aft ie Pep tnrtn ase Dar eatin ig SON dep etm Bincnen earn pent? Sint 2 oe D— Mae Megiles sap anette ee eel oe - ee oneree S18 pment an senate ath wis Mri te ~ ey ht Dae ae : repens ra conenne i ee et atte ee atten ae nee = ine fae y oH y ais ‘ wae Na oe Na fae . = cpantir apt =mestep hs — Pag aS “ * oy seo tihaieed e we me tne et Cacntheihe roa iyi rae Fe Mmnrnne mow 6 ~ re at ooh me one nent = te! eee fare me Mae nang meee! Ss an ts teas ante nns JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1902. (INCORPORATED 1881.) WIL: DOV 1. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDUN AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 WaRwWIckK SquaRE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1902. NOTICE. THe Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic “process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x 6Zin. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. ERRATA. Page xxxi., line 8 from bottom, for “ Bugoldi,” read “Bugaldt.” », 79, line 22, for ‘‘ pigeon,” read “‘ pidgin.” », 75, in the first foot-note, for “?,” read “1”; in the second foot-note for 3,” read ‘*2”; and in the third foot-note, for “',’’ read “%.”’ » 479, line 30, for “‘ third,” read “ first.” » 81, line 2 from bottom, for “ first persons,” read “ singular.” », 84, line 8, for ‘‘ waimenguk,” read “ walmenguk.”’ » 87, line 1, for “ babannunnu,” read ‘ babannunna.” », 99, line 6, for ‘“‘nyani,”’ read ‘‘ nyaut.”’ » 99, line 7, from bottom, for ‘*‘ lah,” read “lahr.”’ », 106, line 5 from bottom, for “dives,” read ‘‘ dive.” », 138, line 14, for “ burrndu,” read “ burrandu.”’ », 145, foot-note, for “ Vol. vi1.,” read ‘* Vol. xvit.”’ », 154, line 7, for “ bumulyamagiridyu,” read “ bumulgawagiridyu.”’ », 157, foot-note 1, line 1, for “1896,” read “1896”; line 3, for p. 471,” read ‘*‘p. 571 and p. 629.” », 163, line 16, for ‘“‘badyaldya,”’ read ‘‘ badhaldya.’ », 165, line 10, for “ affiimative,” read “ affirmative.” », 172, foot-note 1, line 1, for “or,” read “ and.”’ PUBLICATIONS. O Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. I. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, zs Vol. 9 II. » 5% III. 4 99 EV: 99 “99 Vv. 99 99 VI. 99 Hs VII. 56 stam Gt es 99 xe 39 *% X. Journal and 99 XI. 9 » XII 99 ss XIII a a XIV. a 99 ONG 99 - XVI. ss 3) VIE ps a NOV. le 99 XIX 99 99 P.O >B) eo: &.S pr ay OXI _ ep. ©.4 0 BE a ay OS SIA, ee » SAV 99 a NORV. L Pe >» XXAVII F »AX VIII 5 Fe OIE as 33 XXX >} » XXX Rs » XXXIT ae 97 XXX IIT a 59 XXXIV 9») XXAV a >) XXXVI fs 99 be) bP) bP) 99 be) 99 99 99 99 99 be) 99 bb) 9° 99 Proceedings 99 >) 99 99 bb) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 >) be) 99 99 bb) 99 +) 99 99 99 9” 99 99 bP) bP) b») >) 99 +) 39 99 99 b}) 99 99 >») be) 99 bh) 99 99 99 99 9° 99 99 99 93 99 186857, 2205 eeaGe 1869, ,, 173, ” 1870, ,, 106, ” 1871, ,, 72, oe) 1872, ), 1235s 1873, ,, 182, ” 1874, ,, 116, __,, 1975, .23heee a 1876, ,, So3ee 1877, ,, 305, 9 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 1879, ,, 255, ,, 1880, ,, 391, 4, 1881, ,, 440, ,, 1882, ,, 327, ;, 1883, ,, 324, ,, 1884, ,, 224, ,, 10s. 1885, ,, 240, ,, 10s. 1886, ,, 396, ,, 10s. 1887, ,, 298, ,, 10s. 1888, ,, 390. ,, 10s. 1889, ,, 534, ,, 10s. 1890, ,, 290, ,, 10s. 1991, ,, 348, ,, 10s. 1892, ,, 426, ,, 10s. 1893, ,, 530, ,, 10s. 1894, ,, 368, ,, 10s. 1895, ,, 600, ,, 10s. 1896, ,, 568, ,, 10s. 1897, ,, 626, ,, 10s. 1898, ,, 476, ,, 10s. 1899, ,, 400, ,, 10s. 1900, ,, 484, ,, 10s. 1901, ,, 581, ,, 10s. 1902, ,, 531, ,, 10s. 10s. 6d. 10s. 6d. 10s. 6d. 10s. 6d. 10s. CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXVI. OFFICERS FOR 1902-1903... bo ws via i aa tne List oF MremBers, &c. op bAe Art. I.—The Parks of Sydney” some se he. Gprob lems ae control and management. By J. H. Maiden, Director of Botanic Gardens and Domains, Sydney; Officer-in-Charge of the Centennial Park. [With Plate]... Arr. II.—Possible relation between Sunspot Minima and volennie Eruptions. By H. I. Jensen, (Communicated by Prof. Dawid: B.A.,F.R.S.) [With Plate]... Art. III.—Notes on two chemical constitnetite from ie Mncaly ots By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum BSE ao Art. IV.—The About Tiangrages of Wictouiat By R. H. Mathews, t.s., Memb. Assoc. Etran. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris Art. V.—The Mitigation of Floods in the Hunter River. By J. H. Maiden. oe Art, VI.—A rapid Cavite Wines of Beamating Tie: By F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s., and C. R. Barker.. : Arr. VII.—Languages of some Native Tribes of Queedeteadl New South Wales and Victoria. By R. H. Mathews, x.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. Art. VIII.—Pot Experiments to determine the Limits of hee. ance of different Farm-crops for certain injurious substances. By F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.8., and R. Helms Art. 1X.—Current Papers, No. 7. By H.C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. [With Diagrams] .. Art. X.—Forests considered in their Relation to Rainfall ag file Conservation of Moisture. By J. H. Maiden.. Art. XI.—Meteoric Dusts, New South Wales. Be Deeteases ae Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.s., University of Sydney iS Art. XII.—Occurrence of Gadolinite in West Australia. By Bernard F. Davis, 8.sc.; with notes by W. G. Woolnough, Bsc. F.c.s., and Prof. T. W. E. David, B.A., F.R.Ss. 50 Art. XIII.—Investigation in regard to the comparative penctn and elasticity of Portland Cement Mortar and Concrete when reinforced with Steel Rods and when not reinforced. By W.H. Warren, ™. Inst. c.z., wh. 8c, Challis Professor of Engineer- ing, University of Sydney 56C Sed 500 500 42 61 71 107 132 135 286 290 (vi.) PacE ArT. XIV.—The fallacy of assuming that a wet year in England will be followed by a wet year in Australia. By H. C. Russell, B.A., c.M.G., F.B.S. [With Diagram.].. 314 Art. XV.—Is Eucalyptus Variable? By J. H. Maidens Dice Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Government Botanist of New South Wales sia 315 Art. XVI.—The Boogaldi, Barratts Noe! 2 and 3, ‘Gilgein ree 1 and 2, and Eli Elwah or Hay Meteorites, New South Wales. By A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. ¥.z.s. Edin., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney [With Plates]... ew, BAL Art. XVII.—An important Geological Fault at Kurrajong Heights, New South Wales. By Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, B.a., F.G.8.,F.B.8. [With Plates | ne sag O00 Art. XVIII.—Annual Address to the Bug weet Secuod By H. G. McKinney, M.£., M. Inst. 6,5. a wn I: Art. XIX,—The Importance of Federal Hydroerpiys “BE J. Haydon Cardew, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. ... . XXII. Art. XX.—Recent developments in High Speed eaiieas Gonatame tion and Working. By C. O. Burge, m. inst. o.z. Be XXXVI. 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SGulens Yyslaeg 69g UoYIogoaresoy|"** Aqy sox A leeks Ste |, Ps 8 F Pe a eee ee Ae ee ee ee er ty "‘SyIVULey oe aaah Ak oe Oe POON SPREN. 3 ; pera ‘QATOSOY WOIYwosooy 10 yavgq | ‘ApIedyorunyT ‘story vIadorddy ‘STOTJISINDOW ‘SNOUIANH GNV AHNGAS JO ALIO HHL NIHLIM SAAYHSHY NOILLVAYORY ANV SMAVd OITANd 16 J. H. MAIDEN, It will be observed that the Sydney district has a credit- able list of parks, but they are somewhat unequally dis- tributed. Thus Randwick and Manly possess far more than the average, while an important Municipality like Strathfield does not possess even one. Burwood, Enfield, Canterbury, Marrickville, and perhaps others should secure additional public reserves before the price of land is further enhanced. Could not some areas of land be dedicated by : public spirited persons to commemorate the Coronation ? A park is the most enduring of all monuments and a per- petual source of good. I do not suggest that further applications should. be made to Government for park-lands. at the present time. | vhnede d. Park-lands should be inalienable.—I think I may state: as an axiom that portions of most public reserves in the district are liable to be built upon or to be used for purposes other than park purposes. It is simply a question of expediency that some of our parks or reserves are not diminished in area. My opinion is that in this democratic | country it should be at least as difficult to alienate public recreation reserves (or any other portion of them) as it is in Kurope. In most HKuropean countries the attempted alienation of a public reserve would be followed by disturb- ances. In those countries so many areas have been secretly enclosed by adjoining landowners that organizations exist, supplied with voluntary contributions and officered by resolute men, to enquire into and if necessary, take suitable action in regard to any reported filching of the public estate, or curtailment of public liberties. | Parks should be inviolable, because diminution of area means diminution of opportunity of recreation. But there is another very important consideration in regard to taking from the area of a park. If a man sets himself to improve a certain area from a landscape point of view, his plans may Cn a ag he aD ae 8) * THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 17 be destroyed, and the money expended on the park largely thrown away if an area be excised or the park cut into two. New conditions thus arise and he has to prepare new plans with the view of meeting the changed conditions. And while he is progressing in this matter there is no guarantee thata fresh interference with the park may not again destroy what has been done. Again, trees which are planted for shade and sylvan effect, or simply to hide unsightly views or objects are of slow growth. Suppose a farmer were to cultivate a twenty-acre paddock; if two acres of this be resumed, in most cases the result is that his operations continue on the smaller area just as they did on the larger, the only difference being that his work and crop are alike reduced ten per cent. But the matter is usually totally different in treating a landscape. The resumed area may become an eyesore to the main portion, distinctly injuring it from an esthetic point of view. Andina park esthetic considerations come only second to hygienic ones. Mr. John Barlow, President of the Institute of Architects of New South Wales, has in his official position made numerous protests against any diminution of the area of public parks by the introduction of anything which will damage them from an esthetic point of view. His remarks have been warmly applauded by his confreres, all trained lovers of art, and our Government Architect, Mr. W. L. Vernon, has always lent the weight of his influence to improve our public parks along right lines. IJ. POLICE AND TRAFFIC REGULATION. a. Police.—In my opinion the rangers or bailiffs of all public parks should be members of the State police-force, and under the control of the Inspector-General of Police. With such an arranagement the rangers would be under suitable discipline, and they would be all trained men, for a policeman is a product of long and careful training. They B—June 4, 1902. 18 J. H. MAIDEN. would not be permanent rangers, but would be detached for this special duty for a period to be fixed by the Inspector- General, and they would thus be available for transfer, on promotion, or otherwise, like any other policeman. A great advantage of the arrangement would be that the rangers would be in close touch with their superior officers, and thus the difficulty of bad characters making habitual use of parks for criminal and vicious purposes would be much increased. Last, but certainly not least, 1 am a great believer in the value of a police-uniform for the main- tenance of order, particularly amongst young people, in a public park. The mere presence of the uniform has a wonderful effect. When detective work is required, the services of plain-clothes constables can be called into requisition. b. Traffic regulation.—Wheeled traffic in parks is per- mitted only so far as it enhances the public enjoyment of the park. By means ofa vehicle a citizen (whether invalid or not) can take the air and visit distant parts of a park without fatigue. The driver of a vehicle should be especi- ally considerate to a pedestrian in a public park. Miscel- laneous traffic is undesirable in a park, as it interferes with its restfulness and beauty. There are several reasons why carriages are not permis- sible in public parks at night. 1. No matter how well a park is lighted, vehicular traffic is more dangerous to the pedestrian at night than by day, and a feeling of insecurity takes away the restful feeling which it is one of the objects of a park to secure. 2. The regulation of vehicular traffic at night is costly. 3. Vehicles may deposit rubbish in a park under cover of the darkness. 4. Vehicles provide facilities for certain forms of vice, particularly amongst the well to do. THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 19 The word “‘carriage’’ in common use in by-laws of parks has been held, by a Judge of the High Court in England, to be large enough to include a machine, such as a bicycle, which carries the person who gets upon it, and such person may be said to “‘drive”’ it. The opinion of the Crown Solicitor of New South Wales is that in the Domains Regu- lation ‘‘the word ‘vehicle’ used in the Regulation referred to which provides that no person shall ride or drive any kind of vehicle within the Domains except on the roads laid | out therein, includes ‘cycles’.’’ This isa matter of con- siderable importance in the proper control of parks. The drivers of motor cars are amenable to the law as far as furious driving is concerned in precisely the same way that drivers of other vehicles are. III. Roaps AND PATHS, HENCES, SEATS. a. Roads and Paths.—It is an axiom in park management that people will make their own paths if permitted. This is quite true, but we must be careful not to give false interpretation to the public wish. Given a uniform open plain the public may well be left to make their own tracks which may form the route of the future road. But people always avoid obstacles,—such as water, mud, hard and especially broken stone, smooth pebbles, tree-stumps, and so on. So that the pioneer road, even ina park, is a sinu- ous track. All that these goas you please roads are useful for are as indications of the general trend and volume of the traffic. I prefer gravel paths, well rolled and with good blinding material. They are cool and pleasant to the feet and con- trast well with the grass. Asphalt paths are suitable for steep grades and for places where there is much traffic, as a clean, uniform road is thus secured. Visitors to Kurope are struck with the absence of side drainage in the parks and gardens there. This shows that 20 J. H. MAIDEN. in that continent, although the rainfall is considerable, it is gradual, and that the tropical downpours we have in Sydney seldom occur. Our Sydney paths have to be care- fully graded and usually drained on both sides with gutters, (I prefer semi-circular glazed tiles). Without side drains those dainty well raked gravel paths of Hurope would be frequently washed away. With all our precautions no human foresight can prevent much damage from this cause in Sydney. i A good macadamised road is one of the best for a park, but during our long spells of dry weather it requires water- ing and a good deal of attention in other ways, to prevent the stones working loose. An asphalt (or to speak more strictly tar-paved) road is a rarity in Sydney, though roads of true asphalt are com- mon enough in London and other large cities. Such roads have the very great merits in a park of cleanliness, smooth- ness, and consequent quietness, but have the disadvantages of dismal colour, and of reflecting too much heat. The tar- paved roads of which I speak, possess some of the merits both of macadam and true asphalt, but are inferior in durability to the latter. The finest asphalt (tar-paved) road in Sydney is in the Centennial Park ; it is 33 feet wide, and is at present 100 chains long, fresh portions being con- verted from macadam into tar-paving each year. We have a grass Ride in the Centennial Park 39 feet wide and 192 chains (i.e., 24 miles, 12 chains), long. I have not figures in regard to similar Rides in public parks in Kurope, but they are apparently not numerous. I observed one in the Thiergarten of Berlin, about 20 feet wide, but it was much cut up when I saw it. b. Fences.—A park should be securely fenced, but the fence should be artistic. In city parks I prefer the stone coping and iron-railing. Galvanised iron should not be THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 21 permitted as a park boundary; where a close fence is desired, it should be of overlapping weather-boards. Picket fences are a compromise between the close fence and the iron-railing. The diagram herewith shows at once how a picket fence interferes with people looking in- to and out of a park. Tam averse toa close | fence, as it is apt to} encourage untidiness. Fences accumulate rubbish and make] plants tender and. un- il symmetrical. Therail- | ing enables people to 7 see into the dark cor- | ners, and rubbish and badly grown plants, are Vw at once noticed. Close fences enable bad char- “chet Fence Iron Ratling acters to conceal themselves. An open railing is a good policeman. I am afraid that we are not sufficiently ad- vanced yet for the abolition of the fence or railing, leaving onlya dwarf stone copingas in parts of America and England. A railing is looked upon by many people as contributing an element of security, without which there can be no enjoyment inapark. It keeps out stray or bolting animals from the streets; it also, renders protection of plants and other park property more easy. America is often quoted as the country where people respect their parks, but citizens even in that country have still much to learn in regard to the care of parks. The annual report of the Chief of Engineers of the U.S. Army on the Washington parks is pitiful reading, showing that human nature is much the same in the United States as anywhere else. bo iS) J. H. MAIDEN, Further, green swards are kept in order in New York and other parks at a cost to the freedom of action of the public that would never be tolerated in democratic New South Wales. I know law-abiding citizens who have been bullied by American police for infringement of petty yet Draconian Park by-laws, which can only have been framed on the principle that “the people exist for the park.’’ In my opinion “‘the park exists for the people.’’ The parks of Kurope bristle with directive and minatory notices which are quite unsuitable to Australian conditions. I think all park-superintendents would gladly be without the worry of the up-keep of fences and the management of entrances, but democratic as [ am in my ideas, I repeat that the time is not ripe yet. | Entrances should be sufficient in number. How irritating it is to the citizen to have to walk a considerable distance: around his park to get into it. It is like being shut out of paradise. The entrances should be as numerous as the topography of the land or its landscape design will permit.. Entrances are the beginnings of paths and roads, so they cannot be made haphazard. They should be made with careful consideration of the flow of traffic in the streets. outside the park boundary. Trees in parks should be protected by guards. Iron tree guards made of half-inch round iron are best, and can be made graceful. Where there are stock, it is desirable to further protect the tree by means of a low single arris rail at some distance from the iron tree-guard. c. Seats.—The question of seats is an important matter in a public park. In those that are closed at night, a light moveable seat, made of wooden laths and thin wrought. iron framework is comfortable and neat in appearance. In parks open all night, the benches or seats should be heavier in character and fixed in the ground. I have adopted a THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 23 pattern in which the seat itself is curved so as to afford comfort to the sitter. In setting a bench the seat itself should not be horizontal, but should be raised a little in front, thus throwing the occupant a little back, as that posture conduces to rest. The question of paint for seats and rails’ in parks is sometimes debated. Some people prefer green, as being theoretically the most natural colour, harmonising with everything around. Unfortunately, during our hot summers, trees and grass etc., are often not green, but even with all vegetation ‘“‘in verdure clad,” it may not follow that inan- imate objects in the vicinity, such as fences, railings, and seats should be similarly coloured; also, owing to its lack of durability, green paint soon becomes of a sombre, unattractive hue. I prefer a quiet stone-colour as the most appropriate for our parks. It has the merit of dura- bility, and has a bright clean appearance. Clean paint is necessary in a public park for the sake of appearance and also on sanitary grounds. Accordingly all seats and rails should be painted once a year. This arrangement is also most economical in the long run, because of the improved durability of the wood or iron. IV. PLANTATIONS, GRASS, DEPASTURING OF STOCK. a. Plantations.—The planting of a park can only be touched upon, at this place, in a general way. In its lay- ing out, the indigenous trees should be conserved if possible; I do not say at any price. Some trees should be cultivated for the purpose, mainly, of giving shelter to the public. The problem of producing beautiful landscape effects is not one suitable for discussion here, except in very general terms, for one cannot go into essential details except with 1 Since the above was written an article has appeared on “ Green Paint in the garden landscape.” —(The Garden, 22nd March, 1902, p. 185). The article mainly discusses the tints of green for plant boxes, and the subject deserves more ventilation than it usually obtains. 24 J. H. MAIDEN. a particular block of land in view. ‘Trees in a public park must have their lower branches removed or children will break them down, and improper characters will use them as places of concealment. In a private park we see noble specimens of trees, some of them with branches close to the ground. When for public-park purposes we prune them we not only seriously detract from their beauty, but in the case of some trees, particularly Conifers, we inflict great injury upon them from a physiological point of view. Trees often require a little judicious pruning, either because of accidents to branches, or to prevent branches becoming unduly heavy and tearing themselves away during winds or by their sheer weight. Then we require special pre- cautions in regard to the danger from trees in a public park, particularly in those used by large numbers of people. Just asa man periodically taps the wheel of a railway train to detect a flaw, if any, so it is the duty of a park officer to frequently inspect his trees to see if any of them _ present symptoms which will cause them to be dangerous to the public. Are they getting top-heavy? Are the branches or the trunks becoming unsound? The pruner and the axeman must be ever on the alert, especially as, with all our care, trees sometimes fall without warning. In such cases examination of the roots or inner portion of the trunk reveals insidious disease caused either by micro- fungi or by insect pests. The chief time of anxiety from falling trees is during a period of heavy rain accompanied by strong winds. The ground becomes sodden and holds the roots with difficulty, while the more umbrageous the tree the less able is it to withstand the strongest blast of a gale. And it is some- times one blast that does the mischief. The climbing of trees by boys is a very serious cause of their injury, and even destruction. If a boy intends to climb a tree one cannot, in practice, prevent him, but he can be hindered by THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 25 tree guards, and also by loosely twisting barbed wire around the first fork. Insect pests are a constant source of anxiety in parks, and frequently require a spraying plant to cope with them. | While many trees in our genial climate grow more rapidly than they do in Kurope, one must not lose sight of the fact that they attain maturity quicker and then show signs of failure. In applying remedies to unhealthy trees, one must carefully distinguish between those which are suffering from the effects of accident or from a passing ailment, and those in which the real cause is senile decay. The question of the establishment of wind-breaks is a matter of importance to all custodians of parks which are not blessed with a sheltered situation. This is one of the most difficult problems those in charge of parks have to face. The problem is to establish the first line of defence which, in its turn, may protect the second, and so on. Each man must work out the problem for himself, and he of course considers the contour of the land and the direc- tion and force of the prevailing winds. Those interested in the matter may be inclined to study the methods by which wind-breaks are being established at the Centennial Park. | I do not propose to enter into details in regard to methods of tree-planting, for no intelligent local authority will entrust the planting of trees to a person other than a gardener, any more than he will entrust the repairs of his watch to anyone who is not skilled in that particular kind of work. Let me, however, point out that a large part of Sydney, including some Sydney parks, consists mainly of sandstone or of pure sand. To plant trees in the former requires extensive blasting and much good soil; to plant trees in pure sand without the admixture of good loam is not only a waste of time, but is a misappropriation of public 26 J. H. MAIDEN. funds. Our natural difficulties are quite numerous enough without making pretences to perform impossibilities. b. Grass.—Grass gives charm to a park, which can be obtained by no other means. Refreshing to the eye, it it is Nature’s own carpet on which the weary citizen may rest. The grass in most of our Sydney parks is the Indian Doub or the “‘ Bermuda Grass’”’ of the United States, (Cynodon dactylon, Linn.) which is universally known in Sydney as Couch Grass. Itisanative of Australia as well as of other parts of the world; at the same time it is an immigrant in certain districts in which it is now well established. It forms a fine, smooth, durable lawn. The other grass is known by all Sydney people as Buffalo Grass (Stenotaphrum americanum, Schrank.). It is a coarse, springy grass much approved by some people, although too coarse for tennis or croquet lawns or for cricket. It isan American grass, but not the Buffalo grass of America,’ which is Buchoe dactyloides, Kngelm. The grass called Buffalo grass in Sydney is so called because its first discovery in Australia was made on the shore of Buffalo Creek, a small tributary of Port Jackson. c. Depasturing of Stock.—In most Sydney Parks stock are allowed to be depastured on agistment. In the State parks they are used as a substitute for scythes and lawn- mowers. Financial considerations partly weigh with us as regards the Domain; for example, by stock a revenue of £60 to £100 per annum is secured (the lessee of the grazing being responsible for the stock), while the manure fertilizes the ground. To mow the Domain grass as well as the stock do it would be impossible, as the ground is too irregular in contour; to keep it moderately well cut would cost at least £400 a year. On the other hand the 1 In the United States it is known as Mission Grass, or St. Augustine’s Grass. . Fd THE. PARKS OF SYDNEY. aT presence of cattle is sometimes objectionable through deposits of manure on the paths, and frightened horses sometimes chip the stonework of kerbs and steps. Sheep are better animals for keeping the grass of parks in order, but the Sydney climate does not suit them, and it is usually inconvenient to make suitable arrangements with butchers for the loan of them. Then, as they are so readily interfered with by children and others, they cannot be employed in parks unless there is a shepherd, or where there are special circumstances which render the super- vision of them convenient. While the use of stock as lawn-mowers has the draw- backs stated, I am of opinion that, in some parks, the advantages of their employment far outweigh their dis- advantages; certainly complaints on the part of the public in regard to them are few and far between. The plantations (if any) in a park require to be fenced if stock are to be admitted, while the condition is always insisted upon that none but quiet animals are admitted. J think a few horses quietly grazing, or cows peacefully chewing the cud in a park, supply an element of beauty and of rural peacefulness that gives an added charm toa people’s park, particularly in crowded cities where children are usually debarred from the pleasure of seeing animals under rural conditions. V. BUILDINGS ETC. IN AND ABBUTTING ON PARKS. a. Buildings.—It is a truism that no structures should be erected ina public park which are not necessary to carry out the objects of the park. Thus, administrative Offices, places for the storage of material, such as road- metal, tar, timber, tree-guards, soil, etc.; also workshops (including plant-frames and other appliances for the propa- gation of plants), are necessary; so are buildings for public refreshment, lavatories etc., band-stands, shelter-pavilions, 28 J. H. MAIDEN. fountains and soon. All these buildings should be designed so as to be neat and ornamental in appearance and in harmony with their surroundings. I have already laid stress on the necessity for the inalien- ability of lands reserved for park purposes. At present parks are liable to be built upon, to be encroached upon by railways or tramways, or to be otherwise contracted in area. The temptation to the erection of a building ina public park, be it museum, library, or picture gallery is an insidious danger. The display of beautiful and useful objects inside a building may be secured at an appalling price in regard to nature’s beautiful and permanent vistas outside. The danger of the erection of buildings in public parks is enhanced by the feeling that sometimes obtains that the money value of a piece of park land need not be taken into consideration. Thus if it be desired to put a building, costing £10,000, on a piece of park land whose market value is £5,000; the cost of that building is £15,000, and it is not fair to represent that its cost is £10,000. Furthermore, public buildings once erected in a public park are not always limited by fixed boundaries as is the case where the land has to be paid for. Cases have been known in which the land taken from a public park has been found inadequate, and additional ground has been obtained by the simple process of putting back the fence. The question of the erection of buildings in public parks is one of paramount importance to the public, and to the landscape gardener. A building in a park is an item in the landscape, and it must be subordinated to the park as a whole. | In Kurope the relation of buildings to private and national parks and gardens is well understood, and incongruities are few. The United States has passed through the trial stage which new countries such as ours have to pass THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 29 through before the sacredness of the public parks is respected. Following are some pertinent extracts from ‘““The Garden and Forest ’’ of New York, Vol. x. (1897), which are worthy of perusual. “What we wish now to point out is that it seems probable that more and more schemes to further definitely intellectual or esthetic ends will -be prosecuted without due regard to the integrity and beauty of our parks as works of landscape art, and that the patrons of science and literature and of art of other kinds are likely to try to injure our great artistic creations like Central and Prospect Parks. And this is, of course, a very insidious danger, as the schemes may be worthy in themselves, and the people who urge them are those whom the public has been told it should trust most implicitly in intellectual and artistic matters. “‘ These few instances illustrate one phase of apprehension,—the danger that buildings for public purposes will more and more absorb the narrow and precious spaces set apart for the people’s refreshment and enjoyment. Each such instance is deplorable in itself, and as a precedent for future enterprises of similar kind. Nor is New York the only city which needs to be warned along these lines. The beautiful park which Mr. Olmsted laid out in Buffalo is threatened with the erection of buildings which would be public benefits if placed elsewhere, but public misfortunes as features in a naturalistic park. Even the small and incomparably preci- ous State Reservation at Niagara Falls has had to be defended against a misfortune of alike sort; and there isnotownin the United States whose parks are safe in this respect. It is high time that the public should awaken to the fact that no buildings whatsoever, except those absolutely required for park purposes proper, should be allowed within a park, and that the projectors of all others should buy their own sites or, if these must be purchased with public money, that they should be placed out- side of park limits. «This is not merely because every foot of open public land is precious as such, and should be held sacred to serve the health, the refreshment, and the outdoor pleasures of the people. Itisalso because, almost with- out exception, our pleasure-grounds are works of lanscape-art in the exact sense—naturalistic parks—and are necessarily injured in their artistic character by the intrusion of buildings even of the most beautiful kinds. This is the point which many artists do not understand, and, therefore as they are naturally regarded as the highest authorities in artistic matters, the damage which may be done to our parks by those whe have nota true comprehension of them is, perhaps, more to be dreaded than that from any other class of men.”—(p. 439). And again :— 30 : J. H. MAIDEN. — “ Yet the old idea that any person ignorant of art but: possessing a ‘feeling for nature” is competent to decide any question with regard to a naturalistic pleasure-ground has not yet died out, and, on the other hand, those who are expert in artistic questions of some different kind do not yet understand that, nevertheless, they may be incompetent to deal with problems of naturalistic landscape-gardening. ‘‘ Vast formal pleasure-grounds such as were created around the palaces of the Old World, for the delectation of the frequenters of luxurious courts, are inappropriate to the needs of modern times; and this is especially true in our democratic country. Our parks, large and small, exist for the greatest good of the greatest number; and this good can best be secured by making them, within the bounds laid down by art, as much like Nature’s landscape as possible. Only in this way can they fultil the need of the populace for rest and refreshment, and bring Nature’s peaceful, soothing, inspiring influences to bear upon the minds and bodies of those who live and toil amid the noise and stress of modern civic con- ditions; and only thus can they be genuine and characteristic works of American art, expressing the ideals and the temper of American civiliza- tion.”—(p. 499.) | b. Wharves.—The ‘‘ Sydney Harbour Trust Act, 1900,” gives power to the Harbour Trust Commissioners to deal with frontages below high-water mark. The value of the numerous water-side parks as pleasure resorts, and of which the Botanic Gardens and Outer Domain are by far the most important, depends largely upon eesthetic con- siderations. If a portion of the water frontages are to be taken for utilitarian purposes by the Harbour Trust, the value of these reserves, which cannot be gauged in money, may be deteriorated to an extent that it may not be possible to compute. No wharf, jetty, etc., ought, in my opinion, to be erected on any water-frontage to park lands by any authority without the consent of the Minister controlling the park in question. A Minister would doubtless be advised in the matter by his responsible officers as to the probable effect of the proposed structure on the park. I venture to express the opinion that it was never the intention of the Legislature to place the National Recrea- THE, PARKS OF SYDNEY. 