’s American, European, and Oriental Literary Record,
No. 235 & 236, 1887.
59
FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES AND
ITS EFFECTS ON THE FLOW OF WATER IN WATER-
COURSES AND ON THE RAINFALL.
By W. E. Axsott, Wingen.
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., June 6, 1888. |
In July, 1880, an essay which I wrote on “ Ring-barking and its
Effects,” was read before this Society, and will be found in the
Journal for that year. My object now is to lay before the
members of the Royal Society, and place on record for future use,
the results of observations and experiments which I have made
on the same land, and on land adjoining that of which I then
wrote. In my former essay I showed what had been the effect
during a period of ten years of destroying the natural forest
growth on some land of my own in the watershed of the Upper
Hunter River, and what had been the general effect of ring-barking
in that part of New South Wales for a period of about twenty
years. The land of which I wrote is situated about twelve miles
south-east of Murrurundi, on the Page River, a small tributary
of the Hunter, has been in the possession of my family for more
than forty years, and has been under my personal observation
since I was old enough to observe anything. Writing in 1880,
I showed that from 1847 to 1870 all the small creeks—and they
are very numerous on this estate—had been dry water-courses
never containing any water except for a short time after rain had
fallen, and never running permanently throughout the summer
no matter how favourable the season might be. In 1869, ’70,
and 71, a considerable portion of the land was ring-barked for
the purpose of sweetening and improving the grass, but without
any idea of what the effect might be on the flow of water in the
creeks or water-courses or on the rainfall. At that time, as now,
many of the wise men of New South Wales told us that the effect
of destroying the forest growth would be to dry up the springs
and rivers, and reduce the rainfall of the country. We were
told that this had been the invariable result of forest destruction
in Europe and in America, and must be the inevitable effect of
such action here. We were urged to conserve the forests already
in existence, and plant the great western plains of New South
Wales with trees for the purpose of increasing the annual rainfall
and the natural water supply. A late President of this Society
60 FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
and a very eminent scientist, perhaps the most eminent in his own
line that has yet appeared in Australia, was among the chief
exponents of these views. It was then, and seems now to be
generally accepted that it is the trees that produce the rain, and
not the rain that produces the trees, and yet it seems to me that.
a very little thought will show the converse of this to be true.
Rain may fall and does fall in the absence of forests, but it would
be somewhat difficult for the forests to grow unless the rain
fell first.
The results of forest destruction at Glengarry, on the Page
River, were very remarkable, and similar results have followed
in a greater or less degree in all cases that have come within my
knowledge in the watershed of the Hunter River.
All the dry water-courses or creeks that were of any size in the
ring-barked country became permanently flowing streams, and
even in the small gullies less than half a mile in length springs
broke out which are fairly permanent in most seasons. So that
a country which from 1847 to 1870 was without any water except
that contained in the Page River on the frontage, after having
the forest destroyed became so watered throughout its whole
extent, that one cannot go in any direction for more than half a
mile without coming across running water.
And these springs and permanently flowing rivulets that were
produced on Glengarry by the destruction of the forests about the
year 1870 have remained permanent ever since, notwithstanding
the severe and very protracted droughts through which we have
passed in the last eighteen years. Of course they have been
affected by the droughts, and the quantity of water in them very
much reduced as has been the case with all sources of water
supply in the Colony; but even in the most severe drought,
which ended here in March, 1886, the supply of water in these
rivulets and springs was ample for all purposes. The drought.
which ended here in the beginning of 1886 was, as shown by the
rainfall records of the Government Observatory, one of the most
severe experienced since the Settlement of the Colony, or at any
rate since records have been kept, and the chief characteristic
of this drought was the unusvally long run of dry years in which
the rainfall at almost all the recording stations throughout the
Colony was below the average for each place.
In this part of the country there has not been any rainfall
record kept farther back than 1870, and my own record only goes.
back to 1876; but there is on one of the mountains on Glengarry
what may be regarded as a natural drought-gage. Very nearly
on the top of the Lagoon Mountain, there is a lagoon or small
lake at an elevation of over 3,000 feet above sea level, about
70 yards in length and of considerable depth. This lagoon has a.
FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 61
very small drainage area and was dry some time between 1848
and 1851, and never dried up again until the end of 1885. The.
whole of the country on the Lagoon Mountain remains in the
same state now as in 1848 and previous years, or since it was
first occupied. Here we have, I think, in the absence of any
regularly kept records of rainfall, tolerably good proof that the
drought which ended in the beginning of 1886 was at least as
severe as anything experienced in the ‘40 years previous, and yet
the rivulets and springs which we may say were artificially
produced withstood its utmost severity.
My reason for placing these facts before you now, is to point
out that the extremely remarkable results which followed forest
destruction on Glengarry have not been of a temporary character,
and have not been due to a coincident change in the seasons.
When I wrote last, I placed before the members of this Society
the results of some measurements of the permanent flow of water
in three water-courses, which had begun to flow iminediately the
natural forest growth had been destroyed, and which previously
as far back as any knowledge of them could be obtained had been
dry water-courses. These measurements had been carefully made
by myself, without regard to the flood water or freshets after
rain, and gave the permanent flow of water averaging the three
water-courses at about one-fortieth of the rainfall, and the
measurements were made after a somewhat dry period. The
whole of the water shown by these measurements was evidently
additional water to that which would have been found in these
water-courses before the forests were destroyed, though they did
not show the whole of the additional water. From that time up
to the present all these streams have continued to flow, and
though they were much reduced in volume towards the end of
1885, they did not fail to give an ample supply of water for all
purposes even after the Page River had stopped running in many
places. In addition to this, over a large area of country which
I have had ring-barked since 1880, precisely similar results to
those first recorded have followed. It is generally held, I believe,
that the surest test of scientific knowledge is that we shall be
able to predict beforehand the results that will follow from certain
combinations, forces put in operation, or work done.
Now, I think, with the mass of evidence ready to our hands,
which has been accumulating in many parts of the Colony during
the last thirty years, it is quite possible to predict with absolute
certainty that in any given case where the character and general
fall of the country is such that an extra supply of water in the
ground would make its presence apparent in the water-courses,
the effect of destroying the natural eucalyptus forests will be
to cause a permanent increase of water in such water-courses, and
62 FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
produce springs where there were none before. I have myself
fenced in dry country, and afterwards produced permanently
running streams by simply ring-barking the trees, and this ] have
been able to do because the country was in all respects similar to
other country which had been operated on before.
Of course, the geological formation as well as the contour of
the country has much to do with the question, whether
deforestation in any given case will produce surface water or not.
In many parts of the country where there are deep-lying beds of
sand or gravel, an increased flow of water produced by ring-barking
would not make itself apparent on the surface or in the water-
courses or creeks. The volume of underground water would be
increased, but not sufficiently to bring it to the surface of even as
high as the beds of the creeks, and the increased volume would
find its way to the main rivers by the old underground channels.
The country upon which I have operated consists of basaltic
ranges and valleys, some of the ranges of considerable elevation
covered principally with white box timber, a species of eucalyptus
not hitherto noted for very rapid growth or for any unusual power
of withdrawing moisture from the soil. The height above sea
level varies from about 1,300 feet to about 2,500 feet. The
distance due east from the sea coast is from 70 to 80 miles ;
latitude 31° 55’, longitude 150° 50". In no case is there any sand
or gravel in the formation, but in other parts of the Colony I
have known ring-barking to produce water in sandstone and
gravelly country. The soil is not very deep, varying from two to.
three feet to about twenty feet, and the creeks all run on the
basaltic bottom rock. It is a centre of long continued volcanic
disturbance, surrounded on all sides by the older coal measures
tilted against the volcanic ranges at various angles of inclination
and broken up in every direction.
It may be thought that my experience is exceptional, and it
will no doubt be asserted that the change which has come over
the country which I hold since the forests were destroyed is due
to other and unknown causes. The facts which I have given
here are undeniable and may be verified any day, and I do not
think my experience is exceptionable. It certainly is not in this
part of the Colony, and I have made inquiry in many parts of
New South Wales, and found in nearly all cases that the result
of ring-barking was to increase the flow of water in the water-
courses and cause the outburst of fresh springs. In one case on
the Upper Namoi River, where ring-barking did not apparently
increase the flow of water in the creeks, the banks of the river in
many places just above water level became boggy, showing an
additional inflow of water, which I think accounts satisfactorily
for the non-increase in the smaller water-courses. The formation
FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 63
there differed from that at Glengarry, and the increased volume
of water in the ground caused by ring-barking evidently found its
way to the main river channel throngh the lnes of stratification,
or through underground sand or gravel beds. Where this does
not occur, and where the country is mountainous or undulating,
the result of destroying the eucalyptus forests in New South Wales
is I think invariably to produce an increased flow of water in the
water-courses, and to cause springs of water to appear where
before there were none.
With reference to the theory that growing forests attract the
clouds, and so cause rain to fa!] in their immediate neighbourhood
when without their presence it would not have fallen, I will not
say much. Our present knowledge of the causes, apart from
prevailing winds which determine the rainfall of any particular
place from year to year, and make one year differ from another
year, and one series of years differ from another series of years,
is vague and indefinite in the extreme. We know that winds
coming from certain directions generally but not invariably cause
rain to fall or are accompanied by a fall of rain, and that winds
from other directions are generally accompanied by dry weather,
and we can make some sort of a guess why this should be so, but
why the wind should blow more constantly from one direction
one year, and from a different direction another year, we are
unable to tell. Noone, I am sure, will contend that the direction,
force, and quantity of wind from year to year, can possibly be
determined by forest growth or forest destruction at any particular
place. The changes are far too rapid to be accounted for in this
way, and the extent of sea and land over which a steady wind,
lasting even for a week, will have travelled is so great that it
cannot be accounted for by the local conditions of any one country
or even of any one continent. If this be so, when we assert that
by cutting down a few trees we are reducing the rainfall, or that
by planting a few trees we are increasing the rainfall, are we not
acting in much the same way as the fly which perched on the
waggon wheel and exclaimed in exultation, ‘‘See what a dust I
am making.”
The rainfall records kept at Paris, and covering about two
centuries, show no decline in the rainfall of that place, though
the changes which man is capable of producing have been there
very great within the time covered by the record. Some
records in the Eastern States of America cover more than a
century, and show no sign of any decline in the average rainfall,
although in those States during the time over which the record
extends, the amount of forest destruction going on has been
greater than in any other part of the World. These records, like
all others that have been kept for a sufficiently long period, vary
64 FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
very much within not very well defined limits, always swinging
back as it were but with the greatest possible irregularity, and
the changes are not coincident either in time or sequence with
any known local terrestrial or cosmical changes which might be
supposed to have produced them. The reason of our inability to
forecast the rainfall of any particular place, even for one year or
one day, must be that the causes which determine such rainfall
are infinitely numerous, and their interaction on each other so
complicated that results are very rarely repeated. If this were
not so, we would before now have gained even a little foothold of
safe standing ground. As the ages roll on, if civilization and
progress continue, gradually accumulated records and experiences
may enable the scientist of the future to do what for us is
impossible, but at present I am afraid the outlook is not hopeful.
Our work is to accumulate the records and experiences.
Of course it may be contended that rainfall having been
determined by other remote and complicated causes, might be
slightly increased or reduced in quantity by the presence or
absence of growing trees at any particular place. To prove or
disprove this is impossible, until we are able to say beforehand in
the presence or absence of trees what would have been the exact
rainfall of any particular place on the earth’s surface for any year
or any series of years. In the absence of any such knowledge
one way or the other, I think we may safely consider our
convenience, and disregard even this much modified claim, which
is by no means what is usually meant when people assert that
forest destruction causes drought. There is one line of inquiry
which I have often thought might possibly, if patiently and
laboriously followed up, lead to some practical result in the way
of enabling us to make some approach to the prediction of seasons
for any particular place. It has not yet as far as I know been
tried. With the most careful research, the finest instruments,
and the greatest intelligence which the nineteenth century has
produced, we cannot find for any given place in the varying
records of the occurrence of droughts and floods, any order or
sequence which will enable us to predict the season even for one
year or one day in advance, or to say whether the coming year
will be a year of drought or of flood ; yet there may be a way
different from that generally tried by which such knowledge
might in some measure be gained. The attempt to find a saros
for the seasons, like that discovered by the Chaldean priests for
the moon’s changes, has always failed, and there does not seem to
be now even the slightest indication that such a thing will ever
be found; but though we cannot predict the changes of the
‘seasons for a century in advance as the moon’s changes of position
‘may be predicted, yet there may be a possibility of our attaining
FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 65
knowledge sufficient to enable us to predict the seasons for a
considerable time, perhaps more than a year.
I think it will be generally admitted that the total amount of
heat which the earth with its atmosphere receives from the sun each
year, is so nearly the same that there is no appreciable difference.
Unusually cold summers or warm winters at any one place may be
accounted for, and are accounted for by the varying distribution
of heat on the earth’s surface, caused by atmospheric and oceanic
currents, but they do not affect the total of heat units. This
being so, it follows that the amount of work done by the sun’s
heat falling on the surface of the earth, of lakes, of rivers, and of
the ocean, in raising water by means of evaporation, and holding
it suspended in the atmosphere, must be the same from year to
year. Our atmosphere at a given temperature, or to put it in
another form, charged with a given amount of heat, is only
capable of holding in suspension a certain fixed proportion of
water, so that after the point of saturation is reached, if the
temperature be reduced, some of the water in some form must
return to the surface of the earth or sea.
Now if the quantity of heat received by the earth be the same
from year to year acting on the same surfaces of sea and land,
will it not raise by evaporation precisely the same amount of
water each year. If our atmosphere be only capable with the
same amount of heat each year of holding in suspension the same
quantity of water, is it not certain that there will be a like surplus
in the various forms of rain, hail, and snow, to return again to
the earth’s surface each year. If this be admitted, it follows with
absolute certainty that the total rainfall of the earth’s surface, if
under this designation we include all the forms in which water is.
deposited from the atmosphere, must be precisely the same from
year to year, or can only vary within scarcely appreciable limits.
Though we may not be able to say what the total rainfall of the
earth amounts to, we may be fairly sure that it does not vary
much if atall. This being so, it will follow that an excess of
rainfall—a flood year—in any one part of the World must produce a
deficiency of rainfall—a drought—in some other part of the World,
or it may happen that a very slight reduction of the general
rainfall may supply the excess which produces the local flood.
We cannot tell which of these explanations is true at present,
but if the first be the correct one, we may possibly by comparing
the rainfall records for different parts of the World, and over long
periods of time, be able to find out in what particular places the
droughts and floods compensate each other, and in what order of
time ; in fact, we may be able to say where our surplus rainfall
comes from when we have a flood year, and where the proportion
of our rainfall that is deficient has gone when we have a drought
year. Such knowledge, if attained, would perhaps enable us to
E—June 6, 1888.
fe
i
.
et
7 is
%
a ;
66 FOREST DESTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
predict the seasons for even more than a year, and would certainly
be a valuable addition to the science of meteorology. The opinion
which is prevalent in many parts of this Colony, that a droughty
year in Europe will be followed here by a droughty year within a
given time, seems to indicate a glimmering consciousness of some
such connection as I have endeavoured to trace out.
In conclusion, I will say that for many years I have endeavoured
to find upon what evidence rests the popular opinion that forest
destruction reduces the rainfall of any country and dries up
springs. I have seen many cases quoted where the occurrence of
a severe drought was shown to be coincident with the destruction
of forest in some particular place, but that would not prove
anything, unless it could also be shown that droughts did not
occur before the forests were destroyed, and would not have
occurred if the forest had not been destroyed, and this part of the
proof is always wanting. That large forest growths have been
destroyed in many places without reducing the rainfall or the
flow of water in the streams we have the most undeniable proof, but
_ I do not think there is a single case recorded in the whole World
where an accurately kept record of rainfall and flow of water in
streams, or of either, shows a permanent diminution coincident in
time and corresponding in degree with the gradual diminution of
forests. That there is a connection between rainfall and forest
growth there can be no doubt, nor can we doubt that they stand
to each other in the relation of cause and effect, but the popular
belief has reversed the order of this relation, holding the forest
to be the cause of rainfall when it is in reality one of the effects
of rainfall. From the well known power of the eucalyptus tribe
to dry up swampy places, which has been made use of both in
Europe and America, we might expect that the result of forest
destruction where the trees were of this order would be much
more decided and more quickly apparent, than where the trees
were of a different kind like those of Europe or America, but the
difference is, I think, only a difference in degree not in kind. In
both cases the life of the tree is maintained in the same way, and
we ought to find that forest destruction in Europe or America
produced results similar in character to those produced in
Australia, though perhaps they might differ in degree. For these
reasons, I think, it is now time that those teachers of science
in Europe and America, who hold by and teach the popular theory
that forests do cause increased rainfall and an increased flow of
water in springs and water-courses, and that deforestation does
reduce the rainfall and flow of water in springs and water-courses,
should reconsider their theory and the evidence on which it rests.
This seems to me very necessary in the light of the experience
gained in Australia, where forests are destroyed whol for
pastoral purposes.
67
DIscUSSION.
Mr. F. B. Gipps:—Mr. Abbott has entertained us with
a most interesting paper on the effects of ring-barking or
deforestation, which is the more valuable on account of its being
the result of actual observation. If another such enthusiast, with
opposite views and having similar advantages for observation,
could be induced to enlighten us with the results of his
investigation, we might by comparison of notes be able to arrive
at more decided conclusions on this really most important subject,
especially in a country like this so liable to droughts. It is to be
hoped that this discussion may discover such an observer. For
my own part I have little to add likely to assist in such conclusions,
except an attempt to account for the breaking out of springs
alluded to by Mr. Abbott, and to suggest some reasons why forests
should attract rainfall. There is no questioning his premise that
the breaking out of springs in a country denuded of its forests
by ring-barking is largely affected by its physica] and geological
features. From his description of the geological features of the
range of country covered by his observation, it may safely be
presumed that the springs are of deep-seated origin, whilst his
account of the topography of the country shows that it offers a
favourable position for the bursting out of such springs when
relieved to a certain degreee of atmospheric pressure. But the
flow of such springs is at all times more or less affected by the
condition of the atmosphere. For instance, the approach of heavy
rains is often indicated hours betore by their suddenly bursting
out afresh, or by their larger increase in volume because of the
decrease in the pressure of the atmosphere. Doubtless the
breaking out of springs noted by Mr. Abbot, is due to just the
same decrease of pressure, only from another cause. In the latter
instance this decrease is produced by the effect of the solar rays
on the exposed surface of the ground, which gradually heats the
lower stratum of air, causing it to expand. This expansion
lessens the atmospheric pressure and thus induces the flow of
springs. Perhaps there is no part of the country where this
favorable condition for constant flowing springs can be better
exemplified than at the summit of the Great Divide in the vicinity
of Mount Kosciusko. Here we find innumerable perennial springs
jutting out in every direction on the treeless table lands and
slopes, whilst in the forests, only a short distance below, not a
sign of a spring hardly is to be seen in summer time. This
conclusively proves that there is a greater pressure of atmosphere
E>. Vian
68 DISCUSSION.
over forests than over exposed surfaces, and this is chiefly due to
the cooler temperature the forests by their shade induce. A
forest therefore, though in a modified extent, occupies much the
same position relative to pressure of air as the ocean. The
temperature of the sea is always more equable than that of the
land, owing to the envelope or interposition of innumerable
particles of water that serve to make it cooler in summer and
warmer in winter than the land, and this coolness by attracting
the overflowing air which I have shown the solar heat has forced
upwards from the earth by expansion produces a high pressure on
the sea. The same cause produces a higher pressure of atmosphere
on forests than on exposed surfaces, for a tree interposes a large
shade between the sun and the earth, and therefore lowers the
surface temperature by day and induces humidity by preventing
the too rapid escape of moisture beneath it, and at the same time
by its shade it protects the ground from evaporation. But the
atmosphere just above a forest is constantly absorbing moisture
therefrom, and therefore it is lighter than the current just above
it again, so that it is constantly forced upwards. As these
currents ascend they gradually become cooler, and should their
aqueous vapour meet a stratum of air already laden to dew point,
their additional moisture produces rain. Thus it appears to me
that the very occurrence of springs, as noticed by Mr. Abbott after
the destruction of the forests and where none apparently existed
before, affords pretty conclusive evidence that a condition has
been produced by ring-barking unfavourable to rainfall. Again,
this lowering of the summer temperature and raising of the winter
temperature by forests, is the very cause that induces constant
change of currents productive of rainstorms, for it has been proved
by the charting of winds with isobarometric lines, that the wind
and consequently the rainfall depends on the pressure of the
atmosphere, and therefore on its temperature and humidity. It
has been shown, also, that winds chiefly blow from places where
the pressure of air is high to places where it is low, and that
variable winds are affected by local causes, such as the physical
features of the country whether level or mountainous, the vicinity
of sea or lakes, and lastly such as the prevalence of forest or
desert country. We know, too, that given in any locality an
excess or decrease of atmospheric pressure, temperature, or
moisture, certain atmospheric changes inducing wind take place
to restore the equilibrium thus disturbed, which again influences
rainfall. Now forests, on account of the aqueous vapor rising from
them and the greater pressure of air above them, offer conditions
favourable to these atmospheric changes, and consequently
favourable to the increase of rainfall. Thus it seems to me that
forests must have a direct influence in inducing rainfall, for
which reason they should be carefully cultivated. Whilst then I
DISCUSSION. 69
would destroy all useless trees, I would suggest that especial
attention should be given to the cultivation of thick shady
deciduous trees in their place, such as the chestnut, walnut, plane,
and sycamore trees on the plains and moderately elevated table
lands of the interior, whilst the most valuable species of Californian
pines and cedar should be cultivated on the coast range, in order
to induce as much as possible that alternation of currents
favorable to rainfall.
Mr. H. C. Russert (Government Astronomer) :—I should like
to occupy the time of the Meeting for a few moments, to give
expression to some of my own views upon this subject. It is one,
as some of the members know, I have paid some attention to and
have taken a great interest in, and it is not long since I endeavoured
in the public prints to show that the result of investigations carried
on in France, England, and America, in what seems to me the
most conclusive way of testing the effect of forests on rainfall has
been that no such effect can be discovered. Meteorological
observations have been carried on in France for about 200 years,
and no decrease in the rainfall can be discovered whatever,
although the population of France has increased, and necessarily
the amount of forests destroyed has been very great during that
period. The same has taken place in England and in America.
Now to my mind that is the strongest evidence of all. A great
deal has been made of experiments carried on with the intention
of showing that the temperature of the forest is very much lower
than the surrounding area, and that the amount of rainfall
deposited on the forest is much greater than that deposited on the
plain country near it. But these experiments have continued
only for a short time, and the evidence of different observers is
so contradictory that it must be taken for what it is worth. It
is a difficult thing to ascertain what is the amount of rainfall on
a forest as compared with plain country near it. Then again
we have statements published that forests are warmer than cleared
country at night and cooler by day, and it has been asserted that
because forests are cooler therefore more rain is deposited on them.
I think those who say this must have overlooked the fact that
if the forest is cooler, it is very little cooler, and is a very small
body compared with the great extent of atmosphere above it ; and
everyone knows that if two masses of air of different temperature
are brought together they soon take the mean temperature’ of
the two, but the forest being but little cooler than the atmosphere
and insignificant in extent relatively, it can have scarcely any
effect in lowering the temperature of rain clouds. Again, Nature
has provided us in New South Wales with a great stretch of
plain country and alongside of it a great extent of forest. From
a careful examination of the rain records on both, extending over
several years, I cannot detect any difference in the proportion of
70 DISCUSSION.
rainfall in the plain country and in the forest country, we are
therefore in a position to say that our forests do not increase the
rainfall. Again, it has been conclusively shown within the last
few years that nearly the whole of the circulation of the
atmosphere is a circulation in what is technically called the
cyclone system. We all know what a cyclone is in the ordinary _
sense of the term, but it is only recently known that every wind
is moving under the same laws as do those in intense and therefore
dangerous cyclones: in fact, whenever we have a breeze or
disturbance of the wind: that wind depends upon the relative
heights of the barometer and on certain other circumstances.
These ordinary cyclones are of enormous extent, and rain is found
to be a necessary part of each cyclone. It is just as essential a
feature of the cyclone as that the circulation of the wind is
due to a fall of the atmospheric pressure, and further that the
rainfall which we get from these storms is practically the whole
of the rainfall that is deposited on the surface of the earth.
Rains may occur in other ways, but the amount is relatively
quite inappreciable, in fact, whenever it falls part of a cyclone
system is passing over. These cyclones are from 1,000 to 3,000
miles in diameter, and such a system passes over the earth’s
surface just as a railway carriage passes over it, according to
definite known laws at a definite rate, although the rate varies
from 7 to 20 miles an hour, but still you find that the cyclone is
travelling across the surface of the earth, and it is very little
affected by the surface conditions. I do not see, therefore, how it
is possible that the cutting away of a few trees over a mile or
a hundred miles, can in any way affect the circulation of the
atmosphere in these enormous cyclones which often cover six to
eight millions of square miles. That to my mind is a very strong
argument against the statement that cutting down forests will
affect our rainfall. There is another point: with regard to the
cutting away of forests, and their effect upon rainfall. We know
from a paper Mr. Abbott read here some time ago that three-
fourths of the forest land in the Upper Hunter has been destroyed
by ring-barking, yet if you examine the records, the rainfall in
that ring-barked country is just the same as on the surrounding
country which is not ring-barked ; and I think that is also a strong
argument in favour of the view that forests do not affect rainfall.
There is another circumstance not of so much importance, but still
worth mentioning. Last year the rainfall in this Colony was
heavier than it had been for any year before, since records have
been kept. J ask those who argue that trees produce rainfall if
it is possible that one year’s rainfall should be so excessive compared
with others because trees have been planted, and if the planting
of trees last year or the year before produced the rainfall of 1887,
what has produced the drought of 1888? Not the cutting down
DISCUSSION. 7h
of those trees certainly, because they have not been cut down.
I should like to say also that, as far as I have been able to
investigate the statements that forests produce or increase rain,
generally no data are given 7.¢., the rain measures on cleared and
uncleared forest are not given, in fact there is no scientific data to
go upon. I would point out that not long since a gentleman
holding a high position in a neighbouring colony made a statement,
as reported by an officer in the Austrian service, that millions of
trees had been planted in Victoria, and streams had burst owt in
more than one hundred places. That is the kind of statement
usually made, and, upon enquiry, I found there was not a single
instance in which there was any evidence that the planting of
these trees had produced streams of water. These statements
have been made for a long time till it has grown popular to
believe them, and it is quite sufficient for the majority of persons
40 follow a popular belief.
Mr. Mann :—The result of my experience in this, tends to show
that ring-barking forest trees materially encourages the growth
of other vegetation. Large tracts of country which, previous to
undergoing this process, were poor, barren wastes, almost destitute
of water, are now well-grassed lands, and water in places rendered
permanent or easily obtained. The amount of moisture drawn
from the soil by a large tree, to be partly absorbed by the
atmosphere by means of the leaves and branches, is something
enormous. ‘This is most noticeable in the Illawarra and Coast
Districts, where the vegetation is semi-tropical, and extremely
dense and succulent. Unfortunately ring-harking has generally
been performed in a reckless manner, so that much valuable
timber has unnecessarily been destroyed, while no shelter has
been retained for the protection of stock. Regarding cyclones I
have traced several for many miles by means of the fallen timber
which occupied a strip of country of from one to two hundred
yards wide. These cyclones are very destructive, and ¢wist the
heads off a tree rather than level it. Although the facts given
by Mr. Russell show conclusively that forest country exerts no
influence over the rain-fall, it is possible, that in crossing an open
plain, a cyclone bearing rain-clouds might be diverted from its
course by large patches of forest, and so cause a fall of rain at
those parts. 1am under the impression that the erratic seasons
we have had during the last few years will be shown to be the
result of large islands or fields of ice, which have drifted within
the climatic radius of this country. Not having a Gulf Stream
to regulate the temperature, we are more susceptible to other
influences.
Hon. G. H. Cox :—All those engaged in agricultural or
pastoral pursuits in the country agree that this is a matter of
7) DISCUSSION.
extreme importance. I have given this matter of ring-barking
much attention, and have come to the conclusion just enunciated
by Mr. Russell, that the forests can have little or no influence
whatever upon the rainfall. I think people as a rule confound
cause and effect. I know that on the eastern coast we have large
forests and heavy rainfall. It is not the forests that cause the
rainfall, but the heavy rainfall that causes the forests. J am
also aware that the statements made by Mr. Mann can be borne
out. I know of two instances in which ring-barking has caused
springs to flow where they were not known before. I account
for it in this way. When trees have been killed, the rain instead
of falling only partially upon the earth falls wholly upon it, and
falling upon the decayed leaves of these trees forms large
reservoirs and breaks out into springs. Another curious matter.
On the higher mountains, Mount Wilson for instance, when you
denude the country of trees you make it very much drier. That
is not the rainfall. It isthe mists coming up from the sea. After
a warm summer's day a cool wind springs up from the sea and
brings up a mist. This mist is caught by the trees and vegetation,
and hangs upon these and produces a large amount of fall. The
ground is quite wet, and where there has been a denudation of
trees the ground is quite dry. Iam a believer in ring-barking ;
I do not believe it has any effect on the rainfall, but it tends
rather to produce more moisture in the soil than was previously
present.
Mr. Henson :—While listening to Mr. Abbott’s paper at the
last Meeting, the thought occurred to me that the permanence of
the flow of the water in the streams after the forests had been
cut down, was largely due to the decay of the roots as mentioned
by the last speaker. The ramifications of the roots of forest trees
are very extensive, and after the trees have been cut down these
roots decay, and form channels through which the water readily
passes into the ground. The formation that surrounds us in the
western suburbs is dense shale formation. ‘The upper portion has
been comminuted by rootlets. Many know the large forests
that formerly grew in these districts. As those trees have been
cut down, the water has penetrated along the rootlets and found
its way into the ground. Of course the clay, which has been
formed from the shale, retards the lateral travel of the water, but
still the ground does absorb an immense amount of water after the
trees have been cut away. Another thought occurs tome. A
rain gauge placed at ground level I believe records a laryer amount
of rain than one at some height above the ground. Would a rain
guage in a forest amongst the trees record as much as on a plain
adjoining? A portion of the rain must be intercepted by the
foliage ; the twigs and the trunk become thoroughly wetted, this
DISCUSSION. hes.
moisture does not fall to the ground and is removed by
evaporation.
Mr Mann:—-On the Illawarra the decomposed leaves are
never dry. There could never be a fair test.
Mr. Russevy :—It is usual in taking observations to determine
the rainfall in forests, to place one rain guage on the ground in
the open near the forest, and another in the forest in a place
where the trees are cleared away, the reason, no doubt, why an
elevated rain guage catches less rain than one on the ground is
that the velocity of the wind is greater as you rise from the
surface of the ground, and the mouth of the guage produces a
little vortex motion of the wind which throws the rain out.
The question has never been thoroughly investigated as to what
effect, if any, forests have upon the rainfall, in fact it would
require a great many years of observation before the question
could be settled.
Mr. W. M. Hamer :—I quite agree with Mr. Russell, that we
have no scientific data to enable us to determine the effect of the
rainfall in connection with forests. It appears to me one thing
has been lost sight of in connection with this discussion, and that
is the natural function of the leaf of a tree, namely, that of
evaporation ; and my own idea is that we may account for the
occurrence of these springs after ring-barking in this way. Let
us take the total area of all the leaves of a tree or a number of
trees, and compare that with the area of the ground upon which
the tree stands, the total area obviously will be considerably
greater. Now, during a tree’s life evaporation is going on, and
water is being drawn up from the soil in order to produce the
effect of growth in the tree. After ring-barking evaporation
ceases, and there being no longer any outlet for the water from
the soil, it must necessarily follow that the water which is already
in the soil, and which has been accumulating in consequence of
repeated rains, must find an outlet. That, I think, will account
for the boggy nature of the soil after ring-barking under the
conditions stated by Mr. Mann. Then, with regard to the
remarks made by the gentleman who opened this discussion
to-night. He said that there was a difference of atmospheric
pressure on forest land—that there was a greater amount of
pressure on forest land than on cleared land. I think that is
utterly erroneous. I think if we took a barometer and stood it
in a forest, and then took it to cleared land in the vicinity, there
would be absolutely no difference whatever with regard to
pressure, and that the diminution of pressure in any one place
would not account for this previously dry place becoming covered
with streams of water. I think the true explanation would lie in
the question of evaporation.
74 DISCUSSION.
Mr. Giprs :—I said in the light stratum just above the forest,
not 27 the forest.
Mr. Axpsort, in reply, said :—I have not much to add to what
I have written in my paper. I regret a little I did not quote
more largely in the paper from a paper I read some seven or eight
years back. I referred to the paper, but did not give the
particulars there given. It is now about twenty years since
ring-barking began on the piece of country I referred to in the
paper. Then after ten years had elapsed, and the springs had
remained permanent during that time, I made measurements of
the water flowing in the creeks where it had been dry before, and
those measurements gave a very large flow of water where there
had been no water at all, proving that all the water thus measured
was water that would not have been there at all except for some
change, and the only change I knew was the ring-barking of the
forests that had been destroyed. I waited then for eight years
more, after some very severe droughts had occurred in this and
other Colonies. I found these springs were not affected. They
still continued to flow. I think that proves that Mr. Gipps’
theory that the ring-barking alters the barometrical pressure over
the country must be wrong, because a barometer does not remain
permanently raised or lowered. If the springs were affected by
the rise and fall of the barometer they would stop or flow. But
they are not affected—the water has a regular flow. In the paper
I read some seven or eight years ago for this Society, I referred
to some observations by Professor Draper. He was the President
of the Observatory at New York. Questions were put to him by
I think the Legislature of New York for the purpose of settling
whether the cutting down of the forests would cause a diminution
in the water supply to the city of New York. Professor Draper,
who was I believe a very eminent scientist in America (I suppose
he was the most capable man they could find), examined into the
matter with reference to the rainfall where records were kept in
the Atlantic States of America, these records extending over
nearly 100 years I think. He also took the records in Paris
extending over nearly 200 years. The conclusion he communicated
to those who put the question was, that the destruction of forests |
had not in any way affected the rainfall. He showed in his
report that neither the temperature of the Atlantic States of
America nor the rainfall had altered in any appreciable degree
during the last century. I think that opinion is as good as any
we are likely to get now. As to another matter raised in this
discussion: the ditference in the rainfall in forests and the open
country. I have seen it stated that the temperature was lower
in the forest, and therefore it must condense the moisture. It
has always seemed to me that if the temperature is lower in the
DISCUSSION. 15
forest, that lowering must be produced by evaporation, just as
when we expose a water-bag to a dry atmosphere the water then
becomes cool: below the temperature of the air—that is due toa
physical law there is no escaping from. While evaporation goes
on the temperature in the forest would be lower—as soon as “the
evaporation stopped the temperature would rise. Therefore I
incline to the opinion that the temperature in a forest is not lower
during rain—it is only lower in dry weather. I would also call
attention to the matter Mr. Russell referred to, that nearly all
these statements that the rainfall is increased by forest growth
are merely theoretical They are not the result of actual
observation extending over a long period. But with reference to
this piece of country I wrote about, I have my own personal
observations extending over a period of 26 or 27 years, and the
land has been in the possession of my family since 1848. All
these creeks were dry up to 1869. From 1869 up to the present
time (19 years) they have been running permanently ; so that all
these cases are matters of fact known to myself. We must be
guided by fact in preference to theoretical ideas that forests
condense the moisture. Another thing is, that this effect of
deforestation of which I wrote is not confined to any small area
of New South Wales. I find that in every part of this Colony
from which I have been able to get information the same effect
follows more or less. Another matter. In the thick forests on
the coast range the dead leaves lying on the ground are never dry,
but I do not think that proves anything at all, because in these
rich brush lands the rainfall ranges from 120 inches. That is the
reason why the ground is never dry—it is continually saturated
with rain. There is no doubt that these forests on the coast range
are produced by the rainfall, and not the rain by the forests.
Allow me to refer to something that happened. When I wrote
the paper for this Society in 1880, all the references made in that
paper were to one particular area that had been ring-barked. At
that time there were a number of creeks flowing eastward from
a certainrange. From that time up to now on the western side
of that range the creeks all remained dry, while those in the
eastern ring-barked side were running. Within the last two
years I have ring-barked the western side, and new creeks are
beginning to run permanently on that side. It follows almost
immediately on the dying of the trees, generally within 18 months.
Rev. S. WILKINSON :—Two thoughts have occurred to me which
at this stage of the proceedings may be just worthy of notice.
Firstly, the ornamental point of view. For this object I have
often been grieved to see that when forest land has been cleared,
some portions have not been allowed to remain. Then there is
the economic, I may say the humane point of view. In some
76 DISCUSSION.
cold districts I have seen the cattle exposed during winter nights
without any shelter whatever, causing also a considerable loss to
those engaged in dairy pursuits. I think it is greatly to be
regretted that any stock should unnecessarily be thus exposed to
the inclemency of the weather.
Mr. Assotr :—I have not known of any permits being given
of late years to ring-bark that did not stipulate for some
timber being left growing for purposes of shade and ornament.
The Local Boards, in whose hands the matter is, do not permit
indiscriminate ring-barking.
Hon. G. H. Cox:—I move a vote of thanks to Mr. Abbott.
I have read with pleasure the papers written by him.
Mr. Russexti :—I second the proposition. I think everyone,
whatever may be his views upon the scientific question as to the
effect of forests upon rainfall, will admit the national importance
of preserving a certain quantity of trees, and planting forests
where they are required. The misfortune is that questions of this
nature get mixed up. But we are not discussing the question
whether they are useful for commercial purposes. It is a scientific
question that is being discussed now, viz.: whether trees produce
or increase the rainfall. Whether trees do affect the rainfall or
not | am sure every care will be taken by the Government of
this Colony, as in other countries, to preserve a certain number of
trees. But as I have said, that question is not being discussed
to-night, but simply the scientific question.
The Presipent then put the motion, which was carried
unanimously.
ON THE INCREASING MAGNITUDE OF ETA ARGUS.
By H. C. Russeuzi, B.A., F.R.S., &e.
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., June 6, 1888. |
THis remarkable star, which so surprised Sir John Herschel in
1837 by its sudden increase in magnitude, and which continued
_ to increase until it was brighter than every star in the heavens,
Sirius only excepted, has I think passed its minimum recently.
It will be remembered that after reaching its maximum about
1843, it fell a little, but was still a bright lst magnitude star
until about 1856, when it began to fall rapidly, and by 1859 was
only of the 3rd magnitude, and has ever since been going down
in the scale of magnitude, until some have been led to think it
would rise no more.
4
\
, ig "
°
ON THE INCREASING MAGNITUDE OF ETA ARGUS. (hfs
In 1871, when I carefully surveyed the whole cluster in which
it stands, Eta was of the 7th magnitude, or adopting Gould’s
Standard of Star Magnitudes, which has been carefully prepared,
my estimate of Eta was 6.8 magnitude. On 4th February, 1874,
I was surprised to find it } a magnitude smaller than in 1871, or
7.4 magnitude, and I have since been in the habit of frequently
examining it and comparing it with several stars in its own
cluster which are not variable. During the years 1875 to 1882
the change seemed to me inappreciable, but in 1883 the estimates
varied from 7.5 to 7.8, in 1884 I made it 7.6, in 1885 and 1886
about the same, although in the latter year I several times thought
it was getting brighter, in 1887 I was away, but the first
examination on my return removed all doubt, there was evidently
a very decided increase ; adopting still Gould’s Magnitudes for
Stars of Comparison, I find Eta at the end of May, 1888, was of
6.9 magnitude, or almost as great as it was in 1871. These
comparisons were made in the usual way, viz., by estimating in
the telescope relative brightness of the star images.
But I have also compared it with six stars in its own cluster
(the same stars used by the older method) by means of a wedge
photometer, 180 measures have been made, and give the magnitude
7.24 asa result. I have also compared it in the same way with
six stars in Kappa Crucis cluster, 90 measures have been made,
which give the magnitude 7.42. My experience with the wedge
photometer has been that red stars, of which Eta Argus is one,
are made to appear smaller than they do by direct vision, or in
other words, that red light is more absorbed by the wedge than
white light, so that the magnitude of a red star by wedge
photometer is smaller than it should be, and as appears in the
foregoing, where direct comparison makes it 6.9, and the wedge
7.24. As all my previous comparisons were direct, and I think
also those of other observers, we must take 6.9 as its present
magnitude, and comparing this with the mean of my estimates
for 1883 to 1886, or 7.64, it appears that Eta is now 3 of a
magnitude brighter than it was in 1883, and increasing rapidly,
so that should the present rate of increase continue as we have
every reason to believe it will, Eta will soon be visible to the
unassisted eye again, which it has not been for 20 years.
In 1869 Prof. Loomis collected the then existing observations
of Eta Argus, and came to the conclusion that its range was from
the lst to 6th magnitude, and its period 70 years, with minimum
about 1870, but as you have just heard the minimum did not
occur until about 1885, or 15 years after he supposed it would,
and the magnitude got down to 7.64 instead of 6.
The previous minimum occurred long before there were any
regular observers of the star’s magnitude, and therefore we cannot
=
. a
78 ON THE INCREASING MAGNITUDE OF ETA ARGUS.
say definitely when it took place, but it seems probable that the
period is about 80 years ; it is about 40 years since its maximum,
and carrying this backwards, the observations since 1800 and
the two previous ones in 1751 and 1677, will fit into places on the
curve, 1751 by Lacaille at the Cape, 1677 by Halley at St. Helena.
It must, however, not be forgotten that this star when near its
maximum was subject to remarkable fluctuations in brilliance,
and it seems probable that it would present the same character
at minimum, and such has been shewn by observation ; but the
present increase in brilliance is so considerable, that I think there
can be no doubt that the minimum is past, and that Eta Argus
will again be a brilliant star in the heavens.
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS AND MINERAL
LOCALITIES IN THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS
OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
(With one Plate.)
By D. A. Porter, Tamworth.
[ Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., June 6, 1888. ]
In a paper read before your Society on 5th Nov., 1884, I had
the pleasure of offering a few observations on “Some Minerals
and Mineral Localities in the Northern Districts of New South
Wales,” and I purpose in this paper to continue the same subject,
as I think it is very desirable that every mineral locality in the
Colony, so far as known, should be noted, so that they may be
easily discovered by those who, in the future, may desire to
submit them to further examination. The notes contained in
this paper are the result of personal examination of the various
minerals and localities referred to herein.
GOLD.
As gold is so widely distributed throughout the northern
districts of this Colony, and as all the localities in which it occurs
are well known and catalogued, I purpose only mentioning it
in instances where something unusual is connected itn its
occurrence, such as its i SocLHeM in alluvial or matrix with other
minerals or metals. ,
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS. 79
ALLUVIAL GOLD WITH METALLIC CoPPER
Is found at the source of Wet Creek, near Mount Misery,
Nundle. An assay of 100 grains of the sample gave—
Gold me x. be me OO
Copper: — ... He bb Rae OB)
Tron Oxides “te Re soe. pO)
Loss hed My; ey fal 6.0
100.0
The iron oxides occur as magnetic and titaniferous iron.
Professor Liversidge, who examined a sample forwarded by me in
1882, says, “The particles of metallic copper are much smaller
than those of the gold, the latter, however, do not exceed a square
willimetre in area. The gold is not much water-worn, and under
the microscope is seen to be distinctly crystallized in parts. The
grains of copper, although of more or less spherical form and with
mammillated surfaces, are in some instances distinctly crystallized.”
Slates, jasperoid rocks, and serpentines occur in the vicinity, and
are overlaid in part by basalt. No work has been done in this
locality since it was first prospected in 1882, as the gold was
found not to exist in payable quantities.
GOLD WITH SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY AND ARSENIC.
Gold associated with stibnite and arsenic, or some arsenical
compound, occurs in a large quartz-vein in the “ Hllenora Gold
Mining Company’s” property at Hillgrove, about fifteen miles in an
easterly direction from Armidale(N.E.*). Although when observed
casually the particles of gold often appear to be attached to the
stibnite, yet so far as my observation has gone, in no instance is
this the case, close examination reveals the fact that each and
every particle of gold although almost inclosed by the stibnite, is
seated upon a larger or smaller particle of quartz. The arsenic
is not observable in the stone or ore until heated in the kiln,
when large quantities of the oxide condense in brilliant octahedral
crystals in the cooler parts.
GoLD IN MISPICKEL.
At Bowling Alley Point, near Nundle, some fine specimens
have been obtained from the “Carrington Reef.” The gold
bright and clean, and penetrating the mispickel in wiry forms in
every direction.
GOLD IN CALCITE.
At Tea-tree Creek, about twelve miles S.E. from Barraba, in
thin branching filiform masses. The calcite is white and opaque,
and cleaves readily into rhombic fragments. Some specimens of
pure white calcite, with the gold projecting from the cleavage
* N.E. is a contraction for the New England District.
planes of the mineral, are very handsome. Very beautiful
specimens are obtained by dissolving the calcite, as the gold is
then left in the most peculiar and fantastic forms. The auriferous
calcite is found in veins traversing clay slates.
At Bingera, two miles 8.E. from the town, in serpentine. A
sample gave a return for gold at the rate of 9 dwts. per ton.
The calcite in this locality differs from the auriferous calcite of
Tea-tree Creek before mentioned, in being made up of thin plates, ~
which are contorted and interlocked. The laminez are, however,
easily separated, and the surfaces are seen to be dull. These
separated, thin plates are easily broken across in one direction,
exhibiting small bright cleavage planes. The contained gold
occurs in isolated particles, the largest of which would not be
more than 315 grain in weight. Small crystals of pyrite are also
present in the calcite.
Native ANTIMONY.
At Hillgrove Antimony Mines, fifteen miles easterly from
Armidale (N.E.), in small isolated deposits in the vicinity of veins
of stibnite. Amorphous, compact, colour and streak tin white.
Hardness between 3 and 4, scratches calcite, Sp. G. 6, 69.
Fracture irregular, rough ; cleavage.on small faces, imperfect.
B.B. fuses easily, and becomes covered with prismatic crystals of
oxide of antimony. Not of common occurrence. The country is
principally of slate, more or less altered, and inclined from the
horizontal at a high angle. On the northern side of the mines
gneissic rocks are found outcropping. The principal mineral
veins of the locality are found in the slates, and are composed of
an amorphous quartz as the matrix. These quartz veins are in
places accompanied by casings of a tough greyish rock, composed
of whitish to colourless felspar, and dark green hornblende. At
low levels in the ravines on the southern side of the principal
mines this rock, which is probably a trachyte, is found as
intrusive sheets, which appear in some measure to follow the
bedding of the slates.
ANTIMONITE (Stibnite).
At the Hitlgrove Mines before mentioned, associated with
arsenic and gold, in quartz veins traversing slates. The best
deposits of stibnite are generally found on the outer sides of the
veins, near either the ‘hanging’ or ‘foot’ walls, but more or less
of the ore is distributed through the quartz. Pyrite in small
quantities is found in the stone, but no mispickel nor arsenical
iron was observed, so that in what form the arsenic exists in the
ore has not yet been ascertained. The antimony mines of this
locality are now worked principally for the gold present in the
quartz, as the low price of antimonial ore, at the present time,
renders it of only secondary importance.
80 NOTES ON SOME MINERALS.
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS. 81
At Nundle, near the old flour mill in Oakenvale Creek, and
extending thence in a northerly direction into Happy Valley.
This lode has been prospected and deserted. The vein is small,
and very irregular in width, from two to twelve inches, and the
ore appears to be of inferior quality. This vein is in hard, jointed,
argillaceous slates, which are much tilted.
On road Bendemeer to Walcha, seven miles from Bendemeer,
in hard micaceous schists. The vein of ore appears to be about
eight inches in thickness. No prospecting has been done in
connection with this deposit beyond sinking two or three feet on
the outcrop.
MOLYBDENITE.
At Wilson’s Downfall, thirty miles north from Tenterfield, and
one and a half miles westerly from Wilson’s Downfall Post Office,
in thin leafy forms in vein of milky quartz, traversing granitic
rock ; not common.
At Hogue’s Creek, twelve miles north from Glen Innes (N.E.),
near road to Tenterfield, in large quartz lode, associated with
wolframite, chlorite, tin ore, and native bismuth. In thin brilliant
plates, often inserted between crystals of quartz in geodes in the
rock ; not very abundant.
At Kingsgate Bismuth Mines, twenty miles east from Glen
Innes (N.E.). Often accompanying wolframite and ores of bismuth,
but in greatest quantity in large deposit of bluish-grey crystalline
quartz, which, like that of the Hogue’s Creek locality, has a
coarsely granular appearance, and is easily broken or crushed.
Crystals of molybdenite are not uncommon in this locality. They
occur as low hexagonal prisms, rarely more than + inch in length
by 4 to | inch across, rarely 2 or 3 inches broad. These prisms
or plates are composed of very thin horizontal lamin, which are
easily separated from each other. The laminz, often contracted
in size, successively, from the lower ones upward ; thus forming
a bevelled edge, which in turn would ultimately form a hexagonal
pyramid, were the process continued far enough. No such
terminations to crystals were, however, observed. The molybdenite
crystals are almost invariably depressed in the centres, as shewn in
section (figure 13). Molybdenite in leafy and fan-like aggregations
and deposits occurs in large quantities in this locality. Colour,
lead-grey, brilliant metallic lustre on fresh cleavages. Soft,
easily scratched by the finger nail; marks paper like graphite;
opaque. Thin lamine, by transmitted light, blood-red. The deposits
of molybdenite, bismuth, and other minerals, at Kingsgate, occur
principally in pipe veins, and in irregular masses of quartz rock,
in coarsely granular feldspathic granites.
F—June 6, 1888.
82 NOTES ON SOME MINERALS.
ACTINOLITE.
At the Woolshed Gap, on road from Barraba to Bundarra, in
radiated masses of slender prisms, in connection with a large vein
of milky quartz in granite. The mineral is in places attached to
the quartz, or penetrating it, but masses free from quartz occur,
up to five or six pounds weight. Colour, brown or black, some
with greenish tinge. Opaque in mass, but separate prisms
translucent.
At Giant’s Den Tin Mines, near Bendemeer (N.E.), on the
highest peak of the Giant’s Den Nob, in acicular crystallizations.
on cassiterite, and in radiated masses on opaque quartz; greenish-
brown to brown, and nearly black.
Actinolite occurs in many places in the New England tin
mining districts, in small veins, or in radiated isolated masses,
more rarely in acicular crystals penetrating crystals of colourless
or smoky quartz. Actinolite rock in water-worn pebbles and
small boulders, is common in the alluvial tin workings two miles
S.E. from Tingha (N.E.). These pebbles and boulders are very
compact and tough, and often show a radiated internal structure
when broken. |
AXINITE.
At Bowling Alley Point, near Nundle, in granular masses and
small crystals, with green epidote, in quartz vein, traversing hard
splintery slates, on ridge about 150 or 200 yards south from the
iron foot-bridge. Colour brownish, with pink tinge when newly
broken ; occurs only in small quantity.
BERYL.
At Glen Creek, near Emmaville (N.E.), two miles north from
Dolcoath tin lode, am situ in small mineral vein, traversing
indurated clay slates, associated in druses with crystals of topaz,
quartz, and cassiterite ; found also in isolated prisms embedded in
the rock. Crystals transparent, rarely opaque, bright green to
colourless. The largest crystals not more than ? inch in length
by +> inch thick; generally striated longitudinally, but some
with flat smooth sides, some crystals with terminations like
figure 8, but mostly rough pointed like figure 9. The green
colour is often distributed unequally in the prisms. The associated
crystals of topaz are usually larger than those of the beryl, but.
are generally full of greyish-white cloudy matter or dark coloured
inclusions, and abound in gas pores. Some of the smaller crystals
are very brilliant, transparent and sound.
