a hat ee eee a \ a | JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1899. (INCORPORATED 1881.) Wot. LSet. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick Square, PaTERNOsTER Row, Lonvon, E.C. 1899. set NOTICES. Tue Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the * Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘“ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. The Society’s Journal for 1899, Vol. xxx111., has been forwarded to the same Societies and Institutions as enumerated on the printed list in Vol. xxx. (viz. 400), with the addition of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago; Royal Society of Sciences and Belles Lettres, Gothenburg; the Editor of Science Abstracts, London; Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Nuremberg; British Medical Association (N.S.W. Branch); Mount Kosciusko Observatory, N.S.W.; Societa Italiana di Fisica, Pisa; Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu; Illinois Biological Station, Havana, IIL; University of Chicago Press ; Maryland Geological Survey, Balti- more; Philadelphia Commercial Museum, U.S.A.; Editor of the Mineral Industry, New York; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York. It is requested that the volume may be acknowledged by returning the Form of Receipt (to be found stitched in the com- mencement of the volume) signed and dated in order that any delay or mis-delivery may be brought to notice. Plates I. and II. illustrating the paper of Mr. R. A. Bastow, on “Red or Purple Marine Algz,” (pp. 45-47) may be had on application to the Hon. Secretaries. _ | TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink; so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic “process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x62in. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. ERRATA. Page 109, last line, for “ No. 3,”’ read “‘ No. 2.” » 114, line 5, for ‘* No. 8,” read No. 1.” » 114, line 10, for “ divisons,” read ‘‘ divisions.” », 125, line 14, for “ an,” read “no.” », 128, line 9, for “ 76,” read “7°6.” »» XvVI., line 16, for “‘ comfusing,” read “ comprising.” PUBLICATIONS. O Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vol. 9 II. 9 99 ” 29 ITI. 99 99 99 39 IV. 39 99 99 99 Vi 99 399 99 bP) VE. 99 99 99 93 Vln: >) 99 be) rh) VIII. 99 99 99 29 IX. 39 29 99 a X. Journal and Proceedings 29 XI. 99 9? 39 99 XIT 99 99 99 bP) XIII >) 99 99 +B ) XIV 99 be) +) 99 >. Oe 99 99 99 99 XVI. 919 99 +9 99 XVII. 99 99 99 = SQWALUE 3 xs 5 99 XIX. 99 99 99 99 XX. 99 99 99 sy | ee O-Oke 9 ” ” 99 XXII. be) 79 ode) ee OLE: As 36 AS 99 XXIV. 99 339 99 99 XXV. 99 99 39 99 XXVI. +) ” 99 » XXVIT. i ue re »AXX VIII. * <. A 5» XIX, ss 4p ” Pit he os ” ” ws; a Tl, 50 9 ry apy oo ” ” » p.@.0.9 085 3 Ap » I. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, 1868, ,, 120, 1869, ,, 173, 1870, ,, 106, A874) 72 1872, ,, 123, 1873, ,, 182, 1874, ,, 116, 1875, ,, 235, 1876, ,, 383, 1877, ,, 305, bP) 99 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 1879, ,, 255, 1880, ,, 391, 1881, ,, 440, 1882, ,, 327, 1883, ,, 324, 1884, ,, 224, 1885, ,, 240, 1886, ,, 396, 1887, ,, 296, 1888, ,, 390. 1889, ,, 534, 1890, ,, 290, 1991, ,, 348, 1892, ,, 426, 1893, ,, 530, 1894, ,, 368, 1895, ,, 600, 1896, ,, 568, 1897, ,, 626, 1898, ,, 476, 1899, ,, 400, » lOs. 6d. »» 10s. 6d. 10s. 6d. >> 10s. 6d, 7 ~~ CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXII. OFFICERS FOR 1899-1900 Mate List ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. Arr. ART. ART. ART. ArT. X ART. ART. ART. or MremBers, ce. ..: ie Sf ae itis ae I.—PReEsIDENT’s ADDRESS. By G. H. Knibbs, F.B.A.s. II.—Key to Tribes and Genera of the Floridee (Red or Purple Marine Alge). By Richard A. Bastow. (Com- municated by J. H. Maiden, F.u.s.) (Plates i., ii.) .. ITI.—On the metamorphosis of the young form of Filaria Bancrofti, Cobb, [Filaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis; Filaria nocturna, Manson] in the body of Culez ciliaris, Linn., the “‘House mosquito of Australia.” By T. L. Bancroft, m.s. IV.—Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the char- acter of Seasons as regards Rainfall, and especially that of Droughts. By H. Deane, m.a., M.Inst.C.E., &.. (Plate iii.) V.— Observations on the determination of Drought-intensity. By G. H. Knibbs, F.n.a.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney .. VI.—On the Ersinllitie aataphor, of Bvonlyroiteis Oil (aden: mol), and the natural formation of Eucalyptol. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney ... VII.—Divisions of some Aboriginal Tribes, Queensland. Be R. H. Mathews, t.s.) VIII.—The Initiation Cotemnorves oP the Aubicniptibs of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales. By W. J. ee B.A. (Com-municated by R. H. Mathews, t.s. aes IX.—Sailing Birds are dependent on Wave- yewer: By L. Hargrave .—Some applications al dovolapironts of he Bricmortal Formula. By G. H. Knibbs, F.r.a,s., Lecturer in ee University of Sydney XI.—Current Papers, No. 4. Be lat C. meee, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. (Plates v., vi.) XII.—Discovery of Glaciated Boulders’ at Base of sparitios Carboniferous System, Lochinvar, New South Wales. By Professor T. W. E. David, B.a., F.a.8. (Plate iv.) ... XITII.—On New South Wales Copper Ores Containing Todine: By Arthur Dieseldorff, m.x., Freiberg, Baden, Germany. (Communicated by A. J. Bateudan: Assoc, R.S.M., F.C.S.) 45 48 63 69 86 108 115 125 129 145 154: 160 (vi.) Pace Art. XIV.—On the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their Essential Oils. By R. 'T. Baker, F.u.s., Curator, and H. G. Smith, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney... 163 Art. XV.—Orbit Elements Comet I., 1899 (Swift). By C. J. Merfield, F.R.A.S. ... 177 Arr. XVI.—On the competion of N. ‘Ss. Wales Labeadoried aid Topazes with a comparison of methods for the estimation of Fluorine. By G. Harker, B.se. (Communicated by Prof. Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.) .. 193 Art, XVII.—On a remarkable increase 2 of formpornnine eee dark at Seven Oaks, Macleay River. By Hugh Charles Kiddle, F.R. Met. Soc., Public School, Seven Oaks, Macleay River ... 204 Art. XVIII.—Records of rock temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain, Sydney, N.S. Wales. By J. L. C. Rae, E. F. Pittman, Assoc. R.8.M., and Professor T. W, E. David, B.A., F.a.s. ... ant ee Le 207 Art. XIX.—Note on Edible Earth from Fiji By the Hon. B.G. Corney, u.D., Professor T’.. W. E. David, B.a., F.a.s., and FE. B. Gomes F.C.S. Me wc» 228 Art, XX.—Annual Address to the Shae incertae: iecuom! By Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E. Aa I. Art. XXI.—The Sewerage Systems of ‘North Sydney ana Doabie Bay. By J. Davis, M, Inst. CE. XI. Art. XXII.—The manufacture of Monier Pipes! By F. M. Guta XXXIV. Art. XXITI.—‘“‘ Le Pont Vierendeel.” By J. 1. Haycroft, M.1.c.n.1. XXXVIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ... i oe at shes “i rh PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING sueuienn ee aw wae) Dixie PROCEEDINGS OF THE MeEpicAL SECTION ... ae RE Rem oe InpEx To VOLUME XXXIII.. ... 500 506 sae we (xxXvVii.) Royal Fociety of Hew Row ceales. OP LOC Es EO 1899-1900, Honorary President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM EARL BEAUCHAMP, k.c.m.a. President: W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.¢. Vice-Presidents: Pror. ANDERSON STUART, mu.p. | Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., ¥.4.8. CHARLES MOORE, v.1.s. HENRY DEANE, w.a.,M. Inst, CE. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.R.¢.s. Eng., u.8.a. Lond. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, rF.us. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.A.s. Members of Council: C. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. F. H. QUAIFE, w.a., m.v. J. W. GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.E. H.C. RUSSELL, B.a., o.M.G., F.B.S. F. B. GUTHRIE, r.c.s. HENRY G. SMITH, r.c.s. H.,A. LENEHAN, F.R..s, J. ASHBURTON THOMPSON, M.D. Brux., D.P.H. Camb., M.R.C.S. Eng. Prof. LIVERSIDGE,m.a.,uu.p.,F.B.s.| PRor. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh.Sc. Assistant Secretary : W. H. WEBB. FORM OF BEQUEST. £ bequeath the sum of £ to the RoyaL Society oF New Soutu WaAtEs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [ Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legacies are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | WAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAYAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVATAVAVAVAVAVAVAVATALAVATATA CA CAVA VANAVINANENAREUNINEVININENINENENANENENINZUANINININININININENENINENENENINININISINENINONENINININININSEVININIVINICEVINENININIVININININENIVINININERINIVIVINIDILENIUTUI NEN ENERO Eee NOTICE. Members are particularly requested to communicate any change of address to the Hon. Secretaries, for which purpose this slip is inserted. Correct Address: rere ee ee ee ee COCO CLO oe coo F eG FOG FOOH08 CHF GOH T COTES SEOOEE SOG MASE GE CMe acetate ea Aae's te Seea sie ond sweetie dtneeceiee cs Sooouogacas soocons0cod “20006 Address Peace oesessesGeered Oe ea OO ee OO ee CAFES HOHEHOHTOHSHHTHT HOH SHAH HHHO SES HOH FOO SOCHOFEEHED HOE EES Ber ese See FSET esFOF see SSSFFF FAH FSH 68 se ser SOKRHHHFSOHHHELEEOE Cees see oerses 06812 SOK SHHSSHHOSHH ROHS BO2°9°% LAL Sead ee eee eee To the Hon. Secretaries, The Royal Society of N. S. Wales, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney. Y ¥ C , ‘ } ree 7 LIST OF THE MEMBERS Aopal Society of Ae South Hales. P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. t Life Members. Elected. 1877 Abbott, The Hon. Sir Joseph Palmer, Knt., kK.c.M.G., M.L.A., Speaker of the Legislative Assembly, Castlereagh- street. 1877 | P5| Abbott, W .E., ‘ Abbotsford,’ Wingen. 1864 Adams, P. F., ‘ Casula,’ Liverpool. 1895 Adams, J. H. M., Atheneum Club, p.r. Broughton Cottage, St. James’ Road Waverley. 1890 | P2| Allan, Percy, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E., Engineer-in- Charge of Bridge Design, Public Works Depart., Sydney. 1885 Allworth, Joseph Witter, District Surveyor, East Maitland. 1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, Cement Works, Dru'itt-street. 1877 Anderson, H. C. L., u.a.. 161 Macquarie-street. 1896 Archer, Samuel, B.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Office, Mudgee. 1899 Atkinson, A. A., Chief Inspector of Colieries, Department of Mines, Sydney. 1878 Backhouse, Alfred P., m.a., District Court Judge, ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. 1894 | P5| Baker, Richard Thomas,r.u.s.,Curator, Technological Museum. 1894. tBalsille, George, Sandymount, Dunedin, New Zealand. 1895 | P4 “Bancroft, T. L., u.B. Edin., Deception Bay, vid Burpengary, Brisbane, Queensland. 1896 Barff. H. E., u.a., Registrar, Sydney University. 1895 | P6 Barraclough, Ss. H. B.E., M.M.@., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Acting Pro- fessor of Engineering, Sydney University; p.r. ‘ Lans- down, 30 Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst. 1876 Bassett, W. F., u.r.c.s. Eng., George-street, Bathurst. 1894 Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor Existing Lines Office, Railway Department; p.r. ‘ Hawerby,’ Vernon-street, Strathfield. 1898 Beale, Charles Griffin, 109 Pitt-street and Warrigal Club. 1877 Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. 1875 Belisario, John, m.pD. , Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1876 Benbow, Clement “* 263 Elizabeth-street. 1869 | P2| Bensusan, S. L., 12 O’Connell-street, Box 411 G.P.O. 1895 Bensusan, A. J., a.R.S.M,, F.Cc.S., Laboratory, 12 O’Connell-st. 1888 tBlaxland, Walter, F.B.C.S. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., Mount Barker, South Australia. 1893 Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., Survey Camp, Moree. Elected 1898 1879 1895 1891 1893 1893 1876 1891 1878 1896 1876 J891 1898 1891 1890 1880 (xii.) Blunno, Michele, Government Viticultural Expert, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. {Bond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. P1| Boultbee, James W., Superintendent of Public Watering P3 P2 Pl Places and Artesian Boring, Department of Lands. Bowman, Archer S., c.z., ‘Turuwul,’ Redmyre Road, Burwood. Bowman, John, c.z., Tramway Construction Branch, Public Works Department. Bowman, Reginald, M.B. et ch. mM. Hdin., 261 Elizabeth-street and George-street, Parramatta. Brady, Andrew J ohn, Lic. K. & Q. Coll. Phys. [rel., Lic, R. Coll, Sur. [rel., 3 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.B. Ch. M. Syd. Univ., Resident Medical Officer, Sydney Hospital, Macquarie-street. {Brooks, Joseph, F.R G.S., F.R.A.S., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. Brown, Alexander, Newcastle. Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle. Bruce, John Leck, Technical College, Sydney. Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., B. Sc,, 1 Hereford-st., Glebe Point. Burge, Charles Ormsby, M. mst.c.z., Principal Assistant En- gineer, Railway Construction, ‘ Fitz Johns,’ Alfred-street N., North Sydney. Burne, Dr. Alfred, Dentist, 1 Lyons’ Terrace, Liverpool-st. Bush, Thomas James, Engineer’s Office, Australian Gas-Light Company, 163 Kent-street. Cadel], Alfred, Dalmorton. Callender, James Ormiston, Consulting Electrical Engineer, c/o Callender’s Cable and Construction Co., Ld., 90 Cannon- street, London. Cameron, Alex. Mackenzie, Walgett. Cameron, R. B., Secretary A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. Campbell, Rev. Joseph, m.a., F.G.s., F.c.s., Te Aroha, Auckland, New Zealand. Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘ Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Road. Cardew, John Haydon, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., L.S., 75 Pitt-street. Carleton, Henry R.., M. mst.c.£., ‘ Tarcoola,’ Nelson-st. Woollahra. Carment, David, F.1.a. Gt. Brit. & Irel., F.F.A. Scot., Australian Mutual Provident Society, 87 Pitt-street. tChard, J. S., Licensed Surveyor, Armidale. Chisholm, Edwin, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.s.A. Lond., 82 Darlinghurst Road. : j Chisholm, William, u.p. Lond., 1389 Macquarie-street, North. Clubbe, C. P. B., u.x.c.p. Lond., m.R.c.s. Eng., 195 Macquarie-st. Cook, W. E., u.c.z. Melb. Univ., M. mst. c.z., District Engineer, Water and Sewerage Department, North Sydney. Codrington, John Frederick, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.P. Lond., L.B.c.p. Edin., ‘ Holmsdale,’ Chatswood. Cohen, Algernon A., .B., M.D. Aberd., m.R.c.s. Eng., 714 Dar- linghurst Road. Colquhoun, George, Crown Solicitor, ‘Rossdhu,’ Belmore . Road, Hurstville. ‘Colyer, J. U. C., Australian Gas-Light Co., 163 Kent-street. Elected 1855 1882 1891 1892 1880 1886 1869 1870 1899 1891 1875 1890 1876 1877 ne 1892 1878 1885 1877 1899 1894. 1875 1880 1879 1876 1899 1873 1899 Pl P5 Pa P 14 Pi (xiii.) Comrie, James,‘ Northfield,’ Kurrajong Heights, vid Richmond. Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Waterloo. Coutie, W. H., ™.B.,ch.B., Univ. Melb., ‘ Warminster,’ Canter- bury Road, Petersham. Cowdery, George R.., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E. Engineer for Tramways, Public Works Buildings, Phillip-street; p.r, ‘ Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Cox, The Hon. George Henry, u.t.c., Mudgee: and Warrigal Club, 145 Macquarie-street. Crago, W. H.; m.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., 16 College-street, Hyde Park. Creed, The Hon. J. Mildred, m.u.c., M.R.c.Ss. Eng., L.R.Cc.P. Hdin., 125 Elizabeth-street. Croudace, Thomas, Lambton. Cullen, Hon. W. P., m.a., Lu.D., M.L.c., Barrister-at-Law, ‘Trygoyd,’ Mosman. Curran, Rev. J. Milne, Lecturer in Geology, Technical College, Sydney. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer- cantile Bank Chambers, Margaret-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, ™.E£., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Roads and Bridges Branch, Public Works Department. Darley, Cecil West, M. nst.c.c., Engineer-in-Chief, Public Works Department. Darley, The Hon. Sir Frederick, k.c.u.a., B.A., Chief Justice, Supreme Court. David, T. W. Edgeworth, s.a., F.a.s., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography, Sydney University, Glebe. Vice- President. Davis, Joseph, M.Ist.c.z., Supervising Engineer, Sewerage Branch, Public Works. Dean, Alexander, J.p., 42 Castlereagh-street, Box 409 G.P.O, P2/| Deane, Henry, M.A., M. Inst. c.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Railways, Pl P 12 Pl Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department, p-r. ‘ Blanerne, Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill. Vice- President. Deck, John Field, u.p. Univ. St. And., u.n.c.P. Lond., M.R.C.S. Eng., 203 Macquarie-street; p.r. Ashfield. De Coque, J. V., Public Works Department, Sydney. Dick, James Adam, B.a. Syd., m.p., c.m. Hdin., ‘ Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A., F.c.s., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, Thomas, u.8. Edin., Mast. Surg. Edin., 287 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. Docker, Wilfred L., ‘Nyrambla,’ Darlinghurst Road. Docker, Ernest B., u.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘ Eltham,’ Edgecliffe Road. Duckworth, A., A.M.P, Society, 87 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘Trentham,’ Woollahra. Du Faur, E., F.x.4.s., Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street. Durack, J. J. E., 8.a. Syd., St. John’s College University. - (xiv.) Elected 1894 Edgell, Robert Gordon, Roads and Bridges Office, Wollombi. 1896 Edwards, George Rixon, Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Branch, Coonamble. 1879 | P4| Etheridge, Robert Junr., 3.e., Curator, Australian Museum ; p.r. 21 Roslyn-street, Darlinghurst. 1876 Evans, George, Fitz Evan Chambers, Castlereagh-street. 1892 Everett, W. Frank, Roads and Bridges Office, Muswellbrook. 1896 Fairfax, Charles Burton, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1877 {Fairfax, Edward Ross, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1868 Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. 1887 Faithfull, R. L., uv. ‘New York (Coll. Phys. & Surg.) L.R.c.P., L.s.A. Lond., 18 Wylde-street. 1889 Farr, Joshua J., J.p., ‘Cora Lynn,’ Addison Ras Marrickville: 1897 Fell, David, Public Accountant, Equitable Buildings, George- street. 1881 Fiaschi, Thos., M.p.,m.ch. Univ. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. 1891 Firth, Thomas Rhodes, ™. Inst. c.E., ‘Glenevin,’ Arncliffe. 1891 Fitzgerald, Robert D., ¢.z., Roads and Bridges Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney; p.r. Alexandra-st., Hunter’s Hill. 1888 Fitzhardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Red Hill,’ Pennant Hills, Northern Line. 1894 Fitz Nead, A. Churchill, Lands Department, Lismore. f 1879 {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Hdin., 141 Macquarie- street. 1881 Foster, The Hon. W. J., Q.c., ‘Thurnby,’ Enmore Road, Newtown. 1881 Furber, T. F., Surveyor General’s Office, ‘Tennyson House,’ 145 Victoria-street. 1889 Gale, Walter Frederick, F.R.A.8., Mem. A.8.P.&B.A.A., Savings’ Bank of New South Wales, Newcastle. 1899 | P1| Garran, Hon. A., M.A., LL.D., M.L.c., ‘Roanoke,’ Roslyn Avenue, Darlinghurst. 1899 Garran, R. R., m.a., Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. 1876 George, W. R., 318 George-street. 1879 Gerard, Francis, ‘ Clandulla,’ Goulburn. 3 1896 Gibson, Frederick William, District Court Judge, ‘ Grasmere,’ Stanmore Road. 1891 Gill, Robert J., Public Works Department, Moruya. 1876 | P4]| Gipps, F. B., c.z., ‘ Elmly.’ Mordialloc, Victoria. 1883 Goode, W. H., m.a., M.D., ch.M. Diplomate in State Medicine Dub.; Surgeon Royal Navy; Corres. Mem. Royal Dublin Society; Mem. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence, University of Sydney, 159 Macquarie-st. 1859 Goodlet, John H., ‘Canterbury House,’ Ashfield. 1896 Gollin, Walter J., ‘ Winslow,’ Darling Point. 1897 Gould, Hon. Albert John, M.L.c., J:P., Holt’s wr 121 Pitt-street; p.r. 69 Roslyn Gardens. ’ Elected 1886 1891 1899 1898 1877 1891 1880 1899 1892 1887 1882 1881 1877 1899 1884 1899 1890 1891 1884 1899 1899 1891 1876 1896 1891 1892 1891 1879 1891 1877 1894 1891 Pil Pl P2 iP P5 (xv.) Graham, James, M.A., M.D., M.B., C.M. Hdin., M.u.A., 183 Livers pool-street. Grimshaw, James Walter, M. Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., &., Australian Club, Sydney. Gummow, Frank M., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-street. Gurney, Elliott Henry, ‘Glenavon,’ Albert-st., Petersham. Gurney, T. T., w.a. Cantab., Professor of Mathematics, Sydney University; p.r. ‘Clavering,’ French’s Forest Road, Manly. Guthrie, Frederick B., F.c.s., Department of Agriculture, Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Westella,’ Wonga-street, Burwood. Halligan, Gerald H., c.z., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. Halloran, A., B.A., LL.B., 20 Castlereagh-street. Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., Scott’s Chambers, 94 Pitt-st. Hamlet, William M., F.c.s., F.1.c., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street North. President. Hankins, George Thomas, m.r.c.s. Hng., ‘St. Ronans,’ Allison Road, Randwick.- tHarris, John, ‘ Bulwarra,’ Jones-street, Ultimo. P 18\tHargrave, Lawrence, J.p., 44 Roslyn Gardens, City. ”~ P2 PI P2 PZ ing P2 Harper, H. W., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 63 Pitt-street. Haswell, William Aitcheson, M.A., D. Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University, Sydney ; p.r. St. Vigeans, Darling Point. Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. 14 Toxteth Road, Glebe Point. | Haycroft, James Isaac, u.z. Queen’s Univ. Irel., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Assoc. M. Can. Soc. C.E., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E., M.M. & C.E., M. Inst. C.E. I., L.S., ‘Fontenoy,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant in Zoology, Australian Museum, Sydney. Henson, Joshua B., c.z., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Henderson, J., City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-street. Henderson, S., M.4., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 63 Pitt-street. Hickson, Robert R. P., M. inst.c.z, Under Secretary, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘The Pines,’ Bondi. Hirst, George D., 377 George-street. Hinder, Henry Critchley, u.B.,c.m. Syd., Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. Hood, Alexander Jarvie, u.s., Mast. Surg. Glas., 127 Mac- quarie-street, City. Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. Inst. C.E.,M. I. Mech. E., 12 Spring-street. Houison, Andrew, 8.A., M.B., c.m. Edin., 47 Phillip-street. How, William F., M. inst. c.E., M.1I. Mech. E., Wh. 8c, Mutual Life Buildings, George-street. Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah,’ Campbelltown. Hunt, Henry A., F.8. Met. Soc, Second MUSSD CO Assistant, Sydney Observatory. Hutchinson, William, M. inst.c.z., Supervising Bifeineer, Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department, Moree. _ Elected ~ 1891 1884 1887 1884: 1867 1876 1875 1878 1883 1873 1877 1894. 1887 1898 1892 1891 1874 1896 1892 1878 1881 1877 1875 1878 1874 1883 1872 P2 P3 Pat (xvi.) Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 157 Liverpool- street, Hyde Park. Jenkins, Edward Johnstone, M.A., M.D. Oxon., M.R.C.P., M.B.C.Se5 L.S.A. Lond., 218 Macquarie-street, North. Jones, George Mander, M.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., ‘ Viwa,’ Burlington Road, Homebush. Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, m.u.a., Solicitor, Sydney Chambers, 130 Pitt-street. Jones, P. Sydney, u.p. Lond., ¥F.R.c.s. Eng.. 16 College-street, Hyde Park; p.r. ‘ Llandilo,’ Boulevard, Strathfield. Jones, Richard Theophilus, m.p. Syd., L.R.c.p. Edin., ‘Caer Idris,’ Ashfield. Josephson, J. Percy, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., ‘Moppity,’ George-street, Dulwich Hill. Joubert, Numa, Hunter’s Hill. Kater, The Hon. H. E., J.p., m.u.c., Australian Club. Keele, Thomas William, ™. Inst.c.z., District Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Ballina, Richmond River. Keep, John, Broughton Hall, Leichhardt. Kelly, Walter MacDonnell, u.x.c.p., L.R.c.s. Hdin., L.F.P.s. Glas., 265 Elizabeth-street. Kent, Harry C., u.a., Bell’s Chambers, 129 Pitt-street. Kerry, Charles H., 310 George-street. Kiddle, Hugh Charles, F. r. Met. soc, Public School, Seven Oaks, Smithtown, Macleay River. King, Christopher Watkins, Assce. M. Inst. C.E., LS. Roads and Briages Branch, Public Works Department, Sydney. King, The Hon. Philip G., u.u.c., ‘ Banksia,’ William-street, Double Bay. King, Kelso, ‘Glenhurst,’ Darling Point. Kirkcaldie, David, Commissioner, New South Wales Govern- ment Railways, Sydney. Knaggs, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, ¥F.R.c.s. Irel., 5 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. Knibbs, G. H., F.n.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Avoca House,’ Denison Road, Petersham. Hon. Secretary. Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay. Knox, The Hon. Sir Edward, Knt., m.t.c., ‘ Fiona,’ New South Head Road, Woollahra. Kyngdon, F. B., F.x.m.s. Lond., Deanery Cottage, Bowral. Lenehan, Henry Alfred, F.R.a.s., Sydney Observatory. Lingen, J. T., u.a. Cantab., 167 Phillip-street. P 48) Liversidge, Archibald, u.a. Cantab., LL.D., F R.s.; Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, Lond.; F.c.8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.; Fel. Inst. Chem. of Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Hon. Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond.; Mem. Phy. Soc., Lond.; Mineralogical Society, Lond.; Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Cor. Mem. Edin. Geol. Soc.; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Roy. Soc., Queensland ; Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt; Society d’ Acclimat., Mauritius, Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc., Viet.; N. Z. Institute ; K. Leop. Carol. Acad., Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe; p.r. ‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point. Elected 1881 1878 1892 1884 1887 1874 1892 1897 1878 1868 1877 1891 1891 1893 1876 1876 1880 1876 1894 1882 1883 1880 1877 1879 1869 1897 1875 1888 1896 PS Pil P6 P1 P8 P4 (xvii.) Lloyd, Lancelot T., ‘ Eurotah,’ William-street, East. Low, Hamilton, 32 Cavendish-street, Petersham. MacCarthy, Charles W., m.p., F.B.c.s. Irel., 223 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. MacCormick, Alexander, m.D., c.m. Hdin., M.R.c.s. Hng., 125 Macquarie-street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., u.B., o.m. Edin., 24 College-street. M‘Cutcheon, John Warner, Assayer to the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint. McDonagh, John M., B.A., M.D., m.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.C.8. Irel., 173 Macquarie-street, North. MacDonald, C. A., c.z., 63 Pitt-street. MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.p., ‘ Kamilaroi,’ Darling Point. MacDonnell, William J., F.R.a.s. c/o Mr. W. C. Goddard, Norwich Chambers, Hunter-street. MacDonnell, Samuel, 12 Pitt-street. McDouall, Herbert Crichton, m.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Hospital for Insane, Newcastle. McKay, R. T., u.s., Sewerage Construction Branch, Public Works Department. McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc. M.B., Ch.m., Cambridge-street, Stanmore. Mackellar, The Hon. Charles Kinnaird, M.u.c., M.B., c.M. Glas., 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park; p.r.‘ Dunara,’ Rose Bay. Mackenzie, Rev. P. F., The Manse, Johnston-st., Annandale. M‘Kinney, Hugh Giffin, u.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., u. Inst. c.z., Chief Engineer for Water Conservation, Athenzum Club, Castle- reagh-street. MacLaurin, The Hon. Henry Norman, M.L.c., M.A., M.D. Edin., L.R.c.S. Hdin., Lu.p. Univ. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-st. McMillan, William, ‘ St. Kilda,’ Allison-st., Randwick. Madsen, Hans. F., ‘ Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st., Newtown. Maiden, J. Henry, J.P.,F.u.s.,Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Gt. Brit.; of the National Agric. Soc. Chili; Hon. Memb. Royal Nether- lands Soc. (Haarlem); of the Philadelphia Coll. of Phar- macy; of the Royal Soc. of S.A.; of the Mueller Botanic Soc. of W.A.; Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. Mann, John F., ‘ Kerepunu,’ Neutral Bay. Manning, Frederic Norton, u.p. Univ. St. And., u.R.c.s. Eng., L.s.A. Lond., Australian Club. Mansfield, G. Allen, Martin Chambers, Moore-street. Marden, John, B.A., M.A., LL.B. Univ. Melb., tu.p. Univ. Syd., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, t.s., Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; Cor. Mem. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland ; Cor. Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; ‘Carcuron,’ Hassall- street, Parramatta. Megginson, A. M., m.B., c.m. Edin., 48 College-street. Merfield, Charles J., ¥.R.a.s., Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Branville,’ Green Bank- street, Marrickville. Elected 1887 1873 1882 1889 1892 1856 1879 1875 1877 1882 1877 1879 1888 1887 1898 1876 1893 1890 1891 1873 1893 1888 1896 1875 1883 1891 1883 1878 1899 1877 1899 1877 1899 P3 P7 Pil (xviii.) Miles, George E., L.R.C.P. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., The Hospital, Rydalmere, N ear Parramatta. Milford, F., u.p. Heidelberg, m.R.¢.s. Eng., 231 Elizabeth-st. Milson, James, ‘ Elamang,’ North Shore. Mingaye, John C. H., F.c.8., M.A.I.M.E., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines, Sydney. Mollison, James Smith, M. Inst.C.E., Roads, Bridges.and Sewerage Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney. Moore, Charles, F.u.s., Australian Club; p.r. 6 Queen-street, Woollahra. Vive-President. Moore, Frederick H., Illawarra Coal Co., Gresham-street. Moir, James, 58 Margaret-street. Morris, William, Fel. Fac. Phys. and Surg. Glas., F.R.M.S. Lond., 5 Bligh-street. Moss, Sydney, ‘ Kaloola,’ Kiribilli Point, North Shore. t{Mullens, Josiah, r.z.a.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. Mullins, John Francis Lane, m.a. Syd., ‘ Billountan,’ Challis Avenue, Pott’s Point. Mullins, George Lane, m.a., m.D. Trin. Coll. Dub., m.p. Syd., F.R.M.S. Lond., ‘Murong,’ Waverley. Munro, William John, m.B., o.m. Hdin., M.R.c.s. Eng., c/o Miss Munro, ‘ Chester,’ Stanmore. Murray, Lee, u.c.z. Melb., 65 Pitt-street. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood. Nangle, James, Architect, Australia-street, Newtown. Neill, Leopold Edward Flood, M.B,ch.M. Univ. Syd., No. 3, Bayswater Houses, Double Bay. LNoble, Edwald George, 21 Norfolk-street, Paddington. Norton, The Hon. James, M.uL.c., LL.D., Solicitor, 2 O’Connell- street ; p.r. ‘ Ecclesbourne,’ Double Bay. Noyes, Edward, c.z., ‘ Waima,’ Wentworth Road, Point Piper, Sydney. O’Neill, G. Lamb, m.s., c.m. Edin., 291 Elizabeth-street. Onslow, Lt. Col. James William Macarthur, Camden Park, Menangle. O’Reilly, W. W. J., M.D.,M. ch. Q. Univ. Irel., m.R.c.s. Eng., 197 Liverpool-street. Osborne, Ben. M., g.p., ‘ Hopewood,’ Bowral. Osborn, A. F., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.. PublicWorks Department, Cowra. Palmer, Joseph, 133 Pitt-st.; pr. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. | Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool- street, Hyde Parke Pearce, W., Union Club; p.r. ‘ Waiwera,’ Cecil-st., Ashfield. Pedley, Perceval R., 227 Macquarie-street. Perkins, E. W., 122 Pitt-street. Perkins, Henry A., ‘ Barangah,’ Coventry Road, Homebnent Petersen, T. T., Mercantile Mutnal Chambers, 118 Pitt-street. Elected 1876 1879 | P5 1899 1881 1890 1879 1887 1891 1896 1897 1893 1876 1899 1865 1881 1890 1870 1893 1885 1897 1892 1884 1895 1895 1882 1894 Pil (xix. ) | Pickburn, Thomas, m.p., c.m. Aberdeen, M.R.c.S. Eng., 22 College-street. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc. R.S.M., LS., Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Plummer, John, Northwood, Lane Cove River. Poate, Frederick, District Surveyor, Tamworth. Pockley, Francis Antill, MB, M.ch, Univ. Hdin., u.R.c.s. Eng., 227 Macquarie-street. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial Bank, Singleton. Pollock, James Arthur, B.zE. Roy. Univ. Irel., B.Sc. Syd., Pro- fessor of Physics, Sydney University. Poole, William Junr., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 87 Pitt-street, Redfern. Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., O.M., F.R.C.S. Hdin., Ophthalmic Surgeon, 235 Macquarie-street. Portus, A. B., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Superintendent of Dredges, Public Works Department. Purser, Cecil, B.A. M.B.Ch.M. Syd., ‘ Valdemar,’ Boulevard, Petersham. Quaife, Frederick H., m.a., m.p., Master of Surgery Glas., ‘Hughenden,’ 14 Queen-street, Woollahra. P1| Rae, J. L. C., Manager Sydney Harbour Collieries Ltd.; p.r. ‘Strathmore,’ Ewenton-street, Balmain. P1 |t{Ramsay, Edward P., uu.p. Univ. St. And., F.R.s.E., F.LS., Petersham. P3| Rennie, Edward H., m.a. Syd., D.Sc. Lond., Professor of Pi Pl Chemistry, University, Adelaide. Rennie, George E., B.a. Syd., m.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., 40 College-street, Hyde Park. Renwick, The Hon. Sir Arthur, m.t.c., B.a. Syd., M. A. F.B.C. 8. Edin., 295 Elizabeth-street. Roberts, W. 8S. de Lisle, c.z., Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, Phillip-street. Rolleston, John C., c.z., Harbours and.Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Ronaldson, James Henry, Mining Engineer, 32 Macleay-st., Pott’s Point. Rossbach, William, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, Chief Draftsman, Harbours and Rivers branch, Public Works Department. Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd., M.B., c.m. Hdin., Hospital for the Insane, Kenmore, Near Goulburn. Ross, Colin John, B.Sc., B.E., Assoc, M. Inst,C.E.. Borough Engineer, Town Hall, North Sydney. Ross, Herbert E., Consulting Mining Engineer, Equitable a He George-street. Rothe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-st., and Union Club. - Rowney, George Henry, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Water and Sewerage Board, Pitt-street; p.r. ‘Maryville,’ Ben Boyd Road, Neutral Bays (xx.) Elected 1864 P64 Russell, Henry C., B.a. Syd., c.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R. Met. Soe. Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc., South Australia, Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. 1897 Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., Solicitor, c/o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 379b George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Milton-street, Ashfield. 1883 Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.z. Syd., Phoenix Chambers, Pitt-st. 1892 Schmidlin, F., 44 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. 1892 | P1 | Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.S.M., University, Sydney 1856 | P1 |tScott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. 1886 Scott, Walter, m.a. Oxon., Professor of Greek, University, Sydney. 1877 | P3| Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., Victoria Chambers, 279 George-street. 1890 | P1/ Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., F.R.A.S., Sydney Observatory. 1891 Shaw, Percy William, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer for Tramway Construction; p.r. ‘Leswell,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. 1883 | P3/| Shellshear, Walter, M.Inst.c.E. Divisional Engineer, Railway Department, Goulburn. 1879 Shepard, A. D., Box 728 G.P.O. Sydney. 1882 Shewen, Alfred, m.p. Univ. Lond., u.R.c.s. Eng., 6 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1894 Simpson, Benjamin Crispin, M. Inst.c.E., St. James’ Chambers, King-street, City. 1882 Sinclair, Eric, m.p., cm. Univ. Glas., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. 1893 Sinclair, Russell, M.1. Mech. E.&c,, Consulting Engineer, 97 Pitt-st. 1884 Skirving, Robert Scot, m.s., c.m. Hdin., Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park. 1891) P1|Smail, J. M., M. Inst.c.E., Chief Engineer, ‘Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. 1893 |P 18) Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. 1874 | P1 |tSmith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. 1875 “Smith, Robert, u.a. Syd., Marlborough Chambers, 2 O’Connell- street. 1899 Smith, R. G., M.Sc. Dun., B.Sc. Hdin., Macleay Bacteriologist, ‘Otterburn,’ Double Bay. 1898 Smith, S. Hague, Colonial Mutual Fire Insurance Co., 78 Pitt-st 1886 Smith, Walter Alexander, M.Inst.C.E. Roads, Bridges and Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, N. Sydney. 1896 Smyth, Selwood, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. 1896 Spencer, Walter, u.p. Brux., 13 Edgeware Road, Enmore. 1892 | P1 | Statham, Edwyn Joseph, Assoc, M. Inst.0.E.. ‘Athol,’ Beaconsfield- street, Rockdale. 1882 Steel, John, L.8.¢.P., L.R.c.8. Edin., M.B., B.S. Univ. Melb., 3 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1889 Stephen, Arthur Winbourn, t.s., 86 Pitt-street. 1879 tStephen, The Hon. Septimus A., m.u.c., 12—14 O’Connell-st. 1891 Stilwell, A. W., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.,‘Oakstead,’ Russell-st., Bathurst 1883 | P3 | Stuart, T. P. Anderson, m.p. Univ. Edin., Professor of Physi- ology; University of Sydney, p.r. ‘Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. Vice-President. (xxi.) Elected 1892 Sturt, Clifton, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.s. Hdin., u.F.P.s. Glas., ‘ Wistaria,? » Bulli. 1893 tTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.M, Adderton Road, Dundas. 1899 Teece, R., F.1.A., F.¥.A., Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st. 1861 |P 19} Tebbutt, John, F.z.a.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. ~ 1896 Thom, James Campbell, Solicitor for Railways; p.r. ‘ Camelot,’ Forest Road, Bexley. 1896 Thom, John Stuart, Solicitor, Atheneum Chambers, 11 Castle- reagh-street; p.r. Woollongong Road, Arncliffe. 1878 Thomas, F. J., Gunter River N.S.N. Co., Sussex-street. 1879 Thomson, Dugald, u.u.a., *Wyreepi,’ Milson’s Point. 1875 Thompson, Joseph, 159 Brougham-street, Woolloomooloo. 1885 | P2 | Thompson, John Ashburton, u.p. Bruz., D.P.H. Camb., M.R.C.S. Eng., Health Department, Macquarie-street. 1896 Thompson, Capt. A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle. 1898 Thow, Sydney, 24 Bond-street. 1892 Thow, William, M, Inst.C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Locomotive Department, Eveleigh. | 1886 | P5| Threlfall, Richard, mu.a. Cantab. 1888 Thring, Edward T., F.R.c.s. Hng., u.8.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie- street. 1876 Tibbits, Walter Hugh, u.r.c.s. Eng., Dubbo. 1896 Tickle, Arthur H., ‘ Adderton,’ Fullerton-street, Woollahra. 1894 Tidswell, Frank, M.B., M.Ch., D.P.H., Health Department, Sydney. 1876 Toohey, The Hon. J. T., u.t.c., ‘ Moira,’ Burwood. 1894 Tooth, Arthur W., Australian Club, Bent-street. 1873 | P1 | Trebeck, Prosper N., 3.p., 2 O’Connell-street. 1879 Trebeck, P. C., 2 O’Connell-street. 1877 tTucker, G. A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co., 2 Spring-st. 1883 Vause, Arthur John, m.B., o.m. Edin., ‘Bay View House,’ Tempe. 1884 Verde, Capitaine Felice, Ing. Cav., vid Fazio 2, Spezia, Italy. 1896 Verdon, Arthur, Australian Club. 1890 Vicars, James, M.C.E., M. Inst. C.E., City Surveyor, Adelaide. 1892 Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. 1876 Voss, Houlton H., J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company, 2 , Spring-street. 1898 Wade, Leslie A. B., c.z., Department of Public Works. 1879 Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. 1899 tWalker, J. T., ‘Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. 1891 Walsh, Henry Deane, B.£., T.c. Dub., M. Inst. 0.E,, Supervising Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Newcastle. 1896 Walsh, C. R., Prothonotary, Supreme Court. 1895 Ward, James Wenman, 1 Union Lane off George-street. 1891 Ward, Thomas William Chapman, B.A., B.c.E. Syd., ‘ Birkdale,’ 26 Mansfield-street, Glebe Point. 1898 Wark, William, 9 Macquarie Place; p.r. Kurrajong Heights. 1877 Warren, William EHdward, B.A. M.D..M.Ch, Queen’s University Trel., m.v. Syd., 263 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Electe (xxii. ) 1883 'P 10| Warren, W. H., wh.Sc.. M.Ins.C.E., Professor of Engineering, 1876 1876 1897 1866 1892 1867 1881 1878 1879 1892 1877 1874 1888 1898 1883 1876 1878 1879 1891 1890 1873 1891 1899 1876 1872 1893 1879 Pil University of Sydney. Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., m.a. Syd., Parliamentary Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, 5 Richmond Terrace, Domain. Watson, C. Russell, z.R.c.s. ‘Eng., ‘ Woodbine,’ Erskineville Road, Newtown. Webb, Fredk. William, c.m.a., 3.p., Clerk of the Legislative Assembly; p.r. ‘ Livadia,’ Chandos-street, Ashfield. Webster, A. S., c/o Permanent Trustee Co., 16 O’Connell-st. Webster, James Philip, Assoc. M. Inst. CE, LS, New Zealand, Borough Engineer, Town Hall, Marrickville. Weigall, Albert Bythesea, B.A. Oxon., M.A. Syd., Head Master, Sydney Grammar School, College-street. tWesley, W. H. Westgarth, G. C., Bond-street ; p.r. 52 Elizabeth Bay Road. {Whitfeld, Lewis, u.a. ., ‘Oaklands,’ Edgecliffe Road. “White, Harold Pogson, Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Dept. of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. tWhite, Rev. W. Moore, A.M., LL.D., T.C.D. White, Rev. James S., M.A., LL.D. Syd » ‘Gowrie,’ Singleton. White, The Hon. Robert Hoddle Driberg, u.u.c., Union Club; p-r. ‘ Tahlee,’ Port Stephens. Wildridge, John, M.I. Mech. E, &., 97 Pitt-street. Wilkinson, W. Camac, u.p. Lond., m.R.c P. Lond., M.R.¢.S. Bng., 207 Macquarie-street. Williams, Percy Edward, The Treasury ; ; p.r. Gladesville Road, Hunter’s Hill. Wilshire, James Thompson, F.L.8., F.R.H.S., J.P., * Coolooli,’ off Ranger’s Road, Shell Cove, Neutral Bay. Wilshire, F. R., p.m., Penrith. Wilson, Robert Archibald, m.p. Glas., Mast. Surg. Glas., 2 Booth-street, Balmain. Wilson, James T., u.s., Mast. Surg. Univ. Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney. Wood, Harrie, J.p., 10 Bligh-st.; p.r. 54 Darlinghurst Road. Wood, Percy Moore, L.B.C.P. Loni., M.R.C.S. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe, ~ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, W. G., B.sc, Demonstrator in Geology, Sydney University. Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon. Wright, Horatio G. A., m.R.c.s. Eng., .s.a. Lond., 4 York-st., Wynyard Square. Hon Treasurer. Wright, John, c.z., Toxteth-street, Glebe Point. _ Young, John, ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt. Elected 1878 1875 1875 1887 1875 1875 1880 1892 1888 1894. 1888 1895 1886 1895 1875 1886 1896 1887 1878 1859 1878 (xxiii. ) Honorary MzmMsBeErRs. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Agnew, Sir James, K.c.M.G., M.D., Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Bernays, Lewis A., C.M.G., F.L.8., Brisbane. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.8., F.R.A.S., late Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. Foster, Sir Michael, m.p., F.R.s., Professor of Physiology, University of Cambridge. Gregory, The Hon. Augustus Charles, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.B.G.S., Brisbane. Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., £.R.S., Director of the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, K.c.s.1., M.D., C.B., F.B.S., &¢., late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Huggins, Sir William, K.c.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8., &¢., 90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, 8.W. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, r.a.s., Curator, Canter- bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. Spencer, W. Baldwin, u.a., Professor of Biology, University of Melbourne. Tate, Ralph, F.a.s., F.u.S., Professor of Natural Science, University, Adelaide, South Australia. Wallace, Alfred Russel, p.c.u. Ozon., Lu.D. Dublin, F.R.S., Parkstone, Dorset. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Limited to Twenty-five. Marcou, Professor Jules, F.G.s., Cambridge, Mass., United States of America. OBITUARY. 1899. Honorary Members. Bunsen, Professor Robert Wilhelm. M‘Coy, Sir Frederick. Ordinary Members. Collingwood, Dr. David. Elwell, P. B. MacAllister, Dr. J. F. Maitland, Duncan Mearns. Watt, Charles. Wilkinson, Rev. S. (xxiv. ) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. _ Established in memory of THE LATE Revp. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8., &c., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 1878 Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. 1879 George Bentham, c.m.c., F.z.s., The Royal Gardens, Kew. 1880 Professor Huxley, r.z.s., The Royal School of Mines, London, 4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. 1881 Professor F. M‘Coy, F.zR.s., F.a.s., The University of Melbourne. 1882 Professor James Dwight Dana, tu.p., Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United States of America. 1883 Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.B.S., F.L.S.5 Government Botanist, Melbourne. 1884 Alfred R. C. Selwyn, Lu.D., F.R.s., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 1885 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, k.c.s.1., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., &C., late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 1886 Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p., University of Liege, Belgium. 1887 Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 1888 Rev. Julian E. Tenison- Woods, F.a.s., F.L.s., Sydney. 1889 Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.s., Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. 1890 George Bennett, u.p. Univ. Glas., F.R.c.s. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S., William Street, Sydney. 1891 Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.z.s., r.a.s., Curator, Can- terbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. 1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, k.c.M.G., C.1.E.,M.A., B.S¢., F.B.S., ¥F.L.s., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 Professor Ralph Tate, ¥F.u.s., r.a.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. 1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.R.G.s., Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. 1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government Paleontologist, Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney. 1896 Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. The Royal Society of New South Wales offers its Medal and Money Prize for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit) containing the results of original research or observation upon various subjects published annually. Money Prize of £25. 1882 John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper on ‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, u.p., Molong, for paper on the ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ 1884: 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 (xxv.) The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper on ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales. Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals. Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper on‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.z.m.s., Sydney, for ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neigh- bourhood. Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper on ‘The Australian Aborigines. Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on‘ The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper on ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, for paper on the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales. R. H. Mathews, u.s., for paper on ‘ The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales. C. J. Martin, B.Sc. M.B. Lond., for paper on ‘ The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper on “The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.” ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. By G. H. Kwyisss, F.R. 8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [ Delivered to the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, May 3, 1899. | THE history of our Society during the past year calls for no special comment. It has been a year of steady work, and in respect of matters of internal economy, the placing of ourselves on a sounder basis, by removing from nominal membership those who after the fullest notice, failed to discharge their obligations to us. Daily the need of developing and properly caring for our fine _library is impressing itself upon your Council, but the financial resources are wanting. The meaning of scientific libraries to a community is a matter to which I shall later refer. For the following abstract of our year’s work I am indebted to our esteemed _ Assistant Secretary Mr. W. H. Webb :— Roll of Members.—The number of members on the roll on the 30th April, 1898 was three hundred and ninety-seven. Fourteen new members have been elected during the past year. We have however, lost by death, five ordinary and one honorary member, and fifteen by resignation. Thirty-one have been struck off the roll for non-payment of their subscription and three have failed to take up their membership under Rule [Xa. There is thus left a total-of three hundred and fifty-seven on April 30th, 1899; this. number, the lowest on record since 1878, however, does not include. the honorary and corresponding members. It is to be hoped that. our hands will be strengthened by the addition of members who. have the interests of the cause for which the Society exists, very near their hearts. Such an influx would help us greatly to increase. our influence in promoting the welfare of the colony. Obituary.— Hon. Member. Waterhouse, F. G., F.G.s., c.M.z.s.; elected 1875. A—May 3, 1899. 2 G. H. KNIBBS. Ordinary Members: Bundock, W. C.; elected 1877. De Salis, L. F.; elected 1875. Kopsch, G. A.; elected 1877. Long, A. Parry; elected 1887. Roberts, Sir Alfred ; elected 1868. In the death of Sir ALFRED RoBERTs our Society and community lost a zealous worker. Born in 1823, and educated in England for the medical profession, he came to this colony about 1850. He was among the earliest founders of this Society, having been Hon. Secretary of its predecessor, the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, in 1862, He contributed several papers and occupied also the position of President, and almost to the end threw the weight of his influence into the work of the Medical and Sanitary Sections. The Prince Alfred Hospital, erected in commemoration of the preservation of the life of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh, an institution whose development was largely due to his untiring and watchful care, will remain a permanent monu- ment of his zeal, and invaluable service in the cause of humanity. His name will ever be borne, by those who knew his life and ‘work, in respectful and affectionate memory. Papers read in 1898.—During the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which the average attendance of members was thirty, and of visitors two ; the following sixteen papers were read: I.—PREsIDENT’s ADDRESS. By Henry Deane, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. Il.—Aeronautics. By L. Hargrave : III.—Australian Divisional Systems. By R. H. Mathews, t.s. IV.—Artesian Water in New South Wales. By J. W. Boultbee V.—On the “Stringybark”? Trees of N. S. Wales, especially in regard to their Essential Oils. By R. T. Baker, F.1.s.; Curator, and H. G. Smith, r.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. VI.—Current Observations on the Canadian-Australian Route. By Capt. M. W. Campbell Hepworth, F. R. Met. Soc., F.R.A.S., R.M.S. Aorangi. (Communicated by H. C. Russell, 8B.a., C.M.G., F.K.S.) VII.—Water-spouts on the Coast of New South Wales. By H.C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. (Plates ii. - ix.) ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 3 VIII.-—Some Physical Properties of Nickel Steel. By W.H. Warren, Wh. Sc., M, Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., Challis Professor of Engineer- ing,and S. H. Barraclough, M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Lecturer in Engineering, University of Sydney. TX.—Key to the Tribes and Genera of Melanospermez, (Olive- Green Seaweeds). By Richard A. Bastow, Fitzroy, Victoria. (Communicated by J. H. Maiden, F.u.s.) (Plate i.) X.—Etude sur les Dialectes de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Par Julien Bernier. (Communicated by C. Hedley, F.x.s.) XI.—On the Pinenes of the. Oils of the Genus Eucalyptus, Part I. By Henry G. Smith, r.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. XII.—Soaring Machines. By L. Hargrave. XIII.—Native Vocabulary of Miscellaneous New South Wales Objects. By Mr. Surveyor Larmer. (Communicated by Professor T. P. Anderson Stuart, m.p., by permission of the Honourable the Secretary for Lands. XIV.—Current Papers, No.3. By H.C. Russell, B.a., c.m.a., F.R.S. (Plates x., xi.) XV.—The Group Divisions and Initiation Ceremonies of the Bar- kunjee Tribes. By R. H. Mathews, u.s. (Plate xii.) XVI.—The Blue Pigment of Corals. By Professor Liversidge, m.a., LL.D., F.B.S. Sectional Meetings.—The Engineering Section held eight meet-- ‘ings, at which the average attendance of members and visitors: ‘was twenty-one; the following papers were read and discussed :— 1. Annual Address to the Engineering Section. By T.H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. 2. The Narrow Gauge as applied to Branch Railways in N.S. Wales. By C.O. Burge, M. Inst. C.E. 3. Engineering Construction in connection with Rainfall. By J. I. Haycroft, M. Inst. C.E. I, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E. 4. Some Notes on a Wharf recently built in deep water at Dawes’ Point, Sydney, N.S. Wales. By Norman Selfe, M. inst. ¢.£., &. 5. Notes on Hydraulic Boring Apparatus. By G. H. Halligan, c.z. . Lighthouses in N. S. Wales. By H. R. Carleton, M. Inst. C.E. 7. A Testing Machine for equal alternating stresses. By Professor Warren, Wh.Sc., M. Inst. C.E. or) The Medical Section held four meetings, at which numerous exhibits were shown, and the following papers read and discussed :— 1. Disinfection of Dwellings in notifiable Infectious Diseases, by Dr. W.G. Armstrong, Medical Officer of Health for the Metro- politan Combined Districts. 2. Notes on two cases of Amputation of the Rectum for extreme Prolapsus, by Dr. Fiaschi. 4 G. H. KNIBBS. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that the sum of £200 has been repaid to the Clarke Memorial Fund, and a balance of £35 8s. td. carried forward. Library.—The amount expended on the Library during the past year was £98 10s. 11d., viz.: £66 6s. 9d. for books and periodicals and £32 4s. 2d. for binding. Amongst other works purchased were Silliman’s American Journal of Science, Vols. 1. — x., to com- plete the third series, and the Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, Vol. 111., to complete the set. Exchanges.—Last year we exchanged our Journal with four hundred and three kindred societies, receiving in return two hundred and thirty-seven volumes, one thousand five hundred and sixty-five parts, seventy-five reports, two hundred and four pamphlets, and one portrait, a total of two thousand and eighty- two publications. The following Institutions have been added to the exchange list :—Royal Society of Sciences and Belles-Lettres, Gothenburg ; Editor of ‘“‘Science Abstracts,” London; Philadelphia Commercial Museum, U.S.A. ; Societa Italiana di Fisica, Pisa ; Illinois State Laboratory, U.S.A. Original Researches.—In response to the offer of the Society’s medal and grant of ten guineas for the best original paper on the following subject :— Series X VIIL.—T7o be sent in not later than Ist May, 1899. No. 53—“On the life history of the Australasian Teredo, and of other species of Australasian wood-eating Marine Invertebrata, and on the means of pro- tecting timber from their attack.” One paper has been received, but has not yet been adjudicated upon. At this Annual Meeting of our Society, the last but one of a century distinguished from all others by the intensity and univer- sality of its scientific activity, it will not be inappropriate to devote the hour at our disposal to some consideration of the influence of systematised knowledge upon the progress of humanity -ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 5 —the part played by Science as a factor in Civilisation. In addressing ourselves to such a theme, it may be remarked that the constitution of our Society is sufficiently wide to include subjects outside the realm of merely physical science: the main drift and tendency of our work however, as in the Royal Society of England, has been in that specific direction, and for that reason it will be advantageous to confine ourselves to reviewing the part played by the physical sciences, rather than by Science in the more comprehensive sense of the word. In focussing our attention upon special activities, there is always a danger of appearing to have ignored others of equal dignity and energy: by way of anticipating this, it is perhaps desirable to at once say, that, in tracing the incidence of scientific activity, no attempt is made at discriminating between what is to be credited to physical science, as such; and what may be credited to other sciences or other factors, no less potent, in human develop- ment. The reactions and interactions of all are so complex as to transcend any possibility of exact delimitation; and attempts at outlining their operation quantitatively, are as fanciful as they are futile. In human affairs it must therefore often suffice to watch, as well as one may, the part played by each factor, with- out uselessly essaying that precision of measurement which so delights the mathematical mind, and which the genius of the physicist demands as the consummation of knowledge. Civilisation yields, indeed, rather to qualitative than to quanti- tative methods of analysis: it is not to be expressed in terms of wealth or material monuments, or in physica] things which lend themselves to exact measurement, though these are in part its measure, and in and through them it is in part manifested. On the contrary, it is rather in the imponderable elements, in the intellectual and spiritual energy, in the genius, force, character, and solidarity of a nation or an age, that its degree of civilisation is really expressed. Remembering this, we are not likely, when we examine the functions of science, to forget that our view is restricted : we are not likely to forget that the discipline of our 6 G. H. KNIBBS. emotions and will, the cultivation of our understanding and imagination, the education of our thought and of its expression, and indeed all those things that are the concern not only of science, but of polite literature, philosophy, and religion, are also factors in civilisation, of transcendent importance. If in reviewing our indebtedness to the physical sciences, it may appear that the greater things have been forgotten, it is in appearance only. That this is so, is obvious when we recognise that the glory of physical science lies not so much in the fact that it satisfies our material needs with relatively so small an expenditure of physical energy, or that it swiftly places at our disposal the products of industrial effort; but rather, that in doing these things, it becomes. an instrument of culture, by intensifying, enlarging and enriching our life, and by giving us a finer appreciation of the possibilities. of existence. No science is so intimately interwoven in the plexus of human affairs, or may so justly be regarded as constituting the very warp: and woof of the fabric of modern civilisation, as mathematics ; and yet no equally weighty fact is perhaps more completely suppressed in our everyday consciousness. Touching even the simplest of its. elements, the trivialities of ordinary arithmetic, which one might think almost beneath notice, it would be difficult to compute the magnitude of our debt to that scheme of notation, which assigns a constant ratio of increase in the unit value of each place of figures proceeding to the left, and to the congruity therewith of our system of numeration.' We are apt to overlook the value of 1 The popular impression that the advantage of our notational and numerational systems depends upon its decimal character is of course erroneous. In respect to the facility of our ordinary arithmetical opera- tions, the base or radiz isa matter of comparative indifference, and a sexagesimal or duodecimal system has merits absent in the decimal system. The laws and processes of ordinary arithmetic are independent of the base of the system, and are dependent only upon its notational scheme, or ‘law of position,’ but that arithmetic may involve a minimum of mental labour, it is essential to have a congruous scheme of numeration. Our cumbrous English systems of weights and measures afford many examples of the difficulty introduced by absence of congruity. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. if things familiar, and this is no exception. The clumsy systems of the Hebrew, Greek, or Roman, would have placed burdens upon the computational necessities of the modern world, too heavy to be borne. It is only when we are compelled to appreciate this fact, that we can estimate the debt we owe to Hindustan, whence was derived our ordinary system of notation. Civilisation may, from one point of view, be regarded as dependent upon our ability to levy tribute upon Nature, and to so utilise her material and direct her great sources of power, that they shall serve our purpose. In such issues Mind is regnant, and of all her instruments none compare with mathematics, the generality of whose function is unique. But whether this science had its genesis in the practical needs of mankind, or was begotten of speculative curiosity, would now be difficult to determine. The legendary origin of geometry supports the former view, and it must be admitted that the early Egyptian mind, where, according to Aristotle, geometry had its birth, gave little evidence of interest in purely theoretical results. The hieratic papyrus in the Rhind Collection of the British Museum, deciphered in 1877 by Hisenlohr, is perhaps the earliest mathematical document extant, taking us back, as it does, to the Egyptian mathematician Ahmes, whose “Directions for obtaining the Knowledge of all Dark Things” was written before 1700 B.C. Ahmes’ treatise was based upon a still older work, to which the date 3400 B.C. has been assigned by Birch. The early Egyptian geometry and algebra, very elementary and not always accurate, was essentially practical in character. Cultivated by their priesthood, it was their guide in cadastral operations, and in constructing those great monuments of early civilisation, which even to-day are impressive in their grandeur. Herodotus tells us that Sesostris (Ramses IT.) divided Egypt into equal quadrangles, from which after allotment he derived his revenues, by the imposition of a tax levied yearly. Many of the areas being affected by the overflow of the Nile, re-survey was involved for the purpose of adjusting the taxation, and thus many problems in geometry arose for solution. An 8 G. H. KNIBBS. examination of the temples and pyramids of Egypt, has shewn that their north and south lines were determined by astronomical observation: their east and west lines were then set out by the “‘ Rope-Stretchers ” [Harpedonaptai], using the 3. 4. 5 triangle. Thus the earliest and most striking monuments of human energy are indissolubly associated with mathematics. There are strong reasons for believing that, whenever the mind of a people is wholly directed to purely practical issues, it is decadent. Be that as it may, the practical Egyptian seems to have remained content with his achievement ; and for something like 2,000 years made no progress in mathematical knowledge: like the Chinese his mind had stagnated. Nevertheless his attain- ment became in time the inspiration of the Greek, who unlike his predecessor, was endowed with an ardent love of science for its own sake. The genius of the Greek impelled him onward to the discovery of abstract relations, regardless of all question as to the possibility of practical applications ; and gave birth to a geometry, that in spite of its limitations as to generality, remains even to- day a model of logical exposition and rigour of thought. Ina word the Science of Geometry and of Algebra, we owe to the Greek. The lofty scorn of the Greek mind for utilitarian considerations has left its impress on the world. With few exceptions that scorn has been the tincture of Genius ever since. It is a significant fact, and one that we do well to remember, that among the dis- coveries of truths, which have conferred inestimable benefits upon. _ mankind, none can compare with those that have been vouchsafed to minds untarnished with a regard for material issues. Again and again have conquests in the most recondite regions of mathe- matical truth, proved not only eminently practical, but even essential to material advancement. To the mathematician, the knowledge of this will perhaps never operate as a motive, for no one can read the history of mathematics without realizing that the inspiration which has guided the votaries of the ‘queen of sciences” in their flights of genius, and has sustained them in their herculean labours, was from something nobler than ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 9 material good. Forever it will be the fate of Archimedes to be esteemed by his fellow-citizens for his mechanical inventions, but forever his own grateful feeling will arise, because to him it has been given to penetrate the arcana of science and to reveal them to mankind. This however by the way, as shewing that the pro- gress of humanity depends upon the love of abstract knowledge ; depends first of all upon Science, rather than upon Art. It is quite impossible under the limitations of our time to-night to review even in the briefest manner the history of mathematical progress: it is an embarras de richesse: any reference to significant advances must perforce ignore others of perhaps equal moment. Despite this, however, a reference to some elements of that history is absolutely essential to its intelligent understanding and we may therefore he pardoned for briefly scanning it. Introduced from Egypt by Thales of Miletus [640 - 546 B.C.] about 600 B.C., raised by the genius of Pythagoras [? 582 - 504 B.C.] to the rank of a science less than one hundred years later, geometry made rapid progress in Greece, largely through Pythagoras’ influence [about 550 B.C.], and still more through that of the immortal Plato, about 400 B.C., ‘maker,’ as he has been called, ‘of mathematicians.’ Plato [429 —348 B.C.] himself was practically the founder of solid geometry. A contemporary, Archytas of Tarentum, [428 — 347 B.C.] was first in methodically treating the subject of mechanics, and in applying geometry thereto. To a brilliant pupil of Archytas and of Plato, Eudoxus of Cnidus [408 - 355 B.C.], belongs probably the honour of inventing the method of exhaustions, a method which contains the first germs of the infinitesimal calculus. To Eudoxus belongs also the credit of having so improved the methods of practical astronomy, as to win him the appellation of ‘father of scientific astronomical observation.’ A pupil of Eudoxus’ viz., Menechmus, was the inventor of the conic sections, destined afterwards to play so significant a part in dynamic and astronomical theory. About 350 B.C. Aristotle [384 — 322 B.C.] shewed that the logician may assist the mathematician in the matter of difficult definitions. His 10 G. H. KNIBBS. physics, it may be mentioned, contain suggestive hints of the principle of ‘ virtual velocities,’ the foundation afterwards of the imperishable ‘ Mécanique analytique’ of Lagrange. | About 300 B.C. the study of geometry was revived in Egypt by the establishment of the first Alexandrian school, with Euclid as it master. About fifty years later flourished the greatest mathematician of antiquity, Archimedes [287 — 212 B.C.], who shewed that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle lies between 3+ and 342. The mean of these 31418, is sufficiently exact for most purposes. A contemporary, Eratosthenes, [276 — 196 B.C.], was the first to attempt to ascertain, on correct principles, the size of our earth. Forty years later again, the ‘sreat geometer’ Apollonius of Perga [b. 250? B.C. ], second only to Archimedes, enriched the world with his talents : to him we owe the further development of the conic sections and developments in astronomical theory. About 150 B.C., Hipparchus of Nica in Bithynia, the greatest astronomer of antiquity, is said to have invented trigonometry; it is worthy of mention that spherical, and not plane trigonometry, was first developed. For this branch of mathematics we are also no less indebted to Claudius Ptolemzus of the second Alexandrian School [about 130 A.D. |, celebrated as the founder of the system of astronomy which bears his name. ‘The theorems of Hipparchus and Ptolemeus,’ said Delambre, ‘will forever constitute the basis of trigonometry.’ The second Alexandrian School closes with Diophantus [246 — 330], about 300 A.D., so distinguished as an algebraist, that it has been said, that but for him algebra among the Greeks would, comparatively, have been an unknown science. Splendid as was the Greek mind in respect of its love of pure science, it did not rise in mathematics, to generality of method. The brilliant talents of Euclid, Archimedes and Apollonius had indeed brought geometry to a high state of perfection ; the erystal- line clearness of its concepts, and the logical rigour of its con- clusions, were ideal: but its inherent limitation lay in the fact that it was essentially special in character. Further advance ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. ll involved the invention of more general and therefore more powerful methods ; but to this task the Greek was unequal. The Romans contributed relatively nothing; their giant Boétius [475 — 525 A.D.| compared with the Greek masters, was a pigmy; and mathematical inspiration vanished from the western world, to more feebly reappear in the eastern, in Hindustan. The Hindu however regarded arithmetic, algebra, and geometry merely as aids to astronomy ; a science in which, as the irony of fate determined, he was to win no distinction. The historically oldest of Indian mathematicians or rather astronomers, Aryabhata [476 — 550.A.D.]| assigned the value 3°1416 for the Ludolphian number. This, however, had been previously given by Ptolemzus as 3? 8’. 30” or gee ee 80 4.2. 31416. - To Aryabhata, though the evidence is not quite decisive, probably belongs the credit of inventing the fundamental principles of our present system of arithmetical notation, the contribution of which to the.general progress of intelligence, would be difficult to estimate. Coming to us through the Arab, it has improperly been called the Arabic system. Mathematics attained its highest position in India about 630 A.D. when flourished Brahmagupta [born 598 A.D.], the 12th and 18th chapters of whose work, ‘Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta,’ contains what of mathematics was then known to Hindustan. The Hindu was remarkable for skill in calculation, for being the first to recognise the existence of negative quantities, and for the development of general methods of solving indeterminate equations ; his taste lay rather in the direction of algebra and trigonometry than in geometry, for Hindu geometry was poor. That both the form and spirit, however, of modern arithmetic and algebra are essentially Hindu, is sufficient evidence of the reality of our debt to his genius. From India the torch of science passed to the ascendant Arab when at the close of the reign of Abu Ja‘far ibn Mohammed, or Almansur [772 A.D.| Hindu mathematics was studied at Baghdad, and a Hindu astronomer translated into Arabic the astronomical tables of his country. The oriental superstition that the progress of human affairs was associated with celestial portents, and the He G. H. KNIBBS. necessity for determining, for the convenience of the devout believer, the direction of Mecca from every part of the wide- extended Moslem dominion, greatly promoted the study of astronomy. ‘Tables and instruments were perfected, observatories erected, observations systematised, and astronomy ardently culti- vated. The first great Arabic author of mathematical books, Mohammed ben Musa Al Kharizmi [about 820 B.C.], has given us the words ‘Algorithm’ and ‘ Algebra,’ the former being a cor- ruption of his latinised name Algoritmi, the latter of the first word in the title of his algebra. ‘‘Aldshebr Walmukabala” or ‘restoration and reduction.’ With ‘Omar bin [brahim Al Khay- yami, [?1017—1123 A.D.] better known perhaps through his Ruba‘iyat, immortalized in English by Fitzgerald, than through his method of solving equations by intersecting conics, the Arabian period culminated. In the matter of scientific culture the Arab was liberal, but not inventive. Lacking the penetrative insight, and power to make great and original contributions to Science, he nevertheless was a faithful custodian and a broad disseminator of the intel- lectual possessions of antiquity. But the time seems to have come for the Semitic custody of Aryan culture of both East and West to be restored to Aryan hands. During the decadent period of the Arabian, Great Britain, Ireland, and France had become the locus of mathematical activity in Christian Europe. The centre changed however to Italy with the appearance, at the beginning of the 13th century, of Leonardo of Pisa, who among other things, strongly advocated the adoption of the so-called Arabic notation. In respect of mathematics generally he is said to have treated the rich material before him with skill and euclidean rigour. In the European Universities the study of mathematics now began to be promoted, though it must be confessed in a half-hearted manner ; for, by the fashion of the time, the energies of the brightest intellects were exhausted on the subtleties of scholasticism. With the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, came, however, a new era. ‘The precious manuscripts of Greek literature were studied ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 13 directly, in place of resorting to corrupt Arabian translations; and by means of the then recently invented printing press, the intel- lectual wealth of the past was rapidly disseminated. The genius, assiduity, and enthusiasm of Johann Miiller [Regiomontanus, 1436 — 1476] one of the greatest men ever given by Germany to the world, stirred up civilized Europe. His translations of ancient mathematical and astronomical literature, his construction of elaborate trigonometrical tables for practical use, his treatises on arithmetic and trigonometry—the form of this last being to-day substantially as it left his hands—and his splendid mastery of mathematics and astronomy, were a propitious inauguration of the new era. The contributions to algebra during the remainder of the 16th century by Tartaglia [1500 — 1557 ],'by the clever but unscrupulous Cardano [1501-1576], and by Vieta [1540-1603], we cannot pause to survey; and must content ourselves with referring to the brilliant discovery by Vieta of twenty-three roots of an equa- tion of the 45th degree, and to the ardent admiration which that evoked from the propounder of the problem, Adriaan van Roomen,? who, with Ludolph van Ceulen will be remembered in connection the value of z, or the ‘‘ Ludolphian” number, so named after the latter, who carried the computation to thirty-five places of figures. From the beginning of the 17th century the mathematical wealth, which burst upon the world, is beyond all computation. Mathematical discoveries became meteoric in their brilliancy, and the intellectual firmament coruscated with their frequency and splendour. 1 Cajori gives 1506 as the date of Tartaglia’s birth, evidently assuming that his mutilation occurred when he was six years of age, and on the occasion of the French, under Gaston de Foix, sacking Brescia in 1512. But Tartaglia was an esteemed teacher of mathematics at Verona as early as 1521. 2 Henry IV. of France submitted to Vieta a problem propounded by ‘Adrianus Romanus,’ a Belgian mathematician :—45y — 3735y? + 95634y> — i. + 945y4 — 45y% + y® = C. Vieta saw at once that this was the equa- tion by which C = 2 sin $b was expressed in terms of y = 2 sin oe 14 G. H. KNIBBS. Scotland’s son, John Napier of Merchiston, [1550 - 1617] in 1614 discovered logarithms. Henry Briggs [1556 - 1631] and Napier together adapted. them.to the purposes of ordinary, com- putation ; the latter and Adrian Vlacq of Holland calculating the extensive tables with which we are familiar, and which have become a necessity to the modern world. About the same time the illustrious Johannes Kepler [1571 - 1630] made his great discovery of the ideal laws of planetary motion. The study of the conic sections by Menzchmus, Aristzeus,'and Apollonius was a matter purely of intellectual interest; those discoveries however, furnished Kepler with the key, by which to unlock the real character of that motion, a splendid example of the fruition of abstract discovery. Into geometry Kepler introduced definitely, the conception of quantities infinitely great or infinitely small, another evidence that the infinitesimal calculus, yet only inchoate, was nevertheless taking form in the human mind. In 1635, Bonaventura Cavalieri’s’ ‘geometry of indivisibles’ marked a still further advance, and indeed this method was used as a species of integral calculus for fifty years afterwards. It was improved by Roberval [1602 — 1675], and by Pascal [1623 — 1662]. About the same time Pierre de Fermat [1601 — 1665], for whom the credit of inventing the differential calculus has been claimed by Lagrange, Laplace, and Fourier, developed the modern theory of numbers ; in which, for one thousand years, no substantial discovery had been made.’ Blaise Pascal, a still greater than Fermat, and a contemporary, developed with him the first elements of the theory of probability, afterwards enriched by the labours of Huygens, Jakob Bernoulli, and Laplace. Galileo Galilei [1564 — 1642] laid the foundations of dynamics; an office, as Lagrange points out, 1 A contemporary of Euclid. 2 (1598 - 1647]. 3 An interesting fact in connection with this, is that Fermat believed that the expression 2°" +1 yielded always a prime number. Euler pointed out that 27° + 1 = 4294967297 = 6700417 x 641. The American lightning caléulator Zerah Colburn-is said.to have. readily found the factors when a boy, though he was unable to say how he made so astonish- ing a mental computation. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 15 demanding extraordinary genius, and beside which his astronomical discoveries, for which he is more popularly celebrated, fade into insignificance. René Descartes' [1596 —1650] distinguished alike as a meta- physician and mathematician, published in 1637 his new geometry; in which the application of algebra to geometry, though not novel, became a fruitful conception. As illustrating the power of the new method it may be said that the whole theory of the conic sections of Apollonius is implicitly contained in a single equation of the second degree ! To Holland belongs the credit of producing the first formal treatise on probability, with Christiaan Huygens [1629 — 1695] for author. In his ‘Traité de la Lumiére’ written in 1678, he developed with great skill Robert Hooke’s wave theory of light, establishing it upon a sure foundation. His great work ‘De horologio oscilla- torio’ ranks second only to Newton’s ‘ Principia.’ Passing Huygen’s and Wallis” quadratures of the circle, Lord Brouncker’s® investigation of Wallis’ expressions, leading him to the theory of continuous fractions, and Isaac Barrow,* whose method of tangents differs only from the differential calculus in notation, we come to Newton [1642 - 1727], the Archimedes of the modern world. Newton’s great work, the ‘Principia,’ has been called by Brewster “the brightest page in the records of human reason.” Laplace’s testimony is scarcely less enthusiastic, when he says that the merits of the Principia will insure to it “a lasting preéminence over all other productions of the human mind.” Newton’s development of the infinitesimal calculus, his concep- tion and exposition of universal gravitation, and the genius with which he illumined natural philosophy, not only constitute his appearance a new era in that domain, but also mark him out asa unique figure in the intellectual history of mankind. 1 Essais Philosophiques. Leyden. 2 [1616-1703]. 3 [1620-1684]. 4 1630-1677]. 16 _ G. H. KNIBBS. Leibniz‘| 1646 — 1716], Newton’s contemporary and co-discoverer in the calculus, established a notation which has, except for certain purposes in dynamics, considerable advantages over the fluxional notation of Newton. Among the first to appreciate the dis- coveries of Leibniz at their true worth, were Jakob and Johann Bernoulli, and Daniel Bernoulli, the son of the latter ; all of whom like Newton, shewed the great power. of the calculus in its physical applications. The English mathematicians Roger Cotes [1682 - 1716], Brook Taylor [1685-1731], and Colin Maclaurin [1698 - 1746], im- mediately following Newton, though men of genius, suffer by comparison with their illustrious predecessor; and compared with their successors on the continent, they fare equally badly. The first third of the 18th century had not closed before the mathematical brilliancy of the Swiss, Leonhard Euler [1707 — 1783], had manifested itself. Euler, and his no less illustrious. contemporaries, Lagrange [1736-1813], and Laplace [1749 — 1827], developed the analytical calculus with consummate genius, firmly establishing it as a science independent of geometry. Euler and Lagrange created also the calculus of variations; and to the former astronomy is indebted for the method of variation of arbitrary constants, by means of which he attacked the problem of planetary perturbations, and gave approximate solutions for cer- tain cases of the problem of three bodies. Lagrange and Laplace are remarkable as being complementary in their talents; the former delighted in the abstract and general ; his mastery of the calculus was unrivalled; his fertility of invention matchless; though Laplace surpassed him in ingenuity of the practical use of mathe- matics, and in intuition of physical truths. It has been happily said that ‘‘ Lagrange saw in the problems of Nature so many occasions for analytical triumphs, while Laplace regarded analy- tical triumphs as the means for solving the problems of Nature.” Lagrange’s ‘Mécanique Analytique’ and Laplace’s ‘Mécanique Céleste’ and ‘Théorie Analytique des Probabilites’ are monuments of the highest genius. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 17 Contemporary with these giant mathematicians may be men- tioned Alexis Claude Clairaut [1713 —1765] whose researches in ‘curves of double curvature,’ theory of the figure of the earth and theory of the moon, will keep his memory green : Jean-le-Rond__ D’Alembert [1717 — 1783] notable for the discovery of the principle in mechanics which bears his name, and for his complete solution of the problem of the precession of the equinoxes : and Johann Heinrich Lambert [1728 — 1777 | who introduced into trigonometry the hyperbolic functions. A little later Adrien Marie Legendre [1752 — 1833] devoted his genius to the study of elliptic functions —the starting point of which is to be found in the earlier work of the Count de Fagnano [1682 - 1766|—and to the theory of | numbers. Legendre moreover calculated extensive tables of elliptic functions, which I believe will yet be greatly utilized: he also preceded Laplace in developing the theory of spherical harmonics, to which however the latter made splendid contribu- tions. Jean B. Fourier [1768 — 1830] in his ‘La Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur’ set at rest a long controversy as to the possibility of representing any arbitrary function by means of a trigonometric series. The wealth of mathematical discovery and development is now so great that only the briefest reference can be made to even part of it. Synthetic geometry had, through the influence of Lagrange been contemned. The efforts of Mydorge [1585 - 1647], Desargues [1593 — 1662], Pascal, De Lahire[1640 — 1718], and even those of Newton and Maclaurin to revive synthetic methods seemed to be doomed tofailure; when they reached their object through the genius. of Gaspard Monge [1746 - 1818], who raised descriptive geometry to the rank of a distinct branch of mathematical science. It was further developed by the labours of Carnot [1753 - 1823] and Poncelet [1788-1867], still more by Mobius [1790 — 1868]— author of the ‘barycentric calculus’ and generaliser of spherical trigonometry, and abundantly enriched by the “greatest geo- metrician since the time of Euclid,” Jakob Steiner of Utzendorf B—May 3, 1899. 18 G. H. KNIBBS. {1796 —1863].’ Steiner’s ‘systematic development of the depend- ence of geometrical forms upon one another’; Chasles’ [1793 — 1880] ‘enumerative geometry,’ afterwards extended by Hermann Schubert to n-dimensional space; von Staudt’s [1798 — 1867], ‘veometry of position,’ interpreted by Reye, for it was too condensed for the average reader ; Luigi Cremona’s ‘introduction to a geo- metrical theory of plane curves; Karl Culmann’s graphical statics , Lobatchewsky’s and Wolfgang Bolyais’ imaginary and absolute geometries ; Johann Bolyais’ science absolute of space; Riemann’s thesis on #-ply extended magnitude; Beltrami’s ‘ Essay on the interpretation of non-euclidean geometry,’ and the investigations of Klein, Cayley and others, reveal with cumulative significance the splendour and reach of synthetic geometry. The foundation of modern analytic geometry was laid by Pliicker {1801 — 1868] and exposed in his ‘ New geometry of space founded on the consideration of the straight line as space-element.’ Hesse (1811 —1874] applied the ‘determinant’ advances made in algebra to the analytic study of curves of the third order. The results of these researches were carried forward by Cayley, Salmon, and Sylvester. Clebsch [1833 — 1872] shewed that ‘abelian functions’ and geometry could be mutually helpful. The theory of surfaces was developed by Serret [1819 - 1855], Kummer, Hamilton, Gauss, Lie and others. ; Modern times have witnessed the birth of new and more generalised algebras. Among the great labourers in that sphere may be mentioned :—De Morgan [1806 - 1871 ]—whose ‘ double algebra’ and ‘calculus of functions,’ will be remembered by all interested in higher mathematics:—W. R. Hamilton [1805 — 1865] whose renown depends no less perhaps upon his prediction of ‘conical refraction’ than upon his greater discovery of quaternions, popularised by P. G. Tait:—Hermann Grassmann [1809 — 1877] whose splendid work ‘Lineale Ausdehnungslehre’ contains in addition to a vector algebra, a geometrical algebra of wide applica- 1 It may be mentioned that Steiner learned to write only when four- teen years of age. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 19 tion, and was so wonderful in its richness as to be beyond the reach of his contemporaries :—J. Bellavitis, of Padua, [1803 - 1880], author of the calculus of zequipollences :—Benjamin Pierce [1809 — 1880] and his son C. 8. Pierce, both of whom worked extensively at the theory of multiple algebras :—Arthur Cayley [1821 — 1895] in whose mind, the germs of the principle of invariants found in the writings of Lagrange, Gauss and Boole, ripened into a complete theory, thus creating a new branch of analysis :—J. J. Sylvester [1814 —1897] co-worker in the theory of invariants and author of the theory of reciprocants :—Aronhold [1819 - 1884] also a discoverer in invariants:—and Hermite [born 1822], discoverer of evectants. Quite a host of other names, whose work was scarcely less brilliant should be mentioned, but time will not permit. In the wider reaches of analysis, and:in the theory of functions and theory of numbers we must not omit the name of Gauss [1777 — 1855] who according to the dictum of Laplace was the greatest mathematician in all Kurope :—of Cauchy [1789 - 1857] whose researches covered almost the whole domain of mathematics, and whose critical work was invaluable :—of Abel [1802 — 1829] whose idea of inversion of the elliptic functions of Legendre led to such splendid developments, surpassed only by his investigations in what are now called abelian functions, studied since by E. Picard, Weierstrass [1815 - 1897], Madame Kowalevski [1853 — 1891], and Poincaré [born 1854]:—of Riemann [1826 — 1866] celebrated for his invention of the multiply-connected surfaces which bear his name, the theory of which has been extended by the researches of Liiroth, Clebsch, and Clittord [1845 — 1879]:—of Schwarz [born 1845] Weierstrass’ pupil, notable for his work on hypergeometric series, and on developments on minimum surfaces :—of Kummer [1810 - 1893], who with Eisenstein [1823 — 1852], and Dedekind [born 1831] extended the work of Gauss and Dirichlet [1805 — 1859] on the theory of complex numbers. Besides these ought to be mentioned as contributors to the modern theory of functions, Hankel, Cantor, Dini, Heine, Du Bois-Reymond, Thomae, Darboux and Forsyth and others. But reluctantly we must pass on. 20 G. H. KNIBBS. In this brief and very imperfect sketch of the world’s advance in mathematical knowledge, it has been possible all through to mention but few of those who have taken part in that great move- ment. Theachievements of many, whose names are unmentioned, are such as the most brilliant might well envy. What has been said will, however, have served its purpose if it has, even faintly helped us to realize with what success the realm of exact know- ledge has been exploited, and under what obligations we have been placed by the devoted labours and splendid genius of the mathematician. The world which he explores, and in which his discoveries are made, is the world of mind: the depths he sounds are the depths of human consciousness: the forms of truth which he perceives are the structures of that imponderable world not seen by the eye, but by the soul, for the relations and laws dis- — covered are conceptional not physical. The elements of the mathematician’s world are those ideas, which it is the high function of intellect to project on to the world of sense in order to render it intelligible. This truth, as old as Plato, perhaps as the foundation of things, is that which lends its chief lustre to the ‘queen of sciences.” It has been naively said that the truths of mathematics flow merely from its definitions: true, they are con- sequent upon its definitions, but that very fact asserts the reach and the structure of exact human thought, in respect of which mathematics attains to a unique position, both as regards generality and certainty. We may be allowed one illustration serving to shew how transcendently the power of abstract mathematical thinking surpassed all possibilities of physical verification, for exact knowledge is never attained by physical experiment or physical measurement. When once the law of a geometrical curve, surface, or solid, is defined, it is in general possible to ascertain by the processes of pure mathematics its length, area, or volume, to any degree of precision one might wish. In 1854 Richter" carried the calculation of the ratio subsisting between the diameter and circumference of a circle to 500 places of figures true to the 1 Grunert’s Archiv. xxv., p. 472. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. Dal last place, and in 1873 Shanks’ carried it still further, viz., to 707 places of figures. Let us examine for a moment the significance of this :—In a year, light travels about 5:9 million million miles. Imagine the circumference of a circle whose radius was a million million years of light travel. To express that great circumference to a millionth of an inch would require only 37 places of figures out of the 707. That is to say, the mathematician has enabled us to express the circumference of a circle, to the degree of pre- cision indicated, whose radius is 10°° times a million million years of light travel. This number is inconceivable, but one may get - some further idea of its immensity thus :—Imaginea being capable ° of traversing the space covered by a million million years of light travel, in so inconceivably small a time as the millionth of a second, that is of covering about 31 p3 times that distance in a year: (4 denotes a million). The flight of that being for a million million years being taken as radius, would require only 69 figures instead of 37, to determine the circumference of the circle to a millionth of an inch, leaving over 600 figures unexhausted. The fact is that so great a number of figures requires the conception of a higher order of development, than mere change of scale, to apprehend it. Yet about the accuracy of the result there is not the shadow of a doubt. To the mathematician the chief merit of his beloved science lies in its intrinsic interest and in its value as an instrument of severe intellectual discipline and culture. But we are not all endowed with the spirit of the mathematician, and hence must regard the Science also from other standpoints. We note there- fore that it has a secondary and derived value, as our director and guide in the study of natural philosophy, or the study of the substance of the universe, and of its mode of being and action. And beyond this again, it is in some form or another, immediately ministerial to practice in almost every application of scientific knowledge. 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., xx1. 7494 G. H. KNIBBS. At a few of the developments of its higher applications, we may be allowed to briefly glance; and first in regard to astronomy. Kepler’s work therein has already been noticed. The illustrious Bessel [1784 — 1846] who sacrificed the prospect of affluence ‘for poverty and the stars,’ practically recast the science, introducing into it rigorous methods, and greatly improving the value of its constants, thereby making possible the accurate prediction of the positions of celestial objects. He alone appreciated the work of our own astronomer Bradley at its true worth, and utilized it. Geodesy—the connection of which with astronomy is very intimate —he founded asa science. For the development of the lunar theory we are indebted to Hansen [1795-1874], and to his indefatigable computations of extensive lunar tables, the basis of the positions of the moon on which the navigator is so dependent for his safety. Poisson [1781 —1840] discussed the secular inequalities of the mean motions of the planets: Airy [1801 — 1892] the planetary and lunar theories and that of the tides, pre- viously treated by Laplace. Leverrier [1811-1877] and J. C. Adams [1819 — 1892] shared the honour of discovering Neptune by studying the unexplained deviations of the place of Uranus. Delaunay [1816 — 1872] completed the explanation of the secular acceleration of the moon’s mean motion, which Adams had shewn was defective. Newcomb [born 1835] investigated the imperfections of Hansen’s tables and also greatly improved the determination of lunar places, and therefore of longitude by lunar methods. Adams and G. H. Darwin [born 1845] have developed a scheme of tidal analysis ; Darwin himself studying also tidal friction. Quite a number of workers have attacked the problem of 7 bodies, which is really the problem of astronomy; but Bruns has shewn that no advance may be expected by algebraic integrals, and that if a solution be possible, we must look to the modern theory of functions for it. Further improvement in the selection of a fixed point of refer- ence for celestial positions, and in the determination of mean places, depend upon the ascertainment of the sun’s path in space. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 23 This question of the solar motion was raised by Halley [1656 — 1742], Bradley [1692 — 1762], J. Tobias Mayer [1723 — 1762], and Lambert [1728 — 1777], and the motion itself calculated first by Pierre Prévost' in 1781, from the proper motions in Mayer’s table. ‘The principle of a new and wholly independent method was con- ceived by Doppler in 1848, and from measurements of radial stellar velocity by Huggins and Seabroke, Homann in 1885 obtained a result roughly agreeing with the earlier deductions from proper motions. The range and scope of modern astronomy will not admit of anything like adequate reference to it: some idea of its extent may be had, however, by referring to the astronomies of Chauvenet, Main, Watson, or Faye, and the Mécaniques Celestes of Resal or Tisserand. Apart from the esthetic interest of this science or its practical value in determining time’ for us, and in meeting the great require- ments of navigation and geodesy, its work in developing the scale of our conceptions of time, space, and energy, and enhancing the reach of our imagination, can hardly be realized. It would be difficult to estimate how far civilisation depends upon the enlarg- ing of our greater conceptions, but that it does so depend is with- out question. Whatever may be our individual opinion on this matter however, one thing is certain, viz., that the practical assist- ance of astronomy is invaluable; the commerce of the modern world, in so far as its safety is secured by good navigation, 18 under great and lasting obligation to the ardent labours of those whose lives have been spent in contemplating the stars, and in interpreting their motions. Physics and engineering, which, with practical chemistry, lie immediately behind the material expression of modern civilisation, 1 [1751-1839]. Nouveaux Mémoires of the Berlin Academy —R.A. 230° D 25° were the computed coordinates of the point toward which our system moves. 2 Under the recently established standard time system, every adjusted mean time keeper shews the same minutes and seconds the whole world over. 24 G. H. KNIBBS. _are similarly indebted to mechanics, to the theory of elasticity, to thermodynamics and to like departments of applied mathematics, for their extraordinary development. | Wherever in applied science, the mathematical method is relevant, its application seems to transform every conception and render it fruitful. At the beginning of the century, viz., in 1804, Poinsot [1777 — 1859] published his ‘Elements of statics,’ the earliest introduction to synthetical mechanics, and to the idea ofa couple. In elasticity particular problems had been solved before the beginning of this century by Jakob and Daniel Bernoulli, Lagrange and Euler. In the early part of the century Thomas Young [1773 — 1829] in England, J. Binet in France, and G. A. A. Plana [1781 — 1864] in Italy, advanced the subject mainly by criticism and correction of earlier work. The general development of the existing theory of elasticity however, was the work of Navier [1785 — 1836], Poisson [1781 —1840], Cauchy, Mademoiselle Sophie Germain [1776-1831], and Félix Savart [1791-1841], among which Poisson and Cauchy were the greatest contributors. St. Venant [1797 — 1886] developed a theory of flexure which took cognisance of all known relevant phenomena ; Poncelet, theories of resilience and cohesion, and Lamé [1795 — 1870], and Clebsch published mathematical theories of the elasticity of solid bodies, adding to the stock of acquired knowledge valuable contributions of their own. Among recent remarkable works touching dynamical problems, Ball’s theory of screws, the last memoir of which has quite recently been published, may be mentioned: the theory has been applied by Lamb to the solution of the steady motion of solids in fluids. Stokes introduced, in 1843, the theory of images, of great value in attacking problems in fluid motion, an applica- tion which has since been developed by Hicks and Lewis. In 1856 Helmholtz [1821 —1894] investigated the properties of rotational motion in an incompressible homogeneous and non- viscous fluid. J.J. Thomson in his well-known treatise on the ‘‘ Motion of vortex rings,” has discussed a peculiar conception of W. Thomson’s (Lord Kelvin’s) as to the nature of matter, viz. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 25 that an atom is a vortex ring of ether, in ether. The theory of the motion of viscous fluids has so far however, been scarcely attacked. The study of the circulation of the atmosphere was greatly advanced by William Ferrel [1817 — 1891], who, according to the dictum of Hann of Vienna, has contributed more to the know- ledge of the physics of the atmosphere than any other meteorologist. In electricity and magnetism, Cavendish [1731 — 1810], Coulomb [1736 — 1806], Ampére [1775 — 1836], Gauss and Wilhelm Weber [1804 — 1891] established systems of measurement, which made it possible to study these subjects quantitatively. The equation of Laplace modified by Poisson, was applied by Green [1793 — 1841] to the theory of electricity and magnetism, with significant results. W. Thomson’s prediction of the oscillatory nature of the Leyden jar discharge, Lamb’s and Niven’s investigations of the screening effects of metal sheets against induction, Kirchhoff’s [1824 — 1887] determinations of current strength under different circumstances, Maxwell’s [1831 — 1879] electro-magnetic theory of light, after- wards experimentally verified by Hertz, and developed by Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), J. J. Thomson, Rowland, Glazebrook, Helmholtz, Boltzmann, Heaviside, Poynting and others, are some of the great advances in one department of physics. In the theory of energy, Mayer [1814-1878], Colding, Joule [1818-1889], and Helmholtz, established the doctrine of conser- vation, Joule determining also the mechanical equivalent of heat. In 1824 Sadi-Carnot [1796 — 1832] evolved the theory of heat- engines. In February 1850, Clausius [1822 —1888] published the second law of thermodynamics, and illustrated its physical significance, as also did W. J. M. Rankine [1820 — 1872] though he did not then explicitly state the law. The application of the thermodynamic method has completely transformed molecular physics and theoretical chemistry. In respect of this last Dulk has lately made an attempt, apparently,’ to deduce atomic weights 1 Atomgewicht oder Atomgravitation.— Breslau 1898. [I have not seen the work. ] 26 G. H. KNIBBS. from certain spatial and dynamic considerations based on chemical data (?). The differences of his values from the best deductions are about the same order as their uncertainty. But it is quite impossible even to enumerate the developments: of the great applications of mathematics to physical science, and we must be content to take what has been mentioned as illustra- tive of the whole. We have already said that mathematics lies behind physics. When one regards descriptions of the development of these sciences, however, they perhaps appear, at first sight, merely theoretical and unpractical—matters rather of curiosity than of utility. This arises from the fact that the links by which conceptual or abstract truths are united, and by which they guide and control the oper- ation of the human will upon the material world, are non-material. Day by day the truth is being forced upon us, with ever-increasing impressiveness, that all knowledge is inter-related ; and more and more do we perceive that the secret of our power in controlling the great energies of Nature, and in handling her material, lies in the acquisition of abstract truth. The mathematician supplies us with the subtlest and most far-reaching relations, with truths entirely general, of universal adaptation. His discoveries are revelations of the way in which, by the very constitution of our being, we must think, if we are to have intelligent existence 8 at all. The physicist takes the splendid instruments furnished by the mathematician and applies them both in observing and in interpreting the phenomena of Nature; and is often richly rewarded, not only by the discovery of physical facts of great significance, but also by being able to shew the inherent wealth of mathematical conceptions, with a fulness unknown even to the pure mathematician. The relation of the physicist to the material world, is akin te that of the mathematician to the conceptual world : his it is te study the world of matter in its generality, and in detail only with a view to the development of general conceptions, the interest of which, in the main, as with the truths of mathematics, is self- ANNIVERSARY. ADDRESS. ALi sufficient ; and therefore, as such, the physicist is not charged with the great applications of his science. He is the hierophant, upon whom devolves the communication of the mysteries. It is well that it should be so, for his time is better occupied in cultivating the genius of observation, rather than that of application; and the world into which he penetrates is inexhaustible in its riches. Every accession of knowledge instead of making us feel that the content of the limitless unknown is poorer, has on the contrary made us feel it is infinitely richer than we imagined, and like the man in Richter’s dream, we almost would hide ourselves from the persecution of the Infinite. A cursory outlook upon the world and the arrangements by means of which we reach our material ends, may not instantly disclose our dependence upon the achievements of abstract science. Look but a little deeper, however, and at once it becomes apparent that at every turn those achievements are the condition of our progress. Glance, for example, for a moment at the commerce of the modern world, at the work which has devolved upon the mechanical engineer and the naval architect in its development, at the great handling machinery and tools by means of which commercial inter-communication is realized, at the necessity for the economic expenditure of energy in the attainment of these things ; and then go back to the knowledge of material and con- struction which is all through implied, and to the mathematical knowledge which again lies behind the whole, and we shall not fail to be impressed by the reality of the service rendered by elements of knowledge apparently the most abstract and most remote. The same result is reached, if, when we regard the mech- anisms by means of which we communicate information of all kinds, the modern printing press, the systems of telegraphing and tele. phoning, and the dependence of the latter upon researches in electricity and magnetism, and of all upon triumphs of mechanical genius, so common that we have ceased to wonder at them, we then think how the clear conception and wise application of physical facts, demanding in turn still more abstract knowledge, 98 G. H. KNIBBS. is involved. The more thoroughly we trace these inter-relations the better shall we understand that the distinction between theoretical and practical is modal, not essential. Consider for a moment, even the part played in the modern world by computation. The actuary who deals with questions of value and of money, the navigator, engineer, surveyor, electrician, and often too the chemist, employ logarithms: who, & priori, would have imagined that the curious conception of two points moving on lines—the one on a finite line diminishing its velocity so as always to be proportional to the distance to the terminal toward which it is moving, the other on a line of indefinite length maintaining a uniform velocity, coupled with the conception of the ratio between the untraversed distance on the first line, to the traversed distance on the second—who, I say, would have imagined that conception’ to have led to the production of the logarithmic tables which have become so indispensable to us, and without which much of our computation would be hopelessly tedious. Or if we may be allowed another illustration, who could have antici- pated that the study of the properties of curves formed by the section of a cone by a plane, could have been so applied as to enable the navigator to guide his craft safely over the expanse of ocean. Apparently these belong to worlds of things wholly unrelated ; yet the opposite is the truth. And so itis all through. We do well to remember that the spirit of the scorner of those great outreachings of the human mind after a fuller and deeper knowledge of the laws of thought and of the phenomena of the worlds, in short after abstract science, would lead us back to barbarism: we are never justified in suppressing our insatiate thirst for knowledge because its practical issue is wholly beyond our ken. But of this more anon. One of the most striking facts in modern industrial progress is the daily increasing significance of the part played by chemistry, | a science in its turn, dependent, for some of its most conspicuous 1 Napier’s, who did not recognise the exponential character of logarithms. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 29 advances, on those in pure, and in other applied sciences. As a guide in metallurgical processes, in the production of foods, and in the manufacture of a vast series of inorganic and organic com- pounds required by civilised communities, it has proved itself, although of recent birth, a giant in its power of assistance, and there is abundant evidence that in the near future its achievement will transcendently eclipse that of the past. Not only so, but its deeper side has enabled us to penetrate further into the knowledge of the fabric out of which our world is built, for the contributions of chemistry to physics have been very great. No general view of molecular physics can be regarded as adequate, which does not take account of molecular chemistry, or the whole series of physical facts which have been revealed in the prosecution of chemical research. The difficulties which face the investigator are of course stupendous. Apart from those introduced in attempting anything like a complete molecular theory of chemical reactions, in which all energy changes and variation of physical properties, as related to chemical constitution, shall be explained ; the difficulties inherent in a more elementary theory, which attempts nothing further than an explanation of the gaseous, liquid and solid states, and the elastic properties of substances, are overwhelming, as anyone will realize who critically reads, for example, any discussion of the foundations of the kinetic theory of gases. Up toacertain point the study is simple enough, but the moment the attempt to include the observed facts, of departure from the ideal gaseous law, is made, the intricate character of the problem really appears.’ 1 The total kinetic energy of a system of molecules is represented by the virial equation Lem =—FpV +422Kkr in which y denotes the mean of ‘the squares of the velocities of the mole- cules, m the mass of a molecule, p the pressure per unit of surface on the envelope whose volume is V, & the attraction between two molecules separated the distance r, and \, as usual, the summation of the quantities which it precedes, beiny double in the final term to indicate that the summation is to include every pair of molecules that can be taken in the system. Now neglecting the attraction term and supposing the kinetic energy to be proportional to the absolute temperature @ of the system, the above equation becomes 30 G. H. KNIBBS. Let us briefly glance at a few of the greater facts of chemical science, facts revealed to the world almost wholly in the century just closing. Its origin is shrouded in as much mystery as one of the most interesting personalities connected with its early development, viz., Abu Musa Dschabir (Geber) [died about 776 A.D.?]. It is questionable, however, whether the term ‘chemistry’ ought in strictness, to be applied to that body of knowledge concerning metallurgy, tanning, and dyeing, possessed by the ancients even long before Geber’s time, since the facts were unassociated; that is to say, they were disconnected items of knowledge. The alchemists, who flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, and who made a considerable number of chemical observations, proposed what was to some extent a really general problem, viz., the transmutation of metals into gold, not even now a wholly ridiculous conception ; for the idea of a protyle is by no means excluded by the data of observation. But the attack on the problem was unsystematic. Paracelsus [1493 — 1541], on the other hand, boldly declared pharmacology to be the legitimate aim of chemistry. These facts are interesting as shew- ing the range and character of the early conceptions of the science. ‘The then prevailing theory of the threefold constitution of matter was attacked in 1661 by the sceptical Boyle [1626 - 1692], an pV=ko which expresses Boyle and Mariotte’s and Charles’ laws, provided we reckon @ from the ‘absolute zero.’ In orderto make this equation agree more exactly with the volume changes of gases of different density sub- jected to pressure, Van der Waals proposed in 1872 the modification (De (V-b) = k'0 thea term denoting an attraction coéfficient and 5 the sum of the volumes of the molecules, or amount by which the space V in which they moved was actually diminished by their own dimensions. Unfortunately Van der Waals’ equation does not wholly meet the difficulty. A fair idea of the problem to be solved may be had by reading say, Tait’s ‘ foundations of the kinetic theory of gases,’ and Burbury’s criticism thereon, the latter points out that Tait’s system of elastic-spheres cannot discharge all the functions of gaseous molecules, especially when the explanation of spectro- scopic phenomena has to be made out. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 31 attack which a little latter led to its complete overthrow by F. Hoffmann [1660 — 1742]. According to Ernst Meyer,’ the history of chemistry proper commences with Boyle, forasmuch as he taught that the immediate object of the science was the acquisition of a knowledge of the composition of bodies. Though prior to his life and work, a considerable mass of isolated chemical facts was being acquired, it was in the crucible of Lavoisier’s mind [1743 — 1794] that they were transmuted into something like the gold of true science. The greatest and most fruitful conception in the early development of chemistry was the atomic theory, which arising chiefly out of Richter’s’ doctrine of chemical proportions published about 1792, and Proust’s’ work confirmatory of the same, took definite form in Dalton’s mind in 1804, when he com- municated the conception to Thomson. The latter published it in his ‘System of Chemistry’ in 1807. This theory, viz., that every element is made up of homogeneous atoms of constant weight, and that compounds are formed by the union of these in the simplest numerical proportions, may be said to be the real foundation of the whole science of Chemistry. In 1808 Gay- Lussac [1778 — 1850] defined the law of gaseous combination by volume, and in 1811 Avogadro [1776-1856] enunciated the hypothesis that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules, an hypothesis espoused three years later also by Ampere, and which has played a signal part in the development of the science. These laws and hypotheses together with Charles’ law, discovered about 1786, connecting volume and temperature, and Boyle and Mariotte’s* law connecting pressure and volume, constitute the foundation of the physico-chemical theory of gases. The next great step was the founding in 1852 by Frankland [born 1825] of the doctrine of the saturation-capacity or valency of the elements, a doctrine which reached a fuller expression in Kekulé’s theory of the ‘linking of the atoms.’ The theory of valency is 1 History of Chemistry, 1898. 2 [1762 - 1807]. 3 [1755 - 1826]. 4 Died 1684. By, G. H. KNIBBS. not without difficulties, owing to the fact that some elements have more than one valency: an explanation has been attempted by supposing the ordinary atom to consist of a number of smaller or micro-atoms, with links free to form bonds either with the members of the system, or with atoms outside thereof. Thus if nitrogen consist of five trivalent micro-atoms it ought to be monovalent, trivalent, or pentavalent.! This theory of linking has given birth to structural chemistry: which may be described as a symbolic system of so representing the constitution of a chemical substance, that the formula shall epitomise the whole story of its characteristic reactions and properties. It was soon evident in organic chemistry, that structural formule were a necessity, since the physical, chemical, and therapeutical properties of the vast series of organic compounds, depended even more absolutely upon structure than upon the proportion of the elements out of which they were compounded. The structural investigation of an organic compound is summed up in three determinations, viz., (1) the empirical formula or ratio of the constituent elements, (2) the molecular formula or actual number of atoms of each constituent, and (3) the structural formula or way in which the constituents are com- bined. The two first determinations involve nothing more than some degree of expertness in laboratory technique, and frequently the utilization of certain discoveries in chemical physics, as the effect of a substance in lowering the freezing point [De Coppet and Raoult, 1882], or elevating the boiling point of a solvent [Beckmann 1889], or the lowering of solubility [Nernst 1890]. The third determination however, involves not only a comprehen- sive knowledge of the chemical behaviour of organic compounds, but in addition a delicate appreciation of the whole range of avail- 1 Thus :—Arrange five micro-atoms in the form of a regular pentagon: then denoting the free links by exterior lines the results may be repre-~ sented :— | | iyN=N e N—N is ha = —=-N | ==) || — Ni | “NN Sy Swe yes | | Monovalent. Trivalent. Pentavalent. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. vo able facts, which bear on the question of their constitution. Two simple examples will suffice to illustrate the matter to those who are not chemists. In ethyl-alcohol, molecularly C,H,O, the oxygen cannot be removed without at the same time taking away the active hydrogen, and hence the latter must be linked to the oxygen thus, —O—H, oxygen being divalent. Since carbon is quadri- valent and hydrogen monovalent and consequently incapable of serving as a link, the two carbon atoms must be directly united, and their valencies must grasp the hydrogen atoms, and the free valency of the oxygen. The only structure which fulfils all the conditions, is H H or" = 6-0] 0— A Py El which for convenience is represented by the constitutional formula. C,H,° OH, or ethyl hydroxide. Acetylene consists of two atoms of hydrogen and two of carbon, the latter being united with three valencies since the hydrogen exhaustsonly one: thus H—C=C—H. When passed through a red-hot tube it polymerises, or condenses,. into one-third the volume, forming benzene, C,H,. From the fact that the hydrogen atoms may be shewn to be really equivalent. and can very readily be replaced by other monovalent atoms or molecules, while the carbon nucleus is of great stability ; that. the molecule will suffer the addition of six halogen atoms. and no more; that only one mono-substitution product, and not. more than three di-substitution products can be formed from it, and from a number of other considerations of an analogous nature, it is evident that benzene is structurally represented by a hexagon. or ring of six carbon atoms, with the six hydrogen atoms on the- outside, thus’ :— 1 It will be noticed that one valency of the quadrivalent carbon has not been utilized. This enables benzene to take up six monovalent atoms. as in benzene hexahydride, or hexamethylene. The free valencies have been supposed by Armstrong [1887] to be exercised in increasing the: stability of thetnucleus. C—May 3, 1899. 34 G. H. KNIBBS. eles L cual (plan HOG eae C226 | erga H Ef The reasoning by which in di-substitution products the ortho- or vicinal, the meta- and para- positions are identified, is equally ingenious. It is obvious from these simple illustrations that the determination of structure often calls for the exercise both of a comprehensive knowledge of chemistry and also of genius; and the enormous number of organic substances, the structure of which has been ascertained beyond all doubt, is a testimony not only to the assiduity but also to the splendid intuition of the world’s chemists. Organic substances fall into two great divisions, viz., the open- chain or aliphatic series, and ring-compounds or the aromatic series ; the latter may also have monovalent radicles from the former externally attached. One of the most significant achievements of modern chemistry has been the formation of ring-compounds from open-chain ones ; as when, on heating mannoheptitol with hydriodic acid, it is reduced to tetrahydrotoluene. Another achieve- ment of equal potentiality is the converse process of breaking up ring-compounds into open-chain ones; as in the chlorination of phloroglucinol, which converts it into dichloracetic acid and tetra- chloracetone ; or in its hydrolysis through heating with strong caustic alkali, which breaks it into acetone, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide. The power of hypochlorous acid in breaking ring-structures renders it a reagent of great value in the hands of the technical chemist. The story of the powers of modern chemistry might be in- definitely continued, but may be summed up by saying that the secret of the chemist’s ability to synthesise such an infinitude of substances, lies in the discovery of far-reaching chemical truths; a discovery arising out of the study of structure and out of the ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 35 attempt to reach general views respecting chemical reactions. A priori, the chemical achievements of this century seemed an impossibility, but success has transcended the most sanguine expectations, and there can be no doubt that in the future the science will play even a still greater part in the world’s develop- ment. Were it not an intrusion on the solemnity of these proceedings, I might have been permitted to shew that chemistry reacts on the esthetic faculties of the world. Who, for example, looking at a brilliant social function, graced by the presence of the sex that lends it all its subtle beauty and charm, recognises how much is due to the delicacy and glory of colour which the genius of the chemist has provided! Perhaps, after all, such recognition were a profanity on such an occasion, and the highest tribute to that genius is the fact that we are overwhelmed with esthetic pleasure. The service of organic chemistry to therapeutics would be diffi- cult to over-estimate. Not only have many natural substances required by physicians been prepared artificially, but the com- prehensive study of the relation of chemical structure to phy- siological and therapeutic activity, has enabled the chemist to predict with some degree of confidence phe action of new sub- stances. For example, the hypnotic sulphonal is chemically dimethyl-diethyl-sulphone-methane. The substitution of ethyl for one of the methyls gives trional, and of ethyls for both methyls, tetronal, substances of identical character but with reinforced physiological activity. That inferences of this nature have to be drawn with extreme care, however, is indicated in the quaternary amido-compounds betaine, choline, and neurine, the two first being innocuous while the last is extremely poisonous :— Choline = CH,OH: CH,: NMe,-OH Weurines, a=) CH: CH - NMe,: OH It is impossible here to give any sufficient idea of the reaction of structural chemistry on physics. One instance will shew some- thing of its significance. To the labours of Briihl, Landolt, Conrady, Kannonikoff, and others, we owe the knowledge that the molecular 36 G. H. KNIBBS. refraction of a compound—or product of its specific refraction . and molecular weight—is the sum of the atomic refractions, pro- vided the mode of union of the atoms be taken into account ; and to those labours we owe also the actual determination of a large number of atomic refractions for different lines in the spectrum. Another great feature of chemical advance is the recent analysis of substances produced in living organisms. As remarked by Lassar-Cohn, there is no reason why chemists ‘should not turn their attention to living forms rather than forever study the products derived from the relics of a long-extinct organic world. Time prevents any reference to the great influence of mathe- matics and physics on modern chemistry: of the part played by heat, pressure, and electrical energy in controlling chemical re- actions ; of the potency and promise of the future of the science when the resources of the latter form of energy shall have been exploited. One has no doubt that the brilliant advance of the century now closing is but the earnest of a still brighter future, and that not only will the services of the chemist, which directly or indirectly affect every industrial process of to-day, be year by year, more and more fully utilized, but also that even in purely theoretical advances his genius will shine, if possible, with even greater lustre than in the past. The great applications of science have practically transformed the material blessings of civilisation. J am unable, for lack of time, to. indicate how other sciences contribute, but throughout the whole range, the service is incalculable. The industrial requisition of the achievements of the student has produced the most striking trans- formations. Nowhere has the change been so remarkable as in those countries where the intellectual life has been strongly cultivated and science ardently followed. And among these Germany stands in the first rank, reaping a well-deserved and rich reward. Full of intellectual energy, systematic in method, and rich in genius, she has produced a body of literature, philo- sophy and science, which the world may well envy; and she has done this with high aspirations. No charge can be urged against ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. BW her of having sought out Minerva with unworthy motive. The splendid sacrifices, with which her history is replete, for the attainment of preéminence in all that ennobles a people; the un- qualified respect which nationally and individually she pays to intellectual achievement, the opportunity she offers for the cultiva- tion of great talents, the generous way in which she nurtures every impulse to advancement, these are the secret of her renown, these are the occasion of her consciousness of dignity and power, and these are what have made her a signal example of the reward of noble purpose. It has been said by moralists that the world is so constituted that they who seek higher ends, will incidentally reach the lower also. Be that as it may, Germany’s devotion to science, art, and literature has certainly been compatible with preéminence in rate of industrial development, for during the latter part of this century her advance has been such as must satisfy even the most sanguine of her patriots. It is no mere matter of opinion, that this has been the result of her attitude to scientific progress. | Nowhere have so many discoveries been made in all departments of science: nowhere have the most recondite elements of knowledge been so ardently discussed and analysed. To this is due the great generality of her attainments, and the fine development of her scientific prescience and intuition ; and to this is due also her keen appreci- ation of the advantage of utilizing that body of knowledge won by the genius and assiduity of the mathematician and the inves- tigator of Nature. The evidence of German appreciation of the value of science is characteristically shewn in the scientific equipment, both in respect of personnel and material, of those great industrial works whose operations are guided by its great results. Their laboratory equipment is even more splendid than that of the universities. The prosecution of research in them is conducted on no narrow basis, nor with regard to immediate issue in results of commercial value. No where in the world is the recognition so keen that in the end the most unpromising accessions of know- 38 G. H. KNIBBS. ledge will prove either directly or indirectly of utility; that if they are per se commercially valueless, yet they will not fail to render aid in that general progress, on which the whole depends, and which has strengthened their hands among the nations. A gratify- ing feature in the history of such laboratories is the great amount of original research which they undertake, and communicate to the world. To a wise people the striking progress of another nation is occasion for serious reflection : and if it be possible for us to profit by that example, surely what we have to learn is this, that our national welfare depends—setting aside the transcendently great elements of high character and vigorous purpose—upon our nationally fostering a spirit of scientific research, and an appreci- ation of achievement in that direction. If in this we fail, we shall pay dearly for our purblind ignorance, as indeed we have done already. No one can contemplate the relative growth of German commerce, the progress of her iron works, of her manufacture of electrical machinery, or the progress of her great dye and chemical works—the two last unrivalled for the excellence of their prepar- ations—without realizing how abundantly she has been rewarded for nurturing in her people a real and practical affection for science, and a high respect for mental exploits. What is the spirit which we intend to foster in these young colonies, just quickening with the first impulses of national feeling and sentiment? Are we going to make sacrifices of time and money to cultivate that intellectual ardour, so finely manifested in our Teutonic friends and so rich in its results? Are we going to throw all the energy of purpose of which we are capable, into the impulse to acquit ourselves right royally, and to vie with the old established centres of learning in the world in the struggle after knowledge? Are we going to develope the resources of this land with all the powerful assistance which intelligence and education can furnish? Are we going to employ as instruments in so doing, the great inheritance of scientific lore, which the patient research, penetrative insight, and potent genius of the ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 39 past has accumulated for us? If the answer to these questions be yes—and who with any patriotic: feeling, or sense of his duty to the country in which he is nurtured, or in which he lives and moves and has his being can answer otherwise—then we shall have to fitly take our part in the general progress ; we shall have to do what lies in our power to make, to the ever-increasing body of knowledge, such contributions as shall worthily express our appreciation: of the inheritance, that by the labour of others is ours. Ifa people attempt to thrive on the intellectual, industrial or economic activity of others, they will fall into their proper place as parasites. The only path of progress is self-help, and the only way to hold our own with the great centres of activity, is to foster all that tends to engender noble aspirations after those things which have made other nations great, and their histories a stimulus to high effort. The race may not be to the swift, but it is to the people of strong purpose; and the giant strides made through the progress of science, warn us not to be supine, lest we be left hopelessly in the rear. The time for action is now. What are the conditions under which it will be possible to advance? We have already indicated that on the spiritual side it is determined by our character, by a high appreciation of the dignity of intellectual effort and intellectual achievement, and an earnest purpose to take our part in the higher progress of the world. On the material side, we must make the opportunity for the student to work, and give him all the advantages which accrue from instant acquaintance with everything that is being done in other parts of the world. The laboratories of our land must be so arranged as to facilitate research, and efficiently placed at the disposal of students willing to devote themselves. Mere teaching of the acquisitions of the past is not sufficient ; to be of value they must be the seed of further progress. And here I may be allowed to ask whether we are adequately utilizing our oppor- tunity in the laboratories of government departments. Properly equipped, what facilities they would offer for true research work —the life-blood of scientific progress—provided their able chiefs 40 ; G. H. KNIBBS. merely directed routine work, and were free to employ their unexhausted energies on such original scientific researches as they deemed worthy of attack. This method of working is consistent with the traditions of the greater seats of intellectual activity, and is productive of the best possible results. It assigns a higher class of work to both subordinate and chief, and makes the post one which might be eagerly sought by the most highly qualified. The same principle applies in a University : if it is to have any reputation, if it is to become a living factor in the world’s progress, and honourably take its place among the Universities of the world, it must produce: any scheme which exhausts the energies of a staff in mere teaching, or in routine demonstration, is a failure, and will react badly on the future. Although there are signal instances to the contrary, our University is not as yet sufficiently at the disposal of the research student: nor, under its present material limitations, can it be; for the existing endowment is wholly inadequate. Look at what is elsewhere produced, and compare it with our own results, if you would know where we are. We shall have done well only if we go on and make the instru- ments of culture, already in part provided, really effective. But to return to the bibliographical element. In the University and the scientific societies here, we have the nuclei of splendid libraries. Most of the great scientific periodicals of the world are in them. We may be pardoned for referring to our own library. Those members of our Society who consult it know, what a splendid monument it is of the labour on behalf of this institution of our esteemed colleague Professor Liversidge, to whose effort more than to that of any other member of our Society, the creation of this library is due. You will all recollect the testimony paid to its excellence by Professor Threlfall, when I had the honour to convey to him, our sense of regret at losing his services as a member of our Society, University and community. What he said, was—to quote his own words—“ Personally I am immenseiy indebted to the Society for the encouragement it has always given me, and also for the great use I have had of its fine ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 4] library, without which it would have been impossible at one time for me to have done any work at all.” There is another fact, however, touching our library here which demands our urgent attention. At the present time our resources are not adequate for the proper binding and accommodation of what even now we receive as donations from other parts of the world, and what is still more serious, many of our scieutific series, both here and at the University, are not only incomplete, but the opportunity of completing them is rapidly passing away never to return. The great and munificently endowed institutions of America are exhausting the market ; series which we are anxious to complete and some which we have not yet acquired, are often bespoken years beforehand. The scientific libraries of Sydney— the capital of the mother colony of Australia—should surely be the most complete in the southern hemisphere; and it is to be hoped that neither ignorance nor niggardliness will prevent us equipping them with those great works and journals absolutely necessary to our efficient codperation in the intellectual and industrial advance of the world. Access to the complete records of all scientific work done elsewhere must be available, if we are to progress as we should. Daily it becomes more and more imperative that the scientific worker shall be cognisant of every advance, and it is the keen recognition of this necessity that has led to the undertaking of the international scientific catalogue. That record of scientific work will make it impossible to be ignorant of what is being done throughout the world. To reach its object, however, we must also have copies of the investigations themselves. The field is too vast, the cost in brain effort, time, and money too great, to admit of the duplication of real work, and moreover the rate of progress depends upon that economy of time and effort which accrues from appreciating and utilizing the results reached by our predecessors in research. Our capital, the evergrowing achievement of the past, the intellectual fortune acquired by centuries of exploitation by Genius, is that with which we start, and to this we must add. A community failing to use 492 G. H. KNIBBS. as a point of vantage the intellectual wealth of the world at large, must inevitably fall back in the race, because it is the methodical availment of that advantage which has been fruitful of result, a fact, as we have indicated, testified to so forcibly, by the brilliant history of Germany’s recent progress. Enough has been said to show that it is of national importance that we should without delay, still further develope our libraries. In respect of our Society’s own, what has already been accom- plished should be worthily continued. The generous impulse which has instigated the issue to us of the leading scientific journals of the world in return for our own, is a feature we regard with pleasure. Since 1878 and up to the present time, we have expended out of our very limited income, no less than £4,704, in the purchase and binding of books and periodicals. The exchanges annually received, have now a still greater money-value than our purchases ; so that in publishing we not only afford investigators an opportunity of adding their results to the sum-total of the world’s information, but we also acquire by this means, additions to our library of great intrinsic value. The importance of this cannot be overestimated : it is a beginning full of promise for the scientific future of the colony, and fully justifies our publishing expenditure of £3,602 during the last twelve years. In the matter of the scientific equipment of our city, we are in » some respects well off, but in others the reverse. The science schools of the University, are in every instance fine monuments of the earnestness of purpose of the professors in charge, to whose untiring efforts their equipment is largely due. But for their proper utilization they are not sufficiently endowed ; in fact, it is not putting the case too strongly to say that their energies are sadly crippled by that very fact. The view has been expressed that we can well rest content on past achievement: that our learned institutions have been more than liberally treated, and that we expect overmuch if we anticipate further assistance. That both private individuals and the Government have splendidly helped us, we gladly and gratefully recognise: but it must not be ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 43 forgotten that we do not, in either respect, compare favorably with America. On the basis either of population or area, the United States has wholly surpassed us in the generosity of its treatment of educational or scientific establishments : this is so both in respect of state and private benefaction. It is indeed a gratifying feature of recent American history, to notice the munificence of its citizens to their institutions. Great fortunes are largely the outcome of those conditions which have been pro- duced by the general spread of intelligence. The devotees of science, have necessarily adandoned the paths that lead to possible affluence; and yet from their limited means, they contribute, as a rule, liberally to the cause which lies near their hearts. But the institutions on which the progress of humanity depends, require assistance in the material means for their maintenance, - far beyond what lies in the power of men of science to provide. It is peculiarly gratifying therefore, when those whose financial genius has won for them affluence, use the great power which that brings, to promote the welfare of the people. I do not believe that in this country we are less liberal or less intelligent than in others: but, that the nature of our needs is not sufficiently known, is certain. Once it is clearly understood that we are languishing for want of the means to do that which ought to be done for our future national prosperity, the assistance will not be long in forthcoming. It is our duty to the community as a whole, to explain our wants: when we have efficiently done so, when we have made it manifest that the development, especially of our scientific libraries is an immediate and pressing need, that our educational establishments cannot with their present endowment compete with those of the older intellectual centres of the world, then we may have some expectation that the generous impulse of the people, will lift us out of our trouble. It has been freely enough shewn in the past, and no doubt will in the future. I hold it to be the solemn duty of those who realize what higher culture means to the world, to publicly explain the circumstances of their day in that respect. Only when that has been done have 44 G. H. KNIBBS. we discharged our duty to the cause, which our Society has espoused. The picture I have tried to give in merest outline of the pro- gress of pure and applied mathematics and of chemistry, may be taken as illustrative of what might be given in almost any great branch of learning. The devoted labours and brilliant talents to which the world owes so much, have, I am painfully conscious, been inadequately represented. I can but hope that the earnest- ness of your efforts to hold aloft the torch of science will a thousandfold atone for my shortcoming. That the history of our Society shall throughout, be that of strong intellectual stimulus to those who live under Austral skies, that it shall be among. those bright influences which will make our people emulate the splendid examples of the past, and nobly take their part in the progress of civilization, is an aspiration, that will ever unite us in bonds of sympathy, and will ever inflame our hearts with enthusiasm, in the cause of Science. KEY TO TRIBES AND GENERA OF FLORIDEZ. 45 KEY to TRIBES ano GENERA oF tHe FLORIDEA. (RED OR PurPLE Marine ALG.) By Ricuarp A. Bastow. (Communicated by J. H. Maipen, F.x.s.) [With Plates I., IL] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1899. | Ir is essential in the study of the Floridex in the first place to acquire some knowledge of the organs of fructification charac- teristic of each tribe; itis then much easier to become familiarised with the habits of the various genera constituting each tribe. Knowing by experience that in botanical studies a few lines however roughly drawn may, in many cases, convey more informa- tion than a large amount of letterpress, I have made a chart of the tribes of Floridez on Plate 1, showing the conceptacular fruit common to each tribe, the fruit being shown in section or in out- line, and where necessary the spores also are shown. Immediately under each drawing of the tribes a tribal descrip- tion will be found, and each tribal description embraces, in brackets, the genera of which each respective tribe is composed. It will also be observed that there is a short description to each genus, with a reference to the authority I have relied on. Also, each genus is numbered plainly, and the number corresponds to the numbers of genera in Dr. Sonder’s Catalogue of Australian Algze contained in the eleventh volume of Baron von Mueller’s Fragmenta Phytographie Australie. The generic number also corresponds with the number of the generic illustrations on Plate 2. I have spared no trouble to obtain the most reliable authority for each item of information on the plates. Free use has been made of the beautiful illustrations contained in the various works of Dr. W. H. Harvey, also of those in Flor. Tas., Flor. Nov. Zeal., 46 RICHARD A. BASTOW. Flor. Antarct., Rabenhorst’s work, etc.; and wherever I could utilize the work of a good authority I have done so. The written information is in great part from Dr. Agardh’s works, but in a few cases I have been unable to obtain any infor- mation, and have then fallen back upon reliably named specimens in the National Herbarium of Melbourne; these, for the most part were named by Dr. Harvey, Prof. Agardh, or Dr. Sonder ; but where I have had the slightest doubt as to the correct illustra- tion of any genus I have used a mark of interrogation. Although the Florideze are known as red algze, it must not be supposed that they are always red; the red plants, as a rule, will only be found in deepish water ; if they are much exposed to the light they assume an olive or brownish tint ; but with very little experience the student will soon find out by the fruit and the general habit of the plant whether it belongs to the Floridez or not. The Florideze have two kinds of fruit, these are tetraspores and conceptacular fruit. The tetraspores have been supposed by some to be the normal fruit, and the conceptacles abnormal. I see no particularly good grounds for such asupposition. Both kinds are alike reproductive, but they are never found on the same plant. Both kinds appear to me to be normal, for they always and invariably retain the constant forms for each genus. The conceptacular fruit or sporiferous nucleus is either naked (as in Callithamnion and Wrangelia); or immersed in the sub- stance of the frond (asin G'ratiloupia, Halymenia, &c.); or evolved in wart-like tubercles (as in Polyides); or contained within hollow conceptacles of various forms (as in Polysiphonia etc.), and has generally, if not always a connection with the central stratum. The tetraspores are formed by the evolution of cells of the cortical layer ; they are either dispersed through the cortical cells of the whole frond, or confined to the ramuli, or grouped together in sori, or lodged in wart-like excrescences called nemathecia, or on proper leaflets (sporophylla), or in pod-like receptacles called KEY TO TRIBES AND GENERA OF FLORIDE. 47 stichidia. In some tetraspores the mass is divided by two lines crossing each other; they are then called cruciate; in others three lines radiating from the centre divide the mass; they are called tripartite, and again some of them are divided by parallel trans- verse lines, and are named zonate tetraspores. I well recollect some years ago that I collected a beautifully branched crimson seaweed and preserved it in the usual way after having examined and drawn it from the microscope. After many fruitless efforts to get at the genus of the plant, I obtained Kutzing’s book and turned over page after page until I arrived at its proper description; it was Dasya villosa. _ If I had only had Plate 1, what a vast amount of labour I should have been spared ; the conceptacular fruit being very large, I should have most easily seen that the plant belonged to the tribe Rhodomelee, genus Dasya; and on reference to Plate 2, I should have found the plant illustrated under sub-genus Khodonema. 48 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. On tHE METAMORPHOSIS or toe YOUNG FORM or FILARIA BANCROFT, COBB, | Pilaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis; filaria nocturna, Manson] 1n tHE BODY or CULEX CILIARIS, LINN., tHe “Houst Mosquito” or AUSTRALIA. By Tuos. L. Bancrort, m.s. Hdin. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1899. | Dr. Patrick Manson in a paper read before the Linnean Society of London, March 6th, 1884,' remarked :—“ Six years ago I described the metamorphosis undergone by the embryo /ilaria sangwinis hominis, in the body of the mosquito.” I hoped that (considering the practical importance of a correct knowledge of the life-history of this parasite) the statements I then made would, long ere this time, have been thoroughly confuted or confirmed. . . . With the exception of Lewis in India, Myers in Formosa, and Sonsino in Egypt, I do not know that anyone has worked seriously at the subject. And although both Lewis and Sonsino have confirmed my statements as to the entrance of the Filaria into the mosquito, and followed up part of the metamorphosis, neither of them has advanced his observations so far as to be able to confirm my statements as to the later stages of this, or positively to prove that the mosquito is or is not, the intermediary host. Some eminent helminthologists in England accept my statements and endorse the inferences I have drawn—Cobbold for example. But in other quarters, so far from securing acceptance of my theory, the work of Lewis, on account of the hesitation and scientific caution with which he expresses himself, has had the effect of inducing a certain amount of scepticism. Leuckart is sceptical ; 1 Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. 11., part x., Zoology, p. 367. 2 Proc. Linn. Soc., March 7th, 1878. China Customs Medical Reports, Sept. 1877. METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 49 and of course the scepticism of so eminent an authority is of great weight in influencing opinion, especially in Germany.” In answer to an inquiry from me as to whether there was any recent work on the subject of “filarial metamorphosis,” Dr. Manson wrote, November 15th, 1898:—‘‘So far as I know, nothing has been done in “‘filarial metamorphosis” since my Linnean Society’s paper. Lewis did not go very far with the work. Thereis an excellent opportunity for work on this subject, and were I in your place, I should certainly go on with it.” In writing to Dr. Manson, I had mentioned the circumstance of my being able to verify his “filarial metamorphosis,” but that I had never seen the “actively moving filaria,” which he stated left the mosquito’s body and lived a free life in water until trans- ferred to the human host. To this he replied in these words :—‘‘I have seen the “actively moving filaria” in the seven days’ old mosquito a good many times; I used to be able to pick out the mosquitoes containing it. Their thoraces looked plump and juicy tothe eye. Of course you must have hundreds of mosquitoes from which to select such.” Now in my former investigation there was no difficulty in find- ing the early stages of the metamorphosis in every mosquito (Culex ciliaris) without exception, which had imbibed filariated blood ; those mosquitoes which lived seven days—and none ever lived longer—never contained any actively moving filariz ; they contained forms more or less resembling Figure 4. Tt were useless to make further search for this ‘‘ actively moving filaria”; either Manson must be in error I thought, or the Culex ciliaris was not an efficient host. The recent work in India on the metamorphosis of the Malarial parasite in mosquitoes induced me to study the habits of these insects in this district. I found that I could keep certain kinds of mosquito, particularly Culex ciliaris and a large black species hitherto undescribed, alive in confinement for about two months; one individual actually lived seventy days. Banana was found D—June 7, 1899, 50 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. to be a good food for them. It was ascertained that unimpregnated mosquitoes lived the longest; those that had been impregnated lived two or three weeks, whilst the males rarely lived a fortnight. In my former investigation into filarial metamorphosis, it never occurred to me to feed my filariated mosquitoes whilst in confine- ment, accepting the common belief of their only feeding once and dying within a week. Manson, Lewis and Myers, who had worked at the subject, never fed the mosquitoes, and it never dawned upon me that my mosquitoes were dying from starvation. Having discovered that mosquitoes could be kept alive long periods in confinement if fed on banana, I was anxious to ascertain what would become of the filariz, which were to be seen in mosquitoes that lived seven days; would they go on developing if the mosquitoes lived longer ? Unfortunately E.S., the filariated subject, a girl of sixteen, from whom I had obtained filarie had left the district, having secured a situation as domestic servant ; she was the only person affected with filariasis I knew of. Dr. Manson’s encouragement and a grant of £7 from the Queens- land Branch of the British Medical Association to defray the cost of E. 8. returning and living with her parents for three months and submitting to be bitten by mosquitoes, induced me to enter upon a fresh investigation on February Ist, 1899. It was found that the actively moving filariz were to be seen, but not before the sixteenth or seventeenth day, sometimes in cold weather not until twenty days, and that no further development occurred in them even after a sojourn of sixty days in the mosquito’s thorax. The final stage of the metamorphosis, 1.e., the preliminary alternation of generations, is attained in sixteen or seventeen days; (Fig. 6) the young filariz are then ;;" in length by $5” in breadth, some only +5” x isco’; there is no apparent difference except in size; there is a well marked intestine with cesophageal bulb, also some differentiation of the body protoplasm into reproductive organs (ovary and testicle) but I have not been able to make out any sexual difference. METAMORPHOSIS OF FILIARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 51 The young filariz are generally only to be found in the thorax, yet a few occur in some instances in the abdominal cavity. There are usually three or four filarie present, sometimes as many as twenty-five. In twenty filariated mosquitoes that were killed and examined between sixteen and sixty days, every one of them con- tained actively moving filariz. Mosquitoes bearing filariz do not appear to be injured seriously; one that was killed fifty days after its meal of blood contained eleven filariz in the thorax and two in the abdominal cavity. In mosquitoes fed on non-filariated blood no filariz could be detected. When the mosquito’s thorax is torn across several times with dissecting needles in a watch-glass containing water on the stage of a dissecting microscope, the filariz are liberated and sink to the bottom ; they can be seen fairly easily with the naked eye and by aid of a needle picked out; they cannot swim nor move away from the spot where they happen to sink, yet they twist and wriggle about in a violent manner; by means of what appear to be caudal suckers some of them stick to the glass, also to the dissecting needle when touched by the same. Water is injurious to them for after three or four hours therein they die. Water therefore cannot be the medium, as was gener- ally supposed, by which they ultimately reach the human subject. Directly after having seen the first ‘actively moving filariz ” wriggling about in water for a couple of hours, I concluded that water was the medium, and wrote a letter to the Editor of the Australasian Medical Gazette’ to that effect, being anxious to correct a former statement’ of mine to the effect that the young filarize died in water ; [as subsequent observation has shewn that statement did not require correction]. Shortly after having written the letter I found the young filariz were dead but con- cluded that they must have been injured by the cyanide of potassium by which the mosquito was killed. Many experiments 1 Australasian Medical Gazette, March 20, 1899. 2 Ibid., June 20, 1898. 52 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. were afterwards made with filariz from mosquitoes that had been dissected whilst alive to insure no injury to the filarie they contained ; it made no difference however, for the young filariz always died after three or four hours’ immersion in water. In mosquitoes that had died a natural death, when examined twenty- four hours afterwards, the filarie were dead; this occurred whether the mosquito died on water or not. The filaris never escape naturally from the mosquito’s body. In order therefore, for the young filarie to reach the human subject, it would appear that the mosquito must be swallowed. It is not uncommon to meet people, who have accidentally swallowed. one of these insects, and it seems possible enough that such might occur, especially in those who sleep with the mouth open. In the act of killing mosquitoes with the hand their bodies are ruptured. and any young filarie, that might be present, would be extruded — on to the fingers and afterwards transferred to the mouth. Mosquitoes when aged frequently get bogged in jam and honey, and by such food it is possible, although somewhat improbable, they could gain entrance into the human stomach. To be infected, some may imagine that there must be an easier way than by swallowing mosquitoes; they must remember, however, that Nature has not ordained that the life-cycle of entozoal parasites shall be easily attained ; obviously for the reason that were it easily accomplished, gross infection would occur causing the death of the host and with him the parasites. Leuckart in his work' makes the following reference to Manson’s discovery, p. 64, footnote :—“ From the observations of Manson* there can no longer be any doubt that the few embryos which can pass without danger to themselves through the intestine of the mosquito undergo further development in the body-cavity, in consequence of which they now differ in size and in the structure of the mouth parts from the embryo at an earlier stage. Manson is of opinion that embryos, having thus reached a certain stage in 1 Parasites of Man by Rudolph Leuckart—Young J. Pentland, 1886. 2 Trans. Linn. Soc., Lond., pp. 367-8, 1884. METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 53 the body-cavity, get into water only on the death of the host, and that they are taken into the human body with the water. This statement still requires demonstration, but even were this proof forthcoming there would yet remain a possibility that the embryos evacuated with the urine (which probably no more represent a useless production than the eggs of intestinal worms which pass out with the feces) may be transported to certain small hosts, and by these means human beings may perhaps be infected more commonly than in the way pointed out by Manson.” From these remarks it would appear that Leuckart imagined that it was a normal occurrence for embryo filariz to pass out of the body with the urine; such is not so, however, and is by no means common in those affected with filariasis ; it occurs in cases only when there is rupture of a lymphatic or blood vessel in the kidney or bladder ; the filarie when mixed with urine are rapidly altered by endosmosis or exosmosis and live but a short time. The same applies to dogs affected by the /ilarta immitis in which however it is even of rarer occurrence. How did it come about that Manson saw the final stage of the metamorphosis in mosquitoes seven days old ? This I believe to be the explanation :—The filariated mosquitoes upon which he made his observations were not bred out and thus in confinement from the moment of their emergence from the pupa state; they were free mosquitoes obtained from a room where filariated persons slept. A few of the mosquitoes that were captured doubtless had imbibed blood weeks before and already contained advanced stages of the metamorphosis. They were imprisoned and never fed, consequently they died about the sixth or seventh day, when they were microscopically examined. Manson evidently believed that their last meal of blood was their first. Manson has remarked’ “that various stages of the metamor- phosis were occasionally to be seen in the same mosquito.” Such 1 Op. cit., p. 379. 54 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. a thing never occurred to me, and is inexplicable except on the supposition that his mosquitoes had imbibed filariated blood on several different occasions. In the following details my observations differ from those of others, who have worked at this subject. 1. Pressure of the cover-glass more particularly and endosmosis are the cause of rupture and escape of material at the anus in the young filariz ; such is not a natural phenomenon; it will not happen if the thorax be teased out in Miller’s fluid and examined without a cover-glass or with a small piece of cover-glass. 2. After the meal of blood is digested, the mosquito’s stomach and intestine contain no filarie. 3. The filariz after imbedding themselves in the thoracic muscles lie quiescent until about the fourteenth or fifteenth day, when very slight movements can sometimes be detected. 4. I have been unable to satisfy myself that the embryo filarize cast their sheaths before leaving the mosquito’s stomach ; when seen in the thorax they appear to have lost the long collapsed sheath following tail; the sheath may however have only shrunk or it may be filled out by the worm, which has already grown longer and thicker ; the tail is peculiar in the early stages, which may be due possibly to retention of the sheath. 5. The filariew, which emigrate to the thorax, do so directly they are withdrawn from the human host; those that are to be seen in the mosquito’s stomach several hours later are they, that for some reason, whether being too young, or from injury or from having been already acted upon by the digestive juices, are not destined to enter upon a metamorphosis. Loss of sheath, striation of body, changes in the body protoplasm in them are due to endosmosis and digestion. 6. No apparent sheath can be seen in the embryo filarize in freshly drawn blood, but a flagellum-like body generally following the tail (Fig. 1); sometimes the flagellum-like body is momently — protruded from the head, and pari passu disappears from the tail; METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 5) this only occurs when the worm is swimming tail first; such appearance cannot be seen in every embryo, and I am inclined to think that it is not normal (Fig. 2). The flagellum-like body is the collapsed sheath, which can only be diagnosed as a sheath when endosmosis has taken place. Those who have figured the embryo, have represented a worm inside a distended sack; such appearance is unnatural. The purpose of the sheath is possibly to anchor the worm to the side of a blood vessel when the latter is resting. | Manson in his recent work’ p. 460, has remarked :—‘ It is also manifest that the purpose of the ‘‘sheath” with which it is pro- vided while circulating in the human host, is to muzzle the embryo filaria and prevent its breaking through the blood-vessels, and so missing its chance of gaining access to the mosquito.” If any should care to decide the question for himself, let him prepare a slide of filariated blood and paint a little oil round the edge of the cover-glass to prevent evaporation and examine under the microscope twenty-four hours afterwards, when a certain amount of coagulation and crystallisation has taken place; this forms some resistance to the filariz and they may be seen crossing from one edge of the cover-glass to the other in a tortuous but definite course with the collapsed sheath following tail. I cannot agree with Manson that the sheath muzzles or impedes the filaria in any way; normally I believe the sheath is never separate from the body. The embryo in freshly drawn blood wriggles about but never seems to leave the same spot; this peculiarity was considered due to some impediment caused by the sheath, but the embryo of /ilarza ammitis, which is not possessed of a sheath, wriggles precisely in the same manner. 7. Some writers would lead you to imagine that there is but a single pair of adult filariz in each filariated subject ; judging from analogy of what occurs in other animals harbouring filarie, I believe that there are generally a good many present, a dozen or 1 Tropical Diseases—Cassell and Coy. Ltd., 1898. 56 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. so, or possibly in some cases fifty. The number of embryos that are to be found in a drop of blood is some criterion of the number of adults in the subject; if the embryos are scarce, it is likely that there are few adult females, but if plentiful it is probable there are many females. It is not known how long the embryo filaria lives in the blood, probably it is several months, and probably the adult worms live several years. Provided a filariated subject could prevent reinfecting himself, it is very likely that in course of five years, he would be entirely free from the parasites. To accomplish this, it might be wise to emigrate to a country where there are no mosquitoes, and failing that, to sleep under perfect mosquito-net bed curtains. Fortunately it is easy to rid the house of the Culex ciliaris, it appears that this insect was introduced into Australia ;' it will not go wild but always frequents habitations, breeding in recep- tacles holding water in or about the house; such receptacles should be covered with gauze, net, perforated zinc or other material to exclude mosquitoes ; cattle and poultry water troughs should be emptied out at least every ten days, as by so doing, the mos- quito larve could never mature ; it takes fourteen to twenty days from the mosquito egg to the perfect insect. In this investigation the following methods were found the best. In breeding “house mosquitoes” it is necessary to obtain their eggs or larve. Galvanised iron washing tubs are convenient vessels wherein to rear the larve ; these are filled with fresh water and placed in a shady spot; into them is put a handful of rotting leaves and a small piece of flesh, preferably flesh that has passed the putrefactive state in water, having been converted partly into adipocere. When animal matter forms part of the diet, the larve grow faster and to a larger size. The larve soon die should the water become foul. Ina fortnight or so the larve will have changed into pupe ; by means of a miniature scoop-net (the size of 1 Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. 