31 tion Reserves (Domain and Botanic Gardens), in the power of the Harbour Trust. ._ 1 only mention these two reserves because they are the most important, and I imagine that a clause for the protection of these national reserves might fitly be inserted inan Amending Act of the Sydney Harbour Trust Act. These reserves are, [ feel sure, in no danger from the present enlightened Harbour Trust Commissioners, but they might be succeeded by gentlemen who would be inclined to look upon public parks simply from a commercial point of view. As an instance of the way in which the utilization of a park frontage for wharfage purposes may deteriorate a park, the south-eastern part of Woolloomooloo Bay affords an instructive example. Wharves are creeping along the Domain in that direction, and we already have nuisances ‘rom>— 1. Smoke of steamships. Iiaman onshore own a smoky chimney he is prosecuted, but the funnel of a steamship can belch forth smoke, darkening the air for a con- siderable distance and disfiguring the ground with smuts, but no prosecution follows. The north-easters (our prevailing winds during the summer months) blow this smoke into the Domain to the discomfort of citizens and to the injury of the vegetation. 2. Stinking cargoes. I have been made nearly sick when | passing bags of horns and bones, hides and other abominations on the Woolloomooloo Wharf. What a regrettable arrangement it would be for a continuance of the wharves along the Domain frontage, especially since it would follow that these pestiferous odours would be wafted into the Domain and Gardens by the prevailing north-easter. It would be impossible to forbid our staple articles of export from being placed on a public wharf. 32 J. H. MAIDEN. 3. The noise and bustle of shipping. Noise and bustle are inseparable from shipping. The donkey-engines are noisy by day and night, and the varied and loud noises incident to shipping operations detract from the restfulness of a public park. 4. Rats and shipping. No matter what precautions are taken it is difficult to prevent rats leaving a ship for the land. In a public park food-refuse is always lying about and encourages the rat-scavengers. We have special reason to dread the presence of rats, and a public park should be an ideal health resort for the people. I have dealt with the small wharves necessary for people to enjoy facilities for bathing, boating etc., and to obtain the maximum enjoyment from their parks, at p. 36. VI. SPECIAL PUBLIC REQUIREMENTS. a. Necessities :— 1. Lighting. Why do we want light in a public park ? For the same reasons that we want it in the public streets. We want it in order that we may see our way. We want it that we may walk as we choose, without being disturbed by the foot-pad or the larrikin. As matters stand, during the greater portion of the time (the evening hours) that promenade in a park is possible to the average man or | woman, they are precluded from this pleasurable and health- giving exercise. The old stupid idea is that museums and picture-galleries are only to be opened during the period that the average citizen is at work. Parks certainly are available longer than that, but at night they should not hold out special inducements to criminal and vicious persons. On moral and hygienic grounds, therefore, let us have light in our parks. It seems strange to have to insist upon light as an essential in a public park. Hyde Park, London, the prin- THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. , F 3 cipal park of the principal city of the world was not safely lighted up till 1899, and then only the path from the Marble Arch to the Statue of Achilles. A leading London news- paper asked for still more light, stating that it would be the means “‘ of relegating crime and vice to those obscure portions of the park remote from the frequented footways.”’ In 1901, during the summer months, portions of the Outer Domain and Hyde Park, Sydney, were lighted by electricity, but the work was discontinued for financial reasons. Never- theless the experiment was a useful one, and I now advo- cate the extension of gas-lighting. Incandescent burners give a brilliant light, and the average gas lamp is of a con- venient height above the ground, giving the light where it is most needed. The gas is entirely under control, and noisy, dirty engines, hideous buildings and overhead wires which appear to be necessary where electricity is gener- ated are entirely done away with, matters of supreme importance in a public park. The lighting of Hyde Park, London, made one. of the minor poets break into song less than three years ago :— “For well I know what danger lurks In all such mad progressive movements, Electric lighting once obtained, London will call for more improvements. And I shall live—ah, cruel fate !— To see Hyde Park, spite my endeavour, Become a people’s Paradise, Bright, light, and beautiful for ever.”—(London Truth, 1899). 2. Sanitary matters. _The provision of water-closets and urinals in public parks is a matter of absolute necessity unless these conveniences are well provided outside in the vicinity ofa small park. In large parks they are necessary, no matter what may be the arrangements outside the park- area. Inthe Botanic Gardens there is special accommoda- tion for women and children; such has not been provided in our parks, so far as I am aware. All our most im- C—June 4, 1902. 34 J. H. MAIDEN. portant parks ought to have such accommodation, and each chalet should be in charge of an attendant. I also think that each of the men’s conveniences should be in charge of an attendant ; this would prevent people stuffing boots and clothes down the pipes and performing other selfish actions. We have much to learn yet before we attach as much importance to public conveniences as people do in England. They are a necessity of existence, and their fittings and walls should be of the most approved hygienic patterns it is possible to obtain. Rubbish bins are an essential in a public park. JI am in favour of iron ones similar to those used by the Sydney Municipality, and which have been introduced into the parks under my control. In Hurope baskets of all shapes and sizes are used for the purpose, but they become filthy, have an untidy appearance, and are readily injured. Iron bins of the kind referred to are readily emptied and cleaned and effectually preserve edible rubbish from being eaten by rats. Nevertheless it isa matter for regret that large numbers of people refuse to put scraps of paper and food- rubbish into any receptacle whatever, sometimes even displaying considerable ingenuity in depositing it on the grass, etc., when the attention of the ranger is directed elsewhere. This cross-grainedness in human nature is to be deplored, for the public parks cannot be kept in an ideal condition except by the active co-operation of the people themselves. The state of a public park as regards tidiness ina measure reflects the habits of the people them- selves. A dirty, carelessly kept park points to a neglectful community. | 3. WaterSupply. Drinking fountainsin public parks should be sufficient in number and should have an adequate water supply. Certain mischievous boys and other people delight in wrenching off the cups, damaging the spouts and injuring THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 35 fountains in various ways. In consequence, special arrange- ments have to be made to guard against wilful injury. Fragile fountains should have no place in a public park open day and night; thisis to be regretted, because slenderness of construction is sometimes inseparable from an artistic object such as a fountain. Some years ago the attention of the Board of Health was directed to the drinking fountains of Sydney and the ‘- It has been pointed out that iarge dogs and other animals drink from those which are so arranged that water remains in the cisterns under the drinking taps; and, as children and others drink from these instead of from the taps, and hydatid and other diseases are likely to Bet in this way propagated, the Board is very strongly of opinion— lst. That wherever there are cisterns they should have a runaway at the bottom, so that no water can collect; and— 2nd. That cisterns for dogs should not be allowed in fountains placed near Public Schools, as itis found that young childreu drink out of them.” An adequate water supply is also necessary for the watering of roads, the flushing of gutters, the watering of plants (even large trees have to be watered during droughts), and various miscellaneous park services. 4, Public baths and boat-sheds. The matter of baths for the public is one of special importance to us in a semi- tropical climate. In the case of those parks at a distance from the water the matter of the erection of public baths, such as are seen in every large town in Kurope, is a matter for consideration. In most cases, however, there is no special advantage in having baths in a park, while the objection to the erection of a building in a park when pro- vision can be as well and even better made for it in a public thoroughfare, is one deserving of very serious con- sideration. But many Sydney parks have water-frontages to Port Jackson, and it seems desirable that, wherever possible, facilities should be given for utilizing a portion of “a ve " . ’ ¥ : A 36 J. H. MAIDEN. such water-frontage for public baths. Iam of opinion that public baths can be provided for in most of our waterside parks, and buildings from which swimming contests can be viewed can be provided in a few instances. Then I would provide every possible facility for the hiring of boats and for the accommodation of boating-clubs. At present boat sheds are usually ramshackle affairs, often half concealed from view on the park side, whereas the boat-wharves should be well in view, for the starting and return of boat-crews gives an element of picturesqueness which is very pleasing to park visitors. Let us be in touch with our boating citizens, for Sydney is a port and we are proud of our prowess on the water. Furthermore, to have well appointed places would encourage many people to indulge.in the healthy recreation of a blow on the harbour who feel that few inducements are offered to them at present. o. Refreshments. Unless a park has restaurants or refreshment rooms outside, close to its entrances, it is usually desirable to provide refreshment rooms or fruit- stalls within the park area. Permanent buildings should be of an ornamental character and there should be seats in the immediate vicinity for the convenience of people who desire refreshments in the open air. These seats should be under the control of the lessee of the refreshment room. Any citizen can claim to usea seat which is placed in a public park, but people as a rule do not press their rights where the seats are in the vicinity of a refreshment- room, and, when they bring their own food, they usually purchase tea or hot water from the lessee. The details of arrangements in regard to refreshments depend so very largely upon the special circumstances of every particular park that I do not propose to enter into them. tC THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 37 Besides the more substantial refreshment pavilion, of which there should be one in every large park, there is no doubt that the public convenience demands opportunities at the principal entrances of the large parks for the purpose of buying minor refreshments, such as biscuits and fruit, the former being largely used by the children for the delightful occupation of feeding the land-birds and water fowl. This should be encouraged not only because of the evident pleasure it gives children, but also of the lesson it teaches of kindness to animals. At present these small articles are purchased from moveable, rickety hand-barrows or fruit-stalls, but these should be replaced, wherever pos- sible by small kiosks—permanent structures of artistic design. b. Luxuries:— 1. Games and Gymnasia. I have put games etc. under the heading of luxuries, but personally I look upon them as absolute necessities. The games that are most commonly played are cricket and foot-ball. The former game is specially catered for at the Sydney Cricket Ground, Moore Park, and the latter at the Agricultural Ground. As regards the Outer Domain cricket is under the auspices of a small Trust, appointed in 1856, who employ a man for the purpose of keeping in order a small area known as the Cricket Ground. On other parts of the Domain, cricket- ing (mostly by boys) is permitted in so far as it does not interfere with the comfort of other citizens who desire to use the Domain. In the Centennial Park every encouragement is given to outdoor games. A polo club has a ground allotted to it, and it is kept in order at the club’s expense. Following are the special arrangements in regard to cricket and football respectively. 38 J. H. MAIDEN. OCricket.—(1) Permits to play cricket are issued annually by the Officer-in-Charge, and must be applied for previous to the commencement of the cricket season in every year —usually towards the end of August. The permits are usually renewed from year to year provided no well- grounded complaints have been made against the conduct of members, and in the case of a wicket becoming vacant care is taken to apportion it to the club best entitled in point of numbers andage of members, giving where other things are equal the preference to a local club. (2) No charge is made for wickets. (3) All clubs obtaining per- mission to play cricket must join the Association formed by the clubs playing cricket in the Centennial Park. (4) Any alteration of grounds in the shape of levelling or top- dressing must only be made after the sanction in writing of the Officer-in-Charge has been obtained. The Association referred to above is called the Centennial Park Cricket Association and consists of a number of clubs playing in the Centennial Park. Office-bearers of the Association are annually elected and further information may be obtained from a hand-book published annually by the Association which gives a list of office-bearers, rules, competition rules, fixtures, etc. This Association during the playing season employs a man to keep wickets and ground in proper repair; further, the Association controls the letting of wickets, in this way preventing clubs from obtaining a wicket merely for money making; it also deals with the misconduct of any players belonging to clubs which are affiliated. The existence of the Association has been the means of improving the status of cricket in the Centennial Park, and of assisting the park officials in the control of both the players and the onlookers. Football.—(1) Football permits are applied for and obtained in a manner similar to that observed for the THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 39 obtaining of cricket permits. They are usually issued early in the month of May in each year. (2) No charges are made for grounds. (3) No conditions in regard to join- ing an Association are insisted on for football clubs, but the clubs have each to mark out their own grounds, and find and erect their own goal posts. Latterly gymnasia have been established both in the Outer Domain and in the Centennial Park. These are the first instituted in Australia, although in Hurope they are common enough. The specification of the Domain gym- nasium is as follows, that of the Centennial Park being nearly the same. I trust that we shall soon have them in everyone of our parks, particularly those that are situated indensely populated districts. A range of six horizonal bars of different heights, and four sets of parallel bars for children of different ages. wo giant strides of eight ropes each. One set of five travel- ling rings. Four swings. Two trapezes. One climbing rope ladder. Two climbing ropes (one knotted and one plain). One sliding plank. One inclined ladder. Two see-saws. A sand heap for very young children, and a climbing pole or mast for the most venturesome, and which will also answer as a flag pole. I have touched upon boating, an exercise that should receive every encouragement in Sydney, at 'p. 36. 2. Music. Commodious band-stands should be provided in every public park. The design of the band-stand should be artistic and in keeping with the park. If we want good music we must make the musicians comfortable, and hence a good band-master. should always be consulted in the erec- tion and furnishing of aband-stand. The band-stand should not be ona windy eminence; the sound passes away, while the musicians may be chilled and their sheets of music blown away. ‘They should have Venetian blinds to protect them 40 J. H. MAIDEN. from glare. Suitable seats and music-stands should be provided for the performers, also mugs or tumblers, and proximity to a good water supply. The lower portion of the band-stand should form a room for the storage of the seats, music-stands, etc. Then seating accommodation for the public should be provided as far as possible. In our climate there is less necessity for seats than in wet and cold districts, if a nice grassy sward is available. Then it is impossible to provide fixed seats to accommodate all the listeners, otherwise that portion of the park, in the vicinity of the band-stand will, except during the period of a performance, have the appearance of a deserted cattle sale-yard. If there is a building in the park convenient for the storage of a large number of chairs, these might be brought out for each per- formance and returned at its close, but, in spite of the objections of people who want the Government to perform every petty service for them, I remain at present of the opinion that in most cases the best plan would be to arrange with a contractor to supply chairs for each performance, who would recoup himself by a charge of a penny a head, certainly not an unreasonable demand. This is a common practice in Hurope, even in parks where one has to pay a fee to listen to the performance whether one stands or not. 3. Statuary. The question of the nude in art is one to which the custodians of public parks must give attention to at one time or another. When the matter is spasmodically dealt with in newspapers and professional journals, pictures in an art-gallery or advertisement posters have usually raised the points at issue. Then the matter is usually discussed from the life-class or artist’s model point of view, while certain artists express themselves in emphatic terms, sometimes chiding the general public for possessing in- artistic souls. No work in which the question of the THE PARKS OF SYDNEY. 