ZIRCON.
In the Inverell District zircon’ ‘are found in many places over
a large area, chiefly of basaltic country, forming the watershed of
the Macintyre River on the northern side, and extending from N.
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS. 83
to E.S.E. from Inverell. They occur principally in the beds of
streams, or scattered over low sloping ridges, and in the beds of
clay and boulders, which form raised beaches along the creek sides,
in many of the localities. The boulders in these old beaches are
very much rounded and worn, and have been derived from the
porphyrites of the surrounding country, which before the
outpouring of the recent volcanic rocks, obtained as the principal
rock formation of the localities referred to. The best zircon
country is about Paradise Creek (County Gough), on many of the
low ridges, and in the beds of the tributary watercourses between
Upper Paradise Creek and the Swan Vale waters ; in Swan Vale
Creek and on the ridges on the northern side of same, extending
from the Swan Vale Post Office to eight or ten miles westerly ;
at Apple Tree Gully, fifteen miles north-east from Inverell ;
at Swamp Oak Creek, and Frazer’s Creek, on road from Inverell
to Wellingrove ; on road from Glen Innes to Inverell, two miles
_west from crossing of Waterloo Creek, in Macintyre’s Lane. The
zircons from these several localities mentioned, are usually more
or less broken or cleaved, and very much worn and smoothed,
but occasionally in fairly perfect crystals, of which figures 1 and 2
are representations. Some of the worn fragments, clear and
colourless, have been observed of from four carats to eleven carats
weight. The crystals are generally not much modified. All
observed were prismatic, but rarely with double terminations.
Colour, pale amber tint to colourless; transparent, rarely
opaque, Sp. G. of six stones collectively = 4.547. The
accompanying minerals seem to be of a similar kind in all the
before-mentioned localities, consisting of smooth waterworn
fragments of milky quartz, quartzites, pebbles of reddish-brown,
yellow, buff, and black jaspers, and broken and worn fragments
of pleonaste and sapphire. The pleonaste occurs rather plentifully,
in pieces often 2 inch in size, and occasionally in nearly perfect.
crystals. With the pleonaste, sapphire, and zircons, small rolled
very highly polished pieces of black hornblende are sometimes.
found.
Zircons are met with at Elsmore, Stony Creek near Tingha,
and at Red Hill, on Cope’s Creek, above Tingha, as well as in
several other places in the same district, as the principal
constituent of a fine greyish sand, which is with difficulty separated
from the finer of the stream tin ores. Under a magnifier the
crystals are seen to be very perfect in form, long prisms with
double terminations prevailing. Colour, pale yellowish, to grey,
mostly transparent and of extremely brilliant lustre.
. At Tilbuster, three miles north from Armidale, in creek bed,
with gold and sapphires, generally in smooth almond shaped pieces,
or broken fragments, often five or six carats weight ; larger pieces
84 NOTES ON SOME MINERALS.
rare. Colour, garnet red, transparent. Formation, granite,
basalt, slates and conglomerates.
At Lyndhurst, thirty miles north-east from Armidale, in creek
near Lyndhurst homestead, in pieces more or less rolled, and up
to half-ounce in weight. Generally translucent, or opaque, small
pieces transparent, colour pale sherry-red to brownish-red. Hard
splintery argillaceous slates prevail in this locality.
At Rocky River gold-field, near Uralla (N.E.), in auriferous
drifts, with titanic iron, topaz, and sapphire, the latter only in
small fragments and rare. Colour, wine red, pale red, greyish,
rarely green, some small crystals ruby red ; transparent to opaque.
Sp. G. 4.55 to 4.56. The zircons in this locality occur as
octahedrons, formed by the association of the terminal tetragonal
pyramids. The prismatic form, if at all existing, must be
extremely rare, as not one example was observed in the
examination of some thousands of specimens. Crystals more or
less fractured, but not appreciably worn ; the smaller crystals, as
usual, being the most perfect. Large pieces occasionally, but not
of common occurrence ; three of the largest pieces noticed weighed
45, 39, and 15 carats. Sp. G. 4.55 to 4.64. Colour, garnet red ;
transparent, but slightly flawed.
At Oban (N.E.), in the Ann River, in waterworn pieces, with
red spinel, sapphire, topaz, cassiterite, gold, and titaniferous iron ;
rare. Colour, pale yellowish red. A stone from this locality
weighed 48 carats, but contained flaws and blemishes. Sp. G., 4.64.
In the Mann River and Bald Nob Creek, near Glen Innes,
with stream tin ore and corrundum. Nearly colourless to pale
reddish. The paler coloured stones often with patches of deeper
colour in part; very much waterwarn, transparent, translucent,
rarely opaque ; common in pieces 5 to 8 carats. .
At Nundle gold-field, in the auriferous cemented gravels of |
Mount Pleasant, and less plentifully in several other parts of the
field. At Mount Pleasant the associated minerals are chromite ©
(in small black shining octahedrons), magnetite and other oxides
of iron; small quantities of titaniferous iron sand are usually
present. The zircons do not occur in any very considerable -
quantity, an ounce or two, only, being contained among the
concentrates from a month’s ground sluicing. They are generally -
much worn and with smooth polished surfaces. Occasionally
perfect crystals are met with, which almost invariably have very
short prisms and modified terminations, the normal planes and >
faces being often nearly extinguished by the replacement of edges
and solid angles. Simple forms rare; crystals and fragments
small; rarely more than 3% inch in area. Colour, pale amber
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS. 85
yellow to sherry red, transparent, opaque. Fig. 14 is of a crystal
from this locality, it is however exceptional with reference to
development of prism.
SPINEL.
At Oban (N.E.), in the Ann River and above its junction with
the Mitchell River, also in the Mitchell River, in rounded pieces
with rough surfaces, appears as if little waterworn, but without
trace of crystalline form. Colour, dark wine-red, transparent ;
observed up to 15} carats in one specimen, average for six others
6.6 carats each. The spinels from the Ann River are generally
free from flaws and imperfections. Sp. G. 3.69, hardness over 8
scratches topaz readily. Found with gold, tin ore, titanic iron,
topaz, zircon, and sapphire. Fragments of spinel are found with
gold and other minerals at Bingera, Rocky River, and Nundle
goldfields, but are generally small or opaque. A piece from
Uralla weighed considerably over 1,000 grains, had a Sp. G. of
3.81, was rose-red, but dull and opaque, and very much waterworn.
GAHNITE.
About half-a-mile west from Great Northern Railway, at a
point about two anda half miles north from Bolivia Railway
Station. Occurs as a lode or vein ten to twelve inches wide, in
granite. Massive, crystalline. Some very small cavities exist in
the mass, in which the mineral has crystallized out in minute
octahedral forms. Colour of massive mineral, dull bluish-grey,
opaque; crystals greyish, with violet tinge, and transparent.
Contains an admixture of feldspar. Sp. G. 3.56.
PLEONASTE.
Pleonaste occurs more or less plentifully with zircons and
sapphires, at Apple Tree Gully, near Inverell. At Swamp Oak
Creek, in the Inverell District, and about Paradise Creek (County
Gough). At the zircon locality, on road from Glen Innes to
Inverell, and among the pebbles in the beds of the Clairvaux and
Furracabad Creeks, near Glen Innes. Also on south side of, and
one quarter of a mile from the crossing of the Severn River, on
road from Emmaville to Inverell. Generally occurs in broken
fragments, irregularly shaped, rough, or waterworn and smooth ;
pieces 60 to 70 grains, common. Occasionally in tolerably perfect
crystals. Black, opaque, exterior dull, but newly broken surfaces
very lustrous. Fracture conchoidal, tough. Sp. G. 3.91, hardness
over 8, scratches topaz.
VESUVIANITE (Idocrase).
Near crossing, and on eastern side of Ironbarks Creek, on New
Road from Barraba to Bundarra (N.E.), in minute yellowish
crystals, lining cavities in massive garnet. Crystals, transparent
86 NOTES ON SOME MINERALS.
to translucent; too small to admit of Sp. G. being taken, but
ageregates from druses gave Sp. G. 3.19. Brittle, easily fusible to
a blebby glass. The crystals have more complicated terminations
than those from Bowling Alley Point* (see figure 12). The
massive garnet referred to constitutes a large vein in the serpentine
rocks of the locality.
RuopocurositE (Mn Fe CO).
At Webb’s Lode Silver Mine, near Emmaville (N.E.), in leafy
and granular aggregations, at times two inches in area; also in
small globular forms, seldom larger than an ordinary pin-head.
In veins and small drusy cavities in the lode stuff; associated
with and often seated upon crystals of quartz, and more rarely on
crystals of galena, blende, tetrahedrite, lollingite, mispickel or
fluorspar. Colour, pale nankin-yellow to brownish-yellow.
Hardness about 3. Effervesces with HCl., and reacts for iron
and manganese. Not very plentiful. The mineral veins of this
locality are in hard splintery jointed argillaceous slates, which
are In some places very much altered.
SIDERITE.
At Big Plain, on road from Inverell to Warialda, lining
cavities in basalt, from the Government Well. In rhombic
crystals with curved faces ; crystals small, not more than +; inch
square. Colour, yellowish-brown, reddish-brown, grey ; opaque,
but thin splinters transparent. BB. decrepitates, does not fuse,
but becomes black and strongly magnetic. In fine powder
effervesces with warm HCl. With borax and microscomic salt
dissolves slowly, giving an iron reaction only ; with soda on
platinum foil, trace of manganese. A globular form of this
mineral (Spherosiderite) is present with the crystalline variety,
and occurs in masses half-an-inch across ; some of the spheroids
have a radiated structure, but are often composed of concentric
coatings. Spherosiderite also occurs in basalt in the Emmaville
District. BB. and with reagents, behaves same as siderite.
CALCITE.
Deposits of calcite are common in the limestone formations,
which extend with few breaks, from the Isis River, thirty miles
south of Nundle gold-field, to Bingera, sixty miles in a northerly
direction from Tamworth. Often in concentric aggregations or
in stalictitic forms, also compact and cleavable. Colour, reddish,
brownish, grey, nearly white. Translucent to opaque ; not
transparent.
* See Proceedings Royal Society, N.S.W., 1884, Vol. xviii.
NOTES ON SOME MINERALS. 87
At Tamba Springs, Liverpool Plains District, in veins and
deposits in basaltic rocks. Massive, cleavable, no crystals
observed. Brownish, yellowish, to colourless. The latter variety
(Iceland spar) often in pieces two or three inches in diameter.
At Dangar’s Gully, Nundle, in rhombic crystals in cavities in
nodules of magnesian rock. The crystals often arranged in groups
of three, and then presenting the form of a nail-head ; also in
rosette forms, from the grouping of several individuals. Colour,
pale green to greyish. Translucent, gives strong iron reaction
with reagents.
At Ben Lomond (N.E.), crystallized in cavities in basalt, with
zeolites. Reddish, yellowish, colourless ; mostly transparent,
some opaque. Figures 3, 4,5 are forms of crystals from this
locality. !
ARAGONITE.
Three miles north-east from the Big Plain Hotel, on road from
Inverell to Warialda, in nodules in basaltic rocks. The nodular
masses have a radiated structure, and are at times as much as
twelve inches in diameter, generally whitish and translucent or
opaque, but some transparent, with a pinkish tinge.
At Swan Vale, on road from Glen Innes to Inverell, one mile
north from Swan Vale Post Office, in basaltic rocks, often in
nodules, three inches in diameter, some radiated, but most
compact and tough. Colour, greyish to nearly white ; translucent.
Aragonite occurs in radiated transparent yellowish masses in
several localities on the Myall Creek Estate, near Bingera.
NatTROLITE (Mesotype).
At Ben Lomond (N.E.), with crystals of calcite, chabazite, and
analcite, in radiated or incrusting tufts of delicate acicular
erystals, in cavities in vesicular basalt. Colour, snow-white in
mass, but individual crystals are really colourless.
At the Caves, five miles 8.E. from the Swan Vale Post Office
before mentioned, in rocks similar to those of the Ben Lomond
localities ; very plentiful, in acicular crystals, radiated and
incrusting, transparent ; aggregates appear snow-white.
Two miles west from Elsmore, on bank of the Macintyre River,
near Inverell Road, in basalt. Compact, radiated, white, opaque.
HEULANDITE.
At Werris Creek, Great Northern Railway, near station house,
crystallized in cavities in trappean or basaltic rocks ; associated
with stilbite. Crystals small, not more than +; inch in length ;
rare. Colour, pale yellowish white, transparent.
88 NOTES ON SOME MINERALS.
CHABAZITE.
At Ben Lomond (N.E.), in rhombic crystals (like figure 6) in
cavities in amygdaloidal, basalt, with other zeolites and calcite.
Colourless and transparent when moist, usually white and opaque
when dry. Occurs with other zeolites in the basalts about
Emmaville. Phacolite is found in isolated crystals, in basalt,
near the bridge at Inverell; translucent, friable (in forms like
figure 7).
ANALCITE.
At Ben Lomond (N.E.), in trapezohedra grouped together in
druses, or lining the walls of cavities in basalt. Crystals generally
very perfect. Colourless, sometimes massive and opaque. Occurs
also in the vesicular basalts of the Emmaville District.
LAUMONTITE.
Fifteen miles from Tamworth, in Old Goonoo Goonoo Creek, a
quarter-of-a-mile above crossing of the road to Thos. Blevin’s farm,
in vein in fossiliferous rocks. The vein is about two inches in
width. Colour, creamy tinted, opaque, pulverulent, very few
crystals. Also two miles from James Swain’s farm, seven miles
8.E. from Carroll (Liverpool Plains), in veins in calcareous slates
with stilbite and calcite; creamy white, opaque, good crystals
though small.
At Werris Creek, crystallized ; in small veins with stilbite in
trap rocks (forms like figure 11). Crystals not common, usually
amorphous.
STILBITE.
At Werris Creek in nodular deposits, and in crystals in
amygdaloid, also in veins, associated with, and often enclosing,
white opaque calcite. Crystals like figure 10 but small, not more
than 4 inch in length. The nodules exhibit a very perfect
cleavage, and a pearly lustre. Colour, pale flesh red, to yellowish
white, and nearly colourless. Transparent in thin lamine. Some
of the uncrystallized mineral may be heulandite.
Near James Swain’s selection, seven miles 8.E. from Carroll
(Liverpool Plains), in veins, near rocks containing marine fossils.
Often inclosing nodular masses of white calcite. Crystals small.
At Walcha Road, Great Northern Railway, near railway
station, in veins in decomposing granite. Crystals radiately
compacted, but often with free terminations. Colour, pale buff,
greyish, or nearly white translucent or opaque, pearly lustre,
friable ; common. |
89
ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
(One Plate.)
By WALTER SHELLSHEAR, Assoc. M. Inst., C.E.
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., June 6, 1888. |
ALTHOUGH universally admitted that it is a desirable thing te
ease off the junction of the straight and curved portion of railways,
also to ease off the junction of two reversed curves by a gradual
increase of curvation, yet hitherto, with few exceptions, little has
been done by English engineers when setting out railways, in the
way of putting this into practice.
The object of this paper is to bring under attention a simple
plan by which this can be done, without adding materially to the
work of the surveyor, or overtaxing his brains with obtuse
formula.
Of all curves the circle is most easily set out in the field, and
for this reason, no doubt, the more complicated elastic curves
have with few exceptions been carefully avoided. The circle
being the easiest curve to set out, it will no doubt continue to be
the one generally used, and if supplemented by a short curve of
adjustment where it joins the straight line, the circle leaves little
to be desired in the way of suitability.
Froude’s method of easing curves, as published in Rankine’s
‘Civil Engineering,” although sound in principle, is somewhat
tedious in application.
The problem that is required to be solved, is to find a curve
which deviates from the point of zero curvature by a perfectly
gradual increase curvature, and to see how such a curve can be
applied to ordinary circular curves.
The cubic parabola is a curve which meets our requirements,
as it deviates from the point of zero curvature by a perfectly
gradual increase of curvature, and for a small portion of the curve
the curvature is small, and is proportional to the distance from
the point of zero curvature.
Now as the curvature in the cubic parabola deviates from the
point of zero curvature by a perfectly gradual increase of
curvature, it follows that at some point in the curve its radius of
curvature is equal to the radius of a circle of any particular radius,
and that it can therefore be so located that it will make a perfectly
gradual curve of transition from the straight line to the circle.
90 ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
The problem that has to be solved, is to so locate the circle and
the cubic parabola, that at the point where they have an equal
radius of curvature, they may have a common tangent.
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION.
For the following investigation of the properties of the cubic
parabola, as applied to transition curves, the author is indebted
to Professor James Thompson, of the Glasgow University.
Definition :—The cubic parabola is a plain curve, which deviates
from the point of zero curvature by a perfectly gradual increase
of curvature, and for a small portion of the curve the curvature
is small, and is approximately proportional to the distance from
the point of zero curvature.
The equation of the cubic parabola is y = mx*® where m is a
constant numeric, where the axis of x is tangential at the point
of inflection.
Big: 1.
Definition :—The rise per unit of length = steepness.
To find the steepness of a curve at any point :—Let O be the
point of inflection, and YY the axis of Y, and XX the axis of X,
Fig. 2.
ZAMS eas
Vee Re Abe = 0)
(yi + dy) = Ys
To express the steepness of the curve at any point it is expressed
as the tangent of the inclination at that point.
Let 6 = angle of inclination to OX at P,, then tan 0 =
steepness of the curve at P,, but steepness at the point P,, = ou)
dy. Oya ase
- = — ‘tam @ where “1s very jsmall:
de di
Fig.3:
Let A# be a unit of length, and let the angle DAZ be 6, then
DE = tan 6.
Let AB be very small and be represented by dx, and let BC
be very small and be represented by dy.
Then ae = tan 0 = dy
AB da
In the cubic parabola we have :—
y = mex’, (in general).
Y. = maxi, when y;, and #,, are particular values of « and y.
ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES. 91
Also y, = mx; when x, and y, are particular values of x
and y.
iy, — ¥, = dy, andw, — x, = dx
Then yz = m (x, + dex)’.
amt oa eye, Oy (ae)? (day) = mat
+ 3 maj dw + 3 max, (dx)* + m (dx)’
Buggy, — mxz;, and dy = y, — ¥:,
7 ay. — 3 max, dx + 3-ma, (dx)” + m(dx)*
Sie = 3 mei + 3mx, dx + m (dx)’.
When a are very small they become equal to 3 maj, but
thie
tan 0 = a ey WU a.
The tangents of small angles are (approximately equal) = = to
the angles i in radian (circular) measure. .°. 0 = 3 mci.
Fig. 4.
dy 2
fhe =. MX +
tan 0 = 3 ma{
6 = 3 mx{ (when @ is small).
Let ds = a small increase of length on curve, for length dx on
ordinate.
When the angle is small we may use ds, or dx, at discretion,
for they are = to each other.
Let the curvature at P,P, be denoted by y (gamma).
dd. do
Curvature = y = change of angle of inclination = — =
do dx * ds
Required the value of ae which will give the curvature y.
6, = 3 mx?
6, = 3 ma;
6, = 3 m (4 + an)",
0, = 3m {xi + 2a, de + (dx)*}
3 mai + 6 max, dx + 3m (dx)’
(9, — 0: = d0).:.d0 = 6 mx, dx + 3 m (dx)?
S
|
rina 6ma, + 3mdzu
dx
But when dz is very small, 3 m dx vanishes and 2 = 6 mx,
for curvature at 7. . o
92 ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
In general aie 6 mx
dx
But a is equal to curvature = y.
‘7 = 6 me.
To apply the cubic parabola to easing the transition of circular
curves.
YY = mx
y = 6 mex
1
ra ae
as = tan 0 = 3 mx? = steepness at the point x.
To adjust the circle to the curve.
Fig. 5.
Let & = radius of curvature of circle.
A and Y particular values of x and y.
Let P be the point of contact.
ne x} = values of « and y at point of contact P.
: | ee
Radius of curvature at P = R = a
A = length of curve of adjustment.
6 mX =5 m is a constant.
: rr yee!
“mM = E-yp
.°. the curvature is determined.
Proposition :—To find the value of (Y = 7 P) in terms of
(X = OT) and also in terms of #. |
Y = mX?*.
Sees 1
“= 6K
D Ge
awa.
py
sieind = Gap
A” 1 Kin 2 |.
ails)
ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES. 93
Let the tangent offset be represented by r = UP.
rx (2R-+2) = (5) (Guelid, Book iii, Prop. 35)
When 7 is very small. + x (2 R-1r) =r x 2h
a ANS
win x 2R= (5)
2k
7) Gane |
r= 3 (5) * 2
G 2
2c)
Sanh) Oude
(5)
on I = ; + where 7 is small.
Proposition :—To find the position of the circle.
dy * F
ee 3 Mx
oy 3 m X?. (av P)
dx ;
en
Ds SeMUFONC
dy ea Ae oe
ao Gee 6 Ra oe
Pr. dy JEN a OM) del Sek
WO gel Rk KR ae CR OR
y4
PL = oI
0Q = TP
To show that WN =iT7TP=1YV=h
Let x, and y, be co-ordinates for points in circle for origin O;
and let UN —=h
Buty, = h +
IR
ee a ee yt 2 6 RY
. a. :
‘
4 v1
94 ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
*. To get h in terms of Y by eliminating X
6.AY i
We get Yosh 4 pon) OF ta
=A+2Y
h=4 Y both = MN..Y=4 UN
Therefore the distance between the real auxiliary tangent
==) =s eae
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE CuBIC PARABOLA FOR EASING
RAILWAY OURVES.
From the above investigation we have got the following
results :—
That from the origin of the curve to a vertical line drawn
through the centre of the circle, is half the length of the curve of
adjustment. Also that the distance the circle has to be set in
from the parallel tangent, is equal to one-third of the tangent
offset at the point of junction of the circle and the cubic parabola,
and is also equal to one-fourth of the ordinate at the same point.
Perhaps the best way of illustrating the matter, is to give one
or two practical examples.
Example I.
It is desired to ease a curve of 10 chains radius, through a
length of 2 chains.
The first point to be determined is at what parallel distance
from the straight line will the tangent to the circle be.
We have X = 2 chains
# = 10 chains
ey Ol
6 XR
1
ete Be 2 GoD
1
120
Again we have y = maz?
1
7 x 8
2
—=- 30
Andh=4}Y
gee
ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES. 95
Therefore the distance of the straight line from the tangent to
the circle is 5 of a chain, or 1:1 feet, or 13-2 inches, and the
offset at Y — 4:4 feet, or 52°8 inches.
The other points in the curve have ordinates proportional to
the cube of the distance from the origin, and to facilitate the
calculation of these offsets a table will be found in the Appendix,
where these proportions have been calculated out ; also a table
giving offsets for all curves from 5 to 20 chains radius eased
through a length of 2 chains.
EHaample IT,
It is desired to ease a curve of 4 chains radius through a length
of 1 chain.
To find the distance of the tangent to the circle from the
straight line
We have X = I| chain
R = 4 chains
m=
|
>
09
ee
B
q
@
is
©
<
@
~
|
3
8
co
1 1
at Il —_ a
bal ee he
Therefore the distance of the straight line from the tangent to
the circle is =; of a chain, or °68 of a foot, or 8°16 inches, and the
offset at Y = 2°72 feet, or 32°64 inches. Other points in the
curve can be calculated by the attached table of proportions.
In conclusion, although there may not be much that is original
in this paper, the author is not aware that any tables giving the
practical application of this system have ever been published
before, and he hopes that they may be found useful to the
railway engineer.
96 ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
APPENDIX.
Table giving proportion of offsets for curve of transition, when 0 1s the
origin of the curve, and the offset at the point of contact = 1.
FOR 16 POINTS ON THE CURVE.
& P’t. of Contact.
oo Centre.
ess | | ee) | | | | |] — ee ee eS ee ee |) |)
0 |°00024|°00195)*00659) 01562-03051) *05273) 08374, *125)°17797 |: 24414-32495)" 42187) -53637|'66992)|-82397|1°0
}
FOR 8 POINTS ON THE CURVE.
Origin. Centre. B ointe
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 ‘00195 | °01562 | °05273 125 *24414 | °42187 | °66992 1:0
FOR 4 POINTS ON THE CURVE.
ath, Point of
Origin. Centre. Gontact:
0 1 2 3 4
—<$—$——_$_ ————$——————— | —_$<$<<—$<$$_$ $= a
ON A SIMPLE PLAN OF EASING RAILWAY CURVES.
ut
Table of offsets and distances of parallel tangents for curves from 5 to 20
chains radius, eased through a length of 2 chains, gwing & offsets for
each curve.
R. h. | Centre of Point of | Tangent
Radius oe 4 : ‘Curve = 5 eee Offset
ofCurve.| poncent.| 6 | 1 2] 3 4 5 6 7 8 =T.
Chains. Tn. In In In. In In In In. In. In.
5 266 "| 0 2 16 55 13°3 25°7 44°6 70°6 105°4 79°2
6 22-0 0 We Malet 46 11:0 21°5 37 1 58:9 88°0 66°0
7 18°8 0 15 | 118 | 40 9°4 18°4 31'8 00°5 75'4 56°5
8 16°5 0 13 | 1:03 | 35 8:2 161 27°38 | 4402 66°0 49°5
9 14:6 0 M1 Chk || ayul 73 14:3 24-7 39°2 58°5 43°9
10 133 0 10 82 | 2°8 6°6 12°9 22°3 30°4 52°38 39°6
11 12°0 0 09 75 | 2°5 6°0 11:7 20°2 32°2 48°0 35°9
12 11:0 0 038 69 | 2:3 5'5 10°7 18°6 29°5 44-0 33°0
18 101 0 08 63 | 21 50 959) 17-1 27:2 40°6 30°5
14 9°4 0 07 59 | 20 47 9°2 15°9 25°2 37°7 28°3
15 88 0 07 55 | 18 4°4 86 14°8 23°6 35°2 26°4,
16 8:2 0 06 Bt | alee/ 41 8:0 13'9 22°0 32°9 247
17 77 0 06 48 | 16 3°8 76 13°1 20°8 31:0 23'3
18 73 0 | °06 46 | 15 3°6 ol 12°4 19°6 29°3 22°0
19 69 0 05 43 | 15 3°4 6°38 11:7 18°6 27°7 20°8
20 6°6 0 05 41 | 14 33 64 1a LU 26°4 19°8
i yx.” . pe a a eee Vee
Gp 2X le = Z 3
7 = Tangent offset.
X = 2 chains in above table.
G—June 6, 1888.
X
98 PROCEEDINGS.
WEDNESDAY, 6th JUNE, 1888.
Sir ALFRED RopeErts, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-five members were present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time,
of three for the second time, and of two for the first time.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members.
of the Society :—
Blaxland, Walter, F.R.C.S., #ng., &e., Sydney.
Clubbe, C.P.B. ty R.C.P. Lond. M.R.CS. , Lng., Randwick.
The Chairman announced that the Council had awarded the.
Society's Medal and money prize of £25 to the Rev. J. E.
Tenison-Woods, F.L.8., F.G.8., for his paper upon “The Anatomy
and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.”
He also stated that Mr. Robert Etheridge, Government
Palzeontologist, being now a resident of Sydney, had retired from
his Corresponding Membership, and become an Ordinary Member
of the Society.
The following letters were read from the Rev. J. E. Tenison-
Woods, F.L.8., &c., acknowledging the award of the Society’s.
Medal and money prize; and from Hyde Clarke, Esq., London,
a Corresponding Member of the Society :—
533 Elizabeth Street, Sydney,
3lst May, 1888.
F. B. Kynedon, Esq., Hon. Sec. Royal Society of N.S.W.
Sir,—I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letter
conveying to me the agreeable intelligence that ‘the Council of the Society
had awarded to me the prize and the Society’s Medal for my essay on
“The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.” I
have also to acknowledyve a cheque for £25, being the amount of the
Society’s prize.
Will you kindly convey to the Council my sincere thanks for the honor
thus done me, and assure them that the Medal will be treasured by me
and the award considered distinguished encouragement to research in
biology.
I beg to enclose you a cheque for the sum of five pounds (£5) as a.
contribution to the building fund of the Society, which the Council will
do me a favor by accepting.
I will revise the manuscript as soon as possible, and will, with the
permission of the Council, add some interesting observations which I
have been able to make since the essay was first sentin. I will return
it ready for the press in a few days.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Yours very faithfully,
J. HE. TENISON-WOODS. .
id» ie
PROCEEDINGS. 99
32 St. George’s Square, 8.W.,
London, 18th April, 1888.
Dear Sir,—I have received the 20th Volume of the Journal of
the Royal Society, and Part ii. of Vol. xxi. These I beg to acknowledge
with sincere thanks.
IT note with interest the paper oF Rev. G. Pratt on the “ Comparison of
Dialects of E. & W. Polynesia and Australia, &c.”’ Allsuch matter tends
to illustrate an obscure subject. I may, however, repeat that the
analogies of Australian as they belong to the general body of language,
so must they be more widely illustrated, as I shewed in my paper before
the Royal Society.
As this is the year of your Jubilee, I bee to congratulate the Society,
and to regret I can take no active part in its celebration.
To most the hundred years must seem a very remote epoch. To me it
is not, for in my early PEE the generation which had known Cook’s
discoveries and taken part in the “establishment of New South Wales
still remained. To me its traditions are fresh, and in nearly seventy
years I have watched with interest the later and wonderful growth of
your communities.
There are some of us still alive who saw Cook’s ship lying in the
Thames, and his men in Greenwich Hospital. It is therefore a matter to
me of intense gratification to see taking a great place in the regions of
Australis Incognita—lost to the world for so many ages.
Not least among marvellous events is the opening to us and to you of
the new route across the Pacific Ocean to Vancouver. Noolka, as it was.
then called, was to me no unfamiliar name. Some of our Australian
friends have been born to the full birthright of all such glories, but to
myself and those who remember their dim and doubtful beginnings, and
the arduous labour of the pioneers by whom success has been achieved,
the history of Australian progress has been among the wonders of |
our age.
Yours faithfully,
HYDE CLARKE,
Corr. Member Royal Society of 7 S.W.
To Prof. A. Liversidge, M.A., F.K.S.,
Hon. Secretary Royal § Society of N.S.W.
The following papers were read :—
1. “Notes on some Minerals and Mineral Localities in the
Northern Districts of New South Wales,” by Mr. D. A. Porter,
Tamworth.
2. “Forest Destruction in New South Wales, and its effect on
the flow of water in water-courses and on the rainfall,” by
Mr. W. E. Abbott, Wingen.
The discussion upon this paper was adjourned to a future
ee
“On the Increasing Magnitude of Eta Argus,” by Mr. H. C.
nen yen eS!
Questions were asked by Messrs. ee Jones. EK. A. Baker,
and J. U. C. Colyer, to which Mr. Russell replied.
100 PROCEEDINGS.
4, “On a Simple Plan of Easing Railway Curves,” by Mr.
Walter Shellshear, Assoc. M. Inst., C.E.
A discussion followed, in which Messrs. F. B. Gipps, J. Trevor
Jones, and Professor Warren took part.
5. “Indigenous Australian Forage Plants (exclusive of grasses)
including Plants injurious to Stock,” by Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.
The thanks of the Society: were conveyed to the various authors
for their valuable papers.
The following donations received during the month of May
were laid upon the table and acknowledged :—
Donations RECEIVED DURING THE Montu or May, 1888.
Batavia—Kon. Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Neder] Indié
Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie,
Deel xlvii., 1887. The Society.
Boston—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro-
ceedings, New Series, Vol. xiv., Whole Series, Vol.
XX... aro 2, 1357. The Academy.
Bucuarest—Institutul Meteorologic al Romaniei. Annales,
Tome 1i., 1886. The Institute.
CatcuTTa—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. lvi.,
Part 1., Nos: 2 & 3; Part u., Nos. 2 & 38, 1887.
Proceedings, Nos. 9 & 10, 1887; No. 1, 1888. The Society.
Geological Survey of India. Records, Vol. xxi., Part 1,
1888. The Director. ©
CAMBRIDGE (Mass.) — Cambridge Entomological Club.
Psyche, Vol. v., Nos. 148 & 144, 1888. The Club.
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College.
Bulletin, Voleoxit, Nos. 71& 8, l888e Volexvir,
No.1. (Geological Series, Vol. 11.) 1888. The Museum.
DrRESDEN—K. Sichsische Statistische Bureau. Zeitschrift,
Xxxli., Jahrgang, 1887, Heft 1 & 2. The Bureau.
EDINBURGH— Botanical Society. Transactions and Proceed-
ings, Vol. xvu., Part 1, 1887. The Society.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish
Geographical Magazine, Vol. iv., No. 3, 1888. ms
FLorRENcE—Societa Africana d’ Italia, Sezione Fiorentina.
Bullettino, Vol. iv., Fasc. 1 & 2, 1888. =
FRANKFURT A.M. — Senckenbergische Naturforschende
Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band xv., Heft 1,
1887. »
HamBure—Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. Meteoro-
logische Zeitschrift, Heft 4, April, 1888. 33
Hopart—Royal Society of Tasmania. Abstract of Pro-
ceedings, April 23, 1888. oe
PROCEEDINGS. 101
Iowa Crity—Iowa Weather Service. A Few Facts about
the Iowa Weather Service. A Few Plain Words:
Administration of the State University of Iowa.
Biennial (Fifth) Report of the Central Station, 1887.
Climate of Southern Russia and Iowa Compared.
Flag Signals of the Signal Service. The Iowa
Weather Service, and How it is Supported. The Director.
Lonpon—Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs, Vol. xlix.,
Part 1, 1888. Monthly Notices, Vol. xlvii., No. 4,
1888. The Society.
Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings (New Monthly
Series), Vol. x., No. 8, 1888.
Linnean Society. Journal— Botany, Vol. xxiv., No. 162,
1888.
Meteorological Office. Meteorological Observations at
Stations of the Second Order for the year 1883.
Oficial No. 73. Synchronous Weather Charts of
the North Atlantic, Part ii. From 15th February
to 24th May, 1883. Official No. 71. The Office.
Mineralogical Society. The Mineralogical Magazine
and Journal, Vol. vii., No. 35, 1887. The Society.
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Journal and
Transactions, Third Series, Part 212, Feb., 1888.
oP)
MeLpourne—Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist, Vol. v., No. 1, 1888. The Club.
Mexico—Sociedad Cientifica “‘ Antonio Alzate.’? Memorias,
Tome i., Cuaderno Nim. 8, 1888. Nouvelles Tables
de Logarithmes La Circonférence étant prise pour
unité (Texte en Francais) par J. de Mendizabal
Tamborrel. The Society.
Monrreat—Natural History Society of Montreal. The
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. ii., No. 2, 1888.
339
Moscow—Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscow.
Bulletin, No. 1, 1888, and Supplement to Série, 2,
Tome i.
Newcastiz-upon-Tyne—North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Transactions,
Vol. xxxvil., Part 2, 1888. The Institute.
New Yorx—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. ix.,
No. 10, 1887. The Society.
Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery. Vol. ix.,
No. 2, 1888. The Editor.
New York Academy of Sciences. Transactions, Vol. iv.,
1884-85. The Academy.
New York Microscopical Society. Journal, Vol. iv.,
No. 2, 1888. The Society.
Science. Vol. xi., Nos. 266-273, 9th March to 27th April,
1888. The Editor.
102 PROCEEDINGS.
Paris—-Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus, Tome v.,
Nos. 11-15, 23rd March to 27th April, 1888. The Society.
Société de Géographie. Compte Rendu, Nos. 4 & 5,
1888. ”
Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xi.,
No. 2, 1888. Bs
Société Francaise de Physique. Réunion, du Vendredi,
20th Avril, 1888.
Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome xiii.,
No. 2, 1888. a
PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings,
Part ii., 1887. The Academy.
American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol.
KKLVes INO. L265 U887e The Society.
Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. exxv., No. 748, 1888. The Institute.
Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Annual
Report, 1886, Part i., Pittsburgh Coal Region ;
Part ii., Oiland Gas Region. The Board of Commissioners.
Pisa—Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Processi Verbali,
Vol. vi., pp. 37-72. The Society.
Rio pz JanzErRo—Imperial Observatorio. Annuario, 1885,
1886, 1887, Revista, Anno 11., No. 2, 1888. °- The Observatory.
Rome—Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno ;
XXXV11., Sessione 5a, 6a, 7a, 1885. The Academy.
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele di
Roma. Bollettino delle Opere Moderne Straniere,
Vol. 11., Nos. 2-6, 1887. The Library.
R. Comitato Geologico d’Italia. Bollettino, Vol. xix.,
Serie 2; Vol. ix., Nos. 1 & 2, 1888. The Committee.
Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Serie 3, Vol.i.,
Fasc. 3 & 4, 1888. The Society.
Saint Etrenne—Société de Industrie Minerale. Comptes
Rendus Mensuels, Février, 18838. The Society.
Saw FrRancisco—California State Mining Bureau. Seventh
Annual Report of the State Mineralogist for the
year ending October 1, 1887. The Bureau.
Sypney—Linnean Society of New South Wales. Proceed-
ings, Second Series, Vol. 111., Part 1, 1888. The Socivety.
TrizstE—Osservatorio Marittimo di Trieste. Rapporto
Annuale per l’anno 1885, Vol. ii. The Observatory.
Vienna—K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrbuch, Band
xxxvil., Heft 1,1887. Verhandlungen, Nos. 2 to 8,
1887. The ‘* Reichsanstalt.”
K.K. Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft in Wien. Ver-
handlungen, Band, xxxii., Quartal 1 & 2, 1887. The Society.
“WasHineton—Chief of Engineers U.S. Army. Annual
Report for the year 1886, Partsi.,ii. & iii. The Chief of Engineers.
ae
103
AN IMPROVEMENT IN ANEMOMETERS.
By be OC. RUSSELL, eA HRS:
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., July 4, 1888. |
Onze of the most interesting and practically important questions
in relation to wind, is what 1s its maximum velocity or pressure,
for the one depends on the other. I need hardly say that many
attempts have been made to devise instruments capable of
answering that question. It has been generally admitted that
existing Anemometers using Robinson’s Cup are unequal to the
task, because a gust lasts but a few seconds, often not more than
five or six, and the recording parts made to register an hour’s
work on $ an inch or | inch of paper will not shew satisfactorily
a gust lasting 10 seconds, that is > part of an hour; or, in other
words, if one could measure such a gust, it would be 3¢5 part of
an inch on the paper, and the smallest error in measuring becomes
so magnified when the méasured velocity in 10 seconds is converted
into velocity per hour, that results are rendered very uncertain.
Pressure plates have also been tried in every form, but it is found
the results are not satisfactory, because when a gust of wind
coming along at a velocity of say 50 miles an hour strikes a
pressure plate, it has just the same effect upon it as 1f it were a
hammer striking it a blow: it sets it into rapid motion which by
acquired momentum carries it much further than it ought to do.
Now Robinson’s Cups are free from this defect, and although not
without drawbacks, they are in my opinion the best means we
have of recording gusts of wind. Of course the open cup, like
the pressure plate, 1s struck by the advancing gust, but at the
same moment the same gust strikes the back of the opposite cup
and resists any tendency to run away, and it seemed to me that
what was wanted was a means of recording with all possible
accuracy, the interval of time which the cups took to run a given
number of evo:utions, and I have accomplished this by putting in
a series of pins in the first wheel, so that they make an electrical
contact on a light gold spring for every 10 revolutions of the cups.
So far there is nothing new. Many Anemometers have been
made to record by electrical contacts. The point that I think
is new, is that these contacts are recorded on either of the
astronomical chronographs, so that the interval between two
contacts can be determined with certainty to within one-tenth of
a second or even less. The intention is to use this method only
104 AN IMPROVEMENT IN ANEMOMETERS,
for very strong winds, the Observatory Anemometer has an
ordinary scale of 1 inch of paper to the hour, which may be
increased to 2 inches, and this is quite enough for all ordinary
winds, and more than it is usual to have in Observatories. The
new method is one that can at any moment be put into operation
by turning an electrical key, and at all other times it is at rest,
and costs nothing either in paper or battery force.
DISCUSSION.
Professor THRELFALL asked if it were possible to calculate wind
pressure.
Mr. Russet :—Not satisfactorily, but a certain rule is
generally adopted. There is no question perhaps which is more
discussed nowadays as to what is the actual pressure of wind.
All the attempts to record the pressure of the wind on any
pressure plate have practically failed for several reasons: first,
owing to the recoil of the wind that strikes the plate its surface is
virtually extended, and gusts at a velocity of 60 or miles an hour
or 100 feet in a second strike the plate as if it were struck a blow
from a hammer. I have found in an ordinary north-easter, where
the wind was not blowing more than 30 miles an hour, that some
of the gusts would strike the plate, and make it appear that the
velocity was 90 miles an hour, and I was so impressed with the
uncertainty that I ceased to trust pressure plates. I think the
system called Robinson’s Cups is as accurate as any for measuring
the velocity. They are subject to some small correction in some
cases and not in others, and there is this to be said in their favour :
if we measure by such a system as that, we are measuring by an
apparatus that can be reproduced hereafter with certainty, and
we at any rate get a measure on an uniform system, and if
ultimately it is found that the ratio now assumed to exist between
the cups and the velocity of the wind be proved incorrect, it
nevertheless will be possible to apply the correct ratio to the
observations which are now being made, as to the posibility of
determining the pressure of the wind by other means. About
10 years since, a railway engine was blown right off the rails in
America—a heavy freight engine, and the question as to what
pressure of wind was required to blow it over was investigated,
and it was found that nothing less than 95 Ibs. to the square foot
would have that effect; und there are many similar cases in
which the wind has actually exerted pressures greatly in excess
of what is often assumed to be its maximum.
Mr. J. S. MircnHetit:—Many years ago in Tasmania I was
very much interested with a very complete arrangement they had
at the Observatory for measuring the strength of the wind and
the rainfall, and I took myself to make one. I noticed that the
DISCUSSION. 105:
pressure plate for measuring the strength of the wind rested upon
springs, so that when the wind blew upon the pressure plate
against the springs, by a simple contrivance a pencil marked on
the chronograph the strength of the wind and the exact time
when it occurred. But it always appeared to me that these
springs were not fitted with the mechanical appliances that should
be applied to them, because we very well know that if we strike
any substance resting upon springs, there is a kind of impulse
given to it which scarcely measures the exact force of the blow.
I do not know whether any other contrivance has been adopted
for this Anemometer or not, but I had an idea at the time (I did
not finish this Anemometer I was about to construct) that another
contrivance would measure it better, and that was by having a
chain weight attached to it. I would ask Mr. Russell what
improvements have been introduced since the pressure plates.
rested on springs.
Mr. Russerx :—A great many methods of supporting the plate
have been tried, but the one most in favour is hanging the
plate on four springs, thereby endeavouring to get rid of friction ;
but all the methods are subject to the defect I pointed out, that
these violent gusts come along and have the effect of striking the
pressure plate ike a hammer. It is quite recognised that it does
not record the pressure of the wind exactly. Some of the effects
of the pressure of the wind are almost incredible. I have an
account of a tornado which passed through the bush near Cobar.
It cut a narrow lane through the bush, breaking off short every
tree in its path, some of them 18 inches in diameter ; shrubs were:
torn up by the roots, and the tops of large trees forced along the
ground after they had fallen, so making grooves in the ground
like a plough, and the circular motion of the wind could be seen
in the arrangement of the fallen timber. If such a storm ever
passes over Sydney there will be many wrecked houses. We
know nothing of the velocity of the wind in these terrible
tornados. Anemometers made light to record ordinary storms.
are broken directly by such violent winds, and we can only judge
of the velocity by the force shewn in breaking great trees,
destroying houses, &c. :
Hon. G. H. Cox:—Can Mr. Russell give even a guess as to.
the enormous velocity of the wind to create such destruction as
that? I can remember many years ago where in a track for 20:
miles through the bush the trees were twisted off. What would
be the velocity of the wind to cause such enormous destruction
as that? I mean a velocity not only to turn over an engine but
houses almost in the streets of the city.
Mr. RussELL:—I am afraid I could not give a guess. We
have records which shew that the wind must have exerted a
106 DISCUSSION.
pressure of 95 pounds on the square foot, as just mentioned by
me, in order to overturn a railway engine, and other instances of
like kind ; but it is more than probable that the force exerted by
the wind in a tornado, which breaks off large trees 18 inches in
diameter, is much greater, but it has never been measured.
Mr. Mann:—I was in a storm many years ago. I saw it
coming up from the southward. I took refuge in my house.
There was a large tree at the northerly end of the house. The
cyclone twisted this tree and it fell to the southward. It fell
over the house and smashed everything to the ground. I went
to the door and got out. A quarter-of-a-mile off there was a
camp of blackfellows. Their gunyahs were upset. The storm
went on and twisted the head off one of the gigantic trees three
or four feet in diameter, and the head of the tree which must
have weighed 200 tons, was suspended in the air off the ground
before it came to the ground.
The PrestpEnr:—We are much indebted to Mr. Russell for
his paper and the interesting discussion it has evoked. As the
time is going on, I will now call upon the Hon. Secretary to read
the next paper. We are all sorry to feel that the author of this
next paper is an invalid, and suffering from the injurious effects
of his travels, and therefore unable to be present.
ON THE ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA
PECULIAR TO AUSTRALIA.
[With Plates. |
By Rev. J. E. Tentson-Woons, F.LS., F.G.8.
| Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., July 4, 1888. |
Tue Mollusca of the Australian coast are sufficiently peculiar to
entitle the region to be considered a geographical province. Yet
it must be acknowledged that the distinction, though well marked
in some respects, 1s not so peculiar or abnormal as in other sections
of the Animal or Vegetable Kingdom. The exceptional characters
of the land mammalia, for instance, are truly extraordinary, while
of the flora it may be said that volumes have been written about
it, and yet volumes must still be written ere the subject be fully
unfolded. In the seas and in the rivers, in other departments of
the Animal Kingdom multitudes of marvels meet us, all of so
strikingly an anomalous kind, that Australia well deserves to be
considered a Zoological region, singularly apart from the rest of
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 107
the World. As we descend in the scale of life, however, this
character becomes less marked, and amongst the Mollusca, though
still evident, it is not strikingly apparent.
If we examine into the question, as to what the peculiar features
of the Australian Molluscan region are, we find them to consist :—
1. In the possession of a few remarkable genera which are not
found in other parts of the World. These contain but few species
for the most part.
2. In the possession of abnormal forms of genera which are
found elsewhere.
3. In possessing living representatives of extinct fossil forms
of Molluscan life, which have played an important part in the
earth’s former history. Australia has in several other sub-kingdoms
remarkable instances of these “survivals” which may be said to
be the specialty of its Zoology.
4. In the singular and unaccountable possession of genera and
species, which are only known in provinces a great distance apart.
3. In the possession of extraordinary organs in a few instances,
such as have been only known to a limited extent amongst
Mollusca generally, though not confined to Australia. This
peculiarity will be the subject of the inquiries and experiments
recorded in this paper. I[t should, however, be borne in mind,
that these organs may become less and less extraordinary as the
animals elsewhere are more carefully and extensively studied.
Having pointed out the peculiarities, 1t must be added that
they only affect the anatomy and life-history of Australian
Mollusca to a very slight extent: that is to say, the dissections
and life observations reveal nothing, or scarcely anything different
from what is found amongst Mollusca elsewhere. Thus the
dissection of our fresh-water Unio, or our salt-water oyster and
sea mussel, show that they are, in all but the most trifling
particulars, identical with similar animals in Europe. Or, again,
a careful examination of the animals of our marine periwinkle
or common garden slugs or snails gives us the same organs, disposed
in the same manner as the familiar Mollusca of the same kind
elsewhere. Our Unio has the same peculiarities of the cardiac
region, with the outer gill distended with Glochidia or young
Mollusks whose initiatory life-history is there unfolded before us.
The buccal mass of our snails has the same arrangement of the
protractor and retractor muscles; the Radula is of the same type,
and we find precisely similar distinctions between the dental
formula of the various genera. In the course of some years
observation, anatomical and microscopical, and in observations on
the habits of species, naturalists have come to the conclusion that
nothing unusual in these directions is revealed to the observer in
Australia. If any lines of investigation are open to the anatomist,
- 108 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
microscopist, or zoologist, they are such as are equally open to
observers elsewhere. This at least is a fact of some interest. It
is a negative result, yet requiring more extensive observation than
any other path of discovery. I wish to record it here as one
result of years of observation, pursued under what must be
admitted were exceptional advantages. Having been in the
midst of the living animals, and having visited in succession
almost every part of the Australian and Tasmanian coasts, I have
had ample means of ascertaining what are the facts of the case.
In recording the above conclusions, it must not of course be
forgotten that there are exceptions to this uniformity, and these
are of a singularly interesting kind. As an illustration of whatis
meant, let us take the instance of Z'’rigonia, which, as most people
are aware, is a “survival” in Australia of a few species of an
almost extinct family, but one which played a most important
part in far distant geological times. Now, when Prof. Huxley
visited the Australian coast as Assistant Surgeon to the
“Rattlesnake,” in 1849, he made a special study of the animal
of Zrigonia, which had been previously described by Messrs. Quoy
and Gaimard, but much too briefly. The result is published in
the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1849,” p. 30, but
reveals nothing of any great importance. Messrs. ‘Quoy and
Gaimard remark that the disposition of the mantle and the
absence of tubes, show a resemblance to the anatomy of the genus
Nucula, from which, however, it differs by the disposition of the
gills and the brevity of the oral appendages. No other information
was obtained, and as far as any bearing on Molluscan problems,
it was very disappointing. But if the study of the soft tissues of
the animal was barren of results, it was not so with the shell.
Anyone who has examined the very beautiful and attractive
looking valves of the Sydney species Z’rigonia lamarcku, Gray, or
the much larger Tasmanian species 7. margaritacea, Lam., will
have noticed the peculiar silky lustre on the outside surface, not
unlike “shagreen,” but much finer and not so rough to the touch.
Mr. Woodward in his “ Manual of Mollusca,” draws attention to
this, and says “that the epidermal layer of the recent shells —
consists of nucleated cells, forming a beautiful microscopic object.”
(2nd Edit., p. 431.) The so-called nucleated cells will be shown
hereafter to be sense-organs of an elaborate character, and the shell
will be seen, from the investigations disclosed in this paper, to be
a most interesting object, fully sustaining and even surpassing
the interest connected with its geological relations.
It must also be noted that the peculiarities of the Australian
Molluscan Province, whatever they are, are most visible upon the
south coast and in Tasmania. There are two elements which
mingle with the Australian Marine Molluscan fauna, and which
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 109
contribute to modify its separate character. These are the fauna
of the Indian Ocean and that of the Pacific. According to
Mr. Woodward’s map of the Molluscan provinces, the Australian
and New Zealand Marine Mollusca are united together ; but with
the exception perhaps of one genus named on the map ( fotella ),
all of the genera mentioned are equally common on the east
- Australian coast. While admitting the difficulty of entering into
detail upon a small map, or indeed any map, it must be said that
the information generally given on these subjects has been hitherto
misleading.