111., (Series 2nd) p. 1718. = METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 57 a, tablespoon) made of wire and mosquito net the pupe are trans- ferred to a glass vessel' of water such as a fish bowl (about six inches in diameter at the mouth). The mouth of bowl is covered with muslin the material known as “white leno” was found very serviceable ; mosquito net is not suitable as mosquitoes can, when they try, creep through the meshes, especially when the net is stretched tightly. The pupz do not require food, and in a day or two the perfect insects will have emerged from them. The male mosquitoes are easily distinguished by their large feathery antenna; they do not suck blood. Transference of mosquitoes to a glass cell is performed by means of a “ collecting tube”; this is a hollow glass cylinder conveniently four inches long and one and a half inches in diameter, one end is covered with mosquito net, whilst a cork is loosely fitted to the other (Fig. 8); pieces of Argand gas-lamp chimney make good collecting tubes. Glass cells, about ten inches high and six inches in diameter, are convenient wherein to store living mosquitoes; they are fitted 58 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. up as follows :—At the bottom is placed a little dry sand, also a vessel holding three or four ounces of water ; the sand serves to weight the cell and steady the water vessel; into the vessel of water is put two or three bits of straw or cork, this is to assist the mosquitoes rising from the water; as the mosquitoes age they get infirm and frequently get drowned unless they reach some floating object. Over the mouth of the cell is stretched a piece of wet leno and tied tightly with twine ; when the leno is dry a circular hole an inch in diameter is cut out of the centre, and this hole is covered with a watch-glass, concave side upwards (Fig. 7). The transference of mosquitoes to a glass cell is done in the following way:—The mosquitoes are allowed to escape under the mosquito-net curtains; the cork being removed, the mouth of a “collecting tube” is placed over a mosquito, which then flies up the tube; the cork being now replaced the tube is brought close to the glass cell, the cork being directly over the watch-glass; the cork is removed and the tube put right on to the watch-glass, and at the same time the watch-glass is slid aside, the open mouths of the tube and cell are now together; a puff of air blown down the tube causes the mosquito to fly down into the cell; the watch- glass is again placed in position. By such means a dozen mos- quitoes might be put into a cell in a minute without any danger of injuring them. Female mosquitoes bred out by me were put into an empty cell of the capacity of forty ounces of water and sent to the home of the filariated subject, who liberated them under the bed curtains upon retiring; next morning any with distended abdomen she captured by means of a collecting tube transferred back to the cell and returned the same to mc; they were again liberated under curtains and transferred to larger vessels. In the cell storing mosquitoes a section of ripe banana is suspended ; it was found best to cut the banana at right angles to its length in pieces one and a half inches in length with the skin left on. Moulds very soon grow on the cut ends when the mosquitoes prefer to pierce the rind and thus get at the sound tissue. It is advisable to METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCROFTI, COBB. 59 remove the piece of banana and replace by fresh every three or four days. Should the air in the cell become foul from the decomposition of hanana, or from the odour of mould fungi or the water at times contaminated by banana juice, it is advisable to liberate the mosquitoes under a mosquito net curtain and transfer them toa clean cell. It is also well to place a plug of cotton wool in the hole in leno and over this the watch-glass, concave side down. The cells are placed in a room in the house where the light is subdued, or shaded by brown paper from too strong a light. Half a dozen mosquitoes is a sufficient number to put into one glass cell of the capacity of one hundred ounces of water. When mosquitoes are required for examination, they are liber- ated under the curtains, captured and killed in the entomologist’s cyanide bottle, or by means of chloroform etc. Two pairs of ciliary forceps are useful with which to pull off the wings, legs and head ; afterwards the body is divided by dissecting needles into thorax and abdomen, and each portion examined separately, teased out in water, or better in Miiller’s fluid with or without a cover-glass under a magnification of fifty diameters. The following is a short account of the life-cycle of /ilaria Bancrofta :— Commencing with the mature parasites in the human subject; these are three or four inches in length by ;};” in breadth, they live in the lymphatic vessels; they produce the embryo filariz, which are 35” x 33459"; these latter live in the blood vessels, swimming about when the host is sleeping and resting themselves when he is awake. Mosquitoes when biting a filariated subject during the night withdraw together with blood some of the embryo filariz. Soon after the embryos reach the mosquito’s stomach they pierce the stomach wall and find their way to some muscular mass, particu- larly the thoracic muscles, in which they imbed themselves (Fig. 3); there nourished by the mosquito’s plasma they grow at a pro- digious rate, becoming longer and thicker and assume by the fifth day the appearance represented in Fig. 4, in which a distinct line, 60 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. Metamorphosis of Filaria nocturna in Mosquito’s thorax. x 200 diameters. Fig. 1 Normal appearance of filaria in the blood. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, Stages of the metamorphosis, 1—5—10—16 days respectively. A = Head; B= Tail. METAMORPHOSIS OF FILARIA BANCRUFTI, COBB. 61 the rudimentary intestine, can be seen from the mouth to the anus; the body protoplasm, at first homogeneous, has been changed into large cells with numerous vacuoles ; in ten days the intestine presents a double line, the large cells have given place to very small cells, Fig. 5; from this time on to the seventeenth day most remarkable changes occur too intricate and difficult to describe ; in seventeen davs thereabout the young filaria has attained its maximum development as far as its life in the mosquito is con- cerned; it now awaits the chance of gaining entrance to the human host ; in the event of which, we presume that it will start upon a second metamorphosis, the final alternation of generations, in which it grows to the length of three or four inches and becomes sexually mature. It remains to be proved that these young filariz will become sexually mature in the human host; I have elsewhere’ suggested how this might be accomplished, viz., by inducing a life-sentenced prisoner to swallow some mosquitoes bearing filarize on condition that he be given a free pardon. Besides proving that the Culex ciliaris, Linn. is an efficient host for Filaria nocturna, I have shewn that two other species of mosquito are not hospitable, viz., Culex notoscriptus, Skuse, and C. annulirostris, Skuse. Both these mosquitoes will live in con- finement at least twenty days. Culex notoscriptus sucks out plenty embryos, but as far as I have seen none of these ever migrate to the thorax; they appear to have been killed by the salivary juice. Only rarely do some embryos migrate in the case of Culex annult- rostris; after two days however, any that did reach the thorax have died and been absorbed. Other mosquitoes have been experimented upon, but as I have been unable to keep these alive sufficiently long for the final stage of the metamorphosis, it is impossible to say definitely that they are not hospitable, yet every thing tends to that conclusion. In the case of Culex hispidosus, Skuse and C. vigilax, Skuse, these two species live about seven days in confinement, and a 1 Australasian Medical Gazette, March 20, 1899. 7 number examined about that time contained no filariz. In the 62 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. case of Culex nigrithorax, Macquart., C. procax, Skuse, and Anopheles musivus, Skuse, I have been unable to keep them alive more than three days; a good many experiments were made with Anopheles musivus, this mosquito sucks out a very large number of embryos, and the most of these migrate to the thorax. For the scientific names of the mosquitoes I am indebted to Henry Tryon, Esq., Entomologist to the Queensland Government. Thanks are due also to E.S., the filariated subject, without whose assistance this investigation could not have been carried out, and Manson’s important discovery might for some time to come have remained unbelieved. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Figs. 1 to 6—Stages of Filarial Metamorphosis. x about 200 diameters. Drawings to scale were made of the filaria x 1,000 diameters, afterwards reduced by photography. Figs. 7 and 8—Apparatus for collecting and storing mosquitoes. Added June Ist. A number of mosquitoes imbibed filariated blood on April 26th and the final stage of the metamorphosis did not occur in them until May 31st, 7.e., thirty-five days. The weather was cold. It has occurred to me that the young filariz may gain entrance to the human host whilst mosquitoes bearing them are in the act of biting. The entrance of warm blood into the mosquito may excite the young filariz in consequence of which they pierce the cesophagus and pass down the proboscis into the human skin. In this way injury from the human digestive agents would be avoided ; it is not unreasonable to suppose that lke water the digestive fluids would soon kill the young filarie, but it is probable that those that may have been set free by rupture of the mosquito’s body would immediately pierce the mucous membrane and enter a lymphatic or other vessel. DEPICTING DIAGRAMMATICALLY THE CHARACTER OF SEASONS, 63 SUGGESTIONS ror DEPICTING DIAGRAMMATICALLY THE CHARACTER or SEASONS 4s REGARDS RAINFALL, AND ESPECIALLY THAT OF DROUGHTS. By H. Drang, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., &. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, July 5, 1899. ] THE usual methods of plotting the rainfall which merely show in some form or other the quantities of rain which have fallen dur- ing a period, do not altogether achieve the desired result. Generally speaking people are apt to judge of whether a particular season is to be placed in the category of droughts or of good seasons, according as the total rainfall has been below or above the average respectively. It need scarcely be pointed out that any conclusion thus arrived at must be entirely erroneous. It not infrequently happens that a few months of droughty conditions are followed by one or more months of excessive rainfall, by means of which the total rainfall has been brought up to or above the average. Judging by averages the whole period would pass as a good one, whereas the dryness of the earlier-part of the period may have resulted in disaster, which is not at all compensated for by the subsequent excessive rain, the greater part of which runs to waste. The value of a year’s rainfall is therefore not to be reckoned by the total, but by the manner in which it falls and its distribution throughout the year. Thus looked at, a year’s rainfall under the average coming at proper times may produce very much better results than one that comes at unsuitable times, or that falls on few occasions in excessive quantities with long dry gaps in between. My method will be seen to be particularly useful in reviewing rainfall as affecting agriculture, but it also has the advantage of showing what portion of the rainfall runs off the ground or soaks away and is available for storage and for keeping up the flow of rivers and streams. 64 H. DEANE. It is of importance that at times there should be an excess of rainfall over that required to effect saturation of the soil as water is required for drinking and other purposes. A season may be a good one from an agricultural point of view if the soil is kept in a fair condition of moisture throughout the period, although no surplus may run off. On the other hand a season of occasional heavy rainfalls with droughty conditions in between may as regards water supply be superior to the other. It is worth while inquiring what are the conditions producing a drought. We know the effect of a drought in losses of crops and stock, but it is as well to notice how these are brought about. A drought is marked chiefly by its effect on vegetation. Itisa period during which the drying process of the soil is of such duration as to cause vegetation to wither and eventually fail altogether. In wheat districts a drought may be short and yet destructive if it comes at a time when the crops should be growing. In the pastoral areas longer duration is necessary to produce harmful results. A drought is not measured wholly by the amount of the deficiency of rainfall, but by the accumulated result of the evaporation of the moisture in the soil without the compensation of rain to restore what is being thus lost, this con- dition of things being much intensified by strong winds and high temperatures. It is the progressive drying which I have endea- voured to represent diagrammatically. A few more observations are desirable before I proceed to explain the diagram. The drying process which goes on in the soil consists partly of evaporation at the surface of the ground of the moisture rising by capillary attraction, and partly of the exhaustion of its moisture due to the evaporation from leaves and external surfaces of plants of the water which has been drawn up out of the soil by their roots: partly also, no doubt, by the gradual effect of gravitation on the suspended moisture in the soil, but I think this is very small. DEPICTING DIAGRAMMATICALLY THE CHARACTER OF SEASONS. 65 The exhalation from the vegetation must be a most important factor in the drying of the soil. Otherwise the rate of drying would rapidly decrease if the storage below could be drawn upon by the aid of capillary attraction alone. _ The effect of the vegeta- tion however, is probably to make the rate of soil-drying a much more even one. After continued dry weather, grass and herbs begin to wither ‘and may fail altogether, while the moisture below may be still sufficient to keep deep-rooted plants, shrubs and trees in a flourishing condition. After the ground has been thoroughly desiccated a succession of light rains may have the result of putting grass and herbage in good condition, but at the same time be too sparing in quantity for any of it to find its way down to any great depth. With my method the temporary revival of - grass and herbage as the effect of light rain during the progress of a drought may be shown. | Mr. H. C. Russell gives the mean rates of evaporation from water for each month calculated from a long series of years as follows :— Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. eee to, tt, O09 ~-07- 05. 06 “08 +13) —:20. -22 -24 The total mean evaporation from water surface amounts to 48°9. inches per annum. After consulting with Mr. Russell I decided to adopt half the rates in the above table as the rates at which evaporation from the surface of the soil would probably begin to take place. These are as follow :— | Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. pees. Uy, O49) 035 025" 03-04 “065 <10 ‘11: +12 My method, which I will now explain, rests on the fact that as. soon as rain leaves off the drying process commences and continues. till rain falls anew and makes up in whole or in part for loss previously sustained. On the diagrams, (Plate 3) periods of time are measured horizontally, and each division of 5 inch. represents a day. E—July 5, 1899, 66 H. DEANE. The upper line on each diagram represents saturation. Vertical measurements are in inches and tenths of inches, and the distance of any point on the “drought line,” as it is convenient to call it, from the line of saturation, is intended to represent the number of inches or tenths of inches of rainfall required to restore the saturated condition on that particular day. The rises represent rainfalls. The drought line cannot of course rise above the line of saturation. If at any time when rain begins, it only requires a certain quantity to complete saturation, any balance of a rain- fall larger than this quantity must be treated as surplus and not recorded in the diagram. It may however, be entered in figures below. This quantity as a rule, flows off or drains away through the soil, and is useless as regards the particular area on which it has fallen, though it may be collected and made available for water supply, and it helps to keep up the flow of rivers and streams, but that is a different question altogether. Starting now at a point where complete saturation has been effected and rain has ceased to fall, the drying process is shown by the descending line, the vertical descent for each day is the amount of drying which has taken place. This is dependent on the weather conditions, temperature, dryness of the air and the existence or otherwise of wind. At starting, the amount for the first day must bear some definite proportion to the evaporation from water under the particular conditions. As stated already this evaporation must vary accord- ing to the weather conditions. It is greatest in summer and when the air is dry and wind is blowing, and least under the reverse conditions. In making the diagrams however, 1 have found it convenient to use the calculated averages for each month. This is of course not quite correct, but the general results will not be far wrong. As the ground dries, the rate of.evaporation slackens because the moisture has to be drawn up from increasing depths; the daily drops of the drought line becomes less, and the effect is to produce DEPICTING DIAGRAMMATICALLY THE CHARACTER OF SEASONS. 67 on the diagram a curve with increasing radius the direction of which more nearly approaches the horizontal as time goes on. The curves have been arrived at by a tentative process in the first instance, but I am convinced that the results on the whole are fairly representative of the actual facts. With careful study and experiment, probably a considerable degree of exactness could be arrived at. The diagrams of the years 1883 to 1899 inclusive, are based on rainfalls recorded by myself from time to time at my residence on the Parramatta River. The records for 1883 and 1893 are unfortunately incomplete. Diagrams of this kind might be plotted so as to represent, with very great accuracy, the combined effect of the weather conditions. The daily evaporation due to dry winds and high temperatures, and reverse conditions could be taken into account, and once the right equation is found, x being the inches of rain required for complete saturation, the angle of descent could be calculated. On the other hand I have little doubt that an empirical method for obtaining the proper curves to use for each set of weather con- ditions would come pretty near the truth. What is wanted is to represent the character of each drought so as to be able to compare it with those of others of the same locality. Of course any diagram would in all its details only apply to the district over which the same conditions extended. On other soils and with other climatic conditions one would get somewhat distinct results. It is not to be expected that one set of diagrams would suit a whole country or even a whole district any more than one set of thermometers and one rain gauge would serve, but for those who like to try the method, I would say that the diagrams are rapidly done, when once the curves are decided upon. The black line is what I have called the “drought line” or the curve of drying. The space between that line and the top line or line of saturation, shows the dryness or droughtiness of the period. 68 H. DEANE. And the extent of the drought is directly proportional to the area, the intensity of any drought being the particular area divided by the length. It is proportional to the mean depth of area coloured brown. The peculiarity of the different years is well shown in the diagrams (Plate 3). (Added July 31). I would recommend that as in any district many differences in soil and situation occur, some standard might be adopted for purposes of recording observations. If the evaporation from this. standard soil under different conditions could be determined once for ail, the observer would only have to note the temperature and hygrometric conditions as they occur each day and plot the corres- ponding rates of evaporation on the diagrams. The gauging of the differences in drought effects through any variation of soil and surroundings could then be left to the individual judgment. A decision as to what should be taken as standard soil and con- ditions is in the first place necessary, after which an exhaustive system of experiments should be made as to daily drying under varying conditions of temperature, dryness of air, wind, etc. OBSERVATIONS ON DETERMINATIONS OF DROUGHT-INTENSITY. 69 OBSERVATIONS on tHE DETERMINATION or DROUGHT-INTENSITY. By G. H. Kwyrsss, F.R.4.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1899. | if pa (>) SS el sel el el ed ee a ee NRF ODO ON AAP WHY & OMIMD MN Low Drought-intensity a definite function of measurable meteorological phenomena. . Essential features of Mr. Deane’s solution. . Nature of the problem. . Characteristically similar areas. Both quantity and rate of rainfall essential factors. . Permeability. . Laws of flow in permeable strata. . Relation of rate of rainfall to saturation. . Effect of slope of surface. . Percolation into or through permeable strata when the interstices are full. . Percolation when interstices are not filled. . Exhaustion of moisture in soil by percolation. . Exhaustion of moisture by evaporation. . Solar radiation. . Diffusion of aqueous vapour into the atmosphere. . Effect of air temperature. . Humidity and its influence. . Effect of wind. . General expression for degree of saturation. . Necessity for the study of elementary cases. . Graphs representing natural phenomena. . Natural phenomena to be observed. 23. General remarks. 1. Drought-intensity a definite function of measurable meteoro- logical phenomena.—The suggestive paper by Henry Deane, ™.a., M. Inst. C.E., entitled “‘Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the character of seasons as regards rainfall, and especially that of drought,” and read at the last meeting of this Society, is essentially an attempt to derive, from the record of meteorological facts, a graph representing a dependent phenomenon, viz., drought-intensity. 70 G. H. KNIBBS. Whatever the possibilities of its determination, such a phenomenon is without doubt a definite function of several meteorological as well as physical conditions :—(a) the quantity and rate of rainfall ; (6) the character and circumstances of the soil and surface on which the fall takes place; and (c) the evaporative conditions ; these last including temperature, radiation, humidity, wind, the presence of vegetation, and to a very slight extent barometric pressure ; that is to say all circumstances which affect the drying of the soil. Compared with other factors, the element of pressure is probably so small as to be quite negligible: it will not further be referred to. 2. Hssential features of Mr, Deane’s solution.—In Mr. Deane’s suggested solution of the problem indicated, the general principle of which must I think be accepted as valid, the presence of soil susceptible of instant saturation is tacitly assumed, and also certain rates of exhaustion of the contained water,! such rates depending upon average monthly conditions of temperature, humidity, wind, etc., and the length of time such conditions have continued. The first derivatives of Mr. Deane’s evaporation-curves are negative, and continually diminish with the increase of the abscisse representing duration; that is to say the rate of evapor- ation is assumed to continually diminish, as doubtless it does, throughout unbroken periods. There is an admitted discontinuity in Mr. Deane’s graph, every time that the saturation line—the axis of abscissee denoting time—is reached ; and since as long as. rain continues, no exhaustion of the degree of saturation is assumed, and since also all fall is considered positive whatever its rate, the curve is really reconstituted only at the end of the rainfall. That is to say the curve is identical with the saturation line for such - periods. This method applied to the determination of the contents of a reservoir, in which no losses could occur while the supply or influx continued, would correctly represent the facts, provided the consideration was limited to the reservoir itself: once full, all further supply would run off and be lost. 1 These have an empirically assumed relation to the evaporation of water in exposed vessels. OBSERVATIONS ON DETERMINATIONS OF DROUGHT-INTENSITY. 71 3. Nature of the problem.—-On the adequacy of this conception of the facts, the solution suggested by Mr. Deane really depends. T propose therefore to indicate what I conceive to be a more approximate statement of the actual facts to be considered in a solution, and how it is affected thereby; and further to offer some observations on the means of obtaining one, which will present no discontinuities other than are inherent in the data themselves, that is, in the meteorological phenomena from which the graphs are deduced. It is proper to mention that Mr. Deane did not propose a general solution, but one restricted merely to the saturation element. It may not be inappropriate also, here to remark, that so far as | am aware, meteorological science has not yet determined, even approximately, the form of the functions con- necting the data with such derived phenomena, and even in ideally definite cases; and further, that in order to reach a practical solution, such cases must not only be experimentally studied, but also so chosen as to cover the range of actual conditions. That is to say, the meteorological phenomena usually recorded at an observing station must be experimentally connected with their consequences, in specific cases, in order that those phenomena may be intelligently considered in relation to their general influence on a territory. Without results of such experiments to hand, the application of the method of averages will advance our knowledge at least one step beyond the purely empirical stage, and will pre- pare the way for a better and more efficient study of a problem so profoundly affecting our well-being, and of such moment to this province. I may be permitted to add that, in discussing Mr. Deane’s attack on the problem, I wish to express my appreciation, not only of the method which he has advanced, but also of his very suggestive conversations on the subject; a subject which from several points of view, I have studied for a considerable time. 4. Characteristically similar cases.—Since practically, determin- ations of drought-intensity are required for areas governed by generally similar conditions, a territory must be subdivided into such areas as present characteristically similar features, and ™" 72 G. H. KNIBBS. average conditions for these must be discussed. Here, it must be confessed, lies one of the greatest practical difficulties in the way of even approximate deductions. It is evident also that evapor- ative and other conditions must similarly be locally considered, and also treated by the method of averages. The nature of the difficulties of so doing will incidentally be more fully specified hereinafter. 5. Both quantity and rate of rainfall essential factors.—Revert- ing to §1, there is no serious difficulty in regard to the measure- ment of the first element, viz. (a); and measurements of the rate of rainfall, together with the time, give by integration the quantity of fall—see §21, hereinafter. In practice the rate is derived from measurements of quantities received in short periods; the discontinuities and irregularities of the natural phenomenon rendering other methods unnecessary. It will be seen hereinafter, that the rate of fall greatly affects the question of the degree of saturation produced by a given amount; so that if one makes this latter the measure of the intensity of a drought—as Mr. Deane has done—and probably no better measure could be suggested—it is necessary to take account of, not the ¢otal fall, but that part of it, depending on the rate of fall, on the permeability, and on the general conditions and characteristics of the soil, which serves to produce saturation: in other words, of that part which does nof run off. The determination of the amount that runs off is impor- tant to engineers in the design of waterways. 6. Permeability.The permeability of the materials of the earth’s surface probably never absolutely reaches zero: the rate of flow in some however is so insensible in relation to the slowest rate of deposition of water as to justify their treatment as imper- meable. In the sensibly permeable materials however, there is every gradation, viz., from material which will instantly absorb the heaviest tropical shower, to that from which the lightest rain will flow off. . 7. Laws of flow in permeable strata.—Experiments on the flow of liquids through permeable strata of uniform fineness, shew that: 4 ine OBSERVATIONS ON DETERMINATIONS OF DROUGHT-INTENSITY. 73 the velocity of the liquid varies directly as its density, the rate of fall in pressure in the direction of flow, and the square of the linear dimensions of the interstices of a stratum, and inversely as the viscosity of the liquid. That is, if U denote the mean interstitial velocity, K a constant, p the density and 7 the viscosity of the liquids, & any homologous linear measure of the size of the inter- stices, and P the difference of pressure between two points Z apart, between which the velocity is uniform—so that dP/dZ is the rate of fall of pressure—then the expression Ey gla 7 U-Ks Fp Bei (1). defines all the laws of flow. Apart from experiment this formula may be deduced rationally: 2.¢e., by abstract mechanics. The value of the constant X can also be obtained mathematically—z.e., with- out recourse to experiment—when the form of the interstices is given, and the particular dimension denoted by & is indicated. For water p may be taken as sensibly unity: and, other things being equal, the change of rate of flow with temperature will be as follows :— Temperature Celsius 0°. 10°. 20°. 30°. 40°C. Rate of flow (/) LOO melo mqumalen denna 2 2p ono 72: This covers the entire range of conditions naturally occurring. Hence, if we put J for the rate of fall in pressure—i.e., for the ‘hydraulic gradient’—the above equation may be written SOOT ee Mine ctne (2) in which # measures the coarseness of the soil, and f’=p/y; for water very nearly f as above. 8. Kelation of rate of rainfall to saturation.—In order to clearly apprehend the manner in which the saturation of a soil is depen- dent upon the mutual relation of rate of rainfall and permeability, consider the case of a uniform unsaturated soil of indefinite depth, with a uniform surface slope, and subject to rainfall of varying degrees of intensity. For every rate of fall—dz/dt say, since fall is conveniently measured by the height (z) to which any level closed surface is covered in some definite time (¢)—less than what 74 G. H. KNIBBS. the soil is capable of taking up, the total quantity goes directly into the soil and is efficient in helping to saturate it. But for rates of fall greater than that, more or less of the rain will run off, and only part will be efficient in respect of saturation. Hence clearly there is, for any given set of circumstances, some critical value of dz/dt, changing however with the circumstances, above which it becomes necessary to consider how much is lost by flow- ing away. (See the point ¢, in Fig. 1, $21 hereinafter). The quantity efficient in producing saturation is obviously not only a function of the permeability and temperature, it is also, even in dry soil, a function of the slope (s say) of the surface; for the rate, at which flow will take place over the surface,.increases with the slope. In other words in the case of falls of rain which are not entirely absorbed by the soil, for a given quantity falling in a given time, less enters the ground in a steep slope than in a slight one; and for the same soil and the same degree of saturation, somewhat less enters in winter than in summer. 9. Effect of slope of surface.—The effect of slope demands further consideration. For any definite rate of rainfall on an impermeable surface—let us suppose of uniform slope—the rate of run-off will finally equal that of fall, and the depth to which the surface will be covered will depend on its rugosity—n say—and the slope ; that is to say the depth will increase until the velocity depending on that depth and on the roughness, is sufficiently developed to carry off the entire amount of rain falling. ........ (12) we obtain the total fall in the unit of z—inches practically—by integration. Thus from (12) we have on integrating c= fy dt Aen eueene. (13) that is, the area A between the abscissa and the curve is the total fall. Similarly if the ordinates of curve (2), shewn by the broken 1 In the paper previously referred to it is shewn that plants root more deeply in arid climates. OBSERVATIONS ON DETERMINATIONS OF DROUGHT-INTENSITY. 83 line, are the values dz,/dt, that is of the rate of absorption by the soil, the curve would indicate that at first the whole fall—from the commencement of the rain till the time-¢,—was absorbed : but that from that time on, only part was absorbed : and finally that absorption was going on, even after the rain ceased at the time ¢,, owing to the fact that the water lying on the surface still contributed to the saturation of the soil right up to the time ¢,. The quantity absorbed is determined by the area between curve (2) and the axis of abscissz, and if there be no loss by evaporation — or otherwise, the difference of these areas would give the quantity running away. ‘These two curves serve merely to illustrate, in a most elementary way, the nature of the invesigation. Curve (1) is directly obtained by suitable observation of the rainfall: curve {2) is deduced from all relevant facts. The ordinates of the first are independent of one another: those of the second are not only not independent but they are also continuously dependent on all ordinates of the phenomena of which the instantaneous condition is the resultant. . 22. Natural phenomena to be observed.—The following list of _ phenomena to be observed, includes those usually registered at meteorological stations and are all that are necessary for the com- putation of the saturation of a soil, as the measure of ‘drought- intensity.’ The abscissa in all cases is time: the ordinates should be as specified : Rainfall Ordinates Rate of fall dz/dt. Air temperature is Temperature ij Velocity of wind ‘ Velocity w Humidity of air > Humidity pb Solar radiation 5 Temperature o Evaporation of water 53 Rate of Evap. de/dt. Deposition of dew ete. 3 Quantity (if necessary as materially affecting result). 23. General remarks.—The careful study of the phenomena as affecting soils even under perfectly definite conditions would, as I have already said, be elaborate, but would doubtless throw con- 84 , G. H. KNIBBS. siderable light upon the possibility of reaching merely approximate, but sufficiently exact solutions for practical requirements in characteristically similar areas or at least of interpreting meteoro- logical records therein. Speaking generally, all hope of attaining mathematical exactitude is quite utopian. The complexity of natural conditions is utterly beyond our mental grasp: the variety of character, condition, and configuration of soils—on the state of which vegetation is dependent—eludes all possibility of mathe- matical expression. And besides this the effect of weather itself in changing the character of soil in respect of the very thing we propose to solve, viz., its degree of saturation, is wholly unsuscep- tible of statistical definition.’ The hope of attaining even a toler- ably exact solution must therefore be regarded as illusory. The exact solutions of ideal cases would however afford so valuable a guide in an attempt to form numerical estimates of the resultants of meteorological phenomena, and even in interpreting them, as to fully justify their being undertaken. At the very least they will | afford either definite hope that we shall better understand those physical conditions on which life and progress on this planet are ultimately dependent, or else will compel us to realize the futility of attempting to analyse conditions so complex as those which here present themselves. Hither would be gain: if one might venture an opinion: the more hopeful view is the more probable. Finally it ought to be said that what may be called the biological factors in the problem have not been yet adequately referred to. As has been said vegetation itself is a source of exhaustion of moisture on the one hand, and on the other it probably always assists the saturation of the soil when rainfall occurs. In a satis- factory solution its presence cannot be neglected, since it enters with a large factor into the determination of the relation between the amount absorbed and that lost. Human activity, in producing conditions which promote absorption, is also a factor of moment and cannot be ignored. Cultivated lands present distinct features 1 For example :—The effect of frost in heating up the surface of a soil, and the cracking of the surface during hot and dry weather. OBSERVATIONS ON DETERMINATIONS OF DROUGHT-INTENSITY. 85 in this respect, and are not directly comparable with those which are uncultivated.1 To deal with every variety of physical circum- stances, and with meteorological phenomena which in no two places are exactly reproduced, is a task which may well exhaust the powers of the ablest meteorologist : it is only Ulysses who can bend Ulysses’ bow. Still it must be confessed that a partial solution—which is the only one that ever will be possible—is better than none at all; and it is to be hoped that a solution on the lines suggested by ifs Deane, and including such other data as may be found necessary will be attempted. 1 See p. 11, Bull. 121 above referred to. 86 H. G. SMITH. On THE CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR or EUCALYPTUS OIL (EUDESMOL), anp tut NATURAL FORMATION or EUCALYPTOL. By Henry G. Situ, F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1899. | In August 1897, a paper was read before this Society by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself,’ in which was announced a crystalline camphor or stearoptene isolated by us from the oil of Hucalyptus piperita. The specimens then shown only consisted of a few isolated crystals as the camphor does not appear to exist in quantity in the oil of this species. At that time no investigation could be undertaken to determine its constitution, it being obtainable in such minute quantities, but it was thought that it must be a constant con- stituent in these oils, and that it might be obtainable from other species of Eucalypts in larger quantity. This surmise was correct, as the camphor has been found to be present in the oils of several species of Eucalyptus, and as will be presently shown, should be isolated, at certain times of the year, from the oils of all those species of Eucalypts whose ultimate con- stituent is eucalyptol. The results so far obtained in reference to this camphor may assist somewhat towards a more complete knowledge of the chemistry of Eucalyptus oils, and help to explain the differences, found at certain times of the year, in the con- stituents of the oils of this genus. The differences found existing in the several members, apparently made a correct expression of opinion in reference to them exceedingly difficult, but as our knowledge increases these difficulties partly disappear, and the explanations that can now be given considerably simplify the study of these trees. In the determination of the chemical con- stituents of the several species of Eucalypts, we have a check 1 On the Essential oil and the presence of a solid camphor or stearoptene in the “ Sydney Peppermint” Eucalyptus piperita. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 87 upon their botanical diagnosis, as the chemical constituents of each species appear to be identical under certain conditions, and voverned by laws that will eventually be better understood. A large number of facts have accumulated, without exception sup- porting this statement, and will later be published. It is hoped that by working on material of undoubted authenticity the results may be of permanent value from a commercial as well as a scientific standpoint, and I wish to express my thanks to my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.s., for the botanical diagnosis of the species. The presence of the camphor, and the natural formation of Eucalyptol. The oil of Hucalyptus goniocalyx was found to be exceedingly rich in eucalyptol, and the presence of eudesmol was very marked. Dextropinene was also present, the oil somewhat resembling, in colour and constituents, that of H. globulus and belongs to the same group of trees giving like oils. Phellandrene could not be detected, nor was any to be expected, because in the oils of this class, already determined by me, no phellandrene could be found. The oil of Hucalyptus Smithit' was found to be richer in eucalyptol than any oil yet obtained during this research. EKudesmol was present in the oil obtained from the leaves of two consignments, a month separating the dates of the collections, (August and September 1898, from Monga N.S.W., yield of oil 1:345 per cent., mean of four distillations). Dextropinene was present in this oil, and the specific rotation of the rectified oil was [a|,+7°01°. The constituents which give the oil of JZ. globulus its comparatively high specific gravity were largely absent in this oil, the consequence being that rectified oil of this species, representing 92 per cent. of the crude oil, and containing over 70 per cent. of eucalyptol, only just satisfies the specific gravity requirements of the new British Pharmacopceia, and has a less specific gravity than many other oils containing considerably less eucalyptol ; again illustrating the weakness of the specific gravity 1 See paper by Mr. R. T. Baker, “On three new species of Eucalyptus.” —Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8S. Wales, June 28, 1899. 88 H. G. SMITH. standard as fixed. The oils from these two consignments of Z. Smithii were identical in all constituents, equally rich in eucalyptol and the specific gravity, optical rotation, &c., were practically the same in both. Phellandrene was of course absent. | The oil of a species of eucalyptus, locally known as “Sallow ” or “Swamp Gum” and named by my colleague (Mr. Baker) Eucalyptus camphora (loc. cit.), was rich in eudesmol at the time of year when the leaves were obtained, (2nd September 1898). On redistillation of the crude oil a fraction was obtained, repre- senting 18 per cent., boiling between 280° and 290° C., which in less than one hour had solidified into a solid crystalline mass in the bottle, and which after nine months remains unaltered. The first fraction of this oil contained at that time 33 per cent. of eucalyptol and a large percentage of the pinenes, but had less than 1° of rotation to the right in a 100 mm. tube. Phellandrene was absent. Besides the species enumerated above, eudesmol has been found by us in the oils of several other Eucalypts that were rich in eucalyptol at the time of distillation, as Z. stricta, H. elwophora, etc., but, so far eudesmol has not been found in the orl of any species in which eucalyptol is absent, or only present in traces, as HL. dives, E. radiata, E. dextropinea, E. microcorys, E. levopinea, £. Dawsonii, and many others, and it has not been found to be present in any oil without a fair percentage of eucalyptol being present also. Having considered the oils of those species of eucalyptus found to be rich in eucalyptol, containing eudesmol, and in which phellandrene is absent; we turn to those oils in which phellandrene is present at certain times of the year, and which also contain eucalyptol and nearly always eudesmol. The oil of the “Red Stringybark” Hucalyptus macrorhyncha, when first distilled appears always to contain eudesmol, but in greater abundance at certain times of the year. Eucalyptol is always present ; phellandrene can usually be detected ; and when the oil is most abundant in the leaf levopinene is present also. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 89 In the spring time phellandrene appears in greatest amount in the oil of this species, while in the autumn it is almost or quite absent. As the phellandrene diminishes in this oil, the eucalyptol increases in quantity, other alterations also taking place. In a paper’ by Mr. Baker and myself, published July 1898, analyses are given of the oil of this species, in which a good quantity of eudesmol had been found. A reference to that paper will shew that only about 48 per cent. distilled below 183° C., and that the oils contained a fairly large fraction boiling above 268° C. consisting largely of eudesmol. It was from the high boiling constituents of this oil that the eudesmol was obtained for the purpose of this research. On opening some months afterwards, the glass stoppered bottle in which the crude oil had been stored, it was found that there had been absorption of the oxygen from the air filling the vacant space above the oil, there being apparent suction on the stopper of the bottle ; little notice was taken of this at the time, but the same thing having occurred again investigation: of the contents was made to determine if possible the result of the alteration. It was then found that the greater portion of the high boiling fraction containing the eudesmol had disappeared, and that the oil had become much richer in eucalyptol. The following is the analysis of this oil after having been kept in the crude condition for nine months. No pinenes were found, nor could phellandrene be detected. On redistillation only a few drops came over below 170° C., but between that temperature and 175'5° C. 27 per cent. had distilled, and by 182°8° C. 74 per cent. had been obtained against 48 per cent. distilling below 182°8° C. when originally investigated. The fractions were divided as follows:— Below 175°5° C. = 27 per cent. = First fraction Then to 182:8° C, = 47 3 = Second _,, re 268°6° C. = 10 ie = Third z, ¥ 276°8° C. = 11 te oo Bourth ots, The fourth fraction only contained eudesmol in very small quantity at this second distillation, and only crystallised on long standing. 1 On the Stringybark Trees of N.S. Wales—Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, July 6, 1898. 90 H. G. SMI1H. Specific gravity, First fraction = -9124 @ 15° C. , » Second ,, ==) {OMY eee a be Dhitd ont, 29°36 wane ne Fourth ,, = 9446 _ ,, - ae Crude oil = 9900, aur [a]p + 2°33° for first fraction and [a], + 2°14° for second fraction. Eucalyptol First fraction = 68-5 per cent. 2 Second _,, Sy es Originally the mean of several determinations of first and second fractions gave 51 per cent. of eucalyptol. It will be seen that the first fraction is almost as rich in eucalyptol as the second, and this is also found to be the case in those oils that are exceedingly rich in eucalyptol at time of dis- tillation, #. Smitha particularly. From these results it is apparent that by the alteration of the high boiling constituents, marked changes have taken place. The rotation has become more dextrorotatory, the specific gravity of the lower boiling fractions has increased, the increase in eucalyptol content is most marked, and the eudesmol has practically vanished. The investigation of the oil of #. ewgenioides further emphasises the specific alteration undergone by this class of oils on keeping in the crude state under certain conditions. This oil is that marked No. 2 of H. eugenioides in the paper previously referred to (the Stringybark trees of N.S. Wales). Unfortunately a full investigation was not made of that particular oil at the time, but enough data are given to determine the direction of change. The same absorption of oxygen was apparent as in the oil of #. macro- rhyncha and the alteration of the constituents was in the same direction as found in that oil. No eudesmol was originally detected in this oil, but there appears little doubt but that it should be found, if carefully sought for, as it exists in other oils of the class to which this species belongs, viz.:—. macrorhyncha, EL. piperita, and Ff. amygdalina (not the species from which much of the supposed “‘amygdalina oil” that has been sent to Europe under that name was obtained, as the tree from which CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 91 this so-called “amygdalina oil” has been distilled, is now proved by botanical characters and chemical evidence to be specifically distinct from £. amygdalina of Labillardiére, and is Hucalyptus dives of Schauer, which species was founded on immature trees). On redistilling this sample of the oil of Z. eugenioides after nearly two years, 5th July, 1899, 96 per cent. distilled below 182° C., the fraction being very rich in eucalyptol. The crude oil which originally only contained 28-4 per cent. of eucalyptol, now contained 62°5 per cent. eucalyptol, a marked increase. The rotation had changed but little in this oil, being slightly more dextrorotatory ([a@], +5:5°) than when originally determined. The specific gravity of the crude oil was :9171 @ 15° C., and of the large fraction ‘9127 a slight increase on that of the crude oil. In the alteration of the other sample of the oil of Z. eugenioides, marked No. 1 in paper referred to, we are ablé to show the necessity of a small quantity of oxygen to bring about the desired change in the formation of eucalyptol. After the completion of the original investigation on these oils, the crude oil remaining was stored in the dark with other oils, and remained untouched for nearly two years. A marked improvement in the eucalyptol con- tent having taken place with the oil, No. 2 sample of Z. eugenioides, investigation of oil No. 1 was then made, with the result that the same alteration had not then taken place with this oil as in that of No. 2, it was but little richer in eucalyptol than when first distilled, containing then under 40 per cent. eucalyptol. It appeared only possible to account for this discrepancy by the fact that the bottle containing No. 1 oil was quite full when put away, whereas the bottle containing No. 2 oil was less than half full and besides had been opened two or three times during the time. This pointed to the fact that oxygen was necessary to bring about the 1 The temperature at which the original specific gravity was given in the paper is 22°C. This can be readily corrected, as by a determination of a Eucalyptus oil at all temperatures between 10° C. and 22° C. it was found that the increase below 15° C. and the decrease above that tem- perature was almost identically :00075 for every degree of temperature, water at 15° C. : 92 H. G. SMITH. change. To test the accuracy of this surmise the oil No. 1 was transferred to a large bottle which it only half filled, and by occasionally shaking and removing the stopper, change soon com- menced; so much so, that in two weeks the improvement in eucalyptol could be readily detected, and on the expiration of one month the oil was analysed with the following result :— On redistillation only a few drops came over below 167° C., by 170° 4 per cent. had been obtained; between that temperature and 176:5° there distilled 70 per cent., and at 181° 88 per cent. had come over. The oil distilling between 171° and 181° was taken as one fraction. This was slightly yellowish in tint, but brilliant in appearance and had a pleasant odour and taste. The specific gravity of the rectified oil was :9102 at 15° C., specific rotation [a|],+3°85° and it contained 58 per cent. of eucalyptol. The crude oil had a specific gravity ‘9202 at 15° C. (an increase in specific gravity on original determination), specific rotation [a], +4°5° (a slight dextrorotatory increase) and contained at this time (31°7:99) 55 per cent. of eucalyptol, an increase in eucalyptol of nearly 24 per cent. from time of distillation frem the leaves, and an increase in eucalyptol of about 15 per cent. in one month by alteration under the conditions described. It is evident that the change is not yet completed in this oil, but more time could not be given, and another analysis will be eventually made. It will be observed that the other sample of the crude oil of £. ewgenroides contained 62°5 per cent. of eucalyptol, equal to about 65 per cent. in the rectified portion, as the maximum of alteration. The maxi- mum content of eucalyptol in the rectified portion of any Eucalyptus oil appears to be about 70 per cent. (the fraction representing about 80 to 85 per cent. of the whole), and although this amount of eucalyptol is very rarely found to be present, yet it appears that on natural alteration of oils like #. macrorhyncha, £. eugenioides, etc., this standard may be reached by judicious management. It may be that eventually we shall obtain complete control of these results, and that the oil from prolific yielders will be made to reach this standard. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 93 From the results of the oil of /. ewgenioides it is seen that the formation of eucalyptol in the crude oils of this class does not apparently take place without oxygen being present. How much oxygen is necessary to bring about the maximum change is a problem to be solved. In the paper on £. piperita (loc. cit.) eudesmol, eucalyptol 26. per cent., and phellandrene were shown to be present in the oil at the time of distillation. It is possible in the oil of this species to show the result of alteration in the formation of eucalyptol while in the leaf. On 26th July 1898 (the end of our Australian winter) a consignment of the leaves of #. piperita was received from Currawang Creek, near Braidwood, N. 8. Wales, the oil of which on analysis contained no phellandrene, and the presence of an extraordinarily large amount of eucalyptol was found, but no eudesmol could be detected at that time. The oil on redistillation gave a fraction boiling between 172° and 180° C., representing 75 per cent. of the crude oil, which fraction had a specific gravity ‘915 at 15° C., specific rotation [a], +3°66° and contained 70 per cent. eucalyptol. The rectified oil is almost colourless, exceedingly brilliant in appearance and as rich in eucalyptol as any; it resembles the oil of #. macrorhyncha and other first quality oils of this class. In appearance, taste, odour and eucalyptol content, the oils of this class of Eucalyptus, when obtained under correct conditions are of superior quality, and it appears that by taking advantage of known natural alterations in the constituents of these oils, or by keeping the crude oils under certain conditions until the maximum alteration has taken place, that we may govern the formation of the constituents required, even if we do not succeed eventually in bringing about the required alteration at once by artificial means. From the consideration of the facts enumerated above, it appears certain that the Eucalyptus camphor (eudesmol) is an intermediate product in the natural formation of eucalyptol, and as such is not to be expected to be present always in constant proportions. It will be shown presently that the formula of eudesmol is C,,H,,O0 94 H. G. SMITH. and that it is isomeric with ordinary camphor, but has no rotation. Eucalyptus globulus belongs to a group of Eucalypts, of which we have several in this colony, the oils of which have great resem- blance to each other and when distilled are always rich in eucalyptol, they contain dextropinene in varying quantities and are free from phellandrene. In this group the alteration of the constituents through eudesmol to eucalyptol is rapid and but little reserve material of high boiling constituents is stored in the leaf, although both in the case of £. goniocalyx and L. Smithii eudesmol was found. It is probable for this reason that phellandrene is found to be always absent in the oils of the globulus group, which — on distillation appear to generally contain nearly their maximum amount of eucalyptol, and therefore undergo little alteration on keeping. In those oils like 2, macrorhyncha, E. piperita, £. eugenioides, etc., which contain a fair percentage of eucalyptol, and mostly some phellandrene, the change is not usually completed at time of distillation, and we can thus trace the process of alter- ation of the constituents and the formation of the ultimate product, eucalyptol.' In the redistillation of those oils under atmospheric pressure, besides the water always given off at about 100° C., it is found that water is again always split off from the constituents boiling at a high temperature particularly that fraction containing eudesmol. The constitution of eudesmol indicates that the oxygen atom is attached to the molecule previous to the formation of eucalyptol. Which particular terpene is necessary to this forma- tion of eucalyptol is uncertain, but phellandrene cannot be detected when the apparent maximum of alteration has taken place. Itis found that the pinene present in the oils of the group of Eucalypts to which Z. macrorhyncha belongs is always levopinene, whereas in the oils of the globulus group the pinene always appears to be dextropinene, and the indication thus is that it is the levo-terpenes 1 In this paper I have not dealt with that group of Eucalypts whose oils consist very largely of phellandrene, nor those whose oils consist very largely of pinene. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 95 that are necessary to this alteration, and this probably accounts for the fact that the oils of the globulus group are always dextro- rotatory, as it is found that when the maximum of eucalyptol has been reached in the oils of Z. piperita, EF. macrorhyncha, etc., that the oils are always dextrorotatory, and in about the same propor- tion as is found in the oils of the globulus group. As a result of experiments on the terpenes, by Armstrong and Tilden ;' they arrive at the conclusion that American turpentine contains a sub- stance which either has a less dextrorotatory power or is levo- _ rotatory, and which is more readily polymerised than its chief constituent. This also appear to be the case with the pinenes of Eucalyptus oils. If eudesmol is the intermediate stage in the formation of eucalyptol, we ought to find that those oils which have been found to contain eudesmol in quantity should, at certain times of the year, become rich in eucalyptol, and that has been found to be so. The oil of Hucalyptus camphora distilled from material sent from Delegate, Feb. 1899, was found to be rich in eucalyptol, the oil much resembling that of 2. globulus, eudesmol was only present in small amount at that time of the year. This is probably the case with #. Smithii also, and it is to be expected that the oil from this tree will be found rich in eudesmol at certain times of the year, as when distilled only a small quantity was present, but the maximum eucalyptol had been practically reached at that time, and 97 per cent. was obtained on redistillation boiling below 180° C. so that the constituents boiling at a high temperature were practically absent. The crude oil had almost the same specific gravity as the large fraction, and the first portion distilling was almost as rich in eucalyptol as the last portion. EXPERIMENTAL. Preparation of the pure Eudesmol. The oil of Hucalyptus macrorhyncha was taken for the prepar- ation of this camphor, but any oil rich in eudesmol, as Z. camphora, would do as well. The constituents boiling below 188 — 190° C. 1 Chem. Journ., xxxv., 733. 96 H. G. SMITH. were removed by distillation from the crude oil, and the remainder (about 40 per cent.) poured from the still into shallow glass vessels and left a few days tocrystallise. It then formed a soft crystalline mass of the consistency of butter. This was then spread upon porous plates to absorb the fluid portions. This was found to be important as a very small quantity of adhering terpenes makes subsequent purification difficult. When the adhering oil had been absorbed a whitish product was obtained. This was dissolved in alcohol, water added until slight turbidity remained, and left in open vessels to crystallise. This was found the better way as by adding excess of water an oily product was obtained very difficult to crystallise. On standing a day or two the camphor crystallised, this was removed as a cake, the mother liquor being used for a further crop of crystals. The adhering liquid was removed by porous plates and the process repeated until a perfectly snow- ' white product was obtained, having the correct melting point 79 — 80° ©. | The crystalline substance is quite white, silky in lustre, and beautiful in appearance. It is very soft and inclining toa paraffin nature, the crystals are fairly well developed, acicular, and when sufficiently transparent to allow light to pass, polarize partly in colours, and extinguish parallel. Only a comparatively small amount of crystals could be obtained of this nature, the remainder on purification consisting of small interlaced crystals giving the product a matted appearance. In its purified state it is exceed- ingly light. When the fraction containing the eudesmol was first obtained from the oils of Z. macrorhyncha and L£, camphora it was thought that we might obtain the camphor in good quantity, as the faction crystallised into a solid mass on standing, but this was more apparent than real, as when purified only a comparatively small amount of eudesmol had been obtained, and it would be necessary to distill a very large quantity of oil to enable one pound of pure eudesmol to be obtained. | es | Eudesmol is insoluble in water and alkaline solutions. Itis _ soluble in chloroform, petroleum ether, ether, alcohol, glacial acetic CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 97 acid (crystallises out again on adding water), acetone, benzene, olive oil and oils generally. The volatile solvents all leave the eudesmol in a crystalline condition on evaporation, either at once or crystallisation soon takes place on standing. Melting Povnt. Perfectly purified eudesmol melts at 79-— 80° C. The crystal- lised substance from dilute alcohol, from acetic acid, and the sublimed material, all melted at that temperature, and by no method of purification was 80° C. exceeded. The tendency to give lower melting points was most troublesome, necessitating many scores of determinations on different material. Minute portions of the high boiling terpenes are prone to be retained, and these lower the melting point considerably. The best method of taking the melting point was found to be as follows :—the camphor was melted at the lowest possible temperature, and a portion drawn into a capillary tube and allowed to perfectly crystallise again in the tube; 3 mm. of the column was then retained; the tube was attached to the thermometer and suspended in water which was slowly heated. ‘The substance was considered to have reached its melting point at the instant when it began to rise in the tube. Sublimation. Purified eudesmol, melting at 79 - 80° C. was taken. This sublimed readily, care being taken to keep the upper glass cool ; fine crystals of a good length were obtained. Is was found that when the sublimation was carried out at the lowest possible temperature, that the sublimate melted at the same temperature as at first, but that if heated too much, the melting point of the sublimate had been lowered ; this was found to be the case under all conditions, the tendency being to form substances having a lower melting point. Sublimation takes place at a little above 100° C.; a distinct sublimate was obtained by heating in a tube closed at one end when suspended in boiling water for some time. The melting point of the sublimate being lowered by overheat- ing, an attempt was made to determine at what temperature this decomposition commenced. A small U tube was taken with one G—Aug. 2, 1899, om a. We ? v - 98 H. G. SMITH. limb a little longer than the other, and the end of the longer limb closed. A small portion of eudesmol was then melted in the closed end and the remainder filled with mercury; this was attached to a thermometer and the whole immersed in glycerol. On heating it was found that slight decomposition commenced at about 180° C. and continued to slowly increase until 250° C. had been reached, when the determination was stopped. No alteration, therefore, takes place at 150° C., and eudesmol sublimes readily below that temperature. Rotation. Eudesmol has no rotation ; 2°5 grams dissolved in 50 grams of alcohol had no action on a ray of polarised light in a 200 mm. tube. Analysis of Hudesmol. The material was melted in the platinum boat at the lowest possible temperature. Results of five of the determinations made are given— 01725 gave 0°5006 CO, and 0:1764 H,O. C.=79:13; H=11°36 0:2324 .: OCit 8 0220... » (8°66 5) eos on O1962 > 5.) O:D0 46a ee Ooo ly ae 5 (O44 SOG O-1611 5, O-AG5t ees LO O22 3 18°85 a een ae O1608 ,, 0402255) 5 Se Oaol4 53 8°42 5. eats C,,H,,O0 requires 78°94 C., and 10-53 H. per cent. Mean of the above analyses O=78°7 and H = 11°14 per cent. The material used for determinations Nos. 4 and 5 was that previously used for the molecular determination ; it was regener- ated from the acetic acid solution by the addition of water. Molecular determination. The molecular determination was made by the cryoscopic method ° b) glacial acetic acid being used. Eudesmol taken = 0°3855 gram. Acid = 29 grams. Acid alone, first time freezing = 5:56° 3 5, second ,, A a I): ae Fe a ue CHIC ea 56 Dao. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 99 After solution of the eudesmol First time freezing = 0:22° Second ,, * = 5°185° hind) 5; : =) eile ® *, Molecular value = 150 Cr On— lo Di-nitro compound. On the addition of strong nitric acid to eudesmol, little change takes place at once in the cold. After a little time it darkens somewhat, the eudesmol becoming liquid and changing toa purple colour. On gently heating until reaction commenced, the colour changed at once to yellow with rapid solution of the substance and evolution of dark brown fumes. After about fifteen minutes the action apparently ceased and if kept cool no more brown fumes escaped. On addition of water a yellow crystalline mass was at once formed. The filtrate remained yellow. The nitro-compound is slightly soluble in cold water, more readily in hot water. It is soluble in alkaline solutions and reprecipitated on acidifying. It was purified from alcohol. When dry it is of a primrose colour. Tt is soluble in alcohol, ether and acetone, but does not form a well defined crystalline substance with these solvents. It melts at 90° C., but changes to a deep orange colour at 75° C. A determination of the nitrogen gave results as follows :— Material taken = ‘1147 gram. Moist nitrogen obtained = 11°5 cc. Barometer = 767 mm. Temperature of gas = 16° C. ae Nitrogen, — 11-3 per cent. C,,H,,(NO,).0 requires nitrogen 11-57 per cent. Dibromide. The purified eudesmol was dissolved in a small quantity of glacial acetic acid and bromine added. This was readily and quietly absorbed, no substitution taking place. The bromide is an addition product. The rise of temperature was prevented as much as possible. The bromide soon separated as a semi-solid 100 H. G. SMITH. substance especially on shaking and adding a few drops of water. — The bromide was then boiled repeatedly with water, with very dilute potash solution, and with dilute alcohol. It was then purified from chloroform, and as it did not form a well defined crystalline compound it was again boiled with water and with dilute alcohol. When cold it was a plastic mass, sufficiently hard to rattle like shot in a bottle. It is of a yellowish-brown colour. It is exceed- ingly soluble in chloroform and in ether, but difficultly soluble in alcohol, and not at all if the alcohol be at all dilute. It melts at 55° to 56° C.; the melting point was taken with minute spheres on the surface of mercury; with the aid of a lens the exact melting point was readily seen. A determination of the bromine in 0:2008 gram of the bromide gave 0:2470 AgBr. = 0:1051 Br = 52:34 Br per cent. C,,H,,Br.O requires 51°3 Br per cent. Eudesmol does not apparently form a nitrosochloride, as amyl nitrite in acetic and hydrochloric acids failed to react, no crystals being obtained even on long cooling to - 10° C. When eudesmol was treated with phenylhydrazine no alteration of the original material took place. It was not possible to introduce other hydrogen atoms into the eudesmol molecule by ordinary methods. When a solution in alcohol was treated with sodium no alteration took place, the regenerated material being identical with that taken. Several other methods were tried but without effect. It appears, therefore, that the oxygen atom is not ketonic, as eudesmol cannot be reduced toan alcohol. This coincides with the known peculiarities of eucalyptol as that substance does not apparently contain an hydroxyl group, so that the remaining H, required to form eucalyptol from eudesmol must be attached to the molecule of the latter in another way. Alcoholic potash effects no alteration in eudesmol even on boiling for a long time. Oxidation. On heating eudesmol with dilute nitric acid, energetic action took place with evolution of brown fumes, and rapid solution of CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 101 the camphor. On continued boiling no crystalline product was obtained. The acid solution was boiled continuously for two days, and even then no crystalline product was obtained. On addition of water no precipitate was formed. The nitric acid was removed by evaporation, and to the small quantity remain- ing, still in solution, water was added; a minute quantity of a camphoraceous substitute was obtained, but no crystals were precipitated. This camphoraceous substance does not appear to be the unaltered material, as it melted below 40°C. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness on the water bath, water again added, filtered, and this process repeated a few times. The filtrate on again evaporating to dryness crystallised in microscopic crystals on standing. These crystals were soluble in cold water to an acid solution, which on addition of barium chloride and ammonia gave no precipitate in the cold, but on boiling a precipitate was soon obtained. This was filtered off, washed, treated with hydrochloric acid and the solution agitated with ether. On evaporation of the ethereal solution the residue showed microscopic crystals, this was again crystallised from water. The product was a mass of micro- scopic needles resembling camphoronic acid. No oxalic acid was obtained. To be sure the crystals were camphoronic acid, that acid was formed from ordinary camphor in the usual way, and treated under exactly the same conditions ; the product resembled in every respect that obtained from eudesmol, with the exception that the melting point of the product from eudesmol (165 — 168°C.) was a few degress higher than that from camphor, and that on repeated crystallisation rather better defined crystals were obtained with the acid from eudesmol. From the results by Aschan'’ and by Perkin and Thorpe it is shown that the t-camphoronic acid melts at a higher temperature than either d- or /- forms, and that the z- acid has better defined crystals. It thus seems that the acid derived from eudesmol will be found, when sufficient shall | have been obtained, to be i-camphoronic acid. Eudesmol is readily oxidised by chromic acid. The oxidation products of eudesmol 1 Ber. 1895, xxviii., 16 and 224. 102 H. G. SMITH. are interesting and the want of material has alone prevented me completing their investigation at this time, but I hope to continue the research later. The nitro-compound is also worthy of further inquiry. On fusing eudesmol with potash at 180° C., the volatile acid obtained on acidifying with sulphuric acid and distilling was acetic acid. No iso-butyric acid was detected. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The isolation of eudesmol from several members of the “‘globulus group” of Kucalypts, (those species whose oils are rich in eucalyptol at time of distillation), the natural alteration of the eudesmol fraction from oils like that of #. macrorhyncha with the corres- donding formation of eucalyptol, and the other facts described in the body of this paper, show eudesmol to be intermediate in the formation of eucalyptol in Eucalyptus oils. Eudesmol has a formula ©, H,,O, is isomeric with camphor, and contains two atoms of hydrogen less than eucalyptol. The ease with which eudesmol forms a di-bromide as an additive compound (attempts to form a higher bromide were not successful), indicates that the molecule is unsaturated, but that the linking must be different from the double linking of the terpenes is shown by eudesmol not forming a nitrosochloride. The pinenes of Eucalyptus oils readily form nitrosochlorides. Hudesmol not reacting with phenylhydrazine indicates that the oxygen atom is not ketonic, but that it is combined in the molecule in some other way. The non-success in all attempts to introduce hydrogen atoms into the eudesmol molecule by ordinary methods, and its inertness to the action of sodium generally, makes it appear probable that the oxygen atom is combined to more than one carbon atom. It may be that cymene plays some part in the formation of eudesmol. Cymene has been shown to occur in the oil of Z. globulus' and thus in other Eucalyptus oils, because Lucalyptus globulus is only one member of a class whose oils are identical in composition, 1 Faust and Homeyer, Ber. vit., 1429. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 103 Cymene is closely connected with the pinenes, and has been shown to contain iso- and not normal propyl.’ It may be too that dipentene takes some part in this alteration. Eucalyptol, which is identical with cineol,’ appears not to be either a ketone or an alcohol, as it does not combine with hydroxylamine or phenyl- hydrazine. It is not attacked by sodium nor by benzoyl chloride below 120°. The results of this investigation on eudesmol point to a structure allied to that of. eucalyptol, but containing two atoms less of hydrogen. The oxygen atom of eucalyptol enters the molecule during the formation of eudesmol, and if cymene be the structure upon which eudesmol is built, then the two added hydrogen atoms enter the molecule at the same time as the oxygen atom. When those Eucalyptus oils which contain a farly large percentage of high boiling constituents are distilled under atmospheric pressure, the fraction boiling above 250° C, almost in every case splits off a portion of water, and it thus appears that water is present in fairly loose chemical combination with the constituents which compose the high boiling portion of the oils. That it is this water, or its elements, that assists in the formation of eucalyptol appears certain, if it is not so, then it is difficult to account for the forma- tion of eucalyptol in those Eucalyptus oils when kept in their crude condition in a closely stoppered bottle, or to account other- wise for the increase in them of from twenty to thirty per cent. of eucalyptol. That the alteration is from higher boiling con- stituents to those boiling at a lower temperature is shown in the analyses given, and this must necessarily be so if eucalyptol is the final product as supposed. It has been shown by the investigation on the oil of #. eugenioides that oxygen is necessary to start this change. That the increase in eucalyptol content means also a diminution of certain of the terpenes has also been shown. 1 Widman, Ber. xxiv., 439. 2 The name eucalyptol has been retained in this paper to indicate the precise origin of the material, Eucalyptus oils. It may be that cineol found in the Melaleucas may have a like origin as both genera belong to the N.O. Myrtacee. —— t ’ 4 4 ‘ Cineol, and therefore eucalyptol, was supposed by Briihl* to contain no double linkings, and owing to its optical inactivity, 104 H. G. SMITH. and for other reasons, he suggested for it the following formula : | C ony | CH, 4 Ye HC~ | | O H.C _ | SE | CH, The oxygen atom entering the molecule during the formation of eudesmol, that substance must have a formula corresponding to eucalyptol. Eudesmol has no rotation, so that it probably does not contain an asymmetric carbon atom, or that the molecule has a racemic modification. It is difficult to depict for eudesmol a corresponding structure to cineol, having one double linking on the terpene type, without the presence of an asymmetric carbon atom which would indicate activity. After arriving at the composition of eudesmol and having determined its close connection with eucalyptol, it appeared to me, on considering its reactions, that the difficulty might probably be met by suggesting the quadrivalence of the oxygen atom, as this appears to be in a different state of combination in both eudesmol and eucalyptol than is found to be the case in any allied substance. The question of the valency of an oxygen atom under certain conditions has also been considered by others. Briihl’? advocated the quadrivalence of oxygen in hydrogen peroxide. J. F. Heyes® advocated the quadrivalence of oxygen in reference to some peroxides. In a paper read before the Chemical Society on June Ist, 1899, on “The salts of dimethylpyrone and the quadrivalence of oxygen,” by Dr. J. N. Collie, r.z.s. and Thomas Tickle, the authors are 1 Briihl, Ber. xx1., 461. 2 Briihl, Ber. 1897, xxx., 160 3 Phil. Mag., 1888, xxv., 221. CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 105 inclined to believe that the constitution of these compounds is similar to that of the salts of nitrogenous and other bases. This, however, assumes that oxygen may behave as a quadrivalent element. In favour of this hypothesis, the authors instance such compounds as dimethyl ether hydrochloride, diethyl ether hydrio- dide, ether peroxide, ete. If the oxygen atom in eudesmol be depicted as quadrivalent, then by taking Briihl’s formula for eucalyptol the following con- stitutional formule might be suggested, considering iso-propyl present as in cymene. C,H, C,H, | | peo yo HEC ji CH: H,C | CH, Len Locka EBC Wai... CH ECCe aC ip | | CH; CH, Eudesmol. Eucalyptol. This would necessitate the arrangement of the fourth affinity of the carbon atoms of the nucleus on the centric formula. As eudesmol on oxidation with nitric acid gives camphoronic acid as one of its oxidation products, we may perhaps derive some assistance by considering the probable formula for that acid. Bredt’ from investigation of its salts considered camphoronic acid to be isopropyltricarballyic acid and to have the formula CH,:CH:CH, CH,°CH:CH, | | cee © Cioran Or © iH == OH, | | | | | | COOH COOH COOH COOH COOH COOH thinking the first of these the more probable. In an important paper on the synthesis of i-camphoronic acid by Perkin and Thorpe? it is shown that camphoronic acid has the constitution of a trimethyltricarballylic acid of the formula 1 Annalen, 1884, 226, 249 — 261. 2 Journ. Chem. Soc., 1897, 1169. 106 H. G. SMITH. (CH,),C C(CH,)—CH, | COOH COOH COOH as was first suggested by Bredt' who represented camphor, cam- phoric acid and camphoronic acid as follows :— CH,—CH——_CH, CH,—CH ‘COOH { | ; | C(CH3). C(CHs). CH,—C(CH,):CO CH,—C(CH,):COOH Camphor. Camphoric acid. COOH COOH | C(CH,), CH, C(CH,) COOH Camphoronic acid. Eudesmol does not form the intermediate acid (camphoric acid) On oxidation with dilute nitric acid, but camphoronic acid, again indicating that the molecule of eudesmol differs from that of camphor. If we consider eudesmol to be in agreement with Briihl’s formula for eucalyptol, the camphoronic acid derived from it would require to be depicted as isopropyltricarballylic acid. If we accept Bredt’s formula for camphoronic acid to be trimethyltricarballylic acid, and which formula is supported by the synthetical production of Perkin and Thorpe, then Briihl’s formula for eucalyptol cannot be considered to be correct, and eudesmol will require to be constructed in a form corresponding somewhat with Bredt’s formula for camphor, but with the oxygen atom attached to more than one carbon atom, as follows :— CH, CH, ¢ ( iBROaa 1) ee Hoe ; Sen ees a HC O - CH H.C O CH, H H Kudesmol. Eucalyptol. 1 Ber. 1893, xxv1., 3049. ‘ CRYSTALLINE CAMPHOR OF EUCALYPTUS OIL. 107 The comparative ease with which oxidising agents act upon the eudesmol molecule, together with its instability, denote its suscep- tibility to attack, the tendency evidently being for the oxygen atom to become divalent, or in its most stable form. If we accept the possibility that the first action of the oxidising agent is to destroy the symmetry of the molecule by attacking it in its weakest point, the oxygen atom becoming attached to one of the three lower carbon atoms, then the chain would be broken and camphor- onic acid as trimethyltricarballylic acid could be constructed from eudesmol. CH, CH, | | Eee. apnea COOMBE iameCH, CH-C=CH, CH,-C-CH, | | | ass, | Beae |. OH COOH COOH Hf Camphoronic acid. Eudesmol. 108 R. H. MATHEWS. DIVISIONS OF SOME ABORIGINAL TRIBES, QUEENSLAND. By R. H. MArHEws, Ls. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1899. ] Last year I contributed two articles to this Society dealing with the social organisation and geographic boundaries of some of the native tribes of Queensland.t On the present occasion it is pro- posed to furnish similar information respecting a few other tribes whose country adjoins that of the communities treated of in my previous papers. I shall commence with the Wonkamurra, Yandrawontha, Yowerawarrika, and allied tribes, who adjoin the Barkunjee nation on the north. Their hunting grounds are on the Lower Wilson River, Cooper’s Creek, and part of the Diamantina, extending some distance within the South Australian frontier. The natives within this area are segregated into two phratries, called Koolpirro and Thinnewa—the males of the former phratry marrying the females of the latter, and conversely—the resulting offspring of both sexes adopting the phratry name of their mother in either case. This can be concisely represented by means of a table. Table No. 1. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. Jak Koolpirro Thinnewa Thinnewa B. Thinnewa Koolpirro Koolpirro Along the course of the Mulligan River, Saltpetre Creek, Pituri Creek, and part of the Upper Georgina River, are several tribes, among which may be mentioned the Yoolanlanya, Yanindo, and Yorrawinga. They are divided into sections, among which may 1 Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxx11., 78 - 84; 250 — 253. DIVISIONS OF SOME ABORIGINAL TRIBES, QUEENSLAND. 109 be mentioned Lookwarra, Belthara, Ungella, Drungwarra, Koo- mara, and Gabala, but my enquiries respecting their rules of marriage and descent are not yet completed. There is a community of tribes spread over the country drained by the Norman and Yapper Rivers, Spear Creek, Carron Creek, Walker’s Creek, the Lower Gilbert, Byerley’s Creek, Pelican Creek, Staaten River, Nassau River, and the lower portions of the Hinasleigh and Lynd. The most important of the numerous tribes in this area are the Goothanto, Ariba, Koogobathy, Goongarra, Owoilkulla, Wallun- garma, Karantee and Nahwangan. Their territory extends from Woodstock Station on the head of the Norman River to the Nassau River, a distance of about three hundred miles, and having a maximum width of about two hundred miles. Their frontage to the Gulf of Carpentaria reaches from the mouth of the Nassau to the mouth of the Flinders. On the east they are bounded by the Warkeemon nation, whose sectional divisions I reported last year.’ Onthe west and south they are bounded by the Mycoolon’ and Kogai-Yuipera’ nations respectively. I have named this aggregate of tribes the Goothanto nation after the tribe of that name occupying the country around the junction of the Gilbert and Hinasleigh Rivers. In all the tribes of this nation the people are divided into four sections called Arenia, Arara, Loora and Arrawonga, or else mere variations of these names, with descent in all cases through the mother. To Mr. E. Palmer belongs the credit of first reporting one of the tribes of this organisation.* In 1883 he stated that the names of the sections of the Koogobathy tribe, which I have included in the Goothanto nation, as Barry, Ararey, Jury and Mungilly, which are evidently modified forms of the names I have given in Table No. 3. Dr. W. E. Roth, in 1897, referred to 1 Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, xxx11., 250, 251. 2 Ibid., p. 82. 3 Proc, Amer. Philos. Soc., Philad., xxxvit., 331 — 333. 