4] nude in art is discussed as regards public parks is access- ible to me. In a public gallery the officials can readily make arrangements for restricting the view of a picture from those to whom it is considered undesirable to show it, whether it be young children, or mixed gatherings of both sexes, but in a public park art objects must be open to public view all day long. We have very few objects in our Sydney parks to whom any person may take exception on moral grounds, but there are one or two in regard to which persons whose judgment should be respected have raised protests. My Own view in this matter can be very simply expressed. There should be nothing in any public park to wound the susceptibilities of any citizen. A man should be able to pass through a park without seeing anything that will bring a blush to the cheek of his wife, his daughter, his sweetheart or any other woman or child. Further, there should not be any objects that require (so to speak) to be apologised for or slurred over, for an art object should not only not be a source of pain or discomfort to some, but it should be a source of pleasure,—an aesthetic ideal maybe, to all. Iam sorry tosay that there are so few statues or other art objects in the Sydney parks, exclusive of those (Botanic Gardens and Garden Palace Grounds) that are closed at night. Most of the statuary is to be found in the Centennial Park and Hyde Park. Although creditable for a young country, candour compels one to admit that much of it does not reach a very high standard of art. Statuary in public parks is often looked upon as a target for mischievous people and one has to frequently repair it. In consequence art objects of considerable value cannot be exhibited in a public park unless they are practically proof against wilful damage or unless they can be specially | protected. 49 H. I. JENSEN, Of course such objects as fountains and national memorials of various kinds may be artistic in character and suitable adornments for a public park. But they should be few in number and have suitable settings. POSSIBLE RELATION BETWEEN SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC HRUPTIONS. By H. I. JENSEN. (Communicated by Prof. David, B.A., F.R.S.) [With Plate II.] [ Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, June 4, 1902. | DuRINnG the past three months the world has been startled by a series of volcanic and seismic phenomena, which, in point of extent and violence, are almost unparalleled. Within a few months we have heard of a great earthquake at Cheviot, in New Zealand, synchronous with a violent volcanic eruption in the Kermadec Islands. This was suc- ceeded by a violent earthquake in Transcaucasia that ruined humerous towns. Then came the West Indian earthquakes accompanied, or rather followed by the eruptions of Mount Pelée, La Soufriere and Mount Tacoma, and synchronously great earthquakes devastated ten cities in Guatemala. Since then we have heard of a succession of rumblings in the Auvergne district of France, an area spotted with extinct volcanoes ; a serious earthquake at Corfu, another near Paris; and lastly we hear that Mount Redoubt in Alaska is in violent eruption, and that poisonous gases are issuing from Mount Trabochetto, an extinct volcano between Genoa and Nice. SUN-SPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 43 At the time of the Baku and Transcaucasian earthquakes I read up some facts about Huropean volcanoes and earth- quake areas, and in connection with Vesuvius I noticed that it was in violent eruption approximately every eleventh year. This being the well known sunspot period I started on a further enquiry. Late in the fifties of last century, four distinguished scientists Julius Schmidt, Wolf, Kluge, and Poey had discussed a probable relation between volcanic and sunspot phenomena. Schmidt came to the conclusion that there was no marked coincidence between the appearance of sunspots and earth- quakes, though, as far as can be gathered, he did not inves- tigate the converse, namely, whether there is any connec- tion between the phenomena of absence of sunspots and the occurrence of violent shakings on the earth. M. R. Wolf, a distinguished authority on sunspots and earth magnetism, considered that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions were coincident with sunspots.’ He apparently only theorised on the subject instead of investigating facts, which, if studied, would speedily have disillusioned him. Kluge, a noted authority on earthquakes, after a careful study of seismic disturbances in various parts of the world between 1850 and 1857, came to the conclusion that when there are few sunspots, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and magnetic disturbances have been at a maximum. Though later researches have proved him to be wrong as far as magnetic disturbances are concerned, I hope to-night to prove him right in regard to volcanic and seismic | phenomena. M. H. Poey, who examined a catalogue of West Indian and Mexican earthquakes between 1634 and 1870, shows? that earthquakes have come in groups, first at ‘maxima, * Bern. Naturf. Gesellschaft, 1852. % Comptes Rendus, 1874. 44 H. I. JENSEN. then at minima periods of sunspots. Out of thirty-eight groups he found that seventeen occurred at maxima and seventeen at minima, theremaining four being intermediate. As unfortunately I have not been able to consult the papers of these four authorities, I have had to rely on Milne’s ‘** Earthquakes ”’ for this information. Milne and all subsequent writers on this topic, reject the opinions of Kluge and Poey, on the ground of insufficient evidence. Lapparent and other modern writers on geology, do not | even touch upon the question. Undoubtedly the conclusions contradict one another. The latter investigations of Schmidt proved Wolf to be wrong. Poey shows that earthquakes occur both at maxima and minima, which certainly is so, but Kluge alone tries to demonstrate that they predominate at sunspot minima. Here it will be necessary to point out that if the results of these investigators are contradictory, it is not to be marvelled at, considering that we have no great abundance of information on sunspots before 1833, that the sunspot period may vary from nine to thirteen years, and that the dates of maxima and minima before that time have been obtained by calculation from a formula which may yet be shown to be incorrect. At the present time we have more data, sunspots have been closely observed for the last sixty or seventy years, and those who desire to see the exact sunspot curve from 1834 to the present, may find it ina paper by W. J. 8. Lockyer.* The sunspot curve on my chart is the one constructed by Mr. H. C. Russell from observations conducted in India. It does not show all the variations, ups and downs, that actually take place, but is made by joining the years of maximum and minimum sunspot activity by straight lines. Now, on‘looking at Plate II., we must not suppose that the ? Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec. 13, 1901. SUN-SPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 45 object of the chart is foiled, because we see several groups of earthquakes, apparently coinciding with sunspot maxima. Thus, in 1789, there was an eruption of Kilauea; in 1829 a great Chilian earthquake ; in 1839 an earth movement at Lemos, in the Chonos Archipelago, which resulted in an elevation of the island of eight feet; in 1850 we find an earthquake at Honduras, and then the great anomaly of 1883, of which more anon. All that I desire to prove is that maximum seismic activity is coincident with sunspot minimum, and vice versa. This, it appears to me, the chart sufficiently shows. In fact, just as the sunspot curve shows a slow fall to a mini- mum and a sharp rise to a maximum, so does the earth- quake curve show aslow rise to a maximum, and a sharp fall to a minimum. The earthquake and volcanic curves show most irregularity in the period between 1878 and 1890. A similar irregularity (less marked on account of paucity of records) occurred thirty-five years before in the period 1843 to 1854. The period 1878 to 1890 I propose to discuss in detail, to show that even here the seismic phenomena agree in smallest details with the phenomena of sunspots. From 1870 the sunspots decreased steadily to a minimum in 1878. If we look at Lockyer’s curve for the succeeding period, we find that instead of the usual sharp rise to a maximum, there was a very gradual rise, culminating in April 1882, in a remarkably fine spot accompanied by vivid auroral displays in our atmosphere.’ Then there was a sudden falling off in solar energy in 1883—almost to a sun- spot mininum—and then a rapid rise to the real maximum in 1884. This maximum lasted through 1884, 1885 and the greater part of 1886, when there was a rapid falling off to a minimum in 1888-9. During this period there was at no time a lasting maximum. 1 See Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. L., p. 8. 46 H. I. JENSEN. The total spotted area for the period 1879.80 to 1890.2 was 78,253 in millionths of the sun’s disc, as compared with 96,734 for the period 1890.2 to 1900.0, and 126,188 for the period 1867.2 to 1879." We find the sunspot period between 1884 and 1889 divided as follows :—a maximum lasting from 1884 till June 1886, and a minimum from October 1886, culminating in June 1889. Now on looking at the earthquake records for these years we find great volcanic activity. between 1876 and 1881, a .- marked falling off in 1882, a most abnormal increase in 1883, and almost total absence during 1884-5, and a renewed activity in 1886, comprising the Tarawera eruption in 1886 and the Bandaisan eruption in 1888. Thus for this period the volcanic outbursts seem to have corresponded pretty closely with extinctions of sunspots. Similarly, the period 1892 to 1895 was one of great sun- spot activity; in 1896 there was almost a minimum of sun- spots, coincident with which a severe earthquake, predicted by Falb, was experienced at Zante. Renewed sunspot activity obtained from the end Of 1896 till 1899, and an - almost total absence of spots between 1900 and the present time. | Looking at the chart we may notice in particular how the eruptions of Vesuvius occur, this being a particularly sensitive volcano. Notable outbursts occurred in 1818, 1822, 1855, 1867, 1872, 1889, 1891, 1900. Of these years all are of sunspots minimum except 1872, which marks a sharp dip on an otherwise gradual fall to a minimum,’ and 1813 which occurs very near the minimum of 1810-2, and is doubtful. | Studying the outbreaks of Mauna Loa, we find the severest to have taken place in 1789, 1822, 1833, 1852, 1867-8, 1877, 1 See Lockyer, op. cit. 2 Memoirs ot the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. u., 1890-1. 3 Journ. Roy. Soc. Astro. Soc., Dec. 18, 1901. SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 47 1887, all, except 1852 perhaps, minimum years. Those of Java were most severe in 1822, 1833, 1843, 1852, 1874- 1878,’ 1883. Those of Hekla were most noticeable in the minimum years 1783, 1843, 1875; those of La Soufriere in the years 1812 and 1902, and of Mount Redoubt in 1867 and 1902. The eruptions of Vesuvius are apparently also as a rule contemporaneous with a particularly fine corona, such as usually occurs in minimum years. Milne mentions that at Copiapo the people expect a great earthquake once in every twenty years, at Lima every hundredth year, great devastating earthquakes having occurred in 1578, 1678, 1778, 1878, two of these actually taking place at the same hour on the same day. The reason why all outbursts do not occur at sunspot minima is plainly that other causes are also at work in locating the time and place of volcanic outbreaks in addition to the chief agent above mentioned. There are perhaps some purely terrestrial causes, such as chemical action ; the moon’s influence is not to be ignored, and there is also planetary attraction. One great immediate cause of an earthquake may be the sudden relief of atmospheric pres- ° sure by the passage of a vast cyclone over an area. A sudden increase of pressure might start a volcanic eruption. However, in connection with these matters it will be as well to quote the views of some well known authorities. Mallet observed that in Kuropean regions seismic minima seemed to coincide with barometric minima. M. Alexis Perrey investigating the moon’s influence found that out of 5,388 earthquakes studied by him, 2,761 or 51°, occurred at syzygies, and 49% at quadratures. Lapparent in his Géologie, whilst admitting the correctness of M. Perrey’s research, considers the difference too trifling to found a law upon. 1 The eruptions of Le Kaba in Java, 48 H. I. JENSEN. According to the statistics of Julius Schmidt of Athens, who studied the earthquakes between 1770 and 1873, Seismic disturbances were more frequent when the moon was in perigee than at apogee. Lapparent, commenting upon this, makes a further assertion that studies on oriental earthquakes reveal the fact that when the earth is nearest the sun shocks are most frequent. Fuchs shows that earthquakes are more frequent at equinoxes than at solstices (see Milne). The cause of this seems to me purely meteorological—more sudden changes of pressure taking place at the equinoxes. According to Milne, a Japanese work, “‘Jishin Setsu,”’ by a priest named Tensho, states that earthquakes depend upon the relative position of the moon with respect to twenty-eight constellations. Professor Falb of Vienna also gained great reputation some years ago by predicting some earthquakes. Unfortu- nately he seems to have based his forecasts entirely on the motions of the moon, and therefore soon made some most incorrect predictions. For the year 1898 he fore- casted great eruptions and a tidal wave which would wreck New York. Asa matter of fact this year (1898) was a very quiet year. By taking all factors into consideration it should however be possible to predict earthquakes. Primarily secular con- traction is admitted to be the cause of all earthquake and volcanic phenomena. But this contraction is constantly. going on, and if it were not modified by other causes, we should not have any grouping of seismic phenomena together into particular periods, years or seasons. The modifications must be caused by other factors hitherto neglected. The factors to be considered in predicting earthquakes seem to be:—(1) Lines of weakness and faulting in the earth’s crust; this factor locates places likely to be dis- SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 49 turbed. Geologists of the last thirty years have paid special attention to this matter, and the result is that a vast stock of information on the subject is available, form- ing a solid basis for the science of seismology of the future. (2) The second factor in point of importance seems to be *‘absence of sunspots,’’—the actual relations of a sunspot mininum to an earthquake maximum will need to be studied for several decades yet, before properly understood. Sunspot minima seem however to fix the periods in which great eruptions may be expected. (3) To fix the season or month also falls within the realms of astronomy, as here the position of the earth with regard to the sun, and of the moon with regard to the earth must be considered, as well as the attractions of the nearer planets Venus and Mars. (4) Lastly to fix the exact days, if it ever becomes pos- sible, is likely to become an adjunct to the science of meteorology, as here cyclones and pressure changes are to be considered. The Possible causes of Interdependency of Seismic activity and Sunspots. Assuming that there is such an interdependency, what may be the possible cause or causes? Here it is only possible for me to enunciate some facts and to suggest a few theories for consideration. Prof. Hazen, the American meteorologist, Dr. Koppen, Dr. Hahn (of the Sonnblick Observatory, Austria), the English meteorologist Alexander B. McDowall, and many others, working on similar lines, have noticed a decided connection between climate and sunspots. McDowall’s researches are given in a paper read on April 21st 1897.’ Most German and Indian meteorologists have noticed a a similar connection; they are of the opinion that rainfall * Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., Vol. xx111., p. 243 - 250. D—June 4, 1902. 50 H. I. JENSEN. very largely depends on solar conditions, being large at sunspot maxima, deficient at sunspot minima; some also believe that the mean atmospheric pressure is somewhat increased during minimum years and diminished in maxi- mum years. Before proceeding it might be well to mention that meteorologists are by no means unanimous on this question, but if a connection between sunspots and climate can be definitely proved, it is reasonable to suppose that earth- quakes which are known to be influenced by weather are also influenced at any rate indirectly by sunspots. According to Professor Schuster ‘‘the difference between the average temperature in years of maximum and years of minimum amounts to the considerable amount of 0°73° CG. in tropical, and over 0°5° in extra-tropical parts of the world; and Gautier has shown that the temperature curve displays the same characteristics in period as the sunspot curve.’” Carpenter and Balfour Stewart found “‘that sunspot inequalities, whether apparent or real, seemed to have nearly the same periods as terrestrial inequalities as exhibited by the daily temperatures at Toronto and Kew.’” Mr. Blandford’s observations in India, as well as spectro- scopic investigations by Roscoe and Balfour Stewart, show that solar radiation in years of sunspot maximum is greater than in minimum years. The great Austrian meteorologist, Hahn, has paid special attention to abnormal temperatures, and has observed that the summers were hotter at or near a time of sunspot minimum, while colder and wetter summers and winters obtained at a maximum. * Article by Professor Schiister in “ Report of Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, 1884.” 2 See Schiister and also Rev. A. L. Cortie’s paper on “‘ Sunspot Spectra” —Memoirs Roy. Astro. Soc., 1890-1, Vol. t. SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. Hl Professor Piazzi Smith noticed a remarkable eleven year period in the temperature curve for Carlton Hill. German scientists of distinction, such as Prof. Foerster of Berlin, and Rudolph Mewes, believe that the rainfall is excessive in years of sunspot maximum and deficient at minima, owing to more heat being received from the sun at sunspot maxima. Lockyer says,—“* It is generally conceded that the spots on the sun are the result of greater activity in the circula- tion of the solar atmosphere, and therefore indicate greater heat, and consequently, also greater light production.’’ In the same writer’s interesting paper in ‘“‘ Monthly Notices” of Royal Astron. Soc., Dec. 1901, we find a reproduction of curves constructed by Mr. Briickner, which show a similar variation extending over a period of thirty-five years, in climatic, magnetic and sunspot conditions. There seems to be some law at work which retards the sunspot maximum in relation to the approaching minimum, result- ing in similar conditions and similar curves every thirty- fifth year. The close connection between solar and terrestrial pheno- mena was summarised as follows by W. Ellis in Phil. Trans. 