On the north coast the fauna is that of ie Indian Archipelago,
into which the Australian element enters very slightly. By
North Australia I understand the north-east and north-west coast
within the tropics. On the coral reefs of the Great Barrier Reef
one sees the same, or nearly the same shells that are exposed for
sale in the sampans of Singapore or Penang. The relative
proportions seem to be the same. In North "Borneo and the
adjacent islands one sees the same Marine Molluscan fauna. In
fact, it would be very difficult for even an accomplished expert to
say whether a collection of shells was made on the Barrier Reef,
on the coast of Borneo, or in the Straits of Malacca. Indeed, the
differences between North Australia and the Philippine Islands
in the fauna we are dealing with, are mostly to be seen in the
small or minute shells, and one or two species. The large and
showy cones, Trochus, Turbos, Nautilus, Olives, Thorny Woodcocks,
Clams, Pearl-oysters, &c., are the same in both places and all
through the intermediate region. A very few species are local,
and probably all but the professional conchologist would regard
them as no more than varieties. This Indo-Malayan fauna may
be said to extend on the eastern coast as far south as Cape Byron,
the most easterly point in Australia, which is considerably outside
the tropics. The reason for this is the warm current which
extends along the coast from the equator. I am judging by the
fauna alone when I say that I believe this warm current is
deflected from the land gradually outside the tropics ; but it must
make a sudden turn to the eastward, for, at Lord Howe’s Island,
which is almost due east from Sydney, a tropical marine fauna
flourishes, with reef-building corals such as are not found anywhere
south of Cape Byron, on the East Australian coast.
But even as far as Port Jackson and to the south of it
considerably, some few characteristically tropical species are found.
Thus Typhis arcuatus, Hinds,* Nassa coronata, Lamarck, Mitra
pacifica, Reeve, 7 "urbo squamosus, Gray, Buceinrlus coccinatus,
Reeve, Tellina ene Lamarck, Chione marica, L., all distinctly
*This is found as far south as Tasmania.
110 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
tropical shells belonging to the Malayan region, have been
dredged in Port Jackson.* The well known tiger-cowry (Cyprea
tigris, L.), C. arabica, L., and C. vitellus, L., all come within a
short distance of Port Jackson, though they are not common.
C. annulus, L., I have found on the extreme south coast of
Tasmania.
On the west coast of Australia, the influence of the tropical
seas extends much further to the south, and though as the
south-west Cape Leuwin is approached the Australian element
begins to manifest itself, the general character is tropical with
the Indo-Malayan elements predominating. This need. not
surprise us, when we find that such a typical tropical shell as
Fusus colosseus, Lamarck, occurs at Swan River, W. A., and
regular reef-building corals form the dangerous reef of Houtman’s
Islands (S. Lat. 28° 30’ about). A collection of shells from the
neighbourhood of Swan River contains so large an admixture of
forms common to the Indian Ocean, and so few proportionately
peculiar to Australia, that the region can hardly be said to belong
to other than the very boundaries of the Australian Province.
The characteristic Australian fauna in the Marine Mollusca is
best seen between the Australian Bight and the extreme eastern
end of Bass’ Straits. It is also found in Tasmania; probably
more typically there than in any other seas.
The characters of the Australian region may be thus described :—
The possession of peculiar genera, such as Struthiolarza,
Macrochisma, Macgillivraia, Amphibola, Trigonia, Chamostrea,
Myadora, and Myochama. The above are not found beyond
Australia and New Zealand.
The possession of peculiar forms of well-known genera, or else
genera which, if found elsewhere, are only sparingly represented
or rare; such as Phasianella, Hlenchus, Bankivia, Rotella,t
Scutus, Risella, peculiar and abundant volutes, /asciolaria, Crossea,
Siphonaria, Gadinia, Anatina, Anatinella, Pandora, Crassatella,
Cardita, Cypricardia and Mesodesma.
To these must be added the Brachiopoda, which are perhaps
better represented in Australia than in any other region. They ~
include Terebratula, Terebratulina, Waldheimia, Terebratella
(fossil only ?), Ifagassella, Megerlia, Krausinia, Lingula (three
sp.), We.
The survival of the genus 77rzgonia has already been dealt with ;
but it derives a greater interest from the fact that we find 7’rigonta
represented in tertiary strata by different species from those at
* J. Brazier, Proc. Linon. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. iv., p. 428.
+ Found also in India, the Philippines, China, and very common in
Japan, but in the Southern Hemisphere confined to New Zealand, and
therefore not strictly speaking Australian.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 111
present existing. We cannot enumerate in the Australian fauna
a living Pleurotomaria as in the West Indies ; but it survived in
this region until recent times, as we have a fine tertiary fossil
belonging to the genus.
Cephalopoda are well represented in the Australian region.
The only peculiar genus is Pinnoctopus, a very rare form which
was discovered by Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard on the coast of
New Zealand, and which is described by them in the second
volume of the ‘“‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe’”* (p. 27, pl. 6, fig. 2).
JT am not aware that any specimen was ever found except that
which was captured on the voyage of the “ Astrolabe” off New
Zealand, which was three feet long. The genus is characterized
by the broad wing-like expansions along the sides, which extend
in front and envelope all the body. Sprrula is another genus
not confined to the Australian region, but more plentiful on the
coasts of Australia and New Zealand. than elsewhere, where
thousands may be gathered on the beach. ‘The animal is also not
uncommon, though perfect specimens are rare. It was a scarcity
amongst naturalists, the published descriptions having been
derived from one specimen brought home from New Zealand by
Mr. Earl, and figured by Mrs. Gray in the ‘ Annals of Natural .
History,” and another described by M. de Blainville. “ Mr.
Crouch procured a fragment, and an injured specimen was obtained
during the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Samarang,’ and served Prof. Owen
for an elaborate memoir on its anatomy.” (Adams, op. cit.,
Vol. 1., p. 44.) There are on the Australian coast many other
species of Cephalopoda, such as the Paper Nautilus or Argonauta,
Sepia, several species of Octopus, Seprola, Onychoteuthis and
Ommastrephes sloanii, the gigantic cuttle-fish, whose arms are
long and powerful enough to drag down large fishing boats at sea.
Some of the genera of the Australian province are not only
exceptional types; but while they are found in Australia they are
not confined to it, and are only met with elsewhere at a considerable
distance, such as Solenella of the family of Arcade, which occurs
in Australia and again at Valparaiso, Panopea of the family
Myacide, which is found in Australia, and similar species in
Japan, Norway, the Mediterranean, and the Cape of Good Hope.
I have obtained a living species in Tasmania, and Mr. Brazier
records one from Port Jackson. Sankivia, a singular genus
combining the characters of several genera, nacreous and non-
nacreous, which is one of the commonest littoral shells in Bass’
Straits, and which is found also at the Cape of Good Hope.
Solemya, another of the Arcade, which is said to occur in
Australia and in the Mediterranean ; Z’rophon, which is common
*See also Adams’ “ Genera of Recent Mollusca,” Vol.i., p. 20, pl. i.,
fig. 3; D’Aubigny “ Mollusques vivantes et fossiles,” pl. ii.
113 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
to Australia and Fuegia. Mr. Woodward gives other instances,
such as Monoceros, Assuminea, which however must be founded
on some mistake. Jt is almost needless to say that the earlier
works on natural history are not to be relied upon for the habitats
of their Mollusca, a large number of species having been attributed
to Australia which we do not possess, and many Australian
species having been attributed by mistake to other countries.
This is certainly the case with regard to these two genera.
The number of species common to 8S. Australia, Tasmania, and
other countries, is relatively small. I do not know of many
instances of Marine Mollusks common to Europe and Austyralia ;
though it is probable, as far as my observations go, that many
species which are regarded now by naturalists as distinct, are in
reality only modified varieties of species which are common to
Australia and other countries, perhaps even Europe. I have
always thought that some of the littoral shells, such as limpets,
are so modified by climate that their specific identity is lost sight
of. I believe that one species of Acmcea (A. marmorata, T.-W..,)
has been traced by me from the extreme south of Tasmania
through the tropics, Indian Archipelago, China, and so on, even
to Japan. What I regard as Lnttorina mauritiana, Reeve, is
common to the Mediterranean and Australia, though some
naturalists dispute this. Jttorena, or Tectarius pyranudalis,
Quoy, which is best represented about Port Jackson and the
Heads by large specimens, has also small representatives in the
Philippines and in the Malay Peninsula.
The following is a list furnished me by Mr. Brazier of species
of Marine Mollusca common to Europe and Australia :—
Crepidula unguiformes, Lamarck. Found in Port Jackson, on
the entire coast of America, and in the Mediterranean.
Crepidula aculeata, Gmelin. Port Jackson, southern coast of
America, 8. Africa, India.
Triton costatus, Born, = oleariwm, Angas (non Linn.). Coast
of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Mediterranean.
Philippia lutea, Lamarck. Port Jackson, Coast of New South
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Mediterranean Sea.
Pileopsis ungaricus, L. Hobson’s Bay or the Melbourne
Heads (Bracebridge Wilson) on the authority of Prof. Tate.
From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the Australian
Molluscan province, though possessing special peculiarities, does
not offer to the anatomist and physiologist any very exceptional
features for investigation. Yet there still remains a sufficiently
wide field of research to provide ample material for such an essay
as that for which the ‘“ Royal Society of New South Wales” has
offered its prize. Let it be observed, however, that the mere
enumeration of anatomical or physiological features would result
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 113
in nothing interesting ; besides occupying an immense space to no
purpose. I shall confine my observations, therefore, to those
lines of inquiry to which my own attention has been specially
directed, and which have proved most fruitful in interesting
discoveries.
For the convenience of reference, I shall make three divisions
in the Molluscan Sub-kingdom, namely :—1. Marine Mollusca.
2. Fresh-water Mollusca. 3. Land Mollusca. This division,
which is of course not zoological, is more convenient for me, for
reasons which will appear as we proceed. I shall deal in this
essay with the Marine Mollusca almost exclusively.
The Molluscan character of any portion of the Australian coast
differs according to its climate and situation. In no country
perhaps in the World, are there more long stretches of low sandy
coast, without rocks or indeed anything but sand-dunes. ‘This is
especially the case on the coast of N. Australia, where the shore
is so low, and the sea so shallow, that except in a few places no
vessel of any size can keep within sight of it, and it is not often
visible, except by the smoke of bush fires, at a distance of four or
five miles. In such regions, very little is to be seen of littoral
Mollusca. A few bivalve shells are scattered along the sand-dunes,
the species varying according to the locality. On the north coast
these are :—WMactra, Tapes, Cytherea, Asaphis, &c. On the south
coast such regions are especially rich in Donax, Venus aphrodina,
Lam., V. lamellata Lam., (which probably extends as far as
China), Mytilus, &e.
In places where the shore is rocky, there is a complete change
in the fauna. Within the tidal-marks, but generally in the
highest part of them, we find a Patella outside the tropics, and a
Nerita within tropical regions, though Patellide are not wanting
also, with Acmea, Planaxis, Inttorina, Monodonta, Chiton, &e.
On the south coast we have Patella, Acmea, and Siphonaria, with
two or three species of Littorina, Trochocochlea, and frsella.
These species are generally out of the water. Within the tropics,
amongst the mangrove swamps, there are the usual brackish-water
species of Nerita, Cerithidea, Telescoprum, Melampus, Auricula,
Pythia, Cyclas, Littorina scabra, L., and rarely Austriella sordida,
a genus of the author’s.*
The above named littoral species offered such special facilities
for study, that from the very first they attracted my attention
particularly. There are, as all those moderately acquainted with
the subject are aware, under the guise of shells presenting no
* See Proc. Royal Society ot Victoria, Vol. xvii., 1881, pp. 80-83, pl. 1,
figs. 10-11, “On Some New Marine Mollusca.” ‘The new genus Austriella
is distinguished as including thick non-nacreous shells, with a smooth,
arcuate, hinge margin, without teeth, with a persistent periostraca.
H—June 6, 1888.
114 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
external differences except those scarcely specific in character, not
only distinct genera, but even three distinct families. In this
there is nothing very surprising, if we remember that the early
condition of embryonic shells is cup-shaped. This persists in some
by their growing regularly, and thus they have in the adult
condition a more or less elevated and conical shape. The difference
between these forms and the whorled, spiral, or heliciform shells,
is derived from the fact that the embryonic form developes
disproportionately in one direction. The mode of this development
gives rise to all those modifications of form which are met with
in the Mollusca. From this it may be remarked in passing, how
useless any system of classification must be which confines itself
exclusively to the form and color of the shell. Thus restricted,
conchology was for a long time unworthy of the name of a science.
But while we recognize the great anatomical differences which
separate animals which resemble one another in the forms of their
shells, we must note the fact that similarity of habits or the
conditions of life Jead to other resemblances of an important
kind. This will be seen from the observations I shall have to
make on the eyes I have found in the shells inhabiting the littoral
regions. These seem to be in number, size, and disposition, very
similar in all the littoral shells that congregate about the tidal
marks. I have found that these organs of vision are reproduced
in the same manner, or to some extent the same manner, when
the shell is subject to much erosion from the alternate action of the
air, sun, and salt water. I have found this the case particularly
in the genera Patella, Acmeea, and Siphonaria, all conically
shelled species: as well as the spiral univalves Trochus,
Trochocochlea, Senectus, Littorina, and Risella. These instances
will be referred to in detail further on.
Before proceeding with this matter of the shell, it is advisable
to deal with some points of classification, which illustrate in the
conically shelled species important physiological and anatomical
principles. We find amongst the conical-shelled littoral species,
three or perhaps four forms of branchie or respiratory organs. In
Patella they are a fringe round the foot, between it and the
mantle, It is interrupted only for a short distance where the
head protrudes. In Acmca the gill forms a single pectinated
plume at the back of the neck. In Siphonaria there is a lateral
respiratory orifice leading to a chamber which is covered by a
portion of the mantle, forming a pulmonary cavity like that which
obtains amongst the slugs and snails, or rather like those Mollusks
which are destined to breathe both air and water. In the case of
Siphonaria there is a gill in the pulmonary cavity.
The function of respiration is generally speaking a function of
the integument, and is said to bea gill or lung when it is specially
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 115
localized. This does not always happen in similar portions of the
animal, nor can we regard all the organs which appear to be gills
as morphologically identical (Gegenbaur). Moreover, instead of
a specialised gill, a modification of the organ of respiration may
be found in a respiratory canal system, which is developed in the
walls of the mantle cavity. In some Gastropods, according to
the author just quoted, this network of canals extends beyond
the gills into the neighboring parts of the branchial cavity, which
are thereby enabled to take part in the respiratory function. In
this way the mantle cavity is adapted to taking in air and becomes
alung. An organ of this kind is found in various forms in very
different families of Mollusca. It enables the animal to breathe
both air and water. ‘The following observations on this subject,
as illustrated in an Australian Mollusk, were made by me in
Tasmania. The species referred to is Stphonaria denticulata,
Q. and G. The shell is irregularly oval, with a protuberance on
the siphonal side, with 40 to 50 fine ribs of lighter and darker
colors. Animal dull brown, with numerous small light spots of
varying size; foot yellowish, shading to orange near the head ;
mantle brown, fringed at the edge with whitish and black spots.
When the mantle is contracted the black spots seem to be the
points where it is drawn in. Head, a large and many-lobed mass,
forming a cup-like expansion round the very small mouth; no
eyes visible, and, though they are represented in Messrs. Quoy and
Gaimard’s figures of S. diemenensis, Quoy, I have never been
able to detect anything but a single black dot of varying position
on one of the lobes of the head. Above the foot on the left side
of the animal is a lobe which forms a kind of semi-circular tube,
closely pressed to the shell, and here the mantle is not visible.
This tube is the siphon, and is lobed so as to be capable of a kind
of bipartition which probably divides the orifice into an excretory
as well as respiratory duct. ‘This lobe of the foot acts as a kind
of operculum, closing the orifice when necessary. If placed in
the open air the siphon tube opens at once, and it is always open
when the animal is taken from the rocks which it inhabits, and
which are never long covered by the tide. On placing weak
carbonate of ammonia about an inch from the orifice, the animal
emitted bubbles of air and showed signs of distress by movement
and by pouring forth water from the mantle. On immersing in
water animals long exposed to the air, many bubbles of air rapidly
escaped, and the siphon became tranquil and full of water. In
this state the animal continued many days. Carmine dropped
into the water, gradually spread out, and was drawn almost
imperceptibly into long threads or currents towards the siphon,
and then much diluted and in fine streaks. From these facts we
may conclude that respiration is accomplished by no muscular
movements, but probably by a ciliated portion of the lung cavity.
By the word siphon of course is understood merely the pulmonary
orifice. Generally speaking the word has quite another signification
in reference to the Mollusca ; but its use in an irregular sense has
been customary amongst naturalists when dealing with this genus.
Accompanying this peculiarity in the organs of respiration, we
have a Radula of a type which belongs to the pulmoniferous
Mollusca in both the land and fresh-water genera. In Siphonaria
diemenensis or denticula the buccal mass is red and fleshy, in
which two long, thin, rather broad, cartilaginous jaws are
imbedded. Amid these the broad Radula is spread, working
almost perpendicularly, with a very slight movement backwards,
as far as I could ascertain in the few opportunities which the shy
and sluggish animal gave me of observing. The cesophagus is a -
bright orange-yellow, and terminates at the distance of about
20 mil. in a sac of the same colour. The Radula soon becomes a
tube enclosed in membrane. It does not follow the cesophagus,
but curls round and projects as a closed hyaline tube outside the
buccal mass into the colom. When the animal is wounded it
emits a viscid milky fluid of apparently a different character from
the blood of Gastropods.
The Radula with careful manipulation may be easily extracted
and spread out. It is not difficult to clean it from the attached
membranes, and when spread is is about 8 mil. long by 3 broad. It
is a series of curved lines of teeth diminishing in size from the
centre to the margin. The teeth have a broad crescentic edge,
which increases in width downwards, and are fixed upon the
membrane. The teeth gradually diminish outwardly to a mere
faint line of curved tubercles. The appearance of the whole is
more like a series of combs with long curved teeth. There
appears to be, properly speaking, no plate from which each tooth
projects, and the central tooth from which each row diverges in a
curved line is rudimentary.
This correspondence between the organs of respiration and the
Radula, would seem to justify those naturalists who wish to make
the structure of the dentition a leading feature in the classification
of Mollusca. There can be no doubt that in this instance, the
dentition is an organ of far higher importance than the shell: in
fact the dentition goes a very long way in giving a clue to the
habits of the animal ; but it is not an indication in every respect.
Thus, if we should say that the pulmonary sac for breathing air
or water has a certain form of Radula accompanying it, we
find organs of respiration associated with almost every form.
The common periwinkles on our coast, Rzsella melanostoma,
Gmelin, and Zvochococilea teniata, Quoy and Gaimard, afford
us illustrations of this. In both of them respiration is performed
: ‘
. a
.
116 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. ahs 297
by means of a gill-plume; but if the Radula of the first-named
Species is examined in its natural position, it will be found to be
exactly like that of the common periwinkle of the British coast.
It is a long, slender thread, five or six times the length of the
whole animal, and strange to say it lies sheathed in membrane,
and neatly coiled up like a piece of rope at the back of the head.
This peculiarity is shared by all the periwinkles known to me on
the Australian coast, though extending to different genera or
sub-genera such as Rvisella, Tectarvus, and Littorina. Without
stopping to enquire into this peculiarity, for which many reasons
might be given, I may say, that the structure of the Radula itself
is that of the British periwinkle expressed in the formula °:—'° 3.1.3.
There is a figure in Woodward’s ‘“ Manual of Mollusca” (nd
edit., p. 252), of the European periwinkle, which does not quite
correspond with any of our Australian species.
In Trochocochlea teniata, Lam., the typeof Radula is entirely that
of the turbinate Gastropods or nacreous trochoid shells, the
Rurpipoeyossa of Troschel: that is to say the central large tooth
with five laterals and an indefinite number of lanceolate uncini
decreasing from the centre to the edge of the Radula, until they
become hair-like hooks set together like the plumes of a feather.
In Acmea septiformis, Q. and G., or A. marmorata, Tenison-
Woods, there is a gill-plume at the back of the neck as already
stated; but the type of the shell is the conical one of Patella and
that also is the type of the Radula. This is a long, deep brown
ribbon, with pairs of long. central teeth and no uncini. (See pl. iv.,
fig. 3. Pateila tramoserica, pl. ii1., fig. 2.)
So that in these three instances we have illustrations of two
different organizations, in which the organs seem to be associated
according to no definite rule. In the one case the Radula would
seem to follow the structure of the branchial apparatus ; in the
other a certain form of Radula seems to belong to a certain form
of shell, while the branchial arrangements are quite different.
BRANCHIAL ORGANS.—The type of the gills or branchie, which
in some form or another are placed in the cavity between the
mantle and the foot, is a series of filaments forming separate
lamelle. I just refer to the fact that the gill is a differentiation
of the integuments, and is superficial primitively, becoming placed
in a special cavity by being covered by another fold ” of the
integument. Lach gill- lamella is developed from a row of
processes growing close to one another and remaining separate
occasionally, but in most cases growing together and ‘forming a
plate. The union, however, is not complete. Fine clefts exist at
intervals between the filaments through which the water passes.
““These filaments are not simple prolongations, but loops, so that
118 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSOA.
they enclose a space (intra-branchial space); when the gill-filaments
grow together, this space traverses the whole of the gill-plate, and
communicates with the exterior by means of the clefts between
the filaments. The water which enters by these clefts is collected
into a canal at the point where the plate is attached, and is carried
by it to the hinder end of the body. There are chitinous rods in
each of the gill-filaments, which form a special organ of support.”
(Gegenbaur.) This quotation will be a sufficient explanation of
the observations which follow.
In all the Mollusca that I have examined, I have seen scarcely
any exception to this general type of structure; though there is
one species in which I have not been able to find it. This is
Cerithium ebeninum, Brug., to which frequent reference will
be made.*
In nearly all the littoral species referred to, if a small portion
of the lamelle is taken, a circulation can be seen for some time
after the death of the animal. In Patella tramoserica, Martyn,
the gill forms a fringe of separate cylindrical filaments round the
foot. There is no plate, properly speaking, though each separate
filament is a row of rods arranged at right angles or obliquely to
the length of the filament. This is a very peculiar structure, and
deserves attentive examination. Like all the gill-organs these
filaments are richly furnished with cilia. Down each side there
is a wide branchial artery, and the chitinous rods pass from one
to the other. Between these the blood can be seen circulating,
and the cilia in constant movement, causing the fluid to move in
two distinct currents along the narrow channels, so that the
corpuscles are visible passing in opposite directions or jostling one
another as they are hurried to and fro by the action of the cilia.
I have seen this action going on vigorously four hours after the
death of the animal. The whole surface of the filament, it should
be noticed, is studded with minute pores, possibly to permit a
more perfect oxygenation of the blood. The pores are apparently
smaller than the corpuscles, which are irregular in size and shape,
some being many times larger than the pores referred to. The
chitinous rods seem to be hollow tubes, darker in the centre from
granular cells. The rod continues to the end of the filament,
where the rounded ends give to the latter a wrinkled appearance.
A somewhat difterent structure exists in the case of Chiton,
where the general plan of the branchiz is the same; that is,
continued round the foot. It is remarkable that there should be
such an extensive gill in the case of these genera, while in the
genus Acmcea, which is a conical shell attaining to nearly the same
size, a small gill-plume at the back of the neck comprises the
* Adams in his notice of this animal, in the “‘ Voyage of the Samarang,”
gives a dissection of Cerithium, but avoids all mention of the gills.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 119
whole branchial organs of the animal. Tor instance, in Acmea
alticostata, Angas, the filaments of the gill-plume are extremely
long and thin, attached on one side to the branchial artery which
is wide, and with a smaller artery running parallel at a short
distance, sometimes anastomozing with the main branch which is
the shaft of the plume. In the space between the two arteries,
the filaments are indistinctly marked and covered apparently with
papille. Beyond the smaller branchial artery the filaments
extend in long curved regular lines to the outer edge, where there
is a second artery at which they terminate. Beyond this there is
a margin of cellular substance, from which long, narrow, extremely
fine filaments extend and seem to be free, attached only to
the edge of the plume.
Trochocochlea teniata, Lamarck, is an interesting example
which can be obtained easily from almost any portion of the
extra-tropical Australian coast. The gill-filaments are grown
together, so as to form a broadly lance-shaped plate. They are
very long, but with such small cilia that high powers are required
for their detection. The circulating currents I have never been
able to see; but one peculiarity is deserving of notice. On the
outer edge of the plume there are a few scattered, single,
cylindrical filaments, which extend from the free edge about a
fourth part of its greatest diameter. These have a kind of
spasmodic movement, sweeping round from side to side; and
when they are watched with a moderately high power, it will be
seen that the tube opens and shuts with a sphincter-like contraction,
and a constriction a little within the extreme end. I have not
been as yet enabled to ascertain exactly whether this movement
was connected with the entry or exit of currents of water, but
the general impression left on my mind is that the movement was
that of suction, and water was taken into the interior of the gill.
In making examinations of the gills, students need not be
restricted to such small species as those mentioned, for we have
commonly on our coasts large Mollusca, whose branchie will
hardly require the aid of a common lens for their dissection and
examination, and only that of the microscope will be necessary
for minute physiological details. Haliotis neevosa, Martyn, Turbo
(Senectus) gruneri, Phil., 7. (Lunella) undulatus, Chemn., are
all very common on the south coast, and of large size. I was
once fortunate enough to secure a very fine specimen of Sepia in
Botany. The species may have been Sepia officinalis, L., at any
rate, it was about two feet long, and was a splendid subject for
dissection. The branchial cavity when laid open along the mesial
line, exposed a beautiful pair of pinnate gill-plumes at each side
of the ink-bag. The pinne were given off from a stout stem,
which was not unlike in form to the shaft of a feather. The
pinne supported the lamelle of the usual gill-like pattern. I
believe it is not at all uncommon in Botany Bay for similar large
specimens to be washed up upon the beach.
Amongst the Lamellibranchiata the gill plates are associated
with the organs of locomotion. Thus in Lima multicostata, Sow.,
which is not uncommon on the north-east coast about the Barrier
Reef, we find the mantle-margins separate and the inner margin
fringed with long tentacular filaments. These are of a deep
crimson color, with transverse lines upon them which make them
look as if they had spiral lines inside. The animal swims with a
gentle opening and closing movement of the valves, making it
progress in a series of small jerky movements. The filaments of
the fringe are thus always in movement backwards and forwards,
and the water is thrown in a series of waves on to the gill-plates,
giving a stream of water for respiration such as would be supplied
were the animal possessed ofa siphon. Itisa singularly beautiful
Molluscan gill, and a similar species has attracted the notice of
naturalists in Britain. Unfortunately a little touch with the
hand breaks off the filaments. They form most interesting objects
under the microscope, and continue moving for several hours after
being detached from the animal.
120 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
The gill of our common oyster (Ostrea mordax, Gould,) forms
an important and valuable subject for microscopists, which is
always within our reach. The different filaments are seen to be
united, as it is termed, by concrescence. Between each of them
there is a double layer of chitinous rods, each layer being separated
by a series of cells lined with ciliated epithelium. These are the
apertures between the filaments. Besides the chitinous rods there
are transverse divisions between the gill-chambers, consisting of
horizontal fibres between each of the apertures. The surface of
the whole gill is thickly covered with ciliated epithelium, larger
on the divisions, and these cilia keep up a continual stream of
water. In this species they are of unusually large size.
The gill-plates of some of the families of bivalves are united
together. In the Mytilide or mussels this union is small in
amount, and gives rise to two orifices, anterior and posterior, the
larger of which is the anterior one, and this serves as an outlet
for the foot, while the posterior outlet allows the excreta and the
water which has been used for respiration to pass out. If the
common mussel, Mytilus horsutus, Lam., is taken alive and placed
in the water, this movement can be watched and the whole process
seen distinctly. lf also one of the common Arcade, such as
Arca trapezia, Desh., be taken, it will be found that the gills are
united posteriorly to a membranous septum. In the common
Trigonia pectinata, Lam., or lamarckiw, Gray, the mantle-lobes
correspond with the grooves of the shell, so that it appears to be
wi
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 19H
in plaits which are rounded at the edge ; but the lobes are disunited
throughout, nor do they join until they reach the upper surface of
the posterior adductor muscle. The gills are united before
and behind the foot.
In Section A of Siphonidae there are short siphons. The part
of the mantle which surrounds the orifices already spoken of
becomes united, and forms a tube which is double or divided at
least internally by a partition. In the lower tube the water
passes in, being drawn by a movement of the cilia, and passes
out again by the upper tube, the current removing at the same
time the excreta. In some cases the siphons are short and the
pallial line simple, that is without a deep sinus. Of this we have
a good example in the common Chama (sp.?) of Port Jackson.
In the family Tridacnide, which is distinguished by having the
adductor muscle single and nearly blended with the pedal muscle,
the mantle-lobe is extensively united, with however a large
anterior opening. ‘There is a small grooved foot near the hinge.
The siphonal orifices are surrounded by a thickened pallial border.
This genus is well represented in Australia by the large clam
Tridacna gigas, L., where the size the organs offers special facility
for study. It is very common on all the Barrier Reef. |
To mention all the various modifications of the siphonal tube
which can be studied amongst our Mollusca, would exceed the
limits proposed by this essay. It will be sufficient to mention the
genera Cardium, Lucina, Cyclas, Curce, Crassatella, Cypricardia,
Cardita, and Venus, all of which have common species on our
coasts, and are typically Australian. Nearly all the genera
mentioned above have been examined by me, and do not offer
anything of special interest. In Panopea australis, Sow., we have
probably the double siphons in their highest degree of development,
as they are largely protruding from the shell and covered with a
thick wrinkled skin. Living specimens are occasionally met with
in the Harbour, but they are rare, though the animal cannot be
considered uncommon, as single valves are continually found.
By digging for them I am convinced many would be obtained, as
they are gregarious.
This seems a proper opportunity, as I am dealing with the
organs of respiration, to refer to the circulating fluid or the blood
of Australian Mollusca. The blood has formed the object of
special study by many naturalists. As early as 1846, Dr. T.
Wharton Jones read some papers before the Royal Society of
London on the blood corpuscle in its different phases of development
in the animal series. He found in the blood of the common
whelk (Luccinum undatum, Lam.), granule cells and nucleated cells
essentially similar to those of the blood of Annuiosa. In Mytilus
edulis, L., or common mussel, similar cells were found. The blood of
122 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
both species had a tendency, he remarked probably for the first
time, to shoot out into ameboid processes. Many other observations
have been made, but it will be sufficient now to refer to those of
Mr. Ray Lankester “On the Distribution of Hemoglobin in the
Animal Kingdom,” read before the Royal Society of London,*
and the researches of Dr. MacMunn.+ Without detailing all the »
observations, what refers to this subject may be summarized
as follows. |
The colour of the blood in invertebrate animals does not belong
to the corpuscles, but to the liquor sanguinis ; but there are
many exceptions. The color itself is blue after exposure to the
air, due to the presence of a pigment named hemocyanin, in most
cases. On analysis the blood is found to contain traces of copper
and iron. Extensive examinations have been made as to the
nature of this blood and its coloring matter, particularly in the
case of fresh-water mussels, snails (Helix pomatia, L., Lymnea
staynalis, Drap., and Paludina vivipara, Lam. ). &e. Most of these
animals have blue blood ; though in some this quality does not.
appear until after exposure.
Dr. Lankester has made special researches on the subject of
hemoglobin in Molluscan blood. He found that it occurred in
special corpuscles :—1. In the blood of Solen legumen, where it is
diffused in a vascular or ambient liquid. 2. In the general
blood-system of the pulmonate Planorbis. 3. In the muscles of
the pharynx and jaws of certain Gastropods, observed in Lymnea,
Paludina, Littorina, Patella, Chiton, and Aplysia. Also in the
pharyngeal gizzard of Aplysia, being entirely absent from the
muscular and other tissues and the blood.
Dr. Lankester found in his investigations amongst Mollusca,
that there were many cases of red tissue or liquid in the foot and
mantle, and in their nerve ganglia, which might be supposed to
be due to hemoglobin, but are not so, as the tissue or liquid did
not give the characteristic bands of hemoglobin when examined
by the spectroscope. ‘The result of all his investigations was that
hemoglobin was found distributed irregularly throughout the
animal kingdom, being absent entirely only from the lowest
groups. It may occur in corpuscles of the blood or in the aquor
sanguinis, in muscular tissue or in nerve tissue. It may be
present in one small group of muscles, and absent from all the
rest of the tissues of the body. He thought that a partial
explanation of this arbitrary distribution may be found by
reference to the chemical activity of hemoglobin. Wherever
increased facilities for oxidation are requisite, hemoglobin may
-_———
* Vol. xxi., No. 469.
+“ On the Chromatology of the Blood of some Invertebrates,” Quart..
Journ. Micros. Science, Vol. xxv., 1885, p. 469.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 123
be the suitable agent employed. The Vertebrata and Annelida
possess a blood containing hemoglobin, being of greater activity
than the Mollusca, which do not possess such blood as a rule.
The actively burrowing Solen legumen alone amongst Lamelli-
branchiate Mollusks and only Planorbis amongst Gastropods,
respiring the air of stagnant marshes, possess blood containing
hemoglobin. In the former the activity, in the latter the
deficiency of respirable gases are corrélated with the exceptional
development of hemoglobin. But we cannot as yet offer an
explanation for the absence of hemoglobin from the closely-allied
species of Solen, and from the Lymncer which accompany Planorbis.
Hemoglobin-bearing corpuscles are, according to the same
author, of a peculiar character. When hemoglobin is absent, other
things remaining the same (as with the blood of Solen ensis, L.),
the peculiar corpuscles are absent also. Such things as colorless.
corpuscles representative of hemoglobin do however appear to
exist in the case of the fish Leptocephalus. In connection with
the relation of the colorless corpuscles of vertebrate blood to the
red corpuscles, and of the corpuscles of the vascular fluids of
Invertebrata to one another and to those of Vertebrates, these
facts seem to be important; the colorless corpuscles in one case
are only comparable to the colorless in another ; the red corpuscles.
are something apart, which may or may not be superadded.
Dr. Lankester mentions in another place a species of Arca, in
the blood of which he detected hemoglobin, and which I believe
is of ared color. Without being able to say anything as to the
occurrence of hemoglobin, I wish to record here that one species,
very common in all muddy places on the extra-tropical Australian
coast, and particularly so in Port Jackson (Arca trapezia, Desh.,
= A. lobata, Reeve), has red blood, very like in color and
appearance to the blood of a vertebrate animal. When examined
under the microscope, the red color is seen to be due to corpuscles
with a nucleus exactly like human blood, except that the corpuscles
appeared to me to be not quite so proportionately numerous as in
the human fluid. There was an absence also of any of the
amoeboid movements, so well known and so often described. The
size also appeared to correspond with that of the human corpuscle
with a scarcity of colorless discs.
When a living specimen of Arca trapezia is opened, the injury
to the tissues, as in the case of the oyster, causes the blood to
flow freely, and the heart may be seen to be pulsating at the rate
of about 15 or less pulsations per minute. On these occasions it
appears like a little vesicle fully injected, and can be easily studied
in that position. As already stated, if a piece of the gill is now
removed and placed under the microscope, innumerable crowds of
124 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
red discs may be seen coursing down the channels around the
filaments.
The fact of another species of Arca in the Southern Hemisphere
having red blood is one of considerable interest, and I trust it
will soon be ascertained whether it contains hemoglobin, of which
there can be but little reasonable doubt. The habits of the
animal are such as to require some highly oxidizing element.
Like Solen ensis in Britain, it buries itself deeply in the sandy
mud and silt when the tide recedes, and comes to the surface
when the water isin. The mud in which it lies buried is so finely
levigated that it can generally sink to considerable depths, and
the surrounding ooze must penetrate into every crack and crevice
and exclude every particle of oxygen. Under these circumstances
it would need, it seems to me, all that hemoglobin could do for it.
The habits of the Solens are similar, except perhaps that in
burying themselves they seem to prefer sand to mud. Often
when a lad I have captured numbers of Solens by searching for
their place of interment, indicated on the surface by a small
perforation like a keyhole. Putting a little salt on the hole, and
then a little water, generally brought the animal to the surface.
It used to be said that it came up because the salt made it think
the tide was rising, but probably as much was due to an
unexpected shower bath of strong brine.
There are two species of Solen in Sydney Harbour, differing
but little from each other; but their blood is red like that of
Solen ensis in Britain. It may be observed that burrowing alone
to great depths is not a habit which necessarily indicates red
blood amongst Mollusca. MNatica, many of the species of Venus,
Cardium, Mactra, Donax, and many others, are all burrowers,
and none of them, as far as I know, have blood different from
the usual Molluscan character.
I have not had any opportunity as yet for the examination of
the blood of any of our species of Planorbis. The red color of
its blood has been asserted, contradicted, and re-asserted many
times. In Prof. Tate’s admirable and painstaking little book on
the “ Land and Freshwater Mollusks of Great Britain,” (London,
Hardwick, 1866,) he says, ‘‘The species that compose this genus
are numerous, inhabit slow running streams, ponds and ditches,
feeding on the aquatic plants, and are very sluggish in their
movements. A peculiarity possessed by all the genus, may be
readily observed by irritating the animal of P. corneus or P.
marginatus, when a purplish liquid is emitted, which is not the
blood, for the circulating fluid is colorless,” p. 210.
I believe that the one Tasmanian species, and one if not more
of the Australian species have colored blood, but I have not
subjected the fluid of any of them to microscopic examination.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 125
In a great number of Gastropoda which I have examined,
including the following species, I have found red fluids in the
buccal masses surrounding the jaws :—FPatella tramoserica,
and the other littoral species already mentioned, such as Acmea,
Siphonaria, Risella, Trochocochlea, Senectus, many species of
Trochus: in fact, I do not remember having met with any species
in which the buccal mass had not a blood-red color. The
appearance around the jaws is just that of raw flesh, but a minute
examination shows that the red portions are not universally
distributed, but confined usually to the terminations of the bands
of muscles. If the buccal mass of any of the Gastropods is placed
under the microscope, it is seen to consist of a number of long
narrow bands, red at the ends. The spindle-shaped cells are
often greatly elongated and band-like in form, surrounded by a
membrane. ‘There is no differentiation of those singly and doubly
refracting particles, giving the appearance of transverse striation.
In all the species I have examined the band-lke fibres prevail.*
_ Before leaving the subject of the buccal mass, it will be well to
deal with the cartilages which support the Radula, which in the
most of the Gastropods is the only representative of the internal
skeleton. In the Trochide, Patellide, Littorinide, and many
other families, there are two oblong pieces of cartilage, raised at
the edges with a central broad groove in which the Radula lies.
The shape of these two pieces of cartilage is somewhat pointed at
the extremity, like a tongue in fact. In Senectus gruneri there
are four pieces of cartilage ; that is to say there are two small
pieces added on to the posterior end of each jaw, and working
with a hinge-like movement. In other species, the extra cartilage
is reduced to a mere tubercle, but there is much variety.
In the Siphonostomata, where the buccal mass is contained at
the mouth of a more or less long contractile siphon, the arrangement
is very different. Taking Triton spengleri, Lam., a common species
at Port Jackson, as a type, we find asimple tube of thin cartilage
surrounded by two muscular coats, one lining the inside and the
other the outside of the much thicker cartilaginous siphon. The
cartilaginous jaws in the buccal mass are hood-shaped and meet
together over the Radula, a part of which is exposed in a kind of
little orifice, and where it works backwards and forwards on the
particles of food which are exposed to its action. The hooded
cartilaginous jaws are bound round with a series of band-like
muscles ; one transverse band passes over and under them about
half-way from the orifice or fissure where the hood-like jaws meet.
*Mr. G. Tryon, in his “ Introduction to the Study of Mollusca,” (Vol.i.,
p- 90,) says that in Arca pexata the blood is red, and is commonly called
“the bloody clam.” He speaks also of the coloured blood of all the species
of Planorbis.
v* (=a
v
‘ bake
: Vin
Though the junction of these jaws is pretty close above and below,
they seem as it were to strangle the Radula, and make the teeth
project out in a kind of point or bunch. One can easily understand
when looking at this instrument, how it is that the Siphonostomata
are able to bore holes in shells of such an exactly rounded shape.
The appearance of the buccal mass is very much in shape like
Teredo navalis, L., having the same broad, blunt, conical
outline. All the Siphonostomata are carnivorous feeders it is
said. Asarule the Radula is very short, and is composed of a
short series of long hooks with a sharp blade and a broad curve,
something like a sickle. The central teeth are broad, simple
chisel-like forms. (See Fig. 4.)
Every one who has examined these animals must have noticed
the redness of the termination of the tube. If this is inspected
carefully, it will be found that there are two distinct muscular |
bands, crossing each other, both tinged with red blood. From the
back of the buccal mass the cesophagus lies loosely in the tube,
being fastened underneath by a narrow series of muscular bands
which secure it, but give the greatest freedom of movement.
126 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
Orepidula aculeata, Gml., is a small shell which is found in
Port Jackson, and I believe in most temperate seas of the World,
and strangely enough, always as a kind of tenant in the shell-
mouth of a Triton. It is one of the Siphonostomata, with a shell
of inconspicuous color but peculiar slipper shape. The most of
the animal is located under the partition which extends half-way
across the shell, giving it the appearance of a minute slipper.
The animal is beautifully mottled brown and pale yellow over the
region of the viscera, and is quite visible through the septum
which is transparent. The siphon projects out through this and
is conspicuously red. The Radula is of the usual type, such as I
have described above ; but there is a peculiarity at the base of
the sickie-like teeth which I have not observed in other species.
At the curve of the shaft there is a row of eight or nine tubercles
decreasing in size from the centre.
I may here mention a circumstance connected with the
circulation, which I could not more conveniently introduce
elsewhere in this essay. JI shall have occasion to describe
subsequently the mode in which the shell-structure is permeated
by perforations and nerve fibres, to an extent which almost
destroys our previously received ideas of its compactness and
solidity. In some of the sections I have observed small blood-
vessels permeating the shell-structure as well. These vessels are
of extreme tenuity, not more than z3> of an inch in diameter;
but the most singular fact connected with them is, that something
like valves are observable at regular intervals all through the
length of the transparent tube. J am not aware whether valves
_ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 177
have been noticed in the veins of the Mollusca ; and in these small
capillaries, it is the only instance in which I have been able to
perceive them. The fact, in any case, has a most special interest
as occurring in the shell-structure, where I do not find that any
author has suggested the existence of blood circulation. The
tubes were ultimately merged in the thickened shell-structure.
Moutrtiericiry or Hyves 1n MANTLE AND SHELL.—It is nearly
a century since Poli (“Testacea utrisque Sicilie,” p. 153,)
noticed the occurrence of certain organs like the human eye in
the mantle of Pecten. This, after a long interval, was a subject
taken up by many observers, and extended to other genera, such
as Arca, Pectunculus, and Cardium. In 1877 Dr. Karl Semper
published the important discovery that he had made, of eyes in
the dorsal papille of certain species of Onchidium, while it began
to be realized that Mollusca generally were better provided with
visual organs than had ever been imagined; but the shell was not
thought to be the place where they would be found to reside. To
‘use the words of Prof. Mosely, ‘“‘A Molluscan shell is, moreover,
almost the last place in which the naturalist would expect to find
eyes, and the Chitonide have hitherto in text-books always had
the absence of eyes assigned to them as one of the characteristics
of their group.”
It would be unjust not to mention the labors of other observers
in the same field, and therefore the following extract from
Prof. Mosely (Quarterly Journ. Microscop. Science, 1885, p. 38,)
becomes necessary :—‘“ Middendorf (‘ Beitrage zu einer Malaco-
zoologia Rossica.’ ‘Mém. de l Acad. de St. Petersbourgh Sc. Nat.’
Ser. iv., t. vi., 1849.) named two distinct layers, of which the
shells of Chitonidz consist, the tegmentum and articulamentum ;
and Dr. W. B. Carpenter examined the shells of Chitons by
means of sections, and observed the perforate structure of the
tegmentum in Chiton, writing as follows: ‘‘In Chiton the external
layer, which seems to be of a delicate fibrous nature, but which is
of extreme density, is perforated by large canals which pass down
obliquely into its substance, without penetrating however as far
as the middle layer. (Dr. Carpenter has kindly lent me his
original sections of Chiton shells, and from what I now know
I am able to recognize parts of pigmental eye-capsules in one
labelled Chiton spiniger).” (‘Cyclopedia of Anatomy and
Physiology, Article Shell,” p. 565.) The late Dr. Gray wrote in
his paper on the “Structure of Chitons ”:—“ The greater number
of species have a part of the valve which is not covered by the
mantle, but exposed. This exposed part consists of a perfectly
distinct external coat, peculiar I believe to the shells of this
family. The outer coat of these valves is separated from the
lower or normal portion by a small space filled by a cellular
128 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
calcareous deposit, which is easily seen in a section of the valves.
(J. E. Gray “On the Structure of Chitons,” Phil. Trans., 1848.)
In 1869, Dr. W.. Marshall (“Note sur Vhistoire Naturelle des
Chitons,” ‘“ Archives Neerlandaises des Sciences exactes et nat.”
t. iv., 1869,) made a great advance in our knowledge. He found
that the tegmentum of Chitons was perforated by a series of fine
- vertical canals, which open at the surface in a series of cup-shaped
apertures, and that these vertical canals open into a series of
horizontal canals running in the space between the apposed
surfaces of the tegmentum and articulamentum ; and that these
canals opened on the under surface of each shell. He further
found that the larger vertical canals, before reaching the surface,
became enlarged and gave off each a crown of smaller canals also
terminating at the surface in cup-shaped apertures, and that the
canals and apertures, small and large, are distributed evenly over
the outer surface of the shell. He decalcified the shells, and
found in the canal system ramifications of soft tissue, which he
recognized as offsets of the mantle, and considered homologous.
with those of Balanide aad LBrachiopods. He erroneously
regarded the soft tissue ramifications as tubular and respiratory
in function. In 1882 Van Bemmelen, following up his researches,
examined the structure of the soft tissues contained in the shell
of Chiton marginatus, and discovered that the tegmentum is
entirely filled with papilliform bodies, which terminate the
branches of the network and occupy the surface perforations
described by Marshall. He figures and describes the structure of
these papille and their relations to the tegmentum, and propounds
certain theories as to their homologies which will be referred to.”
The really important discovery as to the nature of these organs
was made by Prof. Mosely himself. In examining a specimen of
Chiton (Schizochiton) incisus, Sowerby, he was struck with the
resemblance of the minute dots already mentioned to eyes, and
further examination proved that such was really their nature.
On searching for eyes on the shells of other Chitonide, he
found them present in the majority of the genera, differing
however in each genus more or Jess in structure and arrangement.
Mr. Mosely announced his discovery in the “Annals and
Magazine of Natural History” for August, 1884 (Vol. xiv.,
5th Series, p. 141). The following is an abbreviated account of
these wonderful organs :—
They are circular or oval in outline, varying in measurement
from ++ 5 to ¢+o of an inch in diameter, according to the sub-genus '
or species. They appear under reflected light as convex, circular,
raised dots of highly refracting transparent matter, surrounded
by a narrow zone of pigment, or the margin of the choroid seen
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 129
through shell substance. In the centre is a small dark circular
spot with a brilliant speck of light reflected by the lens.
It is better to explain on the threshold of these observations,
a difficulty which will occur to most persons not very intimately
acquainted with the subject, as to how these eyes on the outside
of the shell could communicate their impressions to the nerve
centres of the animal. This difficulty will be met most easily in
the words of Mr. Mosely, remarking at the same time that the
shell, no matter how hard or apparently independent of the
animal, is a structure intimately associated with the integument,
and is always permeated more or less by nerve-channels between
the different plates of shelly matter. Now in the case of
the Chitons, this is the more easily understood from their
peculiar structure. ‘They were formerly termed multivalve shells ;
because they are covered with eight moveable plates of shelly
matter, sustained in their places by a cartilaginous frame which
is a horny extension of the mantle. The imbedded portion of
each plate is produced into two processes belonging to the lowest
plate of shelly matter. The exposed portion is very much
thickened, of a rugose sculpture and colored, forming a kind of
raised, triangular, winged area at each side. This is called the
tegmentum, and at the junction of these two plates of shell are
the openings through which the nerve branches are given off to
form the optic nerves as described hereafter. I may mention,
that though Mr. Mosely regards this structure as peculiar to the
Chitonide, something similar to it exists amongst a very large
number of Mollusca, both univalves and bivalves, as far as my
observation goes; though of course modified according to the
peculiar structure of each. It is more apparent in the case of
Chitons, but it is hard to understand in many cases how the
juncture is effected, yet I think I shall be able to show how
the’ result is attained in those species in which I have found
eyes. I now give the result of Prof. Mosely’s examination.
“The entire substance of the tegmentum in the Chitonide, is
traversed by a series of branching canals, which are occupied, in
the living condition of the animal, by corresponding ramifications
of soft tissues, accompanied by abundance of nerves. The nerves
and strands of other soft tissue enter the substance of the
tegmentum along the line of junction of its margin with the upper
surface of the articulamentum. A narrow area, perforated all
over by pores, so as to have a sieve-like appearance, here intervenes
between the two components of the shells, and in some shells the
actual margin of the tegmentum itself is perforated. In the case
_ of the intermediate shells, in most genera there are a pair of slits
(incisure laterales), one_on either side, in the lateral lamina of
insertion ; these slits lead to two narrow tracts in the deeper
I—July 4, 1888.
130 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSGCA.
substance of the shell, which follow the line of separation between
the area centralis and the aree laterales of the tegmentum. These
narrow tracts are permeated by numerous longitudinal canals,
which lodge each a specially large stem of soft tissue and nerves,
which ramifies in the substance of the tegmentum. Corresponding
with this tract, on the under surface of the shell, are a series of
minute openings leading into it, through which further strands
of soft tissue, possibly mostly nervous, pass from the surface of
the shell-bed into the shell, to give the general network of soft
tissue. In the anterior and posterior shells there are usually
a considerable number of such marginal slits, each with a
corresponding tubular tract and ramifying strands of soft tissues.
The network of soft tissues contained in the canals within the
tegmentum ramifies towards the shell-surface and terminates there
either in eyes or in peculiar elongate bodies, which, apparently,
are organs of touch. These latter are long, somewhat sausage-
shaped bodies, which terminate at their free extremity in dice-box
shaped plugs of transparent tissue, which show a somewhat
complicated structure. The tegmenta of the shells of most
Chitonidee are perforated at the surface by circular apertures or
pores of two sizes, arranged in more or less definite patterns with
regard to one another, and sometimes with regard to the eyes
also. The end plugs of the sense- organs above ‘described, he in
these larger pores. From the sides of the sausage-shaped sense-
organs are given off more or less numerous fine strings of soft
tissue which, diverging, pass to the smaller pores above described,
and there terminate in very small plugs, just lke those of the
larger similar organs, but less complex in structure.”
Having disposed of the difficulties with regard to the Chitonide,
he explains the manner in which the soft structures of each eye
are located. They he in a somewhat pear-shaped chamber in the
substance of the tegmentum or exposed area of the shell. The
portion which would correspond with the stalk of the pear is the
canal for the optic nerve, directed towards the free margin of the
tegmentum, whence the nerve reaches it. One side of the chamber
is pierced by a circular aperture which is covered by a calcareous
cornea. This cornea is formed of concentric lamelle, and its
substance is continuous at its margins with the shelly tegmentum.
The eye-cavity is lined with a dark brown pigment membrane which
projects slightly round the margin of the aperture and forms an
iris. There is a perfectly transparent hyaline, strongly bi-convex
lens composed of soft tissue and of fibrous structure. It dissolves
slowly in strong acetic acid. The optic nerve does not perforate
the retina, which is composed of a single layer of very short rods
with their ends directed towards the light. Some of the fibres of
the optic nerve, without proceeding to the retina, pass round
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 131
outside, perforating the choroid, and end at the surface of the shell,
or round the cornea, apparently forming a sensitive zone round
each eye.