4 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x111., 304. « ~ - ‘ 110 R. H. MATHEWS. another variation of these section names among the natives at Normanton.! The present article, however, is the first in which the geographic range of the aggregate of tribes composing this community has been published, and the descent of the children clearly established. The sections Arenia and Arara correspond to Karpungie and Cheekunjee respectively, and the sections Loora and Arrawonga to Kellungie and Koopungie of the Warkeemon community, reported by me in 1898.” The rules of intermarriage among the Goothanto are as shown hereunder :— Table No. 2. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. ix Arenia Loora Arrawongo | Arara Arrawongo Loora B ( Loora — Arenia Arara ; {| Arrawongo Arara Arenia The country watered by the Lower Mitchell, Alice, Coleman, Palmer and other rivers is inhabited by the Koonjan, Goonamon, and several friendly tribes, possessing four intermarrying divisions and matriarchal descent, as under :— Table No. 3. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. i ( Ahjeereena Perrynung Mahngal ( Arrennynung Mahngal Perrynung B Perrynung Ahjeereena Arrennynung | Mahngal Arrennynung Ahjeereena On a tract of country at the junction of the Dawson with the Fitzroy, and thence westerly to Arthur’s Bluff, extending also north and south for some distance, is a tribe called Kang-ool-lo, having four sections, the names of which are evidently modifica- tions or combinations of those in use among the Dippil and Kooin- merburra nations. The names of the sections, and how they intermarry are as shown hereunder :— 1 Ethnological Studies, Queensland Aborigines, p. 68. 2 Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, xxx11., 250 - 251. DIVISIONS OF SOME ABORIGINAL TRIBES, QUEENSLAND. It] Table No. 4. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. “ Keearra Banniar Koorpal Banjoor Koorpal Banniar B Banniar Keearra Banjoor Koorpal Banjoor Keearra At the junction of the Rankine with the Georgina River—on Barklay’s Tableland—and on the sources of the Gregory and its tributaries, are the hunting grounds of the Inchalachee and Warkya tribes—the latter extending westerly as far as Lake Sylvester. They are divided into eight sections, which constitute two phratries, comprising four sections each. The intermarriage of these divisions, and the sections to which the resulting offspring belong, will be easily understood when arranged in tabular form: Table No. 5. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. Bolangte Kungilla . Belyeringie m Boonongoona Belyeringie Narechie ; Warkve Narechie Beneringie Thimmermill Beneringie Kungilla ‘Kungilla Bolangie Thimmermill B Beneringie Thimmermill Warkie Narechie Warkie Boonongoona _Belyeringie Boonongoona Bolangie Adjoining the Inchalachees and their friends on the north, and reaching thence to the mouth of the Nicholson River, and north- westerly along the Gulf of Carpentaria are the Yangarilla, Wahnyee, Yookala, and friendly tribes, bearing the eight sec- tional names reported by me to this Society last year.’ APPENDIX. Divisions OF TRIBES IN THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. To the north-west of the Warkya we find the Wombya and several adjoining tribes, who possess the eight divisions which I 1“ Divisions of Some North Queensland Tribes.”—Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, xxx1I., 250 — 255. ii : 112 R. H. MATHEWS. gave in tabular form on page 75 of volume xxxu1. of the Journal of this Society. This organisation extends, with slight modifica- tions in the names of the sections, over a wide tract of country from Creswell Downs to the Katherine River. Adjoining the Warkya on the south-west are the tribes of what I have called the Ulperra nation, Table No. 8, extending from Tennant’s Oreek to Alice Springs, and north-westerly therefrom to meet the tribes of the organisation represented in Table No. 7. Throughout the course of the Victoria River, on the Daly River, and their tributaries, the native tribes are segregated into two principal phratries A and B, each of which is subdivided into four sections, which intermarry as follows :— Table No. 6. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. Chamaja Chungalla Chalyerry ix Changarra Chalyerry Choolama Chanama Choolama Chongarry ( Jambajyunna Chongarry Chungalla Chungalla Chamaja Jambajyunna B Chongarry Jambajyunna Chanama "a Choolama . Chanama Changarra ( Chalyerry Changarra Chamaja On Sturt Creek, and extending thence south-easterly towards the Lander and Barrow’s Oreek, are the Neening, Jarroo, and Munga tribes, with some others, having the following divisions, or mere modifications of them :— Table No. 7. Phratvry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. ' Choongoora Changally Chabalye A | Chagarra Chabalye Chooara Chowan Chooara Chowarding | Chambeen Chowarding Changally Changally Choongoora Chambeen B | Chowarding Chambeen Chowan | Chooara Chowan Chagarra Chabalye Chagarra Choongoora DIVISIONS OF SOME ABURIGINAL TRIBES, QUEENSLAND. 113 For the purpose of showing the equivalence of the eight sections represented in Tables Nos. 5, 6, and 7, it is desirable to introduce the eight divisions reported by the Rev. L. Schulze in 1891.’ I tabulated this gentleman’s investigations, with some modifications, last year,” but in order to bring the section names mentioned by him into corresponding positions with those under consideration in the present article, I have re-arranged them as under. The A phratries in each table are equivalent to each other, as well as the sections of which they consist; and all the B phratries likewise correspond in the same way. Table No. 8—The Ulperra Tribe. Phratry. Husband. Wife. Offspring. l. Anurraia Ngala Bultara A 2. Koomara Bultara Parulla ; 3. Panungka Parulla Pungata 4. Mbutjana Pungata Ngala 5. Ngala Knurraia Mbutjana B 6. Pungata Mbutiana Panungka ; | 7. Parulla Panungka Koomara \ 5. Bultara Koomara Knurraia The names of the sections of the Warramonga tribe are practi- cally identical with those referred to by Mr. Schulze. If weadopt the same numerals as in Table No. 8, the equivalence of the Warramonga divisions will be as follows:—1, Ungarria; 2, Taka- mara; 3, Taponunga; 4, Ambajona or Jambean; 5, Jungulla; 6, Tapongatee; 7, Joopalla; 8, Cubadgee. The intermarriages of these sections, and the descent of the offspring, follow precisely the same order as those in Table No. 8. In preparing the amended list of names of sections, and rules of intermarriage of the Warra- monga tribe, | wish to acknowledge the willing help afforded by Mr. W. Beattie. Each phratry has perpetual succession, and is sustained entire, by means of its women. In Tables 1 to 8 of this article, the section names of which the phratry consists are in all cases those ‘ Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., xIv., 223 — 227. 2 Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, xxxut., 72. H—Aug. 2, 1899. | a + 114 R. H. MATHEWS. shown in the column headed “‘wife.” All the members of the A phratry are printed in Roman letters, and those of the B phratry are all in italic. For the purpose of illustrating the order of descent, I will take a few examples from “Phratry A” in each type of social structure. Thus, in Table No. 3, where the phratry consists of only one division, Thinnewa produces Thinnewa from generation to generation. In Table No. 2, which is an example of tribes who have two divisions in the phratry, Loora produces Arrawonga, and Arrawonga produces Loora in the next generation, and so on continually. When there are four divisons in the phratry, of which Table No, 5 is an example, we find in the column — headed “wife,” that Kungilla has a daughter Belyeringie ; Belyer- ingie produces Narechie; Narechie is the mother of Beneringie ; Beneringie has a daughter Kungilla, the same name we commenced with; and this order of succession is repeated for ever. If our examples had been selected from ‘“‘Phratry B,” an analogous result would have been obtained. In all the Tables herein given, the sons of the women of one phratry marry the daughters of the women of the other; therefore, the men and women of the same -generation in each phratry respectively stand in the mutual relationship to each other of brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law. Let us suppose a line drawn from Anson Bay, at the mouth of Daly River, to Limmen Bight in the Gulf of Carpentaria, and then take the portion of the Northern Territory of South Australia bounded on the north by the said line; on the west by Western Australia; on the east by Queensland, and on the south by South Australia proper. Throughout this immense tract of country I have described the divisional systems of the principal native com- munities sparsely distributed overit. For particulars of my work the reader is referred to the tables at pages 72, 73 and 75 of the thirty-second volume of the Journal of this Society, and to Tables 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the present article. The divisions shown in Table No. 7 also extend a long way westerly into West Australia, reaching from Termination Lake northerly to Wyndhan, a distance of about three hundred miles. ST INITIATION CEREMONIES OF THE ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS, 115 THE INITIATION CEREMONIES or tot ABORIGINES or PORT STEPHENS, N.S. WALES. By W. J. Enricut, B.A. Syd. (Communicated by R. H. Maruews, 1.8.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 5, 1899. | THE male aboriginal, on attaining the age of puberty, reaches the most eventfnl period of his life. Hitherto his place has been amongst the women and children, but he now passes through a ceremony admitting him to a brotherhood whose secrets are inviolable and whose power is more dreaded than any Vehmgericht. Now filled with a sense of the dignity of manhood, he becomes entitled to greater privileges than previously enjoyed. This ceremony of admission is known by various names in different parts of the colony, but amongst the Kutthung' and other tribes of the north-east coast it is called the Keeparra: I believe that the first detailed account? of it, and its sister ceremony ‘‘the Dalgai,” was one written by Mr. R. H. Mathews. In December 1896 and again in December 1897, I sojourned among the remnant of the Kutthung tribe at Port Stephens with- out being able to elicit from them anything more valuable than the reluctant admission that at the present time the youths are initiated at Forster. I mentioned the difficulties I encountered in obtaining particulars of their secret ceremonies to my friend Mr. R. H. Mathews, from whom I have always received encouragement and assistance in all ethnological work, and on his next visit to Maitland he drove out with me to the native camp at Sawyer’s Point on the Karuah River. He was personally known to some of the men present 1 Pronounced Kut-thung. 2 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xxv1.. 320-340. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic.,1x., N.S. 120 - 136. 116 W. J. ENRIGHT. there, and was at once received by them as one of the initiated. I remained in the camp “with the women and children,” as they jocularly expressed it, while Mr. Mathews took all the initiated men into a secluded place in the bush near by, where a Winggerah! was held, at which he explained that he had told me all the secrets of the keeparra and had imposed upon me the usual obligations of secrecy. As soon as they were satisfied, I was summoned, and shown the sacred goonanduckyer” and was formally admitted as a member of the tribe entitled to all the privileges of an initiate. With the help of Mr. R. H. Mathews, 1 have been able to obtain the following information, though not without considerable difficulty :—The place of initiation at Forster, New South Wales, consisted of a large circular space called “ boolbung,” about thirty feet in diameter, resembling a circus ring. This is connected with another smaller circle called ‘“ goonambung” situated in a very secluded part of the bush, by a pathway (goolga) about a quarter of a mile in length ; the trees along which for some distance from the goonambung have geometrical figures and representations of various animals carved on their trunks. In the centre of the goonambung a fire was lighted, and was kept burning. My enquiries proved that the ground at Forster differs but little from that described by Mr. Mathews in ‘‘ The Keeparra Ceremony of Initiation,”® to which I would refer my readers for more minute details. When a tribe has a number of youths who have attained the proper age for initiation, a messenger* is sent out to summon the neighbouring tribes to assist in the creremony. The messenger 1 A secret council ot initiates. 2 Bullroarer used in the keeparra. 3 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xxv1., 321 — 323. 4 The rerson of this messenger is quite sacred, and whatever differences there may be between the tribe summoning and the tribe summoned, the utmost amity must outwardly prevail at this time, and any interference with the person of the messenger would be promptly resented and avenged, not only by the tribe to which he belonged, but also by the . neighbouring tribes. | INITIATION CEREMONIES OF THE ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 117 who is an initiate, carries with him as symbols of authority the bullroarer (goonanduckyer), the message-stick, some tails and pieces of colourless stone.1 The goonduckyer and message-stick must never be seen by a women or an uninitiated person, and I have been assured that instant death would overtake a female or boy unfortunate enough to see one of these implements.’ When a messenger approaches a camp, he swings the goonan- duckyer so that it may be heard by some of the older men, who immediately recognise the significance of the sound as soon as they hear it, and coming out of their camp they meet the messenger and conduct him into the camp, where he is entertained until the following day, when a winggerah is held to which his invitation is delivered. If the invitation is, as usual, accepted, the whole tribe gets ready for the march, the women and boys however, being kept in ignorance of the object of the journey. When the tribe arrives near the ground they halt, and the initiates proceed to paint their bodies in squares and circles with white and red colours, and go to the goonambung ring, which they enter in Indian file, and marching round take their seats on the wall, in such a position that they look towards the burri or country whence they have come. Each man, who has a son to be initiated, bears a blotch of red ochre on his forehead, and by this means they indicate the number of youths they have brought to be initiated.’ The tribe which has issued the invitation are then summoned by the swinging of the goonanduckyer, at the sound of which they form in single file and march into the goonambung, thus making themselves known to the new arrivals, who arise and march to the boolbung circle, each carrying a small branch or bough of a tree in each hand. Here they dance with the women of the tribe to whom the ground belongs, and at the conclusion of it the men belonging to that tribe go into the ring and salute the newly 1 Usually crystalline quartz. 2 This appears to apply only toa message-stick relating to the Keeparra. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 1x., N.S., 124. 118 W. J. ENRIGHT. arrived women by dancing around them. All the men then strip the leaves off the branches they carry and scatter them over the ground. This portion of the ritual appears to be meaningless now, but it may perhaps have formerly symbolised the stripping of the youth of his old character preparatory to confering on him the toga virilis. The day for commencing the initiation having arrived, the men who are to act as the stewards go to the goonambung and assume the symbols of office in the shape of a smearing of grease and 1 charred bark of the apple-tree (goondary).' The boys are prepared by their female relations, who cover them all over with a mixture of red ochre and grease, and they are also adorned with a belt from which is suspended two tails. The youths when their preparations have been completed pro-— ceed to the boolbung in company with the women and children. The latter, however, do not enter the ring but take their places outside, close to the youths belonging to their respective tribes ; the youths standing inside the ring at the points nearest their respective burris. The women and children who have been previously made to lie down with their faces to the ground are then covered with rugs and bushes, and the proponents for initiation with their heads enveloped in rugs are taken some distance along the goolga out of sight of the women, and then made to lie down with the rugs still covering them. Whilst in this position, the awful sound of the goonanduckyer, the voice of Goolumbra further impresses them with the solemnity of the occasion and serious nature of the step they are taking, and renders their minds better fitted to receive the lessons of the keepara. The youths having been taken out of sight as just stated, the women and children are permitted to rise, and are conducted to another camp, the site of which has previously been selected at a winggerah held prior to the commencement of the proceedings. 1 Not the fruit tree, but the so-called apple-tree of Australia (Angophora) Eds. INITIATION CEREMONIES OF THE ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 119 Before leaving for the new caimp a doolbhi’ is erected outside the ring to indicate to any other tribes who arrive later on, the direction in which it is situated. Near this new camp, which is called Ulra,? a piece of ground is neatly swept and two fires are lighted thereon some distance apart. On this playground which has been thus prepared, the women and girls dance every evening during the absence of the boys. The women having been taken away as just described, the novices whom we have left lying down at the goolga are ordered to stand up and the rugs are then placed over their heads in the form of cowls. They are then taken along the goolga towards the goonambung, and on the way they are shown by the elders the teeroong or various geometrical and other figures carved on the trees. As far as I can learn, there are no figures carved on the earth at the keeparra ground used by the Kutthung. None of the aboriginals from whom I drew my information knew the mean- ing of the teeroong. When the youths arrive at the goonambung they are taken around it, and then marched towards the bush, the boys alongside of their guardians, with their eyes intently fixed upon the ground until they reach a suitable place, where a camp is formed in the shape of a crescent or semicircle with two fires in front of it, and also a level space carefully cleared and swept. On this place every night the men mimic the actions of various native animals, and the goonanduckyer is sounded occasionally to impress the novices who are informed, that it is the voice of Goolumbra, of whose terrible powers they are warned. During their stay at this camp which is called the keelaybang, the novice who is kept either in a lying or sitting position, must not communicate by word with his guardians, and is threatened with severe penalties if he does so. 1 « Doolbhi” consists of a forked piece of timber inserted in the ground with another piece tied at right angles to ita little distance from the - ground pointing in the direction of the new camp. If there are any streams between the boolbung and the new camp, they are represented by twigs fastened across the pointer equal in number to the streams. 2 Ulra appears to be a name given to any kind of camp. 120 W. J. ENRIGHT. Should he desire anything he must touch one of the men who con- tinues to question until he gets an affirmative nod from the boy. Often the man who has charge of the boy will at once know what is the novice’s desire, but in order to test him will refrain from putting the proper question. During their stay in the keelaybang no meat is given to the boys until it has been cut into small pieces and the bone and sinew carefully removed. In some tribes the boys are given human urine to drink and excrement to eat, but at the present time this is not practised amongst the Kutthung, nor have I been able to discover whether it was ever in vogue, but the name goonanduckyer' hints at its existence. Should a boy desire to micturate he is allowed to do so at one of the fires, alternating the operation at each fire. Any other call of nature is obeyed outside the camp, one of the initiates all the time keeping guard over him. After some days spent in this camp, the cry of a dingo (mirree), will be heard near it. This noise or howl is uttered by men who have come from the women’s camp, and is answered by a shout from the keelaybang. When the new arrivals get in sight they march in single file towards the camp, with bushes in front of them which they throw down on their arrival and execute a dance. The men who have charge of the boys pick up these bushes and commence dancing with them in their hands, all the while stripping off the leaves. The object of this visit appears to be to ascertain when the novitiate will be completed and a return made to the camp. Several of such visits may possibly have to be made before the initiation is accomplished. During their stay the boys are taught the sacred songs of the tribes and the laws relating to the class system; they also com- mence to learn an entirely new Janguage. In this new language the returning boomerang (barrakun) is known as dulla, and the woomera (yukri) is called burrumba. The learning of this language is a matter of time, and the knowledge acquired of it is useful in ascertaining whether a man is an initiate. 1 Stercus humanum edens. INITIATION CEREMONIES OF THE ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 121 On the morning before they depart to the women’s camp the boys are made to stand in a row, their heads remaining covered, and then the men form in line in front of them, and two of them swing the goonanduckyer. After it has been sounded sufficiently the coverings are removed from the boys heads, and they are per- mitted to see for the first time the instrument whose sound has so impressed them. Some old men who are strangers to the boys then step forward and threaten them, that, if ever they reveal anything that has been shown them or taught them, they will be killed, and this is quite sufficient to deter them from revealing the secrets of the keeparra. This concludes the ceremony in the bush, and a start is made for the camp where the women have been left, but on the way the whole party go into a waterhole or at some point along a stream of water previously agreed upon and wash them- selves. At the conclusion of their ablutions they singe the hair off the bodies of the novices, and then covcr the whole of the party from head to foot with pipeclay before resuming their journey to the women’s camp. On their way they are met by a number of men from the women’s camp, who announce their arrival by how]- ing like dingos, and this howling is answered by one of the men with the guardians swinging a goonanduckyer. Each member of the party from the women’s camp carries a green bough in his hand which is thrown down, when they form into line in front of the novices and a short dance is gone through. ‘The men with the novices then pick up the bushes and strip them of their leaves which are scattered about on the ground. The new arrivals then return to the women’s camp and prepare for the return of the novices by making all the women lie down and covering them with bushes. After sufficient time has elapsed for these preparations to be completed, the novicesand men, divested of all incumbrances, make a start for the camp, their approach to which is heralded by the sound of the barroway! by a man who has previously gone out of the camp. On the arrival of the novices with their guardians at the camp they form a complete circle around it, and then the 1A large pullroarer, 122 W. J. ENRIGHT. women are permitted to rise and greet their sons whom in their disguise they have considerable difficulty in recognising. On discovering their sons the mothers go forward to them and raise their breasts which the sons take hold of and pretend to suck. Amongst other tribes the sisters of the novices greet them by rubbing their feet on the feet and ankles of the novices, but this custom did not appear to prevail amongst the Kutthung. After each mother has greeted her son in this fashion, the women pass out of the ring under the arms of the men who then throw bushes on the fires causing them to smoke. Each guardian then takes hold of the novice under his care and holds him for a time in the smoke, after which all the novices take their departure together with their hands linked, to the place where they have left their belongings, and they are soon followed thither by their guardians who remain with them for the night. The next day the visiting tribes make preparations for departure, and on their journey the novices must not camp with the elders, but like those whom they have left behind they are kept in a ‘“‘bachelor’s camp” until their initiation is completed. Hach night however, they are allowed to approach a little nearer to the general camp, and at last are finally admitted into it. Before being allowed the privilege of marriage, they must attend more keeparras, the number of which, as far as I can ascertain is five, but it is possible that more regard is paid to the age of the youth than to the number of keeparras he has attended. A new name is also given to him now which must never be used within the hearing of women; the raised scars (bheerammer), are made on his body. Prior to being initiated he was permitted to use as food all kinds of fish, honey, and the female of all land animals, but certain birds and the male of all land animals were forbidden him. After his first keeparra he is entitled to partake of the flesh of the male kangaroo-rat, and after the second he is permitted to eat the male opossum, and each succeeding keepara increases his privileges in this respect. INITIATION CEREMONIES OF THE ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 123 The custom of knocking out one of the front teeth during the ceremony is not now in vogue amongst the Kutthung, nor is it certain that it ever existed amongst them, and of late years the practice of ornamenting the bodies with scars has fallen into disuse. It is more than probable that the last keeparra has been held by them; for as each year goes by their numbers dwindle, and in January 1899, they were not able to get a sufficient number of aborigines together to enable them to celebrate the ceremony. Many of those I have met along the coast had never gone through the keepaara, but had been merely initiated into the dhalgai, a sister ceremony, much shorter however than the keeparra, and needing for its practice no assemblage of adjoining tribes nor any prepared ground; in fact it requires but a half dozen men who have passed through the keeparra, and the use of a goonanduckyer, to enable the youth to be initiated. As the dhalgai ceremony amongst the Kutthung does not differ from that already described by Mr. R. H. Mathews, I will refer my readers to his work! for an account of it. The burri’ of the tribe whose initiation ceremony I have here described, extended along the Karuah River’s southern bank and the southern shore of Port Stephens to Pipeclay Creek, whose western bank formed the eastern boundary of their territory; but the southern and western boundaries were uncertain or rather I received varying accounts from different individuals. These boundaries were no doubt strictly adhered to before the advent of Europeans, but afterwards when tribes were killed off or driven from their territories the boundaries of adjoining burris would be changed, and this would account for the discrepancies in the state- ments I have received. The country on the north side of Port Stephens and the Karuah extending down to the right bank of the Myall River belonged to the Gummipingal ;’ the land lying t Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xxv1., 338 - 340. 2 District belonging to a tribe. 3 « People of the Spear.’ Gummi a spear, and gal people. The grass trees from which the material’ for spear handles was obtained grew abundantly in this district. “a 124 W. J. ENRIGHT. between the Myall River, the Myall Lakes and the sea, was occupied by the Grewigerigal,! and the district lying between Pipeclay and Tellegherry Creeks was occupied by the Doowalligal.” Amongst the Kutthung and neighbouring tribes there was no code of signs in use, as some believe amongst the initiates, and in a community such as that in which the aboriginals lived, where every male on attaining the proper age would be initiated, and in which all initiates would be known to the older men who played a leading part in the keeparra, the use of such signs for the purpose of distinguishing initiates except from adjoining tribes would be utterly unnecessary, and in the latter case the language previously referred to would furnish an infallible test. In conclusion, I wish to refer to a description of the ‘‘ Gaboora” ceremony’ published in the Australian Anthropological Journal a year or two ago. Mr. Cohen, the writer of the article says that ‘‘the youths to be initiated were kept apart from the other mem- bers of the tribe for a month previous to the inauguration ceremonies, and that if any female was detected holding conversa- tion with them or touching them she would be put to death.” According to my investigations the novices remain in the general camp with their female friends until the final morning on which they are taken away by the old men. It is also stated that the ‘‘gaboora ceremonies invariably occupied two days.” From ten days to a fortnight is the shortest time employed for this purpose among all the tribes of the north east coast. Mr. Cohen’s descrip- tion of the scenes in the bush, while the novices are away with . the chief men undergoing the ordeal of initiation, are to say the least disjointed and fragmentary. Moreover some of the scenes which he narrates were never heard of by my native imformants; whilst others were stated to be merely portions of ordinary corroborees, and in no way connected with the rites of the keeparra or ‘‘gaboora,” as it is called by the writer of the article in question. 1 « People of the Sea.” Grewi the sea, and gal people. 2 « People living between the two”; but whether the name is given them from the fact that they lived between two streams or between two tribes I could not ascertain. 3 “* Description of the Gaboora Ceremony.”—Aust. Anthrop. Journ., Vol. 1., pp. 83 - 84, 97, 98, 115-117; Vol. 1., N.S. pp. 7-10. SAILING BIRDS ARE DEPENDENT ON WAVE-POWER. 125 SAILING BIRDS are DEPENDENT on WAVE-POWER. By L. HarGRave. [ Received Auy. 24.. Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Sept. 6, 1899. ] THERE are many birds frequenting the southern oceans beyond the limits of the S.E. trade winds that are not adapted for soaring, and yet they circle, glide and swoop around without flapping their wings. These have been well called sailing birds; and it is one of their oft repeated evolutions that shows me, and I hope you, that sailing flight is not at all incomprehensible. I will first point out that the tropics are the home of heavy short-winged birds, such as gannets, boobies, divers and small gulls. These seldom make any attempt to glide, much less sail or soar. The only exceptions I know are the frigate bird, and the boatswain bird; these two soar at high altitudes for long distances on motionless wings. It is worthy of remark that large flocks of sailing birds accom- pany vessels running down their easting, and this gives an opportunity for observing whether sailing birds really can work to windward, this point can only be determined from on board a steamer going westward, and south of what I believe is the usual track from Australia to the Cape. My own opinion is that sailing birds cannot make anything to windward except during the limited time that the sea is running in an opposite direction to the wind: and as an argument [ call attention to the absence of sailing birds in the 8.E. trades and attribute the scarcity to their inability to get out of the trades by standing to the S.W. if they get too far to leeward. The most ordinary conditions for observing sailing birds are when the wind and sea are both aft. The waves are probably overtaking the ship and passing at about six knots. Large num- 126 L. HARGRAVE, bers of birds follow the vessel and make wide circuits on either side of the wake ; their interest is centered on garbage, and their efforts are directed to keeping astern, their weight and area are such that they must keep moving through the air at a nearly uniform speed in order that they may be supported ; this velocity I estimate at forty miles per hour. If you direct your attention to the position of a bird with regard to the wave surface, it will speedily be noticed to be nearly always on the rising side or face of the wave and moving apparently at right angles to the wave’s course, but really diagonal to it. The bird is going to leeward as fast as the wave is; and, if that speed is too great for its requirements it turns towards the crest, points one wing to the sky and uses its velocity to shoot upwards high above the back of the wave, and then descends to the trough of the following wave along the face of which it glides: the back of the wave is its peculiar aversion. Now there has been no flapping and the performance takes place with or without wind, all the bird requires is the wave. As to the effect of the wave on the air, we will suppose the water to be quite flat and the air motionless, a heavy undulation comes on the scene, it has to pass, so it pushes the air up with its face, letting it fall again as its back glides onwards. ‘The air on the face is slightly compressed, that on the back lowered in pressure, both operations taking power out of the wave and eventually largely contributing to its extinction. The closer the bird is to the surface of the water, the firmer and more inelastic is the uplift of the rising air. The bird appears to almost feel the surface with the tip of its weather wing. The case I wish you to consider is that of a sea-wave, for example one hundred and eighty feet long and ten feet high, travelling at eighteen knots, or say, thirty feet per second under calm air. This wave will raise all the air as it passes ten feet, at the mean rate of three and one-third feet per second. The rate will vary from zero in the trough, attaining its maxi- mum velocity at half the wave height, or where the wave is SAILING BIRDS ARE DEPENDENT ON WAVE-POWER. 127 steepest, and falling to zero at the crest. Let us suppose the maximum velocity of uplift of the air to be about four feet per second and the steepest part to be 10° slope. Now according to Prof. 8. P. Langley, a plane surface 30” x 4:8”, weighing 1:1 ibs. will glide on air, without losing its elevation, at a speed of 49°8 feet per second, if sloped 5°. That is, the plane pushes 4°33 feet of air vertically downwards whilst it is translated 49:8 feet in 1 sec. The same effect with regard to the position of the plane at the end of its journey of one second’s duration is produced if the plane be sloped 5° downwards, and the air through which it passes be pushed bodily upwards 4°33 feet in one second. Now the air over our wave is being lifted about four feet per second ; so if the 1:1 ib. plane were launched with 5° downward slope in the same direction the wave is travelling, from one foot above the steepest part of the wave, it would overrun the wave which has only a velocity of thirty feet per second. It would thus get out of the air that is being lifted and shoot into the water in the trough. But if the aspect of the plane be changed so that it face 53° either to the right or left of the track of the wave, its position above the mean sea level, and situation on the wave slope will be unaltered: and, if the wave was of unlimited width the plane would continue on its course till dashed ashore. The plane is simply abstracting the power stored in the wave by a distant gale, and using it to counteract gravity. And if the work be continued long enough, or a multitude of planes be con- tinually drawing on the reservoir of power, the wave must inevitably be flattened. The velocity of 49°8 feet per second is sufficient to raise the plane to an elevation of thirty-eight feet in one and a half seconds, if its course be changed from horizontal to vertical, it there comes to rest. And froma poise at this station the plane may swoop down, at great disadvantage if close to the back of the wave, at various slopes and directions till it cuts into the air that is being raised 123 L. HARGRAVE. by the face of the following wave, which again enables it to resume its velocity. Observe that the wave I instance in this example, is one of the low round topped sort that prevail in calm weather. If we were to base our calculations on a wave with a sharp crest approaching to the breaking dimensions, our plane would be travelling on its course through air having a velocity of uplift of 30 instead of 4:3 feet per second, if the wave slope were 45°; and would need loading approximately to $4 x 1:1 =76 lbs. per square foot to keep it down to its original mean height, and could be made of seven gauge wrought iron. If we figure out the result with 2° angle of incidence, and a horizontal velocity of 65:6 feet per second, we find that the 1:1 hb. plane will be supported where the wave face is only 43° slope, giving a velocity of uplift of 2-289 feet per second, and will make a course 62° 40’ to the right or left of that of the wave. Couple this with the fact that the head resistance of a sailing bird’s form and the delicate arch of its wings are the survivals of untold numbers of cruder types, and no surprise should be felt at any intricate tactics pursued when further aided by the power derived from the wind and roughened sea. This is the solution of the problem of a sailing bird’s progression totally denuded of complications. It becomes a giant’s task to compute the result when the effect of cross seas, wind at all angles and ever varying force, arched surfaces, head resistance, ratio of weight to area, and the intelligence of the guiding power crop up. These questions all combined, have been considered in the evolu- tion of a sailing bird and must be reckoned with by the designer of a wave driven flying machine. Jam not aware that anyone has attempted to show that sailing flight by wave-power alone is a practicable art, but even if some one else has done so, an observa- tion from an independent source confirming old work cannot fail to be of interest. APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 129 SOME APPLICATIONS anp DEVELOPMENTS or THE PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. By G. H. Kniss, F.R.A.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Received Aug. 29. Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, Sep. 6, 1899. | . The prismoidal formula and the limit of its application. . The prismoidal formula applied to solids with ruled surfaces. Skew, warped, or ruled quadric surfaces. Volumes of warped-surface solids. . Solids of trapezoidal section with two warped surfaces. . Solids of quadrilateral section with plane surfaces. . Solids of quadrilateral section with one warped surface. . Solids of pentagonal section with two warped surfaces. . Solids of heptagonal section with four or six warped surfaces. . Approximate estimate of volume from profile of centre-line of m longitudinally contiguous solids. . Solids whose longitudinal axes are curved. . Solids whose longitudinal axes are tortuous curves. . Solids of curved longitudinal section with circularly warped surfaces. . Centre of gravity of various sections. . Prismoidal formula applicable to circularly warped solids. . Prismoidal formula not applicable with variable radius of curvature. 17. Suggestions respecting the use of the preceding formule. OCMNIMHAP WY pot (S) Hb ow be Pee OO of 1. The prismoidal formula and the limit of its application.— Consider the solid generated by parallel motion in the direction z, of any figure in the plane xy, whose area is connected with its ~ coordinate by the relation Ap AE, 2 ian Ae Oe iD e* sss. (QU): 1.€., a solid whose xy section is a cubic function of its z codrdinate. Since the origin of z does not affect the degree of the equation, but alters only the values of the constants, we may analytically treat A as the area of one of the terminal planes of the solid, and express its volume as - I—Sept. 6, 1899. 130 G. H. KNIBBS. v= S (2) de = Az + bBo? + 1029 42 Det occ (2); that is ° 3 Y= §2(6A + 3Be + 202? + 14D2*) = Ye(A + bAgct A!) oceceen(B) A,, denoting the middle area, or the area for z,,=42; and A’ the area of the other terminal plane: which may be readily verified. We thus see that this last expression (3), viz., the ‘prismoidal formula,’ is true for any solid whose sectional area is a cubic or lower function of the distance from either of its terminal planes; a proposition due really to Newton.’ 2. The prismoidal formula applied to solids with ‘ruled surfaces.’ Consider further the ‘ruled surface’ formed by the motion of a straight line as generator, the terminals making a complete circuit of two parallel planes serving as directors, the areas of the latter being S(@yya=A;s Sey )=A; and the velocities of the generator- terminals, viz., their contact-points on the directors, being unrestricted. If now ds and ds’ be corresponding infinitesimal elements of the director curves, projected in Fig. 1 on the one plane, and if g and g’ denote the projections of successive posit- ions of the generator on the same plane; it is evident that any inter- mediate parallel plane A, will cut ice. the generators and their projections in a constant ratio; and that any infinitesimal increment of area dA, say, see the shaded portion of the figure, may therefore always be represented by a quadratic function of z That is to say, if d@ be the infinitesimal angle between the projections of the successive positions of the generator, the increment of area will always be of the form dA, =(a+b2+ cz) dO. nee (4), 1 Methodus differentialis,” 1711. APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 131 and this property depends merely upon the fact that the generator is cut in a constant ratio.’ And since the total difference of area between any two planes is made up of terms similar to (4), that is differing only with respect to the value of the constants, it follows that the xy sectional-area, in a solid whose mantle is a ‘ruled surface, 1s merely a quadratic function of the z codrdinate. Hence without restriction, the volume of such a solid is also expressed by the prismoidal formula, as shewn in § 1. 3. Skew, warped, or ruled quadric surfaces.—If the directors are dissimilar polygons whose sides are neither necessarily parallel nor equal in number, the prismoidal formula still applies, as the last section, § 2, demonstrates; and the middle-area may readily be found, provided the scheme of generating the ‘mantle’? be specified. If the generator-terminals move simultaneously with uniform velocities over any two sides S and S’ of the polygons, starting from the initial and reaching the terminal points of those sides at the same instant ; then if the sides are parallel a plane is generated, but if not, the ‘ruled surface’ formed is a ‘skew,’ ‘warped’ or ‘ruled quadric surface’; that is a surface upon which a straight line will lie wholly on the surface in two directions, and only in two direc- tions. From projection it is evident that the corresponding side of the middle-section is the straight-line S,n=4 (S+8’) if S and S’ are parallel,* and similarly in regard to the coordinates of the terminals, but without that restriction : that is, fit te (IIIS BOLE Vee d. (5). 1 In Fig. 1 let arcs be drawn trom the points A, A;, A’, and from B, Bj, B' with O as centre. It is evident that in the limit, the triangular areas on opposite sides of the curves, of which these arcs, the curves, and the radii form the boundaries, become equal, both approaching zero as B B’ approaches A A'; thus every elementary area is expressible by a quadratic function (4). 2 The ‘ruled surface’ bounding the solid between its terminal planes may be called its ‘ mantle.’ 3 Throughout this article ‘ warped’ means skew or plane-warped unless otherwise specified. A skew surface is one on which the successive positions of the generator do not intersect. 4 Added 21 Sept. This restriction was erroneously omitted in the paper as read. 132 G. H. KNIBBS. 4. Volumes of warped-surface solids.—The area of any polygon of m sides, expressed in terms of the coordinates of its angular points, is A= 425 (aya, = fen) Yelp eeeeeee (6); consequently the volume of a solid whose parallel end-planes, the perpendicular distance / apart, are polygons of the same number of sides, and whose mantle consists of warped surfaces, is:— Viaate 0 2h [ ct — a) (24% + yx) | DT (p41 — Wea) (2H c+ Yr) |} ee eeeceeeee (7) as may easily be seen by forming the area of the middle section. When a series of such solids are contiguous, so that the end planes are common to the adjoining solids and the distances between those planes are equal, this formula, (7), may be thus extended :— Put for brevity 9 Caen pete stan) 8 2267 (Bo yt bb pea) Bisso cc les (8) and so on: then omitting the suffixes since no confusion can arise, and omitting also the limits as they are obvious, we have Vnatel {2 [A2yty)]+=[(Xyt4y ty) +~. ELAR (YR 4 4 yb ty") +E [AMY +2 y™)] bo. (9) in which K LM are to be understood as accents merely: JV, is the total volume of the m solids. The initial and final terms are identical in form, and all interior terms are also identical with one another. This last expression reduces the scheme of computation to its simplest form, : its prismoidal character is apparent. 5. Solids of trapezoidal section with two warped surfaces.—In certain cases which present themselves practically for solution, the formula may be greatly simplified, In Fig. 2 let the heavy 7 Gieeen ar foe anal aaigeag Le lines denote the parallel end areas of aprismoidal figure, the sides AB=a, A’'B’=a’, CD=), and C’D'=0’' being parallel to one another. The surfaces AA’O’'C and BB’'D'D will be warped, APPLICATION AND DEVEOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 133 and the other two surfaces will be planes. Then, / denoting, as in § 4, the perpendicular distance between the parallel terminal planes, the volume will be . Vaxsl fc[2(a+6)+(a'+b')]+e[2(a' +b) +(a+d)]}...... (10) c and c’ being the rectangular distances between the parallel sides of the trapezoids. If a and a’ become zero, we have a solid whose end planes are triangles, with the bases 6 and 0’, parallel, and altitudes c and c’, the mantle of the solid consisting therefore of one plane and two warped surfaces ; its volume will be Vaprl {c(264+0')+0(20'+b)} 0. Cue 6. Solids of quadrilateral section with plane surfaces.—In earth- work computations, the data are to hand in a form which requires special consideration. In a roadway it is usual to make the bed, or formed surface of the road, a constant width, AB=w say, and to keep the sides AF, BG to a constant slope ; see Fig. 3. This slope is defined by the Fig. 3. cotangent (7) of the angle which the sides make with the horizontal bed; that is to say its grade is expressed as r horizontal units to 1 perpendicular. The side planes will consequently intersect one another at the distance CD=w/2r, beneath in the case of ‘ cuttings,’ or above in that of ‘embankments,’ the centre of the road-bed AB; and the area of the triangle ABD thus formed is w?/4r. The ‘centre height,’ 1 If the factor be made $l, the expression will give the volume of a solid whose parallel ends are rectangles with the sides 0, c and b'c'; as was shown by Hutton in 1770. : 7 134 G. H. KNIBBS. CE=c, is ordinarily determined by measurement,! so that if the ‘augmented centre height’ DE be denoted by C, we shall have Ww ; ar If the surface, fg Fig. 3, is level across, in which case all the sides are planes, and the area of any triangle {Dg is rC?, the volume of m longitudinally contiguous solids will be V 1 1 2 2 Saar k—m—1 3 Ww im By r C; + Cnt 2 2 Cy +2 O.Crya— 2 eeccccces (13) k=1 k=o the negative term /mw?/4r, being the volume of the prism, whose constant section is ABD, beneath or above the road-bed. 7. Solids of quadrilateral section with one warped surface.—lf in Fig. 3, the upper line fg instead of being horizontal, 2.¢., parallel to AB, makes an angle therewith whose cotangent is s; that is takes up some such position as FEG the slope of which is s horizontal units to 1 perpendicular; then the projections of EG, EF, on fg produced if necessary, are D=r0 ( ee ee 2s? s-—r s+r’ Seas ry and s being regarded as always positive: consequently the area of the triangle FDG is ACh ee (15): Ss eae that is to say s?/(s? - r?) =q, is the factor,? which multiplied into the area fDg, gives the area FDG. Since sis necessarily greater than 7, this factor g is generally greater, and can never be less than unity, that being the limit for s=a. In a figure like DFEGD, Fig. 3, the area will always be CD whether FE and EG be in the same straight line or not; or the 1 For example by ‘ levelling’ the profile of the ‘ centre-line’ of the road, and determining the levels for the formed road by a general consideration of the best grade, having regard to all relevant circumstances. 2 It is sometimes convenient to express this factor as a series rt hte mS +—=+etc. = 147° tan’e + r* tan* € 4 ete. Ss Ss € being the angle which the sloping line makes with the horizontal. APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 1:35 area included within the heavy lines, A=3(CD-~) bahia (16). Thus the volume of a solid, in which the parallel terminal planes are identical except as regards the position of the line FG, and in which therefore the FG surface only is warped, is - 2 2 V=ilr 12003 HG, Oy) OO mane 5 -i-> Be ch (17): For practical purposes gy may be taken from tables of double entry constructed with r and s as arguments. The formula for the volume of m contiguous solids will be of the same type as (13)§ 6. If q be regarded as unity, and two longitudinal sections be taken as forming one prismoid, (17) becomes simpler, and in general sufficiently accurate for mere estimates of volume from profile. 8. Solids of pentagonal section with two warped surfaces.— Reverting to (16) in the preceding section, it is immediately evident that the volume of m longitudinally contiguous solids, with two warped surfaces in each, viz., the FE and EG surfaces, is expressed by ee 21 ' CDAD er EOD. eA Doe DL. +. 2 12+. q (Dy +2 Dy) ~ 8m ns Ete (18) in which & has all values from 1 tom—1. The quantity /mw?/4r is the volume of the extended prism on ABD and lying under the whole of the m sections.” The algorithm in practical compu- tations is simple and convenient.’ 1 In earthwork such solids present themselves in what is called ‘ two- level ground,’ that is ground where the natural surface on a ‘cross-section’ may be regarded as of uniform slope on each side of the ‘centre-line.’ 2 If the base of the solid A BBA; isa parallelogram but not rectan- gular, r is not the measure of the slope of the side planes with reference to the base but only of their line of intersection with the parallel end planes ABGEF. 3 When FE and EG are not in the same straight line, the section is known as a ‘ three-level section.’ The data necessary for computation are the horizontal distances of FG=D and the vertical heights DE=C. ‘ ie ‘ . . C. . 136 G. H. KNIBBS. 2 Seis a) pedal ee section wae four or six warped surfaces. a ; m Another case of practical — importance is that illustra- ted by Fig. 4, shewing a section of the solid: AB, and the angles GAB, ABH are constant for each ter- minal polygon: this con- stancy of the angles how- ever is unessential, and the surfaces standing on GA, and on HB, may be also warped. It is essential, however, that the points E and F be vertically over A and B. Let as before AB=w, CD=c, AH=e, BF=e', and the sum of the projections of GE + ED =d, and of DE+FH=d,, so that d anda will be the total horizontal distance between the ‘centre line’ and the points where the sides of the road meet the natural surface. The area of a section is evidently A= (cwt+de+de)............ (19) consequently the volume of m longitudinally contiguous solids whose parallel faces are the rectangular distance J apart is!:— By writing these in columns I. and IV. as hereunder, column II. is obtained by multiplying the first and last D by 2, and the intermediate ones by 4. Diagonal addition gives the numerical values required in column III.: the products C}(D) can then be formed or taken out of suitable tables. For earthwork computations these may be constructed so as to give, not the products of C and D, but those products not only multiplied by -1, 1, but also reduced to any required unit, as for example cubic yards in English practice. See for example, Table XI., Theory and Practice of Surveying.—J. B. Johnson, 1887, pp. 672 - 681. I. ls i IV. D; 2D) 2.Ds + D4) Re DS 4D, D,+4D,+D, Xun Ds 4 De D, + 4D, Ds x Ce Dn 2Dn Ds Da 1 The case considered is for ‘five-level sections,’ where the ‘intermediate heights’ ¢ and e’ are taken over the sides of the road-bed: this simplifies the computation of the area, see (19). APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 137 Vn=is l w(3¢,+6¢e,+...+6¢,+...+6¢, 1+ 3 ¢,) + e,(2d, + d;) +... +6(dy_y + 4d + dy 1) +0 + m(Tn_1 + 2d,,) + Bee ed) +, tend yt 4d. + Git nt Oi (din y# 2d,,) |(20) in which the values of k are 1 to m—1. The scheme of numerical computation is obvious: the process cannot be further abbreviated." 10. Approximate estimate of volume from profile of centre-line of m longitudinally contiguous solids.—lf the centre-heights of the » end planes, of the form ABGF Fig. 3, be given, the values of r and w being constant, the error of treating two adjoining solids as a prismoidal figure of the length 2/ will in general be small, so that approximately, m being an even number, the total volume is V= hr (q,02+ 4,0} + 29,034 49,03 +... + guage Say in which q is unity if the surface is level across, see § 7, and C is formed as indicated in (12). 11. Solids whose longitudinal axes are curved.—Let OY be the line of intersection common to three planes OX, OP, OQ ; to one of which—OX say—the axis of a prism, whose right ‘section thereon is any closed curve whatsoever, is vertical; the prism being cut also by the other two planes, making the angles 6, and 0, with the plane YOX. Then the intercept between the PQ planes, of any line parallel to the axis of the prism, is baa, tal 0) — a SAY nec. 2 2c (22): OX and OY being the axes of the abscissee and ordinates, to the plane of which z is perpendicular, hence the volume of the portion of the prism intercepted between the P and Q planes is Vi fifipooe asl dep xa 2-45 (23), and since the area of the right section of the prism is A= (0G iy wie saicttyee (24) 1 See the suggestions in the footnote to the previous section, § 8, relat- ing to diagonal additions, etc. There is no advantage to be derived from continuing the lines GA, HB to J as in the previous case. The express- ion for the total area merely requires that c in (19) be replaced by C= DJ; see § 14 hereinafter. 138 G. H. KNIBBS. the mean height’ of the intercepted volume is V_ Sffududy ae: Sf dx dy The quantity into which the factor p is multiplied is obviously the l= pa = abscissa of the ‘centre of gravity’ of the right-section of the prism; and hence the volume of any prism with plane ends, is equal to the area of its right section, multiplied by a line perpendicular thereto, passing through its centre of gravity and intercepted by its terminal planes. Since the solid generated by any plane figure rotating about an axis lying wholly in its plane produced, is made up of the infinitesimal or elementary volumes pd A, in which p is the perpendicular distance between the rotation-axis and the centre of gravity of the plane area, and 6 is the angle of rotation, its volume is V=A f pdO=ApO=1,A...... 2.005 (26) that is to say, the volume of a solid so generated is equal to the area of the right-section multiplied by /,, the distance traversed by its centre of gravity: a theorem due to Pappus? and redis- covered over one thousand years later by Guldinus.* The rotation at a finite rate of the generating plane figure in its own plane about its centre of gravity, while it moves at a finite rate along the curve pdé, is immaterial, and does not modify the result with respect to the generated volume, unless the curve be such that the generator returns on itself, i.e. repasses over any portion of its path: this is evident since the infinitesimal element of the generated solid is always Apdd. 12. Solids whose longitudinal axes are tortuous curves.—Let the radius of the osculating circle, the circumference of which contains and is determined in position by three consecutive points 1 That is the height which multiplied by the area of the right section gives the volume. 2 «* Mathematical coliections.”—BPorn about 340 A.D. 3 « Centrobaryca,’’—Born 1577, died 1643. APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 139 on a tortyous .curve,' be denoted by p; and let the tangent to this circle atthe middle point be called the tangent to the curve. If then the centre of gravity of any plane figure, as generator, move along this curve in such a manner that the plane is continually perpendicular to the tangent of the curve as defined, the volume of the generated solid will be equal to the length of the curve intercepted between the terminal planes, multiplied by the area of the generator, provided that it does not return on itself; and that the centre of the osculating circle as defined, is always outside © the boundary of the generator.? For if ds denote an element of the curve, subtending at the centre of the osculating circle the angle d0, the volume will be (YP Ales) ONCE = Vi oroa dee cn nor (27). With reference to the curve itself, the plane generator may be regarded as not rotating, if the radius p of the osculating circle does not change its position with reference to the axes thereof: as in the preceding section however, the rotation of the generating plane does not affect the volume of the generated solid, since the relations expressed in (27) still hold good. 13. Solids of curved longitudinal section with circularly warped surfaces.—In Fig. 5, let O be the centre of the concentric arcs B,B,, C.C,, representing in plan a half-width of roadway as in 1 That is a curve of ‘double curvature’ or one that will not lie ina plane. Let Oo,01,0z2 be the centres of circles of which the very small arcs PPo,PoPi,P:iPe2 form part. Then if O: bein the plane POoPo the curve is a plane curve, but if not it is tortuous. Let the radius PoOo rotate through the angle d?, about the point P, ina plane perpendicular to that of the circle containing PP,, and then change its length to the radius of the curve PoP: by the point O, moving to O01: and similarly let Pi Pi rotate laterally dp,, and the point O,; extend to O2: these rotations may be made to measure the tortuosity: the curve 000102 contains the centres of the osculating circles as defined, and denoting the arcs when infinitesimal by dso, ds; etc., and the radii Oo Po, O1 Pi, ete.» by Po» P1 etc., we have Po d0 4 =dso,P1d9, =ds, etc. It is obvious that in a curved so developed the tangent at P, is common to the arcs dso, ds1 and so on: d@/ds measure the curvature, dd /ds the tortuosity. 2 This condition is necessary, otherwise negative volumes would have to be considered. 140 G. H. KNIBBS. Fig. 3, CB being }w: and let also the shaded figures CBG’E'C repre- sent the vertical sections on OC, and OC,, so that the point E is vertically over C, and similarly the point G vertically over the line OC. Let y, denote an ordinate on the line C,C, perpendicular to the plane C,B,: if then the angle C,OC, be denoted by 6, and dy,/d0@ be constant, the curved surface-line E, E, will be a spiral with a uniform rise. Let Fig. 5. also y, be similarly the ordinate of any point on the curved surface-line G,G,, measured from its projection on the CB plane; then if dy,/d@ be also constant, the surface-height at the centre line of a right section of the solid between the terminal BC EG planes (see Fig. 3), the ‘side height’ —or height where the uniformly sloping side of the road-cutting? meets the natural surface—and the horizontal projections of the lines EG or BG will together change uniformly,’ that is as a linear function of 6, or of z the distance on the curved centre line, C,C,. This is the analogue of the case already considered in § 7, § 8, etc.; and since if the radius of curvature become infinite the surface E,G,G,E, becomes an ordinary warped surface, we may call the similar surface in the case now considered, a ‘circularly warped surface.’ Such a solid as is here considered, viz., one whose longi- tudinal axis is curved, and the terminals of whose cross-sectional surface lines together change their height uniformly, may be taken as defining a class of solids which often present themselves in engineering practice, as in road and railways; and to find its volume it is necessary only to take account of the changing position of the centre of gravity of its right section as it moves along the longitudinal axis ; as will hereinafter be shewn. 1 As before a similar statement applies to embankments. 2 It is not essential that the slope (r) of the cutting should be constant but it must change uniformly with 0, 1.e., dr—!/d@ must be constant. APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 141] 14. Centre of gravity of various sections.—If the line perpen- dicular to the axis of rotation, by which a solid is generated, be taken as the axis of abscissz, we shall require only the abscissa of the centre of gravity of each section previously discussed. The triangular section shewn in Fig. 3 is first considered. Let the line FG be bisected in M; then since the centre of gravity of the triangle DFG is on the line DM, and at the point O so taken that DO=2°OM;; or what is the same thing, since the abscissa of O is. 2 that of M, reckoned from the axis DE; or still more generally since the codrdinates of O are the mean of those of the three points of the triangle : v=280 a gel Aaa (28) Si as may easily be verified, see (14). If the perpendicular distances d and a’ of F and G from the line DE be given, then whether FE and EG are in one line or not, the centre of gravity is one-third their difference: that is Die bene (Oe ee on.sieg (29) the identity of which with (28) is easily shewn. The expression for the centre of gravity of sections like that illustrated in Fig. 4 isnot sosimple. By equating the moments of the several triangles composing the figure about the y axis, parallel to CD, it will be seen that _1%e(gt+d)—deG+d) _, B(zt+d')- B(5+¢) Be Pte de’ de iP)...” A EH' and £ denoting the areas of the pairs of triangles standing on Lo ,..(30) the lines e’ and e respectively, and A the area of the whole figure. If in Fig. 4, the centre of gravity be required for the whole figure including the triangle ABJ, itis merely necessary to substitute C for c in formula (30), and A must include this triangular area. More generally, if A, A’ etc., be contiguous areas the abscissz of whose centres of gravity are «x, x’ etc. from any arbitrarily chosen axis, then the abscissa of the centre of gravity of the total area 2A is Died) % | ee ee tre (31) from which formule for particular cases may be readily deduced. le J ~ > D ’ , i hy 142 G. H. KNIBBS. 15. Prismoidal formula applicable to circularly warped solids,— Since the projections of EF, FG, change linearly in proceeding along the centre-line C,C,, see Fig. 3, not only in solids with warped surfaces, but also when the surfaces are circularly warped, as shewn in § 13, the relation 6, = 2 (Hy ~ #2) =. Shi g erases (32) always holds good, if x, denote the abscissa of the centre of gravity on the right section, distant z, measured curvilinearly on the centre-line C,C, Fig. 5, from section 0. The length / is the total distance to section 1, also measured on the curve; and x, and x, are the abscissee of the centres of gravity on the initial and terminal sections. Let & denote the constant radius of curvature of the centre-line C,C,, p, that of the centre of gravity of section A,; then since 2, may be written «+ Az, see (32), and remembering that the area of a circularly warped figure is a quadratic function of z, and that not p,d0 but Rd6 = dz; the volume of a solid, of the type illustrated in Fig. 5, will be V= f'A,p.d9= f | (A+ Bet O2*)(R+a+dz) | © =2{A'+ Bet Ce +02) ee ... (33) in which the constants have the following values, viz., A'=A(14+); B’=4 { en JT Hie) [3 C= 4 fees C (1+ 5)}; LO ACME R PE RS’ Cr D =) ee that is, the volume is a quartic, and the area of the right-section therefore a cubic function of 2,’ the length on the centre-line. Consequently, see § 1, the prismoidal formula is rigorously appli- cable. Remembering that A}\=(x, -«,)//=Az/l say, and that the limits of z are 0 and /, equation (33) may be written in full in the form yai{A (+4 4.22) 44B1(14 ae + F by Az + 41 (l45+2. S59} PETE (35) Il since A = dV/dz: or as is immediately obvious from (33) itself. | APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 143 x denoting the abscissa of the centre of gravity on the initial plane, i.e.for)=0, As may easily be verified, this expression is identical with ae A,(1+%)+44,(1 + 0) +A,(1+%) | dered ad (36) in which «,, is the abscissa of the centre of gravity of the ‘mid- section’; «x is positive when it is on that side of the centre line, or axis of reference, which is opposite the centre of rotation.! Since the triangle beneath the line AB, Fig. 3, is symmetrical, its | centre of gravity is in the line CD and its volume to be subtracted from (36) say, is dw?/4r. The general result above indicated is, that the prismoidal formula may be applied to circularly warped solids of triangular section; it being necessary only to multiply their end and middle areas by the ratio p/#, p being the radius of the centre of gravity, and £ of the ‘centre line,’ since p/# = 1+ a/R. By considering formule (31) and (36) it is evident that the latter is true for any ‘circularly warped solid’: for let the right section of such a solid be divided into a series of triangles, whose areas are A, A’ etc., the abscisse of the centre of gravity of these being x, x’ etc., measured from the curved axis, of radius R, of the solid ; then for any section we have from those formule a tS z | 4(1+ 5) = Ay1+5- at aoe (37) x, being the centre of gravity of the whole figure and >A its area. Consequently formula (35) may be applied to any ‘circularly warped solid’ of polygonal section. It is moreover obvious from (33) that the formula is true for any circular solid the centre of gravity of whose right section changes linearly with the z curved- coordinate continually perpendicular to the section. 16. Prismoidal formula not applicable with variable radius of curvature.—It may however be shown from (33) that if R be not constant, the prismoidal formula will not apply generally, since on 1 In earth-work computation it is more often negative than. positive in cuttings, since on hill sides the rising ground is usually on the same side as the centre of the curve. The values of z/R can be obtained from tables of double entry in practical calculation. a oo « ‘ : 144 . G. H. KNIBBS. integration the expression for the volume will be higher than a quartic function of z, or will contain logarithmic functions. For example, if in (33) & be a function of z,! that is if the centre-line be not a circular curve, let f= Ff, (1 +az%+ Bz? + ete.)............ (38); then remembering that &,d6=dz, the expression for the volume will become, including also a non-linear variation of the abscissa of the centre of gravity of the right-section v= fj (A + Bz + Cz?)| 14 a+ he + pez? t+ete. | R(1 + az oe + a ; Cam For the purposes of practical computation there is no special difficulty in integrating this for particular cases: in general it may be said that it will be convenient to expand the expression in the square brackets in the form of a convergent series, and thus to integrate only the terms of sensible magnitude. Thus the above expression can, in practical cases, always be put in the form 3 . l 1 = A+ Bz + Gz li == z + bz? + ete. ie Si! + ) are yee | dz...(40) in which with the above coéfficients a=(A—ax); b= {p—ad+t (a? — B) x} Cte... cenkee (41). The value of the integral is obvious. 17. Suggestions respecting the use of the preceding formule.— By the use of suitable tables, the calculation of which is very simple, and the nature of which has already been sufficiently indicated— see S$ 7, 8, 15 and footnotes—the applications of the preceding . formule can generally be made to involve nothing more than simple additions and subtractions; as will at once be evident to any computer : it is unnecessary to enter into details. In respect of corrections for the positions of the centre of gravity, formula (36) it may be observed that if «, and a, are approxim- ately equal, the factor 1 As it is for example in so-called ‘curves of adjustment’ in railway location. 4 CURRENT PAPERS. 145 may be applied to the whole volume, in lieu of multiplying each terminal and mid-section by its own correction factor, this will lead only to small errors, especially if the areas of those sections are approximately equal ; and similarly if those areas, 2.¢., A) and A, etc., are sensibly equal, the same proceeding may be followed even if x, and ~, differ greatly. By attention to matters of this kind the practical computer is often able greatly to abbreviate the process involved in rigorous formule, without introducing appre- ciable error, or vitiating the precision of the practical result. CURRENT PAPERS, No. 4. By H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. [With Plates V., VI.] [ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 4, 1899. | In a paper which I read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales in 1896 on this subject, I called attention to the fact that during the prevalence of strong north-west winds over the Indian Ocean and the main land of Australia, the arrival of current papers in the Australian Bight almost ceased, and I expressed the opinion that the north-west wind altered the direction of the drifting bottles, so that they passed to the south of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, instead of landing on Australia. Now I have to report in the absence of north-west winds and the prevalence of southerly winds, which has been marked during the year, current papers have come in unusually fast; often two per day, and on two occasions three have arrived in each day, and I have found it necessary to publish this list of one hundred and twenty-four current papers, after an interval from list No. 3 of twelve months; the intervals between the earlier lists being two years. J—Oct. 4, 1899, 146 H. C. RUSSELL. THE ‘‘ PERTHSHIRE.” The suggestion made in list No. 3, that papers thrown over on the east coast, especially south of Sydney, drifted first to the east in Tasman Sea, and then northwards until they reached the great current from the east which passes south of New Caledonia on to the Australasian coast is again supported by several current papers herein recorded, and also in a very remarkable way by the drift of the Perthshire after she was disabled in Tasman Sea ; her general direction for six hundred and forty miles was north- east by north, traversed in forty-seven days, and the average daily rate in that direction was 13:6 miles. ‘The effect of the wind causing deviations from the mean direction, seems to have balanced itself. Towards the end of the drift the Perthshire travelled | rapidly to the west as if she had got into the great oceanic current setting on to the coast of Australia. Three weeks before the Perthshire was picked up I expressed the opinion to a reporter that she would pass about midway between Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, a statement which is confirmed by the actual track, which shews that she passed that point between June Ist and 2nd. The daily positions of the Perthshire have been plotted on the chart and connected by lines. The positions as supplied by the Captain of the Perthshire will be found in tabular form at the end of this pamphlet. The direction of the drift of the Waikato is also in accordance with the tracks shewn by bottle papers, but I regret that my application for a copy of the log has not yet been granted. REMARKABLE RAPID DRIFT. Five current papers floated on the east coast of Australia: Nos. 384, 405, 406, 431, and 442, indicate by the rapidity of their drift to the north, the force of the southerly winds during the Winter and Spring of 1899. In the following list of rates, the usual assumption, viz., that current papers take a straight course, has been made :— No. 384 put over April 27, found Aug. 6; rate per day 9°3 miles 405 5; ~ April 17, 4 Anise a 5 Digan >P] CURRENT PAPERS. 147 No. 406 put over May 1, found June 17; rate per day 12:7 miles fe 4351 ap June 30; > ,,. Aug. 6; 2 ple hare ee es March 16, ;- duly 12; Ps 59, These papers have reversed the usual direction and gone faster to the north than the usual rate to the south, and it is shewn on the charts that papers have this year been carried much farther north along the Queensland coast than is usual. This is only a part of the general increased rate of drift which is here shewn. . For instance, two papers floated near Cape Horn came over to Australia at the rates of 12:2 and 9-5 miles respectively, with a mean rate of 10°85 miles, which is 197% greater than previous rates over this ocean. In the Indian Ocean the same feature is manifest in 1899, the average drift was 15:2 miles per day, which is 254% greater than that previously measured. Again, between | the Crozets, the Australian Bight and New Zealand, the average drift has been 7-9 miles, and in 1899 it has been 9-9 miles, or 257 greater than it was before. But looking at the greatly increased rate of drift in the Southern Ocean and Tasman Sea, there must I think have been a greater velocity of wind, and as a consequence much greater strains upon shipping, and probably some broken shafts may be traced to these conditions. I know the number of steamers is increasing fast and there is no doubt about the recent increased wind effects, but few know how much faster the pressure of wind increases than its velocity; thus, a wind blowing thirty miles per hour has a pressure of 44 ibs. on the square foot, and if the velocity is doubled the pressure is quadrupled, for a velocity of sixty miles per hour has a pressure of 18 ibs. on the square foot. Certain it is, that the amount of damage that has been done inland by winds—covering _ up fences, tanks, etc., unquestionably proves the severity of wind storms in 1899, compared with other years. It will be observed that the papers received during the past year number one hundred and twenty-four, and are more evenly distributed through the yeir than those in the two previous years 148 H. C. RUSSELL. (Current Papers, No. 3) during which one hundred and forty-four papers were received. NUMBER OF CURRENT PAPERS FOUND IN Eacu Monta. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Jan. | Feb. |March| April| May | June | July ea =] 6 g. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | jaa! P| eal Peal i | OS ee 2 fe ee ee ee At a SS ee ee eee 5 5 ee = y SS EES EEE a a ee ee ap : o.-5 io ie Se ow a ee | 00 90 ee ee O 2 ee Total 6 10 | 5 124 | a f | nS ee ee ee ee ee « aN Welt ot | ae Gee atoa gee mo It is noteworthy that the papers recorded in this pamphlet are more evenly distributed amongst the months than any previous papers that I have received, and one feature noted in list No. 3 is very marked in this list, and that is: the relatively small number of papers received in April and September. The fact suggests some connection with the Equinox, as if the stormy weather then prevalent disturbed the ordinary currents which bring the papers on shore. It would be very interesting to know if similar relation of the number of current papers with the months of the vear obtain in other parts of the world. It will be seen that there are some very interesting bottle tracks in the Atlantic Ocean, No. 425 made a run of 6,300 miles; the longest in the Atlantic that I have so far recorded, and the first from the direct steamer track from Cape Verde to the Cape. It is much to be desired that the captains of the regular steamers running in that track, would put current papers afloat regularly. This No. 425 is the first paper I have had from it. PERCENTAGE OF RETURNS. In list No. 38, I asked for the number of bottles that were put afloat from each vessel and the result is as follows: I hope CURRENT PAPERS. 149 more of those who are helping so much in this work will notify the number of bottles they put afloat. Ship. Number of Bottles. Received. S.S. Australasian nee 9 a Leal na Y S.S. Gulf of Bothnia ... 48 os 1=1 in 48 8.8. Clitus ii ae 4] > (== Mann 7 8.8. Hawkesbury ste 24 see 1=1 in 24 R.M.S. India ... ce 96 me ) J) tim, IMO S.S. Yarrawonga oe +: fi =a) in 4! If this is a fair guide as to the percentage of the current papers floated, which come back, I must confess that I am disappointed ; at the same time, it is perhaps, not surprising when we consider all the risks which a floating bottle runs on rock bound shores, on unknown and on uninhabited shores, or the number that sink from shells and vegetation that grow on them, or owing to imperfect corks. ICEBERG. Note.—Captain Brown of the ship “ Yallaroz.” from London to Melbourne, reported that on 17th August, 1899, when crossing the Australian Bight, and in Latitude 41° 30’ south, and Longitude 122° east, that is in line between the Leuwin and Tasmania, he saw an iceberg. 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UMOLY, ‘SEINGHYANO NVAXOO eé ooo ooo ce Gs Pl SOL S| 20 i 66°08 “Suy | ¢ THI |“ F 86) * Ze ser | f o3 ge |" ; es 66-9 Xe | 68F ser | 8-1 | go Ig | 98BoQ Wnog | 66-9 “WeL | “ OL ZT | “es se) FL IFT | Fe 8s | TopuvuU0H “drysuy AH |'" “" .aHdO. ‘Sa | 86-9 ‘eC | BEF Zep | 2.8 v0 | 6zz_ jmee0Q “qINog | G6-Zt AMT | ‘OT PET | “ST es] “8 FOT| “OST I" = ““togsenl ‘Ssny ‘gq “£)'" =", PIOUSIEON,, dryg | 86-08 “ydeg | LEF 986 | £0 | OSE | LZZT | 3SBOD YINOG | 66-08 THIdy | “* OF SBI /'SOS TS | OF EST | OSE |" TOISVIAL “WOSTIIOW “AL |" " _, SISOWIONT, “SS | $6-08 “990 | 98% GSP | F-9 eh6 Zo PyIoed WIION | 6613 “URE | “GCOoL IN PSTT) “FS gor | Aes |" - ee ae & 96-22 “Sny | cep FOREGO USGe | Rite | SP AL CROLL [ECO GCN AS OMe | O td ae s 86-23 “Suny | FSF sep] ZL | OTZ | 0G joytoeg ygnog | 86-01 “990 | “ OF ZZT |“ 988T| “SsszT | spel” “ fsurmUeH “Vd |" “"_,BIOMOTIT, ‘SW | 86-12 “Suny | Sey SEP | 0-9 COP Lm Nie e 66ST Alue | “ gg ost | ‘so F8| “Oo OFT | “OL 68 | o81004) TYOL “4S})"" “ amutuepl, “ | 66-22 Lady | 2ep Ish | GIL | 2eh | 28 | 98v0p ysem | 66-9 “Suny | “ ZI ESI | “F993 /H 93 Zor | “1 1g |opuvUAUTOT) meysMBD “HI *"" —_, modvueT , "S'S | 66-08 OUNL | 18h OS | $-6 | 299°6 | S00T [ARADO *yQNOg | G6-8T “TPIT | ‘GG OST | “2B |M EBFe | “OS TS |" Tose ‘sprepory “f° *"", wodry pro'T, digg | 96-81 eunr | Ogp 6ep | “| 98 ia lhe tmace ss “SL est | “ct 26) “19 ect | “ei 28 |" ‘ Ci bes 86°F °990 | 63> 82h} 9-4 | 18s | 63 | 98VoD yseq | 66-6 AIT | * ST SST | “PEGs | © se oct | “Oe Fe |" : ke ome oo 66-11 TCV | BaF 20h | 92 | Gees | 80S joYtoed Wynog | 66-8 UNL | “OSC | “OS OT) “SF OLT | OF PL |” = TOISBIAL TAMU AA AL “A |" , VUBSIOOT , onbavg | g6-f suy | Ley 93h | 9-1 | SSF | TIE | IS¥OD GINO | G6-9T “990 "A SPUFI |'SOL8S|A6 LET | ‘6298 | “ iv Weta a 86-6 99°C | 92h coh} F2 | 0089 | 063 [MOQOMURDY | 86-1 “9PM MO 26 INOSFS|MS IT | “CPT |” a Wee pees a 96-08 AINE | cep rep | GO | 8s 261 | 98800 9SeH | 66-F "990 |'H LE SPI | S9F LE} HO GFT | 'S9T 88 |" ss | se “ 66-18 “AVI | FOF Sab | Gb | O9FS | O22 | ..OTFTeP VN | 86-0T “390 |M GEod | “OPPS |A SEZT |“ 2 63)" ES Foe ae oe 96-2 “SRY | Sap eer] 0-9 | 8&l | 8% |uveoQuetpuy | 66-2 AeM| “o¢6d |NOS9 | “¢ BZ |N2TZ |" . Spa gectepitg rw 66-FL [lady | tap 12h | 6-T | 296 | S8I | 98809 GINOg | G6-9T AML] * OE ZEL | “0 FE) * FE GET | ‘OF SE |” . ‘Sane is 66-9 “IBN | 12F Ob | 9-¢ | 29F | §8 | 98VOD 9Srm | 66-8B eUNL | “Ce IST | Seg Ts | ‘1% FT |'S GE 6E |" - i Se - 66-9 Thy | 0&F 61% | GZ | 08 p |uvaueltainon| 668s “490 |'A STSt | “sr Ze ;a seat | “sede ¥ vere i 63°8T “4d | 61F 81> | 8-20] sg § |feuuryO sug | 66-SI “GA |M 2423 | “ssos) “ess | “8 0g |” . ree s 66701 “49a | STF LTh| %B | 198 | OIL |Avostq joseq | 66-€ AVN | Sb IN PEL4PIM IPS |N IS bP |” ‘ is Oe i. 66-ET “Wet | LTP 91F | 5:0 | GI QOL | 98800 TMOG | 66-LE “FBIM | ** SB OFT |S GS Zé | © OT OFT |S 0S Zé | e ae ae ; 83-2 99d | OTF GIP | F8 | S8E | 9F [Uepy JoFNH | 866 09d | “4 HH | “EsOl| “9ser | “AT ST | e SS ce 4 : 86°73 °490 | STF vin | 9s | gs OL |uvourssaitpa | 86-93 “990 | FIST | “8 26) 2oer | “8p Ze | _ ei a 86°ST “990 | FF sip| 04 | 9¢ 8 | ONWeV'N | 86-2ZT “390 |M0€8 |NOSOF|MOS6 |N 19 0F |" ; fee sig : 86-3 “390 | SIF Give) 26) | S06 | Zor | a 8o-1T “OC | “ OG SPL | “Gr se | “Ge Par | “Zoos | WN MTOISOOTOM "SD 'G"M | BIPUT, “SA | 86-9 “BNW | 21h TIp| 80 | $8h | 809 | 98800 YINOg | 66ST “ARC | “Oo OFT | ‘Os Ze | “ OF TET | “GEge | woploH "Ha |", eAUvUNTAL, “SW'a | 26-02 API | 11h oly | $8 | osc'h | Seg |uee0Q ‘YIMOS | G6-FZ “WEL | SI ELT |'S OF SF) A 0383 [Ss LF | Topuvumimoy *ojvs[oy *O “¢ |" Avg soymepy, “ | 26-6 “SnV | OTF GO| 28 | FILh | SIG | “ OFUBV | 66-73 IPI |M 0 96 |N 68 86|M ZF FZ |N FE6 | TO}SB ‘UapreMA “VW |" Feet. Depth. B35 I. TRIASSIC—Hawkesbury Series. ea eae Sandstone ... 1,000 1,000 Za Total thickness, 2;900 feet... ( Narrabeen Beds ... ". 1,900 2.900 (Newcastle Coal-measures ... ans La .. 1,200 4,100 = Dempsey Beds ... e bie a ae ... 2,000 6,100 = Tomago Coal- -measures z 700 «6, 300 eI ‘Upper Marine Beds above = U Mari Branxton Glacial Hor- 3 ae cue tal izon .. 8,500 10,300 S ee 5000 Spammcion Glacial eimanen a F ae veee Upper Marine Beds below 4 eet: Branxton Glacial Hor- 4 izon at a ... 1,500 11,800 Ea Greta Poptart ) oa ures Tota 25 thiekness 130 Sodcte Coal-measures ... 130 11,930 “.< II. PERMO- feet. Se CARBONI- (Marine Sandstones of Ra- BR FEROUS vensfield Series .. 1,000 12,930 as SYSTEM. < Shales with occasionally Eg Total thick- Foraminifera ... 800 18,730 Zed ness about Harpur’s Hill Conglomer- ge 13,800 feet. ates and tuffs—Sand- 28 stones ... se S06 270 14,000 as Lower Marine Marine Shales at .. 1,000 15,000 a3 Series. Total | Marine (2) Shales with er- = thickness 4 raticsand thin flows of 3 about 4,600 Andesiteand basic lava 900 15,900 be feet. Shales with occasional g erratics, perhaps stri- 8 ated 440 16,340 2 Sandstones with bands of 2 conglomerates passing 2 down into marine rip- S ple-marked flagey beds 60 16.400 C (\*Lochinvar Glacial Beds... 300 16,700 Ill. CARBONIFEROUS _.... oo ... Tufts, Sandstones and Shales with Oke and Calamites... : ... 1,700 160 ARTHUR DIESELD )RFF. Oy N. 8. WALES COPPER ORES CONTAINING IODINE. By ArtHuUR DIESELDORFF, M.E., Freiberg, Baden, Germany. (Communicated by A. J. BENSUSAN, Assoc. B.S.M., F.C.S.) [Received Oct.30. Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, Dec. 6, 1899. ] Last year Dr. W. Autenrieth of the Chemical Laboratory of the local University, found in a sample of cuprite from Cobar 0:14 per cent. of iodine; this specimen had been collected previously by the writer, and afresh collection of N. 8. Wales copper ores was sought. Samples were sent by Mr. W. B. Yates of Sydney, from thirteen different localities, each one was tested, and seven contained iodine. The analysis was made as follows :—Five or six grammes were fused in a platinum or nickel crucible with twenty to twenty-five grammes of chemically pure caustic soda, the mass extracted with water and filtered, five to ten grammos of chloroform added, the vessel cooled, and a few drops of nitrite of sodium added (NaNO,) solution acidified with sulphuric acid cooling it all the time. The iodine becoming free is absorbed by the chloroform, colouring it a reddish-pink. In colorimetric analysis by comparison with standard solutions gauged from 0:1 per cent. down to 0-001 per cent., the percentage of iodine taken up by the chloroform can be found. The standard solutions are prepared from iodide of sodium. In the above manner the following percentages of iodine were found, and the samples also assayed for silver :— No. 0. Cuprite with malachite in the cavities of the former, being the original specimen OUR yor cont, collected by the author in N.S. Wales 0:13 0-002 No. 1. Orefrom British Broken Hill Mine, mixture of chrysocolla, cerusite cuprite, quartz 0:022 0-028 N. S. WALES COPPER ORES CONTAINING IODINE. 161 No. 2. Earthy mixture of sulphide of copper, mala- chite, kaolinand gangue,from Balaclava, 0, por oeut. Broken Hill... wh ix sili 40:005 No. 3. Cuprite with little malachite, Cobar goa Os ilar 0.002 No. 6. Cuprite, mostly decomposed to malachite and azurite, Overflow Mine ... oO) OLOOG No. 8. Malachite with little sulphide of copper from Blayney mee = _ ee O00 O32 No. 9. Malachite inside cuprite, and native copper, Wiseman’s Creek ae ve a0 OLD 0:05 No. 10. Sulphide of copper with a little malachite and kaolinised felspar ... sic soe WOR OU2S The following six samples showed no iodine, and were not tested for silver :— No. 4. From Young Australia Mine, Cobar. No. 5. From Nymagee. No. 7. From New Mount Hope. No. 11. From Tuglow, Oberon. No. 12. From Bald Hill, Emmaville. No. 13. From Brunswick River. Samples of pure malachite from the Burra Burra Mine gave also negative results. lodine in such small quantities will not be payable, and there- fore is not of commercial interest, but most decidedly will offer room for further research by the geologist and mineralogist. Since Baumann (Professor of Chemistry, Freiberg) in 1886 found that the thyroid or scutiform gland (glandula thyrioidea) of human beings and most mammals contain iodine, if in a healthy and normal state, it is of physiological interest to find in nature new sources of it. It being somewhat inexplicable where this iodine comes from. As to the state in which the iodine exists in the ore, the writer is inclined to believe it to be cuprous iodide. The synthetic formula for silver iodide requires 467 of silver and 547 iodine, and will by comparison with above results not allow K—Dec. 6, 1899." 162 ARTHUR DIESELDORFF. the construction of silver iodide ; on the other hand the iodine in the malachite (Nos. 8 and 9) must be present as hydrated oxy- iodide of copper being the natural product of marshite, just as atacamite is of nantokite. There is no doubt whatever, but that small quantities of marshite* are present in the copper ores. The proof that it is distributed over much larger areas in New South Wales will be of interest, and leads the writer to hope that further material will be sent him from the colonies, especially for examination for the presence of bromine. The sample No. 8 from Blayney, contains in all probability bromine, but there was not enough of it to verify the tests. Should the percentage of iodine go higher, say up to 0:1% for large quantities of copper ores, it will doubtless be payable to extract it by sublimation in the flux. Iodine amounting to 0:1% means | kilo per ton, the present price is 30/- per kilo, while the cost of production would be 2/- to 3/-. Iodine is recovered as a by-product in the nitrate factories of Chili. The world’s consumption in 1896 was 300 tons, value £350,000, while Chili had in stock at the end of 1896, 900 tons. To keep the price up enormous quantities of iodine are allowed to go to waste annually. There is very little iodine now made from seaweed. 1 See Journal of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, xxv1., 1892, p. 328. DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 163 On THE DARWINIAS or PORT JACKSON anp THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., Curator, and H. G. Sir, F.c.s., Assist. Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney, [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1899. | SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. (a) Botany of Species. (6) Chemistry of the Oils. (c) Possibilities of Cultivation. (2) Borany OF SPECIES. The genus Darwinia was established by A. Rudge in 1817 in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, Vol. x1., 299, on speci- mens collected in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson by Robert Brown. It was named in honour of Erasmus Darwin, m.D., of Lichfield, author of several botanical works. The first species described was D. fascicularis. Although the genus was founded originally from eastern species it might almost be said to be purely West Australian, as over thirty species are recorded from that colony, whilst only one occurs in Queensland, two in South Australia, two from Victoria, and three from New South Wales. Darwinia fascicularis, Rudge (B. FI. 111. 13.) is a virgate shrub, varying in size in different localities, about five feet being the maximum heightin the coast form. The mountain variety rarely exceeds two feet. The leaves are slender, numerous and crowded, and vary in length from four to eight lines. The flowers although small are attractive, being sometimes all white, or pink and white. It occurs on sandy soil mostly, and covers many hundred acres of ground between Botany, La Perouse, and the coast. It has been found north of Manly and also on the Blue Mountains at King’s Tableland, Wentworth, and Lawson. 164 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. D. taxifolia, A. Cunn., (B. Fl. 111., 12) is a shrub of about the | same dimensions as D, fascicularis, Rudge, but is easily dis- tinguished in the field from that species by the shape of the leaves, their glaucous appearance, and its reddish branchlets. The flowers are not so attractive as those of D. fascicularis. Its habitat is almost identical with that of the previous species, although it has, however, been found as far south as Ghunnyenara, Mountain (W.B.) It differs botanically from D. fascicularts in its laterally flattened, triquetrous leaves. D. taxifolia, A. Cunn., var. grandiflora, Benth. As this variety is very constant throughout its range and it possesses distinctive characters from D. taxifolia, it is intended to raise it to specific rank when its chemical constituents have been investigated. It occurs in a very luxuriant form at Berowra. The leaves are much longer and broader than those of the other species, and the flowers are also more showy and larger than those of the other species. Histological Notes. A transverse section shows an absence of a midrib, but stomata are very numerous on the whole surface. The contour of a section much resembles a horse-shoe in shape, the flat edge corresponding to the upper surface of the leaf. Some difficulty was experienced in working upon a leaf-section measuring less than half a line in diameter. The very highest power objective was required to determine the form and structure of the various cells, etc. The palisade layers were found to be arranged with their long axes at right angles to the cuticle or surface, and of course containing chloroplastids. The layers were connected to a central body by spongy tissue, without chloroplastids. Vascular bundles were present, being distributed throughout the leaf structure. The oil glands appear to be numerously distributed throughout the leaf, being partly immersed in the cuticle and palisade layers. The oil globule is very minute and not easily detected in the cells. The cell is circular in shape with elongated cells forming the usual guard cells, oa DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 165 (6) CHEMISTRY OF THE OILS. The Essential Oil of Darwinia fascicularis. This oil was obtained by steam distillation on fresh material. When first distilled it is reddish-brown in colour, very mobile, with a somewhat strong odour, which when diffused is pleasant. The principal constituent of this oil is the important ester gerany]- acetate. When placed in a freezing mixture a small quantity of a stearoptene separates, but it is difficult to remove, and was not obtained in a separate condition. The specific gravity of the crude oil was 9154 at 19° ©. The colour was too dark to enable the rotation to be taken, but this colour being due to a constituent of an acid character is readily removed by agitating the oil with a very dilute solution of aqueous potash. The oil is then of a very light Jemon tint and the rotation in 100 mm. tube was 1:2” to the right. The yield of crude oil obtained by us from material collected under conditions that would obtain commercially, was :318 per cent., the mean of several distillations on a total of 1,280 pounds of leaves or terminal branchlets. The collections were made in the months of March, September, October, and November. The yield of oil obtainable during these portions of the year is about the same for each month, and the percentage of ester present in the oil is also about the same, with the exception that the Novem- ber oil was the richest in geranyl-acetate. The material was obtained from shrubs growing naturally at La Perouse in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. It was somewhat difficult to obtain the material without a predominance of woody stem; the shrubs, however, lend themselves very readily to clipping, and then grow more compact and bushy. It is to be expected, therefore, that in a state of cultivation (and of course no permanent success can be obtained without cultiva- tion) the yield of oil would be much greater, as a larger quantity of the leafy portion of the plant would be obtainable. That this is so is shown by the fact, that after our September collection we 166 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. obtained leaves from the same. bushes that had previously been clipped for distillation six months before. The oil obtained was the same in colour and constituents, but the yield was slightly greater, and with careful growing and clipping not less than ‘5 per cent. of oil would certainly be obtainable, as in one distillation we obtained -456 per cent. of oil and -436 per cent. in another. Of course the yield of oil depends upon the amount of leaves taken in proportion to the stem; the oil is obtained from the leaves of the plant, and as the leaves are very small, this is the more important. Six distillations on material when flowers were present gave a yield of oil equal to ‘31 per cent. as a mean, while five distillations in March, when the plant is not in flower, gave ‘314 per cent. as a mean yield of oil, so that the yield was actually greater when the plant is not in flower. We thus conclude that the yield of oil is practically the same throughout the whole year, and that it differs little in composition at any time, the average content of geranyl-acetate being about 60 per cent. The oil from the November distillation contained 65 per cent. of geranyl- acetate; this is the time of year when in the neighbourhood of Sydney the vegetation is most vigorous. These results in regard to the yield and composition of the oil of Darwinia fascicularis are the more important when taken in conjunction with the oil from D. taxzfolia, as this oil contains but just over five per cent. of an ethereal salt calculated as geranyl- acetate, and its value is poor when compared with the oil from D. fascicularis. When the crude oil of D. fascicularis was treated with boiling alcoholic potash to saponify the ester, and the regenerated oil distilled under atmospheric pressure, very erratic results were obtained, and it is evident that decomposition or rather alteration takes place under this treatment. Three distillations each of 100 cc. of the saponified oil under different treatment with boiling alcoholic potash gave results as follows :—In the first 54 per cent. distilled between 190° and 195° under ordinary pressure, and 28 per cent. between 225° and 260°. In the second only 3 per cent. came over DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 167 below 195° and only 9 per cent. below 205°. In the third only d per cent. distilled between 183° and 215°, and only three per cent. more below 220°; between 220° and 235° no less than 58 per cent. was obtained; this fraction was largely geraniol, its specific gravity was -8874 at 20°; it gave a solid compound with calcium chloride, it formed citral on oxidation, it had an odour of roses. It is thus evident that change had taken place during the process of saponification by the methods used, as these three determinations were made from different portions of the same sample of oil. On ascertaining these facts, attempts were made to remedy this, and it was subsequently found that saponification of the ester takes place readily in the cold, using a semi-normal alcoholic solution of potash, and that the saponification is practi- eally complete under three hours as will be seen from the following determinations: 19563 gram oil was added to 20 cc. semi-normal alcoholic potash and allowed to stand ten minutes at ordinary temperatures, it was then found that 4 cc. of potash solution had been absorbed ; saponification figure therefore was 57:1, equal to 20 per cent. of ester, calculated as C,,H,-OOC CH. 1-274 gram. oil in 20 cc. alcoholic potash and allowed to stand one hour at ordinary temperatures absorbed 7:3 cc. of potash solution, saponification figure 160°4 equal to 56:1 per cent. of ester. The regenerated oil had still a faint odour of the ester showing that saponification had net been complete. 1:35 gram oil in 20 cc. alcoholic: potash and allowed to stand three hours at ordinary temperatures absorbed 8:1 cc. potash solution, saponification figure 168 equal to 58:8 per cent of ester. On allowing a sample to stand sixteen hours no different results were obtained. From the results of saponification obtained by boiling with the alcoholic potash solution for half an hour, it appears that there is a small quantity of an ester present not decomposed in the cold. When distilling off the volatile acids an odour was detected indicating an acid other than acetic acid, 168 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. but it can only be present in minute quantity as will be seen from the result of the analysis of the silver salt obtained from the mixed volatile acids. A larger quantity of oil was then taken for saponification by semi-normal alcohclic potash at ordinary temperature and allowed to stand four hours; it was found at the end of that time that saponification was practically complete. The regenerated oil is yellowish in tint, specific gravity °898 at 20°, rotation 100 mm. tube + 0°75. It has a pleasant rose odour when diffused, and its freshness and fragrance are excellent. The objectionable odour detected when the ester is saponified by heat is missing, and it is thus seen to be unnecessary to apply heat to obtain separation of the alcohol. When this regenerated oil from the cold saponification was distilled under ordinary pressure (760 mm.) less than three per cent. distilled below 225°, between 225° and 235° 43 per cent. was obtained, and between 235° and 240° 26 per cent. distilled. The fraction (225 — 235°) had no rotation, its specific gravity was 890 at 15° C., and it was principally geraniol. The fraction 235 — 240° had a specific gravity ‘892 at 21° C. Some decomposition had taken place under atmospheric pressure, but when distilled | under reduced pressure about 60 per cent. of a fraction could be obtained, largely geraniol, as there are no terpenes or low boiling constituents to interfere. Itis thus apparent that when the ester is decomposed in the cold but little alteration, if any, of the alcohol takes place, but it cannot be boiled with alcoholic potash without undergoing alteration. It is also apparent that the alteration is in the direction of the formation of lower boiling constituents. We have obtained in four different directions during this research, a product boiling at 183—185° (uncor.) and having a very low specific gravity ‘836 at 15°. It has no rotation when obtained under the most favourable conditions. It is worthy of remark that this product obtained by four different routes has DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR. ESSENTIAL OILS. 169 the same boiling point in all; three gave practically the same specific gravity, while the fourth was alittle higher. It is certain that it is a product of alteration formed when the crude oil is saponified by boiling with alcoholic potash under ordinary atmos- pheric pressure, as it does not exist in the oil obtained by cold saponification. When gently oxidised citral was obtained, and on further oxidation a viscid brown substance having an aromatic odour. On boiling with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate a determination showed 24:1 per cent. of ester to have been formed. Jt should not now be difficult to obtain it in a pure condition, and further investigation will be made concerning it. In a paper by Bertram and Gildmeister' it is stated that the essential oils of the pelargoniums (the French, African, and ‘Reunion geranium oils) contain a considerable proportion of geraniol which boils at 225 -- 230°, but there is also present a second alcohol which has not yet been obtained in a pure condition, and whose properties and composition have in consequence not been determined. This second alcohol, they say, appears to be differentiated from geraniol by its lower boiling point, its lower specific gravity and its behaviour towards hydrogen chloride and towards calcium chloride with which it forms no solid compound. Possibly this may be also a product of alteration. Barbier” obtained an alcohol by heating geraniol with alcoholic | potash, this he stated to be dimethylheptenol C,H,,O. This being questioned, he supports his statement in a paper® by publishing results of a synthetical dimethylheptenol. Tiemann‘ shows that when geraniol is heated with alcoholic potash the product is methylheptenol C,H,,O. This boils about 173° under atmospheric pressure. It thus appears that different bodies are obtainable from geraniol or geraniol” bearing compounds when these are heated with alcoholic potash under different conditions. 1J. Pr. Chem. 1896 [2] 53, 225-237—Abstract Journ. Chem. Soc., June 1896, 381. 2 Compt. recd. 126, 1423. 3 Compt. rend. 128,110. +4 Ber. 31, 2989. 170 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. The crude oil of D. fascicularis contains free alcohol, probably geraniol; as practically no constituent was present boiling below 222°. By referring to Schimmel & Co’s list of known constituents of essential oils, Report, April, 1897, we find that geraniol occurs in the oil from the following :— Fresh flowers N.O. Rosaceze (Roses). Herb N.O. Geraniacez (Pelargonium sp.) Grass N.O. Graminez (Andropogon sp.) Flowers N.O. Rutacez (Citrus sp.) Flowers N.O. Anonacez (Cananga sp.) Wood N.O. Burseracez (Bursera sp.) To this list may now be added; Shrub N.O. Myrtacez (Dar- winila sp.) With the doubtful exception of the oil from Lucalyptus citrio- dora this appears to be the first time that geraniol has been found occurring in plants. belonging to the Myrtacez, although this genus consists so largely of oil-yielding plants. Distillation of the orrginal orl. 100 ce. of the crude oil of D. fascicularis was distilled under atmospheric pressure, only a few drops came over below 170°, principally water ; the thermometer then rises rapidly with an occasional drop to 215°, between 215° and 222° 5 per cent. distilled, three fractions were then obtained : 1. 222° to 230° obtained 32 per cent. 2. 230 ,, 240 5 32 if 3. 240 ,, 270 Ss 22 5 Specific gravity first fraction °897 at 20° PP second ,, 906 ,, 20° 5; third, ,. “9logiecOs Another distillation gave— 222° to 230° = 34 per cent. 230 ,, 235 47 ie 235 ,, 240 = 67 DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 171 This was-taken-as one fraction, it had no rotation, its specific gravity at 18° = -9036. Some decomposition had taken place, the odour of acetic acid being most marked, so that the oil cannot be distilled under atmospheric pressure without alteration. The distillation results show an entire absence of terpenes and other constituents boiling ata low temperature, and the same results were also secured from the oil obtained by cold saponification. When the fraction (222 — 240°) was saponified by alcoholic potash in the cold and the oil treated with dry calcium chloride, a solid mass was obtained; this was ground up with ether and dried at pump as much as possible, then pressed between drying paper until dry. On decomposing this with water 30 cc. of a slightly coloured oil was obtained ; this had a fine rose odour, specific gravity at 16° = -886, on distillation the greater portion distilled between 228 - 230° was practically colourless, had no rotation, and formed citral on oxidation. These characters indicate geraniol. It is also readily soluble to a clear solution in 55 per cent. alcohol. The crude oil of D. fascicularis does not form a clear solution with two volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol, but does so with 90 per cent. alcohol. Saponification of the Ester. Several determinations of the percentage of ester in the crude oil of D. fascicularis from several distillations obtained at different times, gave 57°05 per cent. as the least, and 65:1 per cent. as the greatest; this was from oil distilled in November. When the dark colour was removed by shaking with a very dilute solution of aqueous potash, the determination on the same sample of oil showed a diminution of 1:4 per cent. or 60°9 reduced to 58:5 per cent. A determination on the fraction 222 — 240° obtained on dis- tilling the crude oil gave 73:1 per cent. of ester. The method adopted in these determinations was to weigh the oil into a flask, add 20 ce. of correctly standardised alcoholic potash (semi-normal) and heat to boiling on the water bath for half an hour with air condenser. It was then cooled, water added, also a few drops of 172 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. phenolphthalein and the solution titrated with semi-normal sulphuric acid. The weight of potash used in the saponification was then calculated, the saponification figure determined, then saponification figure x 19:6 56 1. 2°6468 gram required ‘4312 gram potash S.F. 163 =57-05 per cent. ester. . 16502 gram required :2688 gram potash S.F. 163 =57:05 per cent. ester. 3. 1:8938 gram required °3248 gram potash S.F. 171°5 =60 per cent. ester. 4. 1:8769 gram required :3248 gram potash — §.F. =170-5=59-7 per cent. ester. 5. 1:777 gram required ‘3108 gram potash S.F. =174=60°9 per cent. ester. 6. 1:7649 gram required *3276 gram potash S.F. =185°6 =64°9 per cent. ester. 7. 1°8509 gram required :3444 gram potash S.F. =186=65-1 per cent. ester. (Nos. 6 and 7 represent the November oil.) = per centage of ester. Lo Determination of the free Alcohol. 10 cc. of the November oil containing 65 per cent. of geranyl acetate was mixed with an equal volume of acetic anhydride and a little anhydrous sodium acetate ; this was boiled for three hours, water was then added and the whole again heated, the oil was separated, washed and dried. 13558 gram of this oil required °3164 gram potash 8.F. = 233°4 = 81-68 per cent. ester. We thus obtain 16°68 per cent. increase of ester, which calculated from C,,H,,OOCCH, represents 13°11 per cent. of free alcohol. From the distillation figures this alcohol is probably geraniol. Oxidation of the alcohol to aldehyde. The fraction 222 — 240° was saponified and the oil distilled ; the fraction 227 — 230° was oxidised by bichromate of potassium, DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSON AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 173 using Beckmann’s method. Oxidation takes place readily, giving an oil witha strong lemon odour. The separated oil was agitated with a solution of acid sodium sulphite, the crystalline mass separated, purified, and decomposed by sodium carbonate. The aldehyde thus obtained had a strong odour of lemons. It was treated with pyrotartaric acid in absolute alcohol with @-naphthy- lamine, also dissolved in absolute alcohol (Doebner’s reaction). A lemon-yellow crystalline substance was obtained on cooling, melt- ing at 197 — 198° and is the alcyl-6-naphtocinchoninic acid charac- teristic of citral. The same aldehyde was also obtained when the alcohol from the calcium chloride compound was oxidised. Citral is therefore, the aldehyde obtained on oxidising the alcohol of the ester in the oil of D. fascicularis. Determination of the acid. The liquid obtained after saponification and separation of the oil was made alkaline and evaporated nearly to dryness, this was then acidified with sulphuric acid, the sulphate of potassium separated and the liquid distilled. The volatile acid obtained in the distillate was almost entirely acetic acid, although the odour indicated the presence of a small quantity of another volatile acid. The silver salt was obtained, purified, and the molecular value of the acid determined. 0:2796 gram of the silver salt gave on ignition 0:1789 gram silver = 63°98 per cent.; CH,COOAg requires 64:6 per cent. silver. The molecular value also shows 61°6 for the acid instead of 60 acetic acid. The probable presence of a small quantity of an acid with a higher molecular value is thus indicated. The reactions were those of acetic acid, no formic acid could be detected. The distillate was neutralised, evaporated down and allowed to crystallise ; a good quantity of crystallised acetate of sodium was obtained showing some well developed monoclinic crystals. The principal acid of this ester is, therefore, acetic acid. 1 Ber. 27, 352. 174 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. Essential ol of Darwinia taxrfolia. This oil was distilled from fresh material. It differs largely from the oil of D. fascicularis in all its characters. The specific gravity of the crude oil was ‘8734 at 21° C. and its rotation in 100 mm. tube was 6°5° to the left. | When distilled 4 per cent. came over below 165°, and by 175° 54 per cent. had been obtained, by 185° 65 per cent. had distilled. From 165 — 185° was considered as first fraction. Second fraction 185 — 230° =6 per cent. Third fraction 230 — 255° = 16 per cent. Specific gravity, first fraction = -8545 at 21° C. nr third fraction = -9062 re Rotation 100 mm. tube, first fraction — 10°6 he i », third fraction + 4:7 The lower boiling portion of the first fraction consisted largely of levopinene shown by its boiling point and the formation of its nitrosochloride melting point 103°. Neither phellandrene nor cineol could be detected. The ester determination gave results as follows :—1°3381 gram crude oil required ‘0196 gram potash S.F. = 14:5 = 5 per cent ester. 1:2176 gram required ‘0196 gram potash S.F. = 16=5'6 per cent. ester. An ester determination on the third faction gave the following result :— 1:5175 gram required ‘0532 gram potash | S.F. 35 = 12:3 per cent. ester. Determination of free alcohol. 10 ce. of the crude oil was boiled three hours with an equal volume of acetic anhydride and a little anhydrous sodium acetate. The separated oil was washed and dried : 1:7198 gram required ‘0756 gram potash S.F. = 44=15-4 per cent. ester. The oil thus contains some free alcohol, but it is doubtful if it be geraniol, as the regenerated oil, after saponification of the ester had a marked odour of linalool. If the alcohol be considered as DARWINIAS OF PORT JACKSUN AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 175 having a formula C,,H,,O there was 7‘9 per cent. of alcohol present in the free condition in this oil. The bromide obtained from the first fraction was liquid. The commercial prospects of this oil, in comparison with that from D. fascicularis, being poor, no further investigation of its remaining constituents was undertaken. The yield of oil from D. taxifolia is almost identical with that from D. fascicularis, being °313 per cent. The crude oil is much lighter in colour than that from D. fascicularis. The crude oil did not form a clear solution with two volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. (c) PossIBILITIES OF CULTIVATION. As these species do not present any very marked horticultural attractions they have received little or no attention from gardeners and are therefore only known in the wild state, and so very little data can be given under this heading. However, as D. fascicularis has such good commercial possibilities it is hoped that experiments will be taken up at once in regard to it. The seeds are exceedingly small and apparently difficult to obtain, but they must be numerous, and with ordinary care and application they could be easily collected. From a few experi- ments made with plants of D. fascicularis, this species survives transplanting very well. This species is peculiar to the Hawkes- bury Sandstone country, so that it will grow in very poor soil, and is evidently able to survive the severest drought, as during the last four years the rainfall has been almost the lowest on record, and yet the shrubs at La Perouse have been in no way affected_by it. Like most of our indigenous plants it is an evergreen, so that its leaves could be distilled irrespective of the season. Plants at La Perouse from which all our material was obtained are all in vigorous health, and have sent forth new growth soon after clipping. In no instance were the trees cut down or uprooted, but only the terminal branchlets cut off. | a 176 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. In its natural state it has a tendency to run very much to wood, but this is probably owing to the plants growing so very close together—in many cases almost forming an impenetrable bush. Under cultivation and with the trees planted some distance apart this defect should be removed, and bushy foliaceous plants pro- duced. The results of the experiments in transplanting now being carried out at this Museum will be available to the general public at any time. We wish to express our acknowledgements to Miss 8S. Hynes, B.a. for the locality of Darwinia taxifolia at Randwick, to Mr. Connelly for photographs of the plants, and to Mr. H. Oakes (one of the Technical College Students in organic chemistry) who gave up much time to assist. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LEaF oF Darwinia fascicularis, A. Rudge (Highly magnified.) 1—Lysigenous oil gland with oil globules. 2—Palisade-layers. 3— Spongy tissue. 4—Epidermis of Leaf. 5—Vascular bundles. ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET L., 1899 (SWIFT). 177 ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899 (SWIFT). By C. J. MERFIELD, F.R.A.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1899.] Introduction.—This comet was discovered by Prof. Lewis Swift of the Lowe Observatory, on the date 1899 March 3, in the con- stellation Eridanus. The comet was described as bright and visible to the naked eye, and having a short tail. During the second week of March this apparition appeared to the writer asa nebulous object of about the 6th magnitude. During March the comet was well placed in the western sky for southern observers, and Mr. John Tebbutt, F.R.A.s., was successful in obtaining twenty-six differential measures, between the dates 1899 March 7, 1899 March 31, at his private observatory Windsor, New South Wales. Many northern observers obtained measures also, but the comet was not so well placed for them during this period of visibility. Throughout the month of April the comet was in proximity to the sun so that observations could not be obtained. The comet arrived at perihelion during mid-day on April 13, and about May 5 it was plainly visible to the naked eye asa morning object in the eastern sky, its brightness having consider- ably increased, and was well placed for observatories of both latitudes. From this date forward until the end of July it has been well observed by most of the leading observatories. For the latitudes of the southern half of Australia the comet was just below the horizon from May 27 to June 2, but Mr. Tebbutt again commenced observing on June 28, and concluded a fine series of observations on the evening of July 13. Towards the end of June the comet still remained well defined as seen in large telescopes, and permitted accurate observations to be made, but its distance from the earth was increasing rapidly - and was out of reach of ordinary telescopes during August. L—Dec. 6, 1899. 178 C. J. MERFIELD. Signor Cerulli succeeded in making several comparisons on the date 1899 July 31, which is one of the latest observations published. The comet was, on this date, described by.the observer as a faint nebula having a nucleus of about the 14th magnitude. Physical Aspects.'—During 1899 March, the comet appeared as a nebulous mass some four or five minutes of arc in diameter, with a central condensation. After perihelion passage however, some interesting changes were noticeable. Mr. Perrine of the Lick Observatory, saw the nucleus double and obtained measures of their distance apart, during the period 1899 May 11 to May 14 the distance between the components increased from 12” to 18”. This increasing distance would appear to be partly due to an actual separation of the two portions, but the writer has not examined the question critically. Prof. Barnard of the Yerkes Observatory also observed this aspect of the comet on May 20, and obtained several measures until May 23, the distance between the com- ponents increasing during this interval from 29 to 38 seconds of arc. A photograph taken by this observer shews a slender tail some eight degrees in length. On June 5th a considerable increase in brightness took place, which was observed by many. Prof. Hartwig says, that there was no doubt that the comet had increased in brightness about this date, the magnitude of the nucleus being about 9°5, while the comet as a whole being of the 5th magnitude, the diameter of the coma being some 12 minutes of arc. Dr. Schorr also says that on the same date the nucleus appeared to be excen- trically placed, the magnitude being 6:5, whole comet 5th magnitude, the diameter being 9 minutes of arc. Part of this increased brightness may have been due to some physical change in the mass, but it may be mentioned that the comet was nearest to the earth on the date 1899 May 29, and the distance was not increas- 1 Astronomische Nachrichten, 3572-74-86. Astronomical Journal, 464. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 1899 August. Bulletin de la Société Astronomique de France 1899. Comptes Rendus, 1899. ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899 (SWIFT). 179 ing rapidly, also that the earth was approaching the line of sight between the sun and comet; these facts combined would possibly have some effect on the brightness. The publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contain some beautiful photographs of this comet, taken at the Lick Observatory by Messrs. Coddington and Palmer. These photographs seem to indicate that on May 6th the tail consisted of one main branch some seven degrees in length with side streamers, on the following day the streamers, also the tail, had a a twisted appearance. A sharp bend in the main tail was noticed on May 9th and a day later it would appear to have been longest, being some nine degrees in extent. On May 19th the tail had a curious unsymmetrical aspect, as if one side had been destroyed. “On all the dates, the axis of the main tail pointed nearly away from the sun, the greatest observed deviation being about three degrees. In the same publications Mr. Perrine gives further details of the curious separation of the two portions and their subsequent recession from one another. He also gives some observations made to examine whether the refraction produced by the comet appreciably altered the positions of the stars over which it passed; the result of his inquiry is negative. Orbit Elements.—Preparatory to the calculation here given approximate orbit elements were deduced from a combination of Mr. Tebbutt’s observations of March, these were kindly sent in manuscript, but now published, A.N. 3579. The usual formule for the determination of the orbit elements of a celestial body from three positions being employed ; the result of this calculation will be found in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Band 149, No. 3575. The foilowing remark was made by the computer, that “the observations were not represented by a parabola, and that the ratio of the residuals indicated some alteration to the eccen- tricity.” Prof. Kreutzin a footnote says, ‘Die aus einer grisseren ZLwischenzeit abgeleiteten Hlemente von Dr. Stichtenoth in Nr 3567 ergeben keine Abweichung von der Parabel 180 ; C. J, MERFIELD. It will be seen from the table of “ Residuals for the Equations _ of Condition” that Dr. Stichtenoth’s elements represent the observations during the period of the extreme places used in his calculation March 4 to May 5 fairly well, but on the date 1899 May 26, the residuals amount to +13:2 in right ascension and —118” in declination and increased to + 21-7 in right ascension on June 12. The elements II. by Dr. Stichtenoth are however somewhat better than elements I., so that they have been adopted as the assumed elements for correction. Having computed an ephemeris from elements I., for observer's purposes, it was not thought necessary to form a new ephemeris, this was therefore adopted for comparing the observations. Previous to this calculation, orbit elements! were deduced from five normals and with satisfactory results, these were forwarded to Prof. Kreutz. With the information gained it was thought advisable to increase the number of equations of condition, and also introduce other observations into the calculation of the normals, these observations becoming available to the writer just prior to this calculation. This final investigation the author has much pleasure in presenting to this Society. The results obtained are on the assumption of undisturbed motion ; the per- turbations produced by the earth as well as those by the inner planets will be small, and will not affect the results materially. CALCULATION OF THE ORBIT ELEMENTS. Elements I. (Merfield. )? T = 1899 April 12:98324 G.M.T. wo = 8 43 48°8 & = 24 59 41-4 +1899 t = 146 15 35°5 Log ¢=9°5138016 Equation for Co- ordinates. " oe [9:9876979] r sin (v + 7 32 24°76). y= [es 9962487 | rsin (v + 165 42 49-87). a [9:4292867 | rsin(v + 47 28 20-21). 1 Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3602. 2 Ibid., No. 3575. ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899, (SWIFT). 18] Elements II, (Dr. Stichtenoth. )' T = 1899 April 12:97774 G.M.T. @u— i Onl: 70 & = 24 58 15°10 bt 1 = 146 16 8-50 | Log g = 9:5137940 gq = 0°326432930 Equations for Co-ordinates. = [9°9877266] r sin (v + 17 31 14-16). [9:9962519] vr sin (v + 165 41 50-06). = [9°4288656|rsin(v + 47 26 12°86). eS 8 I Observations.—The observations used in forming the definitive positions of the comet ; have been obtained from the pages of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Comptes kendus, and the Astronomical Journal, but in several cases they have been communicated in manuscript previous to publication. As most of the observations used are comparisons with stars, the true positions of the comet depend in a great measure upon the accuracy of the adopted co-ordinates of these comparison stars. Before deciding the co-ordinates of the comet, the star places have been investigated, and to several, proper motion has been applied; they were also reduced to the A.G. system, the quantities for this purpose being interpolated from the tables of Professor Auwers, A.N. 3195 — 96, 3413 — 14. The reduction of the mean places of the stars to apparent has been made by the usual formule, adopting the quantities of the Nautical Almanac. In finding the parallax of the comet in right ascension and declination the value 8-°’80 has been used for the equatorial horizontal parallax of the sun. The following table contains the results of the comparison of the observations with the ephemeris ; also the weights adopted in forming the normals, these depend on the number of comparisons made and combined to form a completed observation ; in a few instances the number of comparisons has not been given by the observer, in these cases the computer has used his discretion. 1 Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3567. 77 182 C. J. MERFIELD. TABLE OF RESIDUALS. = Residual : Residual } 5 Observatory. Date 1899. ax Wereret 6 Weight S, o-Cc P o-c¢ P d. Ss. ” Lick aan ...| March 463 | + 0°54] 08 +06}; 08 Algiers ... an % 530 | +054) 08 +02] 06 Algiers ... eos) ese 531 | + 0-72 | 08 ~- 03.1506 Algiers ... 506 ” 5°32 | +012 | 06 -30| 08 Lick a 9 5°64 | +027 | O09 + OF | 0:8 Rome College ...) 5; 6:25 | + 0:84 | 0-9 — 54] 03 Heidelberg ....|_—s55 6:28 |[+ 1:88]} 0:0 -28 | @5 _ | Heidelberg ...|_—s5s 6°28 ;[+ 1:90]| 0:0 = 30 - | Arcetri ... ats 9 6:28 | + 0°46 08 Be | 0°4 Ss Arcetri ... a a 6:28 | + 0:32 0:8 VO 0:4 = | Strasburg Sele ee 6°28 | + 0:33] °2'0 (i= she7eSe een & | Munich ... . 93 6-28 | + 0-49 | 1-0. j| + DEO jas 4 | Bamberg se 33 6:28 | + 0°37 | 0:4 || =o. Besancon “ool, 28 62290) 10:25 5 | 2 + O12 seg Cape eae a a 632 | +0538 | 05 +83 | 05 Licks }- ta UNE ay 664 | +041] 08 || +34] 08 Windsor... Am: 55 6:90 | +016] 07 + OG Windsor... - is 6:93 | +012] 06 -09| 06 Windsor... ee 6:93 | - 0:06 | 06 -01]| 06 Padova ... cae y 7°29 | + 0-40 0:5 + 66 0°5 Windsor... Leh: p FOF 0 10 ele? + (9-25 eal d. s. cs Windsor .. .... March 14°90 | — 0°49 1:0 + 6:9 1:0 Rome College ...| 5, 15°26 | — 0:22 | 0:9 +25 | 03 Padova 580 O00 ” 15:27 = Ordil: 1:0 = Ow 1:0 Besangon Ae s 15°28 | - 055 | O-9 — 25 | 06 Munich ... i nA 15:28 | - 0°65 15 — 0°4 0:5 Padova ... oe a 15:29 | — 0:34 0°6 +09 0'6 Nice aa ae a 15:29) == 0:50) 1:5 ap LR 1:5 Arcetri ... vee 50 15:29" -=20:33 1°6 Fae 08 Windsor... Me os 15:90 | — 0:86 1:0 + 4-0 1:0 = Munich ... oes 8 16°27 — 0°54 1:8 —- 02 | 0°6 rt | Padova ... rey a 16°28 | — 0°35 1:0 + 44s leg 4 | Besangon aes 56 16°28 | + 0:07 | 0-9 +10] 06 s | Nice sae sa ” 16:29 | — 0:92 1°5 = Sie 15 B | Arcetri =... ...| 4 16°29 | + 0-49-16) |) a Spies Z | Toulouse ee - 16:31) 0:77 “|p2056 = 5:3 05s Bethlehem we a 16:50 | — 0:14 1:0 = 2 10 Rome College ...| 5, 17-26)| — 0°70) 36:9 = 2:5.\\ aes Padova ... nae a 17:27 | — 0°60 1:0 + 48 1:0 Besancon cea 50 17:28 | — 0°73 | 0-9 || [+160] Oe Arcetri ... a 5 17°28 | + 0°34 16 + 2 Os Geneve ... nee is, 17°28 | — 0°46 0°4 +123 0:3 Nice... eel op 2729 | = 0°72 |) 1°5e eee eters Toulouse ae es 17°30 | + O61 OHS — 0:6 jh dee Algiers ... Se a Isl OA 0:8 + 7-7 0:8 Algiers ... Se a 17:32, aeeOulal 1:0 + 85 1:0 Bethlehem iis 3 17°51 |) .=0'78 1:0 —- 05 1:0 ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET L, 1899, (SWIFT). 183 TABLE OF RESIDUALS—continued. Reside | eesti Observatory. Date 1899. a Weight 6 Weight o-c¢ P ae P Normals. d. Ss. Bamberg ...| March 25°28 0:00 Geneve ... a BS 25°29 | — 0°40 Windsor... Res a 25°88 | — 1°18 Geneve ... We: v 27°29 | = 1°73 Windsor... ue a 27°87 | — 1°46 Geneve ... we ~ 2828 | — 0:92 Windsor... as ef 8 28:87% |) =) 1-32 Windsor... Aes MF 28°87 | — 1°15 Windsor... at a8 29°86 | — 0°83 Windsor... ae a 30 86 | -— 1:07 Normat III. AWIBRBEP WHO + oe — ee Se er (=) IN | bo OU d. s Hamburg ale May 5:04 8 1\.= Al Hamburg ase a Dione) =. Utrecht p00 500 99 5:57 =, Hamburg a % 558 | - 1 J Normat LY. Hamburg Ame op 5:58 | — d. Ss. Greenwich ...| May 25°46 | +13°88|/ 1:0 || -184°4 Geneve sieve 506 oy) 26°38 + 17°30 2°4 = 187°5 Geneve ... af » 26°41 | +1745) 2:4 || —186°8 Greenwich ae epee Wet l787 | 1-0 —186°4 Geneve ... = Pe aS Tae eet Sey oes| | = S025 NorMAL V. bo o I Hw © s ~J bo j=) Lyons... BS ss | 849 + 35:66 Geneve ... 5 » 987 | + 8454 Greenwich ae » 942 | + 34°68 Lyons ... sa ed Ose + 34°72 Lyons ... Len » 1040 | + 3288 Lyons... sid » 10:42 | + 33°36 Greenwich ae » 10°45 i+ 33°06 Greenwich a ye 10248) «) + 33710 Greenwich bi: py IR ee ae y/ Lyons ... me », (12°38 | + 31 Az yons. ... dee >» 12°40 | + 81°24 Greenwich ae! et Aces 0159) | IcO air 17. (10:6 Geneve ... be » 1340 | +8008] 2:4 || +1250); 08 Bordeaux A eel Ate e298 2) Onl 18:8, | 1:0 VORS: | ows | one Peels On ts 29.7OL Oro) he Lae 7, | 1020, Lyons... ie ys \loo2 + 29°80] O°5 || + 115-4 © Ol ete S CLO rae 22 RASSOUAARSHDAA Normat VI. 0 Bordeaux ee » 442 | +2808! 05 ||+1156)| 0 Lyons ... ieee 14646 28:45) 0:5 iit lle-7 | 0: Lyons ... ee pla Ase | ae 4on| O75ee|| + 1305) | 0 Lyons... ae » 1545 | +2754) O58 || +181°3 0 d. g. eu Lyons ... ...| June 847 | + 35°76 +781) O06 184 C. J. MERFIELD. TABLE OF RESIDUALS—continued. a : 3 : Residual ‘ Residual . = Observatory. Date 1899, . a Werent ) Weight , o-c P o-c P d. s. tf Lyons ... ...| June 30°39 | +1840; 10 +9678) "F120 Lyons... Bet » 30°40 |+18:21) 1:0 + 98:1 10 + | Lyons... a » S042) | 18:35) eo + 99°3 1:0 > | Windsor... | duly 2°95 | + 18:47'|. 0°S || -aOSr7aeaies 4 | Windsor... oe se ESTO + 18:08 |} 1:0 + 96°5 1:0 = | Bordeaux | 44 | + 17-7810) || eaeae eae S Bordeaux ee » 5°40 | + 17-03). 104-008 1:0 7, | Windsor... O11, 705 ay ldb2 29°80 29:78 || + 0:02 | O'5 Ay leipa 28:08 28°69 || — 0°61 0°5 » 1446 28°45 23°64 || 7O-L9S Ors a UAB} 27°45 27:44 || + 0-01 0°5 » 15°45 27°54 27°42 OZ.) Ors Sums 16°7 | -2°285 Normal VII.—The equations in this case are as follows: x = 1750 - 0°37 ng = 100-00 — 1:1239 7 - 0°152472 The initial date being 1899 July 4. n I RESIDUALS FOR THE EQUATIONS OF CONDITION. Right Ascension. Normals} Date 1899. oF ec IP iehise yan h. m. Ss. h m. s. s. I March 6 3 40 12:88 | 3 40 13-47 — 0°59 16 i fe a 16} 2 57 986 72 57 10:03) 20a 25 III. A 28 | 2 1987-76 | 2: 19. 37:97. e202 4 IV May 55 |28 58 51°23 | 23 53. oies0n meta 9 V a9 26°5 |20 27 27°53 20 27 W436) tae 9) VIII. sp 14/14 18 0°99 |14 12 49-91 | + 11:08 4 ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899, (SWIFT). 187 Declination. Normals| Date 1899. 8, §. ao woe ° ! " ° , " " iE. March 6/- 25 5 142 )|—-25 5 25 Salley 13 II. PP 16 | — 12 19 49°3 | — 12 19 34°3 —- 15:0 25 BEF. a Cis | 1B} Pl | SI BS ALS = oD 4. IV. |May 5:5 | +2617 297| +2617 284) + 1:3] 9 iV. oA 26°5 | + 55 40 41°9 | + 55 42 39°8 | — 117°9 5 VE. June 12 | + 40 46 47:9 | + 40 45 43°1 + 648 12 VIL. July 4| +18 42 536 | +18 42 1°6 + 52:0 9 VIII. aA WAC Galan Ai7cle |) at la oor o4c2 + 52:9 4 In the foregoing tables the right ascension a,, and the declina- tion 6, have been deduced from the combination of the observations as already explained. The values of a, 6, being computed from the elements IT. | Before introducing the values of da into the equations of con- dition, they have been changed into seconds of arc, also multiplied by cos 6. Equations of Condition.—lf 6 represent any co-ordinate of the place of the comet computed from assumed elements of the orbit, then in this discussion B) = (On a5 OSEAN) The equations of condition will therefore take the form cos es” havens late d = id Sag) KO el Oe Ae ae teen e dw ae d 82 de Ge The formule for computing the differential coefficients in these equations may be easily deduced by differentiating the various equations that determine the position of the comet. In the equations of condition the quantities dw, d&, du, are to be determined in seconds of arc; so that the equations may be homogeneous, the coefficients of the terms containing d7’, dq, de, have been divided by sin 1”; they have also been multiplied by 10-4, 10-*, 10-* respectively; this has been done as a matter of convenience for the numerical reduction. J. C. MERFIELD. 188 [oe-z¢ + Loo-z¢ + [08-79 +. [06-411 - [og-T + [ogg - [00-41 -. fot = [e¢-191 + [e7-221 + [09-97% + [oF-I11 + [76-0 - [gre [67-3 - [oz-8 6960-0 + 8610-0 + G1L0-0 1961-0 Z000-0 — 9¥00-0 - €600-0 + 19¢0-0 + 1SGé-0 + SPLZ-0 + 1162-0 + G0L0-0 - €090-0 — BGO 6290-0 + FLG1-0 + GI1é-0 + GLOV-0 + LEGO — NEO) ae 0¢10-0 + LELT-O + EV1E-0 + CE8G-0 + 19€€-0 + 7099-0 + 6G1L-0 + BD a LEEL-0 — she 0) = 2p €160:0 + 4P 688z-0 - €710-0 + 1869-0 — O8IT-0 + L108-:0 — 6L1P-0 + LLG OS VIGT-O + G89e-1 — [eV Oe —8G6L-0 — LOST Oss ECEF-0 + STG OFS E8110 + VOC: Os T1901 + G610-0 — GE8L-0 + G¢660-0 — O1éZ-0 + €960-0° + ¥66E-0 + VLE8-0 + G7si-0 + Té9¢:0 + 6660-0 — G6GG-0 + 1801-0 + €6¢9-0 + 9916-0 + LP 8114-0 + PP G6GE-0 + ‘worupuoy fo suoyonby 6001-0 — VLE0-0 8EG1-0 + LETG-1T — C8EG-0 — OLTO-0 — 1896-0 — OLS9:0. = 1086-0 + SPOT T + LGGL 1 + LEOTT + 1GZ1-0 + IV1G-0 + 8F1G-0 + BP GFIE-0 + ClP7F0 — | 1LG¢-0 —] ZG18-0 — | 2606-0 + | 6081-0 + | 8911-0 + |] 9862-0 + | 09¢9-0 +] PAV 0 0 tel e911 —| oses-1 — ] ZOCE1T — | 7091-0 — | ZEEG-0 = | 6792-0 — | op GesP-0 — | ie 6 / 189 ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899, (SWIFT). ‘poonpep ueeq savy ‘090 ‘2 ‘f ‘x Jo sonyea oy} suonenhs [euy osoy} Worg ‘suoryenbe uoryeurutye ayy 09 sordde yreurer oues oy} * smUy{UeSoy ore suoTyenba [eulsoU oY} UI setyQUeNb [eolewNU oY, S6CPS-SG LLO19-1 “91066: 1 SoSGe-T 00Z19-T "C6SF0-2 s.yoo7 suotyenbe [euy oy} 0} UOTJONpet OY} UT 40 40 “CCCEF6 + Mm “8010-6 + M JIGL8-8 + os VG6LG-6 + m “E00G0-6 + ap 1 = @ oq MOU [ITM suOT}enbe oy} JO WoIyeqOU OUT, 1) 2 “OGE8G-6 + 2 m LHEES-6 + 7 OELBES + % m"gcleL6 + 2"49009-6 + 2EE8cco + 4% n“pyecy-6 + 2"P8s6e-6 + ZO0SOrS + AM “OGTEE6 + # ‘suovonby wWwor1jnUrwmijy OP. ee a Ola PPE 2 OP = aa OR ae ‘pofojduis useq oavy wamypwvboT suoijoDsysqny pun sUorippY ‘SUINS [BIGAOS OY} UIV}QO OF JOJOWOMYWLIe Ue Sutsn ‘sorenbs qsvo] Jo poyjomt oy) Aq opemm useq s¥y suoryenbe jemou ey} 0} Areururford oy} WosZ UOTJON ped OY, OGGrs-s 99799-E 68P9L-S LL1¥0-§ 096¢0-7 "O9S0L-¥F GPGLV-0 + 8GZ0G-0 + 11998:6 + 6S1LL-0 + 60P0L-T + m “8960L-T + “suoyonby 70Ulo AT 8¢Z0¢-0 + 11998-6 + 6€1L1:0 + 60FOL- 1 + “S960I1-1 + 9611E-1 + 181620 + 991¢8-0 + OLGy LS GOGTGsiear 1slego + wL20ey1 + “oeggl-o +,’ POPE T+ G678hr1 99168:0 + 9699/0 + O1098-1 + 61#80-1 + G9cOF-0 + OLLEF-T + POPES: I + 61F8O-1T + GOOG ete eae S CoG vlan: n“gocIG-l + #2 *6rscrlt+ *%49c97-0 + 4 “Pse66-T + % G96G0-6 + 190 C. J. MERFIELD. Parabola. Hyperbola, Log « = 2:08183, Log « = FI7sia » y = 044714, » Yy = 174664 ye = Ise ie no & = Dowees 5 CS sboses » € = 979224 ee LOLOL » uw = 213093 » w= 254293 dw = -2 0°73 dw = +15:07 1:1980 dg= -0 2°80 dg = + 55:80 ‘a | 2°7853 dtu = +0 10:94 du = — 37°38 = J 10-4287 dT = —0-007360 dT = — 0000062 ‘2 | 4:3510 dq = + 0:00004075 dq = +0:000135186 | 2-4367 de = + 0:00034908 0:2898 Elements ITT, T = 1899 April 12:97038 G.M.T. Q@= 94.58 12:30;1899 1 = 16> 16° 19-44 gq = 032647368 Log g = 9:5138482 Equations for Co-ordinates. [99877294] rsin(v+ 77 29 13°44) = [99962545] rsin(v +165 39 52:39) z = |9:-4287933]rsin(v+ 47 24 34°81) Elements IV. T = 1899 April 12:977678 G.M.T. + 10-4 x 1:06 o= 8 41 44-77 + 2:03 2= 24 59 10:90 + 1-33 71899 6 = 146 15 31:12 + 0°69 g = 0°326568116 + 10° x 1-42 Log gq = 9:5139738 e = 1:00034908 = 10° e412 Log e = 0:0001516 » P= MSO TSs 8 I ~ | ORBIT ELEMENTS COMET I., 1899, (SWIFT). 191 Equations for Co-ordinates 2 = [99877050] r sin (v + 77 30 48-56) y = [9:9962456]rsin(v +165 41 13-03) z2 = [94292320] rsin(v+ 47 25 44:35) RESIDUALS—Elements ITI. RESIDUALS—HElements IV. Equations. Elements. Equations. Elements. 1 - 79 Ses 1 — 1-4 — 1-4 2 eee) EOS 2 ae alee + 1:3 8 1270 + 12:0 3 + 1:3 + 13 4 simeel ae) oP elle) 4 — 25 —2°7 5 - 140 - 142 5 Ales) + 1:4 6 cS oer4 + 5:2 6 ar OP + 0:2 a + 22°4 + 22°5 7 + 0-2 + 0-4 8 + 26°0 + 25°] 8 = 6:9 lO 9 + 23:3 + 23°3 9 — 0-4 — 0-4 10 - 9-4 = oY 10 + 0:3 (32 11 - 10°7 - 107 11 + 1:0 + 1:0 12 + 246 + 24-5 12 — 02 - 03 13 + 26:1 + 26°0 13 seit + 28 14 -~ 74 = 3) 14 = OY —-0o8s . 15 - 66 = 65 15 - 29 | - 28 16 + 5:3 + or 16 ate Se One | + 89 [vv] = 104 x 0°41332 [vv] = 108712 = 4133°2 The agreement between the residuals, computed from the equa- tions of condition and those found from the corrected elements, is satisfactory in each case. The residual of the final equation, Elements IV., is somewhat large in comparison with the others but unaccountable, the number of observations employed in find- ing this normal is small, but the measures are consistent, and to reject this normal would be unjustifiable. The agreement of the residuals would seem to indicate, that the | higher order of differentials, neglected in the calculation of the coefficients, will have little or no effect on the result. If the residuals found from the Elements IV. are again introduced into the equations of condition, the corrections obtained are small and will not alter the residuals to the extent desired. Before concluding the calculation the residuals from the Elements IV. were assumed to be in the form CP WUT Ae go laceseca i eleialelisele@eiete 2 192 C. J. MERFIELD. the complete corrections to the elements would then take the form (dw), = dw + A’ (de), . (22), = dQ + B (de), etc., ete. upon introducing the values of v into equation (2) then it would be found that (de), = N02 70258 This correction having been made, and the values of (dw), (d2). etc. computed, it was found that the residuals were practically the same, the resulting value of [vv] being 109-70. Probable Errors etc.—The probable errors of the quantities do, d&, etc., have been obtained from the following formule mea (eek J Mm —p % = -=- TY = = ete. V Px Vv Py in which m equals the number of equations of condition and p the number of unknowns. For Elements IV. it will be found that Log. r = 0°34593. In obtaining the values of p, p, etc., the order of elimination has been reversed, so that these quantities were deduced by the usual formule. | Concluding Remarks.—The reversal] of the order of elimination of the unknowns from the normal equations acted as a check upon this part of the calculation, a further check being obtained by placing the deduced values of the unknowns in the normal equa- tions, the checks in both cases being completely satisfied. In reducing the preliminary equations, the usual controls were maintained, the several sums being fully verified. The residuals of the several elements being compared, it will be observed, that - assuming no correction is required to the eccentricity, then the sum of the squares of the residuals has been reduced from 10* x 15:5 approximately, to 10*x 0-4; taking de into account reduces this sum to 10*x 0:010812. The observations appear to be well represented by the Elements LV., and there appears to be every indication that the orbit of this comet is an hyperbola. As previously mentioned, the purturbations produced by the earth will be small, and should the definitive discussion of the orbit elements be undertaken, it will be found that the Elements IV. will require no material correction. — COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 193 On THE COMPOSITION or N. 8. WALES LABRADORITE anp TOPAZES witH a COMPARISON or METHODS For THE ESTIMATION or FLUORINE. | By G. HARKER, BSc. (Communicated by Professor LivERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 189). | ANALYSIS OF MINERAL LaBraboritTe FROM N. 8. WALEs. The specimen described in the following note was collected by Mr. D. A. Porter of Tamworth on Sandilands Mountain, some fifty seven miles from Tenterfield, who forwarded it to Professor Liversidge for examination. Mr. Porter states that it occurs there in a basalt and also between Hillgrove and Grafton. The specimens were in broken fragments about half an inch in diameter. Some were colourless, others brown to greyish. One perfect cleavage was exhibited, probably basal, and a second not quite so good. The fracture was uneven inclining to conchoidal; the lustre vitreous. The hardness was 6 and the specific gravity 2:70. Before the blowpipe it fused to a colourless glass, its fusibility being about three. All these properties agree in every detail with those given in Dana for typical labradorite, as do all the optical properties which were determined. The refractive index was low and the double refraction weak. In convergent polarised light a cleavage flake gavea figure with one brush nearly straight and was therefore the section of a bi-axial mineral cut at right angles to the optic axis, the optic axes being nearly at right angles. The dispersion could not be obtained. ‘The mineral was optically positive and shewed multiple twinning. Analysis. 2 3 4 5 New South Wales. Veltlin. Thannbergthal. Rameni-Brod-. Silica ... Fe OOO 54°81 59°15 53°61 54:55 Alumina + bao.15 f 29°70 29°15 29:68 28°63 Ferric oxide ... {| 42 ts xe 1:03 M—Dec. 6, 1899. 194 G. HARKER. (Analysis continued) 1 yy 3 4 New South Wales. Veltlin, Thannbergthal. Rameni-Brod, Lime ... a, £O:352 9-61 9-90 10:96 11°23 Soda ... bite 5:11 undeter. 5:93 4°36 4-62 K 0.8) adie’ Mone 49.) 28; Saideas ‘49 MgO :.. BA none ‘28 ae oF ee H,O on ignit. undeter. 13 ‘67 65 100°63 incompl. 100:90 100°41 100-53 Nos. 1 and 2 are analyses of two different samples of the mineral. In the first analysis the ferric oxide was not determined separately 30°15 is the percentage of mixed oxides of iron and alumina; the analysis was done on the dried ignited sample. Nos. 3, 4, and 5 are three analyses of labradorite given in Dana, and are put in for sake of comparison. The silica in the labradorite analyses given in Dana varies from 52°45 to 56°18, the alumina from 27°33 to 29°85, the lime from 9:90 to 12°01, and the soda from 3:90 to 5:23. From these it will be seen that the chemical composition of the mineral agrees well with that of labradorite, and taken in conjunction with its physical properties shews that it is that mineral. Topaz. The following investigation was also made in the Chemical Laboratory of the University of Sydney at the suggestion and ‘under the direction of Professor Liversidge, with the object of deter- mining the composition of some N. 8S. Wales specimens and of comparing certain of the published methods for the analysis of fluorides. The most difficult constituent to analyse in topaz is fluorine, for the estimation of which a number of methods have been proposed. To find the most satisfactory was the first object in view. Before proceeding farther a resumé of previous methods for the determination of fluorine might be of use :— (a) Fluorides not decomposable by sulphuric acid.—Berzelius was the first to accomplish the analysis of fluorides undecomposable ‘by sulphuric acid. He fused the fluorides with alkaline carbon- COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 195 cates. To separate the silica from silicates combined with fluorine he employed a solution of zinc carbonate in ammonia; zinc silicate is formed and the solution is freed from the rest of the zinc oxide ‘by evaporation. H. Rose in 1849 separated the fluorine as calcium fluoride, a more convenient form than the sodium fluoride employed by Berzelius. He precipitated the calcium fluoride together with -ealcium carbonate to help in its filtration. He pointed out that some fluorides which were not associated with silica were not completely decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates. A combination of the methods of Berzelius and Rose is still the best method known for the estimation of fluorine. Wohler in analys- ing topaz fused with sodium carbonate alone. (6) Fluorides decomposable by sulphuric acid.—For the analysis -of these a large number of methods have been proposed; Wohler added silica and sulphuric acid weighed and determined the fluorine by loss due to éscape of silicon tetra-fluoride. Liversidge (Chem. News, 1871) decomposed with silica and sulphuric acid, and collected the silicon tetra-fluoride in ammonia solution. By partial evaporation the gelatinous silica was dis- solved. He then added potassium chloride and weighed the fluorine direct as potassium silicon fluoride. 1872, Fresenius collected the silicon tetra-fluoride in tubes containing moistened pumice, Penfield (Journ. Chem. Soc. 1879) passed the silicon tetra- fluoride into a solution of potassium chloride and alcohol, and titrated the hydrochloric acid set free by the reaction. Carnot (Comptes Rendus, 1893) collected the silicon tetra- fluoride in a ten per cent. solution of potassium fluoride and weighed as potassium silicon fluoride. Three of the above methods were tried for the estimation of fluorine in topaz :— First method, fusion with alkaline carbonates.—The topaz first analysed was from Mudgee, N.S.W. It was in the form of 196 G. HARKER. transparent rolled pebbles of from one quarter to one eighth of am inch in diameter. The method of analysis first used was that of Wohler, as given in his Mineral Analysis, English edition of 1871. “The substance when fused with four times its weight of anhydrous carbonate of soda is decomposed with formation of fluoride of sodium, which is extracted with water. Before filter- ing off the residual silicate of alumina, the solution should be digested with carbonate of ammonia to precipitate any small quantities of alumina and silica which may have been dissolved.” The residue is evaporated down with hydrochloric acid, and the silica and alumina extracted. The fluorine in solution is removed as calcium fluoride by adding calcium chloride. This method when tried on the topaz crystals from Mudgee gave results for fluorine which were low and irregular, viz., from five to eleven percent. On treating some Brazilian topaz later in the same way, similar unsatisfactory results were obtained, viz. 4:7 to 12°9 per cent. Second or tetra-fluoride method.—That of Liversidge as given in. Crookes’ Select Methods, p. 580, 1884 edition. In this method the substance is decomposed with sulphuric acid and silica and the silicon tetra-fluoride passed into solution of ammonia. The mixture is heated in a platinum retort first over the water bath and finally at 160° C., the last traces of gas being removed by acurrent of air. The ammonia solution is evaporated until the gelatinous silica passes into solution and is then pre- cipitated as protassium silicon fluoride by potassium chloride and alcohol. So far this method had only been used for the determination of fluorine in coprolites and apatite. In order to make the method applicable to topaz, which is not decomposable by sulphuric acid, the topaz was first fused with sodium potassium carbonate, silica was then added and the mixture decomposed with sulphuric acid. Preliminary trials were made with calcium fluoride, apatite, and cryolite, the substance in each case being fused with two or three COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 197 t grams of sodium potassium carbonate and then decomposed. The silicon tetra-fluoride was collected in water after the first few experiments, as it was found that on evaporation with ammonia some of the hydrogen silicon fluoride was converted into silica. The method gave uniform results, which however, were rather low in all cases. The cause of the lowness in the results is not apparent. It is probably due to the equation 3 S8iF,+ 4 H,O = 2 H.SiF, + H,Si0, not being a quantitative one. Potassium silicon fluoride was found to be slightly soluble in a fifty per cent. solution of alcohol. After filtering off the gelatinous silica, the solution in which the potassium silicon fluoride was precipitated was always made of the same volume and hence the error due to solubility could be allowed for. Potassium chloride was used prepared from different sources but caused no difference in the results. The discrepancy was not due to incomplete absorption of silicon tetra-fluoride in the water. A second absorption tube gave no trace of a precipitate. To completely remove the gas from the decomposition flask dry air was passed through for four to five hours. | The amounts of calcium fluoride used were varied to see if the error was constant or proportional. The percentage of fluorine obtained was increased as more calcium fluoride was taken, but not proportionally, and tended to reach a maximum. For amounts approximately equal the results were constant and hence the error ean be corrected from the weight of potassium silicon fluoride obtained. fiesults obtained by the tetra-fluoride method on calcium fluoride, eryolite and apatite.—First series.—The substance was fused with sodium potassium carbonate and then decomposed. The calcium fluoride used in these experiments was from ground crystals, and on testing, by conversion into calcium sulphate, gave 99°6 per cent. of calcium fluoride. Four experiments gave 44°60, 45:97, 46-12, and 46-20 per cent., the theoretical percentage of fluorine being 48:53 and the average difference 2°82 per cent. 198 G. HARKER. Second series.—The substance was decomposed without previous. fusion with alkaline carbonates. The calcium fluoride in the first four of these experiments was from crystals of fluor-spar ground, and evaporated to dryness with hydrofluoric acid to get rid of silica and then ignited. On testing by conversion into calcium. sulphate they gave 99°8 per cent. of calcium fluoride. Amount taken (1) °1565 grams. Percentage of fluorine found 45:90: E CQ OP2 . 47-08: i (3) 5212, He 47-21 . (4) 2900, 46-64 f (5) 1736, E 46-31 i (6) 1787 r 45-95. The theoretical percentage was 48°62 and the average difference 2°25 per cent. These results were corrected for the solubility of potassium silicon fluoride which was found to be ‘0016 gram. in 50 ccms. of a 50 per cent. alcohol solution. Nos. 5 and 6 were precipitates of calcium fluoride obtained by Berzelius’ method from: the Mudgee topaz. Cryolite similarly gave 52°17 per cent. when previously fused with alkaline carbonates, and 52°62 without previous fusion, and when treated by Berzelius’ method 55:34, Apatite gave 2°80 by the first method and 2°81 by the second. Application of the tetra-fluoride method to topaz.—The Mudgee- topaz by this method gave only 13 per cent. of fluorine which was. much too low. When repeated on the Brazilian topaz a similar — low result was obtained, viz. 10-9 per cent. It seems therefore that this method works well for minerals not containing silica. That it is the presence of silica in the topaz which causes the — error was shewn by adding silica to calcium fluoride or topaz before fusing, when in all cases a much lower result was obtained, the error being larger as more silica was added. Thus calcium fluoride gave 36°54 and 35-06 per cent. of fluorine and topaz 7:05. and 4:26 per cent., results much lower than those obtained when silica was not added. COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 199 Third method, fusion with alkaline carbonates and silica,—A third method for the determination of fluorine was then tried, viz. that of Berzelius as modified by Rose. The ground topaz is fused with one half its weight of pure silica; the fused mass extracted with water ; five to ten grams of ammonium carbonate added to pre- cipitate silica, and the solution allowed to stand twelve hours. The solution is filtered and evaporated to get rid of excess of ammonia, and a solution of zinc carbonate in ammonia added to precipitate any silica in solution. The liquid is then further evaporated to get rid of ammonia, filtered from zinc oxide and silicate and the fluorine precipitated by calcium chloride in the usual manner. The results from the Mudgee topaz were much higher than those obtained by the two previous methods and were constant; the same constant results were obtained in the case of the Brazilian topaz and the green topaz from New England. The calcium fluoride obtained by precipitation in this method from the Mudgee topaz was tested and found to be free from calcium silicate. Berzelius’ method therefore gave the best results for fluorine in topaz, but as there seemed to be no reason why the fluorine should be lost in Wohler’s method which did not apply equally to that of Berzelius’, an attempt was made to find where the fluorine was lost in the former case. It was found that no fluorine is left in the residue after extract- ing the fused mass with water. The decomposition in Wohler’s method is therefore complete. It was noticed that the precipitate of aluminium hydroxide obtained on addition of ammonium carbonate to the solution was more granular than the usual gelatinous precipitate, and on trial this precipitate was found to contain no silica but always more or less fluorine. (Hydrofluoric acid was liberated from the precipitate by sulphuric acid and etched glass. Mixed with silica and sulphuric acid, silicon tetra- fluoride was given off which was passed into water and the potassium silicon fluoride precipitated.) On one occasion 6°6 per cent. of fluorine was obtained in this precipitate by Berzelius’ method, but this was exceptionally large, the usual amount not 200 G. HARKER. being more than one to three per cent. When the ammonium carbonate was added hot to the solution and then allowed to stand until quite cold, a larger proportion of fluorine was found in the precipitate than when it was filtered hot, the precipitate con- taining the fluorine coming down on cooling. This precipitate contained a larger amount of fluorine when sodium potassium carbonate was used than when sodium carbonate alone was employed. In obtaining the results given by Wohler’s method for fluorine, sodium potassium carbonate was frequently employed, which accounts for some of them being so low, but even when sodium carbonate alone was employed, the highest percentage obtained was 12°69. On adding the amount of fluorine recovered from the precipitate to the amount obtained from the solution after the addition of ammonium carbonate, the total is nearly the same as that obtained by Berzelius’ method. Thus 14:2 percent. was obtained from Brazilian topaz by Berzelius’ method. In one experiment 6:92 per cent. was obtained from the solution and 6:50 from the precipitate, total 13°42 per cent. Ina second experiment 12°69 from the solution and 1:21 from the precipitate, total 13:90 per cent. This seems to shew that Berzelius’ method gives the total fluorine present. The precipitates of calcium fluoride were tested by conversion into calcium sulphate. The residue obtained on treating the fused mass with water in Wohler’s method, contained all the silica and about two-thirds of the alumina and some soda, and had approximately the constitution 3 SiO,, 2 Na,O, 2 Al,O. On boiling with water the soda and alumina were slowly removed, but to what extent this could be carried out was not determined. In the case of Berzelius’ method, the residue contained all the aluminium. The silica prevents the aluminium from passing into solution and thus stops the loss of fluorine which occurs in Wohler’s method. The amount of silica necessary to do this was found to be 31°6 per cent. in the case of the Brazilian topaz. Examination of the ammonium carbonate precipitate.—The topaz was fused with sodium carbonate alone and the fused mass 5 COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 201 dissolved in water and filtered. Ammonium carbonate was added to the hot solution and a gelatinous precipitate, consisting chiefly of aluminium hydroxide, formed. After filtering and cooling a more granular but still gelatinous precipitate separated out and collected at the bottom of the beaker. This was filtered off and examined. Only a small amount was obtained which on drying became powdery and fused at a red heat. The sodium and aluminium were determined by conversion into sulphates, the fluorine by fusion with silica and alkaline carbonates. °0210 gram heated to redness gave 238 per cent. sodium, 26:2 per cent. aluminium, and 0:200 gram gave 3°33 per cent. of fluorine, leaving oxygen by difference 16:7 per cent. Assuming some of the aluminium to be combined with the oxygen as alumina due to imperfect separation of the fluorine precipitate from aluminium hydroxide, we have for the composition of the former fluorine precipitate sodium 36:8, aluminium 11-7 and fluorine 51°5 per cent. Cryolite requires 32:9, 12:8, and 54:3 per cent. In another experiment on a different precipitate (0130 gram. gave sodium 20°8, aluminium 29:2 per cent., and 0:201 gram gave 30°8 per cent. of fluorine, hence oxygen by difference 19-2 per cent. Allowing for alumina this gives sodium 35:1, aluminium 13-0, fluorine 51-9 per cent. It seems probable therefore that the fluorine is precipitated as a double fluoride of sodium and aluminium. Like cryolite this precipitate also fuses readily. But as the amounts analysed were so small it is proposed to confirm the results by working with larger quantities. | Comparison of the various methods for fluorine on the topazes.— 3 1 2 Fusion with alkaline Tetra- Fusion with alkaline N 3 W - carbonates. fluoride. carbonates and silica, = = 5 opaz ; ; - ; s Bie Windsec 5, 11-01 12:93 17-04, 17-60, 17-10 4-73, 11-2, 11-71, 2. Brazil... | ee bags ee 14-23, 14-61 New Dees topaz iss I: 16°30, 15°92 A table is given above ‘iene the results obtained by the various methods for fluorine, on the topazes. While obtaining 202 G. HARKER. the percentages for fluorine by methods (1) and (3), the silica and alumina were also estimated, so that with the exception of water, the whole of the constituents were now obtained. It has been found by Penfield and Minor (Am. J. Sc. 94) and Jannasch and Locke (J. Chem. Soc. 94) that all topazes contain more or less water of constitution. The former found 2°45 and the latter 2°69 per cent. in Brazilian topaz. The water takes the place of the fluorine. Penfield and Minor decomposed the topaz with sodium carbonate and the water free from acid was weighed in sulphuric acid or calcium chloride tubes. Jannasch and Locke decomposed with litharge in a bulb tube and collected the water in a calcium chloride tube, a stream of dry air being passed through the apparatus. This last method was found more con- venient as a much lower temperature could be used to decompose the topaz ; both methods however gave the same results. In the experiments the topaz was first heated to bright redness over a strong bunsen to drive out any contained water; it was then decomposed by litharge and its so-called water of constitution determined. Blank tests on the litharge shewed that the calcium chloride tube gained two to three deci-milligrams and in calculat- ing the percentages this was deducted. In the experiments about ‘5 gram. of topaz was mixed with 2 — 2:5 grams. of previously heated litharge, the same amount of litharge being used in the blank tests. Water of Constitution. Locality. Amount taken. Water found. Percentage. ee a New England | ae GORE ea 10K unio (2B SR Results of analyses.—Appended is a table giving the complete analyses of these three varieties of topaz. In the latter it will be seen that the silica and alumina obtained by Wohler’s method are always higher than by Berzelius’, and this is apparently due to COMPOSITION OF N.S.W. LABRADORITE AND TOPAZES. 203 the aluminium hydroxide taking down with it some of the fluorine and sodium. The alumina was always tested by potassium bi-sulphate and the silica by hydrofluoric acid purified from the commercial acid by redistilling in a platinum retort. The calcium fluoride pre- cipitates were tested by conversion into calcium sulphate or in some other way. Analysis of Topazes. Fusion with alkaline Fusion with alkaline carbonates and silica. carbonates ee ; l Z Mudgee, SiO, 31:90 31°84 32°30 32-46 INES. W . Al,O; 56°62 56:80 Sem) — OE AAll F ABO US OG H,O onignit. -23 26 H,0 by PbO ‘75 ‘75 107:10 106-65 Brazil SiO, a9 e216 Soe oI OR gaa aks | Al,O, 54°52 54:61 55:90 56:45 55:88 F 14°62 14:23 H,Oonignit. 23 ‘30 26 24 ‘26 EVO by PhOr 22:12) 2:12 Fe,O, Re aes ‘10 ‘09 103°44 103°42 New SiO, 31:73 31°92 England, Al,O; 55°62 55°43 N.S.W. F 16°30 15°92 H,O on ignit.. °37 39 EEO Dye bO ny On. bO% Fe,O, 12 105:21 104:73 Analyses of topazes from other sources. Curran. Penfield and Minor, Am. J.S8.94. Liversidge. N.S. Wales. Utah. Stoneham. Brazil. *Shoalhaven, N.S.W mio, 30:29 31:93 32°28 (32°53 Zag Al,O, 60°90 56°25 56°33 55°67 62°66 EF 15:05 20°33 18°56 15°48 14-01 H,O ‘40 “19 1:04 2°45 ROG-G4, 7108-71 ~ 108-17 .5 .106°13 104:86 * Dull and impure. ~ 204 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. ’ On a REMARKABLE INCREASE or TEMPERATURE AFTER DARK atSEVEN OAKS, MACLEAY RIVER. By Hucu Casares KIDDLE, F.R Met.Soc., Public School, Seven Oaks, Macleay River. ’ [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1899. | I am led to pen the following lines because, so far as my general acquaintance with meteorological literature goes, I cannot call to mind any such phenomenon, as I desire to bring under your notice this evening, being hitherto noted or published. Bearing in mind the fact that our next and last monthly meeting is so close at hand, I have not time to discuss the subject exhaustively by quoting records from other stations, as the phenomenon occurred only last evening. In order to be as methodical as space will permit, how- ever, I will divide the matter under two headings, viz., (a) the phenomenon, (6) the details in connection therewith. (a) The phenomenon.—During a dry thunderstorm (much lightning with no rain) which passed over this locality from the westward after sunset on the 27th November last, the temperature of the air suddenly rose from 75° to 95:5’, an increase of over twenty degrees; and, as the disturbance worked off in the course of half an hour or so, the temperature gradually resumed its normal condition. (6) Details.—During the previous two or three days a moderate heat wave had passed over the district. On both the 25th and 26th, the maximum temperature in the shade was over 90°, and this was reached as a rule about 10 a.m. About that hour a north-north-east breeze, moderate to fresh in strength, used to set in from the seaboard, and under its cooling influence the tempera- ture gradually decreased throughout. The three days in particular | were remarkable for the fact that it was as hot at 7:30 a.m. as at midday, and in the subjoined table the temperatures at various REMARKABLE INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE AFTER DARK. 205 times of the day are recorded. On the 27th, the day’s shade maximum temperature reading had reached 91°8° about 10 a.m., and with the N.N.E. breeze the temperature as usual decreased, till at 7 p.m. the reading in the louvred screen stood at 75°. Shortly after, a thunderstorm, which had been working up from the westward for about half an hour previously, now involved us within its influence, and instead of experiencing the usual expected cooling breeze accompanying such a phenomenon we were prostrated by a blast as from a furnace. Ina few minutes the temperature rose to 86°, and at 8:15 p.m., after the disturbance had passed, my maximum shade thermometer reading stood at 95:5° instead of 91°8°. Thus the hot air of this thunderstorm was three and a half degrees warmer than the air in the screen during the hottest part of the forenoon. The phenomenon is the more remarkable when it is remembered that it occurred quite after dark, in fact I was outside taking photographs of the lightning accompanying the disturbance when the first blast struck us. The force of the wind was fresh to strong and came from the W.N.W., that being the point of the compass that the disturbance itself bore down upon us. Bearing in mind these conditions, it will be noted that heat-wave was directly connected with the electric disturbance, and as the phenomenon passed to the eastward, the prevailing northerly breeze re-asserted itself, and the temperature decreased to its usual condition. The total duration of the phenomenon with its abnormal conditions was thirty minutes. In the attached table will be seen the shade temperature read- ings at 8 a.m., the dry and wet bulb at 9 a.m., the daily shade maximum readings, and also the maximum reading in the sun’s rays :— Bate. Shade Temperature in Louvred Screen. Maximum reading pepcber 8 a.m. 9a.m., Dry. |9 a.m., Wet.| 9a.m., Max. an Buns Taye. 27 81° 83° 69°4 92° 159'8 28 84° 86 8 Gael 91°8 153° 29 87° 87°4 764 95'5 1505 206 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. The temperature readings are obtained from the following thermometers, all by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra of London, and certificated at Kew for index error —Dry bulb, No. 81792, index error 0:0°, Max. shade, No. 77421, index error 0-0°, Black bulb in vacuéd, No. 80520, index error +0.2°. The index error has been applied to the readings in the foregoing tables. With a hope that this note will help to trace the remarkable phenomenon herein recorded, I will now conclude my contribution to the year’s work. I may add that this observing station is situated on the Macleay River, approximately in Lat. 31° 2’S., Long. 151° 3’ E., and is about seven miles in a direct line from the coast. ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 207 RECORDS or ROCK TEMPERATURES at SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY, BIRTHDAY SHAFT, BALMAIN, SYDNEY, N.S. WALES. By J. L. C. Raz, E. F. Pirrman, Assoc. 8.S.M., and Professor T. W. E. Davipb, B.A., F.G.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, December 6, 1899. | I. Introduction.—About seventeen years ago Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S., Secretary to the Underground Temperature Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, furnished one of us (Professor David) with two slow-action thermometers and one maximum thermometer for observing rock temperatures underground. The thermometers were made by Negretti and Zambra, and were tested at Kew Observatory. The Kew certificates were forwarded with them and the corrections _ applied in the table given later on in this paper are in accordance with these certificates. The first opportunity for observing underground tempera- tures near Sydney was afforded by the diamond drill bores for -coal, put down at Cremorne, Robertson’s Point, Sydney Harbour. The second of these bores was completed in November 1893. ‘The maximum thermometer, sent by Professor Everett, became mislaid in the interval between the completion of the first and second Cremorne bores, and when it became necessary to observe underground temperatures at the No. 2 Bore, Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A. ©.M.G., F.R.S.. Director of the Sydney Observatory, kindly Jent maximum thermometers for the purpose, similar to the one sent by Professor Everett, but not protected by a thick, hermeti- cally sealed outer glass casing. It was, accordingly, necessary to protect these thermometers against the water pressure at the bottom of the bore, and this was done efficiently, though the method is cumbrous, by enclosing the thermometers in a strong 208 J. L. C. RAE, E. F, PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. wrought iron pipe, hermetically sealed at both ends by means of screw cap pieces which were screwed on hot, with molten lead in the threads of the screws. The results of these observations have been recorded by two of us elsewhere, * The results of these observations show that the rate of increase of rock temperature downwards at Cremorne is about 1° Fahr. for every eighty feet. Shortly after these observations were made at Cremorne, Professor Everett kindly sent another protected Negretti and Zambra maximum thermometer, as well as a protected Phillips maximum thermometer, for further observing of under- ground rock temperatures. The thermometers used on the present occasion were the two slow-action and the two maximum Negretti and Zambra thermometers sent by Professor Everett. Their numbers are 50452 and 50454 (slow-action) and 15888 and 65294 (maximum). II. Methods of Observing.—The observations of underground temperatures at the Sydney Harbour Colliery, Balmain, Sydney, were obtained by the methods recommended by the Underground Temperature Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The sinking of the Birthday Shaft had reached a depth of 600 feet before the first observations were made, but since then, readings of the rock temperatures have been taken at intervals of practically 50 feet, and an opportunity will be afforded of making observations at less depth than 600 feet during the sinking of the Jubilee Shaft, which is situated at a distance of 168 feet from the Birthday Shaft (the distance given being from centre to centre of shafts) and has reached, at the present time, a depth of 225 feet. From 600 feet down to 1,100 feet only the two slow-action thermometers were used, and the horizontal holes, which were drilled into the walls of the shaft for their reception, were put in a distance of 3 feet down to the 950 feet level, while from that 1T. W. E. David and E. F. Pittman—Records Geol. Survey N. 8. W., 1894, Iv., pt. 1, p. 7; Proc. Roy. Scce. N.S. Wales, 1893, xxvil., pp. 460 - 465. ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 209 to the 1,150 feet level they were put in a distance of 4 feet in each case. Beginning.at the 1,150 feet level the two maximum thermometers were used, in addition to the two slow-action instru- ments, and the practice has been to place one instrument of each type in each of the holes, which have been put in to a distance of 5 feet. After the completion of the drilling, the holes were allowed to remain open for a period of from 34 to 84 hours (as specified in the table appended) in order that the heat generated by drilling might escape before the thermometers were inserted. The thermometers were then taken down the shaft and read immedi- ately before being placed in position in the holes. This was done in the case of the maximum thermometers, to ascertain that they then registered a lower temperature than that likely to be observed on their withdrawal from the holes, and in order to ensure this, the instruments were, excepting during the winter, steeped for some time in cold water before being placed in the holes. To the copper cases enclosing the thermometers, strong pieces of string were attached to facilitate their subsequent withdrawal from the holes, and when the instruments were in position ‘end on’ to one another at the back of the holes, the strings extended from the cases to a little beyond the mouths of the holes. The plugging of the holes consisted, in each case, of about six inches of greasy cotton waste, placed next to the thermometers and gently rammed against the outer instrument case with a wooden rammer, the remainder of the hole being filled up with plastic clay, rammed into the hole. Attached to the cotton waste, in each hole, was a piece of pliable wire, by means of which the plugging could be quickly withdrawn after the clay tamping was removed by a scraper. | After being left in the holes for a period of from 37 hours upwards (as specified in the table appended) the clay tamping and cotton waste plugging were removed from the holes, and the thermometers pulled out by means of the strings and read immedi- ately. In the case of the slow-action thermometers the thick N—Dec. 6, 1899. 210 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. layer of paraffin wax around their bulbs prevented any appreciable alteration in the height of the mercury column taking place before the records were taken. The following diagram shows, to scale, the arrangement of thermometers in the holes :— Th | ae _ - ee Bee) ES Vn SS aN a eS te A Soe ee a ee oe = ee fog epee eAtY = Fock TEMPERATURES AT Syoneéy Harsour COLiery Shkelch showing arrangement of Thermome/ers in holes On one occasion (at the 951 feet level) the thermometers were left in the holes for almost nine days, and on another occasion (at the 606 feet level) for eighteen days. This was during the time occupied in putting in a section of brick walling in the shaft, immediately above the level where the thermometers were placed, it being impracticable to remove the thermometers whilst this work was going on. The whole of this part of the work was done by one of us (Mr. Rae the manager of the Sydney Harbour Colliery) assisted by the contractor for the sinking of the shaft (Mr. T. Cater). III. Section of strata passed through in sinking the Birthday Shaft, Sydney Harbour Colliery, Balmain.—The following section was taken by Mr. W.8. Dun, Palzontologist to the Geological Survey of N. 8. Wales, and one of us (Mr. Rae):— ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR CULLIERY. 211 BirRTHDAY SHAFT, SYDNEY Harpour Co.Luiery. Strata. ‘Thickness v'Sontace, Brickwork ... 70 7 0 Yellowish-red, gritty, thick thedded: erred ginous mtone oe a sco 2) a2 a9 2 Grey shaly sandstone 4 0 43 9 Shale parting Oeil 43 3 Rather hard thick- bedded grey sandstone 49 8 O72 bl Dark bluish-grey sandy shale ds aS all 8) 98 4 Rather fine grained greyish sandstone erg 100 1 Bluish-grey sandy shale 8 4 108 5 Rather fine light grey sandstone with narrow bands of nodular carbonate of iron ...) 15 0 WAS Shale parting Be OOS 233 oe Greyish-white pidetane mich mica » ptnealee 42 6 165 114 Shale, horizontally bedded.. See 4 6 NOs Ge Greyish-white sandstone with mica streaks DAE he, 194 82 Shale parting Or 194 92 Greyish-white sandstone, false-bedded with streaks of mica pee Tor? 58 210 54 Fine grained greyish- bie eaniletone Ma OP 19 221 24 Grey sandstone, horizontally bedded with shale fetids ve ose S 239 104 Greyish-white sandstone, Pais: edded eG 245 42 Sandstone with pebbles of shale ... Sal as aa) 258 44 Shale band . OP's 258 74 Greyish- ite Pandatone aright Balle of Sieh 1 ia 271° 44 Fine grey sandstone with mica ... 19 8 291 04 Greyish-white sandstone with a little fine conglomerate ... oa We, oof LZ ie HOGS Hey Shale band . 0 3 303 104 Coarse Pr icrone, Paice nedtled fs EO: NG 213 44 Grey sandstone with pipes of shale eee AO 320 42 Clay parting oa: Ae nf ae OOS | 3200 5 White sandstone ... 10 O 330" 9 Hard grey sandstone with dark ‘streaks. false-bedded in places... __... -..| 23 104 354 32 Clay parting Org B04 bi Hard grey sandstone with dark streaks, carbonate of iron nodules __.... 1 34 355 9 Hard grey streaky sandstone, shewing current bedding Sid 35 11 SO te Fine conglomerate passing into gritty sand- stone with occasional nodules of car- bonate of iron... me am 4 dat inal 400 10 212 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. Strata. | Thickness Dark sandy shale Hard grey sandstone Dark blue shale Shaly sandstone Clay shale parting .. Grey streaky sandstone with occasional pebbles of shale Very porous sandstone, loose, with boulders of harder sandstone and bands of clay. In this bed the water increased from 75 to 275 gallons per hour Hard greyish- white sandstone 5 ; Very hard greyish-white sandstone with dark bands, false-bedded ree Hard greyish-white sandstone Very hard ferruginous sandstone .. Hard greyish-white sandstone, dark bands Hard ferruginous sandstone se Hard greyish- -white banded sandstone Rather softer greyish-white sandstone Very hard greyish-white sandstone, banded and shewing false-bedding in places... Very hard ferruginous sandstone . Hard greyish- white banded sandstone Bluish-grey shale Rather softer greyish- white sandstone Dark bluish-grey sandstone, upper 2” loose Hard greyish-white sandstone Dark bluish-grey shale Fine grained greyish-white aandetenel false- bedded and friable... Hard greyish-white sandstone, false-bedded and very friable es Clay shale, bluish-grey Greyish- white sandstone Alternate bands of clay shale and sandstone with impressions of Hquwisetum and fern fragments Fine grained greyish- -white sandstone, false- bedded and very friable Clay shale, soft and jointed Grey sandstone with nodules and pebbles of shale and quartz Greyish-white sandstone, false-bedded and friable . os 0 he | ba 0 3 2 5 01 10 44 22 12 7 3h ie ia 10 4 0 4 26 84 2 0 a 3 0 20 7h 011 8 6 15 ie 12 6 10 3 4 0 3 0 1 7 20 2h (hon) 11 0 6 0 38 0 1 0 3 0 43 10 Depth from Saniace 401 9 403 5 403 8 406 1 2 — 406 416 6 438 8 445 11h 463 10h 474 OR 474 64 501 503 510 513 533 534 543 544 556 1 567 o71 574 — bD dD DS — O10 © © GS Go W CO Ll Sel SL 589 No} bol 610 617 628 ooo 634 672 673 on oO > 676 719 10 ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. Strata. Coarse grained white sandstone Dark blue shale (6” — 12” thick) Fine grained white sandstone with micace- ous bands Fine grained white sandstone with shaly partings, becoming more frequent Hard white sandstone ie Two bands of dark blue shale with sand- stone parting . Hard white sandstone Dark blue shale with sandstone partings ... Hard fine grained sandstone with shaly streaks.. te See a . Dark blue shale Coarse white sandstone with thin bands of micaceous shale ae Dark blue shale with thin sandstone bands very hard, varying from 3” — 5” thick (At 825’ 830’ and 835’ bands of hard white sandstone). Bottom of this bed dipping N.N.E. about 1 in 16 Hard white sandstone with current bed- ding strongly developed, very friable... Dark blue shale with thin bands of dark sandstone (At 888’ impression of Lqui- setum or Zeugophyllites in grey shales; 890’ fine grained sandstone ... Sandy shale uh dee noe bands (At 919! thin parting with calcite crystals, 925’ hard fine grained sandstone bands, 930’ dark shale with abundant Lquisetum, 932’ band of brownish-black shale) .. Hard white sandstone with nodules of shale Dark blue shale with thin sandstone bands (975' dark shale with Alethopteris? 980’ dark shale with Thinnfeldia? 986' calcite, 992’ concretionary markings)... Light greyish shale.. Dark blue shale, plants Thinnfeldia, Equi: setum, &e. ret 000’ Sees Light grey shale (1,010’ 10” band of very hard grey sandstone 1,022’ 7” coalpipes [In this bed were found Phinnjeldia odontop- teroides, Morris; T. narrabeenensis, nov. sp.; Ale- thopteris, nov. sp.; Teniopteris, nov. sp.; Equisetum, Fructification (cf. Sphereda and Beania)—all ot Triassic Age. | 213 Thickness Depth from 13 14 13 a 14 | 47 38 63 10 4M 6 co © HZ OS © On 10 10 open) © co bo 8 Surface. ote aA: (ae AE aon © (D4 Mal 766 Moy 2) 768 «3 CUS 7 Cia 779 4 793 9 SA a 880 4 890 2 953 10 963 4 993 10 998 4 1,004 7 1,024 9 214 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. Strata. Dark chocolate shale (at 1,038’ three inch band of dark grey sandstone with coal- pipes; 1,072’ hard band of purplish- brown micaceous sandstone, with darker purple streaks, 4” thick; 1,075’ six inch band of mottled chocolate and greenish grey shale) Grey shale ... Mottled chocolate shale Dark chocolate shale Mottled chocolate and grey shale... Dark chocolate shale - Greenish glauconitic sandstone Dark chocolate shale Mottled chocolate and grey shale .. Dark chocolate shale Mottled chocolate shale and greenish sand- stone ee Greenish-grey glauconitic sandstone Dark grey shale with Hquzsetum ... Dark chocolate shale a Greenish glauconitic sandstone Dark chocolate shale Greenish glauconitic sandstone (coalpipes ab 1,175") Bas 2 wa * Mottled chocolate shale Dark chocolate shale Ses Dark blue shale with Lquisetum (shale ball near slip at 1,187’) Very dark grey shale Dark grey shale Dark blue shale ; Chocolate and grey shale, slip i in shaft wall and very hard shale balls Grey sandstone Grey shale with dark sandy 1 micaceous shale Grey shaly sandstone with dark eae it Hard grey micaceous sandstone Hard mottled chocolate shale, lighter near aslip .. Dark chocolate shales, =, slightly mottled in places ... ae sts Purplish gritty micaceous shale... d Purple and green sandy shale ( glauconitic) Thickness HZ AD, Is 1 10 Dye28, 12 10 6 44 0 13 Oy =i IES 2 APs) 0 54 6 113 6 5 2 9 Sy eel: 23° 0 3. 0 6 6 Dee, 2 6 0 3 Qiwet Onn Ow 0 8 0 10 Oi? 1 O LPrOx Lined owes 2 0 Depth from Surface. 1,077 0 1,078) 3 1,080 1 1,082 9 1,095 7 1,101 112 162s 1 103) wh 1, 122608 : LA te 1) 27emeley 1,134 11 114 4 144i th 1,149 «2 LA3ie 1176 0 1,182 6 1,184 8 LI8e 2 1, ESS 1,190 0 1,190 9 1,191 4 1; 192: 10 1,192 10 1,193 0 1,194 0 1,195 0 1,196 5 1,197 8 1,199 8 ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. Strata. Dark purplish-green mottled shale ce niti¢é) ... Mottled shale, chocolate and grey... Light grey sandy shale, Sea streaks Dark blue shale : e Et Hard light grey shale 2 Alternate streaks of light and dark shale.. Hard light grey shale ‘with Equisetum Alternate streaks of light and dark shale... Hard light grey shale : Alternate streaks, hard light. and dark shale Very hard dark blue shale.. * Very hard grey sandstone with dark streaks Very hard dark micaceous sandstone Very hard grey sandstone with dark micace- ous streaks Light grey micaceous shaly sandstone with streaks of dark shale (1,230' bright bitumen coal pipe) .. Hard dark blue shale (1, 234! Thinnfeldia MSPs) Hard grey shaly sandstone with bands of darker sandstone and blue shale Dark blue shale with bands of shaly sand- stone... ar Alternate bands, 14” — a4" thick, ‘of grey shaly sandstone and dark blue shale.. Grey shaly sandstone a be Dark blue shale Shaly sandstone with streaks of darker micaceous sandstone .. AS: Sia Grey shaly sandstone Alternate bands of grey shaly sandstone and dark blue shale, averaging 234” thick Grey shaly sandstone Dark blue shale with streaks of shale, with Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, Morris Sais Very hard greyshaly sandstone with streaks of darker sandstone ... Alternate bands of dark shale and hard grey sandstone ; Blue sandy shale, fissile, micaceous with Thinnfeldia odontopteroides ... Mottled chocolate shale—dark chocolate and bluish-green | Thickness Le a0) a 0 9 | ea | Ay ©) 0 3 0 9 ORS orl 0 8 4 9 pee? 0 10 Aes 9 11 4 QO 20 10 a0 ie: Wo 4 0 10 0 6 Thu Os live, 1 Ee) 6 103 074 De 81.94 bh. 5 215 Depth from Surface. 1,200 8 1,203 3 1,204 0° 1,205 1 1,209 10 1,210 3 1,210 10 2 1,212 4 Memes WY) LOM erates aU Wye) ey) 1,224 0 1,233 11 1,237 11 oes) 1,266 3 1,260). % 1,268 11 26909 Ua) 8: 1,271 34 1,272 54 1,273 74 1,280 6 1,281 14 1,283 14 1,291 4 216 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. Strata. | Thickness | PERMA nom Blue shale ... ad ~e -l Lb Os (lh2 ae Mottled chocolate shale iS 3 O .| 1 236nRe Bluish shale with Thinnfeldia odontopter- oides 8 2.) 13045 Bluish shale with dark bands and anol patches of glauconitic sandstone ... 0 6 /1,305 5 y\ Dark blue shale with coal pipe (4”) 2 04 11,307 54% Carbonaceous shale, with coal pipes and Equisetum 1 O14, | 1,300 Dark blue micaceous shale with 3 L" coal- pipe .. lL 1. | 308s * These beds contain Thinnfeldia pdentonten! oides, Morris, 7. narrabeenensis, sp. nov., and a Thinnfeldia with small pinnules, probably a new variety—Triassic. Mottled chocolate and green shale, micaceous} 3 11 /|1,312 7 Bluish-grey shale with dark streaks jointed, coarse, with carbonaceous bands, 7hinn- feldia sp. abundant... 3-4 | halo=tt i Bluish-green sandy shale, Thinnfeldia 2 10° | oles ; Grey sandy shale 1 7 {1,820 4 Greenish-grey micaceous sandy shale with : carbonaceous jae 2” coal pipe at ) bottom .. 1. “S061 S2aeNS 5 Greenish- orey micaceous shale, glauconitic 2 in parts, stained with chocolate, large Thinnfeldia ... a 2 .0 ‘Razer as P Greenish-grey micaceous sandy shale with . tinges of chocolate in places ... wl > Ll (6 Aa aes Greyish : shale ia 0 2 |1,3825. 5 Dark micaceous shale with patches of ' chocolate shale 3. 7 >| 132000 Dark chocolate and green ‘mottled shale, micaceous 2 0 | 1,334 Greenish-grey glauconitic sandstone 1 2 |1j332i2 ‘7 Mottled shale—grey and dark grey 0 3 11,332 45 Chocolate shale... ¥ 1 74 7 1jasar a9 Mottled chocolate shale 6 7 {1,340 4 Bluish-grey shale y 2 0 |1,342 4 Very hard dark blue sandy shale, micaceous| 4 6 | 1,346 10 Bluish-grey sandy shale 0 53 11,347 34 Dark blue shale ; ; 2 0 | 1,349 3 Dark bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale, hard) 3 104 | 1,353 2 Bluish sandy shale .. O 94 | 1,353 113 Hard fine grained bluish-green sandstone, coarse, dark streaks ... 0 6 ‘1,354 54 ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. Strata. | Thickness Hard fine grained greenish sandstone, micaceous Greyish micaceous sandy shale Fine grained sandstone with dark shaly streaks, micaceous 4 Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained grey sandstone, micace- ous fragments of shale and garnets (?) Alternate heads 22” — 42” thick of hard fine grained Sandstone and bluish shale ... Hard fine grained grey sandstone with thin carbonaceous streaks ... Dark grey sandy shale Hard fine grained, light grey sandstone (garnets) Dark grey sandy shale Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone ee Dark grey sandy shale Hard fine grained light grey sandstone Dark grey sandy shale : Hard fine grained light grey sandstone Dark grey Randy shale 3 Hard tine grained light grey sandstone Dark grey sandy shale Hard fine grained light grey sandstone Dark grey ‘oni shale Hard fine grained light grey sandstone Dark ereetiish- -grey shale, with chocolate... Greenish-grey micaceous ‘sandstone Micaceous sandy shale Greenish sandstone, fine grained, micaceous Bluish-grey micaceous shale Bee Irregular fragments of bluish shale in grey micaceous sandstone ... Light grey micaceous sandstone with in- cluded fragments of shale and red grains (garnets ) Dark bluish sandy shale Hard grey micaceous sandstone with pebbles of shale (included) Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Bluish-grey micaceous shale with Hquisetum Bluish-green sandstone, fine grained, hard Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale on (=) BPFWwWworrebNwNonononcneoeo°co°oor SO So = owoorpD DN — b> dle Lod LN) No) ll) al NO) AHAOADOAANWINW|DOWOK WE 217 Depth from Surface. a oe So Ce [Noe Nol pm AHAOWORNNONOCOWWOCOSbD bole bie a bole bo COUR © CO © So - 218 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. Strata. Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone : Dark blue micaceous sandy shale .. Hard fine grained bluish- “Brey micaceous sandstone Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone Dark blue micaceous sandy shale .. Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale. Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone 5 Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone : Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone b Dark blue micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone ; Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone Bluish-grey micaceous shaly ‘sandstone Dark blue micaceous sandy shale .. Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone : Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Hard fine grained grey micaceous sandstone Hard fine grained bluish-grey micaceous sandstone . Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale Very hard fine grained bluish- ce micace- ous sandstone ... Hard fine grained bluish- rey micaceous sandstone Fine grained bluish-grey 1 micaceous shaly sandstone - Hard fine grained aren micaceous sandstone Thickness a 1 O Lees 3 el yt 0 103% 3 14 Ong QO 24 1 0% 0 4 5 0 Weil (0) 0 42 0 4 0 94 1 24 0 114 Doi Qe 4 34 6 6 0 10 0 6 0 114 0 84 0 1l 7 82 Depth from Surface. 1,417 1,418 6 1,420 2 1424 1 1,429 2 1,430 Of K4Ser 22 1,483.11 1,434 1} U43on 22 1,435 6 1,440 6 1,442 1,442 8 1,443 04 1,443 42 1,444 2 1,445 44 1,446 4 : 1,448 11 1,458 6 1,462 «9 1,469 3 1,470 Ff 1,470 7 LAT & 1,472 34 1,473 2 1,480 11 ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 219 Strata. Thickness | Es ets Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale weal ONG bei Very hard fine grained bluish-grey micace- ous sopisiens ae Sele ize Wb AS2 oie Greenish-grey micaceous sandy shale | 3 O [1,485 74 Hard fine grained dark bluish-grey micace- ous sandy shale ct y | O 84 11,486 4 Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale. 2 Ui | 1489 3 Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone oe: 1 4% /1,490 74 Bluish-grey micaceous sendy shale with light streaks ... 1 44 /1,492 0 Hard fine grained light grey micaceous sandstone a : peaiterec Mee Onn tna aS Bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale | O 42 71,495 02 Hard fine grained light grey micaceous suc euene ne aus aie a [ 1,500] It may be mentioned that the Birthday Shaft bears S. 67° 15’ W. from the No. 2 Cremorne Bore, and is 260 chains distant. The original rock level at the Birthday Shaft was 73 feet above mean low tide level in Sydney Harbour, but the top of the brick wall- ing in the shaft is now 80 feet above mean low tide, this being the finished level of the pit mouth. The distance from the shaft to the shore of the harbour at the nearest point is 70 yards. With regard to features, connected with the geological section, which may have some modifying influence on rock temperature, it may be mentioned that very little gas has, as yet, been met with in the shaft, with the exception of a small blower at the 607 feet level. A bed of clay shale, having a thickness of 7 feet, was met with three feet below this level. For some distance above this, and for a considerably greater depth, the sandstone showed a tendency to burst off, in large flakes, from two sides of the shaft as though it were under considerable pressure. This necessitated the walls of the shaft being temporarily secured by close timbering, pending the putting in of the permanent brick walling. As regards water circulating in the strata penetrated by the shaft, the following may be recorded :—The amount of water met 220 J. L. C. RAE, E. F. PITTMAN, AND T. W. E. DAVID. with down to 416 feet 64 inches was about 75 gallons per hour. Below this a bed of soft porous sandstone was passed through, having a'thickness of 22 feet 1} inches. The base of this bed was, therefore, at a depth of 438 feet 8 inches, and water made in the shaft at this level, at the rate of 200 gallons per hour, thus bringing the total inflow up to 275 gallons per hour. Ata depth of 442 feet, where a “ walling curb” was seated, a “‘ water ring” or “garland” was also putin. In thisall the water was collected and thence led down one side of the shaft in a 2” diameter wrought iron pipe. The same amount of water, viz. 275 gallons per hour, continued to a depth of 607 feet, when in a bed of hard, greyish- white, false bedded, and very friable sandstone, a feeder of water accompanied by gas was met with, the inflow of water being at the rate of 170 gallons per hour, thus making the total inflow 445 gallons per hour. The gas, which evidently came from a bed of clay shale which was struck three feet below the feeder, took fire when a light was applied. Ata depth of 672 feet, in a bed of clay shale, soft and jointed and one foot thick, another small feeder of water was struck which raised the total inflow to 463 gallons per hour. At a depth of 690 feet, the sinking being then in a thick bed of greyish-white sandstone, false bedded and friable, the water increased to 597 gallons per hour, and in the same bed of rock, ata depth of 700 feet, the total inflow still further increased to 654 gallons per hour. This bed of sandstone was 43 feet 10 inches thick, the top being 676 feet from the surface (top of brick walling) and the bottom 719 feet 10 inches. Ata depth of 720 feet the water began to decrease, the total inflow being at the rate of 550 gallons per hour, and at the 750 feet level it had still further decreased to 511 gallons per hour. At the 768 feet level another “ water ring” was put in, from which the whole of the water was led down the shaft in two inch diameter wrought iron pipes. When a depth of 774 feet was reached it was found that the inflow of water had still further decreased, the total amount being about 502 gallons per hour. Thence, down to the bottom of the shaft, the average inflow has ranged from 480 to 510 gallons per hour. ) ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 221 The water flowing into the shaft from between the “water rings” fixed at the 442 feet and 768 feet levels, is remarkably rich in lime, with distinct traces of barytes. So much lime is present that, in the space of a fortnight, the two inch pipe, leading the water down from the 768 feet level to the bottom of the shaft, became almost completely blocked with a solid fibrous, radial incrustation of barytic carbonate of lime. The iron pipes were consequently replaced with wooden boxes, three inches square, which can be taken to pieces when it is necessary to remove the incrustation. As the two inch wrought iron pipes from the “‘ water ring ” at the 442 feet level show no signs of lime incrustation, it is evident that it comes from somewhere between the 442 feet and 768 feet levels. Mr. H. G. Smith, F.c.s., and one of us (Professor David) have already noticed the occurrence of barytes in the Hawkesbury series, but this abundance of lime in the Hawkesbury Sandstone is quite exceptional. IV. Diagram showing Temperature Curve and Table of Records of Rock Temperatures.—The following curve diagram and table give full particulars of the results of the observations made in the Birthday Shaft :— VE eS aE 2 eee ee eee talk, sedoe q Teese | prt Boa Tk (Bary sine US) 2 eee ee ee eee Be een ae Sci at al Ea a fon {2 ae (all 2a) Re Se eS Ee ae {|_| LS eS See eee ee earn Sa as ZA iS 25 Eee Ee oe emailer ee Ge | 68° |fack Temperature seer aay Hactpen Oey i | Barthday Sho Aare) RGN NE ee eee eee eee = pied tikes kectect eet SS) ape Me ee eee ee et So le [7+ |e} [a sooo he i * ah sod Feet * RECORDS OF ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY BIRTHDAY SHAFT, BALMAIN, SYDNEY, N.S.W. Depth from surface, feet 606 700 758 854 902 951 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1449 -e DMD fe om Ite de leo asa ; n a ra BOR So [A BAS n Bee FES lees, ,|8c es A |S o nese asia 2s won (Png |Fe ate saga Nature of Rock. ee aloe ala Baa\ce eac ROMAISAPA SPA gear aoe 5. 82/3 espe ae AdgatAostlzZPssslarses Hard greyish-white sandstone, cur- rent bedding strongly developed, very friable ... ee Jan. Jan. 12 84 3 Hard greyish-white sandstone, cur- rent bedding strongly developed. very friable ... ts Feb. 27 | Feb. 28 39 3 Hard white sandstone .. Mar.28 | Mar. 30 403 3 Hard white sandstone, current bed- ding strongly developed, very friable ... Bsc 360 May 1| May 3 48 3 Sandy shale with occasional bands of dark shale ... ; ...| May 27 | May 31 603 3 Sandy shale with occasional bands of dark shale ... ; : .|June 9/Junel2| 403 3 Dark blue shale with numerous ‘plants (Thinnfeldia, Equisetum, PEED: teris) and coal pipes... er ..,| June 23| June24; 61 4 Dark chocolate shale ... Bs ...| July 15| July 17 48 4 Dark chocolate shale ... a6 ...| July 25 | July 26 45 4 Dark chocolate shale ... i Aug. 2| Aug. 3 573 5 Dark purple and green mottled shale Aug. 23 | Aug. 25 3738 5 Hard grey shaly sandstone with bands of darker sandstone and blue shale __... Sept.5|Sept.7| 43¢ 5 Blue shale with plant “impressions | (Thinnfeldia odontopteroides) .... Sept 23|Sept.25| 352 5 Hard, dark bluish-grey micaceous sandy shale ... 56 | Oct. 8) Oct. 4 514 5 Fine grained greenish- “orey micace- ous sandstone ws : ...| Oct. 13 | Oct. 15 34 5 Hard, fine grained bluish- -grey ‘mica- ceous sandstone a .| Nov. 21 | Nov. 23 373 5 Temperatures of ther- mometers at time of in- sertion in holes (° Fah.) Slow-action Maximum thermometers. | thermometers. No. | No. | No. | No. 50452 | 50454 | 15888 | 65294 64 ee |. lo: 615 | 61°25]... eae 69°5 | 67 71 69 65 64°5 | 67°5 | 68 (Ab) Ieiaion \d4ro) Ibo 74°25 | 70°25 | 75°5 | 73 74°25 | 75°25 | 76 76 78 72°75 | 72°5 | 74°75 73 73°75 | 75 74'5 nn o ul } .| Temperatures of ther- |Corrected temperatures of ther- a8 g FS cS £ > |mometers at time of with-| mometers in accordance with go s/t hy ® § |\drawal from holes (° Fah.)| Kew certificate (degrees Fah.) 2 ols 8 = = Slow-action Maximum Slow-action Maximum HOR! O S og® Reels ¢ thermometers. | thermometers. | thermometers. thermometers, 688/22 .8| No. | No. | No. | No. | No. | No. | No. | No. Ze E/O.8 4 g| 50402 | 50454 | 15888 65294 | 50452 | 50454 | 15888 | 65294 432 | Feb. 3 | 70 69°75 |... noo |fVAD 69°75]... bs 1404 | Mar. 8 | 71 70°9 a 5 Hell 70°9 ; Pat 129% | April6 | 70°8 | 70°5 me . {708 | 705 : ee 764 | May 8] 71 70°5 ; eal 70°5 seh Ate 150 | June9}|70'5 | 70°25) ... .. |70°5 | 70°25 ‘ ne 2132 | June 23) 70°75 | 71 ae sen ORCS. el sai aes 434 | June 28} 73°5 | 73°25 a . [73 515) 73°25 aa 854 | July 23) 73°25 | 73:1 : .. |73°262| 73°1 6 ee 412 | July 30} 75 74°75 es .. {75°03 | 74°75]... af 653 | Aug. 8| 75°75 | 75°8 | 76 75'5 | 75°787 75'8 75°95 175 5 161; | Sept. 2 | 76°25 | 76:1 | 76°25 | 76:4 | 76°292 76°L |'76°208| 76°4 37 | Sept.9|77°8 | 77°75 | 778 | 78 77:°858] 77°75 | 77°742| 78 113% | Oct. 1 | 78 77°75 |77°6 |77°6 |78:06 | 77°75 | 77544) 77°6 383 | Oct. 8| 78:9 | 78°75 | 78°6 | 78:3 | 78°962| 73°75 | 78°534) 78:3 49 | Oct.18} 79°5 | 79 79'°1 | 78:25 | 79 575} 79 78°98 | 78°25 146 | Dec. 1! 79 79 79 78°25 | 79°07 | 79 78°93 | 78°25 Mean of corrected temperatures. 70-375) 70°875 73°382 73 181 74:89 75 762 76°25 77 837 77 735 78°638 78:951 78°812 ROCK TEMPERATURES AT SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. D5 Nore.—From 1,150 feet downwards, the thermometers were placed in the holes in pairs, one slow-action and one maximum thermometer being inserted in each hole, as follows :— No. 1 Hole. No. 2 Hole. Thermometers— Thermometers— At the 1150 feet level Nos. 50452 and 65294 ... Nos. 50454 and 15888 » 1200 a » 00452 ,, 65294 ... » 00454 ,, 15888 me 6250 4s » 00452 ,, 66294 ... » 00454 ,, 15888 > 1800 “ » 980452 ,, 15888 .... » 00454 ,, 65294 pe 1350 Bs » 90452 ,, 65294 » 00454 ,, 15888 » 1400 x » 00452 ,, 15888 » 00454 ,, 65294 » 1449 Ae » 00452 .,, 65294 » 900454 ,, 15888 In the observations of rock temperatures at the No. 2 Cremorne Bore (referred to in the introduction to this paper) the mean annual surface temperature at Sydney was taken as 63° Fahr. (this having been determined by Mr. H.C. Russell, F.r.s., Director of the Sydney Observatory), whilst the stratum of invariable temperature was assumed to be 15 feet below the surface. On this basis the average rate of increase of temperature downwards, in the Birthday Shaft will be found to be 1° Fahr. for every 90-7 feet. V. Rock temperatures, observed elsewhere, for comparison with the observations made in the Birthday Shaft, Sydney Harbour Colluery :-— Place where observations were made. D eee in SOE Schladebach Bore, Prussia... ite seg soc. DABS 65 Astley Colliery, Dukinfield... ae si vl 2,700 72 Ashton Moss Colliery, Manchester = ...| 2,790 WE Dukenfield Colliery .., it nee mi Seal BOD 83 St. Gothard Tunnel... oi mf sted | 5,078 82 Lansell’s Gold Mine, Victoria es 33 Salas ZoO 111 Prizbam Silver Mines, Bohemia ... ; 1,930 126 Calumet and Hecla Lode, Lake eae U. S. fe 4,712 223 VI. Conclusion.—It is proposed to continue these observations to the full depth to be reached by the Sydney Harbour Colliery Shafts (nearly 3,000 feet), and it would, therefore be premature as yet, to comment on the temperature curve obtained from the observations made so far. 224 B. G CORNEY, T. W. E. DAVID, AND F. B. GUTHRIE. Our thanks are specially due to Mr. T. Cater (contractor for the sinking of the shafts) for his valuable co-operation in the work. We also desire to express our obligations to Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.s., for the use of the thermometers, and to Mr, w. S. Dun for the detailed section of the shaft and determination of the fossils. Note on THE EDIBLE EARTH rrom FUJI. By the Hon. B. G. Corney, m.p., Professor Davin, 8.A., F.G.S., and F. B. GuTHRIE, F.C.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1899. ] THE sample of edible earth, which forms the subject of this note was collected by one of us (Dr. Corney), by whom it was presented to Professor T. P. Anderson Stuart, who in turn presented it to the Geological Department of the University of Sydney. The earth occurs in several localities in the Fiji Islands. The specimen examined was collected near the northern coast of the large island called Vanua Levu, where the rocks are igneous. The natives, that is the women, eat small portions of it at times, and assert that it has some salutary influence over the later stages of pregnancy. It seems not unlikely that it may relieve some of the disagreeable or painful sensations incidental to that condition; and the practice may have arisen in consequence. The natives have no specific name for this earth, calling it merely Qele kana, which means ‘edible earth.’ At Tavuki, on the north side of the island of Kadavu, it is met with in the solid, and the people cut it into brick-shaped blocks with which they face up the raised foundation mounds upon which their dwellings are constructed. The women there also eat it in small quantities. EDIBLE EARTH FROM FIJI. ; 225 At Naitasiri, on the bank of the Rewa river, the Indian coolies who work on the sugar plantations recently quarried out some three quarters of a ton of the earth, which by degrees they ate. - In their case it was noticed that those who were afflicted with the small intestinal nematode called Anchylostomum duodenale were ‘almost always geophagists ; but it is uncertain whether the dis- comforts arising out of the presence of this worm in the intestine give origin to a craving which the ingestion of the earth seems to partially satisfy, or whether the habit of earth-eating occurs first and is the means of introducing the ova of the parasite. Moist earth is understood to be the principal habitat of these ova during the extra-corporeal stage of their life-history, and therefore the latter supposition has received, perhaps, the most support. The material consists of a very soft, pale pink, clayey material, with small white patches of similar substance and occasional lumps of grey to reddish chalcedony. Its hardness is less than 1 on Moh’s scale. The matrix is extremely fine-grained for the most part, but here and there are lumps of angular chalcedony up to 14” in diameter. Angular and rounded pyramidal quartz crystals are also fairly numerous, and attain a diameter of from Wy UO There are also present numerous small and very perfect octahedral crystals of magnetite. Mr. W.G. Woolnough, B.sc., has estimated the amount of quartz and magnetite crystals present, and has found 5 per cent. quartz crystals and 0°5 per cent. magnetite. The rock has suffered so much from decomposition that it is difficult to obtain definite evidence as to whether it represents a decomposed volcanic tuff or a decomposed lava. On the whole it is probable that it represents a decomposed tuff of the nature perhaps of a quartz andesite (dacite). It is even possible that the lava may have been sufficiently acid to justify its being classed as a rhyolite. Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.a., has already described both rhyolites and andesites from Fiji. On the whole, in view of the abundance of magnetite crystals, it is more probable that the rock was originally a dacite. It was probably of tuffaceous origin, and though now, as the subjoined O—Dec. 6, 1899, 226 B. G. CORNEY, T. W. E. DAVID, AND F. B. GUTHRIE, analysis shows, practically a kaolinite, was probably origina a dacite tuff. Moisture at 120° C... oe ane i 2°45 Combined water... nie an 2 PQS Silica ae sik sad AH) ..) eS Alumina * cee site on, O08 Oxide of Iron, “(Fe,0 ),) 5 ae Sa. GIG 99°51 The earth in question is very soft, of a pinkish colour, with redder patches of ferric oxide distributed irregularly throughout. The oxide of iron can be dissolved out with hydrochloric acid. The colour is unaltered on ignition. Moistened with water, the earth has the greasy feel and peculiar odour of moistened clay or kaolin. For analysis the sample was reduced to fine powder with very gentle pressure and separated from the harder quartz particles. by means of a very fine sieve. Lime and magnesia are absent; alkalies were not determined. The silica, alumina and combined water are present in approximately the proportions required by the formula AJ],0;(SiO,),(H.O),; the percentage composition of which would be— Silica = 46:5] Alumina = 39°54 Water = 13°95 100:00 The amount of silica found in the edible earth, if combined in these proportions with the alumina and water, would require 35:30 per cent. alumina and 12:46 combined water, quantities which are very close to those obtained by analysis. Assuming the material to be Al,0,(SiO,),(H,O), containing 7°66 per cent. ferric oxide and 2°45 per cent. moisture its cOMIpSE! a would be :— Calculated. Found. Moisture at 120° C... = 245 ae 2°45 Combined water = *]2'54 Lae ems Silica.. = 41°81 say Ae Pains es = Ose nIpy 'arUys Apseceasuon.d paseo syqyouoy FMP frem'apopnoyei sexo ‘hip doy popyuaens ‘pot 17M Purl] "PULS! WB AHAILAY 96] 199° ZN IIDLTYOOLL sojyounedg rapous Jo TPIAS‘seqyng ssymnopo abun) Menus 'aprynaR!Y IX ‘S779 parnojoo pordblijod 49 xept00 ‘epoyromunnn palymp puss bY %f TANOGOHY FG | “LE IsMy Loy ALDI you umodg Laojer ‘asoqonb mypnun.tea 'bu0) f 07 2), epearunl UMOLHY Ym Paro tps pro soynuodg ‘aulynD) ‘snomPory.Km? 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Jebraspores in the cortical stratum, scattered. JAg.1876.636. Tnarticulats alge, b2- ang. fértile Filaments axis. triangularly divided. | spores tm the terminal | the branchlets or in tx the upyoer part, with cellular cliapahragms. Cystocarp embracing raucles tr a closed glo- TeLraspores tnumersed, -bose external pericarp. from che Falacenta, ob- ~corttc, close, stijaitate, -cling stibramosely \ or-corticate, sub-continuous, | -lose and articulated only a sub-cornpound nacleus,\-centa, containing sin- and vertically seriated | Filaments, orpartly Filled, | with a percurrent art: external, in scarcely | J.Ag. 1876 . G30. changed branches. sixgle, frequently Thany te spores tr the termined J 4g. 1876. 607. anuaked ruclens, or pro - criomgularly divided, spores. Petraspores -culated axis. Ner: Bor: fim. 2.3. placenta in centre, sus- |-gle Jryriform clavate, pertcorns, containing | radiating from the pla- -coups trimersedin the qurchodli. disposed radt- of sterile Filaments, spores | the hollows, sparingly | -ally about central pla- corte, clawate- part (orm and with a tabular axis, lary stratum. Cysto- eal, siragle ordouble, | -mersed in the Frond or | or Furrtshed with areduh Fertile Filaments rarely vdliera chordalis. 3,| Phakdonia dendroides. PA.142\Wrangelia. clavigera. Pryc A287 Lornentarta capensis. Nec 29.| Pilonia. aushalasical Tas. 190. | Polystphonia rostrata. Phyc thest:242. 8 constituting hol - of articulated flla- lows, with fertile Fiha- | pended by Filaments, of longitadimal laments | card. containing yoorcurrent tr am external pert- I6 HYPNE ACE. camp, enclosing acorn - es Fertile Fila- | :ber Tetraspaes amongst theoo | minal, pyrttorm. Cystocarps hemispher- | collules. Cystocarps im- walls oP comity by slender | enta. formed ofa naum- wi many shortened fasci- -cments, or susperded | above, articulate, cles, with ablimes calumns | merts aggregated uv in the Frond, by inter- ticulale, gernmee on the | tn slighkly jsrominent | woven Fulaments, gen- highest orticulations.| sori, large, rouncl, _——_ Jelra spores mirudte, cz) A on charged frond or suzer ficial sori. Plerocladia. Wueida.. Phyc.Aust.248. -er fibrous cells. Fiolaanents. clowalk- obovate spores | clavate-cbovate, terminal, | brariched, spores ter- ~ulose or dense corn- | Ly formed of derrsely wov- pericarp roreorless | -sepimert longitudmal prominent, apertued, | and connectedweth the long, poromirtent, free ut the terminal braziched, single, 1878532. I filarnerts, short or cells. Gystocarps imn- Inarticulate algce, tub- | Trearticulate aloce genenl-| Irowticulate alge, formed | Irarticulate alge, tululose, | Articulate alge, naked | Inartioulate alge, tabu. filarments of long or short iG a calcareous deposit. 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AMM paploym aleyny puory OP SINWINOSS . 6S C99 PY 18 ILEl Gyr sappy pps uo seuocisa.9eg oes OK UGD PUNO S7UBIUIO | peep bun] 0 WErIEnDL}s 1 Bee ta hymbon Sits “ioe! eT eng Ey OC ake eS C1 OL 6/ ‘py psmmnonclsU09 SQLOCISWALVA ‘ayatonjonued anjaAny ‘schy 949 FO epoymoneu pun peayet ee) m0 fo saxo vaymanel punochioee ayay2oo Yael yp re) I ‘PLOT LG Lge 09 ‘926! By p apOyyova=ten soumeuos saioclsv.ryay ane ERO “Paloym seruyeuios ‘SERENA 0 xp tae eee ‘Pael-BS0L Hoe: purty BY vee 9¢ a ANAT MEH FH IOTNY 2 savoelsana pramochuovep fyepounned ‘pronpec sraTyonnoug prouprap prbree rueLoyyy ‘umo1g 40 026 07 Brey ‘ood-asoe ee HOLT “Nef Li os “p 918! By p -syyryoumag v0 sauods Duyn | Sapo og ye prone hypararob yoonporno.g “anpronu ‘udoy yy ‘ysehind 10 Pot-anel PUL sf gbuhT NOINNVHLITIVS 8S Filarnents From. cystorarp. / Tetrospores transformed. | jotnts coirecicling. from the articulations crustaceows or membranous, cells ir loose Tuxcus or solid- | or conjoined vertical Rlaments.| the diaphragms joined | Fulamercts. Coreceptacles | ty concreted. te the form. of warts orm of the Filaments, gen- -ously clivided. Jfig. 1876 | erally cruciately olivia in a hyoline membrane, -mersed tir the frond. Filarrents of parasite. Phodopeltis australis Plyc.A. 264 tty, 1816373. sub- -corymbose or sub-pou- cwlately branched, te fertile Filaments aggregated | upper branches sub-con- Phage. Aust. 254. Trarticulate algcomaely | Mrarticulate algee, globule | Frond calcareous, its inflated: tuhulose, frequent:| or horizontally expanded, ly solid cellalan; the owter celds coryoined vertical or a round nearly naked | remathecta, lranstorm- conjoined vertical Filaments| ruacleus in an external pericarp. Fertile Fila cleus. Telraspores vari- -fluertly forming a na- Rhodophyllis Repiaricarpe- 307. 8.RHODYME NIACEAZ. 9SQUAMARIACE I0.CORALLINACEA. a Sob. Conceptacle 1 obj. Champia comyressa, external pericarp and | res art surrourded with slerder Inacticulote tubular alge, He medullary stratum of amongst the articulations. Jig 1878.290. vided by diaphragms, cobwebby Fileanents, the The outer cells frequently tr from bhe base reticulate and. cmastorrasing, spores Horea Fruticulose., Phyc.Aust156. by vertical flamers, Harv. Phyc. Aust. 187. Exythrocloriure. Filaments ard enclased in | Favellee within a proper -current Filaments, the cuter-| large empty cells, or di- aretwork of filaments. tnost of radiating cellules of fertile Filamerts ir ote below. Ig.275 Hoary. Phyo Aust. 115,and\ divtded. J Ag.1876.266. | -dichotomous and articu Conceptacles immersed trv medulley strodum of jaex Nueleol arranged around | the frond, suspended a- Seckon through conceptacte, Areshougia Shxarti. Section of frond shewing (cinaspores. Concepptacle, 140). frequervily subdichotomons,| Macleoli: radltately disposed. Telraspores tmanersed. in | articulate below, sometimes | arowid. the central palacente, Beraspores immersed | the pertpheric strahun in| crowded without ordex | and. consisting of bundles or evolved From nema: | Holosaccton. ttucta, transformed From the cells of the cortical a. cervored jolacental colurnn, | -morgst the medullary rrore or less clerusely cor- in a jaroper exterral Letraspores on the ravelli, Se Dasyphloen lastarica| sub-exterrol, riomgularly | fastigiate fascicles, sub- jf 4 Spyridea eppesica Harv. Phyc. Aust. 158. | 6. 187 Nézzophloeea in Ag. uous, tabular or filled | Sub-cormpcurd rucleus. of ramelli in Dudresnaya, | Hee fertile Fuamerts with Filaments in Du- a proper joerveanp, sub- | tromia. bearing flamers divided, | -ticated, Spore masses lated ramelli , he spore- supported a gelatine. eeorilene Tasmanica. oblong, Zorale. Duclresnaya arstralts, J Ag. Fruit attached to Moments of periphery. 1x ob. } _ | Aroma composed of round | Sporemass formed on owtiea- | Articulate, monosiphonous, | Inarticulate, wabudose, with on inarteulate, horny, | Filaments surrounded by small bronchlets ), spores | cartilaginous, gelatinous, or aggregated without order | membranous frond, Iles obtustfolice, stratum. Ag. 1876.17. Phye. Aust. 193. ie proximating. vertical cells. Nucleus Frond. orticulate or contin: | pertcorp Frequently lobed, corryzourud, immersed tr Felournerus held i gelatine. | Che Fronal or contoured in Articulated one-tubed \ The trembranous ones cornposed. ofmany fertile Sore irasses immersed | cells more or less aj- urthe frond or slightly morliform faments or a continous stratum oF Ce Ag. 1876. 112 -r towards the surface. sunple, of a rounulish Spores rowudish-angulom | mass of spores. Tétraspores Frequently with cells gradually small- \ indefinitely surrounded, | Tetraspores at the aqaices | Frequently redioting, prominent, rurcleus articulated confervord Favelloe, 14 off. Halymenia Floresta: Ag. Paaplish or rose-real formed tn great part of | lobes cus oF coalescing. Tetraspores variously divided..Ag. 1816. 2. |. CERAMIACEAE. 2.CRYPTONEMIACE/E. S.GIGARTINE AE. 4NEMATOSPERMEZ.. 5.SPYRIDIEZE. Favelle, highly magrthed. Nacleis (syoore-rnowss) ad- role, sitrgle or lobed, witty decurrent fibres, at length cellulose. tranous cell, developed. algce, raked, or covereol externally. Ptilota Jeannerettion, Howry. | Syeore masses surgle, naked or trwolucrate (by within o hyodine mem- : Plate I. | , | TT a pe tg (Rhodonena) KOZ. Z BIE —— | or | : | i : | : | S | | 3 | | | . ‘Journal Royal Society, WS.W.; Vol. XXXITI, 1899. Plate IT. (LUSTeATIANS ane CENERA OF 1 FLORID = fae. | | | , on preceding Sheet. Numbers refer to Mesracs and LDescrtjtiums of Genera 94 / | Pert ofplant ret, site 18 es Plant naésize. Pape IRIS: Prtiom of Prowse 13 0b 5 : #1 yp! Sy i : = : Spores — Ginceptacles. | Sectton thro frond, eee SS S| Gf Met ote Spat! wy jee P aa ncepbees eee & nooo rye Fi ae Peripherte organs Tat Sexe. e Ff B G, lamiemts of ster Cys: YTULOGONGTUS farcellatus ‘ Desmia Kilnreri Callsblyshaavis Prissiana Preithecladia australis |Lanardnia marginalt Plilophara jorolilera. | Meristatheca Ceylanica. dined. elegans. et Uolia. | Jarcoreni ioicles. | Chonolriopsts lanceolata. vis ft; 11B90 2 119 | Wy 127 135 143 151 | , Branch nat. size Pert otplant: . Nat. size nah size TeFugnore s Spiniferous romulus | Aaloplegraa Freissit Grateloujnia prolifer 2 Acarthophora lic. Digenea simplex. Ag. /192 Via Aare af planet: | Aatsize. y CytBearaé Selian Hine Arend R hodojohay lis blepharicarpa Amyphiroa Bowerbonkit. Melanthalia obtuscita. Dacron Grevillei.5 Petreirddora divavienla Budera 104 x 136 j lil | | Metraspores Cocetalaix ! Erythroclonium Sonderi | Gloiosacetan Brownit. | Plant nat size Nat size Part of plant traf. $iza Es ayy “| Port of fart of plant } Nat size y 72al.Stze g w& Cnneal 1 aa 74 AN anes Mecucliary, “ ‘Sie z | s wioerer Bs 6 Y ~ AY By ak << eVSa é 7 | q Delt Spores: (BERTONE ‘ Sthass | & F Sectten Hi» concenGicle Portion of frond [2° \ i Wa epee s Branch ralsire. letraspores : Ternake stichiidio nak. size, Ka ae (ongseoteen Griffilksia ovals Brackycladia oustrolis | Fy Tiontlis \TACrOCAT PIO Ki ally menin jaolycoelioteles Areschougia ligulator Chrysymenia uvaria | Dictyopsts Kimbriata | J Y mirabilis, Ay Memalion rnsigne, Harr. Vhetangium variolosu. \yprea episcopalts . Khabdnia ides, Har: Z : d | Bostrychia rividaris. Harr, | 202D, Lawrenciana. 105 ‘6 Parke F plant Tah Sise | Part of plant aia Part of fertile branch, Nat.size eT ( Sechir erly. ff ; Conceplacle (ordylecladia. furcellata | Cruoria australis ? \Arthrocardia Werdii \Corallopsis Urrcllec, Mont) Stenocladia Furcate \G locophlaec scinatoides | Khedoductylis rubra. Harv 980 4 154 nefsbe Rect of plat Tah sere. Spores /4 obj. Ceramidia j i esogonune. Cryplonernie undulata | Polycoclia hastigiata Th haysanocladia Horveyora 74 Cystecarp Sectian of Fronol Part of Front: Nat sie : ~ (Comprsoteic) Leurencia date, Kary. Lenormandia marginata. | | __ 1202. D Gunniann, ; sé |. (iii \ Z Part of plant; i nak, Size i | | Rartol Mazi \alant: | | ames 4 Waa SE 28 abstr Rert cf plan Ral stxe. a y eS i Se — E / : = L. mm, Romelts See See \ a. iF Was ee Biri acer AES eSSiae ; U 5 y oi v Me Port af Plant . Sect. Phyilodiuum with| sae HS pe RSS y Nat. size. Ramente. YE 087. | (Rhodonema) Shy. | , Polyphacum Sreithice.. HEN | 202. 2. villosa. ie 4¢ | 5; Goes, frote i j LSmratcuet\ ff of an f hat. Sse Coneeptoetes 3 | Callophiyllis Ferveyana | Bron poly carpe, ie| Airtir showing hairs S rh ST OUT | Tie of Frorsd enlarged. Section Showirg spore erous MUCUS | Fy ip > Nitophyllam erosum \Scinaia moniliformis \Herenedya crispa. 131 139 ¥ Part of frend /i T hammocaipus glorulikera Centraceras clanwtatan Ceramidia Dasyphleea Tresignis. Monk:\ Frecewma tsiforme. 155 3 Se ; by S&S Part of plont-nat sin Atedulla a4 filaments | M Section of fron | y well resctel S| parvetiiant Ul 4, Met-stze : De Coe Zi 7 oe 9 Ee ais Portion mk Sexe (i? i | WA. Gonceptace. (Rawroog 7 ; : Lables, [i | Section okalant Zz FOO) Sars Re ; : : a a : een ; ! forthe. Seclan é Iara Se Ue obj- pepe Filament ot egsiocary = - | Ried surface 304. ! lees s ae | 9 py ee is é : pS (Dichotoree} (Stichocarnus) Crouaraa insignis \Schizymenia bullosa. | Ducdresnaya cuccined Rhodopeltis australis Hi|Corallina rosea, Lam| | Phodeseris cariilaginea? Liagora lyarosa \Plerceladia lucida. fs Oe Amansia pianatifrda, cladss.find| 20], Pabscissa. 202.D. harneoeladas : T T a wc 148 68 108 ie Aart of plant natsge ean . <5; SS Fe = 3 \ 5 = 4 Soctoneg Arvnd. Fare 06 pent | sees i (apie, Cornel tower | Gystocarp (Glornerulate) Rytiphleca oustialasica. 201 i glomerulata. | Park of flank tatsire thosin of fond (£08 / Enymeni reerebranace \Melabesia Paterna Hlel |Nezymenia australis | Tylotus cbtusatus. Sond | | lize iA aby. Hodaglaseite polycarnum| /Vizzophiwca tasmanica if Qelidium cornewre ' Eetoclines ur cerdaber. Gelaxanma umblata | Ketdium ¢ __|é 137 NE size Gaamattes Coramidiium Blau op Atel” ss e é S Ruck of Aronst entaryect is ay tee age free Cystocarp . Aartat leat ("oh | ‘ portion of bramat. ih Sort, Toh. : : : : : (Byssoide ) er : ¥ ‘ ee : Sa ie ~ Fructl: : ib ae Tr 5 y cboriec pecicellate. i Z eladlo hws Lasyphila Preissii | Halynenia Floresiea. Halosaceion joponica Plocamiree pramnions Lithothamnin mamillare | Phacelocarpus complancdtus Sarcodia Montagneara Caloglossa heparierte, Me Golinaria ubvidea, Jord: \Wrangeha. pericillate, Mb. : oorefertia. : Follex choi | 201 P SeRAUS. : Ricks .a. Rosouwn 40943 = Pholo-lithographed by : W. A. Gullick, Government. Printer, | . ‘Sydney, N.S.W. SSS a eo " syjuay 3 Sayaul yo ayes | S . os vs / S P| Pa eo eee i op Gi226s y= | viet Pewee. vs ae Prod Pr TD Trek BL SHEE: a = (F-81084 al | Wom Crl La | £88 me: nr anne 930 | AON | 190 | das | ony INN | AV | dd | HWW | aad | NVE W: Vol XXX 1699. hy, NS. aaa! Plate IT Sournal foval Society, N.S.W: Vol XM 1899. Uy QH\IS SHES BM I68I 29 $5) 81-5108-69 O6el 11582 LIE: 1G 6881 US HSI 888) 20-1700: 1/2085 188 Y > yy = 1G-Sie-L1SB26 990] po SG-ZUGE SIDE, > | £88 puaimsiyn| 230 | AON [490 | das | ony Ain¢ 3NNt| AVA MdvV | HVW aad NVC Tournal Royal Soctety, N.S. W., Vol. XX XIII, 1899. Plate IV. ECan Ice.—Striated Boulder, from Upper Marine Permo-Carboniferous Strata, Branxton, New South Wales. Natural size. RE. @: Ice.—Grooved Boulder, from base of Lower Marine Permo-Carboniferous Strata, Lochinvar, New South Wales. Two-thirds natural size. .* i “a z ‘ , NUS. Wales : Vol XXX, 1899 PlateV. T7170” 10 10 CHART N°44_ CT 1899 —|50 | Journal Royal Society, N.S Wales: VoL XXXIT, 1699. Plate V. CURRENT-PAPERS CHART N°4A SEP 1898 to OCT 1899 IF , DRIFT OF [THE BERTHSuIn 1899 Journal Royal Soccely, N.S. Whe Vol XXX, 1899. Plate VI. Payal GN oee eg SMichael 'ss60) Sr fan Formigoe | | Menon BY EgSD anges 23 Fuhawalpr Ae ( | a se ung in A WoO RT H . Si et & | SG fis (iets Roy } : poy ; A/D USF K ey) a LN ELED oi Ps 2 AN eke REDS} | fbn tte : Bis, 8 or P Ol 1) eee editbar "Cuber Bashiey g ee E ainan Str oe oe FareecVela s {PartdeRgarce 1100; 0 ar Z 20° Y « ES, Babl Taaragunt - ~ N OY OO ws cased ersans) WR SE tive dE cnantne eB } 5 Trin, cus f ine cardio Sn es Samar i! PHITIPPINE I* ae e o" Nine Degrees Chan gd" To Mvidoot & 5 G ead 6 Standrw Lele oere, Nie Sea td. potinablel — C.snFranct¥ i TAS 6 fer \aapeicna yee oo C.S* Loren*®\ an aur? StElena F Gof Guay! cst Sechure Lobos de Aive® SFPernambsco ' TER JCS Agostnho oS Ss ~ 4 LF Maceo ow EA Segipe diel Rey Bi | Bereta °° Martin Vas RM Easter I, oe 2 an my s wevey T je” vie (e fo Se Bez a vs S ser, x B a5 pe) is | as | CURRENT-PAPERS Q es Pee, GHART N° 4B nant ¢Gndlenas I. | e Sandwich «Sanders J. SEP 1898 To OCT. 1899 5 | OEmerald 1.10) i \f CEP atest a | © Bristol I. | q ¢ = South Dade | | Ea SSS SS Sr 0° ; no 40° 30° 20° West Longitude 10° Meri@ af O° Greenwich 10° East Longide 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° Bae 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° vo 150° 160° East’ Longitude 170° 180° ‘ ; | nated by Davies & Company I} London.-Published at the Admiralty.21"January1874 under the Superintendence of Rear Admiral G.H Richards. C.B-ER.S. Hydrographer Puen oes Dee : \) Sold by J.D. Potter. Agent. for the sale of the Admiralty Charts. 31 Poulixy & ll Ring Streco Tower Hi ESCA ABSTRACT oF PROCEEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE Rovul Society of Heo Routh dlales. DOOO) ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY 3, 1899. The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, May 3rd, 1899. The President, G. H. Knrpps, F.R.A.S., in the Chair. Fifty-two members and eight visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. One new member enrolled his name and was introduced. The following Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1899, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted. GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. 25 is le SJ Soe Cl One Guinea... ms a. LOD. 4 0 Two Guineas ... Ss .. 9384610 O Subscriptions 4 prears ... oF ey oo OS Of Be ev Advances ae ae ss 3 3 0 Entrance Fees _... Ve ae or nee 23 2 0 Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions received— 1898 . June 16, Balance of Vote for 1897-98 ... 152 9 O 1899 Feb. 3, Total Vote for 1898-99 __... «=e 0800) 0:0 ———. 652 9 O OR... ~ sn fs a sas ais LEO <0 Sundries... ite oa Rec Sie ans me te 37 15 0 Total Receipts Edo ae: 506 .. 128016 0 Balance on Ist April, 1898 ae See sae sist oc 42 2 1 £1322 18 1 lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PayYMENTS. £s d 2 ne Advertisements ... hot af ae oes 20 19 O 7 ae Assistant Secretary ae ia ras .. 250 207508 ‘* Books and Periodicals ... a a6 66 6 9 a Bookbinding okie ia a06 ae Sie 32 4 2 ef Conversazione, 1898 awe ae FA a L730 2 | Collector... 5 4 ,chee aes 2 18 10 a Freight, Charges, Pace ek Sis ae 419 4 Furniture and Effects... fe: sae at a 19 Gas ... ee ah a A Se a 27 10 6 | Housekeeper ase es sais a 5 10,0750 Tt Insurance ... ne ae Ee ae 11) 82: 40 | Interest on Monteage ae ties sae ar Ol (5 20 Office Boy ... oer ie ihe Sap 21 0 4 Petty Cash pepencce Bi aa ae oe + LO DSO Postage and Duty Stamps Sg tes Soe 33 5 O iPrintino ses. a ee 42 6 6 Printing and Eablahing J Sdiviel Sas co? LO Saal Printing Extra Copies of Papers aS oe Pape toy (0) Rates a ae 49 13 O Refreshments dna attendants ate Mectinge ho 23 4 O Repairs... ae bo es at or 47 16 O Stationery ... me ee ~ fe ~ 17 4 4 Sundries... ear = a eee se: 12 2 6 ‘Total Payments oe -. ————— 16s6scee Repayment to Clarke Memorial Fund... 606 200. 0) 16 Balance on 31st March, 1899, viz.:— Cash in Union Bank, General Account ... V7 iF M0 = Bs B. & I. Fund val § HO 46 Cash in hand... as ak a va 102 0G — 35 18 4 £13822 18 1 BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. RecEIPTS. Ss. eee Loan on Mereace at 4% 5nd wise ae a .. 1400 0 0 Clarke Memorial Fund— Loan at current Savings Bank rate of interest ... .. 208 14 0 £1608 14 ig PAYMENTS. £ 5s. dg Advance to General Account 31st March, 1897 Balance 31st March, 1899 a Am ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ve CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. RECEIPTS. es ude Loan to Building and Investment Fund, 31 March,1898 ... 396 15 11 Interest to 31 March, 1899 BS a 365 AN Pe ee as to | £408 14 O ss ae Repayment from General Account deposited in Savings Bank of New South Wales, March 31, 1899 Was ae sae 1200 0250 Loan to Building and Investment Fund, March 31,1899 ... 208 14 0 £408 14 O AUDITED AND FOUND CORRECT, pee ; EGnor anti ome Sypney, 20th April, 1899. H. G. A. WRIGHT, Honorary Treasurer. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. Messrs. T. F. Furber and R. P. Sellors were appointed Scru- tineers, and His Honor Judge Docker deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. A ballot was then taken, and the following gentlemen were elected officers and members of Council for the current year :— Honorary President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM EARL BEAUCHAMP, x.c.m.a. President: W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.¢. Vice-Presidents: Pror. ANDERSON STUART, m.p. | Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., ¥.a.s. CHARLES MOORE, t.t.s. HENRY DEANE, m.a., M. Inst. C.E. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.pr.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.us. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Members of Council: Cc. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. J. W. GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.E. H.C. RUSSELL, B.A., c.m.G., F.R.S. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.c.s. HENRY G. SMITH, r.c.s. H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.a.s. J. ASHBURTON THOMPSON, M.D. Brux., D.P.H. Camb., M.R.C.S. Eng. - Prof. LIVERSIDGE,m.A.,LL.D.,F.B.s.| PRor. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh.Sc. Vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of two for the first time. . The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— Powys, Arthur Owen, Actuary; North Sydney. The following announcements were made :— 1. That the Society’s Journal for 1898, Vol. xxx11., was in the hands of the binder, and would shortly be ready for delivery; also that Plate 1. illlustrating the paper on Tribes and Genera of Melanospermez (Olive-green seaweeds) was not inserted in the volume. Members wishing to obtain a copy are required to make personal application for the same. 2. That the Officers and Committee of the Engineering Section had been elected for the ensuing Session, and the dates fixed for their meetings as follows :— SEcTION MEETINGS. ENGINEERING— W ednesday, May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee, (8 p.m.) ay as w.. 1F 21 #19 16 20 Teese SECTIONAL CoMMITTEES—NSEsSION 1899. Section K.—Engineering. Chairman—H. R. Carleton, M. Inst. C.E. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—S. H. Barraclough, M.M.B., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Committee—Henry Deane, M. Inst. C.E., Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E., Percy Allan, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., G. R. Cowdery, J. M. Smail, M. Inst. c.E., J. I. Haycroft, M.E., M. Inst. C.E., I. Past-Chairmen, ex officio Members of Committee for three years :— Prof. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc., C.O. Burge, M. Inst. C.E., and T. H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. ME. 3. That the Officers and Committee of the Medical Section would be elected, and the dates fixed for their meeting on the 19th May. 4, That a letter had been received by the Council urging that more effective means be provided for enabling private members __ to nominate to the Council; it was stated that the matter is now under the consideration of the Council. | i : ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. . WAR The following letter and enclosures have been received from the President of the Royal Geographical Society. With a view to making the wishes of that body known to members of the Royal Society, these have been reproduced in extenso- 1 Savile Row, Burlington Gardens, London, W., November, 25th, 1898. Dear Sir,—A joint Committee of the Royal Society and of the Royat Geographical Society has been formed for the purpose of endeavouring to obtain the necessary funds wherewith to equip a British National Expedition for the exploration of the great unknown Antarctic area. For several years efforts have been made to induce the Imperial Government to send an expedition to complete the work of Sir James Ross sixty years ago. It has at last been definitely intimated that under the present circumstances there is no prospect of the Government undertaking such work; at the same time the Government expressed approval of the move- ment to obtain funds for an adequate private expedition, and promised to give such an expedition its countenance, and to some extent its support. The necessity for such an expedition is unanimously admitted by all Scientific Societies; and it is believed that Australasia would benefit more than any other part of the world, from the scientific results which are sure to be obtained. Iam sure it is unnecessary to urge upon you and your Society the great importance of Antarctic exploration; the papers which accompany this letter show fully what are the views of scientific men in Europe. If Great Britain is to maintain her place in the forefront of exploring enterprise there is no time to lose. In 1900 a fully equipped German expedition will leave for the Antarctic area, and if we hold back we should have no part in the last great piece of exploring work that remains to be done. Germany looks to Great Britain for co-operation, and there is ample room for both; the work thus jointly carried out on a common plan would be invaluable, and would probably solve once for all the great problems which await solution in the Antarctic. This Society contributes £5,000, and Mr. Alfred Harmsworth a like sum, and other smaller sums are promised; but a minimum of £50,000 is required, and further subscriptions are urgently wanted. Antarctic enterprise has special claims upon Australia, and I therefore appeal to your Society to use your influence, both with the Colonial Government and with private individuals to help the joint Committee to obtain the necessary funds. I am, yours sincerely, CLEMENT R. MARKHAM, President, Royal Geographical Society. President of the Royal Society, Sydney, N. 8S. Wales. Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. New ZEALAND AND ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. In connection with the movement for obtaining funds for a National Antarctic Expedition it is of interest to note the fact, that so long agoas July last the Legislative Council of New Zealand pronounced unanimously in favour of the Colonial Government contributing to support the move- ment. The Hon. Charles Bowen moved “That the Government be requested to place asum of money on the estimates: as a contribution towards the equipment of an Antarctic expedition which the Royal Geo- graphical and other scientific Societies are promoting, and to provide for a preliminary magnetic survey in New Zealand as far south as possible. The motion was fully discussed in the Council, and received the hearty support of all the speakers except one. The Hon. Dr. Grace thought all Governments should be encouraged to follow previous impulses. People must be worthy of their destiny. It was the destiny of New Zealand to influence largely the history of the future of these seas, and it was un- questionably our duty to be worthy of that destiny.” It is to be hoped that the other Australasian Colonies will follow the example of New Zealand and no doubt the President of the Royal Geographical Society will take steps to secure their co-operation. 1 Savile Row, Burlington Gardens, London W. November 19th, 1898. APPEAL FOR SUBSCRIPTIONS TO A NATIONAL ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir,—May I request permission to appeal through your columns for public support towards a National Antarctic Expedition. A joint Committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society has been formed to promote this object; and there is absolute unanimity among men of science with regard to the scientific importance of the results; while the magnetic survey will be of practical value to navigation. This appeal has become necessary because Her Majesty’s Government is unable to supply funds for the Expedition or to lend officers; but recoguises its scientific importance. The Admiralty, on the part of the Government, will aid the outfit of an expedition by aloan of instruments; their Lordships will place at the disposal of its leader any experience which may have been gained in the past; they regard the enterprise as one which is important in the interests of science; and will watch the results with great interest. Subscribers will, therefore, be aiding a great — work approved by H.M. Government. This is strictly a naval enterprise, and we all must regret that the navy is deprived of its right. But if naval officers on the active list cannot be spared, there will be plenty of volunteers from among young officers who have left the service, officers on the retired list, and officers of the naval reserve. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1m, A German Antarctic Expedition will be despatched in 1900, with naval officers, and wel] equipped in every respect. But the work to be done is very extensive, and must be divided. My German friends, therefore, hope that a British Expedition will co-operate with them, agreeing to take separate regions within the Antarctic circle. This is expected of us. If we hold back, our country will lose credit. For the first time in our history we shall shamefully resign our proud position, so long held, in the fore-front of exploration and discovery. I appeal to the patriotic feeling of all true Britons, and especialiy to those among my countrymen who possess the power which great wealth supplies. Subscriptions to the National Antarctic Expedition will be received by Messrs. Cocks Biddulph, 48, Charing Cross, S.W.; or at the office of the Royal Geographical Society, 1 Savile Row, W., addressed to the President. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, President of the Royal Geographical Society. Subscriptions already promised or recewed. Royal Geographical Society me a oe ... 9,000 Alfred Harmsworth, Esq. ... ... £0,000 Sir Clements Markham, K.c.B. (prcsident) R.G. S. ) sas £100 Philip F. Walker, Esq. es ae x bes at £21 John; Prince, Hsq.- ..- sala sf. oe sts pes £10 Mr. G. H. Knipps, F.R.A.8., then read his address. The theme of the Anniversary Address delivered by the Presi- dent, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, F.r.a.s., was the influence of Science upon civilisation. After pointing out that the most abstract forms of science played a far more significant part than was generally realized, the origin and development of mathematics from the time of the Egyptian Ahmes (1700 B.C.) to the present day, was briefly drawn to the characteristic features of the Egyptian, Greek, Hindu and Arabian, as well as the modern influences on that science. The recent developments of applied mathematics were also indicated, it being pointed out that physics, engineering, and practical chemistry, which lie immediately behind the material expression of modern civilisation, are indebted to the more abstract forms of science for great assistance. A_ brief sketch of the development also of chemistry was given, in which it was shewn that the recondite elements of that science had great practical value, and that the far-reaching powers of technical x. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. chemistry depended upon considerations of a theoretical nature. The influence of chemistry on therapeutics was indicated, and it was shewn that the knowledge of the mode in which the atoms were united in a molecule had enabled the therapeutical properties of substances to be predicted with some degree of confidence. The part science has taken in the national development of Germany and of its industries, was adverted to, and it was urged that the similar stimulation of intellectual and scientific effort was needed, if this country is to occupy an honourable place among the centres of intellectual activity. The necessities of the University, of its science schools, its library, and of the scientific libraries of the colony were referred to. The nuclei of splendid libraries, an absolute necessity to the scientific worker, already exist. The great International Scientific Catalogue is the outcome of the realization of this necessity, that catalogue will prevent any worker being ignorant of what has been done. It must be supplemented however, by the actual records of scientific investigations. Owing to munificent state and private benefactions, the American insti- tutions of learning are rapidly completing their libraries and exhausting the market of sets of scientific periodicals, and the opportunity of properly completing the great series of scientific journals here is rapidly passing away never to return. The time for action is now, but the means are not available. The Royal Society itself has spent during the last twenty years £4,704 on the purchase of books and periodicals, and during the last twelve years £3,602 in publishing its Journal, which not only givesa record of the scientific work done here, but also brings exchanges, the money value of which is greater than what is purchased. The duty of placing our wants clearly before the community was accentuated, and the belief was expressed that the generous example of men of affluence in America and elsewhere, would not be without parallel in this Colony. It was not that our wealthy citizens, and the State, were less generous, but we had not dis- charged our duty to science in letting them really understand our wants. Todo this wasa solemn duty cast upon those who realize en OE ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xi, what scientific culture means to the world, and who realize how affluence, and the great development of a people is the outcome of the influence of systematized knowledge—ain short of Science. A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and Mr. W. M. HAMLET, F.C.S., F.1.C., was installed as President for the ensuing year. Mr. HaAMLet thanked the members for the honour conferred upon him. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &e. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics). ALBANY—New York State Library. Annual Reports of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, 109th, Parts 1., 11., 1895; 110th, 1896; lilth, 1897. Bulletin, New York State Museum, Vol. iv., Nos. 16-18, 1897. Examinaticn Report, Vol. iv., 1896, Vol. v., 1897. Library Report, Vol. Lxxvi11., 1895; Vol. Lxx1x., 1896; Vol. Lxxx., 1897. State Library Bulletin, Bibliographies Nos. 2—4, 1897, Nos. 6-14, 1898; Legislation, No. 9, 1898; Library School, No. 2, 1897. State Museum Reports, Vol. xt1x., Part 1.,1895; Vol. u., Part i., 1896. The Regents BiruMinecHam—Birmingham and Midland Institute. Report of the Council for the year 1898. ‘The Chemistry of the Stars” an address delivered 26 Oct. 1898, by Sir Norman Lockyer, K.c.B., F.R.S. The Institute Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 1—14, 1898-99. The Academy CAMBRIDGE--Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 1x., Part ix.; Vol. x.. Part 1, 1898. Transactions, Vol. xv1r., Parts i., 11., 1898-9. The Society Krw—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Ser. 4, Vol. vi., Part iv., 1899. The Trustees LzeEps—Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. Annual Report (78th) for 1897-8. The Society Yorkshire College. Annual Report, (24th) 1897-8. The College Liverroot—Literary and Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. u11., 1897-8. The Society Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, New Series, Vol. 1., Nos. 1, 2, 1898. The Institute Department of Science and Art, South Kensington. Descrip- tive Catalogue of the Bronzes of European Origin in the South Kensington Museum, 1876. Maiolica by C. Drury E. Fortnum, F.s.a., 1892. The Department Electrical Engineer, Oct. 28, 1898 to March 17, 1899. The Publisher xii, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon —continued. Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tiv., Part iv., No. 216, 1898; Vol. tv., Part i., No. 217, 1899. List of Fellows, 1898. The Society Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxxxiv., Part iv., 1897-98. Brief Subject. Index Vols. cxIx. — cxxxiv., Sessions 1894-95 to 1897-98. Charter, Supplemental Charters, By-Laws and List of Members, 1 Oct. 1898. The Institution Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1898. s ‘Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v., No. 51, 1899. The Institute Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. trv., No. 2, 1898. Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxx111., No. 234; Vol. xxxiv., No. 235, 1898. Proceedings, Nov. 1897 to 33 June 1898. . The Society Meteorological Office. Report of the Meteorological Council for the year ending 31 March, 1898. The Office Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Calendar, 1899, Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. ux1., Nos. 1479 —1499, 1898-99. The Society Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xv1., Parts iii. and iv., 1898-99. Science Abstracts, Vol. 1., Parts xi.. xli., and Index 1898; Vol. 11., Parts i. - i11., 1899. a Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Ser. 1., Vol. vt., No. 39, 1896; Vol. vir., No. 43, 1898. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Ser. 3, Vol. rx., Part. iv., No. 36, 1898. The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. tv1it., No. 9, and Appendix 1898; Vol. t1x., Nos. 1- 3,'1898-9. _,, Royal College of Physicians. List of Fellows, Members, Extra-Licentiates and Licentiates, 1899. The College Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal, Vol. 111., No. 1, 1894; Vol. x11., Nos. 5, 6, 1898; Vol. x1m., Nos. 1—38,1899. Antarctic Exploration : a plea fora national expedition. By Sir Clements R. Markham, k.c.B., F.R.S., 1898. The Society Royal Historical Society. Transactions, New Series, Vol. XIL., 1898. “2 Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxiv., No. 108, 1898. Meteorological Record, Vol. xv111., Nos. 69 —- 71, 1898, a Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts ii., v., vi., Nos. - 123, 126, 127, 1898; Part i., No. 128, 1899. ” a Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. t xx., Parts i., 1i., 1898-9. a | Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xu11., Nos. ; 246 — 250, 1898. The Institution | Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xrx., Parts iii., iv., 1898-9. | The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xtv1., Nos. 2397 — 2417, 1898-9. The Society Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Part ii1., 1898. Transactions, Vol. xtv., Part viii.; Vol. xv., Parti., 1898. ,, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1li. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 7, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, June 7th, 1899. The President, W. M. Hamtet, F.c.s., in the Chair. Thirty-nine members and two visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. One new member enrolled his name and was introduced. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, of two for the second time, and of one for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— Atkinson, Alfred Ashley, Department of Mines, Sydney. The Chairman announced :— 1. That the Society’s Journal for 1898, Vol. xxx11., was ready for delivery, and could be obtained on application to the Assistant Secretary. 2. That the Society’s congratulations had been cabled so as reach Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart. F.R.S., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., &., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cam- bridge, on the occasion of his Jubilee on the 5th instant. 3. That the Officers and Committee of the Medical Section had been elected for the ensuing Session and the dates fixed for their meetings as follows :— SEcTION MEETINGS. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. MrprcaL—lriday, (8:15 p.m,)... 19 16 21 18 415 20 17 15 SECTIONAL COMMITTEES—SEssion 1899. Section H.—Medical, Chairman— Walter Spencer, M.R.CS. Eng., L.R.C.P. Edin., M.D. Bruc. Hon. Secretaries—J. Adam Dick, B.A. Syd., M.D. Edin., and F. Tidswell, M.B. Syd., and D.P.H., Camb. Committee—F. H. Quaife, M.A.,M.D., Glas. Sydney Jamieson, B.A. Syd., M.B., Edin., MRC.S., Eng., Roland Pope, B.A. Syd., M.D., F.R.C.S. Edin., L. E. F. Neill, B.A. M.B. Syd. Meetings held on the Third Friday in each Month, at 8:15 p.m. (Provided sufficient material is obtainable.) XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Key to Tribes and Genera of the Floridee (Red or purple Marine Algz)” by R. A. Bastow. This paper was read, and was explanatory of two large charts of this group of sea-weeds, prepared by the author. 2. ‘On the metamorphosis of the young form of Filarza Bancrofti, Cobb, [| Pilaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis; Filaria nocturna, Manson] in the body of Culex ciliaris, Linn., ‘House Mosquito’ of Australia,” by Tuos. L. BANcroFt, m.B. Edin. In this paper the metamorphosis of /ilaria nocturna in the body of the mosquito is shewn to take from sixteen to twenty days for its completion, instead of seven days as was thought ; previous observers, endeavouring to follow Manson, were unable to keep their mosquitoes alive sufficiently long; the writer dis- covered a means by which mosquitoes may be kept alive in suitable glass vessels for upwards of two months; he feeds them on ripe banana. He explains how it occurred that Manson saw the final stage of the metamorphosis occasionally in what he thought were seven days old mosquitoes; these particular mosquitoes had imbibed filariated blood weeks before the time when they were captured and already contained advanced stages of the meta- morphosis. Anyone may now easily verify Manson’s work by merely placing two or three “house mosquitoes” under the mosquito net curtains of the bed in which a filarious person sleeps, preferably late at night, and when the person is asleep ; the next morning the mosquitoes, which have sucked blood, are transferred to a large glass vessel and fed on banana, in twenty days every one of them will contain actively moving filarie. EXHIBITS. 1. Ferruginous geodes, one containing liquid, by Hmnry G. SMITH, F.C.S. 2. Dr. Erdmenger’s specific gravity apparatus was exhibited and described by Professor WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Se. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. 3. A form of the Wehnelt electrolytic interrupter for induction coils, the action of which was demonstrated by Professor J. A. POLLOCK, B.E., B.Sc. 4, A series of recent photographs of the moon, taken at the Paris Observatory, were exhibited by H. C. RussELL, B.A., 0.M.G., F.R.S. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &ec. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) Bristot— Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings, New Series, Wole viii. bart iai., 1897. The Society Cuicaco—University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. rx., Nos. 1-38, 1899. The University Dusitn—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Series 3, Vol. v., No. 1, 1898. The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xx., No. 11, 1898; Vol. xx1., Nos. 1— 4, 1899. The Society EpinsureH—Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Transactions, Series 5, Vol. x1., 1899. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. x1v., Nos. 10-12, 1898; Vol. xv., Nos. 1—4, 1899. Scottish Microscopical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 11., No. 38, Session 1897-98. Fort Monroz,Va.—U.S. Artillery School. Journal of the U.S. Artillery, Vol. x., Nos. 1-3, Whole Nos. 33 - 35, 1898. The School Lonpon—“ Electrical Engineer,” N.S., Vol. xxi11., Nos. 12, 18, 15, 1899. The Publisher Imperial Institute. Imperial Institute Journal, Vol. v., No. 52, April 1899. The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxxxv., Part i., Session 1898-99. The Institution Linnean Society. Journal, Zoology, Vol. xxv1., No. 172, 1898. List of Fellows, 1898-99. The Society Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal, Vol. x11., No. 55, 1899. Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. uxi1. (Fourth Series, Vol. vir1,) Nos. 1500 — 15038, 1899. Physical Society. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Part iv., No. ~ 16, 1899. Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Third Series, Vol. x., Part i., No. 37, 1899. 39 33 XV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—continued. Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. tix, -Nos. 4, 5, 1899. The Society Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal, Vol. xi1., No, 4, 1899. Year-Book and Record 1899. | a Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxv., No. 109, 1899. i Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Part ii., No. 129, 1899. .,, Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. xx., Part ii., 1899. » Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xu11., Nos. 246 — 250, 1898; Vol. xu1., Nos. 251 — 253, 1899. The Institution Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx., Part i., 1899. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xuvit., Nos. 2418 — 2421, 1899. The Society Zoological Society. Proceedings, Part iv., 1898. 2 MancHEstTER—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ire- land. Journal of Conchology, Vol, 1x., Nos. 5, 6, 1899. _,, Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxv., Parts xx., xxi., 1897-98. fe Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xu11., Part v., 1897-98. 25 MELBOoURNE—Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. x111., No. 156, 1898; Vol. xi1v., Nos. 157 - 162, 1899. The Editor Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist, Vols. xv., Nos. 8-12; Vol. xv1., Nos. 1,2, 1898-99. The Club Government Statist. Abstract of the Statistics of Victoria, 1893 — 1898. Government Statist Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victoria). Report of the Council for the fifth triennial period ending 31st December, 1898. The Society Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings, Vol. x1., N.S., Part Tiles I tet2 iS) " University. Annual Examination Papers, October and December, 1898. Final Honour, Degrees &c., Examin- ation Papers, February 1899. Matriculation Examin- ation Papers, November 1898 and May 1899. The University Newcastis-upon-Tyne—North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Annual Report of the Council ete., 1897-8. ‘Transactions, Vol. xuvu., Parts vi., vil; Vol. xivurr., Part i., 1898. The Institute New Yorx—American Institute of Mining Engineers. Trans- actions, Vol. xxvil., 1897. . Paris—Académie des Sciences de l’ Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Vol. cxxvir., Nos. 16-26, 1898; Vol. cxxviit., Nos. 1 - 20, 1899. The Academy Pertu, W.A.—Department of Mines. Geological Survey, Bul- letin No. 3, 1899. Gold Mining Statistics, Jan. - April, 1899. Western Australia, its position and prospects, by Trant Chambers, 1898. The Department ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 5, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society's House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, July 5th, 1899. The President, W. M. HaMtet, F.c.s., in the Chair. Forty members and five visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of twenty-two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :-— Durack, J. J. E., p.a. Syd.; St. John’s College, University. Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney ; Toxteth Road, Glebe Point. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the character of Seasons as regards Rainfall, and especially that of Drought,” by H. DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. The author calls attention to the inadequacy of the ordinary methods of judging of the dryness or otherwise of seasons by using the totals of the rainfall and comparing them with the average. He explains that the proper way of exhibiting the character of any period is by showing diagrammatically the progressive dryness that takes place in the soil after rainfall ceases. This is marked by a descending line, and being from time to time more or less compensated for by falls of rain, these are indicated by rises. The only useful rain to the soil itself is what soaks in and tends to saturate it, all beyond this, although it may be useful for conserva- tion and for keeping up the flow of rivers, is waste so far as the particular ground, on which the rain has fallen, isconcerned. The diagrams exhibited show the effect of this ‘‘loss and compensation” system and the dryness of the years and parts of years given in the series 1883 to 1898 inclusive are rendered visible and measur- able. . | b—July 5, 1899. xviii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 2. “The Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, New South Wales,” by W. J. Enricat, B.A. au (Com- municated by R. H. MarnHews, Ls.) The author briefly dealt with what is popularly known as “man making.” On approaching the age of puberty, a youth is taken away from the maternal control by the elders, or chief men, instructed in the traditions and laws of his tribe, and made familiar with occult rites which are kept secret from the uniniti- ated, and from women. Until he passes through this ordeal he is not permitted to fraternize with the men, or to join in certain songs and dances known only to initiates. Thenceforth he is qualified to take his part as a man of the tribe, to attend the councils of the men, and so listen to and participate in all discus- sions relating to matters of tribal concern. EXHIBITS. 