1880 :—(1) The diurnal ranges of the magnetic elements of declination and horizontal force are subject to a periodical variation, the duration of which is equal to that of the eleven year sunspot period. (2) Epochs of maximum and minimum sunspot effect are nearly coincident with periods of maximum and minimum magnetic effect, and the variations in the duration of the different periods is nearly the same. (3) Occasional outbreaks of violent sunspot and magnetic energy often several months in duration, occur nearly 52 H. I. JENSEN. simultaneously, and disturbances of the earth’s magnetic condition are accompanied by Aurora Borealis displays.’” Wolf and Fritz suggested that in addition to the eleven year period there was also a period of longer duration (which they thought to be fifty-five years) in the sunspot and magnetic curves. Later researches by Brtckner, Lockyer and others show this period to have a duration of thirty-five years. In this connection it is important to notice that Wolf found a secular variation in climatic con- ditions in Hurope with a period of about thirty-five years. On looking at the diagram (Plate II.) we also observe traces of a thirty-five year period. Thus violent outbursts of volcanic energy after a considerable lull occurred in 1867 and the present year. The groups centered around 1822, 1855 and 1889, are less well defined than the others. Mount Redoubt in Alaska, was in eruption in 1867 and again in 1902. Before proceeding it will be as well to point out that Mr. Meldrum found the number of severe cyclones in the West Indies, in years of sunspot maxima, to exceed the number in minima. Blanford’s observations in India (1848—1876) show that the maximum pressure occurs in minimum sun- spot years. These two facts seem to show that anticyclonal conditions in the earth’s atmosphere are most prevalent with a sunspot minimum, and cyclonal conditions with a maximum. Mr. H. C. Russell points out in “ Periodicity of Good and Bad Seasons ”’ that violent hurricanes come in droughts. Now these facts are quite in accord, for anti- cyclonal conditions would lead to droughts, and when anti- cyclone follows anticyclone, cols would be frequent, and the breaking of these cols would give rise to violent hurricanes. Finally we come to the possible causes of the dependence of earthquakes on sunspots. 1 Milne observes that particularly fine auroral displays have on a few occasions been accompanied by earthquakes—“‘ Harthquakes,’’p. 264). This. however seems only to be exceptional. SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 53 (1) The most likely theory seems to be that at sunspot minimum, when less energy is received from the sun, the earth cools quicker and radiates more heat and perhaps magnetism into space. The radiation of heat would be further favoured by the absence in the atmosphere of the usual protective canopy of moisture. When this rapid cooling is progressing, there will obviously be more con- traction, hence cracking, in the earth’s crust, and conse- quently more earthquake shocks. The strongest objection to this theory is the fact that the passage of heat through rock is a slow process, and that electrical radiations are also supposed to be checked by passing through a layer of rock. But if we give credence to statements lately made, that the Marconi electrical Waves can pass directly through a mountain, the difficulty is lessened. For then it would appear that some of the solar rays might have the power to pass through the solid rock, and that the earth would be able to send out similar radiations. These radiations in making their escape might be partly transformed into heat at points where resistance is offered, as at the fissures in the earth’s crust. From accounts of great earthquakes and eruptions it certainly seems that there is a great evolution of electricity or magnetism as well as heat, accompanying the phenomena. (2) Another possible explanation of this connection between solar physics and seismic phenomena, is that the atmosphere by contraction and increasing its pressure at the earth’s crust, exerts a squeeze on the earth’s crust. This makes itself most felt at the lines of weakness, where lavas are consequently squeezed out through volcanic vents, or up into zones of no strain thus causing earthquakes. (3) Alterations in magnetic conditions may have some- thing to do with causing earthquakes. A friend of mine who was serving on board an American man-of-war in 1868, 54 H. I. JENSEN. tells me that during the St. Thomas earthquake of that year, all the ship’s compasses ceased to act, only regaining their powers a few hours after. Milne, in “‘ Harthquakes,”’ mentions that before the great Japan earthquake in 1855, the owner of a spectacle shop in Asakusa noticed that his magnet had lost its strength, which it only regained a few hours after the shock. There are also a few subsidiary causes, or possible causes worthy of notice. The lessened atmospheric temperature in years of sunspot minimum is quite sufficient to cause a great accumulation of ice atthe earth poles. This change of load, increase in cold, decrease in warm regions, may favour volcanic action in tropical regions. In conclusion I desire to express my heartfelt gratitude to Professor David for the great assistance he has given me in compiling this paper, by lending me books, giving me access to libraries and suggesting matters, and in bring- ing this paper before the Royal Society. My thanks are also due to Mr. H. C. Russell for his kind and valuable > assistance. Explanation of Chart. The earthquakes between 1780 and 1902 fall into eleven groups, called a, 6, y, etc., respectively, « being the most recent. The group comprises the earthquakes and erup- tions between 1900 and 1902 (inclusive). The 6 group includes those around the minimum of 1888-9; the minimum began in 1886 and ended in 1891. The y group 1876—1881; 6 1865—1869; « 1852—1857; ¢1843—1846; 7 1832—1835; ; 6 1819—1828; « 1810—1813; « 1797—1799; » 1783. Any large eruption or earthquake is given a space on the chart, very large ones are given twice as much space as smaller ones, and exceptionally severe seismic phenomena are alloted three times as much. Minor activities, too important to be omitted and yet not important enough to SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 55 get an entire space, are given a half. Only Krakatoa and Bandaisan are alloted three spaces each. In other places where large columns of three or four spaces appear, they are composed of several severe (or widespread) eruptions or earthquakes. The earthquakes are numbered (with a few exceptions), and the eruptions lettered. I do not deem it necessary to describe the eruptions or earthquakes of each group, but an index to the chart is appended. Hruptions of Vesuvius are lettered V, those Of Ktna EH, those of the Sandwich Islands K, and soon. As regards earthquakes the same numbers are used again in each group but with no special significance. The sunspot curve has been taken with Mr. Russell’s permission, from his paper’ on “‘The Periodicity of Good and Bad Seasons,’’ but it is inverted so as to bring the minima on top. The part of the curve between 1892 and 1902, I constructed myself from data obtained in “‘ The Observatory’”’ for 1898, and the Journ. Royal Astron. Soc. Fine solar coronz are seen at every sunspot minimum. These are denoted on the chart by columns placed under the sunspot curve. In 1882-3 there was a very extensive corona, accompanied however by some prominences of great magnificence. The most noticeable instances of seismic phenomena not coinciding with the groups are—(1) Earthquakes of import- ance in 1815, 1828-9, 1840, 1847-8, Mendoza 1861. (2) Hruptions in 1829, 1840, 1847, 1870-2. In the index are enumerated all the earthquakes and eruptions for each year since 1780. | The following table gives all the eruptions of Vesuvius, Etna, (and of a few other sensitive spots) that are reported ? Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxx., 1896, p. 70. I. JENSEN. H. 56 ‘(u) vone[ty (A) sntanse A (9) woosuojexg ‘(A) sntanso A. (p) MoTsosog (0) uokep uee y(VAB) BLOG UOT, ‘(A) SNTANSO A. (1) ergqrijnog eT *(v) somozy ‘(a) euqg (6) PUT gzgT (g) ejos0g-uekedog 479]. AU Sand send pat Snes Gg) i aa oseryUeg cities A ‘eratpreA ‘(Z) ae ‘S (1) Rare ezgr (¢) vourg ey QzZgy _(q) Uusio SLOG: “#) MD 611 ; “(¢) T™UD Ist GIST rae (gz) seovreg f(¢) es = et ({) eqenbyg1ve iddississiy fodoam@ ut syooys [eT "SNOILLANUY ‘SUMVNOHLAVY ‘aLVG “LUVHD OL XHANT T68T — 688T 6881 LL8T - 1687 6L8T *G6L8 1 6L8T 0881 1 — G98T LOST — G98T 898T LL8t 8o8t *098T — 8S8I 8981 LL8I CS8T cast Gost *6S8T *GS8T & — G68t *OP8T Gost erst GIST GE8l *6G8 1 GSB I VOLT 6G8T Gc8l TI8t *6LL1 — OLLI “Boney "BOTT VUNVI “BU *SNTANSO A > YSTIOISB UB JIM poyIVUl ov WINUITUTUL YodSUNS B QIIM SNoosTIBAOdUIO}ZUOD YOU 91B YVYY VSO, “SYOOd 3X94 UT (A) sntanse A “(a) euag 57 (0) euog (a) voyT vuney, puv vone[ry (A) sntanso A, ‘(s) ‘epounty (¢) esemoy “(a) voy eunepy (M1) BAPE YoO[Oy eT ‘(a) [Yodoqyeoodog (0) equaig (qH) =“ gs ‘(qH) (75 (73 ‘(9) eave “t00j,u0045 { (4H) Vey “IPT “purleoTy (a) vone[ry (0) eutmnbesog (9) OWseg SNIANSO A (‘A) sntanso, (a) euyq “(M) vonelDy pue voT euneyq (a) vlaeljoyueg SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. ‘SNOId NU ‘(g1) Aftorg pure sodeyy S29 sotdeyy (g) seanpuofy (1) etteqrg ee (¥) pue[iezjIMG pure sour. « 5 Auewey ‘purpeezy mon “(Ee pue Zz) ce JP [ue aa eng ‘(g) eruqogipeg ‘(g) votzowly ‘Ny + (g1) uedep (g) oofndeow (OT) wemep (71) euskug (FI) () SOE “(e]) syodorey pue yseg oe purleez MON ‘tloyueg (PUEloury sy e@oe eee ees (g) eaee (7) odojepeny ‘purjeoy “(Z) mweaepZ “(1) eryosy ae he of SC vuaiuiniis "SOULO'T SSD Oue Tay pas Mey poyeg *(¢) TIO (7) oyseg (g) sosuey pur jute N ae (2) niog (1) purpsugq ae (9) poe ( 0 ‘ (TTTYO) oseueg ‘SAM V AOHLYV GT ‘IMVHO OL XHQNT 881 LG8T 9481 GG8T FS8I 6981 Og8T 8r8t LYST 9781 GPsI vP8I 6P81 Orsl 6E81 LE8T GEsl Pest eest G€8l [€sl 6681 “MLV H. I. JENSEN. 58 ‘(a) voy euneyy ‘(w) oSuedoyy (1) puvjooy “(u) vonefry ‘Qg) Toqmong (a) vary ‘(u) vory vuney ‘(09) txedoqop “(u1) eqey oT ‘(99) oont0q1eD “(MT) BPQRY OT (1) puso] ‘(u1) eqey oT “eave (a) eUyy ‘(1) Piel (rc) eure X-osy “(9g) Toquio.1yg ‘qUl944TULIOqUL (9) PUTO pue (99) TToquo14g (a) euyg (0) eumljog ‘(A) sntAnso A "(@0) umsoure) (0) eurT]o9 (m) SIN Te (a) euag “eormgy ryefoy, (a) vonelry *(v) sotozy (A) sntAnso A ‘(s) ulzoquRY (at) eUygy (1) puvpeoy “eye yy (x) voy vuney £O98T 0} ponutzuoo (A) sntanse A ‘SNOILANAY ae tremepy ‘(Gc) soutddyiyg (Gg) eureyoyox puepeoy ‘(7) topeareg ueg “eulyyQ ‘suegqeg ‘(Z) (ureyiig mony) Aeq oyourlg ‘(z) euuey, pue MOU MIDS acl ‘(1 [) sopenby pure naog “(7) eurry eee ee (8) eulbyle { pure odetdog (4) Y}B1U95 02.10 FT "* (pL) puepsug Mon ‘puepooy “1D Eye) pue euuey, (Z1) onbrunaeyy “ear if “* (g1) puepooy “(eT pur G1) Aje1y puv souvrg “(y{eiuesozieF7) elysny nyeo (1) aeyoug (9) pu[sy Yormpueg g) euuey, (g) vorty (¥) sopenbay ‘(e) pS Sunt ue ‘(z) sewoyy, 49 (,) sesuey (6) stuourre yy mes) INT ‘(somnssy pue oyenbyy1ve) ezopussy ‘SUUVOOHLAVY "LUVHO OL XaaNJ 0881 61481 SL8I LL81 9181 GL81 VL81 EL81 6L81 IZ81 OL81 6981 8981 L981 9981 G98L L981 098T 6981 “ELV 59 SUNSPOT MINIMA AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. (x) uondnase optiousy, 6611 (g) uondnaa oyseg (7) equreqory ‘(¢) oderdon “ z) eueung JG) : ‘uotydnse pue oxenbyyive voneiy §=68L1 ‘(~) uodnse oytaousy, GgLT (7) oyenb -yqaea wory v4s09 (7) uoydnaze nseay (¢g) oyenbyyrve UeLIQeTeO “(z) uedep ‘eusy (1) puepeoy ‘sourlytey ¢g11 —! ore OTST pur ORL ToEMJoq JARYO oY} UO poyuoseados soouRqinysIp OY] — ALON “euooey, “I IN (7) sureg “(F) ngtog “(¢) epraopT “(g) setpuy qqnopey ‘a “T cepeumey ‘oraugnog wT ‘od “IN Wem “(g) ereMoyenH “(Z) nyeq (1) 0MMeNO E-L06T (A) SnIANSOA *"* wee vee wes (c) ovdene jy 0061 (x) oquRZ 9681 (OT) pur[vez AON “WOSTN 681 . (6 pue g) Yeung pue fezueg 68 (a) vraetjoqueg (0) vutpog “(u) voneyry (A) sntansoq eIUvUISeT, pue purjeez Men (J) OPI, 1681 ¢ 2 0681 (48) oS | ee re i (uede p) ‘TI 07V0OUPUTNO YY 6881 (4g) Toquioayg “(q) westepueg =" (7) weder (g) younyoystayE “(g) PUURL 8gsI (4g) tToquioayg “(u) voy vuUney “(u) vonetry (H) Weaeyy ‘(g) eaomvrey, (1) PIOLATY, PUR VLINSTT 188 (0) BIOMBIVT, elINSTT UL yooys (wv) eIoMVIe [, ‘So[eAA Nog MeN “purreoz mon “(G) UOSeTIVYO 9881 ‘(eysepy) uysnsny “yy ‘(e “eavp) eoreuleg oT” ee me eisnjepuy UL SyOOUS G-PRsl (a) euyg “(q) voyeyeryy = 1)ershepeyy (OT) OFIOL (6) POST pur eporormmesse) E881 (8) OLFfOL S881 (9) eujog + **(y) uedee (y) sourddyryg (9) soryo (9) VIPS 1881 *SNOILA NAY ‘SHMVOOHLUVG “aLVd ‘LUVHO OL XHANT Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI, 1902. SPOT CURVE(/nve7led) z =) ” Plate II. TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE EUCALYPTS. 61 NOTES ON TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE HUCALYPTS. By HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S., Assistant Curator, Techno- logical Museum. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 2, 1902.] (1) GERANYL-ACETATE (C,,H,,;OOCCH:). In November 1900, the announcement was made to this Society, of the occurrence of this important ester in the oil of the *‘ Paddy’s River Box,’’? Hucalyptus Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden, from which species it was obtainable in commercial quantities. The results of the investigation were published in the Proceedings for 1900, Vol. XXXIV... p. 142. Since that time a considerable amount of work has been done on the oil of this species, distilled at various times of the year, and some interesting results have been obtained. ) The comparative constancy of constituents occurring in the oils of identical species of Hucalyptus, is a fact of con- siderable economic value, and although the naturally formed ester in the oil of EH. Macarthuri varies between 60 and 75 per cent., yet, it is found that this variation is between the constituents themselves which are always present in the oil; accordingly when the ester (geranyl-acetate) is more pronounced, then the free geraniol is correspondingly less. Samples of the oil distilled during several months of the year show the minimum ester content to be about 60 per cent., and it has not been found that the ester present falls below the amount stated in-the original paper. Although the ester content reached 74°9 per cent. in the month of September, yet this was entirely geranyl-acetate, and the saponification was complete in the cold, after two 62 HENRY G. SMITH. hours contact, using alcoholic potash. This method of cold saponification is important, as the reaction is complete, and the quantitative results certain. Duplicate and tripli- cate determinations have been found always to agree within the errors of experiment. The results, so far, show that the minimum standard of 60 per cent. of ester might be insisted upon, for the oil of this species, at any time of the year. The oil of this Kucalyptus does not appear to contain phellandrene at any time, so that its detection would indicate sophistication with the cheaper phellandrene oils. Undoubted samples of the oil of E. Macarthuri do not contain EKucalyptol, so that the detection of this con- stituent would also cause suspicion. The most valuable constituent in this oil is, of course, geranyl-acetate, so that any admixture with inferior oils would at once diminish its value; but the detection of adulteration is exceedingly easy, as not only would such a mixture be at once detectéd, but the group of Kucalypts from which the added oil had been derived could also be determined. In Messrs. Schimmel & Co’s price list for January 1902, the oil of Hucalyptus Macarthuri, containing 80 per cent. of geranyl-acetate, is quoted at twenty-four shillings per pound. The oil of this species does not contain this amount of ester at any time of the year, so that if this standard is maintained it would be necessary to acetylise the free geraniol occurring in the oil, or else to add the necessary amount of geranyl-acetate to it. Geranyl-acetate is quoted in the price list above referred to at forty shillings per pound. | During the greater portion of the year the oil of H. Macarthuri, after acetylising, would show the presence of 80 per cent. of ester, and often a little over that amount, the extra ester having been obtained from the free alcohol present in the original oil. It is perhaps remarkable, that ° TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE EUCALYPTS, 63 the original sample of the oil of this species should have shown a less amount of both ester and free alcohol than has been obtained with any sample since. From numerous determinations it has been found that as the naturally formed ester increases in amount, the free alcohol corres- pondingly diminishes. In the sample in which 74°9 per cent. of ester was found, only a comparatively small amount of free alcohol was present, the acetylised oil only con- taining 82°6 per cent. of ester, showing only 6 per cent. of free alcohol in the oil at that time. Another sample con- taining 65°8 per cent. of naturally formed ester, on acety- lising gave 80°5 per cent. of ester, indicating the presence of 11°5 per cent. of free alcohol. It is thus apparent that — the free alcohol is greater in the oil when it contains the less ester. In all the determinations that I have, so far, been able to make, the ratio “SS ranges between too and i%s%. The following investigation was made upon a quantity of oil distilled by the Australian Eucalyptus Oil Co., from EKucalyptus Macarthuri, during May last, and from the results of which it can be seen that uniformity, within certain limits, is obtainable with the oil of this species, and that it follows the general rule in this respect. In appearance and odour the crude oil was identical with previous samples, and both phellandrene and Kucalyptol were absent. Hudesmol, although easily detected, was present in less amount than usual, consequently the specific gravity was correspondingly low, in fact, it was lower than that of any other sample investigated. The optical rota- tion was but slight, and to the right, so that the oil is always slightly dextro-rotatory, as all the samples so far tested have shown that peculiarity. Specific gravity at 15° C. = 0°9174 Specific rotation [a]p == + 0°763° 64 HENRY G. SMITH. Hster determination :— 2°0181 grams. required 0°3948 gram. KOH, giving a saponification number of 195°6, equal to 68°43 per cent. of geranyl-acetate. 