Mr. Mosely was not successful in finding these eyes in all the
genera of the family. They were entirely absent from the genus
Chiton and some others. In that genus the perforations and
sense-organs were present, but no eyes. In Chiton (Corephium)
aculeatus, L., the eyes were present in enormous numbers. He
reckoned there must be 8,500 eyes. This is an Australian
species. In Chiton (Tonicia) marmoratus, Gmel., the eyes are sunk
in little pit-like depressions on the shell-surface. He searched in
vain also for any similar eyes in the shells of Patedla,and other
allied genera. He regarded the shells of the Chitonide as
possessing a feature peculiar of its kind, entirely unrepresented
in other Mollusca.
Tt need hardly be said that so important and interesting a
discovery made quite a sensation amongst naturalists, and the
wonder was that such numerous organs should so long have
awaited discovery. So important was it deemed that at the
British Museum at South Kensington, in the portion devoted to
marine conchology, the Chitons were brought into prominence for
the benefit of visitors. One of the shells is conspicuously labelled
for exhibition, and an enlarged model is placed by the side, showing
the eyes on the surface of the shell, the prominent rounded
tubercles on the tegmentum beside them, and minute protuberances
for pores containing nerves of sense.
Before dealing in detail with what instances Australia
furnishes of this remarkable character, a few preliminary remarks
must be made. One of the shells on which Prof. Mosely made
his most important observations was an Australian Chiton, that
is Chiton (Corephium) aculeatus, which is very common in
Sydney Harbour. It is probable that the other genera amongst
which he searched in vain for shell-eyes were European species,
and possibly the shells were not preserved in spirit, in which case
the eyes would be difficult to discover. One further observation
has to be made.
It has already been remarked that these shells are nacreous.
In the case of Patella tramoserica, Martyn, which is the species with
which we have been dealing previously, it will be remarked when
looking at the shell from the inside that there is a narrow margin
at the extreme edge, passing all round the nacreous inner line.
This is where the outside plate or tegmentum overlaps the internal
or nacreous lining. A similar structure is seen on a very great
number of shells, whether they are nacreous or not, and I call
attention to it here as an illustration of the conspicuous way
in which the double-plated structure is universal amongst the
132 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
shell-bearing Mollusca. It is not here, however, that the nerves
for the organs of sense communicate between tne shell and the
softer tissues. If we examine the cup-shaped interior of the simple
conical shell of Patella we shall find a horse-shoe shaped depression
in the interior lining. In this there are special perforations for
the passage of nerve-fibres and vessels of circulation. In all the
univalve Mollusca there are muscular attachments which perform
the same office of fixing the shell in its habitation, and where a
communication is established between the hard and soft structures.
It is obvious that the passage for the nerves, etc., could not be
looked for at the periphery or peristome of the shell, where
the tegmentum overlaps ; because, though the mantle usually
stretches down to it and continues adding to its structure, it can be
withdrawn far within the shell when occasion requires it. But
the overlapping is important as showing in every case the
existence of the tegmentum and the inner plate, as much in every
family as amongs t the Chitonide. In Patella the overlapping
plate forms a conspicuous, though very narrow margin. In some
species of Acmea it is wide, and of a different colour from the
tegmentum ; that is to say, sometimes when the latter is variegated
the overlapping margin has a uniform band of colour or vice versa.
In Trochocochlea there are three coats: the tegmentum, the nacre,
and a white shelly coat forming an inner lip round the mouth, of
broad, dark brown bands and narrow green ones. In Siphonaria
denticulata, Quoy, it 1s an extremely narrow margin, not at all
easy to see, and sometimes itself overlapped by the broken and
split edges of the periostraca. Other conical shells need not be
particularized.
In Risella melanostoma, Gmel., this margin is not very difficult
to see as a light-coloured, narrow band round the external lip and
so on to the base of the columella. But the line of junction between
the different plates requires a hand-lens to make out. In all of
our Australian species of Zzttiorina it forms a conspicuous addition
to the ornamentation of the mouth of the shell. Of all the
Trochidz the same may be said.
This digression has such an important bearing on the
subject matter of these eyes, that I must be pardoned inserting
it here for the sake of non-scientific readers, and with a view to
certain inferences which I shall have to lay stress upon hereafter.
But the important point which has to be here insisted upon is
that there are in all shells two plates, between which are
nerve-fibres, and as I shall show afterwards, in which are nerve
centres.
As far as my observations have gone, I have come to the
conclusion that the shell-eyes are by no means confined to the
Chitonide, and that in fact a multiplicity of eyes of this kind is
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 133
the rule rather than the exception amongst the Mollusca. It is
now many years since I first noticed the peculiar ornamentation
with which some of our coast shells are varied ; more particularly
in the radiating lines and papille or warts, with which the surface
is adorned. This is more conspicuous amongst the bivalves, and
I was often struck, when examining them with a lens, at observing
the peculiar crystalline clearness of some of these asperities upon
their summits. In Anatina tasmanica, Reeve, to which further
reference will be made, this is especially conspicuous. The whole
exterior surface of the shell is rough with little dots, not
symmetrically placed, nor uniform in size, though small and
sometimes aggregated together in little clusters. But what struck
me most about these little marks was, that when I examined them
with a lens, I found that each had a little transparent crystalline
summit which brightly reflected the hight. But almost any shell
in its natural state, if carefully examined, I had noticed, had
something of the same kind upon its surface. Usually this was
so small, that a rather powerful hand-lens was required for its
detection. Keeping to the example that I have used all through
this paper, | may mention the limpets. In a good shell that had
not been much eroded, my attention was early called to certain
little marks and dots upon the upper surface which must, I felt
convinced have had some meaning. As a rule they appear
like little stained pits and depressions, but sometimes forming
raised clusters of crystalline projections which correspond with the
ornaments on the shell. It never occurred to me to suggest that
they were eyes, but I felt convinced they had a purpose, and that
an important one, in the economy of the shell. I was equally
interested with the glassy hemispherical projections on the
calcareous opercula ot many shells, especially Werzta and the
trochiform and turbinate Gastropods. The latter still remain a
partially unsolved problem to me. One circumstance that served
me asa clue, was in the case of Lima multicostata, Sowerby, a
bivalve, the hooded imbrications on which make a beautifully
ornamented shell, covered with sharp asperities. Hach of the
little hooded scales I observed, had one or a cluster of the small
crystalline nodules within it, often at the summit, and I could not
help remarking years ago, that it looked to me like a bull’s-eye
lens placed in a reflector, in a most advantageous position to give
light tothe animal. Furthermore, even the smooth univalve shells
were observed to have a very minute ornamentation of this kind
in the fine strize which follow the spiral windings of the whorls ;
but I did not pursue the subject further, though convinced that
such a uniform ornament must have a meaning. Structures with
no higher purpose than mere ornament are unknown in nature,
and perhaps the tendencies of the doctrines of evolution incline us
too readily to forego searching for a purpose in insignificant
details. Though this may appear to many a very antiquated
idea, in practice it encourages one to attempt the solution of many
an interesting problem.
I shared the interest and wonder of the public at the discovery
made by the great naturalist of the Challenger, and I immediately
recurred to the old observations made on Australian shells, .
particularly Patella, Anatina, Lima, Trigonia, and the littoral
shells generally. No time was lost in making investigations,
though no success was expected with Patella, as Mr. Mosely had
looked in vain for the small eyes amongst some species of this genus.
With some shells, | was not successful, and, as often is the case,
these being the first tried led to discouragement and almost an
abandonment of the search. But remembering the more conspicuous
instances amongst the genera above mentioned, I renewed the
investigation, and was rewarded with the discovery of organs,
which I have no doubt whatever, are similar to those described by
Prof. Mosely. Iam fully aware, however, that what might satisfy
me in a matter of the kind will require something more to meet .
all the objections which may be felt by other observers, and
therefore beg to record the discovery, if such it be, with some little
diffidence, knowing the deficiencies under which I laboured for
want of technical apparatus, and also of experience in the higher
paths of microscopical examinations. However, I shall give the
public the fullest opportunity of verifying or disproving my.
conclusions by every detail about my methods and the supposed
facts observed. It is to be hoped after this there will not be much
error involved. In any case, I feel confident that asthe examples
quoted are of easy access, my conclusions will be speedily confirmed
or otherwise.
Briefly, therefore, I may now state that I have found on a
large number of shells, eyes of the kind described by Prof. Mosely ;
that is, associated with sense-organs and supplied with nerve
channels of a similar kind. These eyes have been observed in
various forms, on so large a proportionate number of shells, that
I am inclined to regard their absence as rather the exception,
but as in matters of detail there is considerable difference in
the mode in which the eyes occur, their number and position,
it is necessary to arrange a classified list of these organs.
Hyes and sense-organs in the Mollusca may be divided into four
kinds, that is:—1 Minute organs in great numbers on the outer
surface or tegmentum of the shell of both bivalves and univalves.
2. Large and solitary eyes in the shell-substance or on the horny
tissues, in size and in special peculiarities to be afterwards
described, like the tentacular eyes. 3. Eyes on the mantle-lobes
of both bivalves and univalves, generally on stalked pedicels, but
134 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 135
sometimes on the surface of the mantle, or immersed to some
extent in its tissue. 4. Eyes and sense-organs on the opercula,
generally stalked or on raised tubercles. A short description of
each of these kinds is necessary before describing particular
instances.
SHELL Eyzs or THE TEGMENTUM.—Ifasection be made of any
of the following common littoral shetls of Australia, certain
appearances, to be mentioned presently, will be noticed. The
species I now particularly refer to are Patella tramoserica, Martyn,
Acmea septiformis, Q. & G., Srphonaria diemenensis, Q. & G.,
Cerithium ebeninum, Brug., Twrbo (Senectus) grunerr, Philippi, 7’.
(Lunella) undulatus, Chem., Malleus vulgaris, Lam., (the hammer-
headed oyster), Mercenaria paucilamellata, Dunker, Trigonia
lamarcku, Gray, T. margaritacea, Lamarck, Anatina tasmanica,
Reeve, Ostrea mordax, Gould, and Arca trapezia, Desh. It will
be observed that I do not select these species as being exceptional
or extraordinary illustrations (except in the genus Z'rigonia).
They are in truth taken indiscriminately fron the many shells
which I have examined, only I happen to have these specimens
before me while I am writing the present remarks. A section
through any of these shells shows:on the outer surface a thin
stratum of partly refractive structure. Under the microscope
this layer is seen to consist of transparent capsules with a
hyaline covering outwardly, and frequently a distinct lens and
pupil within. These capsules are supphed with nerves from
below, from a large nerve-ganglion in the shell in the case of
the bivalves, and from a spirally shaped trunk in the columella,
in the case of univalves. All the capsules cannot be regarded as
visual organs, or at any rate they are too minute to ascertain this
satisfactorily ; but they are all supplied with nerves abundantly.
For the most part they are so close together as to form a
pavement, but occasionally they are scattered. This layer has
been of course observed by every naturalist, and has generally
been confounded with the fibrous layer of prismatic shell-structure,
but that it subserves a far more interesting and important purpose
I think I shall be able to show.
If instead of taking a tranverse section, a portion of the shell
is ground flat and thin from below, the eyes can be seen and the
sense-organs (through the shell) with great distinctness, sometimes
with the aid of a lens, but sometimes requiring to be magnified
considerably. They occur in the form of minute pellucid, raised,
circular, or oval points, transparent, refracting the light brightly
and with a minute dark dot in the centre. They are so thickly
scattered over the shell-surface as in some cases to leave scarcely
a point which is without them. In some others they are sunk in
little pits and depressions, or in the valleys between the ruge of
136 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
the surface. Their position is commonly arranged so as to give
vision at every angle to the animal. Of course the majority of
the eyes upon the shell-surface could only look upwards if they
have no power of movement, about which nothing can be asserted
as yet. But I find that every little point or elevation is chosen
as a location for an eye or a cluster of eyes, and thus there is a
close connection between the surface form and these organs of
vision. On the ribs of shells it will often be observed that there
are raised nodules, points, or bosses at regular intervals, gradually
increasing in size in a radiate manner from the summit to the
periphery. Such ornaments, which often form the special beauty
of a shell, reminding one of the crockets on spires in Architecture,
are lit up by these crystalline optical arrangements, making a
shellin which they are well preserved look like a city adorned with
rows of street-lamps, especially when the surface is wetted or
oiled. The eyes are nearly always so minute as to be only visible
with the microscope. When the number and variety of them is
considered, some will wonder that they have not been noticed
before, but they are seldom preserved on the surface of shells in
museums and collections. The scrubbing, washing, decalcifying,
and polishing to which they have been subjected has long ago
swept away these fragile little crystals. My opinion also is
that the animal tissues connected with these visual] organs are of
a very perishable nature, and that their places are only indicated
by pits atter a little dessication. The calcareous matter contained
in the cornea soon ceases to reflect ght, and becomes white and
opaque. In very old shells the former presence of these eyes is
indicated by innumerable pits, as close as small-pox markings on
the human face. In this manner it is not impossible that they
may be detected in fossil species.
I have found these visual organs as common amongst the —
bivalves as amongst the univalves. In some genera they are
present in extraordinary numbers. This I regard as specially
the case with Zrigonia lamarcku, already referred to. I have,
moreover, good reason for the opinion that such eyes are still to
be found amongst shells whose upper plates or tegmenta are
formed of tine lamelle, such as the common oyster.
TsotareED Evrs.—Besides these tegmentary eyes, solitary eyes
of larger size are found on the edge of the shell, on the operculum
and on the periostraca when it is horny. There are peculiarities
about these organs which show them to be quite different from
the tegmentary visual organs. (1) They are of much larger
size; (2) they occur solitary, in pairs, triplets, or even little
clusters ; (3) they are irregularly spherical or oval, of dark
colour, and highly refractive in the centre ; (4) they are probably —
of the vertebrate type, that is to say the nerve penetrates through
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. Taw
the rods and spreads out on the inner surface, and the rods
themselves are reversed ; (5) there are special peculiarities in the
manner in which the nerves supply these organs, an illustration
of which can be seen at pl. vi., fig. 8, which is an eye found in
the substance of the shell of Patella tramoserica while being
ground down for a section. It need not appear improbable that
such eyes should become entombed and disused, for an instance is
met in the case of Trigonia margaritacea, where it will be shown
that large eyes like those found in the Chitonide exist abundantly
on the interior lining of the shell. ‘This instance will be referred
to subsequently.
MantieE Eyes.— Organs similar to those described in the cases of
Pecten maximus, Lam., P. jacobeus, Lam., and P. opercularis, Lam.,
have been observed in a few bivalves, and probably will be found
more numerously. It must not be supposed, however, that every
warty excresence on the mantle is necessarily an eye. Any one
who has visited a coral reef in the Southern Hemisphere cannot
fail to have been attracted by the beautiful appearance of the
clams. As the tide recedes the open valves display most
beautiful colours, especiaily in fringes and dots of the brightest
blue and green. ‘These are species of 7ridacna and Hippopus.
It may not be taken for granted that these dots are eyes, as
Brock has shown that they are warts and flask-like cysts,
probably containing chlorophyll (see J. Brock, Uber die
sogenannten Augen von Tridacna, &c.).* Ido not, however, think
that this settles the question as to all the coloured warts which
are displayed upon the coral reefs, by species of Hippopus as well
as Tridacna. It should be a special enquiry with naturalists in
collecting in these localities as to the true nature of these organs.
They are so large and the species are so abundant that they
should afford an easy, as well as interesting field of research.
Associated with such mantle-warts are certain patches of pigment
cells which are found at regular intervals on the edge of the
mantle as already described. Under the microscope this pigment
has usually associated with it minute, highly refractive, spherical
cells, much larger than the refractive bodies associated with nerve
tissue, and in fact hardly mistakable for anything else than
lenses. Under the lens there is a cylindrical prolongation forming
a capsule not unlike the membrane forming the prismatic
structure in the substance of the shell. I shall mention hereafter
an instance of this in the case of a young specimen of Siphonaria
diemenensis where 80 to 90 of such visual or sense organs were
observed upon a portion of the mantle in front of the head.
* Zeitschrift ftir Wissenchaftliche Zoologie. Sechsundverzigster Band:
Leipzig, 1888, p. 280. A translation of this paper appeared in the Ann:
and Mag. Nat. Hist., June, 1888, p. 435.
Se
, &
oy
¥ y
&
138 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY -OF MOLLUSCA.
As far as my observations go these eyes are somewhat like the
dorsal eyes of Onchidiwm, and not of the vertebrate type; that
is to say the nerve is not spread out on the inner surface of the
retina and the rods or cones are not reversed. I take this
opportunity of saying that I do not consider the negative
conclusions of any observer as decisive as to the character of the
organs to which I am referring on the mantle. I have known
many able and experienced histologists, possibly from an excess
of caution, unable to find eyes in the mantle of Onchidium,
and this certainly not for want of any manipulative skill in
preparing the sections.
Amongst the Annulata we find something very similar to what
I have described above. Eyes are placed in large numbers on
certain organs in their young stage and subsequently change their
position. Among the Chetopoda, the eyes which are present in
the larva, and even in later stages, disappear or are represented
by mere pigment-spots.
OpeRcULUM Eyrs.—The character of these eyes depends upon
whether the opercula are calcareous or chitinous. In the former
case small glassy tubercles, pedicels or bosses stud the surface of
the operculum. The manner in which these occur is so varied
that separate details will be required for each species. As a type
I may take the genus Werita, the shell of which and the columella
are studded with small, oblong, transparent bosses or rounded
tubercles. Under the microscope these are found to be penetrated
by smaller sense-organs, but there are solitary eyes as well
either on raised calcareous pedestals or spherical, sessile eyes.
These are also found on the chitinous opercula associated with
minute spherical highly refractive bodies, which are like eyes, but
hitherto have not satisfactorily shown the minute interior structure
which has been detected in other visual organs.
However extraordinary these sense-organs, with a double office
may seem, we are familiar with such a state of things amongst the
Annulata. The abundance of eyes with which the Platyhelminthes
are furnished, agree in so remarkable a mann«r with the structure
of the organs of feeling, that a condition appears to exist in which
specific sensory organs are evolved from mere organs of sensation
found in the integument. (See Gegenbaur, Comp. Anat. Vermes
Sect, «125. )*
* «* Non-zoological readers, when dealing with the genera of the lower
sub-kingdoms, must put aside the ideas formed by visual organs of the
ordinary type, as the animals have eyes both in number and variety of
structure widely departing from the usual acceptation of the term. ‘The
following quotation from Gegenbaur in treating of the visual organs of
Vermes will show what extraordinary variations we may expect to meet
with. Speaking of the way in which the nerves are pressed together
7
'
ANATOMY. AND. LIFE.HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 139
With regard to the land and freshwater shells, observations
have still to be made, though I incline to the opinion that these
will be found to furnish instances such as I have described. In
the case of shells covered with periostraca, the land shells especially,
and such species as Triton spengleri, I have not been able to find
these visual organs, and this is also the:case with some species of
Chiton. I do not find that the Chitonide are more bountifully
provided with eyes than other genera, in fact they are less so, and
_as for Onchidium, the genus in which these wonderful sense-organs
were first discovered, the eyes in all the species are proportionately
very few. We cannot moreover be sure from the absence of eyes
in one particular case, that such a peculiarity is specific, because
in some species of Onchidium I have found no eyes in one
individual of a species and the full complement in another. The
greatest number of eyes in any one valve of a shell is in the case
of Trigonia lamarckii, as far as my observations go, and in this
case I think there must be about 12,000 in each valve of an
adult specimen.
Those shells which have a smooth or enamelled tegmentum are
those in which the eyes are the least numerous, and I would
venture to suggest that this may be made up by some special
arrangement in the soft tissues of the animal. Thus in Cyprea and
the cowries generally, all who have seen the living animal will
remember the number of papille of extraordinary shape with which
the inner surface of the mantle is studded. These may possibly
be sense organs or something to make up for the optical
arrangements which are most probably absent from the shell.
Before entering into any detail about the sense-organs in
different species, I may sum up briefly by saying that the presence
into a concave layer, he says: “Influential in the development of this
arrangement is the multiplication of the perceptive elements, and the
formation of refracting media. Just as the eyes are completely wanting
in the majority of the Scoleina which live in the dark, so also these
organs undergo degeneration in the Tubicola among the Chetopoda.
The eyes which are present in the larve and even in later stages,
disappear, or are represented by mere pigment-spots, when they enter
on the fixed mode of life. The development of the visual organs on the
branchial tufts of the head is an adaption of another kind, which is seen
in certain Sabellide (Branchiomma) ; in them the eyes are either placed
in large numbers on the pinnate branches of the branchial filaments, or
at their ends only. In other Annelides there is a similar change of
position as compared with the primitive one. In many there are eyes at
the posterior end of the body, as well as on the cephalic segment; and
finally in the genus Polyophthalmus there is a pair of eyes on each
metamere, in addition to those on the head. We here find an arrangement
which is not only of importance as bearing on the estimation of the’
metameres, but is also a proof that visual organs may be developed at
points which in other forms only carry sensory organs of a lower kind.”
140 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
of minute eyes in the shells in immense numbers is a characteristic
of many Mollusca. like every other arrangement of this kind
in nature, it is subject to much variation. It is abundantly
present or nearly absent, it is larger or smaller, prominent or
inconspicuous in different groups. There is sometimes a
geographical association of certain forms of these organs,
dependent upon the conditions of life being the same, such as
the climate, temperature, food, and so forth.
The Siphonostomata have not been subjected to such
examination as the plant-feeding littoral shells; but the
Tritenidee and Buccinide have furnished abundant instances,
amongst which I may name 7riton spenglert, Lam., Buccinum
alveolatum, Kiener, and Polytropa margine-alba, Fisch., of the
family of Purpuride. In most of the above-mentioned families the
lines of growth are represented by fine imbrications of shelly
matter, often forming varices on the spiral ribs. At the junction
of the shelly imbricatious with these ribs, there are generally
sense-organs, which follow one another in regular progression to
the mouth of the shell.
In giving illustrations of the way in which these sense-organs
occur, a few species only can be dealt with, because the discovery
is too recent to have allowed time for minute dissection in a great
many cases. JI must confine myself to these few, and will
continue with the simple, conical, littoral shell with which this
Essay was commenced, namely, Patella tramoserica.
We find, generally, that a very uniform system of colour
prevails amongst the limpets. Radiating lines of brown and yellow
spots and angular markings occur very commonly. Beautiful lines
of rich deep brown, golden yellow and orange are common among
a good many species. What purposes they subserve cannot be
said ; but that they do belong to some very important economy
we may be convinced, for there are certain coloured dots on the
edges of the mantle which correspond with the dark coloured rays
on the shell. It has occurred to me that perhaps these bands of
colour in the shell may serve as pigment-coats for some of the eyes
in the shell; though it would be difficult to explain in that case
why they should be absent from places where the organs are just
as numerous. A little further explanation about the anatomy of
the species of limpet with which we are dealing will serve to clear
up some matters connected with the eyes or other sense-organs.
I find that in this species of Patella, the mantle stretches down
to the margin of the upper plate already spoken of. I distinguish
three folds of tissue : namely—the shell or testaceous fold which
lies next to the shell, the tentacle-bearing or median fold and the
branchial fold. All these extend between the foot and the shell,
excepting for a space round the head, where the branchial fold —
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 141
ceases. The outer side of the testaceous fold has a narrow margin
like a hem, consisting of two parallel lines of dark pigment, with
clouds and dots of the same material between them, extending all
round the membrane. On its inner side it has short lines and dots
of brownish pigment which correspond with remarkable exactness
to the lines of colour on the shel]. These dots when examined
under the microscope, are seen to be full of small and highly
refractive cells. The tentacular fold bears a series of small
tentacles, forming a fringe all round the mantle. These tentacular
filaments extend slightly beyond the edge of the mantle ; they are
transparent, but more or less coloured with transverse lines of
deep olive or blackish pigment. There are from 90 to 100 of such
tentacles in an adult shell. They are quite distinct from the
branchial fringe which lies further within the cavity, leaving a
small space, between the gills and the muscular attachments of
the foot. With the exception of the narrow pigmented margin
on the edge of the mantle there is no pigment of a dark colour,
except on these tentacles; but the origin of some of them is
marked for a considerable distance with a yellowish line, and the
space between the ophthalmic fold and the testaceous fold has a
slight tinge of yellow, deeper or as deep in tint as the gills. ' The
tentacles are solitary ; | have not met with double ones; but
some of them have, half way from the tip, a little bulb like the
eye-bearing bulb on the tentacles of most of the Mollusca. A great
many of these tentacles are quite transparent, of a pale greenish-
yellow, and showing no trace of structure except with very high
magnifying powers. Some of them, perhaps more than half, have
spots and rings of very dark olive or black pigment-cells. Those
tentacles on which there is something like an eye-bearing bulb do
not, as far as I have seen, show any traces of a lens, or anything
indeed but a small amount of pigment, generally disposed in rings
round the base of the bulb.
But what I have observed is occasionally small bulbs surrounded
with pigment, lying between the tentacular fold and the testaceous
fold, which had the shape and appearance of eyes, except that
what would correspond with the cornea seemed to be opaque. I
hardly wish to assert that they are visual organs, though they
may have that function and at any rate deserve further
examination.
The inner surface of the mantle is slightly wrinkled, but is
capable of great extension to the very outward edge of the shell,
and of being drawn in, in curtained lobes, within the margin of
the foot. Frequently the tentacular fold is withdrawn between
the branchial and testaceous folds, so that the rounded bulbs
above described become completely covered, or project in a more
eye-like fashion.
To return now to the shell of which an enlarged figure is given
at pl. 1, fig. 1, magnified about eight or ten diameters. In this
plate it should be remarked the full ornamentation of the shell is
not given, but only a sketch of the general design and detail of
two ribs. It is supposed also that the shell has all its
ornamentation in full detail, which I may state is a thing that is
seldom or never met in nature. The smaller ribs are always
more or less irregular, and sometimes the larger ones are, so to
speak, aborted, as if it were undecided whether they were
intended to be large or small. The nodules on the smaller ribs
are often raised, scale-like imbrications, but this as well as the
colouring is inconstant. The plate represents an ideal shell of a
species which, like every other in nature, is subject to great
variations. The apex is anterior, and from it proceed in a
radiate manner about 40 or sometimes as many as 90 conical
ribs; sometimes, but not always, large and small alternated.
These ribs are interrupted at intervals with somewhat
inconspicuous lines of growth. The whole. shell is clouded and
stained with lines and blotches of colour as already mentioned.
These lines are not confined to the ribs or to the depressions
between them; though sometimes they very conspicuously form
double lines at intervals on the smaller intercalated ribs at each
side of most larger ribs. There is generally a line of colour on the
testaceous fold of the mantle corresponding with the lines of
colour on the shell. I have already referred to the possible
connection between pigment-coats and these testaceous markings.
There is a very thin chitinous periostraca on all the shells, which
serves effectually to conceal the minor details of the shell-surface.
If, however, it is moistened with spirit or clove oil, a wonderful
sight will be presented to a good and powerful hand-lens. A
number of minute points shining with intense brilliancy are
scattered irregularly and somewhat numerously over the whole
shell-surface. No particular symmetry can be detected as yet, and
even it may require some little experience to perceive them at all.
The sight presented is a very marvellous one, and forcibly
recals the brilliant points of light sparkling out of the darkness
in the field of a telescope directed to the heavens at night. One
realizes the truth of the saying that what the telescope is to the
astronomer, the microscope is to the naturalist. Possibly there
is not so much awe and mystery connected with these little
diamonds so brilliantly reflecting into the tube of the microscope,
for we know that with the aid of this instrument we can resolve
the whole structure of even the most minute in a manner we
are yet far from being able to do with the stars.
In order to see the full extent and beauty of the arrangement
of the eyes on the shell, a little manipulation is necessary. It
142 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA. 143
should be allowed to macerate in a weak solution of acid: two
per cent of nitric acid will be sufficient. The time required for
the maceration depends upon the condition of the shell. Shells
that are not corroded must be selected, and in spite of the numbers
of the species on the rocks, uncorroded specimens are not so
common as one might expect. For yood, clean specimens of adult
shells 48 hours maceration I have usually found sufficient. On
removal from the pickle the shell can be lightly brushed with a
not too hard brush. On examination now the shell will be found
to present quite a different aspect. Along each rib will be seen a
beautiful series of tubercles for sense-organs, each of the larger
eyes occupying the slight ridge made on the rib by the fine concentric
lines of growth. There are regular rows also of larger eyes on the
depressions between the ribs. Thus the appearance becomes one
of much beauty. A series of shining gems radiating in gradually
increasing size, studs the surface of the shell, making it quite
dazzling. Itis very difficult to convey any idea ot the effect of
the whole without seeming to exaggerate. As far as my experience
goes I have seen nothing at all comparable with it, after years
spent in the observation of nature.
Let us now consider a little closely the character of these eyes.
Though appearing like a row of shining gems increasing slightly
in magnitude from the apex of the shell to the margin, they are
not always simple eyes. Sometimes the light will be found to
proceed from two eyes of small size placed close together, and
sometimes a pair of eyes so closely united that they seem almost
like a large oblong one. Sometimes they are a cluster of very
minute eyes, as many as five or six, or perhaps more, being found
associated together. Though as a rule they occur in rows, this is
not without exceptions. Smaller eyes are scattered on the sides
of the ribs. I believe they are nearly always smaller when
occurring irregularly in this manner. I have chosen this species
as a typical one, and as affording with the least trouble an
illustration of what I must be excused for calling one of the great
wonders of nature. Butit must not be supposed that the instance
is exceptional; there are many other shells that might have
been chosen as examples.
The question will naturally occur to most persons as to how
these structures are known to be eyes, and it would be almost
sufficient to answer that they are, in position, in character, and as
far as one can judge, in construction, the same organs which have
been so intimately examined and figured by Prof. Mosely. In the
“Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science” for January, 1885,
there are furnished by the above named Professor, elaborate
drawings of such eyes from sections. From these it is plainly
seen that there are all the characteristics of an eye, and an eye in
144 ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA.
no way less elaborate than that which is used for the purposes of
vision amongst other animals. Mean Equinox, 1888-0.
jee Gy) 1h) 18)
Log. ¢= 9°998290.
Log. q = 9°844346.
These elements represent the first and last positions exactly ane
the three intermediate ones very closely. The time of revoltition
is estimated at about 2370 years, but it does not appear that the
comet was observed at its previous return to perihelion. The
elements above given are a very close approximation to the true
orbit inasmuch as Dr. B. von Engelhardt observed the comet at
his private observatory, Dresden, so late as July 15th when the
correction to the ephemeris was found to be only +2:16s. in right
ascension, and —14:6” in declination. The comet was at no time
a very conspicuous object to the unassisted eye and its maximum
length of tail was only about three degrees.
Comet II., 1888.
This is a return of the well-known comet of Encke. This object
was originally discovered by Mechain at Paris, on January 17th
1786. It was not again seen till the return of 1795, when Miss
Caroline Herschel, sister of the celebrated Sir William Herschel,
detected it on November 7th of that year. At the return of 1805
the comet was again found by Thulis at Marseilles on October 19th,
but no suspicion appears to have been entertained that these three
appearances were of one and the same body. From the observations
in 1805 Encke computed an elliptic orbit with a period of about
twelve years. On November 26th 1818, the well-known Pons of
Marseilles discovered asmall comet which was observed for nearly
seven weeks. These observations served as a better foundation
for the determination of elliptic elements, and Encke found that
they gave a period of about 34 years. He also showed that the
perihelion distance and the position-elements of the orbit agreed
closely with those of the Comets of 1786, 1795 and 1805. Between
1786 and 1818 the comet had therefore passed through perihelion
RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS OF COMETS I. AND II. 287
seven times without detection. Encke after allowing for planetary
perturbation predicted that the comet would again pass through
perihelion on May 24th 1822, and an ephemeris was prepared in
order to enable astronomers to rediscover it at this return. On
laying down its theoretical track in the heavens, it was found that
the comet could not possibly appear above the horizon of European
Observatories. An ephemeris was therefore dispatched to the
private observatory of Sir Thomas Brisbane at Parramatta in our
colony, which, I believe, was the only southern observatory then
in existence. Nine days after the perihelion passage, or on June
2nd, the comet was detected at Parramatta by Riimker, afterwards
the director of the Hamburg Observatory, and with the imperfect
instrumental means at his command he succeeded in following it
for a period of three weeks. These observations were the only
data obtained at this appearance, and in the hands of Encke they
served for a correction of the orbit and a more accurate prediction
of the comet’s appearance in 1825. The investigation of the
comet’s movements thus crowned with such marked success resulted
in the name of Encke being permanently attached to the comet. The
subsequent returns of this interesting object have been calculated
and verified by observation on every occasion, the last being the
twentieth, since 1822. Five returns have been witnessed at
Windsor, namely in 1862, 1865, 1875, 1878, and: 1888. In 1878
the first view of the comet was obtained at the same place, but
only about nine hours previously to the first observation at the
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope. Since the death of
Encke the theory of the comet’s movements were the special study
of Dr. von Asten of Pulkowa. On the premature death of the
latter astronomer, the comet came under the care of Dr. O.
Backlund of St. Petersburg. Through the courtesy of Drs.
Backlund and Seraphimoff, I was supplied with an ephemeris
for the recent return, and I accordingly commenced a search as
soon as there appeared to be a probability of detecting it in the
evening twilight. My first attempt was on the evening of July
6th, but it failed. Other avocations prevented a search on the
following evening, but on July 8th at Gh. 10m. p.m. the comet
was found almost exactly in the place assigned toitin the ephemeris.
The only other notice which I have yet seen of the discovery is a
telegram from the Cape of Good Hope in the Astronomische
Nachrichten, announcing the first observation on August 3rd, or 26 |
days later than that made at Windsor. When first detected at
Windsor the comet appeared in the 4} inch equatorial as a round
nebulous star uniformly condensed, about 1’ in diameter, and without
coma or tail. Doubtless the evening twilight had much to do with
the non-appearance of the usual coma. From July 8th to 18th the
comet was shut out from observation with the 8 inch equatorial
288 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS OF COMETS I. AND II.
by a portion of the observatory buildings, and the positions had
to be determined with the small instrument. The moon too,
increased nightly in brillianey and the comet became quite invisible.
On the withdrawal of the full moon the comet was picked up
again with the 8 inch telescope and observed till August Ist,
when, owing to its increasing distance from the sun and earth it
was little more than a faint whiteness about 2’ in diameter on the
blue of the heavens. All the observations in this paper were
made with a square bar-micrometer adapted to both equatorials.
There being no definite point for observation, all that could be
done was to observe the bisection of the nebulous mass at the
edges of the micrometer-bars. In the reduction of the comparisons
corrections were carefully applied for small errors in the form of
the micrometer.
COMET I., (SawzrTHaL) 1888.
A i Seah q aay Log. Reductions E
omet—Star. omet’s arent. (e) a
Wandeor ui PP Parallax Factors. | App. Place. | #
Date. Mean q SSS a es
Time. S
Aa AS 3) a ) a wae a 6 |8
P P 3
1888. | h.m.s.] m. s. h.m. s. open bs meld
Feb. 27 | 16 35 34 /4+ 0 33°98 se 17 |20 2 10°75 ae —8'8746 4s —2°00} ... 1
» 27 | 16 36 34 |— 0 5°13] — 7 21°6/17 | 20 2 10°93 |—44 20 28:2 | —8-8746 | —9°3789 | —2°01| +60] 2
» 28| 16 34 30: /4+ 213°81] +13 52:0} 4/20 6 53°64 |—42 52 32:8] —8°8651 | —9°4104 —1'95| 45-7] 3
Mar. 2/| 16 26 47 |— 046-42} — 2 51] 9/2020 1:47 |—38 241971} —8-8401 | —9°5023 | —1°81|] +40] 4
» 2|17 9 9 |— 72211] + 6 48°6| 3 | 20 20 13°75 |—38 21 26°3 | —8°8138 | —9°3576 | —1°85| +36] 5
>» o| 16 42 37 |+1513°61] — 4 32°6| 5/20 24 18°09 |—36 52 7°3| —8°8234 —9°4740 | —1'69/ +45) 6
»5 3| 26 42 87 |+ 953°77] + 5 31°8| 5 | 20 24 17°93 |—36 52 69 | —8°8234 | —9°4740 | —1'72| +42] 7
>», 4| 16 35 54 |4+11 46-48) + 8 5:3) 5 | 20 28 18°57 |—35 21 6:2} —8°8187 | —9°5123 | —1°67 | +3°8| 8
» 6117 819 |— 056°62| + 4 33:3 |13/ 20 36 9°65 |—32 15 14:2 | —8°7818 | —9°4653 | —1°65| +2°2| 9
» 7| 15 22 27 |+ 1 7:90]/+ 3 5:5) 7] 20 39 38°31 |—30 49 50°3 | —8:8103 | —9°6974 | —1°60 | +1°9 | 10
» 7| 16 43 48 |+ 120°73] + 8 16:4] 21 | 20 39 51:14 |—30 44 39:4 | —8°7915 | —9°5430 , —1°60 | +1°9 | 10
>» 8| 16 49 29 |— 01115] + 2 15:4] 18 | 20 43 32°88 |—29 12 14°6 | —8°7812 | —9°5468 | —1°57 | +1°4| 11
» 9|1646 4/+ 3 48°90 ihe 9|20 47 9°81 os, —8°7768 a L528) 3 Ee
» 911646 4)+ 21953] — 0 461) 9| 20 47 9°57 |—27 40 26°7 | —8°7768 | —9°5688 | —1°52| +1:0]| 13
» 911646 4/+ 051:06 ae 9|20 47 9°51 ns —8'7768 ae —1'53] ... | 14
5» 10| 16 58 56 |+ 8 8:05 3 42°3) 5) 20 50 45°18 |—26 7 54:9| —8°7621 | —9°5600 | —1°46 | +0°9] 15
>, lL| 17 14 58 |+ 6 52°63] + 6 36:3 | 5| 20 54 17°59 |—24 35 33°8 | —8°7434 | —9°5487 | —1-44 | +0°4] 16
5» l1| 17 14 58 |+ 534-69 760 5 | 20 54:17°90 ad —8'7434 a —1'44) 1... | 17
>> 11| 17 14.58 |+ 3 49°73 ae 5 | 20 54 17°54 mee —3°7434 Fs —1°45; ... |18
>» 14] 16 21 0 |4+ 62613] + 9 440] 5|21 4 26°58/—-20 8 6:9] —8°7628 | —9°6604 | —1°35 | —0°8 | 19
o> 14] 17 19 48 |+ 6 34:09 | +13 21°2| 5) 21 4 34:54/-20 429°7 | —8:7234 | —9°5896 | —1°35 | —0°8 | 19
>», 15] 17 19 18 |— 343°17| — 8 28:2) 8|21 7 55°86 |—18 35 43°4| —8°7194 | —9°6047 | —1°36 | —1°7 | 20
>» 17| 17 13 51 |+ 5 116) ~ 2 56-4] 9| 21 14 32°66 |—15 41 9°6} —8°7164 | —9°6361 | —1:28 | —2°1.| 21
yale tsvons|— 044-61 ane 9 | 21 14 33°10 5 oe —8°7164 ee —1°30| ... | 22
» 48/1716 59|/+03815| |. 9 | 21 17 50-15 oO: 87101) 12 ¢)eSe ee
>> 18| 17 16 59 |— 3 24°47 | —10 38°8| 9| 21 17 49°98 |—14 15 4:3] —8°7101 | —9°6447 | —1°28 | —2°9 | 24
», 19| 17 31 54 |+ 0 49°03 | —14 59°1| 9/21 21 7°85 |—12 4919°3 | —8°6913 | —9°6464 | —1°24 | —3°1 | 25
» 21| 16 57 11 |— 0 2:45) + 4 08] 5/21 27 31:°69|—-10 § 23:5 | —8°7184 | —9°6874 | —1°21 | —3°7 | 26
>» 21/17 27 3 |+ 2 1:73] +10 20°4| 6] 21 27 35°84|—10 3 40°6 | —8°6909 | —9°6721 | —1°20 | —3°7 | 27
», 25| 17 35 58 |— 0 827] — 8 49°1| 13 | 21 40 22°62 |— 4 47 33°8 | —8°6721 | —9°7084 | —1°13 | —5'1 | 28
»» 28] 17 31 52 |+ 5 20°67) + 1 42:9} 4] 21 49 49:05|— 1 5 59°7| —8°6593 | —9°7333 | —1°06 | —5°8 | 29
>, 29] 17 34 32 |+ 04844) + 1 85} 6] 21 52 5655|}+ 0 5 4:0} —8°6683 | —9°7412 | 1°06 | —6:2 | 30
>, 29| 17 34 32 |— 223°55|/+ 1 46] 6| 21 52 56:48)4+ 0 459°5| —8°6683 | —9°7412 | —1°07 | —6°2 | 31
», 31| 17 38 38 |— 417°68| +11 27°3| 5|21 59 9°23 |+ 2 22 30°4| —8°6614 | —9°7555 | —1°05 | —6°8 | 32°
April 1| 17 38°25 |— 057-91} —12 21:°3| 7|22 2 14°25}+ 3 28 52°1| —8°6610 | —9°7621 | —1-02 | —7°0 | 33 Z
» L| 17 38 25 |— 2 5°42 an | 7\|22 2 13°85 aor —8'6610 ads —1:03| ... | 34
>» 2| 17 40 30 |+ 517-64) + 3191] 3/22 5 18'45/+ 4 3351°3| —8°6577 | —9°7687 | —0'99 | —7-1| 35
>» 2!17 40 30 J+ 424-02 ad, 3/22 5 1811 hee —8°6577 ant —0'99} ... | 86
RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS OF COMETS I. AND II.
Mean Places of the Comparison-Stars for 1888°0.
289
—$—.
H
is x 6 Authority.
mM
hom. s. Ore iat wee
1 |20 1 38°82 | —44 14 28°6 | Stone, 10799.
2 |20 2 18°07 | —44 13 12°6 | Stone, 19803.
3 |20 4 41:78! —43 6 30°5| Stone, 10820.
4 | 20 20 49:7 | —88 22 18 | Anonymons, = 8 mag. Approx. Position.
5 | 20 27 37°71 | —38 28 18°5 | Stone, 10965.
6120 9 617 |—36 47 39:2 | Stone, 10840.
7 | 20 14 25°88 | —36 57 42°9 | Cordoba Zone 22°55.
- § | 20 16 33°76 | —35 29 15°3 | Stone, 10897.
9 | 20 37 7:92 | —32 19 49°7 | Stone, 11038.
10 | 20 38 32°01 | —30 52 57:7 | Stone, 11047.
11 | 20 43 45°60 | —29 14 31°4| Wash. Mural Cir. Zone, 182°73.
12 | 20 43 22°43 | —27 46 53°3 | Stone, 11075.
13 | 20 44 51°56 | —27 39 41°6 | Stone, 11088.
14 | 20 46 19°98 | —27 35 16°9 | Cordoba Zone, k0°104.
15 | 20 42 38°59 | —26 11 38°1 | Stone, 11072.
16 | 20 47 26°40 | —24 42 10°5 | Stone, 11116.
17 | 20 48 44°65 | —24 39 33:9 | Cordoba Zone, 32°36.
18 | 20 50 29°26 | —24 37 259 | Arg.-Oeltzen, 20973.
; 19 | 20 58 1°80 | —20 17 501 | Stone, 11187.
20 | 21 11 40°39 | —18 27 13°5| Greenw. 7 Yr. Cat. 1864, 2411.
91 |21 9 32°78) —15 38 11:1 | Stone. 11276.
2 | 21 15 19°01 | —15 37 48:1 | Arg.-Oeltzen 21328.
93 | 21 17 13:27 | —13 59 31-7 | Lamont (5), 3612.
24 | 21 21 15°73 | —l4 4 22°6 | Schjellerup, 8679-89.
25 | 21 20 20:06 | —12 34 17°1 | Tamont (5), 3630.
96 | 21 27 35°35 | —10 9 20°6 | Lamont (5), 3676.
97 | 21 25 35°31! —10 13 57°3 | Lamont (5), 3666.
98 | 21 40 32°02 — 4 38 39°6 | Lamont (3), 4381.
99 | 21 44 29°44 —1 7 36°8| Glasgow Cat. 1870, 5594.
30 | 21 52 9:17 | + 0 4 1:7} Glasgow Vat. 1870, 5639.
81 | 21 55 21:10' + 0 4 1:1] Glasgow Cat. 1870, 5660.
32 |22 3 27°96 + 211 9:9) Glasgow Cat. 1870, 5705
33 | 22 31318 + 3 41 20°4| Glasgow Cat. 1870, 5703.
34 | 22 42030 + 3 33 10:1) Lalande, 43221.
35 |22 0 1:80 + 4 30 39°3| Glasgow Cat. 1870, 5683.
36 | 22 0 55°08 + 4 38 58°9 | Schjellerup, 9018.
COMET II., (Encxe) 1888.
z oe Q men : Woe Reductions
ome ar. omet’s Apparent. ey to
Bidsor a Parallax Factors. Asya Tes,
Date Ue |
ime 8 Ss} p qd
ye ¢ A iS) ax 6) Pp Pp a re)
7188S) |chom. (Ss: | ms. ge h.m. s. Came Bad) S. "
July 8| 6 33 29 |+5 25°35 |— 8 81) 3] 8 47 54°92 +412 49 241 | +8°7368 | —9 7711 | —0°53 | —2°8
» 8] 6 33 29 |+5 2014\|—11l 33] 3] 8 47 55°48 412 49 27°4| +8°7368 | —9-7711 | —0°53 | —2°8
»» 10} 6 34 31 |—5 10°79 |— 1492} 4] 9 2 9°43 +10 4413°9| +8°7303 | —9-7705 | —0°45 | —2°7
>» 11] 6 29 30 |—2 27°83 |— 4240| 5| 9 9 13:13 + 9 45 41:3) +8°7235 | —9-7718 | —0°44 | —2-7
» 15| 6 43 58 |+5 15°33 |+1440°1| 5) 9 37 51°98 )4+ 5 23 56:0 | +8°7203 | —9-7594 | —0°36 | —3-0
» 15| 6 43 58/41 41°41 |— 455°5| 5} 9 37 50°30 \4+ 5 24 87) +8°7203 | —9°7594 | —0°35 | —2°9
» 16| 6 45 25 |—3 51°89 |\—17140| 5) 945 492 /+ 4 15 50°2| +8°7183 | —9°7563 | —0°31 | —2°9
» 16| 6 45 25 |—53161\— 3 01) 5| 945 529;4+ 4 15 52°0| +8°7183 | —9°7563 | —0°30 | —2°9
», 18| 6 46 59 |4+2 42°46 |— 5 87| 4| 9 59 49°62 + 1 56 22°9| +8°7135 | —9°7485 | —0°-28 | —3:2
», 18| 6 46 59 |\—431°97 |— 3293) 4° 9 59 49°25714 1 56 20°7 | +8°7135 | —9:7485 | —0°25 | —3°1
>» 25| 6 52 16 |+117°68|— 6193; 8 10 54 8:30 |— 6 33 54°4| +8°6978 | —9°7021 | —0°08 | —41
>» 26) 653 6 |4+453°39'|— 0 83] 6 11 2 15°76 — 7 47 259 | +8:6956 | —9-6926 | —0-06 | —4°3
» ol) 711 29 |4+1 572 \— 2508)|14 11 44 5°67 |\—13 46 85] +8°7005 | —9-6426 | +0°13 | —5°1
Aug. 1| 7 O 27 |+158°16 |\— 045°0| 9 11 52 35 32 |—14 53 50°3 | +8°6851 | —9°6193 | +0°16 | —5°3
» lL! 7 O27 !41 405'— 31311 9 11 52 35°21 '—14 53 18°4! +8°6851 | —9°6193 | +0°16 | —5°3
S—November 7, 1888.
Comp. Star.
OON SC CUP be
290 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
Mean Places of the Comparison Stars for 1888:0.
& x ") ' Authorities.
mM
h. m. s. ee Seis :
1 | 8 42 30°10) +12 57 35:0 | Lalande, 17336; Glasgow Cat. 1870, 2247.
2! 8 42 35°87|; +13 0 835! Lalande, 17339.
8| 9 7 20°67|+10 46 5:8} Lalande, 18179; Glasgow Cat, 1870, 2377.
4} 911 41-40; + 9 50 80, Star = 9 mag. Approximate Position.
5 | 9 32 37°01} + 5 9 18°9| Lalande, 18940; Greenw. Cat 1850, 680; Glasgow Cat. 1870
2501 ; Bruxelles Obs. 1873, 1517; Cape Obs. 1881, 285.
6 | 9 36 9°24) + 5 29 71) Lalande, 19045.
7 | 9 48 57:12; + 4 33 71) Lalande, 19398.
8 | 9 50 87°20| + 4 18 55°0| Star =9mag. Approximate Position.
9} 957 744) + 2 1 348] Lalande, 19622; Lamont (1), 2779.
10 ;10 4 21°47} + 1 59 53:1); Lamont (1), 2834.
11 | 10 52 50°70 | — 6 27 31:0} Star = 9 mag. Approximate Position.
12 | 10 57 22°43 | — 7 47 13°3 | Lalande, 21196; Lamont (3), 1017; Schjellerup, 4022.
13 | 11 42 59°82 | —13 43 12°6 | Radclitfe Obs. 1881, 266.
14 | 11 50 37°00 | —14 53 00] Star =8} mag. Approximate Position.
15 | 11 51 31:00 | —14 50 0:0} Star = 83} mag. Approximate Position.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
By tHe Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woopns, F.G.8., F.L.S., &e.
[With Plates. ]
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., November 7, 1888. ]
ALL round the Australian coast, proceeding northwards, say from
the latitude of Brisbane there occurs at intervals, and in patches of
different sizes, a peculiar formation which goes by the nameof Desert
Sandstone. Itvaries muchincolour andin character, though mostly
a bright or a livid red, yet it is often white, yellow, and of various
intermediate shades, or mottled. Usually it is composed of sand
consisting of small grains more or less firmly cemented together.
There is generally a somewhat rounded appearance in the grains,
though they are not abraded in the characteristic manner of
eolian sands. Yet it is not entirely composed of sand; in North
Australia 50 feet and more of the upper surface is magnesite or
carbonate of magnesia, and there are other admixtures in places,
though usually the rock is composed of spherical grains of sand
cemented together or hardened into quartzite. There are certain
constant features in the formation which entitle it to the name
of Desert Sandstone, namely :—(1) It usually gives rise to a
desert country of a very profitless character, with a scanty
vegetation, yet not wholly destitute of fair sized trees and poor
grasses. (2) It is utterly destitute of fossils, unless in certain —
_ cases impressions of leaves, seed-vessels, and fragments of
a)
nara
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 291
silicified wood. An exception to this is mentioned by Mr.
Taylor. I may state, however, that I searched in vain in
the neighbourhood of the locality named, and my impressions are
that it would be more likely that the fossils belonged to the
underlying Cretaceous formation. (3) It is of a broken precipitous
character, forming tablelands with precipitous faces, and round,
flat-topped hills. (4) Wherever met with it bears marks of being
much denuded. Water seems easily to have broken it up and
denuded it, cutting it down into astounding precipices and
forming country of “the roughest description, utterly impassable
for man or beast. (5) Its generally uniform height is another
feature; 500 to 600 feet is the highest elevation in North
Australia, but in North-Western Australia Mr. Frank Gregory
speaks of the same formation attaining 1000 feet high. The
Desert Sandstone is found in detached hills and plateaux of
varying extent. (6) In close proximity to it there are nearly
always recent volcanic formations.