1. A comparison of the various modes of artificial lighting, by Mr. J. L. Bruce, Technical College. 2. A new form of Spectrometer, by Professor LivEersrpaGsx, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, Xe. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics ) ADELAIDE—Observatory. Meteorological Observations during 1895. The Observatory Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery. Report of the Board of Governors for 1897-8. The Board Royal Society of South Australia. Transactions, Vol. xx11., Part ii., 1898. The Society Aucxtanp— Auckland Institute and Museum. Annual Report . for 1898-99. The Institute Boston—American Academy of Artsand Sciences. Proceedings, ) Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 15 - 17, 1899. The Academy BrisBANE—Department of Agriculture. Extracts from Queens- land Agricultural Journal, Vol. 1v., 1899:—i. Contribu- tions to the Flora of Queensland and New Guinea, by ~-,. F. Manson Bailey, F.u.s. ii. Economic Botany by F. Manson Bailey, F.u.s. iii. Tick Fever, by C. J. Pound, F.R.M.S. The Department ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x1x, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 2, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, August 2nd, 1899. The President, W. M. Ham et, F.c.s., in the Chair. Thirty-two members and four visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, of twenty-two for the second time, and of four for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— Levy, Albert Lewis, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.8. Edin., u.p.s. Glas. ; Church-street, Newtown. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “On the crystalline camphor of Eucalyptus Oil (Eudesmol) and the natural formation of Eucalyptol,” by Henry G. Situ, F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. In August, 1897, the author, with Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.s., in a paper before this Society, announced the discovery of a crystal- line camphor or stearoptene in Eucalyptus oil. They named this substance eudesmol. The present paper deals with the chemistry of this camphor and its relation to eucalyptol. Eudesmol has been found in the oil of many species of Eucalyptus, and should be present at certain times of the year in all those Eucalyptus oils that are eventually rich in eucalyptol. Hudesmol has a formula C,,H,,O, is isomeric with ordinary camphor, but has the oxygen atom combined in a different manner. It does not appear to be ketonic, and it cannot be reduced by sodium in alcohol or by other methods. It is optically inactive. It forms a dinitro-com- pound and a dibromide, but does not form a nitrosochloride. It melts at 79-80° when perfectly pure, but has a tendency to form products having a lower melting point. On oxidation with dilute nitric acid, camphoronic acid is formed, but no camphoric XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. acid. A large amount of evidence is brought forward to show eudesmol to be intermediate in the formation of eucalyptol, and that eucalyptol is derived directly from the fraction containing eudesmol if the oil be kept in the crude condition for some time under ascertained conditions. Oxygen is necessary to this altera- tion. It is shown that the oxygen atom enters the eucalyptol molecule during the formation of eudesmol, and that by the natural alteration of the high boiling fraction of oils containing eudesmol (£. macrorhyncha, for instance) eucalyptol is formed. Eucalyptus camphora oil was found to be rich in eudesmol at the time of year when distilled. The probable reason why Eucalyptus oils allied to #. globulus do not contain phellandrene is described, and it is shown that the oils from other groups of eucalypts are dextrorotatory when their maximum eucalyptol content is reached, and that they do not at that time contain phellandrene, although at certain times of the year phellandrene may be present. The synthesis by Perkin and Thorpe’ shows camphoronic acid to be trimethyl tricarballylic acid, as was first suggested by Bredt, and as eucalyptol is derived from eudesmol, and eudesmol forms camphoronic acid, the question is raised whether Briihl’s formula for eucalyptol is correct. It is suggested that the oxygen atom in eudesmol is quadrivalent, and that the peculiarity of eucalyptol may be thus accounted for. From the formula suggested for eudesmol camphoronic acid, as trimethyl] tricar- ballylic acid, can be constructed. 3 2. “Observations on the determination of the Intensity of Drought,” by G. H. Kniss, F.r..s., Lecturer in Surveying, — University of Sydney. The paper was really a continuation of the subject of Mr. H. Deane’s paper, read at a previous meeting. It was shown that if the degree of saturation of ground was, as suggested by Mr. Deane, taken as the reciprocal of the measure of drought intensity, then, theoretically, it was determinable. The essential features 1 Journ. Chem. Soc., 1897, 1169. bo ha bes ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 4.46 of Mr. Deane’s solution and of the nature of the problem were discussed. The laws of permeable flow, and the relation of these to the ascertainment of the amount flowing off from soil—a question of some importance to engineers—and that absorbed for any given rate of rainfall were pointed out. The physical cir- cumstances which affect percolation, it was stated, must be considered in the general question, and formule were given for obtaining the necessary constants for the soil. Evaporation, the effect of solar radiation, the law of diffusion, the effect of air temperature, humidity, and of atmospheric motion and drainage had to be considered in estimating losses; and the complexity of the genéral expression for the degree of saturation showed that the exact solution would be difficult. The study of elementary cases might afford some indication of a practical solution for various conditions naturally occurring. The paper closed with some remarks on graphs representing natural phenomena, the phenomena to be observed, and the mode of shewing them. 3. ‘Divisions of Some Aboriginal Tribes, Queensland,” by. R. H. Mathews, L.s. Mr. R. H. Mathews read a short paper dealing with the social organisation of some native tribes of Queensland. He illustrated the different types of divisional systems adopted by the aborigines for the purpose of regulating the intersexual rela- tions. In some tracts of country the community is segregated into two intermarrying groups; in other geographic areas there are four divisions of the inhabitants ; whilst in other districts there are eight intermarrying divisions. In these several types of social structure the men of a certain section or group marry the women of another prescribed section, and the resulting off- spring inherit a section name which is in all cases determined through the mother. The author drew attention to the great value of a knowledge of these social divisions in all ethnological investigations among the native tribes of Australia. EXHIBIT. Examples of the Joly natural-colour Photographs, by Mr. P. Caro, exhibited by Mr. 8. H. BAarRAcLOUGH, M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. XxXil. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The names of the Donors are in Italics.) Annapouis, Md.—U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxtv., Nos. 3, 4. 1898; Vol. xxv., No. 1, 1899. The Institute BautimorE—Johns Hopkins University. Circulars, Vol. xvuit., Nos. 137 — 140, 1898-99. The University BERKELEY, Cal.— University of California. Annual Report of the Secretary to the Board of Regents for the years ending June 30, 1897 and June 30, 1898. Adjustment of Engineering Field Instruments by H. H. Hirst, B.s., 1898. Beitrige zur Kometenbahnbestimmung by A. O. Leuschner, A.B.,1897. Biennial Report of the President of the University 1896-1868. Bulletin, Nos. 120, 121, i898. Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. t1., No. 4, pp. 109-118, 1898. Partial report of the Agri- cultural Experiment Stations for the years 1895-6; 1896-7. Registrar, 1897-98. The Principle and the Method of the Hegelian Dialectic by E. B. McGilvary, Parts i, ii., 1897. The University of California, by Charles S. Greene, 1898. University Chronicle, Vol. 1., Nos. 2-6, 1898: Utility of University Education, address by Hon. J. A. Waymire, 1898. The University BrisBAaNE—Surveyor General. Map of Queensland, showing the principal stock routes and main roads, railway lines, telegraph lines and stations, stock trucking yards and Government artesian bores and tanks.—Compiled and published at the Survey Department, Brisbane, June, 1899. The Surveyor General Geological Survey Office. Report on the Geology of the Country round Stanthorpe and Warwick, South Queens- land, with especial reference to the Tin and Gold Fields and the Silver Deposits, by Sydney B. J. Skertchly. -The Mesozoic Goal Measures of Stanwell and Associated Formations, by B. Dunstan, F.G.s. The Office Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Queensland Branch). Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. xti1., 1897-98. The Society Royal Society. Proceedings, Vol. x1v., 1898-99. Interna- tional Catalogue of Scientific Literature (Queensland Volume) by John Shirley, B.sc., Lond., 1899. BRooKkviILLE—Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, 1897. The Academy CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College. Annual Report of the Curator for 1897-98. bulletin, Vol. xxx1r., No. 9, 1899. The Museum Dusitin—Royal Irish Academy. Transactions, Vol. xxx1., Part Wad. 1899: The Academy EprvsurcH—Royal Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo- graphical Magazine, Vol. xv., No. 5, 1899. The Society ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xxill. EpInBuRGH—continued Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xiv., Part i., Session 1897-98. The Society GrELonG—Gordon Technical College. The Wombat, Vol. tv., Nos. 1-3, 1898-99. The College Hospart—Office of Mines. ‘The Progress of the Mineral Industry of 'l'asmania for the Quarter ending 31 Dec. 1898, and 31 March 1899. The Office Royal Society of Tasmania. Proceedings, March 27 and April 11, 1899. Historical and Geographical Section of the Royal Society of Tasmania, Rules and Regulations 1899. The Society Geological Society. Geological Literature added to the Library during 1898. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tv, Part 11., No. 218, 1899. Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, No. 4, 1898. The Institution Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, Ser. 4, Vol. vrt1., Nos. 1504 - 1507, 1509, 1899. The Society Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xv1., Part v., 1899. List of Officers and Fellows, April 1, 1899. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Part v., No. 17, 1899. Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Third Series, Vol. x., Part ii., No. 38, 1899. Roya] Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol]. Lix., Nos. 6, 7, 1899. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xiit., No. 5, 1899: Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxv., No. 110, 1899. Meteorological Record, Vol. xv111., No. 72, 1898. Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Part iii., No. 130, 1899. MetsBourne—Mining Department. Annual Report of the Secre- tary for Mines (and Water Supply) for 1835-1891. Geological Survey of Victoria—Reports of Progress by R. Brough Smyth, F.a.s., Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 1874-84. Gold Fields of Victoria—Reports of the Mining Regis- trars, Quarters ending 30 June, 30 Sep. and 31 Dec. 1884; 30 June, 30 Sept. and 31 Dec., 1885, 1886-1888; and Quarters ending 31 March, 30 Sept. and 31 Dec., 1889. Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the years 1874 - 1888. Reports of the Chief Inspector of Mines for the years 1874-1883. Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars, 1881 - 1883, and Quarter ending 31 March, 1884. Reports and Statistics of the Mining Department Quarter ending 30 June, 1890. Special Reports :—On the treatment of tailings by the Lihrig system, by J. Cosmo Newbery, 1892; On the Victorian Coal Fields (Nos. 2, 3, 4) by James Stirling, F.a.s., 1892-1895; On the Bendigo Gold Field (Nos. 1,2) by E. J. Dunn, F.a.s., 1896. The Department University. Calendar 1900. | The University LoNDON 33 33 33 33 XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Oxrorp—Radcliffe Library. Catalogue of Books added to the Library during 1898. The Trustees Paris— Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Vol. cxxviu., Nos. 21 — 24, 1899. The Academy PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Parts ii, iii., 1898. oh American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxv., Nos. 2, 3, 4, 1898-9. The Society American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xxxvIrI., No. 158, 1898. ” Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxtvi., Nos. 5, 6, 1898; Vol. cxivit., Nos. 1-6, 1899. The Institute Philadelphia Commercial Museum. The State of Nicaragua of the Greater Republic of Central America by Gustavo Niederlein, 1898. The Museum Scranton, Pa.—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Metals, Vol xix., Nos. 3-5, 1898. The Proprietors Sypney—Anthropological Society of Australasia, ‘Science of Man,’ New Series, Vol. 1., No. 11, 1899; Vol. 11., Nos. 1-5, 1899. The Society Australian Museum. Memoir 111., Part vii., 1899. Records, Vol. 111., No. 5, 1899. The Trustees Botanic Gardens. Report on the Botanic Gardens and Domains, etc., for 1898. The Director Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Gazette, Vol. 1x., Part xii., 1899; Vol. x., Parts i., ii., iv., v., 1899. The Department Department of Public Instruction. Results of Rain, River, and Evaporation Observations made in New South Wales during 1897 by H. C. Russell, B.a.,c.u.a., F.B.8. New South Wales Educational Gazette, Vol. vi11., Nos. 6— 12, 1898-99. ” Engineering Association of N.S.W. Minutes of Proceed- ings, Vol. x., 1894-95. The Association Government Printer. Annual Report on British New Guinea from 1 July, 1896 to 30 June 1898 with appendices. Report upon Sea Fisheries, 1898. Statutes of New South Wales (public and private) passed during the Session of 1898. Government Printer Government Statistician. New South Wales Statistical Register for 1898 and previous years, Parts 1.—vi. The Seven Colonies of Australasia 1897-8. Wealth and Pro- gress of New South Wales 1897-8, Eleventh Issue, by I. A. Coghlan. Government Statistician Health Department. Report of the Board of Health for 1897. Report on Leprosy in New South Wales for the year 1897. Report on Protective Inoculation against Tick Fever by Dr. F. Tidswell. The Department Linnean Society of New South Wales. Abstract of Pro- ceedings, Mar. 29, April 26, May 31, June 28, July 26, Aug. 30, 1899. Proceedings, Vol. xx111., Parts iii., iv., Nos. 91, 92, 1898; Vol. xx1v., Part i., No. 98, 1899. The Society ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 6, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, September 6th, 1899. The President, W. M. Hamuet, F.c.s., in the Chair. Twenty-eight members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of twenty-two candidates were read for the third time, and of four for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Gummow, Frank M., c.z.; 82 Pitt-street. Harper, H. W.., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.; 63 Pitt-street. Henderson, S., M.A., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E.; 63 Pitt-street. Australian Economic Association. Black, R. J., 3.p.; Chatswood. Cameron, R. B.; 87 Pitt-street. Cullen, Hon. W. P., wa, LLD.,M.L.c; ‘“Trygoyd,” Mosman. Dallen, R. A.; Sydney University. Duckworth, A.; 87 Pitt-street. French, J. R.; Bank of New South Wales. Garran, Hon. A., M.A., LL.D., M.L.C.; ‘Roanoke,’ Roslyn Avenue. Garran, R. R., m.a.; Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. Gelling, B. R.; Wynyard-street. Halloran, A., B.A., LL.B.; 20 Castlereagh-street. Henderson, J.; City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-street. Landau, F. W.; 79 King-street. Pearse, William ; Union Club. Perkins, E. W.; 122 Pitt-street. Petersen, T. T.; Mercantile Mutual Chambers, 118 Pitt-street. Plummer, John ; ‘Northwood,’ Lane Cove River. Russell, F, A. A., M.A.; Denman Chambers, Phillip-street. Teece, R., F.1.A., F.F.A.; 87 Pitt-street. Walker, J. T.; ‘Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. XXV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The Chairman. announced ‘that.a request for the formation of an Anthropological and Ethnological Section of the Society had been received by the Council, and it was desired that members who were willing to attend the meetings and take an active part in the working of the Section, would send in their names to the Hon. Secretaries at an early date, so that the Council might be ina position to deal with the matter. The following letter from Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart m.a. D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.. was read :— Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge, 15 July, 1899. To the Secretary, Royal Society of New South Wales. Dear Sir,—I write to thank, through you, the Royal Society at Sydney, for their kind congratulations, sent me by telegraph, on the occasion of the celebration of the Jubilee of my professorship. The telegram was duly received just at the time of the celebration. Truly I have been rewarded, as I feel quite beyond my deserts, by the kind congratulations I have received from so many places, some of them far distant from England. Will you kindly convey wy thanks to the Royal Society ? T remain dear Sir, yours very faithfully, G. G. STOKES. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Sailingbirds are dependent on Wave-power,” by L. HARGRAVE. The author points out that sailing birds passed most of their time over the face or rising side of waves, and that by so doing they abstracted power from the moving water as the progress of the wave raised the air above it at a velocity proportional to its | speed and slope. He used Prof. 8. P. Langley’s results to show that the uplift of a moderate swell was amply sufficient to support a plane and keep it moving at about thirty-five miles per hour in a calm. 2. “Some applications and developments of the Prismoidal Formula,” by G. H. Kyrsss, r.r.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. Starting with a demonstration that he prismoidal formula was rigorously applicable to solids with parallel plane ends, whose ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVil. mantles'were ruled surfaces, the paper shewed how the volumes of series of longitudinally contiguous solids, with plane ends, and skew or warped—ruled quadric—surfaces on the other sides, could most conveniently be calculated. The determination of the volumes of solids whose longitudinal axes were plane-curves, or curves of double curvature, was also considered, and it was shewn that the prismoidal formula was also rigorously applicable to circularly warped solids, the centre of gravity in such changing its position linearly with the distance along the curved longitudinal axis. When the change of the centre of gravity of a right section is a non-linear function of the distance along the curved axis, or when the radius of curvature is not constant, the prismoidal formula is not rigorously applicable. The paper closed with suggestions as to the application of the formule. EXHIBITS. (a) Twenty-four mounted photographs, including a series of photographs of aboriginals representing two types, male and female, a few illustrative of camp life and corroborrees, and a special series illustrating some of the details of an Aboriginal Bora Ceremony. The photographs were taken and exhibited by Mr. Charles H. Kerry, and afterwards kindly presented to the Society. Following is a note by Mr. Kerry:— “The photographs of an Aboriginal Bora Ceremony which I have forwarded to the Royal Society form part of a series secured by me in the Winter of 1898, locality Lower Macquarie River, N.S. W. I was indebted to Mr. F. W. Hill, the owner of the adjoining station ‘‘Quambone,” for the privilege of being present on the occasion. Many of the natives were in his employ, and all were under heavy obligations to him for protection and kindness extend- ing over many years. He was probably the only white man who could have both gained entrance to the Bora ground and introduced a friend. Enormous difficulties, however, had to be overcome to break down the prejudice against allowing a white man to see this secret ceremony, and even when successful in gaining admittance XXVIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. to the scene of operations we were frequently requested, sometimes ordered, to leave again. “The actual Bora ground, situate about a quarter of a mile from: the main camp, was a space one hundred yards long, and forty yards wide, surrounded by a close packed bush fence ten feet high. To permit of the cutting of the various figures and designs on the ground, all small bushes and grass had been removed, and in some parts the smaller trees. Two narrow circled passages, also pro- tected by packed bushwood, were the entrance and exit. These were guarded day and night by warriors. The young members of the tribe who were to be initiated, arrived each in charge of an older warrior, who appeared to act as sponsor, the candidates having their heads shrouded in blankets. The proceedings com- menced at the end of the enclosure where a couple of large figures —male and female—had been cut in the ground and terminated at the other end where a huge mound figure of a man had been made. Before and around these and the various other symbols and figures shown in the photographs, the warriors went through certain marching and posturing, which in many instances seemed to have no connection with the device round which they were grouped. Such information as I could glean from an interpreter present, also appeared to have very little bearing on the ceremony, and the final impression I gathered was that I was being wilfully misled, or else that the ceremony itself was almost meaningless. After leaving the Bora ground the novices were taken away into a remote part of the forest, where the removing of a front tooth, and the placing of tribal marks on each was to be effected.” (6) Mr. R. H. Maruews, Ls., exhibited some relics of the aborigines as follows :— A block of stone cut from the wall of a cave in Howe’s Valley, County of Hunter, containing the imprint of a hand, done in splashwork or stencil, with white paint. Several stone knives found on digging into the floor of a cave or rock shelter on the Hawkesbury River, about a mile and a half below Wiseman’s Ferry. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXix, Part of a skull of an aboriginal native found in the same cave. The flat surface of the teeth shewed wear by the life-long habit of chewing. A stone axe found on a tributary of the Namoi River above Narrabri. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— . TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) CAMBRIDGE-—-Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x.. Part 11., 1899. Transactions, Vol. xvir., Part iii., 1899. The Society Cambridge University Library. Report of the Library Syndicate for the year ending December 31, 1898. The University Cuicaco—Field Columbian Museum. Anthropological Series, Vol. 11., No. 3, Pub. 28, 1898. Report Series, Vol. r., No. 4, Pub. 29, 1898. The Museum University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 1x., Nos. 4, 5, 1899. Journal of Geology, Vol. v1., No. 8, 1898; Vol. vir., Nos. 1-3, 1899. The University Drs Mornes—Iowa Geological Survey. Annual Report, Vol. vi., 1897. The Survey Dusitn—Royal Dublin Society. Scientific Proceedings, (N.S.) Vol. vii1., Part vi., 1898. Scientific Transactions, (Ser. 2) Vol. vi., Nos. 14-16; Vol. vir , No. 1, 1898. The Society Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, (Third Series) Vol. v., No. 2, 1899. The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xxt., No. 5, 1899. The Society EpinspurGH— Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. xv., Nos. 6, 7, 1899. 93 University. Calendar, 1899 — 1900. The University Fort Monroe, Va.—U.S. Artillery School. Journal, Vol. x1., No. 1, Whole No. 36, 1899. The School Guiascow—University. Calendar, 1899 — 1900. The University Krw—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Vol. vir., Part i., 1899. The Trustees Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, New Series, Vol. 1., Nos. 8, 4, 1899. The Institute Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v., Nos. 53-55, 1899. Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, 4 Ser., Vol. vir., Nos. 1510-1518; Vol. rx., 1514 — 1516, 1899 The Society Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xvi., Part vi., 1899. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Parts vi.. vii., Nos. 18, 19, 1899. a> XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—continued. Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. rx., No. 8, 1899. The Society Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xtit., No. 6, 1899; Vol. x1v., No. 1, 1899. Pr Royal Society. Proceedings, Vol. uv., No. 335, 1894. Philo- sophical Transactions, Vol. cLxxxvi11.B; Vol. cLXxxIx. A and B, 1897; Vol. cxc. A and B; Vol. oxctr. a, 1897-8. List of Fellows, Nov. 30, 1898. al Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xtvi1., Nos, 2422 — 2434,1899. ,, The Electrical Engineer, N.S., Vol. xxtt., Nos. 16 - 26 1899; Vol. xxiv., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Publisher Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Parti., 1899. The Society Mapison—Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin, No. 1—Economic Series No. 1, 1898; No. 2— Scientific Series No. 1, 1898. The Survey MancHEstTER—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ire- land. Journal of Conchology, Vol, 1x., No. 7, 1899. The Society Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvi., Parts i. —iii., Session 1898-99. a Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xu111., Part ii., 1898-99. - Scranton—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Minerals, Val. x1x., Nos. 6-11, 1899. The Colliery Engineer Co. New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Builetin, Vol. xxx., Nos. 4, 5, 1898; Vol. xxx1., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Society American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin, Vol. x., 1898; Vol. x1., Part i., 1898. The Museum New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. x., 1898; Vol. x1., Parts 1, i1., 1898. The Academy School of Mines, Columbia College. The School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. xx , Nos. 1-3, 1898-9. The School WasHineron—Department of Agriculture. Division of Bio- logical Survey— Bulletin, Nos. 9, 10, 11, 1898; North American Fauna, No. 14, 1899. Division of Statistics— New Series, Report No. 156; Crop Circular for Nov. 1898, and May 1899. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Patholoey—Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 68, 1898; No. 91,1899; Circular No. 17, Report No. 59,1899. Monthly Weather Bureau, Vol. xxvi., Aug. to Dec. and Annual Summary 1898; Vol. xxvii., Nos. 1-4, 1899. Prelim- inary Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1898. The Department Navy Department—Office of Naval Intelligence. Battles and Capitulation of Santiago de Cuba by Lieut. José Miller y Tejeiro | War Notes No.1]. Comments of Rear Admiral Pliiddemann, German Navy on the main features | of the war with Spain, [War Notes No.2]. Effect of the gun fire-of the United: States-Vesselsin:the Battle-of Manila Bay (May 1. 1898) by Lieut. J. Ellicott, U.S.N. Sketches of the Spanish-American War by Commander J. [ War Notes, Nos. 3 and 4]. Views of Admiral Cervera regarding the Spanish Navy in the late War 1898.. The Department —_ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER 4, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, October 4th, 1899. Professor T. W. E. DAvip, B.A., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. Forty-three members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of four candidates were read for the third time, and of two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— De Coque, John Vincent ; Department of Public Works. Rae, J. Livington Campbell ; Balmain. Schmidlin, F.; Elizabeth-street. Woolnough, W. George, B.Sc.; University of Sydney. The Chairman announced at the last meeting of the Society that a request for the formation of an Anthropological and Ethnological Section had been received by the Council. In order that the Council might be in a position to deal with the matter it was requested that every member of the Society who was willing to attend the meetings and take an active part in the work of such a section, whether he had signed the requisition or not, would . send in his name to the Hon. Secretaries. This request was made last meeting, but so far but one response had been received in reply. He also stated that the Abstract for October would contain the following alterations to the Rules which are proposed by the Council with a view to enabling nominations to that’ body by members of the Society to-be more effectually submitted-to-the vote’of the Society. These proposed alterations will be finally submitted at the next General Monthly Meeting (November Ist): XXXIl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. That Rule III. me amended so as to read as follows :— III. The other Officers of the Society shall consist of the President, who shall hold office for not more than one year con- tinuously, but shall be eligible for re-election after the lapse of one year ; four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer and two Secretaries, who, with ten other members, shall constitute the Council for the management of the affairs of the Society. That the last clause of Rule V., be repealed ; and that the follow- ing stand in lieu thereof :— Such list shall be suspended in the Society’s Rooms at least one calendar month before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Any member of the Society not disqualified by Rules XIII, XIV., or XIVa., and not included in such list may be nominated for the position of President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, or Member of the Council, provided that his candidature shall have been notified to the Honorary Secretary or Secretaries under the hands of two qualified voters—such notification being countersigned by the nominee—at least fourteen days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. A complete list showing the names of those recommended for election by the Council, and those nominated as in the last pre- ceding clause, shall be sent to each Member of the Society, at least seven days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. That Rule Va. be repealed. That Rule VI. be amended as follows :—In lieu of the first para- graph of the above Rule, read :— The balloting list for the election of Officers and Members of Council shall contain a list of the names of those recommended by the Council and also of those otherwise nominated as provided for in Rule V. Heading the former, the words ‘‘ Recommended by Council ” shall be inserted, and opposite the latter the names of the nominators. ven ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIil. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Current Papers, No. 4,” by H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. This paper began by calling attention to the fact that during the years 1896 and 1897 the prevalent winds over Australia and the Indian Ocean were north-west, and that as a result, com- paratively few current papers were received, because the wind forced the bottles, carrying current papers, towards the south and in this way prevented them from resting in the Australian Bight, the great dumping ground for bottles. It was also shewn that during the past year north-west winds had been few and light, while southerly winds had been frequent, and as a conse- quence, current papers had been frequently received. On many days they came in pairs, and on one day three current papers had been seen, which is the maximum for one day, and during the past year 105 had been received. Referring to the drift of the disabled steamer Perthshire, it was shewn that the direction the steamer took was just that which the author had found to be the course of bottle-papers, and that although the Perthshire was driven by many winds, it would appear that the final result did not produce any deviation from the drift-line of that part of Tasman Sea. Reference was made to the unusual number of breaks in propeller shafts, and to the greater speed of current papers and the great number of violent storms which the author thought all pointed to unusual energy in the sea and atmosphere, which may have caused the unusual strains on propeller shafts. 2. “Note on the occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles in the Permo- Carboniferous Coal-field near Lochinvar, N.S. Wales,” by Professor T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F GS. Strong evidence of glacial action was observed in this part of the Permo-Carboniferous coal-field of N.S. Wales, by the late Government Geologist, Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, over sixteen years ago. In 1885, Mr. R. D. Oldham, Assoc. R.S.m., of the Geological Survey of India, discovered a faintly scratched and slightly e—Oct. 4, 1899. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.’ polished pebble in the neighbourhood of Branxton near Greta. Absclutely conclusive evidence, however, of ice-action in this neighbourhood was not forthcoming until the beginning of this year, when Mr. W. G. Woolnough, B.Sc. Demonstrator in Geology at Sydney University, discovered a beautifully striated, polished, and facetted pebble in the Upper Marine Beds of the Permo- Carboniferous system in a railway cutting near Branxton Railway Station. A few days later a number of glaciated pebbles were discovered by myself in company with Mr. O. Trickett and Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., of the Geological Survey of N.S. Wales, and Mr. W. G. Woolnough. These glaciated pebbles occur on a geological horizon over 1000 feet below the level of the Greta Coal Seams, whereas the horizons, where Mr. Woolnough and Mr. Oldham discovered their glacial pebbles, are from 1,500 to about 2,000 feet above the level of the Greta Coal Seams. These glacial beds at Lochinvar are at the very base of the Permo-Carboniferous System, and in general appearance closely resemble the Bacchus Marsh Glacial beds of Victoria, a locality where there is evidence of ice action on a grand scale over a wide area. These last belong probably to about the same geological age as the beds near Lochinvar. The height of the glacial beds at Lochinvar is about 200 feet above the sea, and the thickness of the beds probably not Jess than 200 feet. The pebbles were probably transported by floating ice. Those at Lochinvar were carried to their present resting place before the Greta Coal-seams were formed, and those at Branxton some time subsequent to the formation of the Greta Coal, in either case at times when this part of the Hunter Coal-field was submerged under the sea, as marine shells of Permo-Carboniferous age occur immediately above the glacial beds. EXHIBITS. (a) Models of ruled surfaces, and of solids whose bounding surfaces are ruled, by G. H. Kniss, F.R.4.8s., Lecturer in Survey- ing, University of Sydney. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV. (6) First of the photographic charts from the Paris Observatory byfH. C. RussELt, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. (c) Examples of the Ives natural-colour photographs by Mr. Marx Biow. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &e. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics). AacHeN—Meteorologische Station I. Ordnung. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen. Jahrgang I11., 1897. The Director Aaram (Zagreb)—Société Archéologique Croate. Vjesnik hrva- tskoja Arkeoloskoga Drustva, (N.S.) Godina 111., 1898. Vjestnik kr. hrvatsko-slavonsko-Dalmatinskog, Zemal- jskog Arkiva, Godina 1., Svezak 1 — 3, 1899. The Society Beriin—Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Verhandlungen, Band xxv., Nos. 5-10, 1898; Band xxvi., No. 1, 1899. Zeitschrift, Band xxx111., Nos. 3 - 5, 1898. Koniglich preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sit- zungsberichte, Nos. 40 - 54, 1898; Nos. 1 - 38,1899. The Academy, Koéniglich preussische Meteorologische Instituts. Bericht uber die Thiatigkeit im Jahre, 1898. Ergebnisse der Beobachtungen an den Stationen II. und III. Ordnung im Jahre, 1894, Heft 3; 1898, Heft 1, 2. The Institute: Koniglich preussische Geodistische Institutes. Bestimmun- een von Azimuten in Harzgebiete, 1887-1891. Beitrige zur Theorie des Reversionspendels von F. R. Helmert, 1898. Beitrage zur Berechnung von Lotabweichungs- systemen von Prof. Dr. L. Krtiger, 1898. Die, Polhéhe von Potsdam, Heft 1,1898. Jahresbericht des Direktors, April 1897, bis April 1898. Botogna—R. Accademia dele Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna. Memorie, Serie V., Tome v1., 1896-97. The Academy Bonn—Naturhistorischer Verein der preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick. Verhand- lungen, Jahrgang tv., Halfte 1, 2, 1898. The Society Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und ‘Heilkunde. Sitzungsberichte, Haltte 1, 2, 1898. Bremen — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Abhandlungen, Band xvi., Heft 1, 1898. Meterologische Observatorium zu Bremen. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, Jahrgang 1x., 33 33 1898. The Observatory CarEn— Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, 1897. The Academy CarLsruHE—Grossherzoglich-Badische Polytechnische Schule. Programm 1898-99. Inaugural Dissertations (3). The Director XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. CassELL—Vereins fiir Naturkunde zu Kassel. Abhandlungen und Bericht xui11., 1897-8. The Society Cracow—Académie des Sciences. Bulletin International, Nos. 8—10, 1898; Nos. 1—5, 1899. The Academy Drespen—Konigl. Mineralogisch-Geologisches und Pra-Histor- isches Museum. Mittheilungen, Heft 121897; Heft 14, 1898. The Museum K. Statistische Bureau des Ministeriums des Innern. Zeit- schrift, Jahrgang xuiv., Heft 3, 4, 1898. The Bureau Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht, xxvi., 1898. The Society ELBERFELD—Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Jahres-Berichte, Heft 9, 1899. 36 FLorence—Societa Italiana di Antropologia, Etnologia ke. Archivio, Vol. xxviit., Fase. 2, 3, 1898. a FRANKFURT a/m—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell- schaft. Abhandlungen, Band xx1.. Heft 2, 3, 1898; Band xxiv., Heft 2, 3, 4, 1898. Bericht, 1898. Katalog der Reptilien-Sammlung im Museum, Teil 2, 1898. A FrrisERG—Berg-und Huttenwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen. Jahrbuch 1898. The Academy GéTrTIncEN—Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Nachrichten, Geschaftliche Mittheilungen, Heft 2, 1898; Heft 1,1899. Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse, Heft 4, 1898 ; Heft 1, 1899. The Society GrRatz—Naturwissenschaftliche Vereins fiir Steiermarck. Mit- theilungen, Jahrgang, 1897, 1898. ‘p HAtteE, A.s.—Kaiserliche Leopoldino-Carolinische Akademie der Deutschen Naturforscher. Nova Acta, Bande Lxx., LxxI., 1898. Leopoldina, Heft xxxiv., 1898. The Academy HamspurG—Deutsche Seewarte. Jahres-Bericht (20th) fiir das Jahr 1897. Archiv, Band xx1., 1898. Deutsche Ueber- seeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen, Heft'’7. Ergeb- nisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, Jahrgang 2Orne dksiek The Observatory Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. Mittheilungen, Band xv., Heft 1, 1899. The Society Naturhistorische Museum. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang xv., 1897. The Museum HEIDELBERG—Naturhistorisch - Medicinischer Verein. Ver- handlungen, N.F. Band v1., Heft 1, 1898. The Society Jena—Medicinisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Jen- aische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Band xxxIt. (N.F. Band xxv.,) Heft 3, 4, 1898; Band xxx111., (N.F. Band xxvi.,) Heft 1, 2, 1899. Namen-und Sachregister Bande I. — xxx. *s Lrrpzic—Konigl. Saichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen Mathematisch-phys- ische Classe, Band t., Math. Theil 1 -5,1898; Band L., Naturw. Theil, 1898. Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen, 1898. Wissenschaft- liche Veréffentlichungen, Band 111., Heft 3,(Schluss) 1899. __,, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVil. LitLte—Société Géologique du Nord. Annales xxvi., 1897. The Society Marsure—University. Inaugural Dissertations (81) 1897-8. The University Marsertues—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, Tome 1x., Fase. 1 - 5. . The Faculty Institut Colonial de Marseille. Annales, Tome 111., 1896; Tome tv., 1897; Tome v., Fasc. 1, 1898. The Institute Me.tsourne—Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. xiv., No. 1638, 1899. The Editor Broken Hill Proprietary Company, Ltd. Reportsand State- ments of Account for Half Years ending 30 Nov., 1898, and 31 May, 1899. The Secretary Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist, Vol, xv1., No. 3, 1899. The Club Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery of Victoria. Letters from Victorian Pioneers, 1899 (2 copies) The Trustees Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victoria). Trans- actions, Vol. xv1., 1898. The Society Metz—Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht, xx., 1897-98. a Mitan—Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendi- conti, Serie 2, Vol. xxx1., 1898. The Institute Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Vol. xxvit., Fase. 4,1898; Vol. xxxviti., Fasc. 1,2,1899. Memorie. Vol. vi., Fase. 2, 1898. The Socrety Mu.tHovuse—Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. Bulletin, Aug. — Dec., 1898; Jan. — April, 1899. Be Municu—Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band vi., 1899. » Nantes—Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest de la France. Bulletin, Tome vu., Trimestre 4, 1897; Tome VIII., Trimestre 1, 2, 1898. * Napies—Societa Reale di Napoli. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche, Ser. 3, Vol. rv., Fasc. 8-12, 1898; Vol. v., Fasc. 1 - 5, 1899. a Zoological Station. Mittheilungen, Band xu1., Heft 4, 1899. The Station NEwcasTL£-UPon-TynE—North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. 'l'ransactions, Vol. XLVIII., Parts i1., lii., iv., 1898-99. | The Institute Nouremperc—Naturhistorische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band x1., 1897. The Society Paris—Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Tome cxxvit., Nos. 25, 26; Tome cxx1x., Nos. 1 - 8, 1899. The Academy Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue Mensuelle, Année vir., No. 11,1897; Année vi1r., Nos. 10- 12,1898; Année 1x., Nos. 1-7, 1899. The Director Ecole Nationale des Mines de Paris. Statistique de l’ Industrie Minérale et des appareils 4 vapeur en France et’ en Algérie pour lannée 1879. Ministére des Travaux Publies XXXVIll. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Paris—continued. Ecole Polytechnique. Journal, Série 11.,Cahier 3,4, 1897-8. The School. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Catalogue de la Bibliothéque Fasc. Nos. 25, 26, 1898-99. Catalogue Spécial, Nos. 1, 2, 3898-99. Revue Mensuelle, Tome xx1x., Nos. 337 — 346, 1898-99. | The Editor Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Année 1897, Nos. 7, 8; Année 1898, Nos. 1—6. The Museum Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel pour lannée 1898. The Observatory Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série 4, Tome vill., Fasc. 5, 6, 1897; Tome 1x., Fase. 1-3, 1898. Mémoires, Série 3, Tome 11, Fase. 2, 1898. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus, Série 10, Tome v., Nos. 31 — 42, 1898-99: Tome vi., Nos.1-18; Série 11, Tome 1., Nos. 14 - 26, 1899. a Société Entomologique de France. Annales, Vol. Lxv., Trimestre 1-4, 1896. Bulletin, Année 1896. fo Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xx1., Nos. 6-8, 1898; Tome xx11., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. a Société Francaise de Physique. Bulletin Bimensuel, Nos. 121 - 127, 129 —1386, 1898-99. Recueil des données nu- mériques, Fasc. 2, 1899 (Optique par H. Dufet). Seances Année 1898, Fasc. 1, 3, 4. a Société de Géographie. Bulletin, Sér. 7, Tome xrx., Tri- mestre 3, 4, 1898; Tome xx., Trimestre 1, 2, 1899. Comptes Rendus des Séances, Nos. 8, 9, 1898; Nos. 1 - 5, 1899. » Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, Sér. 3, Tome xxv., Nos. 7-9, 1897; Tome xxvi., Nos. 1 - 4, 1898. a Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, 'Tome xx11., 1897. Mémoires, ‘l'ome x., 1897. % Pisa—Societa Italiana di Fisica. J] Nuovo Cimento Periodico, Ser. 4, Tomo vii1., Sept. 1898 ; Tomo 1x., Jan. 1899. 4: Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Memorie, Vol. xvt., 1898. Processi Verbali, Vol. x1., pp. 57 - 158, 1898-9. te Rome—Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno LIz., Sessione 1, 2, 1898-9. The Academy Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Giornale del Genio Civile, Anno xxxvi., Fasc. 6-12, 1898; Anno xxxvit., Fasc. 1 —4, 1899. Minister for Public Instruction, Rome Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Annuario, 1899. Rendiconti, Serie Quinta, Vol. vi1., Semestre 2, Fasc. 8-12, 1898; Vol. vii1., Semestre 1, Fasc. 1—12, Semestre 2, Fasc. 1 — 3, 1899. The Academy. Sypney—Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man, N:S:, Vol.ar., Nos. 6,27, 1899: The ee Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the Seventh Meeting held at Sydney 1898. The Association Australian Museum. Annual Report (54th) of the Trustees for the year 1898. Catalogue No.17,1899. Memoir 1]1., Parts viii., 1x., 1899. The Trustees ih ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 1, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, November Ist, 1899. The President, W. M. HAMLET, F.C.S., F.1.c., in the Chair. Forty members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates were read for the second time, and of one for the first time. The President for the third time requested that those members who desired the formation of an Anthropological and Ethnological Section and who were willing to attend the meetings and take an active part in the work of such a Section, would send in their names to the Hon. Secretaries. | He also announced that Prof. Liversidge had kindly promised to deliver a lecture on “Liquid Air,” to the members of the Royal Society, to take place at the University; if possible, on the 8th instant, but that was dependent on the satisfactory repair of the Compressive Engine. Due notice would however be given. The following alterations of the rules were passed at the last meeting of the Society (November Ist, 1899), and will be sub- mitted for confirmation at the next Annual General Meeting. Members are requested to accept this as an official notice of the alterations proposed to be confirmed. Rule III. was amended to read as follows :— III. The other Officers of the Society shall consist of the President, who shall hold office for not more than one year con- tinuously, but shall be eligible for re-election after the lapse of one year; four Vice-Presidents, an Honorary Treasurer, and two Honorary Secretaries, who, with ten other members, shall con- stitute the Council for the management of the affairs of the Society. The last clause of Rule V., was repealed ; and the following substituted in lieu thereof :— xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Such list shall be exhibited in the Society’s Rooms at least one calendar month before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Any member of the Society not disqualified by Rules XITl., SANE, or XIVa., may be nominated for the position of President, Vice-President, Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secre- tary, or Member of the Council, provided that his candidature shall have been notified to the Honorary Secretary or Secretaries under the hands of two qualified voters—such notification being countersigned by the nominee—at least fourteen days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. A complete list showing the names of those recommended for election by the Council, and those nominated as in the last pre- ceding clause, shall be sent to each member of the Society, at least seven days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Rule Va. was repealed. Rule VI. was amended as follows:—In lieu of the first para- graph of the above Rule, read :— The balloting list for the election of Officers and Members of Council shall contain a list of the names of those recommended by the Council and also of those otherwise nominated as provided forin Rule V. Heading the former, the words ‘“ Recommended by Council” shall be inserted, and opposite the latter the names of the nominators, It was stated that if possible, the rules as amended would be put into operation at the next Annual General Meeting. Mr. RussE.u read a letter received from Professor Pickering of the Harvard Observatory, U.S.A., and gave some information with regard to the expected stream of meteors on the 15th inst. Professor ANDERSON STUART, M.D., gave a demonstration on the formation of the retina of the ox’s eye. EXHIBITS. Mr. Gururiz and Mr. Denson showed preparations of micro- organisms occurring in milk and other dairy products, also some preparations of pathogenic organisms. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli. Mr. R. T. Bakesr, F.L.s., exhibited specimens of timber of a new Caswarina recently described by him. ‘It is known throughout its distribution—from the Darling River to Main Dividing Range —as ‘‘Belah.” The timber is pale coloured, very hard and much resembles Hornbeam of Europe in appearance and texture. Mr. H. G. Sirs, F.c.s., exhibited a remarkable Eucalyptus oil. Owing to the large quantity of eudesmol present, this oil solidified shortly after being obtained from the still. Eudesmol is the solid camphor of Eucalyptus oil. He also exhibited Graptolites (Diplograpsus sp.) in slates, obtained four miles from Cadia, N.S. Wales. These graptolites were found by Mr. R. H. Cambage, and the locality recorded is only one hundred and fifty miles of Sydney. Dr. F. H. Quatre showed specimens of analysing crystals. These act like tourmalines, that is, let a ray vibrating in one of their axes pass, and check all the others proportionally more as their azimuths approach the perpendicular to the first ray. Hence they shew white or partial light or black, without an analysing prism. A quartz of proper thickness causes varied colours to appear in the crystals, according to their thickness, when placed behind them. Notable specimens are citric acid, boracic acid, herapathite or iodosulphate of quinine, platino-cyanide of mag- nesium, etc., etc. Several of these were shown. Mr. Grimsuaw exhibited a large collection of fulgurites ranging from = 13” in diameter, found on the sand hills at Kensington. Exhibits were shewn by Mr. Hamiet—a collection of photo- graphs of the human stomach in cases of poisoning—and also by Prof. LivERsIDGE. The meeting was then adjourned to the first Wednesday in December, and an informal-Conversazione was-held. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics ) ABERDEEN— University. Minutes of the General Council, Vol. r., Meetings 1 - 74, 1860 - 1397. The University xlil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Acram—Direction des Archives des Royaumes Croatie, Slavonie et Dalmatie. Vjestnik kr. Hrvatsko-Slavonsko-Dalma- tinskog Zemaljskog Arkiva, Godina 1., Svezak 4, 1899. The Director ALBANY N.Y.—University of the State of New York. Annual Report (49th) of the Regents New York State Museum, Vol. 11., 1895. State Library Bulletin, Legislation No. 10, 1899. The University AmMsTERDAM—Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter bevordering van Nijverheid. Tijdschrift, Nieuve Reeks, Deel 11., Nov. Dec., 1898; Deel 111., Jan. —- Mar., June - Sept., 1899. The Association ANNAPOLIS, Md.—U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxv., No. 2, Whole No. 90, 1899. The Institute EpinpurcH— Edinburgh Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. vil., Part iv., 1899. The Society Royal Scottish Geographical Society. . The Scottish (eo- graphical Magazine, Vol xv., Nos. 8, 9, 1899. Guiascow— University. A Roll of the Graduates of the University of Glasgow, from 31 Dec. 1727 to 31 Dec. 1897. With short biographical Notes compiled by W. Innes Addison, 1898. The University Lonpon—British Museum (Natural History). A Hand-List of the genera and species of Birds {Nomenclator avium tum fossilium tum viventium | by R. Bowdler Sharpe, uu.p. Vol. 1., 1899. List of the genera and species of Blastoidea, 3) 1899; The Museum Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tv., Part ii1., No. 219, 1899. The Society Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Regu- lations for admission to Membership and Register of Fellows &c., 1899 — 1900. The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxxxvi., Part i1., 1898-99. The Institution Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, No. 1, 1899. an Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. tv., No. 1, 1899. Rules and List of Members, 1899. The Institute Physical Society. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Parts viii., ix, Nos; 20;)21, 1899; The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. Lrx., June 1899. 3 ” Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xtv., Nos. 2, 3, 1899. > Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Part iv., No. 131, August 1899. ” Royal Society. The Record of the Royal Society, No.1,1897. _,, Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. xx., Part iv., 1899. Report and List of Fellows, 1899. ae Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx., Part ii., 1899. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlil.: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 6, 1899. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, December 6th, 1899. The President, W. M. HAMLET, F.C.S., F.1.c., in the Chair. Thirty-four members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— | 3 McTaggart, J. N. Campbell, Bachelor of Engineering (Syd.), 16 Lugar Street, Waverley. Smith, R. G., m.se. (Dur.), B. se. (Hdin.), Macleay Bacteri- ologist ; Linnean Society’s House, Elizabeth Bay. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “On the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their Essential Oils,” By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., and H. G. Situ, F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. The authors show that one of the species of the genus—the shrub, botanically known as Darwinia fascicularis, A. Rudge— which occurs plentifully on the sandstone formation around Port Jackson, is a plant of great commercial importance in regard to its essential oil. This plant belongs to the natural order Myrtacee, a genus so prolific in oil yielding species. The oil consists principally of the important ester geranyl acetate, the least amount of this constituent being 567 per cent. and the greatest 65:1 per cent., obtained from the oil distilled in November. Besides this ester 13-11% of free alcohol was determined, calculated as geraniol. The average yield of oil determined on several distillations from: material obtained in March, September, October and November was 0°318 percent. It was shown that by careful clipping on cultivated plants a yield of oil should be obtainable of not less xliv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. than 0-5 per cent. The oil is obtained from the leaves of the plant, these are, however, very small. The colour of the crude oil is reddish-brown. The specific gravity was ‘9154 at 19° C., the rotation in 100 mm. tube after removing the colour was + 1—2°, it was not soluble in 70 per cent. alcohol, but was so in 90 per cent. On distillation only 5 per cent. came over below 222°, showing an absence of terpenes, cineol, and other constituents having a low boiling point, between 222° and 240°, 64 per cent. distilled. The saponification was readily carried out in the cold, using semi-normal alcoholic potash. The alcohol distilled at 228 — 230° under atmospheric pressure formed a solid compound with calcium chloride, formed citral on oxidation, (proved by its odour andthe formation by Doebner’s reaction of the alcy]-6-naphto- cinchoninic acid melting 197 — 198°) and had a fine rose odour, had no rotation, was soluble in 55 per cent, alcohol toa clear solution. The acid was principally acetic acid, but contained a minute quantity of a higher acid. Geraniol is the principal constituent of the liquid portion of rose oil, and is found in Geranium oil obtained from Pelargonium sp., also in the so called geranium oil obtained from the grass Andropogon sp. It has been also found in a few other plants. The essential oil from D. taxifolia was shown to differ considerably in its properties and constituents from D. fascicularis; in comparison it has apparently little commercial value. 2. “‘On N.S. Wales Copper Ores containing Iodine,” by ARTHUR DIESELDORFF, M.E. (Communicated by A. J. BENsUSAN, Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S.) The author (who was on a visit to N. S. Wales a few years ago) was interested in the discovery of iodine in a sample of cuprite from Cobar by Dr. W. Autenrieth of the University of Freiberg, Baden. He made further investigations himself as shewn by the paper, resulting in his proving the presence of iodine in several different samples sent to him from the colony. He points out that the subject is not of commercial interest, the iodine being present in such small percentages, but he thinks should copper ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv. ores be found-with only 0:1 per cent. of iodine, it might be profitable to extract the same by sublimation. The value of the iodine in a ton giving 0-1 per cent., would be 30/-, and he estimates the cost of extraction. at 3/-. The total value, however, of the world’s production of iodine in 1896 was only £350,000. 3. ‘Orbit Elements Comet I. 1899 (Swift),” by C. J. Merriexp, F.R.A.S. This paper contains the results of an investigation of the orbit of the comet. In the prefatory remarks the author directs atten- tion to several interesting physical aspects of this apparition. During 1899 May, the comet was seen with a double nucleus, the observed distance between the components increasing to some extent during an interval of a few days; part of this recession from one another may have been due to an actual separation of the nuclei, but the author has not examined the question critically. Photographs of great value were taken at the Lick Observatory, California; these show some interesting changes in the appearance of coma and tail of the comet, that will be of interest to those who work in this department of astronomy. The orbit elements have been deduced from the observations taken at most of the leading observatories. Sixteen equations of condition have been employed in finding the corrections to the assumed parabolic elements. The result of the investigation seems to indicate that the geometrical figure described by this comet is an hyperbola. Firstly, it has been taken for granted that no correction is necessary to the eccentricity unity of the assumed elements, thus another set of parabolic elements is obtained, and it is shewn that these are more satisfactory, the sum of the squares of the residuals reducing from 10* x 15:5 to 10*x 04'1. Secondly, in this case the author has made no assumption as to the form of the orbit, and finds that a positive correction is required to the assumed eccentricity, viz., unity, indicating therefore hyperbolic motion; the sum of the squares of the residuals being most satisfactory, and reduced to 10*x 0-01. In his concluding remarks the author states, that the perturbations have been excluded from the calculation, as xvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. they will be of a low order, and should aidefinitive discussion of the orbit be undertaken, then the results deduced will not require material] alteration. a8 b 4, “On the composition of N.S. Wales Labradorite and Topazes, with a comparison of methods for the estimation of Fluorine,” by G. Harker, B.Sc. . (Communicated by Professor A. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL D., F.R.S.) The paper gives the composition and properties of a typical labradorite from New England, N.S. Wales, and also the com- position including the water of constitution of two varieties of topazes found in N.S. Wales, one from the Mudgee the other from the New England district. The composition of the first is silica 31°87, alumina 56°71, fluorine 17°30, water on ignition -25, water of constitution ‘75; and of the second, silica 31-83, alumina 55:53, fluorine 16:11, water on, ignition °38, water of constitution 1:07, the mean of two analyses in each case. It describes also the results obtained for the. percentage of fluorine in topaz by three different methods, viz., by fusing the topaz with alkaline carbonates alone (Wohler), by liberating the fluorine as silicon tetra-fluoride and weighing as potassium silicon-fluoride (Liversidge), and by decomposing with alkaline carbonates and silica (Berzelius-Rose). The last method gave the best results, and very probably the whole of the fluorine is obtained by this method. 5. “ Note on a remarkable increase of temperature after dark at Seven Oaks, Macleay River,” by Huau Casares KIpDDLE, F. R. Met. Soc. During a moderate heat wave on 25, 26, and 27 November, the maximum thermometer recorded 90° to 91:8° at about 10 a.m.; then a sea breeze came in, and by midday the temperature fell to what it had been at 7:30 a.m., and continued to fall under the same influence till at 7 p.m. it stood at 75°.. .On the 27th shortly after 7 p.m., a thunderstorm which had been working up from the west for half an hour, reached us, but instead of the usually cool breez: which a thunderstorm brings, we experienced a blast ABSTRACL OF PROCEEDINGS. xl vil. as from a furnace. Ina few minutes the temperature rose from 75° to 86°, and during the blast reached 95:5’, or three and a half degrees higher than it had been at the hottest’ part of the day. The phenomenon is the more remarkable when it is remembered that it occurred after dark. This hot wind came from W.N.W., and reached a force from fresh to strong. In the attached table will be seen the shade temperature readings at 8 a.m., dry and wet bulbs at 9 a.m., the daily shade maximum, and also the maximum reading in the sun’s rays :— | Shade Temperature in Louvred Screen. Nratimacay Senaiae Date. L : g 8 a.m. | 9a.m., Dry. |9a.m., Wet.| 9a.m., Max. ESE ID | ee i Selene 69:4 92° 159°8 | 28 84° 86 8 721 91°8 153° 29 s7 | 874) =| 764 | OBS 150° The thermometers have all been tested at Kew. I may add that this observing station is situated on the Macleay River, approxi- mately in Lat. 31° 2’S., Long. 151° 3’ E., and is about seven miles in a direct line from the coast. 6. ‘Records of Rock Temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery Birthday Shaft, Balmain, Sydney,” by J. L. C. Ras, E. F. PITTMAN, Assoc. R.S.M., and Professor T. W. E. Davin, B.A.,F.G.S. The deep sinking now being carried on at the Sydney Harbour Colliery, Baimain, with which one of the authors is actively associated, affords a very favourable opportunity of noting the nature and temperatures of the various rocks underlying the neighbourhood of Sydney, and this the authors are utilizing. The paper read deals with the temperatures noted to a depth of 1,450 feet, which was the depth reached in the shaft at the middle of November. The thermometers used were specially supplied by Professor Everett, F.R.s., Secretary of the British Association Committee on the subject of underground temperatures. The sinking of the Birthday Shaft had reached a depth of 600 feet before the thermometers were available, but since then, observa- tions have been made at intervals of practically, 50 feet, and an a ¥ wu s . xlvlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. opportunity will be got of recording temperatures at less depth than 600 feet, when the sinking of the Jubilee Shaft is gone on — with. From 600 feet down to 1,100 feet two slow action thermo- meters were used, and the horizontal holes, which were drilled into the walls of the shaft for their reception, were put in a distance of 3 feet down to 950 feet, and 4 feet from that to the 1,100 feet level. Beginning at the 1,150 feet level two maximum thermometers were used, in addition to the slow-action instruments, and the practice has been to place one instrument of each type in each of the holes, which have been put in to a distance of 5 feet. The plugging in each case consisted of about six inches of greasy cotton waste, placed next to the thermometers, the remainder of the hole being filled up with plastic clay rammed into the hole. Every precaution was taken to ensure accuracy of results. If the mean annual temperature of Sydney be taken as 63° Fahr., the rate of increase is shown, by the observations made, to be at the rate of 1° Fahr. for every 90} feet, which is fairly low, and may be taken as a favourable indication for the future ventilation of the mine. A remarkable increase of temperature was noted as the sinking passed from the Hawkesbury Sandstones into the Narrabeen Beds, the upper section of which consists of chocolate shales. These shales, which outcrop on the sea coast at Narrabeen some eight miles to the north of Manly, were struck in the shaft at a depth of 1,024 feet 9 inches, or at practically the same depth from the surface as in the Cremorne Bore, the exact difference being 59 feet 74 inches, measured from mean low-tide level in Sydney harbour, the shaft being the deeper of the two. Thisisa very slight difference in three and a quarter miles, which is the distance from the shaft to the bore, the bearing being N. 67° 15’E. A section of the strata, already passed through in the sinking of the shaft, and a table, giving full particulars of the nature of the rocks in which the temperatures were observed, time allowed for heat generated by drilling to escape between completion of holes and insertion of thermometer, time thermometers were left in the holes, readings, corrections etc,, were given along with the paper. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix, 7. “Note on the Edible Earth from Fiji,” by the Hon. B. G. CorneEy, M.D., Prof. DAvID,B.A.,F.G.8.,and F. B. GuTHRIE, F.C.S; The sample of edible earth, a soft, pale pink, clayey material, with occasional lumps of chalcedony was collected by Dr. Corney, near the northern coast of Vanua Levu. Im addition to the chalcedony it contains numerous angular and rounded quartz crystals, from }” to %” in diameter, and small octahedral crystals of magnetite. The earth is probably formed by decomposition of a dacite tuff. Its analysis, by F. B. Guthrie, gave the following results :— Moisture at 120° C... a oe say OEE) Combined water... i) 1B) sen WESTKS Silica oe Le ce Ke we Aldo Alomina — .... oe is Eee 56er) COKOY) Oxide of Iron, Fe,O, ahs eae ne OG 99°51 The oxide of iron can be dissolved out with hydrochloric acid. The silica, alumina and combined, water are present in approxi- mately the proportion required by the formula A1,O,(SiO,),(H,O),; the substance appears therefore, to bea silicate of that composition —probably kaolinite—with about 7:6 per cent. of uncombined ferric oxide as mechanical impurity. EXHIBITS. Mr. J. L. C. Rak exhibited portion of a pipe conducting water down Birthday Shaft, Balmain, from the ‘‘ water ring,” shewing the pipe incrusted with calcium and barium carbonates. The incrustations had formed in about two weeks. Professor Davip exhibited a Phillips Maximum Thermometer, with copper case, for observing and recording rock temperatures. At the Balmain Shaft similar protecting: cases.ef copper and glass. are used, but the thermometers are Negretti and Zambra’s maxi- mum type, recommended by the Underground Temperature Com- mittee of the British Association. d—Dee. 6, 1899. 1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Samples of the “bursting ” sandstone, portions of which burst away as if the stone were under great pressure, from Birthday Shaft, Balmain, were shewn by Messrs. J. L. C. Ran and T. Carer. Specimens of édible earth from Fiji, illustrative of the paper on that subject, were exhibited by Prof. Davin. Geological photographs illustrating the glacial nature of the Dwyka Beds, taken in the district of Priska, Cape Colony, by Messrs. Rogers and Schwartz, of the Geological Commission, Cape of Good Hope, were exhibited by Mr. Grorce W. Carp. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— 3 TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The names of the Donors are in Italics.) ADELAIDE—Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, South Australian Branch. Proceedings, Vol. 111., 1888-9 to 1897-8. The Society Royal Society of South Australia. Transactions, Vol. xxmt1., Part i., 1899. Memoirs, Vol. 1., Part i., 1899. Observatory. Meteorological Observations during 1896. The Observatory BautTimorE—Johns Hopkins University. . American Chemical Journal, Vol. xx., Nos. 4-10, 1898; Vol. xx1., Nos. 1— 5, 1899. American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. xx., Nos. 2-4. 1898; Vol. xx1., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. American Journal of Philology, Vol. x1x., Nos. 1 - 4, 1898. Circu- lars, Vol. xviir., No. 141. 1899. Hospital Reports, Vol. vil., Nos. 1 —4, 1898. Studiesin Historical and Political Science, Vol. xvi., Nos. 5-12, 1898; Vol. xvi1., Nos. 1 - 5, 1899. The Unwersity Maryland Geological Survey Commission. Maryland Geo- logical Survey, Vols. 1., 11., 1897-1898. The Commission Baravia—Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl- andsch-Indié. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Neder]- andsch-Indié, Dee] tvi11., Tiende Serie Deeli1., 1898. The Society Directeur del’ Instruction Publique, des Cultes et de l’Indus- trie aux Indes Néerlandaises. Kort Verslag over de Aardbeving ‘Te Ambon of—6 Januari 1898 door Dr. R. | D. M. Verbeck 1899. The Department Brercen—Bergens Museum. Aarbog for 1898 including Aars- beretning for 1898. An account of the Crustacea of Norway, Vol. 11., Isopoda, Parts xi. — xiv., 1898-9. The Museum BEeRLin —Centralbureau der Internationalen Erdmessung. Bericht tiber den stand.der Erforschung der breiten- variation am schlusse des Jahres 1893 von Th. Albrecht. Resultate aus den Polhéhenbestimmungen in Berlin ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1891 und 1892 am universal- transit der Konig]. Sternwarte von Dr. H. Battermann, 1899. The Bureau ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. li. BeRLin—continued. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkonde zu Berlin. Verhandlungen, band xxvi., Nos.2—4,1899. Zeitschrift, Band xxx111., No. 6, 1899. Siebenter Internationaler Geographen- Kongress Berlin 1899, Vorliufige Mittheilungen itiber Organization und Programm. The Society Koniglich Preussische Geodatisches Institut. Bestimmung der Intensitét der Schwerkraft auf Fiinf und Finfzig Stationen von Hadersleben bis Koburg und in der Umgebung von Gottingen bearbeitet von 'L. Haasemann 1899. The Institute Berne—Départment de 1l’Interieur de la Confédération Suisse Section des Travaux Publics. Tableaux graphiques des Observations hydrométriques suisses ainsi que des tem- pératures de air et des hauteurs pluviales pour ’année 1898. The Department Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 18 — 23, 1899. The Academy Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs, Vol. v., Nos. 4, 5, 1899. Proceedings, Vol. xxvii1., Nos. 13 - 16, 1899. The Society Bremen—Naturwissenschaftliche Verein zu Bremen. Abhand- lungen, Band xvi., Heft 2, 1899. BrisBANE—Geological Survey Office. Annual Progress Reports of the Geological Survey for the Years 1896.98, C.A. 8 - 1899. Reports on—A visit to the Palmer Gold Field, by R. L. Jack, F.a.s., Govt. Geologist, C.A. 2—1899 ; Mount Clifford and other Mines near Anakie, Central District, by B. Dunstan, C.A. 4—1898 ;, Mount Morgan and other Mines in the Crocodile Gold Field with maps, R.L. Jack, F.as., C.A. 51—1898; The Delimitation of the Artesian Water Area North of Hughenden by A. Gibb Maitland, and note by R. L. Jack, F.c.s., Govt. Geologist, C.A. 123—1898; The Geology of Collaroy and Carmilla, near Broad Sound, with notes on the mining operations *nd mineral resources of the district, by B. Dunstan, F.G.s., C.A. 122—1898 ; The Geology of Rodd Peninsula, Port Curtis, by B. Dunstan, F a.s., C.A. 34—1898. The Survey Queensland Representative ‘Greater Britain Exhibition.’ ‘Lhe British Australasian and New Zealand Mail with Special Illustrated Supplement of the Queensland Court at the Greater Britain Exhibition 1899. The Publisher Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Queensland Branch). Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. xiv., 1898-9. Some critical notes on the Queensland Volume of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The Society Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. v1i1., Parts li. —iv., 1890-91. BrussELs—Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome xxx11.,1897. Bulletins des Séances, 'l'ome xxxIv., 1899 pp. 33 - 96. Bucuarest—Institutul Meteorologic al Roumdniei. Annalele Institutului Meteorologic al Romaniei, Tomul x11., x1I1., Anul 1896-7. The Institute 33 lii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Buenos A1rrEs—Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires. Communica- ciones, Tome 1., Nos. 1, 2, 1898. The Museum Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin, Tomo x1x., Nims 9-12, 1898; Tome xx., Nims 1 - 6, 1899. The Institution CarEN—Academie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, 1898. The Academy CatcuTTa—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. txvit., Parti., Nos. 2 - 4. Part ii., Nos. 1.2 and Index, Part iii., Nos. 1, 2, 1898. Proceedings, Nos. 8-11, 1898; Nos. 1-3, 5-7, 1899. The Kacmiracabdamrta a Kacmiri Grammar by G. A. Grierson, C.LE., Ph.D. 1¢.8. Part ii, 1898. The Society Geological Survey of India. General Report on the work carried out for the period from lst April 1898 to 31st March 1899. Manual of the Geology of India, Economic Geology, Part i., Corundum by T. H. Holland, a.r.c.s., ¥F.q.s., 1898. Memoirs, Vol. xxvii., Parti. Memoirs, Palaeontologia Indica, Ser. 15, Vol. 1., Part ili., 1897. The Survey CaMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College. Annual Report of the Assistant in Charge, 1898- 9. Bulletin, Vol. xxxir., No. 10; Vol. xxxitzt., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Museum Care Town—Department of Agriculture. Annual Report of the Geological Commission 1897. The Department South African Philosophical Society. Transactions, Vol. x., Parts 2, 3, 1897-8. The Society Cuicaco—Chicago Academy of Sciences. Annual Report (40th) for the year 1897. Bulletin of the Geological and Natural History Survey, No. 2, 1897. The Academy Field Columbian Museum. Geological Series, Vol. 1., Nos. 3,4, 1899. Zoological Series, Vol.1., Nos. 11—15, 1899. The Museum University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. x., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. Journal of Geology, Vol. vu1., Nos. 4, 5, 1899. The University CurisTIANriA—Université Royale de Norvége. Jahrbuch des Nor-- wegischen Meteorologischen Instituts fiir 1896 and 1897. Universitets-Program for 2nd Semester 1897. a Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. Forhandlinger, 1897, Nos. 1-6, and Oversigt 1898; No.1, 1899. Skrifter 1 Math-naturv. Klasse 1897, Nos. 1—12, 1898; Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 1899. The Society CooLeaRDIE—Coolgardie Chamber of Mines. Gold Mining Sta- tistics, April, May, June, August, 1899. Supplement to Government Gazette, 27 Oct., 1899. The Western Australian Goldfields Mining Record for 1898. The Secretary CotomBo— Royal Asiatic Society. J ournal of the Ceylon Branch Vol-xv.,; No. 4971898: The Society CoPpENHAGEN—Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. elena Nouvelle Série, 1898. we Corpospa—Academia Nacional de Ciencias. Boletin, Tome XVI., Entrega 1, 1899. The Academy ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. liii. DrenveR—Colorado Scientific Society. The Self-cooling Condenser by T. L. Wilkinson, 1899, ‘The Sunset Trachyte’ from near Sunset, Boulder County, Colorado, by Robert S. Breed, 1899. The Society Disyon-—Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, Serie 4, Tome vi., Années 1897-98. The Academy Drespen—K. Sachs. Statistische Bureau. Zeitschrift, Jahrgang xtv., Heft. 1, 2, and Supplement 1899. The Bureau Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xxr., Nos. 6—10, 1899. The Society EpinsurGu—Botanical Society Edinburgh. Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. xx1., Parts 1- 3, 1896-98. oF Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo- graphical Magazine, Vol. xv., No. 10, 1899. * Fort Monroe, Va.—U.S. Artillery School. Journal of the U.S. Artillery, Vol. x1., Nos. 2, 3, 1899. The School Freizure (Baden)—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band x1., Heft. 1, 1899. The Society GxrELOoNG—Gordon Technical College. The Wombat, Vol. tv., No. 4, 1899. The College GiEss—EN—Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und-Heilkunde. Bericht, Band xxx11., 1897-99. The Society Hattrax, N.S.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. 1x., Part iv., Session 1987-8. The Institute HampBure—Geographische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen, Band xv., Heft. 2, 1899. The Society Hamitton, Ont.—Hamilton Association. Journal and Proceed- ings, Vol. xiv., Session 1897-8. The Association HaarLeEmM—Colonial Museum. Bulletin, Nos. 20, 21, 1899, Extra Bulletin 1896. Catalogus der Nederlandsche West- Indische Tentoonstelling te Haarlem 1899. The Museum Musée Teyler. Archives, Ser. 2, Vol. v1., Partie ii., iii., 1898-9. _,, Société Hollandaise des Sciences a Haarlem. Archives Neerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Serie 2, Tome 11., Liv. 2—5; Tome 1m11., Liv. 1, 1899. The Society HEIDELBERG—Naturhistorisch-Medicinische Vereins zu Heidel- berg. Verhandlungen N.F. Band vi., Heft 2, 1899. a5 HELIGOLAND—KéoOnigliche Biologische Anstalt. Zur Kenntniss der Gottungen Margelopsis und Nemopsis von Dr. Clemens Hartlaub 1899. ” Hosart—Mining Department. Report of the Secretary for Mines for 1898-9. The Progress of the Mineral Industry of Tasmania for the Quarters ending 30 June and 30 Sep. 1899. Volunteer Goid Mining Co., Report of the Government Geologist on the Deep Shaft 1899. The Department Royal Society of Tasmania. Abstract of the Proceedings, 1898. The Society Hono.tutu—Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. Fauna Hawaii- ensis, Vol. 1., Parts i., ii., 1899. The Museum liv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Inpranapotis—State of Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural Resources. Annual Report (22nd), W. S. Blatchley, State Geologist, 1897. The Department _ Kineston—Institute of Jamaica. Journal, Vol. 11., No. 6, 1899. ‘ The Institute Konicspere, I. Pr.—Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft. Schriften, Jahrgang xxx1Ix., 1898. The Society Lavusanne—Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin, 4. Ser., Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 128-—131,1898 os Lerpzia—K. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Berichte Math-phys. Classe, Heft. 1-3, 1899. Jahres- bericht der Fiirstlick Jablonowski’chen Gesellschaft, Mar. 1899. cy) Lifar—Société Géologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome xxiv., Liv.3; Tome xxv., Liv.2; Tome xxv1., Liv. 1 - 3, 1897-9. ,, Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Mémoires, Série 3, Tome 1I., 1899. ry) LitLE—Société Geologique du Nord. Annales, Tome xxvi1., 1898. _,, Lonpon—Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v., Nos. 56 — 58, 1899. The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, . Vol. cxxxvil., Part iii., 1898-9. The Institution Institution of Naval Architects. Transactions, Vol. xu1.,1899. ,, Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 236 - 238, 1899. Zoology, Vol. xxvii., Nos. 178-175, 1899. The Society Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, Fourth Ser., Vol. 1x., Nos. 1517 — 1530, 1899, oy Physical Society of London. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Part x., No. 22, 1899. - Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Vol. v11., No. 44,1899. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Ser. 3, Vol. x., Part iii., No. 39, 1899. The Society Royal College of Surgeons of England. Calendar 1899. The College Koyal Colonial Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxx., 1898-9. The Institute Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xiv., No. 4, 1899. The Society — Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxv., No. 3, 1899. & Royal Society. Proceedings, Vol. txv.,No.419. Year Book of the Royal Society 1899. rf Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xu111., Nos. 254 — 259, 1899. The Institution Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx., Part ii1., 1899. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xivi1., Nos. 2435 — 2438, 2440 — 2448, 1899. The Society The Chemical News, Vol. uxx1x., Nos. 2041 — 2066; Vol. uxxx., Nos. 2067 — 2082, 1899. The Editor The Electrical Engineer, N.S., Vol. xxiv., Nos. 3 - 16 1899. . Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Parts ii, ii1., 1899. Transactions, Vol. xv., Parts i1., 111., 1899. List of Fellows, May 31, 1899. The Society ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lv. Mapras—Madras Government Museum. Bulletin, Vol. 11,, No. 3, 1899. The Museum ‘Madras Observatory. Report for the year 1897-98, and on the Eclipse Expedition of January 1898. The Observatory Mancuerster—Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvi., Parts 4-8, 1898-9. The Society Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xu11., Parts i1., iv., 1898-9. mh Me.sourne—Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. xtv., Nos. 165 — 167, 1899. Lhe Publishers Fieid Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist, Vol. xv1, Nos. 6, 7, 1899. The Club Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery of Victoria. Report of the Trustees for 1898. The Trustees Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch). Transactions, Vol. xvi1., 1899. The Society Mexico—Instituto Geolégico de Mexico. Boletin, Num 11, 1898. The Institution Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate’ Memorias y Revista, ‘lomo x1., Nums 9— 12, 1897-98; Tomo x11., Nims 1-8, 1898-99. The Society MirFrieLp— Yorkshire Geologicaland Polytechnic Society. Prce- ceedings, N.S., Vol. x111., Part iv., 1899. fe Mons—Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut. Mémoires et Publications Serie 5, Tome x., 1898. | Pa MontTEvipEo—Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales, Tomo 11., Fase. 11, 1899; Tomo 111., Fasc. 10, 1898. The Museum MonTPELLIER—Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier. Mémoires de la Section des Sciences, 2nd Série, Tome 11 , No. 5, 1898. The Academy MontTrEAt—Natural History Society of Montreal. Canadian Record of Science, Vol. vi1., No. 8, 1898; Vol. viir., No. t, 1899. The Society Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transactions, Second Series, Vol. 111., 1897. 