2°308 grams. required 0°4508 gram. KOH, giving a saponification number of 195°3, equal to 68°35 per cent. of geranyl-acetate. A portion of the oil was then acetylised by boiling with acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate in the usual manner :— : 1°996 gram. of this esterised oil required 0°462 gram. KOH, giving a saponification number of 231°5, equal to 81°025 per cent. of geranyl-acetate. As 68°4 per cent. of ester occurred naturally in the oil, the amount of ester formed with the free alcohol was 12°025 per cent. If this alcohol is considered to be entirely geraniol, with a molecular formula C,,H,,O, then the amount of free alcohol in this sample of oil was 9°92 per cent., and O 8+ 1S 166-6 f combined geraniol . total geraniol the ratio o Messrs. Schimmel & Co. have also determined this inter- changeability between the ester and free geraniol, the results obtained by them on two consignments (private communication) being as follows :— (1) Ester content before acetylising = 63°7+; after 85°2/. (2) ws 3 Hi, == 71°68; (80a In the semi-annual report issued by this firm, April 1902, page 38, is published further results obtained with sample No. 2. The crude oil was submitted to rectification in vacuo when of course the eudesmol and other higher boil- ing constituents remained in the still. The rectified oil had an ester content 73°95 per cent., and although the oil had been but little altered in its general properties, yet, the rectification had improved the odour considerably. TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE EUCALYPTS. 65 On acetylation, the ester content was found to be 82°2%, whereas the crude oil only gave 80°5% of ester on acetyla- tion, thus indicating that the greater portion of the free alcoholic bodies had been recovered in the rectification. In an interesting series of experiments carried out by . MM. Charabot and Hébert, “‘ on the mechanism of esteri- fication in plants,’’ and published in the Scientific and Industrial Bulletin of Roure-Bertrand Fils of Grasse, Oct. 1901, it is shown that the maximum ester content obtained with geraniol and acetic acid, by the method of experiment adopted, was reached when the "25" =""' equalled +%s, but it is rarely that this ratio in the naturally obtained oil from H. Macarthuri falls below ics. This high ester con- tent for naturally combined geraniol, is another instance of the exceedingly interesting nature of the problems sub- mitted by the members of this wonderful genus, because if the process of esterification of the terpene alcohols takes place in the chlorophyll bearing organs as supposed, it seems somewhat remarkable that in no other species of Kucalyptus so far investigated, has this ester been detected in quantity, and the appearance of the tree of EH. Macarthuri is a typi- cal Hucalyptus, in its suckers, its bark, its leaves, its buds, and its fruits, and the constituents of its oil are always of the same character. Nor is it the presence of an increasing amount of acetic acid in the oil of this species that is answerable for the formation of this ester, because in the oils of some species (EH. umbra particularly) a large amount of acetic acid is present in combination as an ester, but the alcohol is not geraniol. With the exception that E. Macarthuri belongs to the same natural order as Dar- _winia fascicularis, i.e., the Myrtacese, there is little resemblance between these two plants, but the oils obtained from them are almost identical as regards the ester. If then the esterification in plants is brought about by the E—July 2, 1902. 66 HENRY G. SMITH. direct action of the acids upon the alcohols, and is assisted by a special dehydrating agent, as suggested by the above authors, the question arises as to what this special agent is that brings about the formation of this ester in the oil of HE. Macarthuri alone of all the Hucalypts. It may be suggested that the reason is because geraniol is the most abundant alcohol in this species of Hucalyptus. The com- parative absence of this terpene alcohol in the other members of this genus is thus difficult to understand, and the whole problem respecting the four esters now known to exist in Hucalyptus oils thus becomes one of exceeding interest, and worthy of special scientific study. (2) MYRTICOLORIN. In a paper' on the chemistry of the dye-material Myrti- colorin, discovered by myself in the leaves of Hucalyptus species, particularly in those of the “‘ Red Stringybark ”’ Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, it was shown that its formula was ©,-H.:0,,, that it was a quercetin glucoside, and that on hydrolysis it formed quercetin and a glucose. There were at that time two other quercetin glucosides closely resembling myrticolorin; one, Osyritrin, discovered by Mr. A. G. Perkin, and obtained from the Cape Sumach Colpoon compressum; the other known as Violaquercitrin, described by Mandelin’® and obtained from the flowers of Viola tricolor variensis. These three glucosides were supposed to differ from each other by one molecule of water of hydrolysis only. Further researches on these three glucosides have recently been undertaken by Mr. Perkin, and in a note on Violaquercitrin he shows that the formula for this sub- stance was incorrectly stated by Mandelin, and that its formula is C,,H..O,;,. It is thus identical with Myrticolorin. 1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1898, p. 697. 7 Loc. cit., 1897, p. 1132. 3 Jahresber., 1883, p. 1369. * Proc. Chem. Soc., xvit., p. 88. TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE EUCALYPTS, 67 Continuing the investigation upon his own Osyritrin he found that this substance also has the same formula, and that it is identical with Myrticolorin and with Viola- quercitrin.. These three glucosides are thus identical substances, although obtained from three different natural orders; they all have the formula C.,H..O;, and all give identical substances chemically. In the original paper it was shown that the osazone formed with the sugar of myrticolorin melted at 190° C., thus suggesting galactose, but from subsequent investiga- tions I find that this sugar is not present and evidently the osazone was not pure, as later determinations on several different portions of material gave identical osazones melt- ing at 204 — 205° C., so that the osazone formed with the sugar of myrticolorin is glucosazone. The same melting point is obtained with the osazones from the sugars of both osyritrin and violaquercitrin. The glucoside, myrticolorin, undergoes the following reaction when decomposed with acid, quercetin and glucose being formed :— Ce7HsO15 + 3 HO = CHO; + 2 CeHi2O.. Quercetin is a member of the flavone group and contains five hydroxyls, two of which are in the ortho position rela- tively to each other. It appears probable that the location of the hydroxyls in the molecule of the several members of this group decides the tinctorial peculiarities of these bodies, although it does not appear necessary for the hydroxyls in the several members of the flavone series to take up the ortho position to form true dyestuffs. | _ In the members of the anthraquinone series (alizarin or dihydroxyanthraquinone for instance) the two hydroxyls are in the ortho position relatively to each other, and it is 1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1902, p. 477. 68 HENRY G. SMITH. generally accepted that this position is necessary for the hydroxyl radicles in the anthraquinone dyestuffs. The general structural formula for the members of the quercetin or phenylated pheno-y-pyrone group is bce the number and position of the hydroxyls in the molecule characterising the several members of this group. The following list includes most of the natural yellow dyestuffs belonging to this group, the constitution of which are known, and in which the hydroxyl radicles are intact :— Myricetin, from the bark of Myrica nagi, with 6 hydroxyls. Quercetin, (from various sources), with 5 hydroxyls. Morin, from Old Fustic, Morus tinctoria, with 5 hydroxyls. Fisetin, from Rhus continus and R. rhodanthema, with 4 hydroxyls. Luteolin, from Weld, Reseda luteola, with 4 hydroxyls. Kampherol, from galanga root, Alpinia officinarwm, with 4 hydroxyls. Apigenin, from parsley, Apium petroselinum, with 3 hydroxyls. Galangin, from galanga root, with 3 hydroxyls. Chrysin, from poplar buds, with two hydroxyls. | All these contain 15 carbon atoms in the molecule. Other members of this series are known which exist naturally as methyl ethers. Rhamnetin, from Persian berries, is the monomethyl ether of quercetin, and is a typical example of the members belonging to this subclass. All natural colouring matters, however, do not belong to the quercetin group, some being known that are deriva- tives of the dipheno-y-pyrone or xanthone group TWO CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FROM THE EUCALYPTS. 69 O seinen UA CO A typical example of this class is gentisin, the dye material of gentian root (Gentiana lutea), and which has the con- stitution of a dihydroxy monomethyl ether. The constitutional formula for quercetin—first suggested by Herzig—is as follows :— OH EN tice ak . OH || C-OH OH CO and this on heating in concentrated potash at 180 — 200°C. for half an hour, breaks up into protocatechuic acid and phloroglucinol. This method of decomposition has been found most useful in determining the structure of the several members of the quercetin group, and the position of the hydroxyl radicles. It has been the information gained in this way that has enabled the hydroxyls in morin to be located. This substance is isomeric with quercetin, the only difference being that the nucleus in morin is reso- cinol instead of catechol as in quercetin, so that these two hydroxyls in morin are in the meta position, whereas they take up the ortho position in quercetin. It has been suggested’ that the tinctorial property of quercetin is due to the two distinct pairs of hydroxyl groups in its molecule, but morin also dyes very well and is largely used commercially as a dyestuff; both molecules contain one hydroxyl in the pyrone ring. 1 Perkin and Martin—Trans. Chem. Soc., 1897, p. 821. 70 HENRY G. SMITH. From much recent work in this direction it appears prob- able, that the tinctorial influence exercised by the location in the molecule of certain radicles in these natural yellow dyeing materials, will eventually be completely understood. Air dried myrticolorin contains 3 molecules of water of crystallisation, and this is not entirely removed until several degrees above 130°C. It also forms a monopotassium derivative O.;H2,O..K when treated with potassium acetate.’ It also reacts with sulphuric acid, when this is added to a solution in boiling acetic acid, forming salts of quercetin containing one molecule of acid C,;Hj»O;, H.SO, When myrticolorin is decomposed by boiling three hours with dilute sulphuric acid, and allowed to stand about 20 hours, almost the theoretical amount of quercetin (49°67 per cent.) is obtained. The value of quercetin glucosides for dyeing purposes is well known, and the amount of myrticolorin obtained from the leaves of H. macrorhyncha is somewhat large, as 84'P of dried myrticolorin was obtained commercially from the dry ground leaves.” The extraction of the dye material is exceedingly easy, so that myrticolorin may be considered to have good commercial possibilities. I would like to express my acknowledgements to Mr. C. Still of this Museum, for much assistance in determining the commercial methods for the extraction of myrticolorin. * Perkin—Trans. Chem. Soc., 1899, p. 440. 3 See also Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xx1., p. 377. THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 71 THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. By R. H. MATHEWS, L.S., Memb. Assoc. Etran. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 2, 1902. ] Synopsis —Introductory. Orthography. The Tyattyalla Language. The Tyapwurru and Wuddyawurru Dialects. The Thaguwurru Language. The Woiwurru Dialect. The Brabirrawulung Language. Vocabularies of Tyattyalla and Brabirrawulung Words. In 1898 I contributed to the Anthropological Society at Washington an article describing the initiatory rites and social organisation of the native tribes of Victoria." On that occasion I stated: “The only way at the present time to accomplish what I have indicated [to define the boundaries of the nations into which the aborigines were divided] is to study the languages or dialects of the popu- lation, grouping together those which have an evident affinity.”” It is now my intention to proceed with the work I commenced in 1898. At the time of writing the article referred to I had per- sonally studied only two of the native tongues, but since then I have made several additional journeys through Victoria at various times for the purpose of visiting the remnants of the different tribes and further examining the structure of their speech. As no previous author has attempted to supply the elements of the grammar of the languages of the native tribes of Victoria, the pleasing duty has devolved upon me to present to the reader a por- tion of my researches in this direction. Gathering this information from the lips of the natives, and reducing it to ional Systems.’’--American Anthropologist, Vol. x1., pp. 325— 348, with map of Victoria, plate v. 79 . R. H. MATHEWS. a written form, has been a tedious and laborious task, the difficult and tangled nature of which can be grasped only by those who have embarked on the same line of investi- gation. Space will preclude the consideration in this article of more than the leading outlines of the constitution of the several tongues. In all the languages of Victoria, in every part of speech which is subject to inflection, there is a double form of the first person of the dual and plural—one of which includes, and the other excludes, the individual addressed. Mr. J. Dawson’ observed two forms of the dual: ‘‘ We two, thou and I; we two, he and 1;’’ but as he does not refer to this peculiarity in the first person of the plural, I may be pardoned for claiming its discovery in Victoria, having also previously reported its existence in the languages of New South Wales.’ } In all the dialects having the Tyattyalla structure, there are four numbers—singular, dual, triple and plural. The triple or trial number has also two forms in the first person —one to include the person spoken to, and the other to exclude him. The triple number has also been found by me in the Thaguwurru and Woiwurru tongues, in which it is now reported for the first time. In the eastern portion of the Thaguwurru country, the triple is seldom used—the speech of the people having coalesced with that of their neighbours on the east, among whom the dual only is recognised. Among the native tribes of Victoria dealt with in this paper, inflection for person and number is not confined to the verbs and pronouns, but extends to many of the nouns, prepositions, adverbs and interjections, a peculiarity which * Australian Aborigines of Western Districts of Victoria, (1881) p. 49. | #**The Thurrawal, Gundungurra and Dharruk Languages,’’—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xxxv., pp. 127-160. : : : 7 THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 13 was reported by mein certain aboriginal languages of New South Wales last year.’ It is beyond the scope of a short article like this to furnish vocabularies of the dialects of every tribe. Ihave therefore given two vocabularies only—-the Tyattyalla and the Brabirrawulung—the former being representive of the tongues of Western Victoria, and the latter of Hastern Victoria. It may be added that a few of Mr. R. B. Smyth’s corres- pondents noticed a dual in the pronouns, but the existence of an inclusive and exclusive form in the dual and plural was not observed by them. Portions of the conjugations of a few verbs were also supplied to Mr. Smyth by some of his contributors, but the grammatical structure of the dialects was left untouched. Applying a possessive suffix to nouns has been observed in several islands of Polynesia. It was also briefly noticed inafew Victorian tribes by some of Mr. R. B. Smyth’s correspondents. The distinction between the “we inclu- sive’”’ and “‘ we exclusive”’ has been noticed in many dialects of Polynesia and elsewhere, although not to such a full extent as exemplified in the following pages. The existence of a trial number was reported years ago in Aneityum’ and some other islands of the Pacific Ocean, and was observed to some extent in the pronouns of the Woddowro tribe in Victoria by Mr. Francis Tuckfield. The trial number, as existing in the native languages of Victoria, is different in character from that observed in some other countries. For example, in the New Hebrides the case-endings of the dual, trial, and plural are indepen- dent, and vary from each other in form, thus: * Op. cit,;.p. 127. ? Rep. Aust. Assoc, Adv. Sci., 1., pp. 482-483. *° Op. cit., viI., p. 482. Pp 74 R. H. MATHEWS. We (dual inclusive) Akaijan We (trial inclusive) Akataij We (plural inclusive) Akaiji But among theVictorian tribes, the trial number is formed by adding another case-ending to that of the plural. For example, in the Tyattyalla, Tyapwurru and Wuddyawurru languages, an additional ending, kullik, is tacked on to the suffix of the plural, as follows: } We (plural inclusive) Yurwengurruk We (trial inclusive) Yurwengurrukkullik. In the Thaguwurru and kindred tongues, the word baiap is substituted for kullik, but it is employed in precisely the same manner—lIt is added to the suffix of the plural—as in the following example: We (plural inclusive) Wanganyin We (trial inclusive) Wanganyinbaiap. In the Motu, one of the languages of New Guinea, Rev. W. G. Lawes reports that the dual and trial of pronouns are formed by additions to the plural.’ The following authors have published vocabularies of some of the dialects of Victoria :-— Mr. R. B. Smyth, “‘ The Aborigines of Victoria,’’ Vol. fH: pp. 220: Mr. EH. M. Curr, “‘ The Australian Race,’’ Vol. IIt., pp. 437 — 589. | Mr. J. Dawson, ‘“‘The Australian Aborigines of the Western Districts of Victoria,’’ pp. 1 — 84. Mr. J. J. Carey, from the manuscript of Mr. F. Tuck- field, ““Report Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science,” Vol. VII., pp. 840 — 872. There are other vocabularies, but the foregoing will be sufficient for ordinary purposes of reference. 