So peculiar a formation was very early a puzzling geological
problem to those who made a study of the geology and physical
geography of Australia. Mr. Daintree imagined that, at one
time, the strata to which he was the first to give the name of
“ Desert Sandstone,” extended over the whole Continent, and his
opinion has been more or less followed by subsequent geologists
and explorers jn their writings and maps. It is certain that the
formation reappears very often on the coast and throughout the
interior in the form of detached outliers with a certain uniform
aspect, so that 1t may be easily believed that such outliers were
once connected together. My own observations have made me
notice further that these outliers of Desert Sandstone are always
in the neighbourhood of rivers and creeks, and seem equally
connected with the ancient volcanic emanations which form
portions of the dividing ranges. The following is Mr. Daintree’s
description :—
**On the eastern branches of the upper Flinders River and
elsewhere fine sections are exposed of lava, resting on horizontal
beds of coarse grit and conglomerate, which lie in turn
unconformably’ on olive-coloured and grey shales with inter-
stratified bands and nodules of argilkaceous limestone, containing
fossils of cretaceous affinities. I have called this upper
conglomerate series “ Desert Sandstone,” from the sandy barren
character of its disintegrated soil, which makes the term
particuiarly applicable. Only a few rolled fragments of coniferous
wood have been found imbedded in it, proving nothing as to its
* Daintree, ‘‘ Notes on the Geology of the Colony of Queensland, with
an appendix containing descriptions of the fossils,” from the “ Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society” for August, 1872, p. 275
292 THE DESHRT SANDSTONE.
age ; and all that can be asserted is that its horizon is above and
unconformable to the Cretaceous series of the Flinders. \
“ Without doubt it is the most recent, widely spread stratified
deposit developed in Queensland. The denudation of the Desert
Sandstone since it became dry land has been excessive ; but as will
be seen by the geological map (pl. ix.), there still remains a large
tract in situ, whilst outliers and isolated ridges are to be met with
in the most unexpected localities. A view of a cliff section of |
Desert Sandstone with outlier, is represented in the accompanying
wood-cut (Fig. 3).
‘‘ All the available evidence tends to show that this Desert
Sandstone did at one time cover nearly, if not quite, the whole of
Australia, with the probable exception of the south-eastern corner
of the Continent from the Cordillera to the ocean. The journals
of the two Messrs. Gregory in their expedition on the north-west
and north, and Goyder’s description of the new settlement of
Port Darwin, all bear evidence to the continuity of this so-called
‘Desert Sandstone” over all the extended areas investigated by
them, where denudation has been resisted by local peculiarity of
structure, or other special causes. Frank Gregory, in his
description of the geological peculiarities of that portion of the
Nichol Bay country that came under his observation during his
exploring expedition of 1861, observes that ‘it consists of a series
of terraces rising inland for nearly 200 miles, more or less broken
up by volcanic hills towards the coast.
“«¢The first belt averages from 10 to 40 miles in width from
the sea, and is a nearly level plain, slightly ascending to the
southward, with an elevation of from 40 to 100 feet, the soil
being generally either light loam or strong clay, according as it is
the result of the granite rocks that occasionally protrude above
its surface, or of voleariic rocks of black scoria that frequently
interrupt the general level.
‘“‘« Proceeding inland for the next 50 or 60 miles is a granite
country that has been originally capped with horizontal sandstones,
and has an elevation of about 1000 feet. This range terminates
to the southward in level plains of good soil, the produce of the
next series or more elevated country; whilst towards the
northern edges the granites and sandstones have undergone great
changes, through the action of numerous trap-dykes, that have
greatly disturbed the surface, producing metamorphic rocks, some
resembling jasper, and others highly cellular and scoriaceous.’
‘In about Lat. 22° on the meridian of Nichol Bay, he came
upon another and more elevated range, trending away to the S.E.,
having an altitude of 2,500 feet above the sea.
“This, unlike the last section, has a southern escarpment of
500 or 600 feet, and an average breadth of eight or ten miles ; it
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 293
consists of horizontal sandstones and conglomerates, which have
undergone comparatively little change.”
In Mr. A. Gregory’s report on the results of his expedition up
the Victoria River in 1855, he described a sandstone which
Mr. Daintree identifies with his “ Desert Sandstone.” He says
the specimens from the Victoria River agreed exactly with
those from the Desert Sandstone of Queensland, and were
undistinguishable one from another, “ while the same sandy soil,
the same hostile Spinifex* (Z'riodia), the same fatal poison plantt
mark its presence from Perth to Cape York. In Queensland the
upper beds are ferruginous, white and mottled sandy clays, the
lower being coarse alternating grits and conglomerates ; the
extreme observed thickness has not exceeded 400 feet. ” Sods w Ase cee ae 93 et
The Finniss va By, Sika ae a 184 =
The Stapleton... 69. OS) (OAR iat 239°50' 4,
Peters Creek a Tacky FAOpar sa 188 re
The Adelaide ie TO rissdun soon ss wen 183 wa
Burrell’s Creek ... SO) i.e a rae ae oe 17 7450 ee
Calder’s Creek ... SS ost) Sones i: 199 Ms
Bridge Creek Ps OARS” Orie aa AS 322°50 FS
The Howley a5: Se) ass a 250°50 ,,
Yam Creek sod Se 1895 eG SS si 328 ‘5
The Margaret... NLA wie. si 340 ats
Foelsche’s Creek .... 122 ,, 66 ;, sh 318 35
The McKinlay ... 124. aOR oon 304 65
Snadden’s Creek... 131° 5 9°10) Ss ue 404°50 ,,
Lady Alice Creek.. Laon Ae aS 484. at
Pine Creek.. sale! (ABR es TOY pee 657 re
“The pieeantees are by the railway line, ie ithe heights above
low water sea level at the railway crossings of the various streams.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 301
“Tt will be seen that the heights beyin to increase rapidly
from the 95th mile, and continue to Pine Creek, so that the
average rise, which is about five feet per mile, is less than three
feet per mile for the first 100 miles, and more than six feet per
mile for the next 50 miles. This is owing to the commencement.
of ranges which are connected with most of the mineral country
in the Territory. These ranges are a series of parallel ridges
having a south-south-easterly trend, and rising to a height of
from 200 to 600 feet above the plains, though the latter height
is exceptional. This mountainous area is about 20 miles in
width, from east to west, and 40 miles in length from north to
south ; in it are contained the sources of most of the small
tributaries of the Adelaide and Mary, which are rivers with a
north and south direction. The Adelaide may be said to take
its rise in the midst of this chain, and the Mary to the eastward
and southward. |
“The ridges and ranges are separated in their northern portions
by somewhat wide alluvial flats or valleys, but to the south-east
the ranges are closer together, higher and more abrupt, besides
being exceedingly stony and barren. Thus the country south-east
from Mt. Wells, as far as the Mary River, is exceedingly rugged,
and many of the ranges and valleys almost inaceessible. The
most closely metalled road would not be more deeply and thickly
covered with stones than the valleys and ranges. Several long
and high spurs (500 feet above the plain) are continued to the
eastward into the valley of the Mary River, but at about 100
miles from Southport the ranges decline to the level of the plain.
“‘ At the sources of the Mary, the river takes its rise amid flat-
topped cliffs of the most picturesque description. The view along
the stony white gorges has few parallels in Australia. The
valley of the river is hemmed in by straight cliffs of castellated
outlines some 150 or 200 feet high. There is often a slope or
talus at the bottom, but they are only accessible in a few places,
and the valley is for the most part fertile and shaded by fine
graceful palm trees ; springs bubble out from the shady thickets
at the foot of the cliffs, giving rise to streams many feet wide,
and deep from their sources. The valley is strewn to a
bewildering extent with huge boulders and masses of rock, which
have fallen down from above, because the magnesite is very
brittle, with a foundation of loose and friable sandstone. Thus
no very long time would be required for the springs to crumble
and break away the edge of the table-land, or scoop away the
valleys as we see them now.
“The springs, therefore, I believe to be the origin of the cliffs
and gorges at the heads, not only of the Mary but of the West
and South Alligator Rivers, and many besides. The magnesite
309 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
and sandstone strata are very permeable to water. The heavy
rainfall of the wet season easily drains through the strata, and
bubbles out at the base, where it has weathered and broken it
away into abrupt, precipitous, and fortress-like hills.”
Beyond the Mary to the eastward there is table-land of a very
broken character, forming scenery which has few parallels I
think on the face of the earth. To use the words of my journal
at the time of my visit—
“There was no high hill near us, but from the summit of the
steep slope above the camp a fine view was to be obtained. A
fine view and a strange one ; indeed I doubt if there be another
like it in the world. All around there is such a sight of cliffs
and gorges, isolated hills and fiat-topped hills, hills like lighthouses,
hills like fortresses and bastions, and city gates, and ruined
palaces—in short, like anything and everything except the
common-place and monotonous. And then there were such
combinations of colour—white cliffs, red cliffs, blue cliffs, striped
cliffs ; in fact, I am afraid to go on for fear of overtaxing the
confidence of my readers. 1 could have gazed and wonckered at
the scene for a long time, and still found plenty to wonder at and
ponder over, for it is a prospect about which one could imagine
anything. It seemed to me so lifelike and so deathlike, so real
and so imaginary, that I knew not what to compare it to. One
could hardly believe that such startling shapes, so hke the work
of man, could be entirely a freak of nature, and then the utter
absence of anything like human life about it suggested all sorts
of associations. It looked very barren, too, but this it certainly
was not, as we found on a nearer inspection. One thing this
view from afar impressed on us was the difficulty we should find
in crossing such a country. The gorges seemed as difficult to
descend into as Sindbad’s Valley of “Diamonds, and once in them
the problem was to get out again. It seemed hike expecting
horses to be able to climb up a wall. However, it was not so
bad as it looked.”
I now proceed to deal with the formations of Desert Sandstone.
They may be arranged as follows :—
1. Magnesian sandstones, magnesite or carbonate of magnesia
and ferruginous magnesites from 40 to 50 feet. This stratum is
a always present.
True siliceous sandstones, quartzites, and loose sand-beds
Peas indurated into a rock mass.
3. Fluviatile drifts of a very broken character 500 to 600 feet
thick at greatest thickness, mostly connected with the present
fluviatile “drainage of the country, but forming valleys of Tia
greater width.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 303
Before dealing in detail with these different formations, it is
important to point out a fact which has a significant bearing on
their origin. Ifa geological map of any portion of the interior
_ is consulted, it will be observed that in many instances where
recent volcani rocks are narked, they are seen to be associated
with what is called the Desert Sandstone. Sometimes, as at
Dubbo, Wellington, Warburton, Sofala, &c., it is called
Hawkesbury Sandstone, but the connection with the volcanic
rocks is indisputable. The position that these sandstones always
occupy with reference to the points of ejection of the recent
volcanic rocks, shows that they are dependent upon them, and
they are sometimes intercalated with them as I shall show
hereafter. The high lands of New England, which contain large
manifestations of recent volcanic rocks, are rich in these sandstones
too, which the late Mr. Lamont, one of the able assistants of
Mr. Wilkinson in the geological survey, early recognised as
ash-beds. In the interior on the Lachlan, Darling, and the back
country between both, there are many instances of Desert
Sandstone occurring as detached outliers, but always so near
recent volcanic rocks that they cannot be otherwise than connected
with them. Particular instances of this will be given further on,
but it is important to note the facts themselves at this stage of
the paper.
I will now proceed to give detailed descriptions of the various
formations in the Desert Sandstone which I have enumerated
above.
Magnesite deposits—I venture to suggest that we have in these
strata remains of a. volcanic origin which have accumulated
during a long period of volcanic activity. The beds seem to
have occupied a. wider area than they do now. They vary in
thickness from 10 feet to 500 or even more, though the thickest
deposits measured by me did not exceed 40 feet. They are now
formed into a compact and various coloured stone, consolidated
no doubt by chemical action and decomposition as well as pressure.
If my suggestion as to the volcanic orgin of these magnesite
beds be accepted, we have not very far to seek for volcanic points
of ejection, from which they may have proceeded. Geological
readers need scarcely be reminded of the great mass of trap-rocks
which encircles the edge of the continent of Australia, with
perhaps the exception of the south-west side. Western Victoria
seems one of the recent foci of activity, the latest disturbances
having occurred at no great distance from the mouth of the river
Murray. Very recent outbursts have also occurred about the
middle of the east coast, in the latitude of Moreton Bay, where
voleanic emanations and existing shells are mingled together on
the coast. It is difficult to form an opinion as to the relative
304 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
ages of the volcanic rocks and the so-called Desert Sandstones,
for both as yet have been imperfectly surveyed. There are many
areas of volcanic rock, such as basalts, diorites, and other igneous
or trap formations in the Northern Territory ; but if we regard
the magnesite as an ash deposit, it is not easy to say as yet to
what portion of the volcanic history they owe their origin.
The uppermost magnesite strata form a rock which is very
much decomposed. They are seldom uniform for any great
extent either in colour or material; pure white, cream-colour,
mottled, and various shades of purple and red prevailing in ever
varying tints. There are few marks of stratification, but long
divisional lines which indicate protracted periods of rest in their
accumulation. If we accept the volcanic origin we may suppose
that the craters or trap rocks connected with such deposits must
have been very rich in magnesia, the most probable source of
which would be olivine. About ten miles north of the Katherine
River there is an area of volcanic rocks, the limits of which I was
not able to examine. In the bed of a creek near which I had
formed my camp there was an appearance of trap rocks, amongst
which there was a basalt very rich in olivine. It cannot be said
exactly, however, from whence the magnesite proceeded. It may
be due to some such rock as suggested. The deposit is too
extensive to have been derived from freshwater action on the
underlying rocks which are rich in mica, and probably other
magnesian minerals. A marine origin is of course out of the
question.
The volcanic deposits which are found on the Katherine River
are not the only ones in Arnheim’s Land. A large area occurs to
the west of Port Darwin, and a very large volcanic district is
found at the head of the Victoria and of the Fitzmaurice Rivers.
The rocks here exposed are of modern character and probably
belong to several distinct periods, certainly to two, of which
there is constant evidence in the continent of Australia. Ihave
mentioned a significant fact connected with the strata as far as
my observations extend ; namely, that wherever they are developed
trap-rocks are associated with them. If it will be borne in mind
that I am not extending these observations beyond the limits of
my own experience, I might add that the converse of this
proposition is true, that is wherever there are volcanic rocks there
are extensive accumulations of volcanic sand ; though what I am
presuming to be ash deposits are not always presented in the form.
of magnesite.
It is not easily understood why these magnesite deposits have.
been preserved so extensively in North Australia, and are to be seen,
rather rarely, in connection with the Tertiary trap rocks elsewhere.
Circuinstances, we may presume, have combined for their
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 305 -
preservation in a way which I shall try to explain hereafter. Yet
it may also be inferred that the absence from other places may be
more apparent than real. An attentive examination has not been
made, or these ash remains would possibly have been much more
extensively recognised. It must be borne in mind that Mr. Jack
the Government Geologist of Queensland, and myself have been
the only geologists who have paid attention to the matter, and
attributed to these strata their true character. I may say, however
with some confidence, that though few ash beds have been recorded
as occurring on the south of the Australian continent, unless in
seams that are quite insignificant, it is only because the true
nature of such formations has not been understood. In the ‘Notes
on the Physical Geography, Geology and Mineralogy of Victoria’”*
(p. 74) Messrs. Selwyn and Ulrich, report many important deposits
of magnesite, thus :—‘ Magnesite (Carbonate of Magnesia )—This
mineral is tolerably abundant in the ‘kaolin’ deposit of Bulla
Bulla, near Keilor, at Heathcote, and generally in the Tertiary
clays near Geelong, Bacchus Marsh, Western Port, &. ; also in
the surface soil along the banks of the Loddon River, near
Newstead, forming nodules of all shapes and sizes, from that of a
pea to several inches cubic. According to analysis these nodules
are however, not composed of pure carbonate of magnesia, but
contain small variable proportions of carbonate of lime, carbonate
of iron, and clayey matter. A peculiar occurrence of very pure
magnesia is observable at the Hard Hills, near the junction of
Jim Crow Creek and the Loddon River. It appears like an
annular outcrop of a bed of nearly one foot in thickness round the
base of a small hillock, composed of older Pliocene gold drift, but
extends barely a few inches beneath the surface. This outcrop
consists of an aggregation of nodules of all sizes, from several inches
diameter to even fine roundish grains, like oolitic sand. Some of
the nodules are extremely hard and homogeneous, but the generality
consist of roundish particles of pea-size, with obscure rhombohedral
planes, sometimes closely, but in most cases very loosely adhering
together. The origin of the mineral appears to be due to the action
of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere on a seam of white soapy
clay which contains a large percentage of silicate, and perhaps
hydrate of magnesia, and would crop out now where the magnesite
appears. Where the atmosphere could have no access to the clay,
there is a total absence of magnesite, whilst on the other hand, in
places where the clay has been exposed to its influence, even in
the most recent times—for instance in the drift heaps from several
shafts on the hillock—the small white grains appear in profusion
like white sand artificially strewn over the surface.”
* Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melbourne, 1866.
T—November 7, 1888.
~ 306 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
I have very little doubt that in many of the places here
enumerated, the magnesite is derived from volcanic ash, probably
in a decomposed condition. The deposit observed at Hard Hills
on the Loddon River belongs to the great volcanic outbreak, which
has covered the country with basalt more or less uninterruptedly
all over Western Victoria, and which includes a large number of
extinct volcanoes.
Prof. Liversidge in his ‘‘ Minerals of New South Wales,”* thus
speaks of magnesite (p. 165):—It is found in New England in
various places, and upon the diamond fields at Bingera, co.
Murchison (where the mineral has a peculiar reticulated surface
and mammilated form) and near Mudgee. When impure itis of a
grey or grey-brown colour, but when pure itis a dazzling white,
compact, tough, and breaks with a flat conchoidal fracture.
Other localities are Kempsey; Mooby Gully, Lachlan River ; Scone
co. Brisbane; Louisa Creek and Lewis Ponds Creek, co. Wellington;
Barabba, co. Darling; Tumut; Gulgong; and Warrell Creek,
Nambuccra River.
We might include also to some extent serpentines as well as
magnesites, though I have not met with any such deposits of an
extensive character that seemed attributable to volcanic ash.
One of the main sources of the magnesium salts would be
doubtless from volcanic rocks, and particularly basalts containing
olivine. By many of the older mineralogists only those volcanic
rocks which contained olivine were regarded as true basalts: at
any rate basalts containing large quantities of olivine are extremely
common. Thus Messrs. Selwyn and Ulrich, in the work already
referred to, state under the head of olivine or chrysolite (op. cit. p.
66) that ‘this mineral is so common in the newer basalts (except
where the latter appear as true ‘dolerites’) as to deserve to be
regarded as an essential constituent of the rock. It generally
appears disseminated in small angular grains of light apple to
blackish-green colour; but at many places, especially in the
neighbourhood of basaltic craters and points of eruption (Mount
Franklin, the Anakies, Gisborne Hill, the Warrion Hills, &e.) it
occurs in irregularly shaped, or sometimes spheroidal masses, of
both fine and coarsely granulated texture, and from one to five,
in some instances (Anakies) to even twelve and eighteen inches in
diameter. Crystals have not been observed as yet. An analysis
by Mr. Daintree of light green olivine from the Anakies yielded :—
Silica ... ; aot cx » NADQEOO
Protoxide of iron.. Ae eel Joes
Magnesia sine oe ... 50:00
99-96
# London, Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, 1888.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 307
According to all appearances this mineral easily decomposes
through atmospheric influence, assuming at first chatoyant colours,
then turning to reddish-brown, and ultimately, beneath a thin
coating of hydrous oxide of iron, changing to a brownish-red mica
(‘ Rubellane’).”
Prof. Liversidge (op. cit. p. 117) gives many localities for the
occurrence of olivine, besides many magnesian products which may
be supposed to have been derived from the decomposition of
chrysolite in basalt ; but it is not necessary to cite the passage.
It may be mentioned however that at the railway cutting along
the Main Range, about 100 miles west of Brisbane, both tunnels
and cuttings are made through ash deposits derived from a large
extinct volcano on the edge of the Darling Downs. Over the
ash-bed there is a distinct overflow of basalt which is conspicuously
full of olivine, the masses being sometimes of large size. The
section is very instructive, for the ash-beds are partly decomposed
and in some respects remind one of the Nepean Sandstones near
Sydney, New South Wales. At the junction of the lava stream,
the ash-beds are conspicuously discoloured from the action of the
heated basalt, forming long lines of red, pink, and other colours,
like the effect of burning in a kiln.
Though the ancient character of the ash-beds of North Australia
may be inferred from their chemical metamorphism, yet they are
the newest deposits that are to be found in this region. They lie
on the top of all other formations which they cover, as already
stated, to a varied depth. The following description of some of
the beds exposed is taken from different portions of my report.
McMinn’s Bluff:—The road from Pine Creek by the side of the
telegraph line passes along a valley formed by a flat sandstone
table-land on the west side and a low slate range on the east side.
The table-land forming the western boundary of the valley is at
its southern end a long narrow range, covered with a stratum of
stone, which stands out like a rampart some 30 or 40 feet thick,
giving a castellated appearance to the flat-topped hills. As
the range is followed north it is broken into three or four small
outliers of white and red colours. They look like ramparts and
fortresses, and are of very picturesque appearance. They all have
a steep incline for about two-thirds of their height, and then become
rugged for some distance, and then suddenly precipitous for 30 or
40 feet to their flat-topped summits. One of these hills is of fiery
red on the top, and it is joined by a low saddle to another outlier,
which is capped with picturesque cliffs which are white.
The section of these hills is as follows :—Granite, 90 feet at
least, it may be more, but the line of junction is concealed by
weathered masses of rock, which have fallen down from the cliffs.
Then follows 100 to 150 feet of coarse red sandstone. Then 30
308 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
to 40 feet of magnesian silicate, making a total at the highest of
about 270 feet above the plain.
The coarse red sandstone lies in horizontal strata. It consists
of large quartz grains imbedded in a reddish-brown cement. Its
materials have no apparent connection with any rock visible in
the valley now.
The upper stratum is a compact rock with small vesicles. Itis
either creamy-white, yellow, or mottled a deep red-brown, with
streaks and veins of lighter colour. There is a concretionary
character about its decomposition, which makes it break up into
a number of small red rounded pebbles like pea iron ore. But
this is not always visible, only where there is much iron oxide.
In other places it is a pure white, and consists of a magnesian
silicate. The mottled character of the upper stratum is very
remarkable, varying through all the shades of livid red, purple,
yellow and brown, more in the shape of rounded clouds than
anything like crystallisation. No doubt it is the effect of the
action of water upon the iron ores contained in the ash deposits.
The Shackle Gorge.—The section visible near the old telegraph
station at Yam Creek, proceeding from above downwards into the
valley is as follows :-—
Magnesite Me nie '... 14 feet.
Sandstone, purple and red stains ... 16 ,,
Waterworn conglomerate Joo, ph Omar
Granite noe au 2, dest Ome
130
In this section the magnesite is of the usual mottled and pisolitic
character. The sandstone is derived from granite sand of a fine
character, the grains being angular and not at all rounded as if
by eolian action. The granite is pink with very coarse felspar of
orthoclase and muscovite mica. It apparently belongs to the
great fundamental granite bed which crops out through all North
Australia.
Douglas Springs.—This section is taken from the sources of the
Mary River in the narrow gorges of much broken tableland in
which that river takes its rise.
Magnesite... uk ... 130 feet.
White sandstone ae woe a
Red sandstone me wont | SOO EE
200
There is no appearance of the granite formation either here or
for some considerable distance southward. The magnesite is of
the usual character and variously coloured, many cliffs being
entirely white, without any red mottling. The sandstone is friable
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 309
and under the microscope shows an eolian character, which is like
a true aerial sandstone. The grains have been photographed as
seen by an inch objective, and have been figured at plate xxii., fig.
4, Itis seen that they havea perfectly transparent appearance,
being rounded almost as much as the sands of the Sahara. For
comparison the grains of the ordinary sandstone are figured at
_ plate xxiii, fig. 8. This is a seam of small thickness as appears
from the above figures. The red sandstone underneath it is of a
somewhat less rounded character.
From the above sections it appears that the plateaux are only
to a certain extent formed of sandstone. It may beasserted from
all I have seen of the formation, that the greater portion of this
tableland is granite, and that as the magnesian beds are traced
northward they thin out or disappear.
False-bedded Siliceous Sandstones.—But if the general character
of the magnesite rocks suggests their origin it is not so easy to
deal with the sandstones which underlie them. These need hardly
be described. They are brown, reddish, purple-red, and yellow
sandstones with thick more or less horizontal layers and false
bedding between. To those who are familiar with the Sydney
sandstone, no other description will be necessary than to say that
they are similar in stratification and the mode of occurrence.
The great mass of the Desert Sandstone formation is of this
character, and in many places there is no appearance whatever of
magnesite strata. The only variation that I can trace amongst
this sandstone is that some of it has the grains rounded as if by
some aerial attrition, while in other portions they are fine and
angular, containing small irregular fragments of white quartz and
felspar, not more than an inch in diameter, and mostly less than
half that size. Sometimes these are crowded together so as to
give a congiomerated appearance, or rather that of coarse anguiar
gravel; but there are wide areas also with nothing but finely
grained sandstone varying only in its many colours.
These sandstones have been a great problem to every geologist
who has studied Australian rocks. The Desert Sandstone was
very perplexing to Mr. Daintree, just as the Hawkesbury Sandstone
was to the eminent Chas. Darwin. It is now nearly eight years
since I wrote a paper on a similar matter, and I suggested that
these were sands that had been blown about loosely and accumulated
in the form of dunes. It will be observed that there is nothing
contrary to this idea in what I am now suggesting. The grains
from whatever source they came, whether volcanic, granitic or
metamorphic, may have been blown about and probably were
blown about in the upper strata ere they were consolidated into
stone. It may be observed also that these sand ashbeds are not
always hardened into a stone. Every intermediate stage may be
310 THE DESERT SANDSTONE. ‘
5
met with in the interior and on the coast, from loose drifting sand
of a true eolian character to hardened stone like the Sydney
sandstone. At Double Island Point, about 100 miles north of
Cape Moreton in Queensland, there is a sand formation some three
or four miles on the south side of Wide Bay. The southern
boundary of the bay is formed by two somewhat conical hills of
scoriaceous rock separated by a long interval of low land from a
mass of volcanic rock. All this may have been part of the ancient |
crater; but it is now covered with green vegetation and light
timber. On the west side there is an extensive development of
sand cliffs quite precipitous on the seaward side, varying between
100 and 200 feet high. I have already referred to this curious
formation in the paper above mentioned on the Hawkesbury
Sandstone, (read before this Society May 10th, 1882) in which I
deal with it simply as a formation of blown sand without entering
into the question of its origin. Noone will dispute that the sands
in this case are the ash-beds from the volcano. extending to no
great distance, but being a patch of such thick beds that there
would be no way of accounting for them but for the ancient crater
which is close by. The cliffs have curious undulating layers of
varying thickness forming sinuous lines with lamine of sand, false-
bedded and dipping at every angle up to 30 degrees. The layers
no doubt mark different periods of activity. They are of various
colours, giving the cliffs a ribboned appearance, white, yellow, or
ochreous-red. On the surface there is a dense growth of tea-tree,
with a few patches where the sand forms shifting dunes of rounded
outline and great height. |
In various geological essays of mine, I have referred to a
formation on the south coast of Australia, especially between
Port Philip and the river Murray, but always in connection with
recent volcanic emanations. It is described as a rock of dark
brown colour in patches of rough and compact character ; at times.
it forms sea cliffs of considerable height. Ata distance, one would
imagine the rock to be divided into large strata, some 14 or 15
feet thick, with false-bedded lamination between. The material
of the rocks is sandstone, but the surface consists of fragments of
shells and marine remains with grains of sand and sponge spiculee
intermingled. At one time I regarded this as composed of
hardened eolian calcareous sand; but a more careful microscopic
examination has shown it to be an ash-bed, though sometimes it.
is many miles distant from recent volcanic rocks. Instances may
be seen all along the coast, but fine examples near the extinct
crater of Cape Grant, at Warrnambool &c. The rocks around
Guichen Bay are all tufaceous, in fact there are few parts of the
coast which do not show traces of the former activity of Mounts
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. Mp |
Muirhead, Graham, Leake, Gambier, and others too numerous to
mention, which occur a little way inland.
The vast accumulations of sandstone in the interior without
any fossils, diversified with cafions, gorges, precipices, plateaux,
and table- topped hills, indicate such an origin as I am suggesting,
if we can only satisty ourselves that the material of which this
sand is composed is such as may have been derived from volcanic
sources. The evidence that appears to me to bear upon the matter
I will now place before my readers.
In my recent travels through Java, my attention was specially
directed to the origin of the sandstones met with in that very
volcanic island. The first thing that took my attention on landing
in Java was the sand upon the beach, which was black and as
unmistakably volcanic as anything could well be. No one could
misunderstand its character, which spoke plainly of subterranean
fires ; just, in fact, like very recent volcanic ejectamenta on the
latest extinct craters of South Australia. What this deposit
would become in a few years time was plainly evident in the older
beds. Close by Banjuwangi is the large active volcano of Rawun
over 10,000 feet in height, and with a crater of more than five
miles wide. As one ascends its torn and rugged sides the huge
crevasses and terribly precipitous gullies of 1,000 feet and more
reveal immense masses of beds deposited by ancient eruptions.
In colour, in consistency, in material, and in stratification they
very strongly reminded me of the Desert Sandstone ; but I should
be far from considering this resemblance as a sufficient proof of
their identity. There is not a grain of sand cast forth from the
bosom of the earth that is not stamped with marks innumerable
to show the nature of its origin. As truly as every coin minted
bears a stamp to mark the place of its coinage, so each tiny grain
of dust bears its impress unmistakably. It is almost proverbial
to say that grains of sand are as like one another as things can
well be. But direct the tube of the microscope upon them and
what a number of differences are revealed. The volcanic grain
with its freshly molten certificate of character, its glassy inclusions,
its gas-cavities, and its optical properties, has entirely peculiar
qualities of its own which no other grain of sand-in the wide world
can pretend to. It is true, however, that if it has lain exposed to
chemical influences from remote antiquity, its genealogy may be
so obscured that only the most experienced eye could trace it, and
there are very many sandstones, whose origin, volcanic or no,
cannot be decided. But for modern volcanic sands no such thing
is possible. The finest volcanic dust (indeed the finer the better)
of anything like modern geological times is one of the easiest
things to detect, and few could ‘be mistaken in it.
ic my paper on the Hawkesbury Sandstone, sands and their
characters became a special subject’ of investigation. Thus my
S12 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
attention was specially directed to the subject and thenceforth I
have collected sands and sandstones all through the various
colonies. What with these and the aid of friends, thousands of
_ Specimens have passed through my hands and have received what
attentive examination I could give them from the microscope.
Afterwards when travelling through the volcanic regions of the
East, I have collected numbers of specimens as well, besides
observing the manner in which the ash deposits accumulated and
how the different epochs of eruption were represented by strata.
I have now before me while I am writing, many specimens, not
only from the hundreds of craters in Java, both active and extinct,
but sand from the active craters of the Moluccas, the Philippines,
Celebes, the Linschoten Islands and Japan. The list of Javanese
craters alone would be a long one.
All these sources of volcanic material however distant and
different in their extent, have produced volcanic sands which are
one in character ; though one mineral may have been present or
absent, or more or less abundant in particular cases, yet the
general result is the same.
It may be necessary moreover to staté that sand is one of the
commonest and most frequent of volcanic emanations ; but sand
just like sandstone may mean many different things. Sand isa
term applied to finely divided particles of various different minerals;
such as quartz, felspar, the various compounds of silica with quartz,
alumina, magnesia, iron &e. Even when restricted to the siliceous
sands alone, the term has still a wide multiplicity of applications.
If the fine sand of a granite country for instance is placed under
the microscope, the quartz presents a peculiar aspect which a very
little experience enables one to recognise as belonging to that rock.
It has a characteristic ruggedness about it with cavities and
included crystals always of some size. There are sure to be crystals
of different kinds of felspar, with mica and perhaps hornblende.
But if the sand be recent, or in fact an ash, the quartz bears quite
a different appearance. It has vitreous inclusions, though these
are not always numerous, but innumerable gas-cavities; and nearly
every fragment has microliths or crystallites, which are microscopic
portions of very many minerals in different stages of development
from an amorphous state to a complete crystal. The oddest as well
as the most beautifully fantastic forms may be seen even in minute
broken pieces of stone. They frequently present crystal faces,
and from this the nature of many of them can be made out, and
generally this is the case with the great majority ; but some defy
all attempts to reduce them to a geometrical form. Thus there
are threads and beads, hooks and symmetrical arrangements of
dots and feathered fragments. Petrologists, without attempting
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. aL
to say what these may be, have made some sort of a classification
by arranging them under the heads of microliths, crystalloids,
trichites, and globulites. Microliths are imperfectly developed
crystals, often possessing optical characters which enable their
nature to be determined. In sections of certain volcanic rocks,
streams of microliths with their longest axis in one direction may
be seen sweeping in curves round the larger crystals and fragments.
Crystalloids manifest a higher development, being bounded by
curved or straight lines, and sometimes stellate and cruciform
varieties ; often too in the form of true crystals which can be
recognised. ‘Trichites are like hairs or fibres, more or less straight,
curved, or bent in all kinds of angles and twists, twirling in the
most fantastic modes round larger granules. Trichites often are
lines of granules like beads in rows orin pairs. Finally the name
globulites is reserved for those amorphous and roughly spherical
bodies which cannot be identified with any of the other categories;
though these shapeless masses are symmetrical often in their mode
of grouping, and are also arranged in streams in the viscid lavas.
Now when volcanic sands are very fresh, we find all the above
inclusions well represented and unmistakably present; but I
regret to add that it does not take a very long time to destroy
them. Chemical interchange goes on, oxidation and crystallisation
accompanied with the weathering action of water, so as to obliterate
most of the former characters. I wish I were able to say after
having spent so much time in the microscopic examination of sands,
that I have discovered any definite mark or character by which
the history of the mere quartzose residuum could be determined,
that is tosay the nature of its former genesis; but I repeat to my
regret that such evidence is not always very visible. It is true
that even when the stone is apparently an aggregation of pure
siliceous grains, there are always some foreign minerals left which
may help to determine its origin; but it must be admitted that
the evidence is not always of a conclusive or satisfactory kind.
Without wishing to rely upon such facts for more than they may
be worth I will here notice some that have fallen under my
observation, which may help to throw a light upon the origin of
these Desert Sandstones.
First of all is the shape of the grains which are rounded, and
this apparently not from attrition. Holian sands usually are
rounded ; but they are also often opaque. Some of the sands are
rounded and egg-shaped and have a decidedly molten look about
them, such as I have seen in volcanic glass; but this is nota
universal character. Some of the Desert Sandstone has angular
grains though roughly spherical in shape. Partial crystallisation
has taken place amongst the grains in many instances, and this
prevents the former figure from being now discernible.
314 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
The included fragments can sometimes be recognised, and if I
am not mistaken, small fragments of augite, labradorite and other
volcanic crystals, are amongst them. Ifthis were beyond question
it would go far towards proving a volcanic origin for the sands.
Fragments of biotite, olivine, and other crystals associated usually
with igneous rocks have been apparently present, but in so small
a quantity and in such a fragmentary way that the evidence is
not conclusive.
Finally there are the cavities in the quartz grains which seem
to me after having examined many specimens, to have something
peculiar and characteristic about them. Those who have not had
much experience in the microscopic examination of quartzose sands
can scarcely form any idea of the extent to which the grains are
full of cavities. There is no such thing as solidity in this mineral;
it is honeycombed to such an extent with minute bubbles, that no
fragment however small is free from them. They assume the
most fantastic shapes, not always rounded or oval like bubbles.
generally, but compressed, flattened, twisted and spread out in
every conceivable form. Sometimes a succession of parallel lines
of cavities in one direction is crossed at varying angles by similar
lines, so as to give a clouded appearance to the grain. High
magnifying powers are required for the perception of a large
proportion, and each increase in the power of the objective brings
into view cavities whose existence was not previously suspected.
There does not seem to be much difference in this respect, between.
the quartz of granites, volcanic sands, and crystals that have been
formed by slow infiltration without heat or pressure. At Mount
Bramble near Springsure, in Queensland, there is an extinct crater
on the volcanic tableland, the lava of which is covered with an
infiltration of hyalite, no doubt a slow result of weathering ; yet:
the quartz is as full of cavities as the quartz grains from the ash
deposit of Mount Bromo, in Java. In the sandstone from the
Victoria River, which is an aggregation of purely siliceous grains,
in fact a quartzite, there is little else besides these cavities visible
in the transparent particles; though even here small grains of
magnetite and other minerals are present, including particles of
brown augite, which are being converted into grass green mineral,
probably viridite. The sands of this.rock did not afford me a
sufficient number of examples to enable me to speak positively ;
but from what I have seen I think that the volcanic cavity is more
obliterated in this rock than in any other of the same character.
It is not however impossible to recognize recent volcanic particles
of quartz by certain frothy aggregations of bubbles, which are
unmistakably indicative not only of former melting, but boiling.
Sometimes this gives rise to a ribboned structure as if the bubbles
had been drawn out by flowing. There are also roughly parallel
THE: DESERT SANDSTONE. 315.
lines twisted and undulating like the grain of woody fibre ; and
finally a glass structure like Pele’s-hair.*
Without entering further into the detail of the appearances
presented by the sand grains when they are either granitic,
metamorphic or volcanic, | may sum up by saying that it is
perfectly possible to distinguish between them when they are
recent, nor is the evidence entirely lost until completely changed
by metamorphic action.
After having examined a considerable number of specimens of
the Desert Sandstone taken from different places, I incline to the
conclusion that they are all volcanic sands ; that is to say, speaking
now of microscopic appearances only. The reasons for coming to.
this conclusion are generally the numerous inclusions of foreign
matter in the quartz, their nature, and finally the peculiar
character of the cavities. I do not pretend that the evidence is.
perfectly convincing, and I admit that the inclusions and the
minerals are scanty in comparison with what I have been able to.
gather on recent crater walls. However, it would be difficult to
reconcile the appearances in the grains of the Desert Sandstone
with any other than a volcanic genesis. Moreover when we add the.
evidence afforded by the magnesite beds, the peculiar aggregation.
of these sands, and finally their unfossilliferous character, the
conclusions as to their igneous origin become strengthened.
The weight of evidence becomes however, very great indeed
when we notice, what I have already called attention to, that.
throughout Australia these sands and sandstones are always found.
associated with recent volcanic rocks.
It may appear somewhat unnecessary to bring so many proofs.
forward on a matter so obvious ; but the lithological character of
these sandstones has caused them to be erroneously identified with
Mesozoic strata, and even Carboniferous and Devonian. The
government geologists will no doubt rectify some of these errors ;
but in the mean time Mr. Clarke’s map, founded alone on specimens
forwarded to that gentleman, retains them. That lamented
geologist gave what he considered to be the best inference in the
time at his disposal. I could not record any difference of opinion
between myself and this painstaking observer, who was justly
considered as the father of Australian geology, without recording
my sense of the difficulties under which he laboured and the
immense credit due for the work he effected. Mistakes in the
early history of any science are what must be expected : steps.
have been retraced and new systems adopted over and over again
* A filamentary variety of obsidian produced by the action of the
wind upon the viscid lava projected into the air by the escape of steam
from the surface of the lava lake in the crater of Kilauea, Hawaii. Pele
is the name of a goddess supposed to inhabit this crater.
316 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
in geology in Europe, therefore we must not be surprised or
disappointed at the same thing happening here. It is the Desert
Sandstone which is heing dealt with now, but it will be obvious
to any one who has paid even a slight attention to the subject
that this is applicable to some portions of the Hawkesbury
Sandstone as well. A considerable thickness of the upper strata
is composed of tufa or Tertiary ash-beds. ‘This is especially
applicable to some of the Sydney sands and sandstone and the
strata on the Nepean River.
Tt will be remarked also that the form of these ash- deposits i is
nearly always crescentic with reference to the volcanic rocks, and
that the thickest portion of the beds and the greatest extent is
exactly in keeping with what we might expect as the effect of
prevailing winds. Many instances of this can be seen on all
geological maps where a survey has been made.
For those who are not familar with volcanic phenomena it
would be hard to realise that a mass of sandstone is nothing more
or less than an accumulation of voicanic ashes. The word ash
does not represent ashes in the ordinary acceptation of the term.
We must remember what a volcano is. We speak of smoke and
flame, ashes and cinders in connection with volcanic eruptions ;
but there is no such thing as smoke, as the word is usually
understood, and no such thing as flame, unless sulphurous fumes
can be called such. The smoke is steam intermingled with
quantities of finely divided stone fresh from the melting cauldron,
but blown into the finest particles byincessant explosion. The flame
is the reflection on the clouds of steam of the incandescent molten
rock rising from the depths of the earth. The ejectamenta
comprise what are termed dust, ashes, sand, lapilli, pumice, and
scoria, with fragments of stone; but the latter category includes
them all, the difference being only that of size. The ashes therefore
consist of small fragments of lava comprising minerals of the
nature of felspar, augite, olivine, biotite, magnetite &c. Many of
these are opaque or coloured, and traces of their crystalline form
are very frequently visible. It is evident that these minerals
must be abundant or scarce, or one prevailing over another
according to the nature of the rock from which they are derived ;
but it is astonishing how one peculiar kind of mineral will prevail
over a wide area.
Generally speaking ashes may be classified according to the rock
formation of the volcano. Most readers are aware of the great
divisions that are made between the acid or basic lavas as they
are called. These fall into five great groups of rocks viz. : the
rhyolitesor acid lavas, the basalts or basic lavas and the intermediate
lavas known as trachytes, andesites, and phonolites. The basic
lavas contain a larger proportion of oxide of iron and other heavy
all
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. SLT
oxides, and hence have a higher specific gravity. They are of much
darker colour, while fresh lavas of acid composition are usually
nearly white. Trachyte, andesite, and phonolite ashes are of
various tints of grey. But no ash keeps its colour long: the
quantity of iron is too great and the minerals too unstable for the
ordinary weathering not to affect them. Moisture soon produces
yellow, red, and purple-brown shades. But the mineral character
is not lost ; and this mainly consists of silica, no matter what the
chemical nature of the ejectamenta is. The acid lavas contain
from 60 to 80 per cent. of silica, the basic from 45 to 55, and the
intermediate from 55 to 65. ‘Thus silica forms the great mass of
the deposit, no matter under what category the lavas are placed.
I am able to give an illustration from actual experience of how
these sand-beds are deposited. I happened to be on more than
one occasion in the neighbourhood of volcanoes during a period of
active eruption ; and what I saw in connection with the deposition
of ashes helped me much to understand how such formations as
the Desert Sandstone have arisen.
I was in Java about the time of the eruption of Krakatoa, in
1883, and visited some portions of the kingdom of Sunda in its
neighbourhood. In this case the volcano was in activity from the
20th of May casting forth ashes in great quantity. There was a
kind of lull again until the 16th of June, when a fresh eruption
broke out. Thenceforth there was more or less a continued
scattering of ashes over a wide area. The molten mass below the
earth’s crust was being acted upon by pressure and gradually
approaching the surface upon which the sea-water was producing
a violent convulsion. Everybody knows what the result was in
the catastrophe of the 27th of August. The whole kingdom of
Anjer wherever I visited was covered with a coating of light grey
ash, something like snow, a foot deep and more, 130 miles from
the volcano. The whole of the intermediate country was covered
of course in thicker deposits nearer to the volcano, except where.
the tidal wave had washed it away. It was incredible what
destruction was caused by the ash alone. In one village trees
were torn down and great limbs stripped off, as though they had
been shrubs. The cocoa-nut trees were mere bare poles. The
ash, though apparently so light and insignificant was really very
heavy and in a very short time would accumulate in sutlicient
thickness to bear down even the strong resistance of the stout
cocoa-nut palm. Houses were crushed in, roads were obliterated,
and the sand silted up in many places so as to cover and conceal
fences and hedges. Ata tea plantation (Parakansala) where I
was on a visit, 100 miles or so to the east of Krakatoa, at about
3,000 feet above the level of the sea, the tea plants were curiously
covered over with this ash deposit, and the effect at a distance was.
318 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
to resemble a flock of sheep feeding on a snow covered plain. The
ash was grey, but where exposed to the bleaching effect of the
sun’s rays, had: become white. The. composition of the ash was
according to Prof. Liversidge, as follows :— .
I. II. ITI.
Loss on ignition sri 2°17 2°74 2°12
Silica ... ee as 63°30 65°04 68°06
Alumina aie ae 14°52 14°63 15°03
Tron sesquioxide sje" Sey 5:82 ( 4:47 28
Iron monoxide Abed) 2°82 3°66
Manganese... bas "23 trace trace
Lime ... 505 aes 4°00 3°34 2°71
Maenesia are ae 1°66 1°20 81
SOdaiw ures ese ape 5°14 4°23 4°25
Potash ... as a 1°43 107) 3°41
Titanic acid ... da 1:08 sh ‘38
' 99°35 99°44 100-71
mew eee
No. I. by Sauer, No. II. by Renard, No. III. by K. Oebbeke. Journ.
‘Chem. Soc., 1884, p. 974.
Professor Judd dealing with the nature of the materials ejected
points out that the compact lavas poured forth from Krakatoa at
the close of the eruption, contained as much as 70 per cent. of
‘Silica, the dust derived from which of course would be nearly a
pure sand. The lavas were porphyritic pitchstone and obsidian.
‘The heavier lava dust, which fell in Java, and was examined by
numerous geologists contained almost every variety of felspar
crystals.* The minute ejecta, consisting of pumice as well as finer
‘dust, carried by the unusual violence of the explosions into the
higher atmospheric regions, where it remained suspended for very
long periods, was thus drifted to enormous distances from the scene
of the eruption, showing how volcanic material even from one point
of ejection may be spread over immense areas. The whole of
this material from the rapid rate at which it cooled, was a volcanic
glass of high specific gravity and slight friability. The most
characteristic substance in these dusts was rhombic pyroxene or
augite. t
The above analyses show ash derived from a lava of the
intermediate character and such deposits are usually grey when
* Professor Judd considers this to be without precedent amongst
volcanic products. See Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal
Society, London, 1888.
+ As an instance of the extent and. distance to which this augitic dust
was carried I may mention that when making a series of soundings
between the Philippines and Moluccas in 1886, there was always an
admixture of fresh pyroxene crystals amongst nearly every specimen
of the sea bottom. On the north coast of Australia it was especially
abundant.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. 319
fresh ; but after some time they become brown, as every one can
see wherever sections of ash-beds are exposed, and there are few
parts of the island without them. On the sides ‘of the extinct
craters the crevasses and gullies cut by the rains form gorges,
which have been a subject of comment and admiration to every
traveller. The precipices and escarpments in these ash-beds form
a wild scenery of the grandest kind. The gorges however are in
some cases cut down in the loose and friable ash for hundreds of
feet and more, exposing in this way different coloured beds of black,
white, brown, or yellow, according to the age of the formation. I
have seen gorges of 1,000 feet deep at the very least. Perhaps
the whole of this is the result of a single eruption.
As an illustration of the manner in which ash-deposits will
accumulate and form mountain ranges I may take Java as an
instance, about which so many erroneous impressions prevail. In
a work entitled ‘‘ The Eastern Archipelago,”* one of the popular
scientific series that convey to the public the most astounding
information under the name of useful knowledge, it is stated that
“throughout its entire length Java is traversed by two chains of
mountains, which occasionally unite, but more frequently run at
some distance from each other and send spurs and branches of the
most various outline down to the shore.” This is an impression
as prevalent as it is incorrect. There is no mountain range
extending the length of the island, in fact the last hundred miles
of the eastern end is formed by four craters making a rough
quadrilateral. To the west of Surabaya there is an extensive
mountain range which has not any extinct crater for 100 miles or
more. It is deeply scored by valleys of erosion, showing that it
is built up of fine ash sands in places, or by a accumulation of
coarse material when the volcanic period was indeed one of nature’s
periods of fury. In other parts of the island too, there are detached
hills of voleanic material, which have evidently never been a crater
or an outflow of lava. They are accumulations of ashes which
mark former eruptions, and their resemblance at times in shape
and material to the Desert Sandstone is very striking. Asarule
they are about 4,000 feet high, though their surface is very ragged
and irregular, owing to the wearing down by rainfall which here
averages nearly 100 inches per annum.
Professor Liversidge in his ‘“‘ Minerals of New South Wales alg
mentions the occurrence at New Ireland of a pale brown calcareous
mudstone, looking at first sight much like a sandstone containing
much voleanic ash. He also mentions a sandstone which must
have had a similar origin, since the dark thin parallel planes of
* London: T. Nelson & Sons, 1880.
+ London, Triibner & Co., 1888, p. 254.
320 THE DESERT SANDSTONE.
stratification formed dark bands from the presence of small
hornblende or augite crystals.
The following passages from Russell’s Geological History of a
part of North- “Western Nevada,* so aptly illustrate the views
taken in the foregoing pages that no apology is necessary for
introducing them here. ‘“ Pumiceous dust.—In describing the
section of upper lacustral clays observed in the Humboldt, Truckee,
and Walker River cafions, strata of fine siliceous material varying
in thickness from a fraction of an inch to five or six feet, were
noted at a number of localities ; itis now our intention to describe
these abnormal deposits more fully.
“Tn all the exposures of this material the same. characteristics
were observed. The beds are composed of a white, unconsolidated,
dust-like, siliceous substance, homogenous in composition, and
having all the appearance of pure diatomaceous earth. When
examined under the microscope however, it is found to be composed
of small angular glassy flakes, of a uniform character, transparent
and without colour, but sometimes traversed by elongated cavities.
When examined with polarized light it is seen to be almost wholly
composed of glass with scarcely a trace of crystal or foreign matter.
On comparison with volcanic dust that fell in Norway in 1875,
derived from an eruption in Iceland, with the dust erupted in
Java in 1864 and the similar material ejected in such quantities
from Krakatoa in 1883, it is found to have the same physical
characteristics ; but itis much more homogeneous, and, unlike the
greater part of the recent dust examined, is composed of colourless
instead of brown or smoky glass. In the accompanying figures,
which we copy from Mr. J. 8. Diller’s instructive article on the
volcanic sand which fell at Unalaska, October 20th 1883, the
microscopic appearance of volcanic dust, from various localities
and of widely different geologic age, is shown with accuracy. The
peculiar concave edges and acute points of the shards of glass
render it evident that they were formed by the violent explosion
of the vesicles produced by the steam generated in the viscid
magma from which the glass was formed, and were not produced
by the mere attrition of the fragments during the process of
eruption. It is noteworthy that the dust erupted from Krakatoa
but yesterday is undistinguishable in its main characteristics from
the material of a similar origin which fell in the waters of Lake
Lahontan during the Quaternary, or from the dust thrown out by
some unknown and long extinct volcano in the vicinity of the
Atlantic coast, which fell near the site of Boston during pre-
Carboniferous or possibly in pre-Cambrian time. The volcanic
phenomena of to-day are governed by the same laws as obtained
.* U.S. Geological Survey.—Monographs, xi., p. 146, Washington, 1885.
THE DESERT SANDSTONE. BAS |
at the dawn of geologic history. . . . . . More extended
operations in the field revealed that beds like those described
above are not confined to the Lahontan basin, but are found as
superficial deposits above the Lahontan beach at many localities
and at points far distant from the old lake margins. Accumulations
of the same nature occur in the Mono Lake basin, interstratified
with lacustral deposits, and were also found in the caiions about
Bodie at a considerable elevation above the level of the Quaternary
lake that formerly occupied Mono Valley. About Mono Lake
these deposits are frequently of a coarser texture than those found
farther northward, and, at times graduate into strata which reveal
to the eye the fact that they are composed of angular flakes of
obsidian.