5 Moscow—Observatoire Météorologique de l Université Impériale de Moscou. Observations made July — Aug., Oct., Dec, 1896; Jan., Feb., April-June, Aug., Oct., Nov., 1897, Jan.—June, Aug. - Nov., 1898. Pamphlets (2) 1896 - 1897. The Observatory Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. Bulletin, Nouvelle Série, Tome x11., Nos. 1—4, 1898. Nouveaux Mémoires, Tome xv., Liv. 7, 1898; Tome xv1., Liv. 1, 1898. The Society Mvu.uHovuse—Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. Bulletin, May —July, 1899. Programme des Prix, 31 May, 1899. am Municu—Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-physikalischen Classe Band xrx., Abth. 3, Band xx., Abth. 1,1899. Pamphlets (2), Sitzungsberichte, Band xxvitr., Heft 3, 1898; Band XXvII., Heft 1—4, 1898-9; Band xxix., Heft 1,1899. The Academy ivi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Nanres—Société des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest dela France. Bulletin, Tome vii1., Trimestres 3, 4,.1898 ; Tome Ix., Trimestres 1, 2, 1899. The Society NaApuLEs—Societa Reale di Napoli. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche, Ser. 3, Vol. v., Fasc. 6, 7, 1899. a NEUCHATEL—Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel. Bulletin, Tome xx1. - xxv., 1893 — 1897. af NEwcastTiE-UPON-TYNE—Natural History Society of Northum- berland, Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Natural History Transactions, Vol. x11., Part i., 1899. 33 New Haven—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Trans- actions, Vol. x., Part i., 1899. The Academy New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Builetin, Vol. xxxI., No. 3, 1899. The Society American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Transactions, Vols. x. — xv., 1893 — 1898; Vol. xv1., Nos. 1 —5, 1899. The Institute American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report of the President etc. for the year 1895. The Museum New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. x11., Part i., 1899. The Academy School of Mines, Columbia University. The School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. xx., No. 4, 1899. The School The Mineral Industry, its statistics, technology and trade, in the United States and other countries to the end of 1898, Vol. vir., Edited by Richard P. Rothwell. The Editor Orrawa—Geological Survey of Canada. Annual Report (New Series) Vol. rx., 1896. The Survey Ottwa Literary and Scientific Society. Transactions, No. 1, 1897-8. The Society Oxrorp—Radcliffe Observatory. Astronomical and Meteoro- logical Observations, 1890-91, Vol. xLvi1., 1899. The Observatory Paris—Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Tome cxxx1x., Nos. 9-15, 1899. The Academy _ Ecole d’Anthropologie de Paris. Revue, Année 1x., Nos. 8, 9, 1899. The Director La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle, Ser. 3, Année xxrx., Nos. 347, 348, 1899. The Editor Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Nos. 7, 8, 1898, Nos. 1 - 5, 1899. The Museum Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, 4 Série, Tome 1x., Fasc. 4, 6, 1898; Tome x., Fasc. 1, 2, 1899. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires, Serie xi., Tome 1., Nos. 27, 28, 1899. 99 Société Entomologique de France. Annales, Vol. LXxv1., Année 1897. bulletin, Année 1897. ” Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xxI1., Nos. 3—6, 1899. Société Frangaise de Physique. Séances, Fasc 1, Année 1899. __,, 3? oe ? ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lvii. Paris—continued. Société de Géographie. Bulletin, Série 7, Tome xviit., Trimestre 4, 1897. Comptes Rendus des Séances, No. 6, 1899. The Society Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, 3 Série, Tome xxvi., Nos. 5, 6, 1898; Tome xxvi1., Nos. 1. 2, 1899. ns Société de Spéléologie. Bulletin. Tome tv., Nos. 13 - 16,1898. ,, Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome xxi11., 1898. Mémoires, ‘l’ome x1., 1898. Fs PrertH, W.A.—Geological Survey Office. Annual Progress Report of the Geological Survey for 1898. Government Geologist Department of Mines. Gold Mining Statistics 1898, April — August 1899. Supplement to Government Gazette of Western Australia, 11 August and 27 October 1899. The Golden West, her Mines and Industries 1899 as repre- sented at the Coolgardie Exhibition. The Department Observatory. Meteorological Observations during the year 1897 (No. 46), 1898 (No. 33). Government Astronomer PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Part i., Jan. — March, 1899. The Academy American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvt., No. 1, 1899. The Society American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xxxviil., No. 169, 1899. Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxuviis., Nos. 1-4, 1898. The Institute The Philadelphia Commercial Museum. The Republic of Costa Rica, by Gustavo Niederlein. The Museum 39 University of Pennsylvania. Annual Report of the Provost to the Board of Trustees 1897-8, Theses (8). Catalogue of the University, 1898-9. Contributions from the Laboratory of Hygiene, Nos. 1, 2, 1898. University Bulletin. Vol. 111., Nos. 1—9, 1898-9. The University Wagner Free Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. 111., Part iv., 1898. The Institute Zoological Society. Annual Report (27th) of the Board of Directors, 27 April, 1899. The Society Pota—Hydrographische Amt der Kund K. Kriegs-Marine in Pola. Relative Schwerebestimmungen durch Pendel- beobachtungen, Heft. 2, 1898. The Director Port Lovis—Royal Alfred Observatory. Annual Report of the Director for the year 1897. Mauritius Magnetical Reductions 1875 — 1897, edited by T. F. Claxton, F.R.A.s., 1899. The Observatory PracuE—Konigl. Béhmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Prag. Norbert Heermann’s Rosenberg’sche chronik herausgegeben von Dr. Matthius Klimesch, 1898. Jahresbericht fiir das Jahr 1898. Sitzungsberichte, Math.-phys. Classe 1898 ; Classe fiir philos. gesch. philol. 1898. The Society ; m . lviil, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Rocuestrer, N.Y.—Geological Society of America. © Bulletin, Vol. 1x., 1898. _ : The Society Rio pE JANEIRO-—Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro. Annuario, 1899. The Observatory RomEe—Academia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei, Atti, Anno Lir., Sessione 3 - 7, 1899. The Academy Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Giornale del Genio Civile. Anno XxXxVIL., Fasc. 5, 6, 1899. Minister for Public Instruction, Rome Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti, Serie Quinta, Rendi- conti, Vol. vii1., Fase. 4-7, Semestre 2, 1899. The Academy Revista Geografica Italiana. Annata, v., Fasc. 7—10, 1898; Annata, vi., Fasc. 1-3, 5-8, 1899. The Publisher R. Ufficio Centrale Meteorologico e Gecdinamico Italiano. Annali, Serie 2, Vol. xvi., Parte 2, 1894, Parte 2. 1895 ; Vol. xvir., Parte 1, 1895; Vol. xvii1., Parte 2, 1896. The Office Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Ser. 3, Vol. x1., Nos. 11, 12, 1898; Vol. x11., Nos. 1-9, 1899. Memorie, Vol. viri., Parte 2, 1898. The Society SateEmM—American Association for the Advancement of Science. Proceedings, Meeting held at Boston, Mass., Vol. xLvi1., 1898. The Association Essex Institute. Bulletin, Vol. xxviut., Nos. 7-12, 1896 ; Vol xx1x., Nos, 7- 12,1897; Vol. xxx., Nos. 1-12, 1898. Historical Collections, Vol. xxxiv., Nos. 1-12, 1898; Vol. xxxv., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Institute San Francisco— California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, Third Series—Botany, Vol. 1, Nos.3-— 5, 1898; Geology, Vol. 1., No. 4, 1898; Math-Physics, Vol. 1., Nos. 1 - 4, 1898 ; Zoology, Vol. 1., Nos. 6- 10, 1898. The Academy Scranton, Pa.—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Minerals, Vol x1x., No. 12; Vol. xx., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Company Sincgapore—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Straits Branch, No. 32, June 1899. The Society StockHotm—Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens. Access- ions-Katalog 13, 1898. Bihang, Band xxiv., Heft 1-4, 1899. Ofversigt, Band Lv., 1898. Handlingar, Bande XXX., XXXI., 1897 — 1899. The Academy Kongl. Vitterhets Historie och Antiqvitets Akademiens. Antiqvarisk Tidskrift for Sverige, Vol. x1v., Part i., 1899. Manadsblad, Arg. xxIv., 1895. r Sr. ANDREWs—University. Calendar for the year 1899-1909. The University Sr. Lours—Academy of Science of St. Louis. Transactions, Vol. vu., Nos. 17—29, 1897-8; Vol. vi., Nos. 1-12, 1898; 1x., Nos. 1-5, 7, 1899. The Academy Missouri Botanical Garden. Annual Report (10th) 1899. The Director SrRassBuRG, i.k.—Meteorologischer Landesdienst von Elsass- Lothringen. Verhandlungen der Internationalen Aéro- nautischen Commission, 31 March - 4 April, 1898. ~ Fr ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lix. Stutreart—Konigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Erganzungs- band 11, zu den Wirttembergischen Jahrbiichern fiir Statistik und Landeskunde 1898. Wiirttembergische Jahrbiicher ue Statistik und Handeskunde, Jabreang 1898, Teil 1.; Teil 11, 1899. The ‘Landesamt’ Vereins fiir Waterlendiache Naturkunde in Wiirttemberg. Jahreshefte, Jahrgang Liv., 1898; Jahrgang Lv , 1899. The Society St. Peterspurc—Académie Impériale des Sciences. Bulletin, Serie 5, Tome vir., Nos. 3-5, 1897; Tome vittr., Nos. 1 —4, 1898. Mémoires, Serie 8, Classe Historico-Philolo- gique, ‘Tome 111., Nos. 1, 2, 1898; Classe Physico-Mathé- -matique, Tome v1., Nos. 4, 6 - 13, 1898, ‘Tome vir., Nos. 1-3, 1898. The Academy Comité Géologique (Institut des Mines). Bulletins, Vol. xvir., Nos. 4-10, 1898; Vol. xvi11., Nos. 1,2. Mémoires, Vol. vitt., No. 4, 1898; Vol. xi1., No. 3, 1899; Vol. xv1., No. 1,893. The Committee Russisch-Kaiserliche Mineralogische Gesellschaft. Verhand- lungen, Serie 2, Band xxxv1., Lief. 1, 1899. The Society Sypney—Anthropological Society of Australasia. ‘Science of Man,’ New Series, Vol. 11., Nos. 8- 10, 1899. The Society Department of Minesand Agriculture. Agricultural Gazette, Vol. x., Parts vi.—xi., 1899. Annual Report of the Department of Mines and Agriculture, N.S.W. for the year 1898. Mineral Resources, Nos. 5,6, 1899. Records of the Geological Survey, Vol. vi., Parts il., iii., 1899. The Department Department of Public Instruction. N.S. Wales Educational Gazette, Vol. 1x , Nos. 1 -6, 1899. ee Government Printer. The Statutes of New South Wales (Public) passed during the First and Second Sessions of 1899. . Government Printer Government Statistician. Childbirth in New South Wales, a. study in Statistics 1899. New South Wales Statistical Register for 1898 and previous years, Parts Vii., Viii , ix., xii. Statistics of the Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1861 - 1898. Government Statistician Institution of Surveyors, N.S. Wales. List of Surveyors licensed to practice in New South Wales, 1899. ‘'I‘he Surveyor,’ Vol. x1., No. 12, 1898; Vol. x11, Nos. 1-11, 1899. The Institution Linnean Society of New South Wales. Abstract of Pro- ceedings, Sept. 27, Oct. 25, Nov. 29, 1899. Proceedings, Vol. xxiv., Part ii., No. 94, 1899. The Society New South Wales Branch of the British Medical Association. The Australasian Medical Gazette, Vol. xvu1., No. 12, 1898; Vol. xvii1., Nos. 1-10, 1899. The Associa‘ivon N.S. Wales Chamber of Mines. Journal, Vol. 1., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. Mine Returns for 1898. Three Letters on the Australian Mining Laws 1897. The Chamber Public Library of N.S. Wales. Annual Report (28th) of the Trustees for 1898. The Trustees lx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. SypnEY—continued. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Journal and Proceedings, Vol. v., 1891-2; Vol. v1., Nos. 1-6, 1896-8. : The Society United Service Institution of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Vol. 1x., 1897. The Institution University. Calendar of the University of Sydney for the year 1899. The University Tarping—Perak Government Gazette, Vol. x1., Nos. 31 - 38, 1898 and Index; Vol. x11., Nos. 1-8, 11-320, 1899. The Secretary Toxro—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol. xxv., 1897; Vol. xxv1., 1898. The Society Imperial University of Tokio. Calendar, 1897-98. Journal of the College of Science, Vol. rx., Part ii1., Vol. x, Part iii., 1898; Vol. x1., Parts i. —iii., 1898-9; Vol xir., Parts i. —iii., 1898. The University Toronto— ior) re sprex ul ‘urepy AroATIOd Jo ea uoal [Sara iS “Spilez Ur ‘UBT oS SS AIOATEG 0} ‘UIVIT BBVMeg Jo UYSUTT nN oo *SoOUT UL ‘UTBI[ ATW JO 9Z1g G68 Ge GA *‘seqouy ul ‘uleyy ATOATTAq Jo 9ZIg | a oO ‘SOmOUT UT ‘ULB Aroatpeq 01 ‘urep-qng edemeg jooztg | ~~ © ~~ ~ -qoeq yo Ayrovdeg x Na SS one . Ss = ° *1equInN Sh eecy (Choa | Cae eg ee ‘esIVYOSI UINUIXR pourquiog | & Nn) fie Lies | OS ®D ney ®D lor) Ye) | te) 65 S ; Ss Se a [[eETea JO ouINOK = rane ticat “aa Ge | BS Se QD oO Lira 7s : “MOTT JouyveM AIG WNUWIxey, cs ey © es 4 | ae) re ae) on) AQ | “UOT}RYS S) (ea) XS of royoely yoRe YIM peyoouu0g 6 mM © 39 uoyeindog eayoedsoig poyeuysiy a ie tel i tes) Ne) re N i ~H ‘seloy JO tequinyy att Piha OG Ut = ce = rei ~~ rt 1 = "uoTye19 z0j00[q OJ, GU can xt = ie) re N ioe) ~—H | uoT}RIG LOJA wor XXVI. J. DAVIS. Ejector station No, 1 is at the intersection of Pelham and Cross Streets ; No. 2 at the corner of Cross and Bay Streets ; No. 3 in William Street, near Double Bay; and No. 4 on the Marine Parade, near Ocean Street. At each station the Shone’s Hydro-pneumatic Hjectors are in duplicate, one ejector being ample to deal with the maximum sewage flow, while the pair working together are capable of discharging the maximum combined flow of rainfall and sewage. At stations Nos. 1, 3, and 4 the ejectors are each 50 gallons capacity, and at station No. 2, 150 gallons. The ejector stations and collecting wells alongside are of cast iron. The collecting wells are 4 ft. diameter, of # in. metal, and receive the sewage from the different collecting sewers. The ejector chambers are 10 ft. diameter, except No. 2, which is 12 ft. They are constructed of cast iron segmental plates 1 in. thick, bolted together through vertical and horizontal flanges, strengthened by gussets. The bottom section is strengthened by cross girders of H section bolted to a wider flange running round the cylinder 12 in. from the bottom. After the cylinders were sunk to the required depth, the bottom was filled in with concrete between the H girders. To these the ejectors are secured. The upper portion of the chamber, being aore the water level. is composed of concrete which sits on the top flange of the cylinder. It is built with a decreasing diameter finishing at 4 ft. 6 in. at the surface. This allows sufficient room to remove the ejectors if required for repairs. The opening is closed with a cast iron manhole door. 7 Ventilating shafts are provided near each collecting well to carry off the sewer gas. The ventilation at these shafts is materially assisted by the discharge of the exhaust air from the ejectors through a nozzle into the shafts. | The air and delivery mains are of cast iron, the Normandy joint being used in the air mains, and ordinary spigot and faucet in the delivery mains. The Normandy joints have proved to be highly satisfactory, no leaks were discovered when these mains NORTH SYDNEY AND DOUBLE BAY SEWERAGE SCHEMES. XXVII. were tested. Both the air and delivery mains are in sections, so that any branch can be cut out in case of an accident. Means are provided for emptying the delivery mains into the sewers when repairs have to be effected. oat fee | en ®- — Pian of Surrace —— BIJECTOR STATION N&2— ' (30 Cat each berwatg L = By aT StS | zg Ty ——Sectiona, Plan THROUGH CHame Showme Annancement or Pires CFA = 5; i | | l | I : I i : ‘\ Sslene® Al | HL i —m— Sections Evrevation on Line AA —— —— Sectionar Evevation on Line — The air compressing station is situated off Bay Street, near Swamp Street, and is a one storey building of brick with sand- stone facings, and roofed with tiles. The engine room is 39 ft. by 23 ft. 9 in., and the accumulator room 23 ft. by 21 ft. There is also an office 9 ft. by 7 ft. 6 in. XXVIII. : J. DAVIS. MACHINERY. At present the air compressing plant consists of two Parker continuous current shunt wound motors actuating two air com- pressors. Space has been left for the duplication of this machinery when an extension of the sewerage system requires it. The motors are each capable of developing 25 H.P. at a speed of 470 to 500 revs. per minute, when supplied with a current pressure of 500 volts. One motor is, therefore, when running at full speed, capable of performing the whole work. By arrangement with the Railway Commissioners, the electrical energy is supplied through a 19/16 in. cable from the power house at Rushcutter’s Bay at a cost of 14d. per B.T. unit. The air compressors are similar in every respect to that at . Willoughby Bay. | The air receivers are of mild steel, with segmental ends, 4 ft. 6 in. internal diameter, and 9 ft. high. They are fitted with manholes and dead weight safety valves, regulated to blow off at 35 lbs. pressure. The inlet and outlet pipes are 6 ft. diameter, the former extending upward in the centre of the vessel about 5 ft., and the latter has its mouth protected by a cast iron baffle. The spray water by these means is separated from the air and discharged by a trapped drain pipe in the usual way. The motors and compressors, by working in parallel or series, can be run at half or full speed. To accomplish this, and also to ensure the safe starting of the motors against a maximum load, a series-parallel controller has been designed, which allows the current at starting to pass through a series of resistances, which are cut out step by step. As the work to be performed is so variable, necessitating the air compressor being run to suit the flow of sewage, it was considered prudent to introduce means by which, when the pressure had either risen or fallen between certain fixed limits, the machinery would be automatically stopped or started. The maximum pressure decided on was 30 lbs., and the minimum 22 lbs, the latter being the smallest pressure which NORTH SYDNEY AND DOUBLE BAY SEWERAGE SCHEMES, XXIX. would lift the sewage from the ejector stations to the gravitation main, and the former being as high as the pressure could be economically used. Moreover, when the pressure rises above 30 lbs. per square inch, it seriously affects the working of the valve gear in the ejectors. It became necessary, therefore, that the series-parallel controller should be automatically governed, so that the pressure should be maintained between these two limits. In order to effect this the air pressure is admitted to either end of a small cylinder, the prolongation of the piston rod of which is a toothed rack, which engages a pinion on the head of the controller spindle. Immediately above this rack there are a series of stops cut on the bar to which the rack is fixed. These stops correspond exactly with the different positions the series-parallel controller must stop at when cutting the resistances out step by step. The bar carrying these stops passes round a die plate, so arranged that only one stop can pass through the plate, the next being unable to do so until the die plate has moved either up or down, as the case may be. The motion is given to the die plate by means of two small hydraulic cylinders, which allow it to slowly travel up or down. The effect is that while the die plate is slowly travelling up or down, as the case may be, immediately the stops referred to coincide with the opening in the die plate the pressure of air in the cylinder forces the stop through the plate, and thereby the rack actuates the controller. The pauses necessary for cutting out the resistances are thus secured. This mechanism is regulated by a valve which is constructed to rise at the 22 lbs. pressure, and fall at the 30 lbs., and admit the air pressure on either end of the air cylinder, and simultaneously the water pressure on one hydraulic cylinder, and exhaust from the other. There is one other detail to be thought of in stopping and starting the machinery, namely, the circulating. and spray water. A small air cylinder, which is regulated by the valve referred to above, works an equilibrium valve placed in the water service. XXX. J. DAVIS, By this means the water is turned off or on when the machinery stops or starts. STORAGE BATTERY. A storage battery has been installed, consisting of 230 Epstein cells. The primary duty of this is to provide power to run the plant at night when the tramway plant is not available, and, in the second place, during ordinary running to reduce the drop in the line between Rushcutter’s Bay and Double Bay. The battery is always switched on, so that when the machinery is running the motors obtain their energy partly from that and partly from the line. As soon as the motors are stopped the batteries start charging, making up for what has been used whilst running. In addition to the advantages derived in this way from the battery, it was possible to materially reduce the area of the cable. SWITCH BOARD. A switch board is provided with all the necessary fittings, including recording ammeter, voltmeter with connection to line or battery, ammeter to each motor, polarised battery ammeter, and all the necessary quick break switches, polarised battery, cut out plug fuses, and electric light circuit connections. QUANTITY TO BE PUMPED. Taking the average annual rainfall at 51:522 inches, the quantity of sewage and rainfall to be pumped would amount to 54,846,137 gallons per annum, and the h.p. hours expended, taking the efficiency of the whole plant as 34°8 per cent., would be 35,371. The cost of electrical energy would therefore be £147 7s. 6d. per annum, and the cost (including energy, wages, and 6 per cent. per annum on capital cost for repairs and renewals) of lifting 1,000 gallons would amount to 5-688 pence with present population, and 3°991 pence with future population. EFFICIENCY TESTS OF PLANTS. In order to obtain efficiencies of the plant, tests were made under ordinary working conditions on February 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th, with one air compressor and all the ejector stations working. TABLE II. DOUBLE BAY LOW LEVEL SEWERAGE. Result of Test of Efficiency of Plant taken over a period of 2 hours 20 minutes, February 16th, 1899. NORTH SYDNEY AND DOUBLE BAY SEWERAGE SCHEMES. ‘AOUOLOI yUey[NSeY %8-FE | KFFICIENCIES. “SUIVI AIIAT[VG Pus Ale UT UOT YSno1y4 pue saojoofq ul AoUsTOWJe jo sso’y “IOSSeIdUIOD, PUB SIOJOT jo Aquo1oyyjo s}[Nser ON ‘oanyeroduie} Ut doip ysnoryy ssoy Aouspyya “losserdui0og jo Aous yyy ‘SuNTEaS ‘oul uo AouSlOuyy LINE. “auUITT UO SsOrT "sanoy 1aMod-asi0 H “ON [BIO], ae ees el 40 ONG STOW, COMPRESSORS. EJECTORS. XXXI. *1ossardu0g JO Sinoy Jemod-es10F{ [VIOT, “THT [290} uve *IOATOOOY] UI oinsseig ‘aynutut ted “SAY “SOYOUL UI POY UO}STG JO “VIG “SoYOUL UI UOJSTG jo “VIG "szossordui0g JO ‘ON *s1ojoaly Jo sanoy JeMod-asiox [e}07, “QUOP FIOM jo spunod-j00,q jo ‘oN [eqO, “peyFI] SUOT[VD JO “ON [RIOT, “UOTPOLLA SUT}}IUIO—u0T} 81g ad suOp YIOM JO Spunod-yo0,7 Jo ‘oN “OOF UL FATT Pwo “pasieyostp UOl}BIG qove SUOTTVD) JO “ON *pesIVYOSIp Soul} JO ‘ON ‘suoy[ey ut Aytoedeg “UOTPRIS ae] FS 2 5 %6L 5 2 ( pies) ay ce o ag aS N = NX re » = 3 Ne} c= ile) oS o ror) os S S a= oe) | eo) | ea) | oo S on fas) fae) ae) 2 = ° oS — g Nos S S > on — (er) kX o oo — < oo = me on: vm} ~ =H (c0) = = oy | ler) Es —) | ° | =) | ° 5 3) alla al wrod Senses x | na on =H Ne } } 3 } Zi A Zi vA XXXII. J. DAVIS. Each day before starting a man was placed at each ejector station to count and keep tally of the number of times the ejector discharged, from the time of starting to the finish of each trial ; and, the capacity of ejectors being known, the number of gallons of sewage discharged by each station could be readily computed. From this and the total left, the work performed was obtained. The compressor was kept going at a uniform speed of 50 revolutions per minute, which maintained an average air pressure of 20 lbs. per square inch in the receivers. Indicator diagrams were taken off the compressor at intervals, in order to obtain the average indicated horse power developed. On starting the plant each day the reading of the Watt meter at Double Bay station was taken when the air pressure had risen to 15 lbs. per square inch, and simultaneously a reading was taken of the Watt meter at Rushcutter’s Bay generating station. Readings were also taken of both Watt meters at the end of the day’s trial. By this means a record was obtained of (a) the electrical energy which left the generating station at Rushcutter’s Bay (6), the loss of energy in the line, and (c) the energy used by the motors at the Double Bay power station. The loss of efficiency, due to drop in temperature, was obtained under normal working conditions by taking the temperature of air leaving the compressor and at each ejector station. On the first day the trial was taken for a period of two hours, on the second day two hours, and on the third day one hour twenty-five minutes. On each of these days it was found that Nos. 3 and 4 stations were pumped out shortly after starting, as there was not sufficient sewage flowing into them to keep them working continuously for the same period as the other ejectors. On the following day the flushing stations and a couple of hydrants were turned into the sewers, and by that means a constant flow was maintained, enabling all the ejectors to work continuously during two hours and twenty minutes. The conditions, therefore, under which the latter test was made were’ NORTH SYDNEY AND DOUBLE BAY SEWERAGE SCHEMES. XXXIII. more satisfactory than the first three, and the efficiencies which are given in the above table were based upon this day’s results. It may be mentioned that when taking these tests with one compressor at 50 revolutions per minute, the plant was practically developing only one-quarter of its full power. With the maximum quantity of sewage to be lifted, necessitat- ing both compressors running full speed, the efficiencies would be higher. In conclusion, the Author desires to acknowledge the very able assistance and loyal support he has invariably received in the preparation of the designs and construction of the works dealt with in this paper, from Messrs. Millner, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and Cutler, Assistant Engineers of the Sewerage Construction Branch of the Department of Public Works. For a general plan of outfall works see Puate I. THE MANUFACTURE OF MONIER PIPES. By F. M. Gummow. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, June 21, 1899. | THE development of the combination of concrete and iron for the purpose of obtaining the maximum strength with a minimum of material, and at the same time manufacturing an article light, easily handled, and cheap, has led to the establishment of a factory in Sydney for the purpose of making concrete-iron pipes. These are of varying dimensions and shapes, and are used for sewerage work, stormwater-drains, as sheathing for piles, cylinders for bridges, etc. It is a well-known fact that pipes under pressure are subjected to tensile strains on the inner and outer surfaces alternately. In order to take up these strains, and at the same time produce a pipe with the minimum of thickness and a maximum of strength, it is necessary to augment the tensile strength of the cement-mortar by the use of iron, which in this case takes the shape of a spiral wire. The spiral wire is either concentric— and, in case two of them being used, one is placed near the inner and the other near the outer surface (Type A)—or eccentric, in which case one spiral wire is sufficient, passing alternately from the inner to the outer surface of the pipes, as shown on the diagram (Type B). | The pipes are made with a flat bottom, to ensure better pack- ing when Jaid, and also to make sure that the pipe is placed in the proper position as designed. A resumé of the process of pipe manufacture may be briefly stated thus :— The pipe machine consists of a framework of iron or timber, with the necessary appliances for revolving the iron sockets, into THE MANUFACTURE OF MONIER PIPES, XXXYV. which a spindle and drum are horizontally placed, allowing of a rotary motion, fast or slow, and maintaining them in any position required. \irenelhin », Spiral Wire The drum is of light steel, collapsible, and closed at the ends by wooden discs, which serve— Firstly,—To support the steel drum, and give the same the required shape. Secondly,—As a connection between the drum and the spindle. Thirdly,—As a gauge for the thickness, and as faceboards for the pipe. XXXVI. F. M. GUMMOW. The drum, after being oiled to prevent the cement adhering to it, is coated with a thin cement grouting, over which is spread a layer of cement-mortar. This layer is well consolidated with wooden floats, and roughened to receive the next layer. A netting is next strained round the cement-mortar and fastened off, over which is wound a spiral wire (Type A). The whole surface is then grouted, and a second layer of cement- mortar is put on and worked as previously described to about 3” from the full thickness of the completed pipe, and then a second spiral wire is wound round as before. This surface is then grouted, and a third and final layer of cement-mortar is put on, well consolidated, and the pipe finished off to its required thickness. In the manufacture of pipes with only one spiral wire (Type B), the operation is slightly different, in so far that after placing the netting round the first coating the surface is grouted and the second layer is put on, but in such a way as to form an eccentric shape, around which the spiral wire is wound, and the third and final layer is then put on, and the pipe finished off. Immediately upon completion the pipe, drum, and spindle are lifted out of the sockets and placed in a vertical position on a truck, and removed to any convenient place; a second drum is then placed in position, and the process repeated. The finished pipe is left for about three days on the drum, then taken off the truck, the ends of the drum removed, and the steel lining, which is collapsible, extracted without difficulty. The inner surface of the pipe is then rubbed, and if considered necessary, ‘‘bagged” over with cement and left ready for sale. A number of tests have been made by the Sewerage Depart- ment of New South Wales demonstrating the great strength and elasticity of the pipes. Even when badly fractured under a heavy load during testing, they still were able to sustain the load placed on them without collapsing, and after removing the load they partially recovered their original shape, thus showing the elastic nature of such a construction. THE MANUFACTURE OF MONIER PIPES. XXXVII. The pipes are made in convenient lengths, from 1’ 9” to 5’ 0” in diameter, with thicknesses varying from 12” to 22” respectively. In comparing their weight with those of earthenware pipes, it is found that they are slightly lighter, an earthenware pipe of 2” diameter weighing 2cwt. lqr. 21lb., while a pipe of the former description, of similar length and diameter, weighs only 2cwt. lqr. The simplest form of jointing is made by butting the pipes, and placing outside a bandage netting embedded in cement-mortar ; other joints are also used to suit circumstances. Large numbers of these pipes have already been used in New South Wales. | “LE PONT VIERENDEEL.” A New Type or BripGs, By J. I. Hayorort, M.L¢. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, September 20, 1899.] PROFESSOR VIERENDEEL, of the University of Louvain, who is also Engineer-in-Chief and Director of Technical Service in Western Flanders, has recently written a work called ‘‘ Longitudinals with trellis, and Longitudinals with arcades,” which presents some novelties in Bridge design. The writer proposes to extract from that work sufficient to explain the method of calculation and peculiar properties of a bridge, shown by Fig. 1, which, to all intents at first sight, is a plate girder with portions of the web removed between the vertical stiffeners. | Prof. Vierendeel, hereafter referred to as the Professor, states that the metal trellis owes its origin to the American wooden truss, and that, whilst the Americans have preserved the articulation which existed in these trusses in their present practice with pin connections, European engineers have abandoned the articulation in favour of rigid rivetted connec- tions. Whilst the bad effect of rivetting lattice bars is great, still the Professor says the bad effect of pin connections is greater still. It is in the nature of things that there should be rigidity in metal structures and articulation in wooden ones. Originally trellis girders had multiple systems, but during the last 25 years the systems have been reduced by only emp'oying the bars, actually necessary, and so the triangular trellis has eventuated. ‘““LE PONT VIERENDEEL.” XKXEx; Such bridges are calculated on the hypothesis that the inter- sections of the latticing, and the flange are articulated. Now, whilst this is allowable in the case of a pin-connected bridge, it is not only incorrect in the case of a rivetted structure, thereby leading to an erroneous conclusion, but through it no account is taken of the secondary stresses due to the bending which arises from the rigid connections. A method of arriving at the value of these secondary stresses has been devised by Mauderla in 1880*, who bases his system on the hypothesis of the perfect fitting of the lattice bars with the flanges, or, in other words, the invariability of the angles, under different conditions of loading, of the lattice bars between themselves, In order to reduce these secondary stresses to a minimum, Continental engineers have advocated and designed trellis girders with redundant members ; such have been erected on the Rotterdam-Amsterdam Line, of 323 feet span. French Government engineers have investigated the question during the years 1893-94, and as a result advocate the use of multiple trellis, approaching as near as possible a plate girder. The Professor, however, states that these solutions are not the proper ones for the purpose of getting over the difficulty due to secondary stresses, and believes that the true solution will be found, not in the complication, but the simplification of the trellis, that is by doing away with all diagonals and reverting to a type which he calls rectangular. The Professor states that in a triangular trellis the diagonal is indispensable if the inter- sections are articulated, but are redundant, and therefore useless if they are rigid, The Professor claims three advantages for his type over all other types, as follows :— Ist. Theoretic advantage, in that all calculations can be made without recourse to any hypothesis, and, further, that the calculation is incomparably more simple than that based on the theory of Manderla. *H. Manderla, Die Berechnung der Sekundarspannungen. Allgemeine Bauzeitung, 1880. XL. J. I. HAYCROFT. 2nd. Technical advantage, that the longitudinals are stronger, less sensible to dynamic effects, less exposed to the action of rust, and less subject to dislocations than trellis girders ; all these tend to greater durability. 3rd. Commercial advantage, which the Professor states may reach 25% reduction of cost over a trellis Bridge equally strong. Some of the disadvantages which the Professor states pin- connected trusses suffer under, and from which his design of Bridge is free, are as follows :— Complications in carrying out the articulations, the adjusting and arrangement of the pieces, at least 4, at each intersection ; complications connected with the cross-girders and wind bracing, due to the fact that they should be fixed on the vertical central line of the articulations in a rigid manner, and so as not to interfere with the articulations ; the insecurity which results from the use of forged pieces (an operation which always debases the metal), or from welded joints, which even the most experienced operator can neither verify or guarantee the results of ; the wear, which after a lapse of time, is produced in the articulation, and the resulting mobility in the entire frame- work, by which the dynamic effects of the line ioad is greatly increased. The writer, whilst endorsing the Professor’s criticisims of rivetted trusses, does not agree with his strictures on American trusses, as though such strictures may have been justifiable in former years, nowadays such objections are only theoretic. The writer is also surprised at the practice of Continental engineers using redundant members in Bridge trusses, though aware such were employed in other structures, notably the Eiffel Tower. Let Fig. 1 represent the side elevation of portion of a girder with parallel flanges. Throughout the description H is taken as the vertical distance between the centres of gravity of the flanges, and D is the distance between the axes of the verticals. Cross girders are fixed on the centre line of each vertical, either on top or bottom. ‘©Le PONT VIERENDEEL, ” XLI, Fie 3 So = A 1 ' ' ' ; ae ——————— (=== -=-= moseass a 7 + “ Scale for Longitudinal o'er per metre Moments 0’be1 per 2000 Agmelres Cy eee SS SS SSS Se XLII. J. I. HAYCROFT. Let any panel be cut bv a vertical section S at a distance x from the nearest left-hand vertical; the external forces applied. at this section can then be represented by their resultant R, and their moment Mx; the internal forces in each flange can be represented by their horizontal and vertical components applied at the centre of gravity of each flange, and their moment in reference to the same point. Thus, in the upper flange there is: a horizontal force N’, a vertical force T’, and a moment m’. Similar quantities referred to the lower flange are respectively IN eh aamie . The several forces at this section being in equilibrium, the following relations exist :— Gy NN — (2) he ft = tO: (3) Mx + N” H + m’ +m’ = O. Equation (1) shows that the horizontal components are — equal, but of opposite signs ; either of them may be designated N. Equation (1) is also true when the section 8 is not vertical,. so long as its trace does not intersect the axis of a vertical within the boundary lines of the girder; thus N is constant throughout the length of either flange included between the axes. of any two adjoining verticals. The above equations can be replaced by the following :— (2) R+T' + T’ =O (3) Mx + NH + m’ +m’ = O. There are here two equations and five unknowns; the three equations wanted are furnished from the conditions of deforma- tion. Take the first panel, A K F B, Fig. 2, and consider the loading on the lower flange, 7.¢., the cross girders are fixed to the lower end of the verticals; the reaction of the support is taken as R. | Let I, S, be respectively the moment of Inertia and area of cross section of the flanges, and I, 8, corresponding quantities for the verticals. “TE PONT VIERENDEEL.” XDTMrL It should be observed that no hypothesis is made as to the invariability or articulation of the corners of the panel, which is taken as constructed, continuous at the angles. The axis of the vertical B F, before deformation, is taken as a reference line (during the following investigation, where co-ordinate axes are required, the vertical axes cf the verticals are taken as the axis of x, and the horizontal lines through the centre of gravity of the flanges as the axis of Y. The lower flange is inclined to the horizontal at B by an angle a,, due to the deformation of the longitudinal under the influence of loading between the right-hand support and the vertical B F. As the flanges are supposed to be identical, the upper flange is also inclined at angle a, Further, the point B, that is, the intersection of the axis of B F with the axis of the lower flange, advances through a distance a’, to the left due to the lengthening of .the lower flange, and the corresponding F recedes to the right by a similar amount, due to the compression of the upper flange. Now, suppose the end vertical A K cut horizontally at its middle point'and the two semi-panels slightly separated, as shown at G, Fig. 3. The interior forces at the section G are q vertical, P horizontal anda moment m. Now refer the panel to co-ordinate axes and let Ax;, Ay, be the linear displacements of the centre of gravity of G, and a, its angular variation as belonging to the lower semi- panel. Axi, Ayj, a, are the corresponding quantities for the upper semi-panel. These six quantities give three equations, thus :— (22) LS 5 eat aN (5) a = — ay (NE yn = 2 yx With the aid of these equations the values of Pq and m can be found, thus :— Ax= +a,D+ XLIV. J. I. HAYCROFT. E = coefficient of elasticity @ = direct stress acting on ve section of the members For the lower flange dx = a 28, E Qa | The factor (D — y), where y is the distance from the second vertical, is zero on the line A G, thus to evaluate the effect of M the section B A need only be considered, for which M=(R-q) (D-y)-P2-m G D M ds Ih ate — = Es M >. at eta (De="y) Mikes B ) _1/@®-9D'_ PHD ae E I, 3 4. 2 eX =aiD — qa, 1 (/R-g)D PRD ee 76,6) Bl 3 4 2a The value of A x} for the upper semi-panel is similarly found, thus— op. -a ee a Sor os SEE ( pe ero y and since A x, + Ax} =0 31, H .2qD (1+ sg) +3m-RD=0 neglecting om H as being small compared to unity 2 8, D* | .2qD + 3m — De sO cee se'ee Seen Seen (7) As regards the angular variations G JB ‘“LE PONT VIERENDEEL. XLV... for the length B A N= @ 90-4 PE en H and for AG, M= +P (5 - x )t+m oe Ie ase i, DA SPA | Peas = a: fe ral eee a= +mD) 1 Per m H Pima Ws an In the same way 1 /qD?_P DH D fais: pate EL\2 pt mD) te (-- +5 Since a, + a = 0 a, = +a, + Seed s 4m — RD) + EE Oe (8) 1 2 Equations (7) and (8) give ii —.0) gt - = Gy From this we see that at the mid-height of the vertical there: is a point of inflexion, and the direct compression equals one half the re-action of the support. In considering the second panel B F V Z, Fig. 4, let the first. panel be cut by a vertical section C at a distance 1 from the second vertical. Owing to previous investigation it is known that. at this section of the flanges there is, as shown, a horizontal force N a vertical force T, and a moment m,. These are the internal: forces resisting the effect of the external forces from C to the- left end of the girder. At B there is a vertical load W due to the cross girder fixed: at that point. The line of reference is taken as V Z before deformation. Divide the vertical B F at its middle point, and slightly separate the two sections as before, Fig. 5, taking the same- notation as before G G d Olax | Bee focsh eo! or XLVI. J. I, HAYCROFT. — Qa & ql ToS E M ds iL oy Mae Dn (Td4D-») Ed. i> Bee Z 0 PH fan = (W gD 7) a H TD D? Daye eee We) Dye So = Sogn 6it "4 ae W) 2 Ee PH D? bce Me) 7555, also H T D? D? ee ee eG = 3) = 2D a sp oMmeraCei ic rere. a PH D? Cpa tae cose Since Ax, + Ax! =O q H , 2 q D? De ee 0 S,E SNL) | VE ae oe The displacement due to the extension or compression q H Shy Dy of the vertical BF can be omitted in presence of the double displacement ae , due to moments of bending, induced by the force q on each of the flinges. Thus 2q D=3m—W D =0)........0.--.- pees? eee), G ae ae Mads eo ee EL Z for the line B Z we have D (-ta+D-y) =m +r=9 0 as (D-—y)+ 5 +m) dy ‘“LE PONT VIERENDEEL.” XLVII. L D? D? PH = = IC eet Wen) esha mite acl lo ao dln oa tha e alae for the line BG G H Meds! ' 1) oe =) By Sit eon (Fe x) +m ) dx B 0 1 PH, mH =r ( 8 D 1 D D? fay = a, tgp (- TPC + F+W -a + (- m+ PH H PH ee eS ) Similarly D D PH Sty + er (TPO+ Zz) -aytm-5 +m) 1 PH D) + sex(-a +") Since a, + a, = 0 D m H * == (—2qD + 4 W D =!) = i! qD + 4m + ) + EL Inserting the value of equation (9) m= 0 q= me There is no necessity to solve for these values in connection with any other vertical, as on investigation similar values would result. Thus, in every vertical, there is at mid-height a point of inflexion. The stress in the end verticals is always compressive, and equals half the reaction, whilst the stress in all other verticals is tensile, and equal to half the load supposed to act at the end of the cross girder fixed to the vertical. On investigating the stresses, due to the load being on the top flange, or, rather, to the cross girders being fixed at the top of each vertical, the point of inflexion at mid-height of all verticals will be found still to exist, and the compression in the end verticals will be found equal to half the sum of the reaction of XLVITTI. J. I, HAYCROFT. the support added to the weight, due to the cross girder attached on top, whilst the stress in the intermediate verticals will in this. case be compressive, but of same value as when the load is on the lower flange. | These results show that the verticals are not affected by the vertical shearing stresses, properly so called. It now remains to find the several values of P applied at the centre of each vertical in a horizontal direction: Let Fig. 7 represent the semi-longitudinal with its centre at the section 0 0 : divide the longitudinal by a horizontal plane through the centre lines of the verticals and separate the two portions as shown: the condition of stress as far as has been investigated is shown on the figure: a:] is symmetrical with regard to the centre section 00 : that section has experienced neither linear or angular displacement: it is taken as the line of reference, and the half of the longitudinal to the left is referred to the rectangular axis ox and oy as shown. Note: The value of Ay, of the section at A, considered as belonging to the lower portion of the longitudinal, is equal and of the same sign as Ay’, of the same section considered as belonging to the upper portion of the longitudinal, a similar equality exists in the sections of the other verticals. Let W, = © and let P = P, +P, +P, + P, + P, : dla H M ds ara 7 (aoe EL 1 if ) vont f owe} f (S-x)ma The section at F considered as belonging to lower half section is displaced an amount = Ed, due to the deformation of the lower flange proceeding from the origin O towards the vertical at lel) H D’ Hep — 10 W Pe ESE Pi oe F, thus Ed = ‘LE PONT VIERFNDEEL.” XLIx. Note.—This displacement also effects the other verticals to the same extent. The same section at F is also displaced by an amount Ed, due to the deformation of the upper half of the P; 24 I, “E Ay, =Ed+Ed, vertical, thus Ed, = + PD H D? H? D BH? if Siow | ple po IS, STs Pa pieet ar Rage eee. = F say 3 = ("-? f ) +2(P- B) . -95W, "OHI, 28 2D 2D H 2(P =P Pp gy. ) ST. ‘OTT, =: K say The following is a table of these displacements :— HorIZoNTAL DISPLACEMENT OF, CENTRAL POINT OF EACH VERTICAL. ELD? D H’ D +2 -P) (a5 + 37) L, J. I. HAYCROFT., Cc H? 24 I, HD? F+K + (P, > Poe) — 22°5 D H’ D 7) 1 Jal iD) D ae ae ae) Ga +73) i 1 H? =F +K +957 (Ps- Po Py) Se I8t Ibe — 22-5 21, D H? D +log + 3, ) (6 (P+P,+P)+P.+P,) =: . F+K+C H3 + ogy, (P:-P:—-P.—P,) H D*’ | —2 oT, D H? D ae lor + SI, ) (7 Pi+7 P,+5 P,;+3 P,+P;) r : F+K+C+B H? zs Fe, ne Bs H D? = ail) I, === 2 7x I ae “ 1 1 The values of Ay; of these sections have the same values, but with contrary signs, hence the equality Ay, = Ay; or Ay, — Ay; = 0 becomes 2Ay, = 0 ‘““1e PONT VIERENDEEL, ” ni Then by equating each of the five columns in the tavle to zero, the following five equations are arrived at :— (H? D H? I . = + PtP +P+P) +P spp = 5 Wi HD 2 2 (+3 Fax) GP +8 P+3 Pos P, ED Bae a | 2 (+3 +5 P,+5 P,+3 P+ P,) + P, ae bay | re) zp Le HI oe Ww. HD H?D as Hale ( 8 241, 30 W, IE 2 From these equations the several values of P, P, P; P, and -P, can be ascertained. As a particular case the Professor has taken a bridge of 31:5 metres span, as shown on Fig. 7. It is for a single line of rail- ‘way and the live load is taken as 4,700 kgs. per lineal metre = 1-41 tons per foot; there are nine bays in the girder, the verticals being placed 3°5 m. apart; the cross girders are fixed to the top of the verticals ; the weight of the bridge supported ‘by the bearings 13 given as 62,703 kgs. ; the length of each main girder is 32:1 metres and they are spaced 3 metres apart, thus ‘the dead weight at each vertical = ARUN = 3418 kgs. and PIL 5S 2) 4700 x 3:5 the live load at each vertical = = 8225 kgs., making a total load of say 11600 kgs. = W. The height of each girder LII. J. I. HAYCROFT. between centres of gravity of the flanges is 3 metres, and from what has already been proved the vertical stress on the end diagonals = 2:55 W = 29 tons say and on the intermediate verticals = u = 5°7 tons. The mean values of the moments of Inertia and areas of cross: section are taken to apply in the above equations, as they vary but little, but still, if great exactness is required, the actual values can be taken: the mean values in function of a metre are as follows: I, = 0:00158 I, = 0:00134 S, = 0:02350 S, = 0:01890 Note: The sections are nett. Substituting these values in the equations we get P, = 28,563 kgs Pend 2 oe Ven OID oy Jey =a INS 5, Le OUR Oe To complete the calculation of stress on this Bridge it 1s necessary to find the stresses in the flanges: these are got from a diagram of bending moments, Fig. 6. The full line gives the B.M., due to the external loads and internal vertical stresses at each vertical, the moments being taken round the point of inflexion of each vertical. The dotted stepped line gives the moments of the horizontal reactions at the inflexion point of each vertical. These moments are calculated round either end of each vertical. The effective Bending moment on each bay of the flanges is equal to the vertical ordinate included between the fuil line and dotted line: their values, at a distance of one metre on each side of the centre point of each bay of the flange, are written on the diagram. “LE PONT VIERENDEEL. ” LIIl. It should be noted that there is a point of inflexion in each of the three outer panels, very near the centre point of each bay of the flange. The complete stresses, due to total load wholly distributed, are given in the accompanying tables. The Bending moments on the verticals, due to the horizontal stresses at their points of inflexion, are calculated about a point 0:75 metres from their point of inflexion, that being the point where the vertical commences to round off to meet the flange A brief description of these tables may prove useful. STRESSES ON THE VERTICALS AT A POINT 0°75 M. DISTANT FROM MID-HEIGHT. a 6 S | Direct = | Stress 12 ® |Comprs. pe 1 | 29,000 | 28,563 2 5,800 | 42,525 3} 5,800 | 36,827 4 5,800 | 15,186 5 5,800 | 6,074 Moment IPS (0°75, 21,450 31,875 27,600 11,400 4,552 d S2 in millim. 19,650 19,650 19,000 18,250 18,250 e va g k 6 STRESSES i a in kgs. per sq. millim. pa ee im t : From ee kgs. nitrs.| Direct. Bending sq. in. 4,700 15 4-6 6:1 3°9 4,700 0:3 6°8 Fig! 4-5 4,400 0°3 6°3 6°6 4-2 4,300 0:3 2°7 3°0 18) 4,300 0:3 Ne 1:4 0-9 STRESSES IN FLANGES Cenrri Lines (VERTICAL) OF EACH PANEL. AT POINTS ONE METRE DISTANCE FROM Panel. a b c d e if h Beer ae Bending 10* Is eee : , pe ane 7 Momen \ sg Ste on Pane Fey une ve oEneS lagram. kgs. mtyrs. Kilos per sq. millim. Tons per a eees | sq. in. 1 \ Left 28,563 | 19,200 | 25,000 | 4,270 1:5 a9 TA 4:7 / Right 28,563 | 19,200 | 21,500 | 4,270 15 a1 6:6 4:2 2 {Left | 71,088 | 19,200 | 12,500; 4,270 3°7 3°0 6°7 4:2 / Right 71,088 | 22,840 | 23,000 6,200 3:1 ater 6:8 4:3 \ Left 107,915 | 22,840 | 11,000 | 4,200 4:7 2°6 es 4:6 (Right 107,915 | 22,840 | 13,000 6,200 4:7 2-1 6:8 4:3 \ Left 123,101 | 22,840 | 3,000| 6,200 54 0:5 a9 a7 / Right 123,101 | 22,840 | 14,000 | 6,200 54 2:2 76 4:8 \ Left 129,175 | 22,840 | 9,238) 6,200 a7 15 7:2 4:6 5+ Centre 129,175 | 22,400; 9,238; 5,600 5°8 oF 75 4:7 Right 129,175 | 22,840; 9,238) 6,200 | . 5:7 15 eo 4°6 LIV. J. I. HAYCROFT. VeERTICALS.—Column a are the several values of g. Column é is the moment of resistance of the cross section S, in kg, metres for a unit stress of 1 kg. per O millim. Column / is the direct stress divided by the sectional area = q and column g is the bending moment divided by the moment of resistance =—= stress in kilos per square millim. Column & is the English equivalent in tons per square inch of column h. | FLANGEs.—Column a are the direct stresses, being cumulative from the outer end to the centre. Column d is equivalent to column e in table for verticals. Column e=> ; column f= 7 Professor Vierendee]l states that though this exact and complete calculation of the stresses, as just explained, is neither long nor complicated, there still exists a means of considerably simplifying it without unduly sacrificing practical exactitude in the results. This method is as follows :— As the diagram of bending moments shows that in each panel (except those near the centre) there is a point of inflexion in each bay of the flanges near their centres, in order to simplify the calculation, as proposed, the Professor acts on the hypothesis that a point of inflection exists at the centre of each bay of the flanges. This certainly is practically the case for the end panels, where the secondary stresses have their greatest effect. The Professor points out that this hypothesis is not so grossly incorrect as that used in the case of rivetted lattice girders. By utilizing these hypothetical points of inflexion, and the points of intersection of the verticals and the flanges as the origin of the various moments, the abridged calculation is effected. Fig. 8 shows portion of the longtitudinal cut horizontally at centres of the verticals, and the two semi-portions slightly separated. The various vertical stresses in the verticals can be written on at once. The several values of P are got as follows :—Take, for instance the third panel from the left. ‘LE PONT VIERENDEEL.” - LV sae (P,+P,) 2+ WD (—2:5 x 2545x154 -54°5)=0. 22 =4WD — (P,+ Ps Boe (P28). The values of P, and P, having been ascertained, by inserting their values in this equation ; also W=11,600 kg., D-=3°5 m.». and H =3 m. P; = 33,830 kgs. The moments shown vertically at the points of inflexion of the flanges are arrived at by taking moments round the points of intersection of the flanges and the verticals, of all the forces acting to the left of such point. Thus, for the flange in the third panel W H. eX 2_ ow x ae x 2D + Pt (Pit Prt Ps)5 =O. H y SL xy = 45WD a (P, + P, + P;) but (P, x P, + pie =4WD. ee wed (45. 4) 5 WD: c= eR Vile The following are tables showing the results of the abridged method :— | STRESSES ON THE VERTICALS AT A POINT 0°75 M. FROM MID-HEIGHT. = 10 “Is | STRESSES. 8 | ae Moment S2 V iaacs 5 Sie 5 | es, P. ee ae: : an as Kgs. per sq. au. Tons per aay oe ee Direct Bending.| Total. ae FF : : 1 29,000 | 27,070 | 20,300 | 19,650 | 4,700 1:5 4°3 | 3°8 3°7 2 5,800 | 47,370 | 35,500 | 19,650 | 4,700 0:3 (A a!) 5°0 3 5,800 | 33,830 25,400 | 19,000 | 4,400 0°3 O:8x sh, Ol 3°9 4 | 5,800 | 20,300 15,200 | 18,250 | 4,300 0°3 320) ee aco 2°4 5) | 5,800 | 6,770) 5,080 | 18,250 | 4,300 0°3 12 ie Ase 0-9 J. I. HAYCROFT. LVII. STRESSES IN THE FLANGES AT POINTS ONE METRE DISTANT FROM CENTRE LINES (VERTICAL) OF EACH PANEL. | STRESSES. ZS Se [ 10 °I, : ic S°O's Si Van : ec a ga8 in Ge in In kgs. per sq. millim. Tons 2°85 3| millim. kgs. PEnTS TAGS! | ee Menem Wien tee Bite one hilorg ee Bases Direct. |Bending.| Total. | $4: 1- l \ Left 27,070 | 19,200 |+ 23,200 | 4,270} 1:4 5:4 6°8 4:3 ( Right 27,070 | 19,200 | — 23,200 | 4,270] 1°4 5:4 6:8 4°3 9 } Left 74,440 | 19,200 |+17,400 | 4,270| 3:9 4-1 8:0 5°1 Right 74,440 | 22,840 |—17,400'| 6,200 | 3:3 2°8 671 3°9 3 Left 108,270 | 22,840 |+11,600 | 4,200} 4:8 2°8 76 48 ; Right | 108,270 | 22,840 |— 11,600 | 6,200| 4:8 eS) 6:7 AND, 4 \ Left 128,570 | 22,840 |+ 5,800 | 4,200 | 5:7 1-4 il 4:5 Right | 128,570 | 22,840 |— 5,800] 6,200| 5:7 0-9 6:6 4-2 Left 135,340 | 22,840 0} 4,200} 5:9 0:0 5°9 Bie 5+ Centre | 135,340 | 22,400 0} 5,600} 6-1 0:0 671 329 Right | 135,340 | 22,840 0| 6,200} 5:9 0:0 59 Berl From a comparison of tables shewing the results according to rigorous and approximate methods, it will be seen that the only practical discrepancy is in the case of the flange stress at the centre of the longitudinal, where the difference amounts to 1-4 Kilos=0°89 tons, but this could be considerably reduced by - preserving the same flange area at that point as on either side of it. On investigating the case of partial distribution of the live load, it will be found that the greatest increase of total stress due to partial loading on any vertical never exceeds 1 kg. per sq. millim=-6 tons per square inch, so that by making verticals, 3 4 and 5 of similar cross sections, this diffisulty can be surmounted, and the necessity for complete investigation of partial loading obviated. This concludes the investigation of stresses in a girder with parallel flanges, but Professor Vierendeel applies his system to all shapes of truss, The bridge, with parallel flanges of 31°5 metres span, was erected in the Park of Terveureu, near Brussells, and tested to destruction under the supervision of two engineers from the Department of Roads and Bridges. It failed, as shown on the photograph, under a distributed load of 404 tons. ‘(TE PONT VIERENDEEL, ” 1) be A short description of the tests may prove interesting. They were carried out during the latter part of 1897, and consisted of two series: During the first test, when 202 tons had been distributed, one of the supports collapsed, and the test load was: entirely removed whilst repairs were effected. The second test. consisted in placing a load of 150 tons on the bridge, proceeding gradually from one end. to the other. This took eight hours, extended over three days, to put in place The second phase of the test consisted of placing 75 tons additional, but applying it equally from each end towards the centre ; this took three hours: ten minutes to put in place. A second additional load of 75 tons. was then placed on the bridge in same manner as last load, taking nearly four hours to put in place; the load then on the bridge was 300 tons. A further loading of 150 tons was then commenced to be placed in position, proceeding equally from the ends. When 366 tons had been put in place, the first signs of rupture: became evident. This took place when the bridge was loaded with the last test load, from the ends to the third vertical from each end. Rupture, as shown in the photograph, ultimately took place under a gross load of 404 tons, when the load was wholly distributed, with the exception of the fifth vertical from each end. The deflection which took place were as follows :—The bridge was erected without any camber, and deflected at the centre under its own weight, 13°55mm. During the first test, under a: distributed load of 152 tons, the deflection was increased by 35 mm, and under the 202 tons, when one of the supports failed, the increased deflection amounted to 40m m. During this test the load of 152 tons had rested continuously on the bridge for some two months, and when the whole load was. removed for repairs to the support, a permanent deflection, due to the load, was observed of 15°5 m m = 0°6 inches. During the second trial, under a load of 304 tons, the total deflection was 61°75 m m= 2-4 inches. Professor Vierendeel concludes by saying that he does not pretend to believe that his type of bridge will please everybody,. i ILX. J. I. HAYCROFT. and will not be astonished at its being criticised, as such is the lot of all novelties, but hopes that critics, before giving their opinions, will take the trouble to thoroughly understand the arguments he uses, as, whilst art is difficult, good criticism is also difficult. DISCUSSION. During the discussion the following additional information ‘was supplied by the author :— The bridge, with which Professor Vierendeel compares his truss, aisone of a series erected by the Dutch Government over the Meuse, near Nimegue. It was calculated for a range of stress of 4°11 tons per square inch, on nett section, but the Professor points out that this stress is only the primary stress, deduced in the ordinary way on the hypothesis that the intersections of the lattice bars and booms are articulated, whilst the engineer Van der Kolk has shown* that the actual stress arising from combined primary and secondary stresses may amount to from 64 to 72 tons per square inch ; yet in the case of the Vierendeel bridge, owing to the secondary stresses being taken account of in the caleula- tion, the stress does not exceed 4°75 tons per square inch. Both bridges were constructed of iron, of what js known in Belgium as No. 3 iron of ordinary quality, the tests on the metal in the Professor’s bridge resulting as follows :—Plates, longitudinally, 25:89 tons per square inch; elongation, 23°5 per cent., and transversely 19:24 tons per square inch, with elongation of 31 per cent., the angle irons being 22-91 tons per square inch, with an elongation of 7:7 per cent. Both bridges are single-line deck structures of 103 feet 4 inches span, with a live load of 1:41 tons per lineal foot. The depth of each truss is 9 feet 10 inches, and distance between centre of verticals is 11 feet 53 inches. The weight of the bridge over the © Meuse is 0°64 tons per lineal foot, whilst the Professor's bridge weighs 0°58 tons per lineal foot, or a total weight of 6°81 tons in “* Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs, 1889-90. ‘“LE PONT VIERENDEEL.”’ ip. 6 oe favour of the latter. It may, however, be noted that were the two bridges designed to withstand the same range of stress, primary and secondary, the comparison in favour of the Professor’s bridge would be much more marked ; also, that one girder as designed by the Professor would be 31 tons lighter than one of the girders in the other design as erected, the former containing 51 more rivets than the latter. The engineers who superintended the test of the Vierendeel bridge report that the elastic limit was reached when the load (surcharge) was 3581 tons—thus the coefficient of security was. 2-1—and that the stress at that moment was about 10 tons per square inch. Actual rupture took place under a surcharge of 396 tons. The Professor, however, taking into consideration the difference in the weights of the deck as constructed to receive. the test load and the deck for which the truss was designed, arrives at a factor of 2°52, and the maximum stress at that. moment was 9°56 tons per square inch. As there can be no doubt that the statement of Professor: Vierendeel to the effect that stresses arrived at, no matter by what means, which start on a false hypothesis must be incorrect,. is absolutely true, perhaps it would be as well to ascertain what has been done by Continental engineers in this matter. The Dutch Government tested three railway bridges on the- Amsterdam-Rotterdam-Utrecht lines, of respective spans of 211 feet, 262 feet, and 324 feet, by means of the well-known apparatus. of Manet-Rabut and Fraenkel, in order to arrive at the actual stress of various portions of these trusses under working conditions. These trusses were of the same type, and may be roughly described as right line lower boom, polygonal upper boom, with counterbracing in each and every bay. The cross girders were not rivetted to the main girders, but so articulated that any bending in the former due to live load would have no influence. on the stresses in trellis bars. The principal results arrived at were as follows :—The recorded stress exceeded the calculated stress by as much as 110. iLXII. J. I. HAYCROFT. per cent. in the case of the verticals, by 26 per cent. in the compression diagonals, and 52 per cent. in the tension -diagonals. The Dutch Administration have decided, as a result of these ‘tests, that the erection of redundant trusses, such as those tested, was not the practical solution of providing for the secondary stresses, and have reverted to the simple triangular trusses calculated as articulated, but adding 100 per cent. to the calculated stresses in the lattice bars, in order to provide for the effect of the calculated primary and unknown secondary Stresses. French engineers nave only investigated this question within the past six years, having tested a double line railway bridge over the Loire, of 14 independent spans, each 190 feet long, the trusses being N trellis, with the cross girders riveted to the verticals. The results were as follows :—An increase of 130 per cent. over calculated stress in the verticals due to secondary stresses, of 70 per cent. in the diagonals, of 93 per cent. in the sapper flange. The conclusion arrived at from these tests was that the best ‘type was the close-lattice girder. As regards Switzerland, it will be remembered that, in June, 1891, the bridge at Monchenstein, on the Jura-Simplon Line, collapsed, under ordinary working conditions, after a life of 16. years. The Swiss Government ordered an investigation to be made as to the cause of collapse by Professor Collignon and A. Hamer, Engineer-in-Chief of the Roads and Bridges in France. These experts reported, inter alia, that the defect was not due to any defect in design or execution, or to quality of the iron ; the cause was, in fact, abnormal, and probably due to some hidden defect in the metal, which, however, when tested, showed no sign of fatigue, the results being as follows :—Breaking weight in 1874, 24 tons per square inch, whilst in 1891 it reached 242 tons per square inch, the elongation in 1874 being 4°46 per cent., whilst in 1891 it was 8 per cent. “TLE PONT VIERENDEEL.,” LXUE Owing to the uncertain nature of this report, the Swiss Government determined to test to destruction a bridge of the same age as the ene which collapsed, and the same type, viz., Warren or trellis in V, but of a somewhat stronger construction. This was the single line railway bridge over the Emme, at Wolhusen, of 157 feet span. During the test it was found that under a loading of one and a third times the load used in calculating the bridge stresses the limit of elasticity had been exceeded. The working stress used in the calculation was 43 tons per square inch. Ultimately, this bridge collapsed suddenly, through the rupture of the connection between a compression bar and the upper boom, when the test load was only twice that used in the calculation. To sum up, if in the case of a riveted lattice truss, and one on the Vierendeel principle, the stresses be arrived at by the ordinary method of supposing the joints articulated, in the former the stresses will ve at least 60 per cent. less than the actual stress; whilst in the latter, the calculated stress will equal or exceed by 5 per cent. the actual stress. This fact lends great weight to Professor Vierendeel’s design, as, whether the latter be calculated on the false hypothesis of articulation or the exact method, certainty of result is attained, and thereby what an engineer should aim at, security for the structure. Mr. J. Bowman gave results of an approximate comparison between an ordinary plate girder bridge with parallel flanges, and the test bridge mentioned in the paper, being altogether in favour of the plate girder. The weight of bridge under discus- sion (which failed under an external distributed load of 404 Tons), is given as 62,703 kilos= 61:14 Tons. ‘The weight of plate girder bridge for same span, and which will not be stressed beyond the elastic limit of 10 rons per square inch under the ultimate load of 404 tons above, is only 40 Tons. It is obvious that by developing the parabolic upper flange in place of the parallel flange assumed, the weight could be reduced even below 40 rons. The depth of plate girder is great, LXIV. J. I. HAYCROFT. in order to give stiffness ; but, even so, it is only as deep as the Vierendeel bridge, and the flange area is greater than might be necessary, Owing to the expediency (in construction) of putting three plates in the centre half, then two for the }-length outside that, and one plate at the ends of flanges. WEIGHT oF PLATE GIRDER, 103:35' Span. aie Lbs. Tons. Web, 3” x 9°75’ x 105:32’ | 1026-87 | 15:3 7:00 Flange plates, 10’ x 3” x ('/50 '/s0, */ 105-32 | SS esica 237-32 | 17-0 x22) aoe Flange angles, 2/33” x 33” x 43” x 105°32' 210-64 | 110 x 2 | = 2-00 Stiffeners (outside), 21/9’ x (5” x 33” x 4” Tee) 20580 | 13°6 1:25 Stiffeners (inside), 21/85 x (5” x 33” x 3” Tee) 178°50 | 13-6 1-08 End Posts, 2 plates, 10” x 4 x 9°75’ 19°50 | 17:0 0:14 u; 4 angles, 33” x 33” x ¥” x oa 39°00 | 11:0 0°19 Cross girders, 23/15”, I beams 9-8’ long | 225-40 | 50:0 x 3 | = 2°50 Rail bearers, 2/105 32’ 15” I beams 210°64 | 25:0 x 4 | =1:18 18°94 Add 5% for rivet heads ee Bis ve 0:96 Total tons gas 19°90 Say 20 tons. ., Whole bridge = 20 x 2 = 40 tons, Deflection under full load of 202 x 20 = 222 tons. I = 160,600. E = 13,000 tons, ‘a _ 9 x 222 x (03°35' x 12), 384 x 13,000 x 160,600 ~ 764 Sectional area of flange at centre— Plates, 3 x 0” x 3% = 15 Georenme oe Angles, 2 x (84” x 34” x 34”) = 65 sq. in. Add % web area 4 (117” x 2”) = 7:3 sq. in. 28°8 sq. in. : L 222 x 103 35’ Stress in flanges = >) Ser WRT TINE «2 = 294'15 tons — —_ y Sipe PR as ‘(LE PONT VIERENDEEL.” LXV. 294°15 Stress per sq. in. flanges = per sq 8 28:8 = 10-21 tons per sq. in. Shearing stress— Area of Web = 117” x 3” = 440° 9 Shearing Force = aes = 111 tons. Shearing stress per sq. in. = os = 2 tons per sq. in. THe AUTHOR IN REPLY. Mr. Bowman’s comparison of the plate girder, as designed by himself, and the bridge referred to in the paper by the Author, by which the former is shown to be equally strong, but some _ 50 per cent. lighter than the latter, is erroneous, as the following statement will prove. The weight of the bridge as tested was 62,703 kgs. = 61:45 tons made up as follows :— (1) 2 main girders... ser = 31:75 tons. (2) Cross girders, rail bearers, dia- phragm stiffeners and wind bracing ae = = 16°76 tons. (3) Decking of corrugated iron, etc. = 9°80 tons. (4) Oak planking on footpaths = 3°14 tons. Total see Bee 61:45 tons. Mr. Bowman does not include items (3) or (4) at all, and only portion of item (2), though, of course, his design is incomplete without the stiffeners and wind bracing. According to Mr. Bowman one of his main girders would — weigh 15:26 tons, whilst the Vierendeel girder weighs 15°87 tons. The latter bridge had flange plates 12°6 inches wide, whilst Mr. Bowman’s were 10 inches, thereby necessitating, in the latter case, heavier diaphragm stiffeners, and owing to continuous web surface of Mr. Bowman’s design, heavier windbracing than in the case of the Vierendeel girder. Had these facts been taken into consideration, it will be readily seen that Mr. Bowman’s LXVI. J. I, HAYCROFT. girder would be the heavier of the two when properly designed instead of, as stated, 50 per cent. lighter, | The raison d'etre of Professor Vierendeel’s bridge has entirely escaped Mr, Bowman’s notice. As shown by the author, the Professor’s object was to prove the superiority of his design as regards correctness of ascertained stresses over rivetted lattice girders in ordinary practice. This, the Author considers, he has effectively done. Professor Vierendeel’s truss does not compete with ordinary plate girders, which are rarely constructed of 100 feet span, but with lattice girders of that and greater spans. Had Mr. Bowman designed a rivetted lattice truss of same span as the Professor’s, and been able to demonstrate its superiority in weight saved, under equal loadings and same range of stress, he would have accomplished something. As it is, he has done nothing beyond showing how unstable a truss may be designed. PLATE bl, XXXITII., 1899. lon.) ay \ \\ Ly} x 8 ze . is ia H x ; es t ae wi s5 : Og ‘ 23 r ad § — Pian — i ——— Seara_ta been vo | Foot ——— —Sicrion! on Le HH —— ! 1 — Dita or Mannose —— = = 13 |Z fhcomd” | : CH & peed $4 5 AgetoOnoNr TIP ATL RES nn ne gi nomen a goo aa mama h --- te SOCCER ESS PRPS OS SO 1 ae Lis +G--__., et eel = ded eee | ' bP LB 1.97- Chief Drafisanens ZB eet Stal 6 WPI ee ae eae eth fren nm eel OB Ip ho 00d Seb? EMD. Ppt —— - nd tL SS Paid iaaaial Cress Gtevion ar BD” [ Se Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol, XXXIII., 1899. (Bngineering Section.) Sear me Lee Co — Seer oe La — Pun ——OUTFALL WORKS WILLOUGHBY BAY—— gine : ae GENERAL PLAN OF WORKS—— a i cafe ies —— Sea 30 Freer vo owe Inew Faw osteo i NORTH SYDNEY SEWERAGE— =o CONTRACTS ies DRAWING HOT ” =i IncLuseo In Con TRACT Nore |Fittine ano Fonmarion or Ficten Bros ——~ |Lavine or Susson Dnuno Mannowes. CCN 1 PLATE WitlLouawar Pe eae ee mans km es a nf my ED oe Ne be bef sa CB Np a semi rel el Le ES Re fl nl ead EN pp at LoncituoimaL Section on Linc A A Geaur So feey vo Onemee (XXvVil.) INDEX. A PAGE PAGE Aboriginal Bora Ceremony xxvii. | Corney, Hon. B. G., u.p., Note tribes Queensland, divis- ions of lO Ss Aborigines of Port Stephens, NS. Wales, initiation cere- monies of : Abstract of Proceedings : Address to Engineering | Section 1. Xx1. Analysis of Eudesmol . 98 of topazes ... ... 203 Anchylostomum duodenale , 225 Anniversary Address be Anopheles musivus, Skuse 62 Antarctic Exploration ... avails Anthropologicaland Ethnologi- cal Section xxvi., xxxi., XXxix. Australian mosquito 48 B Baker, R. T., F.u.s.,on the Dar- winias of Port Jackson and their essential oils 168, xliii.,xliv. Bancroft, Thos. L., m.s. Edin., on the metamorphosis of of the young form of Filaria Bancrofti, Cobb, in the body of Culex ciliaris, Linn. 48, xiv. Bastow, R. A., Key to tribes and genera of the Floridez (Red or Purple Marine Alge) Wee # 45, Xiv. ** Belah ” timber ed Books purchased in 1899 15. XIV. Boiler inspection EEE. Bora ceremony ... XXVli. - Bridge, new type of XXXVIII. Bubonic Plague in 1141 B.C. xxii. Building and Investment Fund iv. C Cineol ; soo HOS Clarke Memorial Fund.. re ei Comet I. 1899 (Swift), orbit elements a elec Salles Consumption, sanitorium treat- ment of lxxiil. Conversazione, informal xi. Copper ores containing iodine 160 on the edible earth from Fiji 224, xlix. Crystalline camphor of euca- lyptus oil (eudesmol) and the natural formation of eucalyptol 86, xix. Culex annulirostris, Skuse é. 61 ciliaris, Linn. ... 48, 49, 6L hispidosus, Skuse ... .- OL nigrithoraz, Macquart 62 —— notoscriptus, Skuse 61 procax, Skuse 62 vigilax, Skuse 6L Current Papers No. 4 ...145, xxxiii. D Dacite from Fiji .. 225 Darwinias of Port Jackson 163, xiii. Darwinia fascicularis, A. Rudge 163, xliii., xliv. tavifolia, A. Cunn., 164, xliv. Dasya villosa reise tht David, Prof.'T.W. E., oD F.G.S. Discovery of glaciated boul- ders at base of Permo-car- boniferous system, Lochin- var, N.S. Wales ..154, XXxiil. Records of rock tem pera- tures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain ; 207, xvii. —— Note on the edible earth from Fiji 224, xlix. Davis, J., M. Inst. ox, The North Sydney and Double Bay Sewerage Schemes xi., Ixix. Deane, H., M.4., M. Inst, C.E, Sug- gestions for depicting dia- gramatically the character of seasons as regards /rain- fall, and especially that of droughts 63. xvii. Dermatitis exfoliativa mneona- torum Ixxii. Dibromide of Eudesmol 99 Dick, J. Adam, B.A. Syd., M.D. Edin., on Bubonic Plague in 1141 B.C.... Soe Ixxil. (XXviii.) PAGE Dieseldorff, Arthur, m.E., on N. S. Wales copper ores con- taining icdine 160, xliv. Divisions of some Aboriginal tribes, Queensland 108, xxi. Donations xi., xv., XVili., xxil., XIX, KKK Lele Double Bay Low-level Sewerage XI., XXIII. Drought- segs determina- tion of e; 69, xx. BK Edible earth from Fiji .. 224, xlix. Engineeriug Section 3, Vis LXEX Enright, W.J.,3,a., The initia- tion ceremonies of the A bori- gines of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales... toe La xvii Essential oils of the Darwinias of Port Jackson ... 163 Eucalyptol tea OO exIX. Eucalyptus amygdalina ... 90, 91 camphora 88, 95, 96 camphor ...86, 93, X1x. citriodora ko) — Dawson ... re cic) dextropinea ... eee sea tele) dives... ae 88, 91 eleophora ... 88 eugenioides 90, 91, 92, 94, 103 — globulus ' 87, 94, 95, 102 goniocalyx ... 87, 94 — levopinea ... Heo) tele) macrorhyncha 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 — ee eae naa le) -—— piperita - 86; 90, 93, 94, 95 radiata oe fe 88 —— Smithir a 87, 90, 94, 95 stricta 88 Eudesmol 86, 93, 95, XIX. Exchanges: ut : . 4 Exhibits xiv., xvill., xxi., XXVli., XXVill KKRIVe, XX VA Oe xls PS. Ie F Fiji edible earth 224, xlix. Filaria Bancrofti... 59, Xlv. immitis ‘ ; 55, XIv. nocturna, Manson 48, 60, 61, xiv. sanguinis hominis, Lewis 48, xiv. Financial position 4, lil. PAGE | Floridee, Key to tribes and genera of .. 45, Xlv. Fluorine, estimation of 193, xlvi. G Gangamopteris spathulata, McCoy 157 Glaciated boulders at base of Permo-Carboniferous _ sys- tem, Lochinvar, N.S. Wales 154, xxxili. Gummow, F. M., on the manu- facture of Monier pipes XXxIv., lxix. Guthrie, F. B., F.c.s., Note on the edible earth from Fiji 224, 1xix. Hargrave, L., Sailing birds are dependent on wave-power... Harker, G., B.Sc, on the compo- sition of N.S. Wales Labra- dorite and topazes. with a comparison of methods for the estimation of fluorine 125 198, xlvi. Hayeroft, J. I., m.tce.u.1., ‘* Le Pont Viererdeel,’ a new type of bridge XV) de «House mosquito” of Australia 48 Lc Iceberg in the Australian Bight 149 Initiation ceremonies of the Aborigives of Port Stephens N.S. Wales ... .. LLeyxavaait Iodine in N.S. Wales copper ores ya .» L6O;sdliv: ike Kerry, Charles H., An Abori- ginal Bora Ceremony illus- trated by a series of photo- graphs u XXVil. Key to tribes and venera of the Floridex, ‘‘ Red or Purple Marine Alge”’ 45, Xiv. Kiddle, Hugh Charles, F.R.Met.soc., on a remarkable increase of temperature after dark at Seven Oaks, Macleay River 204, xivi. Knibbs, G. H., F.R.A.s., Anni- versary Address... Lax, (xxix. ) PAGE Knibbs, G. H., F.R.A.8., Observa- tions on the determination of drought-intensity 69, xx. Some applications and de- velopments of the prismoidal formula . 129, xxxvi., lxx. Li Labradorite from N.S. Wales... 193 Land Boiler Inspection yy ekL! “‘ Le Pont Vierendeel ”’ xxxilriv., lxx. iibrary ... aS a 4, ‘Liquid Air,’ __xXxxix., Ixx. Liversidge, Prof. M.A., LUL.D., F.R.S., lecture on Liquid Air lxx. M Mathews, R. H., u.s., Divisions of some Aboriginal tribes, Queensland .. ; 108, xxi. Marine Alge, red or purple 45, xiv. Medical Section... Bi) Sables Ibrox Members, Corresponding (xxiii.) Honorary .. (xxiii. ) — Obituary 1899 (xxlii.) Ordinary a (xi.) Merfield, C. J., F.R.a.s., Orbit elements Comet I. 1899, (Swift) ii XN Metamorphosis of the young form of Filaria Bancrofti, Cobb . : : Monier pipes, manufacture of ROX LRA. 48 48 Mosquito, Australian National Antarctic Expedition viii. New Zealand and Antarctic Exploration... . Vill. North Sydney Sewerage ‘Scheme x1. N.S. Wales copper ores contain- ing iodine 160, xliv. Labradorite 1938, xlvi. —— topazes 193, xlvi. O Obituary 1898 ... mit ee ee 1899 (xxiii. ) Observations on the determin- ation of drought-intensity 69 Ocean currents ... ; . 150 Orbit elements Comet be 1899, (Swift) 177, xlv. Original Researches cS P | Papers read in 1898 PAGE ene Periodicals purchased in 1899 Ilxiii. Pittman, E. F., Assoc. 8.8.M., Re- cords of rock temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery Birthday Shaft, Balmain 207, xlvii. Prismoidal formula 127, xxvi., lxx. Proceedings of the Engineering Section ali —— Medical Section ext — Society iii. Queensland, divisions of some Aboriginal tribes . 108 R Rae, J. L. C., Records of rock temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain 120% 5 xvii: Rapid drift of current papers .. 146 ‘‘ Red Stringybark ” os tis) Remarkable increase of temper- ature after dark 204, xlvi. Retina of the ox’s eye ... = xt. Roberts, Sir Alfred, obituary notice.. se “ee Rock temperatures seo AD, Salto, in various places ... .. 228 Royal Geographical Society, London, letter from Batts Rules, proposed alteration of OO. 5: 3:39. Russell, H. C.,B.4., C.M.G., F.B.S., Current Papers No. 4 145, xxxiii. Sailing birds dependent on wave- power .. sie pe ZO sexoxaval. Sanitorium treatment of con- sumption ; lxxiil. Science, influence of, upon civil- isation 4, ix. Sectional Meetings a vi., xiii. Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. ¢. E, M. I. Mech.E., Annual Address to the En- gineering Section Ty [xix. Sewerage system of Sydney _ lxxii. —— schemes for North Sydney and Double Bay pie Iba, Shales with erratics .. 158 Smail, J. M., M.mst.c.z.,0n the Water Supply and Sewerage Systems of Sydney... ]xxiie (xxx.) PAGE Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., on the crystalline camphor of eucalyptus oil (eudesmol) and the natural formation of eucalyptol on the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their essential oils Spencer, Walter. M.D., on an outbreak of Dermatitis ex- foliativa neonatorum Steam Dredge “‘ Hunter ” 2 I. Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart F.R.S., MA., DCL., Jubilee Xiil., XXvi. Strata, Birthday Shaft, Sydney Harbour Colliery ... Suggestions for depicting dia- erammatically the charac- ter of seasons as regards rainfall, and especially that of droughts... 211 86, xix. . 162, xliii., xliv. Smoke nuisance in Sydney... I. ixociie 63, Xvii. PAGE Sydney Harbour Colliery 207, xlvii. Temperature, remarkable in- crease of 204, xlvi. rock.. 4 sa LOZ Thinnfeldia narrabeenensis 213, 216 eden toni 215, 216 Tick fever )xxil. Tidswell, Frank, M.B. Syd., D.P.H. Camb.,on Bubonic Plague in “1141 B.C. was bxexia. Topazes. N. S. Wales ... . 198 ‘WwW Water supply system of Sydney xxii. Wave-power, eoling birds de- pendent on ... . 125 Spodnep : F, W. WHITE, PRINTER, 39 MARKET STREET. 1900. Po =~ 4 hi f : J “5k eae 7 : : " , i Lot Clana SO 6 BES ef Say Bs ve s , - :" » 4 2 P JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY | EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. NEW SOUTH WALES, PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 WaRwick SQUARE, PaATERNOsSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1900. CONTENTS. | ‘VOLUME XXXII. 2 / Orricurs For 1899-1900 —... gs oe o y, Ba List or Mempers, &.... —... SS en Agt. I. [EE ABIDENT’S ADDRESS. By G. 1a) “Knibbs, FRA. 8. tepals Marine Alee). By Richard A. Bastow. ue municated by J. H. Maiden, rus.) (Plates i. fsclkx) "3 7 see Arr. IlI.—On*the metamorphosis of the young form of Filaria aR angie Bancrofti, Cobb, [Filaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis ; -Filaria nocturna, Manson ].in the body of Oulea ciliaris, Lion. the” = if ¥ “House mosquito of Australia”? By T. L. Bancroft, ‘M.B. ‘ me . Arr, I1V.—Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the char- i acter of Seasons as regards Rainfall, and especially tha | Droughts. By H. Deane, M.a., M. Inst. C.E., &c., (Plate iii.) ty ART, V.—Observations on the iSiobhiation of Dionght-intes tae : * -By G. H. Knibbs, F.n.A.s., Lecturer in Surveying, Bebe of Sydney ... a8 ola sink Nn MRE ca es Arr. VI.—On the crystalline canis of Eucalyptus Oi (Hudes- as.) ..: 207 Arr. XIX. —-Note on Edible Earth from Fiji By the Hou. B. G. Corney, M.D., Professor T. W. EH. David, B.a.; F.G.8., and F. B. Guthrie, F.c.s. ies in eee Art, XX.—Annual Address to the upg ecre deeticn, By Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E. fe Pipes © Arr. XXI.—The Sewerage Systems oe North Sydney a dais Bay. By J. Davis, M, Inst. CE. MT) Art. XXII.—The manufacture of Monies Pines By F. M. Guniion XXXIV. Art. XXIII —“‘ Le Pont Vierendeel.” By J. I. Haycroft, M.1.¢c.b.1. xXxXxXVIil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS a ; Ro a ae ee 1. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING sree site oa Bae bce PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEDICAL SECTION ©... oe xe jie eae InpEx To VoLUME XXXIII. ... oe at Ye Spe (XxXvii.) ‘ Om ay "> le = ol Tm 01308 4256