1 Motu Grammar and Vocabulary, p. 9. ‘ THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 75 All the languages of eastern Victoria, although differing widely in vocabulary from the Thurrawal,’ reported by me last year, are yet substantially the same in grammatical structure as that language. This remark also applies to that portion of Victoria situated west of the 145th meridian of longitude, the only difference being that the western districts have the trial number, whilst the eastern have not. The eastern and western tongues both have inflexion for number and person of nouns, adverbs, prepositions, etc., in addition to that of the verbs and pronouns; both have the double form of the first person in all numbers beyond the singular. In the vocabularies of all these languages— the Thurrawal, Tyattyalla, Brabirrawulung, etc.—there are several words in common, showing a community of origin.” Some of Mr. R. B. Smyth’s correspondents ventured to send him stories purporting to be told in certain native dialects.’ I have looked over all these stories, and can pronounce them to be mere ungrammatical jargon, written by men who knew nothing of the structure of the languages. they were dealing with. They are on a par with the pigeon-English of the Chinese costerer: “‘ Plenty me got him cabbagee.”’ It is desired in this place to thank all those gentlemen who are in charge of Aboriginal Stations in Victoria, for allowing me free access to the natives under their control, and for other acts of kindness during my visits to their respective districts, whilst I was engaged in linguistic and other investigations among the native tribes of Victoria. ? Journ. Roy. Soc. N 8.W., Vol. xxxv., pp. 127 — 160. 7 «The Origin, Organisation and Ceremonies of the Australian Abor- igines,”—Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., Vol. xxx1x., pp. 556 — 578, with map of Australia, plate viii. * “Aborigines of Victoria,” Vol. 11., pp. 48, 49, and pp. 53, 54. 76 R. H. MATHEWS. ORTHOGRAPHY. Highteen letters of the Hnglish alphabet are sounded, comprising thirteen. consonants—b, d,g, h, k, l, m, n, p, ’, t, w, y-—and five vowels—a, e, 1, 0, u. The system of orthoepy adopted is that recommended by the circular issued by the Royal Geographical Society, London, with the following qualifications :— It is frequently difficult to distinguish between the short sound of aandu. A thick sound of i is occasionally met with, which closely resembles the short sound of wu or a. As far as possible, vowels are unmarked, but in some instances the long sound of a, e, and u are indicated thus, 4,6, 0. Ina few cases the short sound of w has been marked thus, u G is hard in all cases. #& has a rough, trilled sound, as in hurrah! W always commences a syllable or word. Ng at the beginning of a word or syllable as ngu in ngu-ya, a camp, has a peculiar sound, which can be got very closely by putting wu before it, as ungw’, and then articulating it as one syllable. At ine end fe a Syllable it has substi the sound of ng in “ sing.’ The sound of the Spanish nis frequent; at the beginning of a word or syllable I have given it as ny, but when ter- minating a word the Spanish letter is used. Y at the beginning of a word or syllable has its ordinary consonant value. Dh is pronounced nearly as th in “that,’’ with a slight sound of d preceding it. Nh has also nearly the sound of th in *‘ that,’’ but with an initial sound of the n. A final h is guttural, resembling ch in the German word joch. T is interchangeable with d, p with b, and g with k, in ‘most words where these letters are employed. Ty and dy at the commencement of a word or syllable have nearly THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 17 the sound of j or ch, thus dya or tya closely resemble ja or cha. At the end of a word or syllable, ty or dy is sounded as one letter; thus, lity, a child, can be pronounced exactly by assuming e to be added to the y, making it lit-ye; then commence articulating the word, including the y, but stopping short without sounding the added e. Dy at the end of a word can be pronounced in the same way, the sound of d being substituted for that of =. In all cases where there is a double consonant, each letter is distinctly enunciated. THE TYATTYALLA LANGUAGE. The Tyat’-tyal-la is spoken by the natives about Lakes Werringen and Albacutya, and is representative of the speech of all the tribes scattered over the whole of that moiety of Victoria situated west of a line from the sea coast at Geelong’ through Bendigo northerly to Pyramid Hill, with the exception of the frontage to the Murray River, from the latter place downwards. The Boandik language,’ spoken in the south-east corner of South Australia, defined by being situated to the south of a line from Kingston to Border Town, is the same in grammatical structure as the languages of western Victoria herein dealt with. NOUNS. Number.—There are four numbers—singular, dual, trial and plural. Wutyu,aman; wutyu-bulin, a couple of men; wutyu-kullik, three men ; wutyu-getyaul, several men. Gender.—Wutyu, aman. Laiaruk,a woman. Kulkun, a boy. lLanangurk, a girlk Among animals, mamuk is used for “‘male,’’ and pabuk for ‘“‘female,’’ both in mam- mals and birds; thus, wille mamuk, a buck opossum; kauar + « Victorian Aborigines etc.,’—American Anthropologist, x1, pp. 331 -— 336. Map. 2 Op. cit., pp. 331 — 336, and map of Victoria. 78 R. H. MATHEWS. mamuk, a cock emu; wille pabuk, a female opossum. The kangaroo, mindyun, has an independent name, dhallung, for the buck, and another, muty, for the doe. This rule also applies to some other animals. Case.—The principal cases are the nominative, possessive, accusative, instrumental, dative and ablative. There are two forms of the nominative, one of which merely names the object under attention, as gal, a dog, and then the noun remains unchanged. But when a tran- sitive verb is used, the noun takes a suffix, as, Wutyuku | mindyul buyin, a man a kangaroo killed. Kulkunu bandyal kargin, a boy a codfish caught. Gallu wille bundin, a dog an opossum bit. Possessive—A suffix is applied to the possessor and also to the thing possessed, as Wutyuga gattimgattimuk, a man’s | boomerang. lLaiura berkanuk, a woman’s yamstick. Kul- : kuna lahrnuk,a boy’s camp. The grammar also admits of | putting the thing possessed foremost in the sentence in certain instances, for the sake of euphony, and then the suffixes are transposed, as, lahrnga laiuk, instead of laiura lahrnuk, a woman’s camp. Anything over which possession can be exercised is sub- ject to inflection for number and person. In the first person of the dual, trial and plural, there are two forms of ; the word—one, marked “‘incl.,’’ including the person spoken to; and the other, marked “ excl.,’’ in which the person addressed is excluded : Person. Singular. 1st My boomerang, Gattimgattimek 2nd Thy boomerang, Gattimgattimin 3rd His boomerang, Gattimgattimuk Person. Dual. es Our, incl., boomerang, Gattimgattimul Our, excl., boomerang, Gattimgattimulluk THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 79 Person. Trial. 1st | Our, incl., boomerang, Gattimgattimurrakullik Our, excl., boomerang, Gattimgattimandakullik Person. Plural. tat | Our, incl., boomerang, Gattimgattimurrak Our, excl., boomerang, Gattimgattimandak The second and third persons of the dual, trial and plural are omitted for want of space. Accusative.—The accusative is the same as the simple nominative. Instrumental.—Where a weapon or other article is the remote object, the instrumental case takes the agent suffix, as, Wutyu gattimgattimu burdenan, a man with a boomerang struckI. Dative.—Lahrndal, to a camp. Ablative.—Lahrnung, from a camp. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are infiected for number and case and follow the nouns they qualify, as under: Nominative—Wutyu kurunge, a man large. Nom. agent—Wutyuk kurunguk gattimgattim yunggin, a man large a boomerang threw. Possessive—Wutyuga kurunga gattimgattimuk, a large man’s boomerang. Dative—Wutyugal kurungal, to the big man. Ablative—Wutyugung kurungung, from the big man. Comparison is effected by such expressions as ‘‘ This is good; that is bad; this is very good,”’ and so on, similarly to the Thurrawal and Gundungurra languages.’ PRONOUNS. Pronouns are inflected for number and case, and are without gender. There are two forms of the third person in the dual, trial and plural, one of which includes the individual addressed, and the other excludes him. The 1 Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxv., pp. 133 — 137, 150, 152. 80 R. H. MATHEWS. following are examples in the nominative and possessive Cases : Singular. 1st Person I, Yurwek Mine, Yurwangek 2nd = ,, #Thou, Yurwin Thine, Yurwangin 3rd > | oe, Warak His, Yurwanguk Person. Dual. ee ' We, incl., Yurwal Ours, incl., Yurwangal We, excl., Yurwalluk Ours, excl., Yurwangalluk © 2nd You, Yurwula Yours, Yurwangwula ard They, Yurbullang Theirs, Yurwangbullang Trial. { We, incl., Yurwengurrakullik Ist ot We, excl., Yurwendakullik ano 2 You, Yurwuddakullik ICs tase They, Yurwennakullik Ours, incl., Yurwangengurrakullik Ist Person j Ours, excl., iirwaneondaeniae 2nd =,, Yours, Yurwanguddakullik SLO ih ies Theirs, Yurwangennakullik Person. Plural. 1 We, incl., Yurwengurrak Ours, incl., Yurwangengurrak We, excl., Yurwendak Ours, excl., Yurwangendak 2 You; Yurwuddak Yours, Yurwanguddak o They, Yurwennak Theirs, Yurwangennak The objective pronouns are as under: 1st Person Me, Nyungek Singular < 2nd __,, Thee, Nyungin 3300 geen Him, Nyunguk 1 ‘i 1st Person { Us, incl., Nyungal j Us, excl., Nyungalluk Dual, 2nd ,,, You, Nyuwolak srd Them, Nyuwolang | 1st Person | Us, incl., Nyungingurrakullik ure excl., Nyungandakullik ose Oa ae You, Nyunguddakullik - vv aCO yt. Them, Nyungannakullik Us, incl., Nyungingurrak an Person | = excl., Nyungandak Plurals 2nd _,, You, Nyunguddak ard "5; Them, Nyungannak THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 81 These full forms of the pronouns are used chiefly in answer to a question; for example, “‘who is there ?”’ could be replied to, ‘“‘yurwalluk’’ (we, dual exclusive). ‘‘ Whose boomerang is this?’’ might elicit the answer, ‘‘ yurwangek”’ (mine), andsoon. In conversation the pronominal suffixes are used with the verbs, nouns, or other parts of speech, as shown in the text of this paper. | The following are a few examples of the interrogatives : Who is there, winya nyua ? Whom for, winyerra ? Whom from, winyung ? What, nyanyo? What for, nyanguk ? Demonstratives are numerous, and usually follow the word qualified. They vary with the position of the object referred to with regard to the speaker, and also with its distance from him, and are often inflected for number and person. Ging, this; ginyu, that. VERBS. Verbs have the same numbers and persons as the pro- nouns, three tenses and three moods. The verb “‘ to be ”’ has a substitute in the word yuma, which is inflected for person and number. If an adjective, adverb, or other suit- able word be taken as a predicate, we get the following illustration : Ist Person Good am I, Dhalguk yuman 7.) Good art thou, Dhalguk yumar ore | =, Good is he, Dhalguk yuma and so on through all the persons and numbers. Or the inflection can be put on the predicate, as follows: 1st Person Here I am, Gimban yuma 2nd ,, Here thou art, Gimbar yuma i) ae Here he is, Gimba yuma The following is the conjugation of the principal elements. of the verb taka, “‘ to beat.’? The present tense is given in full, but it is thought the first persons of the remaining tenses will be sufficient. F—July 2, 1902. SoZ. - R. H. MATHEWS. Active Voice—Indicative Mood. Present Tense. ist Person I beat ‘Takan Singular ; 2nd _,, Thou beatest Takar OLA ccc, He beats Taka We, incl., beat, Takangul ( ist Person } We, excl., beat, Takangulang fitae yi You beat, Takawul ord’ * 92s They beat, Takabullang 1st Person \ We, incl., beat, Takangukullik | We, excl., beat, Takandakullik ‘Trial; 2nd ,, You beat, Takawakullik 3rd i They beat, Takanakullik We, incl., beat, Takangu ( Wey eee We, excl., beat, Takandang Plural, 2nd _,, You beat, Takawat ( 3rd - They beat, Takanaty Past Tense. 1st Person I beat, ~ Takinan Singular < 2nd ,, Thou beatedst, Takinar | 3rd = He beat, Takin Future Tense. 1st Person I will beat, Takinyan Singular 2nd _,, Thou wilt beat, Takinyar nn! He will beat, Takin Imperative Mood. Singular 2nd Person Beat, Takak | Dual Beat, Takakul Trial Beat, Takakatkullik Plural Beat, Takakaty The negative form is, Bowan takak, beat not. Conditional Mood. Perhaps I will beat, Takinyan mumba, and so on. 1 This is the first time the trial, or triple, number has been reported in tthe verbs of any Victorian tribe. THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 83 Middle Voice—Indicative Mood. Present Tense. 1st Person I beat myself, Takalangan Singular ; 2nd ,, Thou beatest thyself, Takalangar Ore. 55 He beats himself, Takalang The inflexion can be continued through all the numbers, persons, tenses and moods. Reciprocal. Present Tense. Dual We, incl., beat each other, Takdyerrangungal Trial a ms Takdyerrangangukullik Plural ie - Takdyerrangangu Dual They beat each other, Takdyerrangbulang Trial de ais Takdyerrangakullik Plural af se Takdyerrangaty The inflexion applies to the second person of the dual, trial and plural, and also to the exclusive form of the first person. ADVERBS. Yes, ngaie. No, wrekkea. Yesterday, dyalligea. To- morrow, bérbo. By and bye, mulluk nyungga. Long ago, mullamea. In the future, mullikmea. Here, gimba. There nyua. There (farther), mainyuk. There (farther still), maiyo. Whereis the camp, windyalahr? Where art thou from, windyangat kurtung? Whither goest thou, winyan- gingukka? How many, nyappur ? Some adverbs are capable of inflection for person and number, as follows : Singular Where art thou ? Windyar Dual Where are you? Windyawul Trial Where are you? Windyatkullik Plural Where are you? Windyaty . All the persons in each number can be inflected. . 84 R. H. MATHEWS. PREPOSITIONS. | The comprehensive inflections in every part of speech tend to diminish the use of prepositions, which are not numerous. Several prepositions admit of inflection, as in the following example. 1st Person Behind me, Walmengek Singular a “3 Behind thee, Walmengin ordi i. Behind him, Waimenguk Behind us, incl., Walmengul Dual ist Person ee us, excl., Walmengulluk Behind us, incl., Walmengangurrakullik Trial Ist Person ee us, excl., Walmengandakullik Behind us, incl., Walmengangurrak Plural 1st Person ' Behind us, excl., Walmengandak The other persons are omitted to save space. CONJUNCTIONS. A short word ba, or its euphonic variants, bam, ma, etc., appears to serve the purpose of ‘‘or,”’ “‘and,”’ or “‘because,”’ according to the context. INTERJECTIONS AND HXCLAMATIONS. These are not numerous. Halt thou, tyarrigi! Halt you (dual), tyarrigiwal! Halt you (trial), tyarriyuatkullik! Halt you (plural), tyarriyuat! Take care, ngatwurri! Cease, kurungai! Exclamation of surprise, yukkai! NUMERALS. One, kaitp. Two, bulaty. TYAPWURRU AND WUDDYAWURRU DIALECTS. When travelling on the Hopkins River a few years ago, I met a couple of old aborigines, one of whom was a native of that river, and spoke Tyapwurru, whilst the other man hailed from Ballarat district, and spoke Wuddyawurru. On my taking a considerable number of notes of their dialects, THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 85 I found that the grammatical structure of both was iden- tical, although differing somewhat in vocabulary. My Wuddyawurru informant, ‘ Jack Phillips,’’ died in 1901. As both dialects are the same in structure as the Tyat- tyalla tongue herein described, I shall introduce the pro- nouns only in this paper. The following are the nominative and possessive forms : Singular. ist Person I, Bangek Mine, Bangordigek and ., Thou, Bangin Thine, Bangordigin ore «',, He, Banguk His, Bangordiguk Person Dual. 1st | We, incl., Bangal Ours, incl., Bangordingal We,excl., Bangalluk Ours, excl., Bangordingalluk 2nd You, Bangbula Yours, Bangordiwula srd They, Bangbullang Theirs, Bangordibullang Trial. We, incl., Bangadukullik — Person } We, excl., Bangwudyakullik 2 ae You, Bangutkullik 3) ao They, Banganakullik Ours, incl., Bangordingadukullik Ist Per son } Ours, excl., Bangordiwtidyakullik 2nd 2 Yours, Bangordingttkullik ord Ba Theirs, Bangordiyanakullik Plural. Person 1st We, incl., Bangaduk Ours, incl., Bangordingaduk We,excl., Bangwudyak Ours, excl., Bangordiwudyak 2nd You, Bangtit Yours, Bangordingutt ora » They, Banganak ‘Theirs, , Bangordiyanak Mr. J. J. Carey, from the MS. of Mr. F. Tuckfield, pub- lished an incomplete list of pronouns’ closely resembling the nominative case of the foregoing, but differing consider- ably from the possessive. As Mr. Tuckfield makes no mention of the double form in the first person of the dual, * Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. vii., p. 853. 86 R. H. MATHEWS. trial and plural, we may safely infer that he did not observe it. The verbs of these languages are inflected for singular, dual, trial and plural, the same as the pronouns. Nouns, adjectives, prepositions, etc., are also declined for number and person, as in the Tyattyalla language. THE THAGUWURRU LANGUAGE. The Thaguwurru and kindred tribes occupied the country drained by the Goulburn, Oampaspe, and Ovens rivers,’ exclusive of a strip along the valley of the Murray, and were bounded on the south by the main dividing range. For the grammar of the languages of the Murray River tribes, the reader is invited to peruse other articles written by me on this subject. NOUNS. Number.—Nouns have four numbers, as in the Tyattyalla. Marum, a kangaroo. Martm-bulain, a pair of kangaroos. Murum-baip, three kangaroos. Marum-buladhuin, several kangaroos. Gender.—Kulin, aman. Bedyur, a woman. Yernyern, a youth. Burnai, a girl. Bubup, a child of either sex. In animals the female is denoted by babannu, and the male by laigurn; thus, burraimul babannu, an emu hen; burrai- mul laigurn, a cock emu; marum laigurn, a buck kangaroo Binyer means a doe of any animal when enceinte. Case.—The nominative-simple indicates any object at rest, aS wangim, a boomerang; yirrangin,a dog. Gannan, a yamstick. Kargin,atomahawk. The nominative-agent represents the subject in action, as, Kulindya walert tyilbai, a man an opossum struck. Yirrangina marum bindai, a dog a kangaroo bit. Bedyura yok bangai,a woman an eel 1 « The Victorian Aborigines, etc.”—American Anthropologist, xI., pp. 326 — 330, with map of Victoria. THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 87 caught. Babannunnu bubup tyilbai, the mother the child beat. z., Possessive.