‘The Mono mae form a range of some 10 or 12 miles long,
which extends south-eastward from the southern shore of Mono
Lake, and in two instances attains an elevation of nearly 3,000
feet above the lake. A few coulées of dense black obsidian have
flowed from them, but the great mass of the cones is formed of
the pumiceous obsidian which occurs both as lava-flows and ejected
fragments, the latter forming a light lapilli which gives a soft grey
colour to the outer slopes of the craters. Fragmental material
of the same nature has been widely scattered over the mountains
and on the ancient moraines that occur in the Mono Lake basin,
while fine dust, unquestionably derived from the same source may
be traced to a still greater distance.
“From the evidence given above we conclude that the strata
of fine siliceous dust-hke material occurring in the Lahontan
sections, as well as the similar beds found about Mono Lake and
scattered as superficial deposits over the neighbouring mountains,
are all accumulations of volcanic dust which was probably erupted
from the Mono Craters. The greatest distance from the supposed
place of eruption at which these deposits have been observed is
about 200 miles.”*
In the same region we have ash deposits like those of Sydney,
taking the form of loose sand dunes which the author thus describes:
“The first acquaintance the explorer in the Great Basin usually
makes with the material forming these deposits is when it is in
motion, and fills the air with clouds of dust, sand, and gravel,
which are blinding and irritating, especially on account of the
* T have to observe, with reference to this quotation, that the descrip-
tion here given of the volcanic dust from Krakatoa does not quite tally
with the specimens gathered by me. These were not wholly composed
of glass, and, small as they were, they were full of traces of crystal and
foreign matter, especially microliths of triclinic felspar and pyroxene.
I am not however contending that the Desert Sandstone is composed of
volcanic dust, but volcanic sand derived from pease with which of course.
dust is intermingled.
U—November 7, 1888.
ae
alkaline particles which saturate the atmosphere at such times.
Dust-storms are common on the deserts during the arid season,
and inpart to the atmosphere a peculiar haziness that lasts for
days and perhaps weeks after the storms have subsided. Whirl-
winds supply a characteristic featurein the atmospheric phenomena
of the Far West especially during calm weather, and frequently
form dust columns of two or three thousand feet, even more in
height, which may many times be seen moving here and there over
the valleys. The loose material thus swept about at the caprice
of the winds tends to accumulate on certain areas, and forms dunes
or drifts which at times cover many square miles of surface.
During its journey across the country the material which finds a
resting place in the dunes becomes assorted with reference to size
and weight, so that the resulting sand drifts are usually homogene-
ous in their composition, but are characterised by extreme
irregularity of structure when seen in section. In the Lahontan
basin the sub-aérial deposits are usually composed of fine sharp
quartz sand ; but in some instances small drifts are principally
formed of the cases of ostracoid crustaceans.”
Without following the author into all the details, some further
peculiarities of these eolian sands may be inserted here. of an inch of paper. Close
observation has shewn that the zinc tube is more sensitive to
changes of temperature than the delicate standard thermometer
which [ keep along side of it.
You will observe that I have mounted the zine tube on glass,
because the really effective change is only the difference between the
expansion of zinc and glass, the expansion of the glass tends to
push the end of the zinc tube away from the screw, while that of
the zine brings them nearer together.
If we take the expansion of zinc as ‘0000173, and that of glass
as (0000046 we find the effective expansion is ‘(0000127 for one
degree, and therefore :00000127 for +4; of one degree, this on 20
inches amounts to 0:000025 or zo4e0 part of an inch, and if as I
have shewn, this extreme delicacy can be got from a rough working
model, I have no doubt whatever that when properly made the
This is not the time or place to point out the numerous possible
applications of the principle involved in this instrument to the
V— November 7, 1888.
338 THE THUNDERSTORM OF OCTOBER 26, 1888.
requirements of the ordinary arts, in which there are many processes
which require this extreme accuracy of measurement if it can be
applied automatically at a moderate cost, and this can readily be
done. I may state however that this application of the method
of electric contacts confirms the view founded upon some early
experiments, which I expressed two months since, viz., that it
will be possible in this way to record with certainty changes in
the direction of the vertical of 45 of a second of arc, and to plot
these out on a cylinder shewing the amount of such changes, and
their direction, as a check upon the transit instrument, and it may
be interesting to add that a change of +15 of a second of arc is one
that even the best modern transit instrument is hardly capable of
shewing satisfactorily.
THE THUNDERSTORM OF 26TH OCTOBER, 1888.
By H. C. Russsexi, B.A., F.R.S., ke.
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., November 7, 1888. ]
THERE are one or two points about this storm that seem to me to
be worth recording. On the morning of the 26th there was a
remarkably sudden rise in the barometer, but the barometer
gradually fell during the day and seemed to be fairly steady, with
a tendency to fall. In the afternoon it was evident that a
thunderstorm was approaching. At 6:45 p.m. the barometer
turned to rise slowly and the storm began soon after with very
very frequent flashes of brilliant lightning and a sudden change
of wind to N. thence round by West to 8 and S8.E., the change,
the latter part of it from W.S.W. to S.E. occupying half an hour,
during which time the barometer at first rose rapidly for ten minutes
to the extent of 0-073 then fell for fifteen minutes at the rate of
0-1 inch per hour, and then very rapidly, so that at the end of
half an hour from the time the fall began it had fallen 0°15 inch,
which is at the rate of 0°30 inch per hour; the latter part of this
fall was almost as rapid as the phenomenal one on the 21st of
September last, which you may remember was 0-044 in one minute ;
in this case it was 0:040 in one minute. So rapid was this fall
altogether, that the Redier barograph only recorded a change 0:10
not being able to follow such a rapid change, but. the new barograph
THE THUNDERSTORM OF OCTOBER 26, 1888. 339
on the anomometer shews a fall of 0°15, the same as the standard
barograph. Under ordinary conditions such a rapid change of
pressure would be accompanied by very violent wind, but on this
occasion although there was a squall in which the wind rose to 40
miles per hour, it did not last five minutes, and as a whole the
storm brought very little wind or rain, its distinctive feature
apart from the extraordinary barometric change being the intense
electrical discharges. Some of these were brilliantly white bands
60° and even 70° long, and they gave a dazzling light that
illuminated the whole city to such an extent that the photograph
I took of one of them shews the outline of the houses from the
momentary light of a single flash ;, and another plate which was
exposed for five minutes waiting for a flash in a particular direction
has on it a picture of lower Fort Street, the Harbour and North
Shore by the light of flashes which were outside the field of the
camera, and on the negative the outline of some clouds can be
made out distinctly.. The first photograph referred to is exhibited
and shews clearly that there were a number of lateral discharges
from the flash, and it is much more brilliant high up than near
the horizon, this may however be due to the nearness of the upper
part compared with that near the horizon. The second photograph
shews a similar flash evidently much more distant, and near it
can be faintly seen one of the curious zigzag flashes that were so
frequent between the clouds. This is faint, because like most
of them were, it was apparently in a mist; that is seen through
a cloud, and in addition had a yellowish colour unfavourable for
photography. It will be observed that the brighter flash on this
photograph is double for a considerable part of its length, and just
before it, I saw one for which the camera was not ready, which
was double from top to bottom, 7.¢. over a length of about 70°.
The rain although not heavy prevented mefrom getting photographs
of some of the flashes because it wet the lenses, and I was
obliged to get what I could through an opening in the dome. .
The majority of the lightning flashes were between the clouds
and presented a curious wavy form often very beautiful, but all
of these that I saw seemed to be in a yellow mist, as if im the
clouds, while all the up and down strokes were brilliantly white,
and in number could not have been more than a quarter or one-
third of those in the clouds.
The photograph shews clearly that the course of the brighter flash
was a very wavy one, like a ribbon blown by the wind ; and it
looks as if in some places its course had been in the direction of
the line of sight ; in these parts it would of course be more brilliant
from the fact that it was seen end on. This suggests a very
satisfactory explanation of a remarkable appearance which is
sometimes seen, and which I once observed in Sydney, that is,
340 PROCEEDINGS.
when a brilliant flash of lightning seems to break up into short
pieces as if they were links in a chain of light, hanging for a
moment in the sky; the cause of this is supposed to be that
parts are more brilliant than others from being seen end on as
above, and therefore make a more lasting impression on the retina,
and seem to remain suspended as fragments of the departed flash.
Although the change of pressure in this storm had little effect ~
upon the wind, it produced a remarkable effect upon the ocean as
shewn by the tide guages at Sydney and Newcastle ; as the great
changes in the barometer began so the ocean felt the influence,
rising as the barometer fell, and falling as the barometer rose.
Changes in level in some cases amounted to six inches, and the
ocean waves having been thus started continued for some hours
after the storm was over.
WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 7, 1888.
Mr. H. C. Russrut, B.A., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Twenty-three members were present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time,
of five for the second time, and of two for the first time.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society :—
Adair, John Frederick, M.A., Camb., Sydney.
Bedford, Alfred Perceval, Sydney.
Fieldstad, Axel Hieronyunis, Sydney.
Garrett, William Fry, Sydney.
Megginson, A. M., M.A., M.B., C.M. Hdin., Sydney.
Reading, ivehered| Te, M. R. C.8., Lng., i R: el P., Lond.,
L.D.8., #ng., Sydney.
West, Wallleern Augustus, L.K.Q.C.P., Lrel., LR.OP, Trel.,
Glebe.
In the absence of the authors, Mr. F. B. Kyngdon read the
following papers :—
1. “Results of Observations of Comets I. and II., 1888,
Windsor, N.S.W.,” by John Tebbutt, F.R.A.S.
2. “Desert Sandstone, ” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods,
¥.G:8., ELS:
PROCEEDINGS. | 341
Some remarks upon the latter paper were made by Profr.
Liversidge, Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, and Mr. C. Moore.
Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A., F.R.S., then read the following papers :
“On a new Self-recording Thermometer,” and ‘“ Notes on the
Thunderstorm of October 26th, 1888.” Two photographs of
flashes of lightning, taken during the storm, were exhibited.
The thanks of the Society were accorded to the various authors
for their valuable papers.
The Chairman exhibited a meteorite, weighing 3541b., which had
been found near Mr. J. Russell’s station, some distance from Hay.
The meteorite was taken to the station by one of the hands, who
said that he saw it fall; but he was evidently under a misappre-
hension as to that. It had apparently. been under the earth fora
considerable time. Oxidation was going on so rapidly that it was
probable the stone would not last very long.
Professor Liversidge said that the bulk of the Thunda meteorite
of which Mr. Wilkinson obtained a specimen in 1885 or 1886,
had been presented to him by Dr. Campbell of Yass ; but as he
had received it only that afternoon he had not had time to make
an examination. It was a metallic one, consisting essentially of
iron, more or less mixed with nickel and cobalt. There was also
a small quantity of sulphur and phosphorus. Its weight was about
137ib. The pittings are very large and cup-like, and some of them
almost perforate the meteorite.
Mr. Wilkinson exhibited a meteorite, weighing 124ib, composed
chiefly of iron. It is of an irregular pear shape, and was
discovered firmly embedded in slate rock on the highest peak of
a mountain near the junction of the Burrowa and the Lachlan
Rivers. It was found by a miner named O’Shaughnessy, and
given by him to Mr. A. J. Single of Cowra, who forwarded it to
the Mining Museum.
A discussion upon meteorites took place in which Mr. E. Baker,
Prof. Liversidge, Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, and the Chairman took
part.
The following donations were laid upon the table and
acknowledged :—
DonaTIONS RECEIVED DURING THE MontTH oF OcToBER, 1888.
(The Names of the Donors are in Italics.)
TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c.
Camn—Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-
Lettres. Mémoires, 1886. The Academy.
CaLtcuTTa—Geological Survey of India. Records, Vol. xxi.,
Part 3, 1888. The Director.
342 PROCEEDINGS.
CHRISTIANIA— Norwegische Meteorologische Institute. Die
Internationale Polarforschung 1882-1883. Beobach-
tungs-Ergebnisse der Norwegischen Polarstation
Bossekop in Alten. II. Theil, 1888. The Institute.
DrnveR, Cout.—Colorado Scientific Society. Proceedings,
Wol- 1; Part3, 13872 The Society.
Digon—Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
Mémoires, 3e Série, Tome ix., 1885-1886. The Academy.
EpvinsurcuH—Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The
Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. iv., No. 8,
August, 1888. The Society.
Guiascow— University. Calendar for the year 1888-89. The University.
HampBure— Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. Meteoro-
logische Zeitschrift, September, 1888. The Society.
Hopart—Royal Society of Tasmania. Abstract of Proceed-
ings, May 14, June 11, August 13, October 3, 1888.
Tasmanian Salmonide, exhibited in the Tasmanian
Court at the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition, 1888. i“
Kirrr—Société des Naturalistes. Mémoires, Tome ix.,
Parts 1 and 2, 1888. »”
Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland. Journal, Vol. xviii., No.1, August, 1888. The Institute.
Linnean Society. Journal—Botany, Vol. xxiv., No. 163,
1888; Zoology, Vol. xxii., No. 140, 1888. The Society.
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Journal, New Series, Vol. xx., Part 3, July 1888. a
Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol.
xlvui, No. 8, June, 1888. a
Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings (New Monthly
Series), Vol. x., No. 8, 1888. ns
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Part 4, No. 65,
August, 1888. »
Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xxxii..
No. 144, 1888. The Institution.
Mancaester—Manchester Geological Society. Transactions,
Vol. xix., Parts 11—20. Session 1887-88. The Society.
Metsourne—Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist, Vol. v., No. 6, 1888. The Club.
Geological Society of Australasia. Transactions, Vol.i.,
Part 3, 1888. The Society.
Government Botanist. Iconography of Australian
Species of Acacia and Cognate Genera, by Baron
Ferd. von Mueller, K.C.M.G,, F.R.S., &e. Twelfth
Decade, 1888. The Government Botanist.
Government Statist. Victorian Year Book for 1887-8,
Vol. i. The Government Statist.
National Museum of Melbourne. Natural History of
Victoria. Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,
Decade xvi., by Frederick McCoy, C.M.G., M.A.,
F.R.S. The Director.
PROCEEDINGS. 343
MeLpourNE—Royal Society of Victoria. Transactions and
Proceedings, Vol. xxiv., Part 2, 1888. The Society.
Mexico—Sociedad Cienitifica “ Antonio Alzate.’’?’ Memorias,
‘Yomo il., Cuaderno Num 1, July, 1888. Be
MontTPELLIER—Académie des Sciences et Lettres. Extraits
des Procés-verbaux de Séances, 1847 — 1850.
Mémoires de la Section des Sciences, Tome i—vilii.,
1847-75 ; Tome xi., Fasc i1., 1885-86. The Academy.
Narpies—Societa Africana d’Italia. Boliettino, Anno vii.,
Fase. 7 and 8, July and August, 1888. The Society.
New Haven—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Transactions, Vol. vii., Parts 1 and 2, 1885-1888. The Academy.
New Yorx—Science. Vol. xii., Nos. 290 —292, 24 Aug. to
7 Sept., 1838. The Editors.
Paris—-Académie de Sciences de Il’ Institut de France.
Comptes Rendus, Tome 106, Tome 107, No. 1—12,
1888. The Academy.
Ecole Polytechnique. Journal, Cahier 56, 57, 1886-87. The School.
Société Anatomique de Paris. Bulletins, 4e Série,
Tome x1., 1886. The Society.
Societé d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale.
Bulletin, 8e Série, Tome xii., 1885; 4e Série, Tome
1. and ii., 1886-87. Pr
Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, 8e Série,
Tome xv., Nos. 7 and 8, 13887; Tome xvi., No. 1, 1888. Le
PHILADELPHIA—F ranklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxxvi.,
No. 758, Sept., 1888. _ The Institute.
PrymMoutH—Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall
Natural History Society. Annual Report and
Transactions, Vol. x., Part 1, 1887-88. _ The Institute.
Rio pe JANEIRO—Observatoire Impérial. Revista do
_ Observatorio, Anno iii., No. 8, 1888. The Observatory.
Rome—Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Serie iii.,
Vol.i., Fasc. 8, 1888. The Society.
Vienna—Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien. Mitthei- :
lungen, Band xviii., Heft 2 and 3, 1888. aa
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Verhandlungen, No.
11, 1888. The ‘* Reichsanstalt.”’
WasHineton—Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of
the Board of Regents to July 1885, Part 2. The Institution.
344 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE,
A LINGUISTIC STUDY.
By Joun Fraser, B.A., LL.D.
[ Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., December 5, 1888. |
PuILoLoey is one of the handmaids of Ethnology. When the
ethnic relations of any nation are yet in question, an examination
of its language may be the first finger-post that guides us on the
way toa successfulissue. The testimony of Philolog gy, when taken
alone, is not sufficient to settle the question, but, when its teachings
are supported by evidence drawn from other sources, the whole
may make up such an amount of cumulative proof as will leave
little room for doubt as to how the verdict should go. The study
of language has already done signal service in the field of
Ethnology ; ; a hundred years ago, ven the language of the Indian
Vedas began to be known to “Europeans, it was ‘Philology that
led the way in proving the kinship of the nations which we now
call the Aryan family, and at the present moment it is Philology
that is proving the earliest population of Babylonia, the inventors
of the first arts and sciences, to have been neither Aryan nor
Shemite. And the labours of distinguished British, French, and
German scholars, have, within the last fifty years, so determined
the bounds and fixed the principles of Philology, that it may now
claim to be acknowledged as a branch of scientific study and to
be used as an instrument of scientific discovery.
Now the classic languages of ancient Greece and Italy are still
a fair field for philological investigation, for, although much has
been said and written about them, it cannot be asserted that we
have as yet reached an unchallenged decision as to their relation
to one another or to the other old members of the Aryan household.
Whatever opinion may be formed regarding the influence of the
language, literature, and art of ancient Greece upon her Italian
neighbour, yet there is enough of individuality in the native
language and religion of Rome to permit us to say, that another
and a potent force must have assisted to mould the Mid-Italic
tribes into that compact and energetic mass whence sprung the
arms of Cesar and the speech of Cicero.
I purpose, in this paper, to inquire whether the Latin nga
can, when interrogated, speak for itself and tell us anything
reliable about its own origin. Surely it knows whence it came,
and, if our examination of it be faithfully conducted, we may
expect a faithful answer to our inquiries. Let me, therefore, now
call in and present to you one well-known member of the Roman
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 345
household, the verb jubere; this one cannot be suspected of
having any Grecian kinship, for there is nothing at all lke it in
Greek, and it holds so important a place in the language that it
cannot be a borrowed word. Some think that we must go all the
way to India to find its place of birth, for Vanigek (“‘Worterbuch
der Lat. Sprache”) traces it to the Sanskrit root judh, “to bind,”
while Dwight (“ Modern Philology”) is so hard pressed for an
etymology that he has recourse to the clumsy artifice of making
it a compound of the Latin words jus and habere. But even
although the root of the verb jubere could be satisfactorily
shown to exist in Sanskrit, yet the word itself is not there in any
form, and it is evident that the Aryan conquerors of India did not
bring it into Italy, nor did the Greeks. Whothen? Let us see.
Il. The meaning of the word.—Our dictionaries tell us that
jubere means primarily (1) to “‘say” that any one shall doa
thing, or that a thing may or shall be done ;_ hence it means (2)
toy order, and (3) to “preseribe or deerée.” In Latin’ such
expressions as, Dionysiwm jube salvere, jusst valere wlum, sperare
nos amici jubent, exhibit the earliest use of the verb, which is to
““say” or express a wish, to “say” something that has reference
to others, like the Enghsh verb bid in the phrases, bid him
Jarewell, we bade him good morning. Tf Iam asked how this
mere expression of a wish developes into a positive order or a
peremptory decree, I have only to remember that the patria
potestas in ancient Rome was so wide and binding that a father’s
wishes were the severest law to his children, and that this paternal
discipline, which had power over a son long after he had passed
the age of boyhood, so operated that obedience to lawful commands
became an essential part of Roman ethics, whether in the family,
the army, or the state. Hence those who had authority similar
to the jus patrium, as kings, civil magistrates, or military officers,
had also the same power vite necisque which the XII. Tables gave
to the paterfamilias. Occasions on which this power was used
will occur to the recollection of every one who has read Roman
history.
Il. The form of the word.—lf I now proceed to inquire what
is the parentage of jubere, I find that the Keltic language in
its insular branch* (and the Keltic is old enough to be the parent
* I divide the Keltic language into three branches, (1) Insular Keltic
(= I.-K.), spoken in Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland; (2) Kymric (= C.), the Welsh, the Cornish, and the
Armorican of Bretagne; and (3) the Continental or Gallo-Keltic (=G.-
K.), such remains as we have of the Keltic once spoken on the Continent.
In referring to other languages, I shall use the following abbreviations :
S.=Sanskrit; H.—Hebrew; Gr.—Greek; L.=Latin; Fr.—French; G.
=German; A.-S.—Anglo-Saxon; E.—English; K.—Keltic, in a general
sense as including the three divisions; P.—Persian; Ar.—Arabic.
346 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
of any Latin word, and had besides a location in Italy long before
Rome was founded) has a verb abair, “say,” with a past tense
thubairt, “said,” and a participle, radh, “saying or said.” In
thubairt or dhubairt—the form which concerns us at
present—the ¢ final is an affix and represents the ¢e of the past
participle (in 8. ¢a) of many other verbs, as fag-te “abandoned,”
from the I.-K. verb fag; the bare form then is dhubair, or,
unaspirated, dubair, dabair. Now, if after the fashion of the
Hebrew, to which in some respects the Keltic bears a strong
resemblance, the preterite be taken as the stem-form of the verb,
and if we pronounce the final 7 with a slight vocalisation after it,
as was the practice with some languages of old, we have the word
dhubair-e, to “say ”—a very close approximation to the Latin
infinitive form jubere. Therefore I conclude that jubere may
be a Keltic word, and, if it is so, that it belongs to the I.-K. branch
of the Keltic, for the Kymric has nothing like dhubair, nor do
I know any other European language which has. Now jubere
is only one of many words both in the classical and the modern
languages which can be traced to the same source as the K. verb
dabair, and, as I wish to make this paper a linguistic study, I
will go at once to that source and step by step unfold the connection
of these words with jubere and with each other.
III. The original root of all is dab, dabh, which is a weaker
form of gab, gabh. The interchange of the medial consonants
d and g (and their aspirates dh and gh) is common throughout the
K. languages, and is well established between other members of
the Aryan family ; there is also, although less common, the inter-
change of the other medial 6 with g, for the 8. go, gau, a “bull,
a cow” is the L. bos. Children, whose vocal organs are as yet
imperfect and weak, constantly substitute d for g as being easier
to pronounce ; they say dood for good. So any word-form which
has the initial gy must be older than any corresponding form with
d, for it is a principle in Janguage that hard guttural letters have
a tendency to change into dentals or labials and then into still
softer liquids and semivowels. And, as the first home of the
human race was up among the mountain tablelands of High Asia,
we may naturally suppose that the root words of the primitive
and unbroken speech of mankind were moulded bythe environment,
and consisted largely of hard consonants with a few vowels,
probably only a, i, u. Then, when mankind had become broken
up into nations and tribes, those of them that settled on the plains,
and specially in warm climates, must have felt the influence of
their environment, leading them to adopt the consonants that
were easiest to utter and the softest modifications of the vowels,
and to ordain that no two consonants should come together
without an intervening vowel, and that every syllable should
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 347
end with a vowel. Thus I account. for the abundance of soft
sounds in the languages of Polynesia. On the other hand, where
a nation or tribe came fresh from the common stock, and the
current of events had made it follow a warlike and isolated mode
of life among rugged mountains, its language is likely to retain
the harsh features of its origin and surroundings, and thus I
account for the peculiarities of the Keltic and some other
languages. Of course, the principle of phonetic decay loses much
of its force as soon as any language begins to possess a literature,
for that tends to fix its sounds and words.
IV. To illustrate the changes which our root gab, “to say, to
speak,” may undergo, I cite the following words :—(1) from I.-K.,
gab, gob the ‘ mouth,” that with which we “speak,” gabach,
“oarrulous,” HE. gab, “to talk much,” gabble, “to chatter,”
gibberish, “ unmeaning words,” jabber, “to talk indistinctly,”
gibe, ‘to deride, scoff at,” A.-S. Scotch, haver, “to talk foolishly,”
habble, “to stutter, to wrangle,” yabble, “to gabble, to scold,”
yabbock, ‘a talkative person,” Fr. gober, E. gobble, “to
swallow hastily ”; (2) by changing g into its corresponding sharp.
guttural k, gab gives the provincial Ger. kab-beln, “to quarrel,”
EK. squabble; cf. Se. habble; (3) then, by putting 6 for g, the
root gab gives H. babble, ‘to talk much, to talk idly,” Gr.
babax, ‘“chatterer,” bazo, “I speak, I say,” Fr. babiller, “to
prattle,” and, by the insertion of a liquid, E. blab, ‘“ to talk much,
to speak thoughtlessly” ; (4) then, by putting d for g, we have
the H. dabhar, ‘to speak”; (5) by softening this d into its
liquid /, we have the I.-K. labhair, “to speak, utter, talk,” labh,
‘a lip,” the external organ of speech, L. labium, labrum, “the
lip,’ —a word which belongs to ‘‘speech” and not to the “licking”
of the tongue, as some Latin etymologists assert.
From these experimental examples we gather the following
facts :—(a) g becomes b, as, gab, babble; (b) g becomes d, as,
_ gab, dabh-ar ; (c) g becomes d, and then I, as, gab, labh-air; (d)
d becomes 1, as, Gr. dakrima, L. lacrima, L. delicare for
dedicare; (e) g become j, as, gab, jabber, gibe; (/) g becomes
k, as, gab, kab-beln; (g) g, gh, becomes h or y, as, gab, hab-ble,
yabble; the same changes are seen in Ger. gellen “to shriek,”
EK. yell, howl; E. garden, Fr. jardin, E. yard; (h) the sibilant
s may be prefixed to harden the meaning, as, kabbeln, squabble;
this change probably arises from the substitution of a palatal ¢
for the guttural g, for in Sanskrit and in European languages this
¢ becomes sk; (2) 1, as an affix, gives a frequentative force to a
verb, as, gab, gabble; gob, gobble; (4) the liquid 1 may be
introduced into a word, as, gab, bab, blab. Several other
principles of change will present themselves, but we shall notice
them as they occur.
348 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
V. Again, it is very common in Sanskrit and also in Insular
Keltic to find the medials b, g, d, aspirated into bh, gh, dh ; indeed
so common in Keltic that a humorous Gaelic lexicographer
declares that there is not a syllable in his language that has not
the letter h either expressed or understood ! So, if the I.-K. verb
dabair were made to go back to its original form gabhair, the
bh, as is usual in such a case where it comes between two vowels,
is quiescent, like the digamma in Greek ; the same quiescence is
common in Hebrew, as, ntr, ‘‘to give light,” for nabhar. The
verb gabhair to “speak” would then be pronounced ga-air,
which in I.-K. is written ga-ir and means to “laugh, shout, ery,”
(cf. (e) E. jeer, to ‘deride, mock,” and the Icelandic (c) dar,
“derision ”), but in C. gair holds to the original meaning of a
“word, saying, report, fame,” and its derivatives take the form
geir, as, geir-fa “vocabulary,” geir-da, “good report, fame,”
ceir-i Nag: to use words or phrases.” From this ga-air, geir, I
take the Gr. words gérus, “a voice,” géruo, “I utter, speak,
cry, sing,” and, by softening the initial g into gh or y, which is
then lost, I get the Gr. eiro,“‘I say, speak, tell, proclaim, announce”;
and here the occurrence of the initial g in L-K. and in C. explains
many of the difficulties that face the etymologist in endeavouring
to account for the anomalies observed in the cognates and
derivatives of the Greek verb eiro, and proves in opposition to
Curtius (“Greek Etymology”) that eiro has Oriental kinsmen,
for K. gaair, geir=gabhair=dabhair=H. dabhar, as will be
shown ‘presently. F urther, the Greek verb eiro, “J say,” when
in its middle voice eiromai, eromal, means “ I ask, ” just as the
E. ask, A.S. acs-ian, asc-ian 1s probably formed by a transposition
of the s of the syllable sag, the G. root of sagen, to “say”; so the
supposed K. word ga-air, for gabhair, may soften the initial g
(gh) into y and become iarr (for ya-irr), and this is the common
verb in L.-K. for “to ask, inquire, seek,” also ‘‘bid, desire” in
the sense of “ordering,” which shows its connection with the root
dabar, ut infra. So far in this paragraph I feel my footing to
be sure, but in the remainder of it [ must walk warily. You
will grant me that the form ga-air is assured and from it ka-ir
(7); now, just as the I.-K. koig, kuig, “five,” is the L. quinque,
go I believe ka-air gives me the L. quaero eT seek,” quaeso “I
ask, beg, intreat ” (to be pronounced ka-ero, ka-eso), and their
connection with the root-meaning of gab is illustrated by the Fr.
causer, “to speak, discourse, prattle, babble,” and jaser “to
prate, chatter.” Ifthe L. verb quaero be thus etymologically
the same as gabhair, dabhair, then the established notion in
phonology thats precedes r in time admits of exceptions; for
although grammarians hold that in Latin the form lases is earlier
than lares and laebesum than liberum, yet in this case quaero
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. — b49
must be earlier than quaeso. Strange to say some light may be
thrown on this point by the language of our much misunderstood
blackfellows of Australia ; the district which we cali Yass was
was by them called Yarr, for they have no s, but Yarr was by
them so pronounced that the early settlers there took the name to
be Yass. But further, as to our root gab, if I were to declare
to you without explanation, that the Greek noun eros, “love,” is
derived from gab, you would at-once declare that philology was
gone mad, but I will show you the path by which I reach eros.
The L. quaero means “to seek-to-obtain,” “to desire,” “to aim
at” (=L. ap-pet-ere), which meaning is clearly brought out in
the participle quaesitus with its compounds, and in the noun
quaestus, “gain”; you also see that the I.-K. iarr, for ga-air, “to
seek,” is the same word as the L. quaero; nowa participial noun
from iarr is larr-aidh or iarr-oidh, “an asking, a desiring, a
soliciting,” and this seems to me to be the same word as erds,
erdt- (as if yerr-oids) ‘‘love, desire, appetence,” which also is a
participial form in Greek ; this derivation of the word is supported
by the Gr. verb erdt-ao (from eroés), which reverts to the first
signification of “asking.” If the derivation which I now suggest is
correct, then I understand why the use of erds in Greek is so
different from that of storgé and agapé, for they are applied only
to the “love” of parents, children, and friends.
Before leaving this paragraph I will take stock of the phonetic
principles which we have observed in it :—(/) the medials b, g, d,
are often aspirated into bh, gh, dh; (m) bh (=f the digamma) and
dh are often quiescent between vowels; as, I.-K. du-bh-acas,
buidh-e; Gr. ogdo-f-os; H. na-bh-ar, ntr; L-K. ga-bh-air; (7)
initial g is often dropped, as, 8. giri, “mountain,” Gr. oros ; (0)
initial g=k=L. qu; () transposition of letters, especially of 1, s,
and r, in the same syllable, is common; as, H. targ-umin,
“translations,” =modern Persian drag-oman, “an interpreter;”
H. kesebh=kehb-es, “lamb”; Gr. kartos=kratos, “strength”;
aera, sarn-er, i, horse, old Ger. hros, 8S. hresh, “to
neigh ”; (q) r changes into s and s intor, as, L. lares, lases ;
(7) participles are used as nouns, as, L. animans.
VI. I wish now to call to your recollection the fact that when
language was first formed,—I will not say, invented, for I believe
the faculty of articulate speech to be a special gift from heaven—
the form of the root-words in use must have been simple, and the
number of them small, corresponding to the limited wants of
man. As to the form of these primitive root-words, inthe Aryan
family they were essentially monosyllabic and biconsonantal, that
is, they were words of one syllable, consisting of two consonants
combined with a vowel either between or after them ; as examples
we have the 8. kri, kar, “to make,” Gr. phil-os, “friendly,” L.
350 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
bib-o, “I drink,” K. faic, “to see.” As to their number, it is
impossible now to hazard even a guess, but I imagine they were
few. Still, it would be interesting to know what were the originals
of human speech; if we had them all collected before us, we
might look on them with reverence not unmixed with curiosity,
as the prolific patriarchs, now thousands of years old, whose
offspring in countless millions have spread themselves throughout
the whole earth, and, like obedient genii, now come forth to work
wonders at the bidding of the brain and tongue of man. If an
etymologist had leisure and industry enough, it might be possible
to make such a collection of root-words in the Aryan family, and
much easier to do so for the Shemitic family where the languages
are not numerous nor the literature so extensive. In the Shemite
tongues, the form of the roots will be found to be essentially
triconsonantal, the vowel points being used to facilitate pronunci-
ation; and many of these stem-words are formed from biconsonantal
primitive roots by affixing a third consonant. For example, our
Aryan root gab, “to speak,” is also called dab (6) or dabh, and
this, by the addition of the letter r, becomes the H. verb dabhar
“to speak.” ‘There is, no doubt, a number of monosyllabic roots
in the Shemite tongues, but many of these are really dissyllables
contracted, as kam for kavam ,; thus also dabhar might become
dar. I have said that the original words in human speech were
probably few in number; and, by numerous figurative applications
of the primary meaning of each root-word, the varying wants of
man were expressed. This process still goes on in language,
although only to a limited extent ; for instance, we have recently
learned to say, Will you “wire” to London? where the noun wire
remains unaltered in form, and yet has undergone two changes,
for it has become a verb and has received an artificial application
of its meaning. In further illustration of these principles I will
return to our root gab, “to speak.” The b on Oriental lips is
scarcely distinguishable from m ; both are labials, and are so good
friends that they quietly slip into one another’s places, often
unobserved. So gam is the same as gab. Now there are in the
Aryan languages about a dozen root words all sounded gam;
there is 1. gam to speak, 2. gam to seize, 3. gam to hollow out,
to dig, 4. gam to bow down, 5. gam to cover, protect, 6. gam to
love, desire, 7. gam to go, 8. gam to leap, 9. gam to twist, 10.
gam to tame, subdue, 11. gam to marry, 12. gam with, together,
and 13. gam to join.* You may ask me how it was possible for a
hearer to know in conversation which gam the speaker meant. I
* Even the best dictionaries confound these roots. Benfey has 8.
“kams, kag, or kas, to go, to command, to destroy.” The second and
third of these meanings belong to our root gam (see page 354), but the
first is from gam, to go.
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 351
answer that it was just as easy as for us to understand the
difference between—“ the bell was tolled, he was told to go away,
a crew of eighty men, all told;” or for a Hebrew, reading his Bible
without points, to know which of its six meanings the word dbr
has, when he sees it. And yet I do not assert that all these words
gam are distinct and separate roots; by figurative applications of
their first meaning they group themselves together; thus 12 and 13
are the same word; so are 3, 4, 5, 6, 11; so also 7 and 8, and
probably 2 and 10. Our word gam, ‘to speak,” seems to stand
alone, but nevertheless it has kindred all over the world; one
kinsman is often in the mouths of the blacks of Equatorial Africa,
for they say, mi kam-ba, “I speak,” gamba “speak.” In New
South Wales also, the aboriginals of the Illawarra district say
kam-ung, “to speak.” Here we have proof of the unity of lan-
guage, and hence, of the unity of mankind; for the root gam
‘means “to speak” in the Hamite tongues as well as in the Shemite
and the Aryan. An objector will say that it is a mere coincidence
that gam should mean “speak” among the Hamite tribes of
Africa and Austraha. But any mathematician here present can
speedily tell, by the use of his algebraical formule, how little pro-
bability there is that any three letters of the alphabet, even
although it be reduced to eighteen or sixteen letters, should
arrange themselves by mere chance into the form gam, ‘‘to
speak.” For this and many other reasons I believe in the kinship
of languages.
VII. I now proceed to consider the root and cognates of the
Latin verb jubere. In the conjugation and declension of the I.-K.
verb under consideration, four forms are used, viz. :—abair,
dubhair, their, and radh, as, an abair mi, shall I say? cha
dubhairt mi, I said not; thubairt mi, I said; ma their mi, if I
shall say ; ag radh, saying (literally, ‘“‘ at-saying,” ‘“‘a-saying,” like
EH. a-going). This variety of form shows it to be a very old and a
very common verb; for the same variety occurs in the 8. verb
bra, “to speak,” (which is assisted in its congregation by vach
and ah) and in the substantive verb “to be” everywhere. I
have already explained that the simple root form of this K. verb
is dabair or dubair, and for the sake of comparison I now bring
in the H. verb ‘‘ to speak,” which is dabar or amar. This I do
not because the Hebrew had any share in forming the Keltic or
the Latin language, but because Hebrew is a very ancient
language, and any words which are found both in it and in the
Aryan must belong to the earliest forms of human speech. Root
words have also preserved in Hebrew many of the figurative
shades of meaning which enable a philologist to show the connection
of their derived words in other languages. And the H. verb,
dabar, “to speak,” is so like the K. conjugational form dhubair
352 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
as to justify the belief that they are the same word, notwithstand-
ing the assertion of some that the Shemitic languages have no
common origin with the Aryan. Now dhabair, that is, dhubair,
is pronounced habair, from which, by dropping the initial
breathing, I have the abair of the future, that is, the present,
tense of the K. verb. Similarly, although Gesenius in his Lexicon
does not notice it, the H. form amar is got from dabar by
dropping the initial d (as in the Kymric, am, “ round about,” for
dam), and changing bintom. This relationship is the more likely -
because the Hebrew verb dabar might be written dhamar, while
the initial a of amar is the soft guttural vowel aleph which is
almost equivalent to a silent h, the h which represents dh.
It will be convenient here to refer to the fact that in Sanskrit
there is a wonderfully large number of verbs that mean “ to speak,”
(I have counted more than twenty in Benfey’s Sanskrit Dictionary)
besides many others that mean both “‘to speak” and “to shine.”*.
I for one cannot conceive how any language can require twenty
different verbs all meaning the same thing, and so I infer that
these twenty, or at least many of them, all come from one single
root, modified sometimes by caprice, as when a Samoan says na-
mu for manu without any reason for the change, and sometimes
modified to suit the shades of meaning which the speaker intends
to convey. These modifications usually proceed on the principles
for the change of consonants already noticed, but, in some words,
like the Samoan nam for man, the root syllable is reversed. This
kind of change happens more frequently, I think, than etymologists
are willing to acknowledge. Many word-forms could be accounted
for by the operation of the principle of the reversal of the root,
‘‘end for end,” as seamen say. As instances I quote the C. gaf,
and the EH. dagger. The Kymric gaf, “a bent hold or hook” is
the same as the C. bach, ‘a hook, a crook, a grappling-iron ”;
bach is only gab reversed and the g aspirated ; so in E., the dag-
ger is that which pierces, stabs, and the gad-fly is the fly that
prerces the skin to deposit its eggs; gad is dag reversed. Then
also, it is curious to observe that verbs ‘‘ to speak” also mean
“to shine.” How is this to be accounted for? the two ideas are
so unlike. There are some distinguished astronomers in this
Society, who know all about the sun, the moon, and the stars.
Can they tell me why the sun is represented in old almanacs and
in the emblazonry of fire-insurance offices as a full, rosy face, with
* To show their connection with our root, I would arrange these Sans-
krit verbs thus :—From root dab, 8S. ramh, ru (for rav), rap, raj, jap,
lap; hve and hu (for hav); from vad (for dabh—day), 8. vad, bhan,
bhand; from gab, 8.gabda, gad; from vag (for gabh=gav), S.
vach (vakti, ukti), valk, ah (forag); from a Bair, 8. barh,
varh, brt, bhrimg; fromradh, 8. arth.
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 353
puffed cheeks and staring eyes? We have heard that there is a
man in the moon, and, if we may trust our boyhood’s nursery tales,
he sometimes opens his little wicket, when stray visitors from our
planet go so far, and speaks to them; but have our astronomers
ever seen a man in the sun, and can he speak? If they cannot
tell, an answer will be given by the student of language. From
it we learn that the ancient makers of language regarded the sun
as the all-seeing one, the eye of Dyauspitar, the eye of heaven ;
hence in the Egyptian hieroglyphics the picture of an eye is the
symbol for the sun. Now, they noticed that just as the sun gives
forth rays all flowing in regular order from one central spot, so
words proceed from the speaker all in orderly array, and issuing
from one common source, the mouth.* Thus to speak and to shine
came to be expressed by the same word.+ Indeed the English
word “speak ” is a proof in point ; for our dictionaries tell us that
it means to utter words, or articulate sounds, in order ; and they
connect it with the Italian word spiccare, “to shine, to shoot
forth rays.” The same word is seen in the expression ‘spick and
span,’ = bright, shining, new.
To sum up the principles which we have recently ascertained, I
would remind you that (s) bh initial is in sound equivalent to v
or f, the Greek digamma, and that dh initial sounds h; both bh
and dh between vowels are often quiescent, and may be dropped
at the beginning of words; (¢) b and m are cognate sounds ; (w)
syllables are added to words to form verbs, nouns, participles, de.;
thus, the I.-K. adds air for verbs and nouns, ain, an or inn, for
nouns, and adh, aidh, oidh, uidh, for participles ; in fact the
participle is a noun, and to it an additional syllable may be given
for word-building purposes.
VIII. Having now established the principles (a to w) on which
the changes in our root-syllable proceed, and their effect in word-
building, I will, in this paragraph, write down a list of the most
common cognates of the Latin verb jubere as found in various
languages, and I divide them into classes according to the
significations which Gesenius gives to the H. verb dabar. He
says that the primary power of this word is that of—
1. Setting in order, ranging in order.
Cf. E. order, regular arrangement, rule; I.-K. ordugh,
arrangement; earr, array; earr-adh, armour, clothing;
* The Latin noun radius (see page 357) is another illustration, for
it means both “a ray of light” and the spoke of a wheel.” ‘This helps
to show why the figure of a wheel was used in the old almanacs as a
symbol for the sun.
+ This explains the divergence of meaning among the derivatives of
the Gr. root-verb phao; for phao gives phemi, “I say,” but also
phaino, “I show,” and phaeinos, “shining.”
W—December 5, 1888.
354
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
sread (L. series), a row; C. rhes, a row, a rank; rhestr,
array, row, rank ; rhesu, to set in a row; L. sero, I knit;
Gr. eird, I fasten together in order ; P. rada, a ‘line, a row ;
Ar. rasm, arule, a custom ; 8. rathya, a ‘wheel ; rath,
to speak ; L. radius, a ray, a spoke.
. To lead, guide (flocks or herds) ; to guide; to rule, direct ;
to bring into order, subdue.
Cf. I.-K. riagh- ail, arule; iom- ain, a drove of cattle ; C.
rheol, rule, peer L. rex, aking, rego, I rule, regula, a=
rule; C. gwedd, order, shape : a yoke, a team.
. To follow (since the shepherd also follows the flock), to be
behind, to be last.
Cf. I.-K. deire, rear, end, conclusion ; deire-annach, last,
behind ; C. gwedi, wedi, after, later on; Gr. hepomai, I
follow; L. dorsum, the back; Ar. dubr, the back.
. To come behind, (and so) to lay snares, plot, destroy.
Cf. Ar. dabar, destruction; H. dabher, peste 8. radh,
to kill, destroy.
. To put words in order, to speak.
Cf. I.-K. labhair, abair, to speak, say, dhubairt, said ;
bruidh-inn, speech (cf. S. bri, to speak) ; raidh, to speak,
to say, to threaten; raidh, a rank, a speech, a threat ;
raidse, an idle talker; arsa (for radsa), he says;
labhairt, briathair, speech; ebirt (O’Clery), to tell ;
a saying, a word; S. tan abravit, he said to them ; Goth.
quithan, to say, ‘tell ; E. quoth, L. in-quit, he says; L for
(=fa-v-or), fari, to say, fab-ula, a story ; C. llafaru, to
speak ; llafar, voice, speech, utterance ; siar, an articulate
sound ; siarad, to speak, to talk or discourse; eb, ebu,
hebu, to say, to utter, to speak; ebe, says, quoth; medd,
says (Fr. mot, Gr.muthos); gwed, an utterance, a saying;
gweddi, supplication, prayer; gwedyd, to say, to speak ;
L. ser-mo, speech; Gr. eir6, Isay; epos, a word; eipein,
to say; Ger. reden, to say.
. (H. amar) To say in one’s self, to think.
Cf. C. bryd, the mind, thought; tyb, opinion, thought ;
ty bio, tybied, to think, suppose; L. ratus from reor, for
ra-dh-or (s), I think; A.-S. deman, to think ; E. deem; C.
meddwl, to think, intend, suppose.
. To speak often ; hence (a) to promise (like the G. zu-sagen);
ef. L-K. raidh, tabhair to promise ; (b) to command ; ef.
I.-K. orduigh, riaghlaigh, iarr to command; (c¢) to
admonish; cf. I.-K. earalaich, comh-airlich, to admonish;
C. ar char, a chiding, rebuking ; (d) to demand; cf. C. arch,
a request, a demand; archedig, that which is demanded,
gofynedig, asked, questioned, gofyn, to demand, ask,
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 355
desire ; (e) to guard, restrain; cf. 1.-K. arach, restraint,
authority ; ; C. are hado, to guard ; (£) to utter a song ; cf.
Pek va bliran; ra nn, Aen, duain, a song; duanog,
luanog, a sonnet, bandana a song; C. aac a song
of praise ; mockery (cf. dar); E. ke LOR, a musical instru-
ment; E. bard
8. To pronounce sentence, to condemn.
Cf. L.-K. breith, ajudge; barn, a judge, a battle; daor, to
sentence, doom; raidh, a judge, an appeal; C. barnu, to
judge; bar ia, judgment, a sentence ; brawdio, to pronounce
judgment ; defryd, a verdict, sentence ; dyfarnu, to
condemn. |
9. Hebrew derivatives trom dabar also mean—(a) a word ;
ef. L.-K: brathar, duan, briathair, a word; C. gair,
a word, geirda, a good report, fame, praise; geirfa, a
vocabulary ; geiriol, wordy, garrulous ; L. fama, report,
fame ; laus, praise; Ar. lufz, a word, speech ; H. dabhar,
a word; (b) discourse; cf. I.-K. labhairt, a talk; C.
siarad, talking, a talk; (c) a precept; cf. 1-K. reachd,
riaghail, a precept; C. arch, a request, demand; (d)
an edict; cf. L.-K. ordugh, reachd, an edict ; (e) counsel ;
ef. 1.-K. comh-airle, advice; sior, advice; (f) a rumour ;
cf. L-K. radh, iom-radh, a rumour; C. gair, a rumour ;
Ar.-P. khaber, news, intelligence; (g) (that which is
spoken), a thing, a thing done ; ple Kero bair, adhbhar,
gradh, rud, onl a thing . like the Norse, ding, a thing,
which originally meant a discour se 5 Ib SS) ch olaumee 5 (ln) a
cause, a reason ; cf. I.-K. meam- hair, brigh, adhbhar,
aobhar, a reason; tabhair, to reason ; L. ratio, a reason.
IX. I wish now to prove that the I.-K. forms dhubair, abair,
their and radh, used in conjugating the verb to speak, are, all
of them, modifications of the saine root from which these cognate
words come, and that root is gab or dab. And this is prima
Jucie possible, for such verbs are the current coin of every day life
and, like the numerals, the pronouns, the substantive verb and
some other verbs, are in constant use, and, by attrition, become
much corrupted and disguised because of the frequency and rapidity
of their utterance. To prove that (1) dhubair is a stem, I cite
from the list the words dhubairt, labhairt, tabhair,
llafar-u, daor and duan. Of these only two require explan-
ation; daor is for da-bh-air (m) and duan is for da-bh-ain (m).
I think that the 8. verb vad ‘“‘to speak, address,” (cf. Gr. aes -€0)
and, in its compounds, ‘‘to command, reprove, declare, play on
n instrument,” is only the root-form dabh (dav) transposed, for
while the S. says vad, a musical instrument, the P. says daf. I
_take dab, dabh, and not vad, to be the original form, for the
356 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
Hebrew, the Syriac, the Chaldee, the Arabic, and the Keltic all
agree in having d as the initial letter ; and dabar itself isa very
old word, for it occurs frequently in the oldest books of the
Hebrew Scriptures. Then (2) abair comes from dabair by
aspirating the d, which then becomes the breathing h and is lost
(s); thus we get eb, ebu (in composition hebu), epos, eipein,
hepomal, abhr-an, obair, aobhair. Corresponding to the
loss of the d here, a familiar example of a similar effect of
aspiration occurs in the Greek word deilé=eilé=helé= Ion.
aleé, which is connected with the I.-K. adjective deal, geal,
“bright” in its primary tense. Of the K. words which I have
now cited, obair issolike the L. oper-a, opus, that Ebel places
it among the words which the Latin has given to the Keltic. If
obair is a loan word, the Keltic is the lender, not the borrower,
for ab-air (w) is a legitimate formation in Keltic from the root
dab, ab. And soit has fared with other words which the Keltie,
although the original owner, is said to have borrowed. Again,
by dropping the initial a, we have bar-n, “‘a judge,” E. baron
of the Court of Exchequer, and, by metathesis and the addition
of a participial ending, we have, bru-idh-inn, brawdd, bryd,
breith, breath, brathar. And of these, if we take breith
‘“a judge” in its uncontracted participial form, ab-air-adh,.
“judging,” and to this add -air to denote the personal agent
(w), we have abrath-er and by metathesis the L. noun ar bit-er,
“a judge, an umpire.” ‘This I consider a more natural anda
more satisfactory derivation than that accepted by Curtius, Corssen,
Vanicek and others—from ar for ad “to” and ba for ga, “to go.”
And as arbiter, like jubere, is a purely Latin word, I maintain
that this derivation materially assists to establish the close
connection of the Latin with the Keltic. And further, if, to the
form bair, which exists in I.-K. in such words as bair-se-ach,
‘‘a scold,” bair-sich, “to scold,” (cf. H. dabar, ‘to admonish”)
I add the K. termination amh, I get baramh, “a word”—a
form which is found now only in the Irish adjective noun
baramh-ail “an opinion,” (cf. H. amar, “to think”). This
baramh would be sounded baruv or barv, and barv, by
merely transposing the aspirate from the end of the word to its
beginning, gives the L. verb-um, ‘a word.” Connected with
bar, barv is the E. word brawl], as to which our puzzled
etymologists say as usual that it is formed from the sound. By
adding the frequentative letter-syllable 1, barv becomes bar v-el
=brawl, ‘to talk munch,” hence “a noisy quarrel”; and from bar
by reduplication comes the Gr. bar-bar-izo, ‘to talk in a foreign
tongue,” of which, so far as I know, no derivation has yet been
offered. (3) Next as to the conjugation form radh, I observe
that the present participle of abair, if written in full, would be
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 357
abairadh, then abradh, bradh, and radh, and the last is the
existing form; although the other forms have disappeared by
attrition, yet from bradh comes the Aeolic Greek brétor, an
“orator,” while radh gives the G. reden “to speak,” which in A.-S.
retains the initial b, as in ge-bredan, “to charge,” up-ge-bredan,
“to cry out against,” E.upbraid. In the etymology of upbraid,
our English dictionaries can trace it no farther than to the Anglo-
- Saxon. Also to the form radh belongs the Gr. verb phrazo, “TI
tell, order, counsel,” Middle, ‘‘I speak with myself, think, suppose,”
through the K. participial form bh’radh; phraz-o would thus
mean ‘“speaking-I,” or rather, since the participle is really a sub-
stantive, ‘“speech-I.” And although in Homer phrazo means to
“show or signify,” that does not affect the derivation I offer, for
Gesenius says that the original meaning of the H. amar is to
“bear forth, to bring to hght”; cf. H. nagad “to show, tell,”
which means also to ‘‘ be manifest, clear.”
From radh come the K. words raidh, raidse, arsa, rud,
rad, and the L. rat-io, reor, rat-us, res, and probably rad-
ius in the sense of “setting in order,” (H. dabar). The I.-K.
ar-sa, for rad-sa, is used only when the words of the speaker are
quoted, like the E. quoth and the L. in-quit. In this respect
it is an exact parallel to the Hebrew amar. Again, from radh
comes the I.-K. noun radh-ainn (wz), and, by metathesis, we get
the L.-K. ord-uigh, the L. ordo, ordin-, and the Fr. ordonner,
corresponding with the E. order. Although radhainn means
now only “‘a saying, an expression,” yet if we have respect to the
primary meaning of dabar, viz., “to set in rows, to arrange in
order,” in that sense radhainn=radin=ardin=ordin would
be exactly the L. ordo, ordin-; besides that sense, ordonner,
and order also retain the meaning of dabar, ‘ to command.”
If I now revert to the root gab, to speak, I find that in the K.
languages f often represents an initial g, as, fear, gwr, a man;
so gab gives the L. fab-ula, and on the strength of the b in
_ fab-ula I say that the L. for is a contraction of fa-bh-or (m), and
-fat-us is fabh-te, a K. participial form. And (4) if we take
dhabh-air and pronounce it with the bh quiescent, we have
dha-air, which gives dheir, their and the Gr. eir6 (s), a word
that has caused etymologists so much perplexity. From their
come the K. deire, deireann-ach, andthe L.dorsum. As
cognates to the Gr. eird, the K. has earr; earradh, oire-
amh-n-uigh,* earralaich, comhair-lich.
The rest of the words in my list (on pp. 354-5) may be arranged
thus: from dabhair, tyb. tabor, defryd, dyfarnu, adhbhar;
* This is a good example of K. word-building; oire is the root, oire-
amh an adjective, oire-amh-ain a verb, and oire-amh-ain-uidh is
a participial noun.
358 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. .
from gabhair, gofyn, gwawd ; from abazir, ebirt (found in old
Irish MSS. by O’Clery), abravit, bru; from radh, radh,
radius, rada, rasm, rath, rathya, and rann for radhainn.
Bard is for abairadh, and brawdio is from bard; rheol is
for riaghail; arch is for argh (= ragh or radh); iomain is
for dham-ain, and dan for dabh-ain; laus is for labhadd ;
brigh is for abairaigh.
X. Having thus, as I think, proved that in I.-K. the conjuga-
tion forms in question, viz..dhubairt, abair, their and radh,
are simply corruptions and adaptations of the primitive root gab,
dab, I will now introduce some explanations of several of the
words given in the lists above, and some further proofs that the
Latin verb jubere is taken from a root that means to “speak,
to say.”
(1) The root gam, ‘‘to love,” already mentioned, is evidently
the same word as the L. amo; so our gam may become am, amh,
av; hence I consider it probable that the Gr. verb oiomai, “TI
think,” (as if aiv-omai), comes from am, especially as the H. verb
amar means not only “to say ” but also “ to say in one’s self, to
think,” and this is exactly the force of the Middle Voice in oio mai.
The L. aio, “I say,” also belongs here, although it is usually taken
from a root ag, asin L. ad-ag-ium. Again, if I affix to am the
C. participial form add, I have amadd, which is the C. medd,
“says,” and the C. verb meddwl,.‘‘to think, to suppose,” and
meddyd, “to say.” I also take the A.S. deman, ‘to think, to
suppose,” E. ‘to deem,” from our root gam, dam, as well as
the E. damn, “to sentence,” doom, “sentence, judgment ”—a
derivation which shows their connection with the eighth meaning
of dabar, as we see it in the L.-K. breith “a judge,” daor, “a
sentence.” Our dictionaries derive the E.damn from damage,
but, in A.-S. Scotch, dem-ster is the ‘‘ hangman,” who executes
‘“‘sentence ”; so also, the .-K. riagh is a “gallows,” riaghair,
“a hangman,” and riadh-lann is a “ house of correction.” Here
we observe the interchange of dh and gh, so common in the K.
dialects, dh being the earlier participial form. From riadh-lann
I infer that riadh originally meant ‘punishment, correction,”
although its meaning now is ‘interest, rent, hire” (cf. L. ratio).
From riagh for riadh the I.-K. has reach-d, ‘“astatute, a law,
command, authority,” and its derivatives, some of which, as
reach-dair, “a ruler” (L. rector), look surprisingly like loan-
words, but are in reality formed in a regular manner from a root
that is native to the K. language. And since riagh and riadh
(=raidh, radh) are the same word, then riagh-ail which
means ‘to set in order” (the original sense of the root dabar),
“to govern, to rule,” is a genuine K. word, and so is riagh, righ,
“a king”; although these words are so like the L. rex, regula,
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 359
and rego. Rego originally means ‘‘I set in order,” as in rectus,
“straight ”; and so the L. rex is he who “sets in order, corrects,
chastises, dooms, commands, rules, governs.” The Oscan ruler-
name MEDDIX has a similar signification, for, in my opinion, it
belongs to the I.-K. verb smachdaich “to correct, chastise,
rule, govern,” smachd “ correction, rule, the authority of master
over a pupil, reproof.”. That smachd and riadh are synonyms
is apparent from the fact that the I.-K. smachd-lann and
riadh-lann are both used to mean “a house of correction.” I
form MEDDIX from smachdaich by adding the Etruscan personal
formative th which in L. becomes s, as Etruscan Lar-th=L.
Lars; thus smachdaichth=smachdaix=meddix. And
the I.-K. smachd isa very old word, for it is the H. macha,
“to smite, strike,” hence “to hinder, restrain,” and this reminds
us that, on the testimony of Herodotus, the Persian regal title,
Darius, means the ‘“restrainer”; with this compare the 8.
vinetri, ‘ruler, a chastiser, a teacher.” The initial sibilant in
smachd is nothing unusual, for a similar H. verb machah, “to
wipe,” is in Greek s-mécho. Philology tells us that the modern
notions about the duties of a king are of a milder kind, for king
is said to mean etymologically either the “ father” of his people,
or the ‘‘kenning, knowing, able” man. Noris MED D1x the only
Osean name which may havea K. origin, for the epithet tuticus,
applied by the Oscans to one of their supreme magistrates, may
be from the K. tuath meaning “the common people,” while
deketasius applied to the other, as on the Cippus Abellanus,
seems to me to be the I.-K. taighadh, ‘protecting, covering,”
from the same root as K. taigh-earna, ‘‘a lord,” and the L. teg-o;
in the same way as the L. patronus, patricius imply the duty
of patronage and protection. Thus the meddix tuticus and
the meddix deketasius will correspond with the Roman
tribunus plebis and the tribunus celerum, the one
representing the common people and the other the patricians.
(2) From our root gab, I form a participial noun gabh-adh
or gabh-aid, and a verb gabh-aid, which are. legitimate forms
although they are now lost; but from them come numerous C.
words which show many of the meanings of the H. dabar; thus,
C. gwed, “asaying,” gwedi, “after” (cf. 1.-K. deire, Gr. epi
and hepomai), gwedyn, ‘‘afterwards,” g wed wr, “a speaker,”
gwedyo, “to say, speak,” gwedd, “order, shape, fashion ” (cf.
L. ratio), gweddi, “prayer, supplication,” gweddu, ‘to
render orderly, yoke, wed,” gwawd, ‘a panegyric,” gwawdeu,
“to jeer” (cf. KE. gibe), and, with d for g, dywed, dy weyd,
“to say, speak.” The C.dywed, gwed, “to say,” brings us to
the Gothic quith-an, “to say, tell,” whence the E. quoth,
“saith” (used, like the H. amar, only when the speaker’s words
360 THE LATIN VERB JUBERE.
are quoted), and the L. in-quit. The supposed noun gabhadh,
from which all these words come, if pronounced as usual with the
bh quiescent, would give a form ge-ad, whence the I.-K. cead-
ach, ‘‘talkative,” and cead-al, ‘a story,” but, if it is written in
a C. form, g’vadd, it gives C. gwed and the other words quoted.
(3) Of the words which I tabulated under the meanings of the
H. dabar, there remain to be considered only the Gr. eiro, “I
fasten,” L. sero, series, sermo, I.-K. sread, siarad, C.
rhes, rhestr. As to their derivation from our root gab, dab,
I cannot give any decided opinion, although two of them in the
sense of “discourse,” sermo and siarad, point to a connection
with the verb “to say.” The I.-K. conjugation form their (=
seir) would easily give the Gr. eiro and the L. sero, as well as
the I.-K. sread, and siarad, while the C. rhes may be for
s-res from the same root ; yet there is in H. another verb, quite
different from dabar, viz. shor (for sharar) “ toarrange, put
in order, and as sharar may have an equivalent in Aryan
somewhere, it is probable that the Gr. eiro, “I fasten” and the
L. sero, ‘‘I knit,” are not from the same root as eiro, “I say,”
and sermo, ‘‘speech.” Indeed as the H. sharar or zarar
has the other meanings of ‘ to twist, twine, press, oppress, bind ©
together, shut up, distress,” we should rather say that, through
some Aryan corresponding root, it connects itself with the Gr.
seira, “arope, eiro, “I fasten, I bind,” heirgo, eee
shut in, confine,” and the L. sero “I knit,” with all their cognates.
But the L. sero, “I sow, I plant,” must be connected with dabar,
for serere arbores means to set or plant trees ‘in rows.”
XI. I now conclude with one final proof that my view of the
etymology of the Latin verb jubere is correct, and I find that
proof in the Latin noun Imperator. It is obvious from the
meaning and use of the Latin official term dictator, which
is taken from dicere, ‘to say,” that one invested with the very
highest power in the State may have a title drawn from the fact
that he can “say” with force that a thing shall be done. Now
Imperator is known to be a corruption of an older word
induperator and, if we strike off from this the personal suffix
ator, we have induper as the stem, and this to my eye is no
more than the I.-K. intensive particle ain and the verb dubair,
dhubair, dabar, which we have been considering.
XI. A few reflections may be drawn from this discussion.
(1) If the analogies which I have traced and the arguments
which I have advanced be, on the whole, correct, then the Hebrew
as a Shemitic tongue has a much more intimate connection with
the Aryan family than many philologists are disposed to acknow-
THE LATIN VERB JUBERE. 361
ledge, and the link of connection between the two families is most
easily traced through the Keltic.
(2) Elementary monosyllabic roots, denoting the primitive ideas
in human speech, are capable of receiving and from frequent use
are likely to undergo numerous changes of form and application ;
and so, although some maintain the contrary, the earliest root
words of the undivided language of mankind may have been
comparatively few in number.
(3) As the original seats of the human race were mountain
regions and elevated tablelands, it is probable that the earliest
speech was in harmony with the physical experiences of the people,
and consisted largely of hard and even harsh consonant sounds.
The Hebrew and the Keltic still retain these features, and in my
opinion are specially worthy of the attention of philologists, while
the Sanskrit and the Greek exhibit the softening influence of
climate and separation from the parent language.
(4) The Kelts, having been the first, probably, of the Aryan
races to occupy the south and west of Kurope, may have left a
considerable portion of their own population and of their own
language in those localities where they dwelt, and there we may
reasonably expect to find traces of their influence. The fashion
at present supreme among philologists, that of referring everything
in Latin and Greek to Sanskrit as the only umpire, seems to be
both unwise and fallacious. The plea that Sanskrit possesses
written records of great age is equally cogent in favour of Hebrew,
and if any Keltic words can be shown to have an identity with
the Hebrew, this should be taken as establishing the antiquity of
these words, in the absence of an ancient Keltic literature.
(5) The important part which the digamma plays, in the
etymology of Greek words, may lead us to admit that many words
may have come from the Keltic into the classic languages through
the suppression of the sound of bh, which, in fact, in modern
Keltic is often quiescent, as in Hebrew.
(6) If jubere and many other words essential to the Latin
language are purely Keltic, if Oscan titles of offices are Keltic,
surely the influence of the Kelts on the early destinies of Italy
deserves larger consideration at the hands of our Roman historians
than it has received.
362 NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES MINERALS.
NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES MINERALS.
(Note No. 5.)
By A. LiversipeGr, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., December 5, 1888. ]
The following notes were illustrated by specimens of the
minerals mentioned.
ANTIMONY.
Native antimony occurs in calcite with gold, blende, mispickel,
d&c., at the New Reform Gold Mine, Lucknow. (See Gold p. 364.)
BaRKLYITE = Al,O;.
The opaque more or less magenta coloured variety of ruby
known as barklyite, has been sent me for identification by Mr. D.
A. Porter, from New England. This had previously been found
at Two Mile Flat, Cudgegong.
CASSITERITE or TIN SToNE=SnQ,.
A very finely divided tinstone occurs in elvan at Bellandean,
Tenterfield, and might easily be overlooked by miners who are
only used to the ordinary appearance of tinstone as it occurs in
New South Wales, since this form from its grey colour and finely
divided condition is liable to escape recognition.
Associated with it are occasional scales of glistening pearly
white gilbertite mica.
CoBALTINE.
The sulpharsenide of cobalt CoAs., CoS, found with erythrite
at Carcoar, in massive lumps, with a granular structure.
CoVvELLINE oR INDIGO Copper—Copper sulphide = Cus. -
This mineral occurs with redruthite, the copper sub-sulphide
Cu. and other sulphur ores of copper at Cobar and other copper
mines in New South Wales.
ERYTHRITE OR CoBaLt Boom.
Hydrated arseniate of cobalt obtained by Mr. J. A. McKillop,
near Carcoar, where it occurs in association with cobaltine,
molybdenite &c. The erythrite is present in groups of silky
radiating acicular crystals of a beautiful peach colour. Also in
globuJar and uniform masses, and in incrustations, which present
a remarkable pearly pink lustre on the freshly fractured surfaces.
NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES MINERALS. 363
It is clearly an oxidation product of the colbaltine which
accompanies it.
GaHNITE—Zinc spinel=Zn Al,O,.
The lavendar coloured specimen was sent me for identification
ten or twelve years ago, but without locality.
Mr. D. A. Porter also sent me a specimen of this mineral from
near Tenterfield for identification in 1885, and another from
Tingha in 1887, so that the mineral probably occurs in several
localities.
GARNETS.
From the New England District, on the borders of Queensland,
these are the ordinary red garnets (iron-alumina garnet), but like
those found in Queensland have been mistaken for rubies.
The Bohemian garnet, magnesia alumina garnet, is said to occur
in large quantities near Maryland Creek, Co. Builer.
GRAPHITE.
From Undercliff Station, Wilson’s Downfall, New England,
obtained by Mr. Wooler.
The nodules of this graphite look of very good quality when
rubbed and polished, but on breaking them open they are seen to
contain a good deal of earthy matter; one nodule examined for
me by Dr. G. 8. Mackenzie in the University Chemical Laboratory,
was found to contain only 30 per cent. of carbon. Hence for
most commercial purposes the graphite would require purifying
before it could be used. Associated with the graphite are rolled
pebbles of quartz and rock crystal.
GoLb.
Amongst the specimens forming the subject of these notes and
placed before you on the table is a specimen of gold in calcite,
obtained from the New Reform Gold Mine, Lucknow and sent to
me by Mr. Newman as an unusual specimen.
The gold is very pale in colour and of a greenish tint, and
occurs in the form of very thin films and strings, which follow the
cracks in the calcite and junctions of the crystals rather than the
cleavage planes of the crystals. The calcite cleaves well, is white,
but shows iron stains in parts.
There are also two specimens of auriferous quartz from the
celebrated early find of Gold in Louisa Creek, Turon River,
obtained on the spot in 1851 by Mr. J. Alger, to whom I am
indebted for the specimens. The quartz is ordinary white vein
quartz with ferruginous stains and cavities apparently left by the
removal of iron pyrites.
364 NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES MINERALS.
GoLpD AND Native ANTIMONY.
From the same mine, the New Reform Lucknow, specimens are
shown of gold in calcite as the vein stuff and in association with
native antimony, mispickel, zine blende, pyrites, and silver-bearing
galena.
The vein apparently runs through diorite and serpentine—some
of the serpentine is of the foliated varieties known as marmolite,
and in places a little asbestos is present, especially at the deeper
levels. The native antimony is present in places in considerable
quantity, and came in at about 350 feet.
MARMOLITE.
This foliated variety of serpentine occurs with massive serpentine
on Jones’ Creek, Gundagai.
MotyspEeNnitE— Molybdenum sulphide = Mos,.
Found with cobaltine and erythrite at Carcoar in fairly well
developed platy crystals.
PLATINUM, OsMiuM, AND IRIDIUM.
The small specimen of platinum associated with gold was found
on the head waters of the Bogan and Lachlan rivers, N.E. of
Condobolin.
I am informed by Mr. Harding of Grafton, that gold, platinum,
and osmi-iridium occur in the sea sands at Jamba, Clarence Heads,
and generally in the north ends of the bays and reaches along the
New South Wales coast. The ‘ platinum” consists principally
of osmium and iridium and contains only about 307 of platinum,
hence it is only worth a few shillings an ounce.
PREHNITE.
This zeolite has been found in the basalt at the Prospect reservoir.
Some imperfect and small crystals were also sent to me by Mr. D. A.
Porter for identification, who had obtained them from serpentine
in New England in 1887.
The sp. grs. of two specimens from New England were 2°89 and
BOO,
SIDERITE = FeCO,.
Some fairly good crystals of this mineral have been found at
the Cobar Copper Mines.
PyrrHorinE— Magnetic pyrites.
The Revd. J. Milne Curran reports the presence of this mineral
at Cobar in the massive condition.
NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES MINERALS. 365
SILVER.
Leaf silver on schist from Sunny Corner.
Crystallized silver on silver chloride from Lewis Ponds.
The Revd. J. Milne Curran informs me that he has found silver
in scales on redruthite at the Cobar Copper Mine.
SILvER CuLoRIDE= AgCl.
From Silverton, fairly well formed branching groups of crystals.
All the New South Wales silver chloride specimens which I
have examined so far, contain iodine, some only traces, but others
a fair percentage.
STANNITE, TIN PyRITEs.
Mr. Theodore Ranft informs me that he found this mineral in
the Ottery Lode, Tent Hill, New Engiand.
TELLURATE OF BISMUTH—MONTANITE.,
The specimens were presented to me by Mr. R. Atkinson Price
of Market Street, and obtained from Captain’s Flat; the first
specimens which came under my notice were I believe from the
same place, and were shown to me for identification by Mr. C. 8.
Wilkinson, F.G.8., early in June last, they have since been
described by Mr. Mingaye, before the Chemical Section of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 1.,
1888. It is reddish-brown, with dirty orange coloured mineral,
soft, and very like certain stalactitic brown hematite, waxy
centre, soft and brittle. Associated with it is tetradymite (a
telluride of bismuth) and tellurium ochre.
TOPAZ.
Water worn crystals and fragments from Scrubby Gully, New
England District. Some are of fair size, clear, free from flaws,
and would cut very well.
EXHIBIT.
CALIFORNIAN BatTeA, oR GoLD Prospecting DisuH. — The
Californian batea is a wooden dish for gold prospecting ; this is
much more convenient and useful than the ordinary gold prospect-
ing tin dish, and is generally used in America in preference. It
is conical in section, and all the gold and heavy minerals can
readily be collected in the apex of the conical cavity, and the gold
if necessary taken up by a few drops of mercury. The grains of
366 PROCEEDINGS.
the wood also assists in separating the gold, since it gets rubbed
up in working and then acts somewhat in the same way as the
blanket used in gold washing. In size it is about 20 inches
diameter and 24 inches deep, and being provided with a thick rim
it is more convenient and less fatiguing to hold, further it does
not readily break nor get knocked out of shape like the ordinary
tin dish. It is now some years since examples of this dish were
obtained, at my suggestion, from San Francisco for the University
Collection and Technological Museum, and my reason for bringing
it under your notice is that when in San Francisco in 1887, on
making inquiries as to its use, | was informed that no other dish
is now employed in California—in fact it is in general use in
America. Ifthe batea were known and procurable here, I have no
doubt its advantages would be appreciated by Australian miners.
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 5, 1888.
Sir ALFRED Roperts, President in the Chair.
Twenty members were present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of five new candidates were read for the third
time, of two for the second time, and of two for the first time.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society :— |
Barling, Joseph, Under Secretary for Public Works, Sydney.
Fitzhardinge, Grantley Hyde, Balmain.
Marden, John, M.A., LL.B., Melbne., Ashfield.
Smeaton, Rev. W. H. O., Rockhampton, Queensland.
White, The Hon. R. Hi. D., MLC, Sydney.
The Chairman stated that the Council recommended the election
of the following gentlemen as Honorary Members of the Society
Viz. :-—
Ralph Tate, F.G.8S., F.L.8., Professor of Natural Science,
Adelaide University.
Capt. Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.G.8S., Professor of
Geology, Canterbury College, Christchurch, New Zealand.
The election was carried unanimously.
PROCEEDINGS. 367
The Chairman announced that the Clarke Medal for 1889 had
been awarded by the Council to R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., &.,
Government Astronomer of Victoria, accompanied by the following
letter :—
The Royal Society of New South Wales,
Sydney, 28th November, 1888.
To R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., F.R.S., &e.
Government Astronomer of Victoria, Melbourne.
My dear Sir,—I have the pleasure to forward to you by post, the
Clarke Memorial Medal which has been awarded to you by the Council of
the Royal Society of New South Wales, in recognition of your long
continued Scientific labours, and more particulary on account of your
invaluable contributions to the Astronomy and Meteorology of the
Southern Hemisphere.
The Council trust that you will accept the medal asa mark also of the
appreciation which is entertained for your distinguished services to the
cause of Science generally.
I am, my dear Sir,
Yours very truly,
A. LIVERSIDGE, Hon. Secretary.
It was resolved that Messrs. H. O. Walker and P. N. Trebeck
be appointed Auditors for the present year:
A paper was read on “The Latin verb Jubere—a Linguistic
Study,” by John Fraser, B.A., LL.D., (Zdin.)
Professor Liversidge exhibited a large collection of New South
Wales Minerals.
A series of photographs of unusually large trees growing near
Sydney, taken by Dr. H.G. A. Wright and presented by him to
the Society, were also exhibited.
The thanks of the Society were accorded to the several gentlemen
for the valuable paper and exhibits.
The following donations were laid upon the ele and
acknowledged :—
Dorations RECEIVED DURING THE Montu or Novemser, 1888,
(The Names of the Donors are in Italics.)
TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c.
ADELAIDE—Public Library, Museum, and Ait Gallery of
South Australia. Report of the Board of Governors
for 1887-8. The Board.
AREzz0— Regia Accademia Petrarca di Scienze, Lettere ed
Arti. Statuti. — The Academy.
Berne— Département Fédéral de V’Intérieur. Section des
Travaux Publics. Tableau graphique des observa-
tions hydrometriques suisses. Pl. 1, la, 1b, 2, 2a,
2b, 3, 4, 5,6; 1887. Graphische Darstellung der
Schweizerischen hydrometrischen Beobachtungen.
Bl. la, 1b, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3, 4, 5a, 5b, 6. The Department.
368 PROCEEDINGS.
Bonn—Naturhistorischer Vereine der Preussischen Rhein-
lande, Westfslens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick.
Verhandlungen. Jahrgang xliii.,5 Folge, iii. Band
Halfte 2; Jahrgang xliv., 5 Folge,iv. Band Hilfte
1 and 2. The Society.
BrisBANE—Queensland Museum. Annual Report of the
Trustees for 1887. The Trustees.
Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. iv.,
1887; Vol. v., Part 3, 1888. The Society.
Bristot—Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings, New
Series, Vol. v., Part 3, (1887-8). Report &c. for the
Year ending 30 April, 1888.
CAMBORNE—Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall.
Transactions, Vol. i1., Part 1, 1887. The Eighth
+>
Mining Exhibition at Camborne, 1888. The Institute.
CuristTianra—Videnskabs-Selskabet. Forhandlinger, Aar
1887. The Society.
DrespEN—K. Sachsische Statistische Bureau des Minister-
iums des Innern. Zeitschrift, Zweites Supplement-
heft zum xxxii., Jahrgang 1886. The Bureau.
Dusitin—Royal Dublin Society. Scientific Proceedings
(N.S.) Vol. v., Parts 7 and 8, 1887; Vol. vi., Parts
1 and 2, 1888. Scientific Transactions (Series ii.)
Vol. iii., No. 14, 1887; Vol. IV., No. 1, 1888. The Society.
Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Journal, Vol. xvii.
(New Series). Vol. vii., Part 2, 1885-87.
EpinBpurGH—Royal Scottish Geographical Society. ‘“ The
Scottish Geographical Mayazine,”’ Vol. iv., Nos. 9and
3)
10, 1888. 2
FLORENCE—Societa Africana d’ Italia. Bullettino, Vol. iv.,
Fasc. 6, 1888. 55
HamBure—Geographische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen,
Heft i 1837-88. sy)
Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. Meteorolo-
' gische Zeitschrift, October 1888. ss
JENA—Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Bd.
xxil. N.F., Bd. xv. Heft. 1 and 2. 5s
Litte—Société Géologique du Nord. Annales, xiv., 1886-7. is)
Lincotn, (Nebraska)— University of Nebraska. University
Studies, Vol. i., No. 1, July 1888. The University.
Lonpon—Institution of Naval Architects. Transactions,
Vol. xxix., 1888. Papers read at the Thirtieth
Session, July 1888, viz. :—‘‘ Copper Steam Pipes for
Modern High Pressure Engines,’ by W. Parker.
“On the Comparative Merits of Deep Keel and
Centre-Board Yachts for Racing Purposes,” by B.
Martell. ‘On the Course of Instruction in Naval
Architecture at Glasgow University,” by Professor
P. Jenkins. ‘On the Possible Effect of High Ex-
plosives on Future Designs for War-Ships,” by
PROCEEDINGS. 369
Lonpon—(cont.)
Capt. C. C. P. FitzGerald, R.N. “Steam Trials of
the R. Italian Ironclad ‘ Lepanto,’” by Major
Nabor Soliani. ‘The First Century of the Marine
Engine,” by Professor Henry Dyer, C.H., M.A.
<«“The River Clyde,” by James Deas, C.E. The Institution.
Linnean Society. Journal, Zoology, Vol. xx., No. 120.
1888. The Society.
Meteorological Office. Synchronous Weather Charts of
the North Atlantic Ocean. Official No. 71. Part
iv., 25 May to 3 Sept. 1883. The Meteorological Office.
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Journal and
Transactions, (Third Series), Vol. xix., Parts 218
and 219, 1888. The Society.
Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings, New Monthly
Series, Vol. x., Nos. 9 and 10, 1888. i,
Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 178,
Parts a. and B., 1887. Proceedings, Vols. 42 and
43, and Vol. 44, Nos. 266—270, 1887—88. List of
Fellows, Nov. 30, 1887. The Eruption of Krakatoa
and Subsequent Phenomena. ae
Zoological Society. Proceedings of the Scientific Meet-
ings, Part 2., 1888. ee
MeLsourne—Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist, Vol. v., No. 7, Nov. 1888. The Club.
Mzxico—Observatorio Meteorol6gico-Magnético Central de
Mexico. Boletin Mensual, Tomo i. Supplemento
al Num 4, 6, and 7, 1888. The Observatory.
Sociedad Cientifica *‘ Antonio Alzate.’”’? Memorias, Tomo
li., Cuaderno Num 2, August, 1888. The Society.
Monte Vipro—Observatorio Meteoroldégico del Colegio Pio
de Villa Colon. Boletin Mensual, Ano i., Nos. 1
and 2, 1888. The Observatory.
MutnHovse—Société Industrielle. Bulletin, July and
August, 1888. The Society.
Napies—Societa Reale di Napoli. Atti della R. Accademia
delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche, Serie Seconda
Vols. 1 and 2, 1888. Rendiconto, Serie 2a, Vol. i.,
1887. »
Stazione Zoologica. Mittheilungen, Band viii., Heft
2, 1888. The Station.
Naw Yorx—American Geographical Society. Bulletin,
Vol. xx., No. 3, Sept. 30, 1888. The Society.
The Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery, Vol. ix.,
No. 4, October, 1888. The Editor.
Science. Vol. xii., Nos. 2983—297, 1888.
Paris—Académie de Sciences de |’ Institut de France.
Comptes Rendus, Tome 107, Nos. 13 to 16, 1888. The Institute.
Société Academique Indo-Chinoise de France. Bulletin
Deuxieme Série, Tome 2, 1882-1883. The Academy.
X—December a 1888.
3)
370 PROCEEDINGS.
Paris—Société Astronomique de France. Statuts. The Society.
Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, (3e Série)
Tome xi., Fasc 1 and 2, 1888. 3
Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires,
8e Série, Tome v., Nos. 29-30, 1888. ve
Société de Géographie. Bulletin, 7e Serie, Tome ix., —
Trimestre 1 and 2, 1888. ny,
Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, 3e Série,
Tome xvi., No. 5, 1888. ee
Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xi.,
No. 6, 1888. .
Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome xiii.,
No. 7, 1888. Mémoires, Tome i., Part 2, 1888. bes
PHILADELPHIA—American Philosophical Society. Scientific
Value of Volapiik. si
Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. exxvi., No. 754, Oct.
1888. The Institute.
Rome—R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia. Bollettino, Vol.
xvlil., Fascicolo di Supplimento 1887, viz. I] Terre-
moto del 1887 in Liguria. Appunti di Arturo
Issel. The Committee.
Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Serie iii., Vol.
1., Fasc. 9, 1888. The Soeiety.
St. Errenne—Société de l’Industrie Minerale. Comptes
Rendus Mensuels, August 1888. a
StuTtTeart.—K. Statistischen Landesamt. Wiirttembergische
Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde. I
Band 8 Heft 1887, and II. Hilfte 1887, viz :—Wiirt-
tembergische Vierteljahrshefte ftir Landesges-
chichte 1887, Nos. i., ll., ill., iv. The *‘Landesamt.”
Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie
Jahresbericht v.-vi., (1886-88). The Society.
Virnna—K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. VWerhandlungen,
No. 12, 1888. “ The Reichsanstalt.””
WasHineton—Hydrographic Office. Notices to Mariners,
Nos. 29—387, 21 July to 15 Sept. 1888. Pilot Charts,
of the North Atlantic Ocean, Aug. and Supplement
and Sept., 1888. Chart No. 94, South Pacific Ocean
—Samoan Group—Fangaloa Bay (Island of Upolu).
The U.S. Hydrographer.
Wetuineton, N. Z.—New Zealand Geological Survey.
Bulletin, No. 1, 1888. The Director.
Yorouama—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol.
xvi., Part 2, 1888. The Society.
MIscELLANEOUS.
(Names of Donors are in Italics.)
Bennett, E. J.—A few Thoughts on Natural Phenomena,
Heat, Light, Electricity, Atmospheric Disturbances,
Barometer, &c. J. P. Thomson.
PROCEEDINGS. Bal
Burge, Charles Ormsby, M. Inst. C.E.—Graphic Analysis
apphed to Structures under Anistathmic Stresses. The Author.
Cameron, A. M.—Light Phenomena of the Atmosphere. 55
Jack, Robert L., F.G.S.—Report on the Geological Features
of the Mackay District.
Microscopical Bulletin and Science News. August, 1888.
Microscope Catalogue. (Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.) W.H.H. Lane.
Newton, H. A.—Upon the relation which the former Orbits
of those Meteorites that are in our collections, and
that were seen to fall, had to the Earth’s Orbit. The Author.
Tebbutt, John, F.R.A.S.—History and Description of Mr.
Tebbutt’s Observatory, Windsor, New South Wales. iy,
The Victorian Engineer, Vol. ii1., Nos. 4 & 5, 1888. The Publisher.
Thomas, A. P. W., M.A., F.L.8.—Report on the Eruption
of Tarawera and Rotomahana, New Zealand. The Author.
Triibner’s American, European, and Oriental Literary Record.
No. 239, N.S. Vol. ix., No. 3, 1888. The Publishers.
Varieny, C. de.—Sur la destruction des lapins en Australie
et dans la Nouvelle-Zélande, (and Translation).
Russell, .H. C., B.A., F.R.S.—Two Photographs of Flashes
of Lightning, taken 26 October, 1888.
Wiesener, T. F.—One 23 inch Objective. (First object
glass for the Microscope made in Sydney.)
Wright, H. G. A., M.R.C.S.E.—Five Photographs of Large
Trees :—Bulli Pass; Lane Cove Road (Two views);
North Willoughby (Two views).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS
(IN ABSTRACT.)
MEDICAL SECTION.
The preliminary meeting for the election of officers was held
April 13th, 1888, and the result of the ballot was as follows :—
‘Chairman: Dr. 8. T. Knaaes. Secretaries: A. MacCormick,
M.D., Epwo. J. Jenxins, M.D. Committee: Drs. W. CHISHOLM,
Craco, FarrFax Ross, SypNeY Jones, Hankins, and Goope.
312 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.
Seven general meetings were held during the session, and the
attendance was above the usual average.
Papers were read by—
Dr. MacCormick on “ Excision of the Thyroid.”
Dr. Goope, on “two cases of fracture of the skull-trephining ;
Recovery.”
Dr. WorRALL, on “ Induction of Labour.”
Dr. Roru, on “ Rational Infant’s Clothing.”
Dr. JENKINS, on “ Splenic Leucocythaemia.”
Dr. GrauaM, on “ Exophthalmic goitre.”
Dr. FarrHrut, on “The treatment of Migraine.”
Dr. MacCormick, on “ The Radical Cure of Hernia.”
Dr. JENKINS, on ‘ Intrathoracic Tumours.”
Dr. SHEWIN, on cases of ‘‘ Gangrene and abscess of the Lung.”
A special evening was set apart for the discussion of the recent.
treatment of Typhoid Fever. The subject was opened by Dr.
JENKINS, and a paper was read also by Dr. CarrutTuers on “ The
Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever.” The discussion was continued by
Sir ALFRED Roperts, Drs. Farrrax Ross, Kyaaes, Crago,
McCuttocu, Murray Oram, and Dr. MacLaurin.
The following exhibits were made :—
Dr. WorraLtt—Two fibroid tumours of the uterus, and a.
degenerated ovum.
Dr. Goopre—A patient from whom he had removed the whole
of the left necrosed tibia, and new bone had been formed
from the periosteum which had been left.
Dr. MacCormick—A patient with ununited fracture of the
left humerus.
Dr. JeNKins—A patient with “aortic regurgitation, Aneurism
of the arch of the aorta and obliteration of the left
carotid artery.”
Dr. Rotu—A “scoliometer.”
Dr. Quairz, Jun.—A nasal polypus and laryngeal growth.
Dr. Fatrrax Ross—‘“A_ patient for diagnosis,” with
exophthalmia of the left eye and no loss of vision or
anything definite to account for peculiar symptoms.
Dr. GranamM—-A man with “ Exophthalmic goitre.”
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 373°
Dr. JENKInS—A heart showing aneurism of arch of aorta,
and obliteration of the lumen of left carotid artery.
A. MACCORMICK, M.D. Ig uae
E. J. JENKINS, M.D. sss ecretarles.
S. T. KNAGGS, M.D., Chairman.
MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.
A preliminary meeting of this Section was held on April 8th.
1888 ; Mr. G. D. Hirsr occupied the Chair. Mr. F. B. Kynepon
was re-elected as Chairman for the present year; Mr. Percy J.
EDMUNDS as Secretary ; and Dr. H. G. A. Wrtcut, Dr. Morris,
Mr. 8. MacDonnett, and Mr. H. O. Waker were elected
members of the Committee.
‘Monthly Meeting held MAY 14th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynapon in the Chair.
Dr. Wricut exhibited some very excellent micro-photographs
of various objects (diatoms, podura-scales, tongues of insects Wc.)
taken with Zeiss’s | inch, Tolles’ 3';th and Zeiss’ Ss apochromatic
szth, some by means of lamplight, others by the incandescent
electric light.
Dr. Waicut also exhibited a monocular microscope by H. Leitz
of Wetzlow. The ;sth oil-immersion lens belonging to it was
tested with success on slides of Vavicula angulatum and Amph.
pellucida.
Mr. Pepiey exhibited an indurated tumour from a pig’s cheek.
Monthly Meeting held JUNE 11th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynapon in the Chair.
Dr. Wricut exhibited some micro-photographs similar to those
shown at last meeting.
Mr. MacDonneti exhibited two species of Caprelle with
numerous diatoms firmly attached.
Dr. Stycratr exhibited a new model of microscope by Zeiss with
Abbe’s condenser.
Mr. Epmunps exhibited the original immersion paraboloid
invented by Dr. James Edmunds, of London. Also several forms
of micrometer and other eye-pieces.
a1A PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.
Monthly Meeting held JULY 9th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynepon in the Chair.
On the suggestion of Mr. G. D. Hirst, it was decided that
application should be made to the Council to purchase a low-power
objective of two or three inches focus.
Mr. Prpiey exhibited some photographs of Plewrosigma
formosum which seemed by their appearance at the broken edges
to support the ‘“‘ bead” theory.
Dr. Wricur presented about twenty copies of the micro-
photographs lately taken by him.
Mr. MacDonnett exhibited the larva of the fresh-water Marsh”
fly encrusted with short-stemmed living Vorticelle. This object
was illuminated with the parabolic illuminator.
Mr. WuiIrELEGGE exhibited slides showing a species of coral
(Clavulina ),a Zoophyte (Sarsia) and an embryo star-fish (Asterina
exigua), all obtained from the waters of Port Jackson.
The Rev. Rosperr Coie exhibited three specimens of moss
mounted in balsam, and obtained from Mossman’s Bay.
Monthly Meeting held AUGUST 13th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynepon in the Chair.
Mr. WatkeER showed some living specimens of Rotatoria
(Lacinularia socialis) obtained from Parramatta River.
Mr. MacDonne tt exhibited specimens of the “‘ brick-building ”
Rotifer, Welicerta ringens, in full activity.
Mr, WHITELEGGE exhibited Gorgona spicules (Mopsella coccinea )
found at Watson’s Bay.
Dr. Wericut exhibited some micro-photographs showing
enlargements of 5500 diameters.
Mr. Hurst exhibited a species of Vorticella.
Mr. Epmunps exhibited some foraminifera illuminated by the
immersion paraboloid.
Monthly Meeting held SEPTEMBER 3rd, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynepon in the Chair.
Mr. Tryon, from Queensland, furnished some _ interesting
information concerning investigations lately carried on by him
relative to the recently discovered parasite harboured in rat’s-blood.
It was found to be a monad with definite nucleus and limiting
membrane. It was probably identical with the parasite supposed
md
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 375
to cause the disease known in India as “Surrah” in horses and
cattle, and perhaps also with that causing malarial fever in man.
Mr. MacDowne tt exhibited some of Mr. Sharp’s (of Adelong)
beautiful entomological slides.
Mr. WHITELEGGE exhibited the calcareous wheel-plates of
Chirodota and several other Rotifer slides, these organisms being
killed with their corone fully extended.
Mr. Epmunps exhibited a small Nachet microscope.
Monthly Meeting held OCTOBER 15th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. Kynepon in the Chair.
Mr. WIESENER exhibited five new models of microscopes made
by Anderson of London. Also a 24 inch objective made in his
establishment, (being the first objective made in the colony,) and
which he presented to-the Society.
Mr. MacDonneE.t read a communication from Mr. E. Bostock
of Stone, England, asking for. co-operation in investigating the
Oribatide, or beetle-mites.
Monthly Meeting held NOVEMBER 12th, 1888.
Mr. F. B. KYNGDON in the Chair.
Mr. WHITELEGGE exhibited a slide showing embryo starfish,
and fully described the development of the Australian form
Asterina exigua.
Mr. Kynepon exhibited a brownish reticulated mass found in
an old wooden house, and recognized as the excreta of white ants.
Also some curiously punctured gall-nuts or gum-leaves.
PERCY J. EDMUNDS, Hon. Sec.
376 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
ADDITIONS
TO THE
LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
Punionrests PURCHASED IN 1887 AND 1888.
American Monthly Microscopical Journal.
American Journal of Science and Art (Silliman).
Analyst.
Annales des Chimie et Physique.
Annales des Mines.
Annals of Natural History.
Astronomische Nachrichten.
Atheneum.
British Medical Journal.
Chemical News.
Curtis’ Botanical Magazine.
Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal.
Engineer.
Engineering.
English Mechanic.
Fresenius’ Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie.
Geological Magazine.
Industries.
Journal and Transactions of the Photographic Society.
Journal de Médecine.
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.
Journal of Botany.
Journal of the Chemical Society.
Journal of the Society of Arts.
Journal of the Society of Telegraph Envineers.
Knowledge.
Lancet.
London Medical Record.
Medical Record of New York.
Mining Journal.
Nature.
Notes and Queries.
Observatory.
Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen.
Philadelphia Medical Times.
Philosophical Magazine.
Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association.
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.
Sanitary Engineer.
Sanitary Record.
Science Gossip.
Scientific American.
Scientific American Supplement.
Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review.
Zoologist.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. BL i
Booxs PURCHASED IN 1887 anp 1888.
Abercrombie, (Hon. Ralph). Weather. (Int. Sc. Ser., Vol., 59.)
Abernethy, (J.) Surgical Observations. 1814.
Andral, (G.) Pathological Anatomy. 1829.
Anstie, (F. HE.) Stimulants and Narcotics. 1864.
Astronomical Register, 1886.
Australian Handbook, 1887 and 1888.
Bennett, (James H.) Inflammation of the Uterus. 1845.
Biedermann. Technisch-Chemisches Jahrbuch, 1885-86, 1886-87.
Binet, (A.) and Férés, (C.) Animal Magnetism. (Int. Sc. Ser., Vol. 60).
Birmingham Philosophical Society, Proceedings, Voli., Part 3.
Braithwaite, (James). Retrospect of Medicine, Vols. 94, 95, 96, 97, 98.
Braithwaite, (R). British Moss Flora, Parts 1—8. (all published).
British Association Reports for 1886 and 1887.
British and Foreign Medical Review., Vol. i.—xvi. 1836—43.
British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, 1848—1869. 26 Vols.
Buckler, (William). Larve of British Butterflies and Moths. Vol. ii.
(Ray Society).
Buller’s, Birds of New Zealand (New Edition). Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
DelO 7 Ht,
Catalogue and Description of the Natural and Artificial Rarities belong-
ing to the Royal Society, and preserved at Gresham College, &c. 1681.
“Challenger” Report. Zoology, Vols. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28. Botany, Vol. 2.
Chelius, (J. M.) System of Surgery. (South). 1847. 2 Vols.
Clinical Society. Transactions, Vol. xx.
Cullen, (William). First Lines of Medicine. 1810. 2 Vols.
Practice of Physic, edited by Dr. Thomson. 2 Vols.
Dana, (James D.) Geology of the U.S. Exploring Expedition during the
years 1838—1842, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N.
(Text only.)
Dawson, (Sir J. William). Geological History of Plants. (Int. Sc. Ser.,
Vol. 68.)
Edinburgh Botanical Society. Proceedings, Vols. 2, 3, 6, 7, 8,9 (Parts
mane). V1. Ney *
Edinburgh Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vols. 1, 2, 3, 4 (Part
1 and 2), 5 (Part 1), 6.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Vols. 22, 28, 24. (Ninth edition).
Friedlander, (R.), and Sohn. Catalogue. Bibliotheca Historico Naturalis
et Mathematica. 1886.
Geolological Record for 1879, and 1880—1884 inclusive. Vol. 1.
Geological Survey of India. Memoirs. Vol. ili., Part 1.
Glasgow Geological Society. Transactions. Vols. 1.—v.
Glasgow Medical Journal. Vol. 1—7. 1854-60.
Good, (J. M.) Study of Medicine. Vols. 1—4. 1825.
Hamilton, (A.) Outlines of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery. 1784.
Heilprin, (Angelo). Geographical and Geological Distribution. of
Animals. (Int. Sc. Ser., Vol. 58.)
Heister, (L.) General System of Surgery. 4°. London, 1758.
Henslow, (Rev. George). The Origin of Floral Structures. (Int. Se.
Ser., Vol. 64:)
Inman, (Thomas). Spinal Irritation. 1858.
Jahresbericht Chemischen Technologie fiir 1886 and 1887.
Johnson, (James). Influence of Tropical Climates. 1836.
King, Fitzroy and Darwin. Voyage of the “ Beagle.” 4 Vols.
Levi, (Leone). International Law. (Int. Sc. Ser., Vol. 62.)
378 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Lubbock, (Sir John). Senses of Animals. (Int. Sc. Ser., Vol. 65.)
Medical Officer’s Annual Report to the Local Government Board, London.
1885, Part 2. Suppt., 1886-87.
Medico-Chirurgical Society. Transactions. Vol. 70.
Michael, (A. D.) British Oribatide. Vol. 2. (Ray Society.)
Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 1841—1849. 8 Vols.
Morphology. Journal of. Voli., Nos. land 2. Vol. ii., No.1.
Naegeli and Schwendener. The Microscope in Theory and Practice.
(English Translation).
Nautical Almanac. 1890, 1891, 1892.
New Sydenham Society. Publications. Vols. 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,
121, 122.
Obstetrical Society. Transactions. Vol. xxvili., 1886; xxix., 1887.
Official Year-Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great
Britain and Ireland. 1887 and 1888. ;
Paleontographical Society. Publications. Vols. i.—xxxvii., xl., xh.
(39 Vols.)
Pathological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxxvii., 1886; xxxviil., 1887.
Index to Vols. 26-37.
Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. Inhaltsverzeichnis, 1875
to 1884.
Quaritch, (Bernard). General Catalogue, Vols. 1—6.
Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal. General Index. First Series, |
Vol. ii—iv. 1868—81.
Report on Geographical Education, 1886. (Royal Geographical Society.)
Rigby, (Edward). Mechanism of Parturition. 1829.
Rumsey, (H. W.) Essays on State Medicine. 1856.
Sands Directory for 1887.
Schmidt, (Adolf). Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde Heft 21—30.
Société Geologique de France. Bulletin. 3 Ser., Tome i.
Society of Chemical Industry. Journal Vols. v. and vi., 1886 and 1887.
Sonnenschein, (W. 8.) The Best Books.
Syme, (James). Principles of Surgery, 1832.
Tanquerel, (L.) Lead Diseases. (S. L. Dana). 1848.
Whitaker’s Almanack, 1888 and 1889.
Wood, (George B.) Practice of Medicine, 1849. 2 Vols.
IND
A PAGE. |
Abbott, W. E., Forest destruc-
tion in N.S.W. and its effect
on the flow of water in water-
courses and on the rainfall
5S), OS), Zar
-Aborigines of Australia 10
Abrus precatorius ben) AUD
Acacia aneura 205, 271
> vinervata . ~ as
>» decurrens 266, 267, 268, “270,
271, 272
» doratoxylon .. 206
Pe elata, roo) ATL
> wmnplexa 270, 271
» longifolia... Boo 74835)
a pendula 206, 269
+ prominens 269
> salicina 206, 264, 266, 268, 269
> sentis a ae . 268
3» stenophylla . 270
tetragonophylla ... 267
Acmea 112, 113, 114, 118, 125, 132, 184
5 alticostata 119
» marmorata 112, 117, 175
» septiformis 117, 135, 159,
182, 185
Actinolite 82
Adelaide River, desert sandstone 330
Agriculture in N.S.W.. 25
Agrion bifurcatum . 173
Albizzia basaltica . 206
Es lophantha 206
Aldinga Bay and River > Murray
Cliffs beds . 242
Amphibola A re LALO
Amphipleura pellucida ae . 373
7 oe Address ... nm aes
-Annulata .. ‘ . 138
Analcite ... a7 188
Anatina 110, 134, 184
) tasmanica 133, 135, 161
Anatinella 110
Anatomy and Life History of
the Echidna and Platypus... 10
Mollusca peculiar to Aus-
tralia ... 10, 98, 106, 227
Anemometers, an improvement
in : 103, 227
Angophora intermedia . 206
a subvelutina ... 206
Antimony, Native 80, 362
Oe:
PAGE.
Antimony, Native, and gold ... 364.
Antiquity of man in Australia 35
Antimonite (Stiknite) ... 80
App’s Induction Coil 277
Aplysia 122
Apium leptophyllum 207
Aragonite Bt eh ey iSe
Arca Bae ane ... 148, 184-
5, vlobata 123
», pexata . 125.
» btrapexia 120, 123, 135
Argonauta Sepia... : een
Arsenicand sulphide of antimony
with gold 5 Sb
Arseniate of cobalt . 362
Artesian Water, occurrence of 30,31
Asaphis ... . 113
Ash-beds of North Australia ... 307
on Tertiary or tufa ... 316
Ashes, volcanic . . 316
As a Bromo crater, Jan ava 330.
% ,, (Krakatoa), com-
position of 318, 333
if Taal Volcano, Luzon,
Phillippines ... 333:
Asterina exigua from Port J ack-
son ae 374, 375.
Atalaya hemiglauca 20
Atriplex Billardieri sn) OTE
A campanulata sen DOR
fo halimoides oeeA0Y fi
ae nummularia ... 208)
ing semibaccata ... 208:
a spongiosa ... 208
vesicaria . 208:
Auricula sath 113
Auriferous Deep ‘Leads, ‘Paleo-
phytology of . 39:
Australasian Wesecition for
the Advancement of Science 15
Australia, Botanical discovery in 20:
— Census of the Fauna of the
Older Tertiary of 240, 278
—— discovery of gold in AL
— geologicalexplorationin 28
— Invertebrate Fauna of the
Older Tertiary of . 247
—-— Mesozoic deposits of 38
—— tertiary fossils common to 246.
Australian Gums and Resins,
Chemistry of ...
380
PAGE.
Mactialian Climate, general and
local influence of, in the
development of disease 10
—— Indigenous Forage Plants
100, 204
Paleontology ‘4. LORS
— Rocks, Polarity of Magnetic 231
— Shamrock ” . 226
Austriella sordida a, 103
Autographic Stress- strain ap-
paratus 1.2208
Avicennia officinalis ..- 208
Avicula oe ee ... 148
En La 2 sae edie ae ZO
Axinite 82
B
Backhousia myrtifolia ... berate
Bacteriological researches ... 18
** Balaar ”’ = cf 27.206
Bankivia .. 5 FOS Dau
Barringtonia acutangula 209
Barklyite . 362
Basalt, prismatic . 335
“« Bastard Gidgah”’ or * ‘Nilyah’ 27 269
Batea, Californian : . 365
“* Bean Tree” aa IO)
“« Beef-wood ” . 210
*«Behreging”’ . 218
Bellandean, finely divided tin-
stone at . 3862
“* Berrigan ”’ . 213
Beryl - yO!
ect tellurate of . ... 865
- telluride of OOD
** Black Kurrajong ” ... 223
«* Blue-bush ” B65 illic)
Boerhaavia diffusa ... 209
“SBocim ~ ae Alo)
Bohemian varnets 2. 363
aS Boomarrah ” lec 2D
“* Boree ” . 206
Bores for artesian water 31
Botanical Discovery in Australia 22
“« Bottle-tree ”’ 14228
Branchial Organs of Mollusca. WZ,
“ Brigalow ” sa) 206
“ Broad-leaved Apple- tree” ... 206
Bromo, Java, Sand sea . 833
» ash from . 3389
sy Broughton Willow” 206
British Medical Society, N.S.W.
Branch 19
Buccinulus Cea he eis - 109
~ Buccinum alveolatum ... 140
55 undatum bal
INDEX.
PAGE.
Building & Invastmione Fund 10, 45
Bulbine bulbosa ...
Bursaria spinosa..
Busby, Hon. William, M.L.C.,
Biographical notice of 30 ae
. 208
. 209
** Butter-bush ”’.., 220
C
*“Cabbage Salt-bush”’... 208
Callicoma serratifolia 267
Calcite, gold in ... 19
Calcite ; 86 _
Californian batea 365
Cape Otway beds : ... 242
Captain’s Flat, tellurate of
bismuth from... ... 865
* Caariwan ” 2 206
Carcoar, Molybdenite at ... 304
Cardium see 121.124, 127
Cardita ‘ 110, 121
Cassia eremophila . 209
Cassiterite : 362
Castanospermum australe 210
Casuarina stricta - ey 10)
an suberosa 210, 276
> torulosa ae ds 2B7O
*‘ Cattle-bush ” ... 207
** Caustic Creeper” 214
Plant ” ' 222
of Vine? . 222
Caverns, Ossiferous 40
‘s@edar-’... ue 211
Cedrela australis... 211
en Toona 211
Census of the auee of the Older
Tertiary of Australia 240, 278
Cephalopoda ... ... 243
Ceratopetalum apetalum 274:
Cerithidea 113
Cerithium.. . 184
Si ebeninum: 118, 135, 150,
154, 157, 158, 167, 168, wie 185
Chabazite a
Chalk rock 242
Chama 121
» gigas 158
Chamostrea 110
Chetopoda sat 138
Cheltenham beds ‘ 242
Chemistry of the Australian
Gums and Resins 10
Chionanthus ramiflora ... - 211 ;
Chione marica ... .i9
Chiton 1138, 118: 122, 139, 152,
159, 161, 168
oy WRCUeaiaiane ed
INDEX. 381
PAGE.
Chiton incisus penl28
>» marginatus srk
> marmoratus Miso L
Espiniger..3. 306 ol WAT
« Cider Gum” dar 214
Circe ; reed Sel
Clarke Medal, eaaaed a 9, 367
Clarke Memorial Fund.. ait RD
Clarke, Hyde, letter ron 99
Claytonia Balonnensis ... beg. Pal
a polyandra Salat
Clavulina from Port J pieleon . 874
“Clover Fern”’ oo Pa)
« Clustered Fig” eZee
*< Coach-wood 3 274
Coal Measures in a ihe Maitland
district.. Non Ae)
“ Coast She- oak > ee AD)
Cobalt bloom, or erythrite . 362
Cobaltine aS aroor
<< Cooba”’ ms soo LOS
Codallhia percrassa i 5 ZA)
«< Common Sida weed 2 223
Comets I. (Sawerthal) and II.
(Encke) 1888, observations of
at Windsor, N.S.W.. 284, 340
Compressed air engine “for a
ing machine ... mts 48
** Coonda”’ 20
Conglomerates, fluviatile . 326
Conospermum Stechadis . 212
Ke triplinervium 5 ike
Conus gloria-maris 5 1K)
> marmoreus 160
Conversazione—Exhibitors 227, 234
Copper sulphide ... 362
Corephium aculeatus sabia oil
Corio Bay beds ... 55 EW
Covelline.. --. B02
Grganiclla 110, 121
Crater of Kilauea, Hawaii... 315
a Mono, U.S.A.. SBA
ee Bromo, Java.. Pe aoe
Crenulata:gibbosa 2 200
Crepidule aculeata 112, 126
$s unguiformis ... irae
Cretaceo-Eocene fossils . 245
Crossea . 110
* Crowfoot ” allyl
Crystallized silver, Lewis Ponds 363
Cucullea costata.. 5 AS
ys robusta . 295
Cucumis trigonus =. 212
Cupania semiglauca 266, 267
*Currawang” .. a8 721206
Curves, easing Railway 89, 190
PAGE.
Cyclas 113, 121
Cyprea ne . 139
oo OTL US: He . 110
gn OMMOLCO be)
39) CXPONSH ... 7 290
aeons AO
vitellus ... oer LEG
Cypricar dia LOR
Cytherea . LIS; 176.
. D
* Dahl-wah ” . 210
Darling Pea” wo. 224
Daucus brachiatus . 212
Daviesia spp. een eae
“ Dead Finish ” 206, 267
Death rate of the city of Sydney 16
“Desert Sandstone ” 31, 290
5 Adelaide River... 335
Me Gorge and Yam
Creek, N.A. 334, 335:
Ae McMinn’s Bluff 335
33 Mary River, N.A. 335.
specific gravity of 334
Desert Sand (Sahara) .. 339:
Dialects of E.and W. Polynesia
and Australia &c. 99
Discovery of Gold in Australia 41
Dodonecea lobulata 213.
‘* Dogwood ” 203) 217, 218, 220:
.Poison-bush ”’ 220:
Wenacions received 48, 100, 227,
231, 279, 341, 367
Donax 3 tc. LESS E24
Douglas Springs, Ash beds... 308.
cs Drooping Gum ” oe ... 214
ss She-oak”’ ... ... 276:
* Dtharang-gange ” . 218
B
Easing Railway Curves... 89, 100:
Echidna, Anatomy and Life
History of 10:
Economic Association . =e an ls
* Keaie” -.. LUD
ms Ellangowan Poison Bush”... 220
Ellery, RB. 1iede, HRS: awarded
Clarke Medal... . 367
Elenchus ... re seal LO}
belulus ... 7G
GD ilaol . 226.
Emarginula rugosa 175
* Emu-bush” 213, 218
Encke’s Comet IL. 1888, obser-
vations of, at Windsor, N.S.W. 289
“ Erect She-oak ”’ . 210:
382 INDEX
PAGE.
Eremophila longifolia 213 | Gastropoda
i maculata 213 | Gevera parviflora
Mitchella 213 | General Account cm :
Eruption of Krakatoa . 317 | Geological exploration in Aus-
Erythrite . 862 traha A) Bs
Eta Argus, increasing magni- Geological investigation i in New
tude of , bach 76, 99 South Wales ... x .0h2y
Eucalyptus corynocalyz ... 213 | Geranium dissectum 217
As Gunn 214 Glasshouse Mountains.. 329
a leucorylon ... 273 es a prismatic basalt 335
pauciflora ... 214 | Glochidia... 107, 181, 182
4 siderophloia... 273 | Glossopteris ; 37 |
Eugenia Smithy... 275 | ** Goitcho” - 209
Euphorbia alsineflora 214 | Gompholobium uncanatum 217
Bs Drummondii... 214 | Gold drifts, Pliocene ae)
= eremophila ... 215 » in Australia, discovery of 41
Eyes in mantle and shell of », alluvial with metallic copper 79
Mollusca bie se eS 7 >, with Sulphide of Antimony
Hyes, shell, of the tegmentum 135 and Arsenic ra i)
isolated ; 136| ,, in Mispickel Pg.)
5 Om as periostraca, 173 WW ein Calcite tae 79, 363
» 1n Louisa Creek, Turon
F River ... 363
False-bedded Siliceous Sand- » prospecting dish, (Calin
stones ... 2 309) fornian batea) .. . 365
Fanny Bay, beach-sand ... 332 | Gossypium Sturti 217
Fasciolaria ; is 110, 184 | Graphite ... 363
Fauna, Marine, of Port Jackson 10/| “ Green Kurrajong ”” 218
y of the Older Tertiary of Gums, Australian 10
Australia 240, 278
Ficus glomerata ... 215 H
Flagellaria wmdica 215 j
Plindersia maculosa 215 | Hakea saligna +. 276
Fluviatile conglomerates 326 | Haliotis nevosa ... _ 119
sanastones _ 334, | Hawaii, crater of Kilauea 315
Flying ¢ Machine, compressed ai Bae Hemoglobin i in Molluscan blood 122
engine for driving 4g | Helix pomatia : pales
Forase Plants indigenous 46 Heterodendron oleefolium . 218
Australia . we = 100, 204} Heulandite =... 87
ce orast Onice ae .. 210, 276 Hibiscus wre ie .2is |
- destruction in N.S.W. “ Hickory al - 206 :
and its effects on the flow of High-power objectives... -- 20
water in watercourses, and on ae ee ° ae
the rainfall ... 59, 99, 227
Fraser, John, B.A., LL.D., The Holroyd, Arthur Todd, M. D.,
Latin verb Jubere, a linguistic Biog raphical notice of 2
study } 344, 367 | Honorary oes 366
Fusus colosseus ... 110 | “ Hop-bush =a sie 212, 213
Hutton, Capt. F. W., F.G.S.,
G elected Honorary Member ... 366
Tee Pe .. 110 | Hyalite from lava Mt. Bramble 335
Gahnite ... 85, 363 | Hybocystis a . 167
« Gaoloowurrah ” eae 222
Garnets .. 363 I
Gastrolobium ; hes 215 | Igneous rocks, microscopic ex-
By grandiflorum 216 amination of ... E82
INDEX. 383
PAGE. PAGE.
Indigenous Australian Forage Life History of Mollusca 178, 227
Plants . : 100, 204 | * Lilly Pilly ” : s27D
*« Indigo Plant” . 224) Lima ; de .. 134
7 copper.. ... 362 » multicostata 120, 133
Induction Coil, Apps’ .. 277 | Limestone, Tableland Katherine
Influence of the Australian River ... . 335
Climate 10 | Linnean Society of N.S, W.,
Invertebrate Fauna of the Older publications ... : Log,
Tertiary of Australia ... 247 | Lingula ... pee 0)
Investment & Building Fund 10, 45 | Littorina 118, 114, 117, 1 2, 132, 184
Jodine in silver minerals . 365 a mauritiana 112, 167
Iridium, Bogan and Lachlan is scabra.. ve De
Rivers, Condobolin ... . 364 | Liversidge, Prof., M. we F, oe,
Tron ore deposits of N.S.W. 10
«» pyramidata . 218
Es villosa 218
Koninck, Laurent ae de-
M.D., Biographical notice of 5
Krakatoa, eruption of ... so OILY
i composition of ash 318
Krausima... ee al@
* Kurrajong ”’ 223, 226
Labyrithodon remains .. 30, 38
Lacinularia socialis from Parra-
matta River . 374
Lamellibranchiata ... 243
Lankester, Ray, on the distri-
bution of Hemoglobin in the
Animal Kingdom seers
Latin verb Jubere 344, 367
Laumontite
“Lawyer Vine”
Leaf silver, Sunny Corner
“ Leopard Tree”
Leptocephalus... mo
Library, additions to
Meweraig of New South W sles
(Note No. 5.) ... . 362
Lotus australis . 219
corniculatus . 219
3)
Louisa Creek, Turon River, gold
in Sit she ee, ... 363
Lowenthal’s process for estima-
tion of tannic acid 5 4S)
Lucia M 3 2
i percrassa.. . 295
Lucknow, gold in ‘calcite from 363
i gold and native anti-
mony ... ... 364
Lunella nanelenenans: 119, 135
Lymnea 122, 123
a stagnalis . 122
_ Mi
Macgillivraia ate LO
Macrochisma LO
Mactra 118, 124
Magassella sO
Magnesite deposits . 303
4 specific gravity of. W330
Magnetic Australian rocks,
polarity of .. . 231
Magnetic pyrites 364
Maiden, J. H., F.L.S., Indigen-
ous Australian Forage Plants,
including plants injurious to
Stock ... 100, 204
—— on some New South Wales
Tan-substances ‘ 259
Maitland district, Coal Meusures 29
Malleus vulgaris .. . 1385
Malvastrum spicatum see 2g
Mammaliferous Drifts, classed
homotaxially as Pliocene ... 242
“Mangrove” .. hs . 208.
Marmolite, Gundagai se .. 364
Marine deposits, Tertiary . 241
» Fauna of Port Jackson 10
eel
Marsilea quadrifolva
304 INDEX.
PAGE. PAGE.
Maryland Creek, Co. Buller, Mopsella coccinea from Watson’s
Bohemian garnets, near... 363 Bay)... mae oe .. B74
Mary River, N.A., Sandstone ** Moreton Bay Chestnut” . 210
from: ~..%. ... 9832, 335 | “ Motherumba” . 206
McMinn’s Bluff, ‘ash beds 307 | ** Mountain Ash”? 214
a desert sandstone 335
Medal, Clarke, award of 9, 367
By Society’s 34 ..9, 10
Medical Section... 8,.15, 47, 371
Megerlia ... Be I)
Melampus... ie ss
Melicerta ringens ee OL
Members, Honorary ... 366
«* Menindie Clover” ... 226
Mercenaria paucilamellata i. ABS
Mesodesma 2 1d@
Mesozoic deposits ‘of Australia 38
Metallic Copper, alluvial, with
colds 2. ie AO
Meteorite from Hay ee .. S41
a » Lhunda, Q’land 341
4, Mountain near
Burrowa and Lachlan Rivers 341
Microscopic examination of rocks 32
appearance of sands 332
Microscopical Section 8, 16, 47, 373
Microscope objectives, high-
power ...
Micro- photography tas ae
» photographs enlarged
5,000 diameters a
Miller, Francis Bowyer, F. C: S.,
Biographical notice of Sou) AO
20
20
. 374
vik amt. 2 44: .. 214
Minerals, New South Wales . Seb
Mineral resources of N.S.W. 42
Mineral and Mineral Localities
in the Northern Districts of
New South Wales 78, 99
Mining in New South Wales... 25
Miocene Marbles, Great Austra-
han Bieht. |. 242
Mispickle, gold in seep ts)
Mitra pacifica ; Sa. seO9
Mollusca, Branchial organs of 117
oD eyes and sense organs
in the . 134
. eyes onthe periostraca 173
7 Life History of 10, 98,
106, 178, 227
“i Respiration of . 114
Molybdenite fa 81
Molybdenite, Carcoar ... 364
Mono Craters, U.S.A. ... 321
Monodonta 113
Montanite ae de 365
Mount Bramble, (Quoin
hyalite from lava . 335
Mount Gambier beds ... . 242
Muddy Creek beds . 242
Mud springs “f ... 30
Mueller, Baron F. von, K. C. M.G.,
F.R.S., &e., Considerations
of phytographic expressions
and arrangements 187, 278
oY Mugurpul cs 1200
“ Mulea 205
Multiplicity of Eyes i in n mantle
and shell of Mollusca Bae 2,
* Mumin ” . 211
‘* Munyeroo ” . 211
Myadora ... oO
Myochama <¥110
Myoporum deserti ‘ . 220
ns platycarpum... . 220
Mytilus 55 . 113
os UUPSUL US eee .. 120°
» edulis . 121
N
*“ Narrow-leaved Apple-tree”’... 206
Nassa coronata ... nae 24109
Native antimony ve 980
ROX ee ae sa0a09
Ape WALEOL, 22. . 212
> Huchsia ”’ . 213
1») Indico ”* wezs
>» Leek” . 209
>» Lucerne” . 223
ped Onion” . 209
we —Lobacco ”’ . 220
ee WNaullOW? 72.25 206, 220, 268
Natica of . 124
» lineata . 295
Natrolite (Mesotype) . 87
Nautilus ... . 152
Navicula angulatum . 373
Nepean River strata ... ... 316
Nerita 113, 138, 138, 166
» atrata LAY,
>» melanotragus Sd MRT,
»> -morio aida MAT.
» Nnigerrime ... Lol FT
» nigra . AT
» punctata . 177
saturata . 177
N. Zealand Tertiary Fossils 245, 246
INDEX. 389
PAGE. | P PAGE.
«<< Ngeenjerry ” . 222 | Paleontology, Australian 35
Nicotiana suaveolens
Nucula gigantea .. . 295 |
ee Quadnats.. Sie nen WD)
N.S.W., Agriculture in a, PAD) |
sis ar tesian water 1n 30 |
a Branch, British Medical
Association . Re wae
ge Forest destruction i in 59,
99, 227
a Geological investiga-
tion in ie 27 |
oa Iron-ore deposits 10 |
4 Minerals s soe OO
a Minerals and Mineral
Localities in the
Northern districts of |
Tos OD
Rs Mineral resources of... 42 |
- Mining in 3 25
a Precious stones 10
vat Recent fauna of 243
a Silver ore deposits 10
oe 'T'an Substances 259
O
Oamaru Series of Tertiary
Fossils .. 245
Observations of Comets ile: and
II., 1888, at Windsor, N.S.W.
284,
Occurrence of Precious Stones
in N.S.W. —
Ochre tellurium...
Octopus... a
* Old-man Salt- bush.
Older ‘Tertiary of Australia,
Fauna of er eA.
Ommastrephes sloanu
Onchidium 127, 138, 1389, 145,
169, 170, 171, 174, 184,
chameleon ... sl
fa damelu 170,171, 185,
Onychoteuthis ;
Ore, iron-, deposits, N. Ss. W.
» silver
Oribatide or beetle- inites
Ossiferous Caverns
Osmium, Bogan and Lachlan
eae, Condobolin
Ostrea
33
it 152,
33
we 182,
mordax 120, 135, 179,.
sowerbyt
» virginiana..
Oyster-beds, Aldinga: Bay si
River Murray...
23
Y—December 5, 1888.
340
10
365
187
208
278
Sa
187
. 170
186
364
184.
181
295
mile
. 242
... 220 Paleophytology of the Deep
Auriferous and Stanniferous
| Leads ... ; Beery
Palliobranchiata .- 243
| Paludina ... Fe on ie
| a3 vivipara pe 2s
| Pandora ... 110
| Panopea ... ae rata
| - australis 121
) 3 sulcata .. . 295
Parasite in rats’ -blood.. 374
_Pareora Series of fossils 245
Paroo, bores for artesian water
| near the : Poe
Patella 118, 114, 117, 122, Buk,
132, 184, 140, 145, 146, 152,
156, 159, 160, 184; 185
Patella tramoserica 117, 118, 125,
Hol Wo, lsd. 140, Fa AS:
155, 157, 159, 185
| ** Peach-leaved poison bush”... 226
Pecten 127, 148, 151, 168, 184.
x jacobeus 137
i> 6 MGLUNUS, ... 137
> Opercularis Pras! ka) //
Pectunculus ot eg
* Periculia ” aoc
Phasianella bes LTO
Philippia lutea ~ le
Photographs of large trees 3907
Phytographic Expressions and
Arrangements 187, 198, 278
Pileapsis ungaricus Bho na les
Pimelea hematostachya ... BoA
Pinna 148, 1538
Pinnoctopus : wo be
Pittosporum phillyreoides . 220
Planazxis ... so Cakee
Planorbis ... 122, 123, 124, 125
a corneus ... 124
sis marginatus . 124
Plantago varia 221
Platinum, Bogan and ‘Lachlan
Rivers, Condobolin ... 364
Plants, indigenous Australian
forage . 100, 204
Plants i injurious to Stock 100, 204
» Victorian system of ... 187
Platyhelminthes ... 133
Platypus, Anatomy and Life
History of 10
| Pleonaste as dd
Pleurosigma formosum ... vote
Pleurotomaria ... SAE:
Pliocene Gold-drifts 39
386 INDEX.
PAGE. PAGE.
Pliocene drifts classed homotaxi- Resins, Australian oe
ally as Mammaliferous ... 242 Respiration of Mollusca .. 114
«‘ Poison-berry tree” ... 220 | Rhagodia .. ni . 221
» | bushes’ 215, 224 A Billar dig . 222,
cPolal +7 Pies ye 74) = parabolica . 222
Polyophthalmus ... we ... 189 | Rhodochrosite : ... 86
Polytropa margine-alba ... ... 140 Rine-barking and its effects ... 59
Polyzoal limestone .. 242 | Risella 110, 113, 114, 117, 125, 184
Pomeaderris racemosa i: etei BoM > melanostoma 116;.182, 167
Port Darwin, Jail Road, Sand- ‘River Black-oak ” .. a0
stone from... . ope ye ances . 210
Port Jackson Marine Fauna . 10 | Rocks, microscopic examination of 32
Porter, D. A., Notes on some
Minerals and Mineral Locali-
ties in the Northern Districts
of New South Wales... Je, OS
Post Tertiary Deposits 40
“Pox Plant: 214
Pratt, Rev. George, on oie com-
parison of Dialects of E. and
W. Polynesia and Australia,&e. 99
Precious Stones in N.S.W. 10
Prehnite . ... 364
Pressure of wind - -.. LO4
“Prickly Acacia ”’ : .. 268
Prospecting dish for gold . 365
Proceedings Medical Section ... 371
, “Microscopical Section 373
of the Society 44,
98, 227, 230, 234, 278, 340, 366
Psoratea tenax prevail
Pterigeron adscandens . 221
Pteropoda 248
Public Schools, seientific teach-
ing ime 11
Pumiceous dust. ... o20
Pyrrhotine ... B64
Pyrites magnetic .. 364
ba Tabal 7p OOD
Pythia son, le
Queensland, artesian water in 30
io hemp . 223
R
Rabbit pest 19
Railway curves, a simple plan
of easing 89, 100
Rainfall bey ‘Agriculture i in N.S.W. 26
Forest destruction and
its effects on the 59, 227
Recent Fauna of N.S. Wales... 243
South Australia 243
Tasmania . 243
Redruthite, silver in scales on 3864
33
3) 99
» magnetite, attraction of 231
Rolleston, Christopher, C.M.G.,
Biographical notice of 3
“Rolling Downs Formation ” 39
“* Rosewood ” wie atte
Rotella . 1
* Rough fig” . 226
Riicker, Professor, letter from.. wear
Russell, H. C., B.A., F.B.S., An
improvement in Anemometers
103, 227
—- On the increasing Maeni-
tude of Eta Argus 76, 98
Storm of 2lst September,
LSSSeeee 256, 278
— On a new " self-recording
thermometer ... ers 335, 341
— The Thunderstorm of 26
October, 1888 ... 338, 341
Ss
Sahara desert sand 3835
«c Salt-pushe ts... 207, 221
Sand (beach) Java oo. HOLL
Re mn Fanny Bay . 332
» sea, Bromo, Java : 330
» Volcanic 313
“Sandalwood” . Le 213, 220
Sandstone, Adelaide River 335
false-bedded Siliceous 309
fluviatile . 834
Katherine Gorge ... 335
Mary River, N.A. 332,335
McMinn’s Bluft . 808d
Port Darwin Jailroad 332
(Red) Gorge and Yam
Creek . 834
2 Victoria River . 8384
Sanitary Section ...8, 47
Sarcostemma australe «. weg
Sarsia from Port Jackson . 374
Sawerthal’s Comet I., 1888,
observations of— at Windsor,
New South Wales . 289
INDEX. 387
PAGE.
Schnapper Point beds ... . 242
Scientific teaching in Public
Schools... inl
Sclerolena bicornis SEB APs
Semis ... oy LO
Section, Medical — none 47
a Microscopical... buss 7
= Sanitary 8,47
Self-recording Thermometer,
new 335, 341
Senectus ... =e spec dy dll hepa hp
Bas gruneri ... PEO UZ oe
Sepia officinalis ... 5 al)
Sepiola rai
Sesbania egyptiaca a 222
Shackle Gorge ash- beds 308
«« Sheep-bush ” 5 Any
Shellshear, Walter, A M. Ce E.
Ona simple plan of easing
Railway Curves 89, 100
Shell Eyes of the Tegmentum .
(Mollusca) qalisio
“Shingle Oak ’’... S5 ALD
Sida rhombifolia... 223
Siderite ... Pee OO
Siderite, Cobar Copper Mines 364
Silver ore deposits of N.S.W... 10
Silver leaf, Sunny Corner . 28S
» erystallized, Lewis Ponds 365
» 10 scales on redruthite,
Cobar Copper Mine ... 365
s ehloride ... 365
Siphonaria 110,113, 114, 125,160, 174:
- denticulata 115, 116, 132
us diemenensis 115, 116,
135, 137, 159, 183
“‘ Small Salt-bush ” 5 ADT
Society’s Medal... Ss ae act 9
Solanum eremophilum 223
2 simile ... eet nee
Solar pactog aphy 2h
Solen mw 184
Be CSUs 123, 124
s, legumen 122, 123
Solenella .. Soe ilan
Solemya .. 3 nae Abi
South Australia, artesian water
in 30 |
South Australia, chief : areas and
localities of Tertiary Marine
deposits 241
South Australia, Pecenee fauna ae 243
“« Spear-wood ”’ 206
Specific gravity of Desert Sand-
stone ... .. dd4
Specific gravity of Magnesite... 335
PAGE.
Spinel Sees)
bi VAGave .. 300
Spirula pel ia id |
“Spotted tree” ole
Stannite ... 365
Stanniferous Deep Leads, Palwo-
phytology of . 39
Stanniferous Deep Leads, Vege-
table Creek District.. 40
Stellar photography 21
Sterculia eee ine 223
Stilbite : 88
‘“Stony Desert om 33
Storm of 21st Sept., 1888 256, 278
Strata on the Nepean River ... 316
Stress-strain, diagram-drawing
. apparatus 231, 253
Struthiolaria see LO
Sots olep we (Er bbanl «anne . 213
““Supple Jack”... nop AD
“Surrah” disease in India ... 375
Swarmsonia a se be Pa
m4 gaglegifolia... . 224
Greyana .. 224
< Swamp Oak ” . 210
Sydney death vate 16
Taal volcano, Luzon, jouer
eruption of .. .. 3823
Table Cape beds, Tasmania .. 242
“Tagon-tagon ”’ a2 209
Tannic acid, éstimation: of 259
Tan-substances, some N.S.W... 259
Tapes 113
Tasmania, recent fauna, of 243
Tasmania, chief areas and
localities of Tertiary Marine
deposits in...
Tate, Professor Ralph, ®, G. S.,
Census of the Fauna of the
Older Tertiary of Australia
240, 278
Tate, Professor Ralph, F.G.S.,
elected Honorary Member ...
“'Tchoonchee”’ ...
Tebbutt, John, F.R.A. S., ca etien
of Onecmenons of Clamene I.
and II., 1888, at Windsor,
New South Wales 284, 340
Tectarius pyramidalis 112, 117, 167
Telegraphy in N.S.W.... waht ds
Telescopium ss novenll dice
Tellina marieburiensis ... .. 295
3, striatula ... ee 169
Tellurate of bismuth . 365
388 INDEX.
PAGE.
Tellurium ochre... . 865. Trochus costulatum ov ee
Tephrosia purpurea . 225 | >, imperialis -» ae
_ Terebratella kw 5, tentoriiformis 176, 186
Terebratula ... 110 | Trophon oe CD
Terebratulina ... 110 | Turbo 166, 184
Teredo navalis . 126) 4, gruneri 119, 135
terra 4 ce eclee >» undulatus .. te 135
Tertiary ash- beds . Boe wollte; » squamosus.. .. LOD
Tertiary (Older) of Australia, Turritella beds, Table Cape .. 243.
Fauna of SH ... 240, 278 | Typhis arcuatus, Hinds.. 4 oe
Tertiary Marine deposits, chief
areas and localities of . 241 U
Tertiary, subdivisions of the | Undercliff Station, Wilson’s
Older 242° Downfall, graphite from ... 363
ees fossils common to Aus- aye Uri. Fresh water 107, 180, 181, 184
Meetiary fissite soihinoe to Nee Uvanilla tentoriiformis .. -A86
Zealand . 246 | V
Tetradymite 365 .
ERE CEa a new self-record- Vegetable Creek, Tin-field 32
ing 385 34a » Stanniferous
Thunderstorm of 26th October, Deep Leads .. -- 40
isssie |. ; 338, 341 Ventilago viminalis id e710)
Thunda Meteorite . 341 | Venus : 121, 124, 184
Tiger- -COWLY : RO) 5D aphrodina... ~ eS
Tin-field, Vegetable Creek 32) » lamellata ... . 118
Tingha, gahnite from ... . 363 me paucilamellata . ie
Tin pyrites " MEIBG5: |b Gees .
ringtone. finely Fae Daye _ 3¢g , Vesuvianite (Idocrase)... .-, “8p
Tippin TaniON MTT LIS _ 131 | Victoria River Sandstone . 334
Topaz | 365 », chief areas and localities
Trachymene Ah eeatia > 995 of Tertiary Marinedepositsin 241
Trees, unusually large... _. 367 | Victorian Plants, System of ... 187
Trema aspera _.. 925 | Volcanic ashes ... Ry eet,
Trichodesma zeylanicum... . 226 2 sand... . 3138
UU) 6. oe _ 137 a eruption of Krakatoa 317
EA gigas ... 121 »” »” Taal (Philip-
Trigonia 134, 135, 146, 162, 164, _ pines) 328, 333
165, 168, 178, 184 iS emanations of Mount
, lamarckii 108, 110, 120, Gambier, Mt. Shanck
135, 136, 189, 150, 162, and Tower Hill . o29
163, 165, 166, 167, 168, Voritcelle.. . 374
186, 187
iA margaritacea 108, 110, Ww
135, 137, 163, 167, 186, 187 | Waldheimia ee 110
Ef nasuta ... . 295 | Warren, Prof. M.I.C. E., Auto-
pectinata - 120 graphic Stress-strain diagram-
Trigonella suavissima . 226 drawing apparatus ... 231, 2538
Triton . 185 | “* Water Myrtle is San Oe
>» costatus . 112 | “ Weeping or true Myall vA . 206
>, olearium ... A wa L126 WWihite Gumics.. a . 214
>» —spenglert ...125, 139, 140, 174 » Mangrove” . 208
Trochocochlea _...118, 114, 125, 132 >» Swamp Gum” . 214
a dasniii 116: 17) WOR: > 2OR
119, 167, 175 | “ Wild Parsley ’’ 5 20m
Trochus 114, 125 » Parsnip” 4. 225
389
INDEX.
PAGE. PAGE.
* Wilga ” 217 | “ Woota”’ Bae ose pe slal
Wilkinson, C. S., E.G. S., Presi- * Worgnal ” . 210
dential Address we 1
« Willow ” * ea: 217 ¥
tree” . 220 | Yam Creek, N.A., red sandstone 334
Wind pressure, calculation Of 104: ~ desert sandstone ... 335
Woods, Rev. J. E. Tenison-,
F.G.S., Award of Clarke Medal 9 Z
—— awardofSociety’sMedal 98 | Zeolite ye wo. 364
—— letter from... ere ... 98] Zine spinel . 363
— On the anatomy and life Zircon tne sel Oe
history of Mollusca peculiar Zizyphus jujuba ... ... 226
to Australia ... 10, 98, 106, 227 | Zoographic terms ples
— The Desert Sandstone 290, 340
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS
MADE BY THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES,
1888.
The Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of N.S.W. for 1887,
Vol. xxi., has been distributed as follows :—
The publications for Europe were sent through Messrs. Triibner & Co.. London ;
those forthe United States of America and Canada to the care of Messrs. Wesley &
Son, Agents for the Smithsonian Institution; the packages for French Societies and
Institutions were forwarded through the Ministére de l’Instruction Publique des
Beaux Arts et des Cultes; and inall other cases, not otherwise provided for, the
parcels have been transmitted by book post.
The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., and Messrs. Triibner & Co., 57,
Ludgate Hill, London, E.C., have kindly undertaken to receive and forward to Sydney
all communications and parcels intended for the Royal Society of New South Wales.
Presentations to the Society are acknowledged by letter, and in the Society’s Annua
Volume.
* Exchanges of Publications have been received from the Societies and Institutions
distinguished by an asterisk.
Argentine Republic.
1 CoRDOBA ... ... “Academia Nacional de Ciencias.
Austria.
2 PRAGUE ... ... *Kéniglich béhmische Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften.
2 TRIESTE ... ... *Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali.
4 VIENNA ... ... *Anthropologische Gesellschaft.
5 a ... *Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
6 c. ... *K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und
Erdmagnetismus.
a an ... *K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft.
8 = ... *K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt.
9 a ... *K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseum.
10 ss . *K. K. Zoologisch- Botanische Gesellschaft.
Belgium.
11 BRUSSELS... ... “Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des
Beaux Arts.
12 Bs ws ... *Musée Royal D’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique.
13 B ae ... *Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles.
14 is bat ... *Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique.
15 Lincs we = ave *HoOCIétE Géologique de Belgique.
iC xe ... *Société Royale des Sciences de Liége.
17 Luxempoure .... *Institut Royale grand-ducal de Luxembourg.
18 Mons Noe ... *Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du
Hainaut.
Brazil.
19 Rio vz Janeizo... *L’Observatoire Impérial de Rio de Janeiro.
Chili.
20 SANTIAGO... ... “Sociedad Cientifica Alemana.
21
CoPpENHAGEN
22 BoRDEAUX
23 CAEN
24 Dison
25 LILLE
26 MontTPELLIER
27. PaRis
28
29
30
ol
32
33
34:
395
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Ad
AA,
45
46
47
48
49
50
ol
52
53
54.
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
3)
33
TOULOUSE
BREMEN ...
BERLIN
3)
33
Bonn
BRAUNSCHWEIG ...
CARLSRUHE
53
CASSEL
CHEMNITZ
DRESDEN ...
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
. *Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
... “Société Géologique du Nord.
. *Académie des Sciences et Lettres.
... *Académie des Sciences de I’ Institut de France.
. *Depot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.
.. *Ecole Polytechnique.
... “Faculté des Sciences de la Sorbonne.
... *L’Observatoire de Paris.
. *Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle.
. *Ministére de Instruction Publique, des Beaux
. *Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
. *Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts Pe.
Denmark!
_ France.
et Arts.
Lettres.
Ecvule Nationale des Mines.
Kecole Normale Supérieure.
Faculté de Médecine de Paris.
Arts, et des Cultes.
Société Botanique. ‘
_. *Société d’ Anatomie. q
.. *Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. |
. *Société de Biologie.
. *Société da’ Encouragement pour Il Industrie ,
Société de Chirurgie de Paris. . j
Nationale. 4
. *Société de Géographie.
. *Société Entomologique de France.
. *Société Geologique de France. a
Société Météorologique de France.
- * Société Francaise de Mineralogie.
. *Société Francaise de Physique.
. *Société Philotechnique.
ne ... *Société Zoologique de France.
Saint ETIENNE ...
*Société de PIndustrie Minérale.
. *Académie des Sciences Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres. Le
Germany.
. *Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen.
. *Grossherzogliches Polytecknikum zu Carlsruhe. Pail |
... “Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Carlsruhe. .
... “Verein fiir Naturkunde.
. *Naturwissenschatftliche Gesellschaft zu Chemnitz.
. *Das Statistische Bureau des Ministeriums des
Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft. : 4
: *Koniglich Preussisehe Akademie der Wissen-
. *Konigl. Preuss. Meteorologisches Institut.
t *Naturhietonicenen Wemcennn der Preussischen
schaften. . i
Rheinlande und Westphalens in Bonn. (a
*Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig. '
Innern zu Dresden,
64 DRESDEN ..
65 39
66
67 peta
68 FRANKFURT aM...
69 FREIBERG(Saxony)
70 bs ae 3
71 GoRuirz
72 GOTTINGEN
73 Haus, A.S.
74. HAMBURG...
73 a5
76 Be
77 fs
78 ZF
79 HEIDELBERG
80 JENA
81 KONIGSBERG
82 Lerpzia (Saxony)
83 se
84. Marsurc..
85 re
86 Metz
87 MuLHovusE
88 MuNCHEN...
89 STUTTGART
90 o
91 BrrMINnNGHAM
92 pebieeed »
93 BRISTOL...
94. CAMBORNE
95 CAMBRIDGE
96 23
97 a 5
98 33 eso
99 LEEDS
100 ys
101 oe *
102 LiveRPOOoL
103 Lonpon ...
104
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
... *Kéniglches Mineralogische Museum.
... *Offentliche Bibliothek.
. *Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden.
. *Naturhistorisch Medicinischer
i *Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Elberfcli.
*Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gevellschaft
Frankfurt a/M.
Die Berg Akademie zu Freiberg.
... “Naturforschende Gesellschaft zu Freiberg.
... *Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Gorlitz.
. *Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in
Gottingen.
. *Die Kaiserlich Deutsche Leopoldinisch—Caroli-
nische Akademie der Naturforcher zu Halle
A.S. (Prussia).
... *Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft.
... *Deutsche Seewarte.
... *Die Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg.
... “Naturhistorisches
Museum der freien Stadt
Hamburg.
. *Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung
in Hamburg.
Verein zu
Heidelberg,
*Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
. *Konigliche Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesell-
schaft.
*Konigliche Saichsische Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften.
... *Vereins fiir Erdkunde.
... “Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten
Naturwissenschaften in Marburg.
. *The University.
... *Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Metz.
... *Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. ~
. *Koéniglich Baierische Akademie der
Wissen-
schaften in Miinchen.
. *Konigliches Statistisches Landesamt.
. *Verein fur Vaterlandische Naturkunde
in
Wirttemberg.
Great Britain and the Colonies.
33
.. “Birmingham and Midland Institute.
... *Birmingham Philosophical Society.
.. “Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
.. *Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall.
Pi *Philosophical Society.
... *Public Free Library.
Union Society.
University Library.
... ™Conchological Society.
... *Philosophical and Literary Society.
... *Yorkshire College.
... *Literary and Philosophical Society.
... “Agent-General (two copies).
. *Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland.
5 tee peal all
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
105 Lonpon ... ... *British Museum (two copies).
106 S5 ae ... Chemical Society.
107 a ses ... Colonial Office, Downing Street.
108 ss Mai ... *Geological Society.
109 wh ae ... Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain on
Ireland.
110 ng ae ... *Institution of Civil Engineers.
111 a and ... *Institution of Naval Architects.
112 a ... *Iron and Steel Institute.
113 a oA. ... Library, South Kensington Museum.
114 5p Jos ... “Linnean Society.
115 Bes egusids .... London Institution.
116 js a ... *Lords Commissioners of the Admiraltge
117 59 ae ... *Lord Lindsay’s Observatory.
118 % ea ... *Meteorological Office. .
119 i ... *Mineralogical Society.
120 * noe ... Museum of Practical Geology.
121 Be sa ... Patent Office Library.
122 Ss ae ... *Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
123 oS Be ... *Physical Society, South Kensington Museum. :
124. f a ... *Quekett Microscopical Club. :
125 3 Ee ... *Royal Agricultural Society of England.
126 rs oe ... *Royal Asiatic Societyof Great Britain and Ireland.
127 = Be ... “Royal Astronomical Society.
128 ss ay ... *Royal College of Physicians.
129 3 se ... *Royal College of Surgeons.
130 teh ... “Royal Colonial Institute.
131 . is ... *Royal Geographical Society.
132 oa ey ... *Royal Historical Society.
133 5 oe ... *Royal Institution of Great Britain.
134 - Bie ... “Royal Meteorological Society.
135 af se ... *Royal Microscopical Society.
136 a BD ... Royal School of Mines.
137 a is ... *Royal Society.
138 A oD ... Royal Society of Literature.
139 . es ... *Royal United Service Institution.
140 oe ... Society of Arts.
141 i ae .... University of London.
142 eS sa ... War Office —(Intelligence Division).
143 58 ee ... *Zoological Society.
144 MANCHESTER... *Geological Society.
145 ae ... *Literary and Philosophical Society.
146 . *Owens College.
147 Nuwcasrne UPON ») *Natural History Society of Northumberland,
TYNE. : Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
148 3 ... *North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers.
149 5 ... *Society of Chemical Industry.
150 OXFORD ... ... “Ashmolean Library.
151 me aes ... *Bodleian Library.
152 if . we .. *Radcliffe Library.
153 a . ... *Radcliffe Observatory.
154 PENZANCE ... *Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
155 PuymoutTH ... *Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall
Natural History Society.
J56 WINDSOR ... The Queen’s Library.
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
... *South-African Philosophical Society.
DOMINION OF CANADA.
*Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science.
157 Care Town
158 Hauirax (Nova
Scotia)
159 HamiLTon
(Canada West) } *Hamilton Association.
160 MonrTREAL
161 OTTAWA...
162 e. nh
163 oe ae
164 ToRONTO...
165 WINNIPEG
166 CALCUTTA
. *Natural History Society of Montreal.
... *Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada.
... “Royal Society of Canada.
The Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society.
. *Canadian Institute.
.. *Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
INDIA.
. *Asiatic Society of Bengal.
ce ... *Geological Survey of India.
IRELAND.
168 DUBLIN ... ... *Royal Dublin Society.
169 3s ... *Royal Geological Society of Ireland.
170 fe . *Royal Irish Academy.
MAURITIUS.
Royal Society of Arts and Sciences.
Société d’Acclimatation de l? Ile Maurice.
NEW SOUTH WALES.
... “Australian Museum.
171 Port Louis
ae
173 SYDNEY ...
174 bss ... *Engineering Association of New South Wales.
175 - ... *Free Public Library.
176 se ... *Linnean Society of New South Wales.
177 Pr .. *Mining Department.
178 aa . *Observatory.
179 Bs .. School of Arts.
180 - .. *Technological Museum.
181 ce . *University.
NEW ZEALAND.
182 AUCKLAND . *Auckland Institute.
183 CuristcHuRCH ... Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
184 DUNEDIN .. Otago Institute,
185 WELLINGTON ... *Colonial Museum.
186 AS ... “New Zealand Institute.
QUEENSLAND.
187 BrisBANE . *Acclimatization Society of Queensland.
188 a _.. *Royal Geographical Society of Australasia
(Queensland Branch).
189 a3 Parliamentary Library.
190 ap . *Royal Society of Queensland.
SCOTLAND.
191 ABERDEEN .. “Dun Echt Observatory, Earl of Crawford and
Balcarres.
192 es . *University.
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224,
225
226
227
228
229
3)
GLASGOW
23
ADELAIDE
33
SINGAPORE
HOBART ...
BALLAARAT
MELBOURNE
33
193 EDINBURGH
. *Royal Botanic Garden.
... *Royal Observatory.
... *Royal Physical Society.
-. *Royal Society.
.. *Scottish Geographical Society.
... *University. '
. *Geological Society of Glasgow.
. *University. }
. *Government Botanist.
.. *Government Printer.
... “Observatory.
... *Royal Society of South Australia.
. *Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of
. *University.
.. *Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica, Messrs. A. and
C. Black.
*Edinburgh Geological Society.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
South Australia.
. *Royal Asiatic Society.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 9
:
TASMANIA.
. *Royal Society of Tasmania.
VICTORIA. | :
. *School of Mines and Industries.
. *Kield Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.
.. *Government Botanist.
.. *Government Statist.
.. *Mining Department.
... *Observatory.
. *Public Library.
... *Registrar-General.
.. *Royal Society of Victoria. |
.. *University. .
. *Victorian Institute of Surveyors.
Portr-Avu-PRINCE
BIstRITZ
Siebenbtirgen)
ZAGREB (Agram) *Société Archéologique.
BoLoGna
a nae
FLORENCE
33
230 Garvin
(in
. *Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bole ote
.. *Societa Entomologica Italiana.
. *Societa Italiana di Antropologia e di Etnologia.
e
. .
; * Direction der Gewerbeschule.
Hayti.
Société de Sciences et de Géographie.
Hungary.
Italy. La
Universita di Bologna.
*Societa Africana d’ Italia (Sezione Fiorentina).
*Museo Civico di Storia Naturale.
‘
231
232
233
234:
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244,
245
246
24.7
248
249
250
264
265
266
267
Mian
9 ‘
MopENa ...
NAPLES ...
3
33 cee
PALERMO
33
Pisa
Rome
33
SIENA
TURIN
9 oe
VENICE ..,.
ToKIO
m _—
YOKOHAMA
BATAVIA...
Mexico ...
AMSTERDAM
33
53>
HARLEM...
33
BERGEN ...
CHRISTIANIA
33
BucHAREST
HELSINGFORS
KiEFr
Moscow ...
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
Reale IstitutoLombardo di Scienze Lettere ed Arti.
Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali.
. *Académie Royale de Sciences, Lettres et Arts de
Modéne.
.. *Societa Africana d’Italia.
... *Societa Reale di Napoli (Accademia delle Scienze
fisiche e matematiche).
... *Stazione Zoologica (Dr. Dohrn).
... *Accademia Palermitana di Scienze Lettereed Arti.
Reale Istituto Tecnico.
.. *Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.
... *Accademia Pontificia de 7Nuovi Lincei.
... *Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico (Ministero dei
Lavori Pubblico).
Circolo Geografica d’ Italia.
Osservatorio del Astronomico Collegio Romano.
... *R. Accademia dei Lincei.
.. *R. Comitato Geologico Italiano.
.. *Societa Geografica Italiana.
. *R. Accademia de Fisiocritici in Siena.
Reale Accademia delle Scienze.
Regio Osservatorio Astronomico dell’ Universita.
... *Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
Japan.
.. “Imperial University.
... “Seismological Society.
.. *Asiatic Society of Japan.
Java.
. *Kon. Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Neder] Indié.
Mexico.
. *Sociedad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate.”’
Netherlands.
.. *Scadémie Royale des Sciences.
.. *Association Coloniale Neerlandaise.
.. *Societé Royale de Zoologie.
. *Bibliotheque de Musée Teyler.
... *Sociéte Hollandaise des Sciences.
Norway.
.. “Museum.
. *Kongelige Norske Fredericks Universitet.
... *Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania.
Roumania.
. *Institutul Meteorologic al Romaniei.
Russia.
. *Société des Sciences de Finlande.
... *Société des Naturalistes.
. *Societe Impériale des Naturalistes.
268
269
270
271
272
273
274.
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284:
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294.
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
Moscow ... ... *Société Impériale des Amis des Sciences Natur-
elles d’Anthropologie et d’ Ethnographie 4
Moscow (Section d’Anthropologie),
St. PetrerspurGcH *Académie Impériale des Sciences. ’
55 ... *Comité Géologique —Institut des Mines.
Spain.
MAvRID ... ... Instituto geografico y Estadistico.
Sweden.
STockHoLm .... *Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien.
i ... *“Kongliga Universitetet.
Switzerland.
BERNE ... ... *Sociéte de Géographie de Berne.
GENEVA ... ... *Institut National Genévois.
LAUSANNE ... *Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
NEUCHATEL _... *Société des Sciences Naturelles.
United States of America.
ALBANY ... ... *New York State Library, Albany.
ANNAPOLIS (Mp.) *Naval Academy.
BALTIMORE ... *Johns Hopkins University.
BELOIT oem . *Chief Geologist.
Boston ... .. “American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
ots ... “Boston Society of Natural History.
BROOKVILLE... *Brookville Society of Natural History.
- ... Indiana Academy of Science.
BUFFALO... ... *Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.
CAMBRIDGE ... *Cambridge Entomological Club.
Bs ... *Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College.
CHICAGO ... ... Academy of Sciences.
CINCINNATI ... *Cincinnati Society of Natural History.
CoLpwaTER ... Michigan Library Association.
DAVENPORT (Iowa)*Academy of Natural Sciences.
DENVER ... ... *Colorado Scientific Society.
Hosoxen(N.J.)... *Steven’s Institute of Technology.
Towa City (Lowa) *Director lowa Weather Service.
MinnEAPouis ... *Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences.
NEWHAVEN (Conn)*Connecticut Academy of Arts.
New York __... *American Chemical Society.
... American Geographical Society.
... *Editor Journal of Comparative Medicineand Surgery.
... *Editors Science.
.. *New York Academy of Sciences.
... “New York Microscopical Society.
a .. *School of Mines, Columbia College.
PHILADELPHIA ... “Academy of Natural Science.
... “American Entomological Society.
... “American. Philosophical Society.
.. *Franklin Institute.
... *Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
... “Waener Free Institute of Science.
... *Zoological Society of Philadelphia,
33
EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.
312 Satem (Mass.) ... *American Association for the Advancement of
Science,
als e ... *Essex Institute.
314 ra ... *Peabody Academy of Sciences.
315 Sr. Louis ... *Academy of Science.
316 San Francisco... *California Academy of Sciences.
317 be .. *California State Mining Bureau.
318 WaAsHINGTON... *American Medical Association.
319 és. ... *Bureau of Education (Department of the Interior)
320 oe ... *Bureau of Ethnology.
321 Ap ... *Chief of Engineers (War Department).
322 x ... *Chief Signal Officer (War Department).
323 2 ... *Commissioner of Agriculture.
324 ” ... *Director of the Mint (Treasury Department).
325 ce .. Library (Navy Department).
326 55 ... *National Academy of Sciences.
327 a ... *Office of Indian Affairs (Department of the
Interior).
328 ze ... *Ordnance Department.
329 a ... *Philosophical Society.
330 ss ... *Secretary (Department of the Interior).
331 55 ... *Secretary (Treasury Department).
332 ... *Smithsonian Institution.
333 a ... *Surgeon General (U.S. Army).
334 5 .. *U. 8S. Coast and. Geodetic Survey ( Treasury
Department).
335 bp ... *U.S. Geological Survey.
336 Re ... *U.S. National Museum ( Department of the
Interior).
337 a ... U.S. Patent Office.
338 pe ... *War Department.
Number of Publications sent to Great Britain ae sce 80
— is India and the Colonies... 50
23 os America me sce Seema:
Bs a Europe Jae Be ane SG
2” 39 sla, &e. rece eats S00 4
%” ob ditors of Periodicals ia NS
Total Shs
Part LI.
Plate 19.
JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY, N.S.W., 1888.
puvsteon’)
‘Avg wo,o10;T
‘uIezuNOT;, esnoy
-8S
bt)
e
q[eseq O19VUISII
T
Sq
awn ange’ « Meier eemting
pe a
JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY, N.S.W., 1888.
Part IJ.
Plate 20,
Glass-house Mountain, Moreton Bay, Queensland.
Core of Prismatic basalt.
Fig. 2.
he y " " a ra * ; f
MTT Bm ae wr RATE NINE AT COTY
~
nt
ae
i
{
a wag
1 er
,
4
%
Lae) Soa
coe
fa
Part i.
Plate 2],
JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY, N.S.W., 1888.
‘snojaymoqiey-ord “ssvp ‘sndneg ul [IE yweopyerg woay ysnp ormeoJOA "p
‘Areusezen’y “epeaony “OAT eoyonAT, oy} wor ysnp ommesjoa *9
"eSST ‘WILe ysnsny ‘eoyeyery wor poydnse qsnp s1uUeOIO A “4
"GLST ‘TING PUL YIGS Gorey ‘AeMIONT UT [POF YOrYM ysnp oruvajoA “
‘qsnq oTuesToO A Jo susuroedg snowea ‘8 ‘SLT
, -f Pesce
A —Ior* ——*t =i ees) a; J ana
ye {LS — —~— L aa
Ye
a
i u. 2
\ A
Se ee Se ee —— Ie yaar
4
etn
r ‘ y 1 if ij th : , y i i wh
del tla Cet te NiCr aaa
JOURNAL
ROYAL SOCIETY, N.S.W., 1888.
Ash from Bromo crater, Java, x 70 diam.,
Fig. 6. Sahara Desert Sand, x 300d
Plate 22.
active volcano.
lait.
Part
II.
ha Syplty
Part II.
Plate 23.
JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY, N.S.W., 1888.
‘OL x ‘puvfsteond ‘einssunidg
‘atquivig JUNOPY “eavy urosy aqipe dz]
4
‘meIp OG x ‘eITegeNY YWON “Yoo weyx
‘oUdgSpueyg Woseq °“g ‘Big
2asuT Hinw 79659
JIANG AIAGK SYD.
’
AT UnIM © YAIWZ
SIDE ELEVATION — HALF SI
ZINC =TUBE
See
CLOCK HICH TURMS
CYLINDER OmCE
PLAN OF CONTACT DETAILS — FULL
H Temperature i shewn by a change of 005 Inch
in the Cylinder.
\
an ee ha a pres gn an la
a tea manana eer meio ween are b-q mn maar is NRoessnineencptenniasnenearindlaabartid
G my
anager enact tt enter hes ne i rom pein ene
ry
3
?
- ~
sf
i
Pc '
WOITAV312 ava
ol
*
ate 9S etek Bh,
Di
exp bes