—The proprietor and the property each take a suffix, as, Kulindyal wangimu, a man’s boomerang. Bedyural gannanyu, a woman’s yamstick. The article possessed can be inflected for person and number, as in the Tyattyalla. 1st Person My boomerang, Wangimik Singular ) yA Thy boomerang, Wangimin ora. 5. His boomerang, Wangimo Our, incl., boomerang, Wangimngal eo LB etG8 Our, excl., boomerang, Wangimngun Dual {2nd _s,, Your boomerang, Wangimbul (3rd =, ~=—s«. Their boomerang, Wangimballain Person. Trial C 1st eine incl., boomerang, Wangimngunyinbaiap Our, excl., boomerang, Wangimngunyinubaiap 2nd Your boomerang, Wangimngutbaiap ord Their boomerang. Wangimdhanbaiap Plural. Our, incl., boomerang, Wangimngunyin = Person } Our, excl., boomerang, Wangimngunyinu Bad iy i155 Your boomerang, Wangimngut 3rd ” Their boomerang, Wangimdhan Accusative.—This is the same as the nominative-simple. Instrumental.—When an instrument is the remote object of the verb, a suffix is applied to it, as, Waiadhan munyi wangimdya, struck I him with a boomerang. Dative.—Yilamdha, toacamp. Ablative.—Yilamu, from @ camp. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are inflected for number and case like the nouns. Kulin dhangula,a man large. Kulindya dhangula marum tyilbai, a big man struck a kangaroo. Kulindyal dhangulal yirranginu, a big man’s dog. 88 R. H. MATHEWS. PRONOUNS. The nominative and possessive pronouns are as follows: Singular. 1st Person I, Wan Mine, Nugalik oA IE Wee re Thou, War Thine, Nugalin or wae He, Munyi His, Nugalo Dual. We, incl., Wangul Ours, incl., Nugalngul Hy ersen We, excl., Wangtn Ours, excl., Nugalngun end. You, Wabil Yours, Nugalbul ord) 55 They, Munyibulabil Theirs, Nugalobullain Trial. We, incl., Wanganyinbaia ee We’ excl 4 Wanesavineenaian 2nd 20s You; Watgurabilbaiap ord a They, Munyigadhanbaiap Ours, incl., Nugalnganyinbaia isi eesen Ours, excl., Nugalncanyiear eet ZAC ate ae Yours, Nugalngitbaiap ord fs: Theirs, Nugalodhan Plural. 1st We, incl., Wanganyin Ours, incl., Nugalnganyin We, excl., Wanganyinyu Ours, excl., Nugalnganyinyu 2nd You, Watgurabil Yours, Nugalng iat 3rd They, Munyigadhan Theirs, Nugalodhan Interrogatives—Ngunying, what? Yinarodp, who? ‘These are declinable for number. Demonstratives—Munyi, this; male, that. Person. VERBS. Gurin appears to be an equivalent of the verb “‘to be’’: Ist Person Good am I, Birndap gurinan 2nd). Good art thou, Birndap guriner BLO e., Good is he, Buirndap gurin The fundamental parts of the verb tyilba, to beat, are represented in this conjugation :— THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 89 Active Voice. Indicative Mood—Present Tense. ( ist Person I beat, Tyilbuinan Singular ! 2nd 5, Thou beatest, Tyilbuiner ame. (i He beats, Tyilbuin fee Perso We, incl., beat, Tyilbuingul We, excl., beat, Tyilbuingun Dual 2a ss You beat, Tyilbuinbul ard They beat, Tyilbuinbullain We, incl., beat, Tyilbuingunyinbaiap ( {st Person We, excl., beat, Tyilbuingunninyubaiap weal. 2nd, You beat, Tyilbuinatbaiap (3rd 5 They beat, Tyilbuinurbaiap . ( We, incl., beat, Tyilbuingunyin ae eu We, excl., beat, Tyliait wind Plural < 2nd... ,, You beat, Tyilbuinat tei ee They beat, Tyilbuinur Past Tense. 1st Person I beat, Tyilbuddhan Singular ; 2nd ,, Thou beatedst, Tyilbuddhar ara) 35 He beat, Tyilbai Future Tense. 1st Person I will beat, Tyilbunnhan VAL) re Thou wilt beat, Tyilbunnher Singular (3rd 3. He will beat. | Tyilbufi Imperative Mood. Singular—Beat, Tyilbak. Trial—Beat, Tyilbagubaiap Dual—Beat, Tyilbakwula. Plural—Beat, Tyilbagu The negatives are Ngabuk tyilbak. Ngabukwula tyilbak. Ngabugabaiap tyilbak. Ngabuga tyilbak. Conditional Mood. Singular—Perhaps I will beat, Gullai tyilbunnha Dual—Perhaps we, incl., will beat, Gullai tyilbunnhungal Trial—Perhaps 4 Gullai tyilbunnunginyinbaiap Plural— Perhaps as Gullai tyilbunnunginyin 90 R. H. MATHEWS. Middle Voice—Indicative Mood—Present Tense. 1st Person I beat myself, Tyilbarballinan Singular {2nd ,, Thou beatest thyself, Tyilbarballinher 3rd ,,_ He beats himself, Tyilbarballin All the numbers, persons, tenses, and moods can be conjugated, as in the active voice. Reciprocal. ' Dual—We, incl., beat each other, Tyilpdyiringal . Trial— a5 6 Tyilpdyirinaibaip x Plural— ut 5§ Tyilpdyirinai | ADVERBS. Yes, ngaii. No, dha-ung and dhandyak. Nothing, dha- gumbert. Now, dyumi. Karremiii, to-day. Yerambui, to-morrow. Yulungui, yesterday. Bambdgadhak, long ago. Here, mugulli. There, mangi. Indharu gurinher, where art thou? Indhagurin yilam, where is the camp? Indhar gurnange, which way (or where) wentest thou ? Ngunungo, whence ? PREPOSITIONS. Ist Person In front of me, Kallinudyik Singular;2nd_ ,, In front of thee, Kallinudyin Oro 4, In front of him, Kallinudhu Ist Person Behind me, Wenyudyik Singular ;2nd _ ,, Behind thee, Wenyudyin VORO 3 Behind him, Wenyudhu ~ EXXCLAMATIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. Yukkai, surprise. Cease, themerni! Halt, yama! Poor fellow, wurangrangga. NUMERALS. One, kopthun. Two, bulaubil. Three, bulaubil-ba-kdp. THE WOIWURRU DIALECT. This dialect was spoken on the Yarra, Saltwater, and Werribee rivers, and extended from the main dividing a THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 91 range southerly to the sea-coast at Geelong, Melbourne, and Western Port. The Woiwurru tongue is the same in structure as the Thaguwurru, although some words of the vocabulary are different. About Western Port, the Woiwurru was called Binwurru by some families, but it is essentially the same language. The rules for the declension of nouns, adjectives and other parts of speech are similar in the Thaguwurru and Woiwurru, whilst the pronouns are identical, hence my remarks will be restricted to the conjugation. of a verb. In the Thaguwurru the verb “to sit’? is ngurna, but in the Woiwurru it is ngulla.’ Indicative Mood—Present Tense. | 1st Person I sit, Ngullabuinhan Singular < 2nd _ ,, Thou sittest, Ngullabuinher ord ,, He sits, Ngullabuin We, incl., sit, Ngullabuingul — es ' We, excl., sit, Ngullabuingu Dual 2nd. ,, You sit, Ngullabuinbul SUG, | inn They sit, Negullabuinbullain tet. Per ae incl., sit, Ngullabuingunyinbaiap f * ( We, excl., sit, Ngullabuingunninyubaiap Trial< 2nd ,, You sit, Ngullabuinhatbaiap ord ,, They sit, Ngullabuinhurbaiap fst. Por We, incl.,sit, Ngullabuingunyin ‘ * | We,excl.,sit, Ngullabuingunninyu * Plural < 2nd ,, You sit, Negullabuinhat OPE” 44 They sit, Ngullabuinhur Past Tense. | 1st Person I was sitting, Ngullabuddhan Singular < 2nd ,, Thou wast sitting, Ngullabuddher ord ,, He was sitting, Ngullambai ? This verb, ngulla, “ tosit,” is the same among the Dharruk aborigines in the district of Sydney. See my paper on “The Dharruk Language,” Journ. Royal Soc., N.S.W., Vol. xxxv., pp. 155 —169. 99 R. H. MATHEWS. ee par We, incl., were sitting, Ngullambangul j * | We, excl.,were sitting, Ngullaambangun Dual 2nd .,, You were sitting, Ngullambuddhul | 3rd They were sitting, Ngullambaibullain Future Tense. 1st Person I will sit, Ngullambunnhan Singular Zi wee Thou wilt sit, Negullambunnher SEC gee He will sit, Ngullambun . Imperative Mood. 7 Singular Sit, Ngullambi . Dual ‘Sit, Ngullamhibul Trial Sit, Ngullambinabaiap Plural Sit, Ngullambinat | Conditional Mood. Singular Perhaps I will sit, Mella ngullambunnhan and so on for the remaining persons and numbers. The negative is expressed by the word ngaiabinhu, thus, Ngaiabinhu ngullabuddhan, I sat not. A sort of substitute for the verb “‘to be”’ is found in gaian. By taking any suitable word as a predicate we get the following: | 1st Person Here am I, Magalu gaianik Zing! (0% Here art thou, Magalu gaianin ord’ <4, Gere jsihe: Magalu gaianyo and this can be inflected through all the persons and num- bers. Another form for ‘‘I’”’ or “I am,”’ etc., is: Singular - 1st Person Myself, Murrumbik Singular , 2nd _ ,, Thyself, Murrumbinher Oe 55 Himself, Murrumunya Numerals.—Kanbi, one; bendyero, two. THE BRABIRRAWULUNG LANGUAGE. The Brabirrawulung tribe occupied.the territory from the Mitchell River to the Tambo, including the watersheds of these rivers and their tributaries, with the exception of THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 93 a strip of country along the sea-coast. This tribe is men- tioned by R. B. Smyth in his valuable work on ‘“‘ The Aborigines of Victoria.”’ As the Brabirrawulung was formerly an important and centrally situated tribe, I propose adopting its name for the language spoken in eastern Victoria from Tarwin River to Cape Howe, and reaching back from the sea-coast northerly to the Australian Alps. In my former article on the native tribes of Victoria,’ I adopted the name Kurnai (or Kunnai) a native word meaning *“‘man,”’’ to distinguish all the people within the geographic limits above mentioned. I now think, however, that the term “ Brabirrawulung Nation ”’ is more appropriate, because it is the name of one of the native tribes within the region under consideration. Mr. K. M. Curr states that in his opinion, the Gippsland (Bra- birrawulung) tribes are all the same stock—one descended from the other.’ It has fallen to my lot to be the first to explain the constitution of their language. There are some differences in the vocabularies of the people occupying the eastern and western portions respectively of the area above described, but the fundamental elements of their grammar are the same throughout. The marriage laws and totemic system of the Brabirrawulung nation are the same as those in force among the adjoining coastal tribes of New South Wales, described by me in a previous communication to this Society.’ NOUNS. Number.—There are three numbers—singular, dual and plural. Dyira, a kangaroo. Dyirabulung, a couple of kangaroos. Dyirawamba, several kangaroos. 1 «The Victorian Aborigines: their Initiation Ceremonies and Divisional Systems ”—American Anthropologist, Vol. x1., pp. 330-331, and map showing distribution of the native tribes of Victoria. 2 «The Australian Race,” Vol. 111., p. 540. $ Journ. Royal Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxxiv., pp. 263, 264. - 94 a R. H. MATHEWS. Gender.—Kunnai, a man. Rukit.a woman. The gen- der of animals is distinguished by employing the word brangula for males, and yukkana for females, as, dyira brangula, a male kangaroo; dyira yukkana, a female kan- garoo. : Case.—The cases comprise the nominative, nominative- agent, possessive, accusative, dative, instrumental, and ablative. Nominative.—Wangin,a boomerang. Kunnii,a yamstick. Gri, acanoe. Bang and nguya, both mean a camp. Lity, a boy. 3 Nominative-agent.—Kunnaio waddhan dhanda, a man an opossum eats. Waddhando dyerring dhanda, an opossum leaves eats. Possessive.—The chattel and theowner are both declined. Wanginma kunnaia, a man’s boomerang. Grima rukutta, a woman’s canoe. Nguyama lia, a boy’s camp. Every object over which ownership exists can be declined for person and number : | 1st Person My boomerang, Wangingitha Singular 2nd_,, Thy boomerang, Wangingina BPO) | 1155 His boomerang, Wanginting { Our, incl., boomerang, Wanginalla | Our, excl., boomerang, Wanginalanalla and so on through all the persons and numbers. Dual ist Per. Dative.—Banggea, to the camp. Ablative.—Bangga, from the camp. PRONOUNS. The following few examples of the nominative and posses-. sive pronouns will exhibit their inflection : 1st Person I, Ngaiu Mine, Ngithalung Singular 4 2nd _,, Thou, Ngindu Thine, Nginnalung SPAS, 5 He, Nungga His, Nungalung THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF VICTORIA. 95 There are two pronouns for the first person of the dual, and also two for the plural, one of which is used when the person addressed is included with the speaker, and the other when the person addressed is excluded. Interrogatives.—Nganinde, who? Ngandoanggo, who (did it). Nanma, what? ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are declined for number and case, and are placed after the qualified noun. VERBS. Verbs have the same numbers, persons, tenses and moods as those of the Thurrawal language, reported by me last year. The following are examples in the present tense of the indicative mood, of the verb ‘to sit,’ and the verb *“to see’’:— 1st Person I sit, Bunnunganaty Singular 2nd ,, Thou sittest, Bunnunganin = ee He sits, Bunnunganung ist Person [ see, _ Dhakanadha Singular ji bg Thou seest, Dhakaninna 210 ee He sees, Dhakanunggo In the first person of the dual and plural, there is a vari- ation in the suffix of the verb, indicating the inclusion or exclusion of the party spoken to. ADVERBS. Yes, nga. No, ngalko. ‘Tyilli, to-day. Mulgotbilla, this evening. Yesterday, mulbodkang. Brundhu, to-morrow. Mulbitthunga, long ago. Tyillaiu, by and bye. Gunno, perhaps. Wunman, where (singular). Wunmandu, where (dual). Wunman ngirdurna, where pea Wulgunggo, which way? Wulngin, how? + « Thy leit . Miranu erica, His: leit Miralugu All the persons in each number can be inflected. HXCLAMATIONS. Wai! take care! Yah! calling attention. Chuh! silence. Any vocative can be inflected for number. NUMERALS. : One, mukku. Two, bulagar. Several, bunggo. As the Wiradhuri and Wongaibon are dialects of the same language, it will be interesting to introduce here a portion of the conjugation of the Wiradhuri verb buma, beat. A contracted form of the pronoun is suffixed to the root of the verb to show number and person. The present tense is given in full, but the first person of the singular will be sufficient to illustrate the past and future tenses. Indicative Mood—Present Tense. 1st Person I beat, Bumarradhu Singular 2nd = ,, $=‘Thou beatest, Bumarrawindu ard. ,, He beats; Bumarralula We, incl., beat, Bumarrali j Ist Per. We, excl., beat, Bumarraliguna Dual 2nd) ,, You beat, Bumarrandubla ard” ,, They beat, Bumarragwainbula We, incl., beat, Bumarrané iE ' We, excl., beat, Bumarraneguna Plural ; 2nd ,, You beat, Bumarrandugir ord ,, They beat, Bumarragwainbulella 154 R. H. MATHEWS. Past Tense. 4 . {beat this morning, Bumulngurridyu aed | I beat, yesterday Bumulguandhu | I beat, indefinite Bumaidhu Future Tense. I will beat, indefinite Bumulgiridyu I will beat soon, Bumulyamagiridyu I will beat tomorrow, Bumulngurrigiridyu Singular | Ist Person | Imperative. Buma, beat! Kurria buma, beat not ! Reflexive. Bumungadyillindyu, Iam beating myself. There are also reciprocal and other forms of the verb, but as Iam preparing a grammar and vocabulary of the Wiradhuri language, no more will be said upon the subject at present. 5—THE KURNU LANGUAGE. The native tribes speaking the Kurnt' language are located on the Darling River from about Tilpa up the river to Bourke, and also up the Warrego River as far as Ford’s Bridge. Dialects of the Ktrnti are spoken along the course of the Darling River from Tilpa downwards, via Wilcannia and Menindie, to Wentworth, a distance of about 350 miles. The Kurnti language extends, with some modifications, from the Darling River to Torawotta Lake and the Barrier Ranges, as well as up the Paroo River as far as the Queensland boundary. The social organization and initia- tion ceremonies of these tribes were described by me in a former article to this Society. The following elements of the language have been gathered by myself in the Kirnu territory, from reliable old natives. 7 1«'The Group Divisions and Initiation Ceremonies of the Barkunjee Tribes,” Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxi1., pp. 241 — 250. LANGUAGES OF SOME NATIVE TRIBES. 155 - Number.—Nouns have three numbers—the singular, dual and plural. Thurlta, a kangaroo; thurlta pakula, a couple of kangaroos; thurlta gutthalagu, several kangoroos. Gender.—Wimbadya,a man. Burraka, a woman. Kut- tyungga, a young boy. Karnkali, a young girl. Mun- dhanggura,.a baby of either sex. The gender of animals is shown by affixing words indicative of male and female, as thurlta dhuladya, a male kangaroo; thurlta wambukka, a female kangaroo. Case.—The following are some of the principal cases :— The nominative indicates anything at rest, and is with- out flexion, as, kulli, a dog; wimbadya, a man. The causative represents the subject in action, and takes | a suffixed particle, as Wimbadyawa waku burtatyi, a man a crow killed; kulliwa yerrandyi dhuttadyi, a dog an opossum bit. Genitive.—Wimbadyana gattheri, a man’s boomerang. Kullina gurni, a dog’s tail. Burrakana kurnka, a woman’s yamstick. ‘The remaining cases are omitted. ADJECTIVES. These follow the nouns they qualify, and take the same inflexions for number and case. Wimbadya wurta, a man large. Wimbadyana wurtana gattheri, a large man’s boomerang. Wimbadyawa wurtawa gattheri ngartatyi, a large man a boomerang threw. Comparison of adjectives is effected by such expressions as “this is good—that is bad,’’ and so on, in a similar manner to those of the Thoorga.' PRONOUNS. Pronouns have number, person and case. There are ‘inclusive ’’ and ‘‘ exclusive ’’ forms for the first person of + «The Thoorga and Yukumbil Languages,” Queensland Geographical Journal, Vol. xvi1., pp. 49 — 73. 156 R. H. MATHEWS. the dual and plural. The following table exhibits the nominative of the singular, dual and plural: Ist Person I, Nguppa Singular ¢ 2nd ,, Thou, Ngimba 53 a0 nile He, Wuttha or gitthu Dew We, inclusive, Ngulli ietmeersen i exclusive, Ngullingulu Dual 2nd <\',, You, Ngupangalu OVA fa ts They, Wutthawula { We, inclusive, Nginna ( Bo eon | We, exclusive, Nginnanda Plural yO) Ramat You, Ngurtana (3rd, They, Wutthéda The possessive and objective pronouns are as under : (1st Person Mine, Ngari Me, Ngunnha Singular < 2nd _,, Thine, Ngoma Thee, Ngumma | 3rd e: His, Watthunegi Him, Wutthana There are modifications of the objective pronouns to mean ‘‘towards me,’”’ ‘‘away from me,”’’ etc., as in the annexed examples: Sealine | 1st Person Towards me, Ngunnhari 8 bord... Towards him, Gitthunari Dual ISt, 255 Towards us, incl., Ngullinari Plural LStr yes Towards us, incl., Nginnanari Biaiviilar Ist Person From me, Ngunnarndu 8 3rd__,, From him, Gitthanarndu Dual Istiv | In Pot No. 35 the seed germinated as with pot 32 in the preceding experiment, but the plants were very feeble, and by July 24th they were all dead. Pot 34, the seed germinated but growth was feeble, and plants were dying when examined on July 24th and died subsequently, being all dead by August 26th. Pot 33, seed germinated but plants were growing very feebly on July 24th and August 26th. | Pot 32, the seeds germinated well, the plants on July 24th were weak and slightly discoloured. By August 26th they had recovered and were growing fairly. _ The conclusions drawn are the following :-—Germination is not seriously affected until the amount of sodium chlorate in the soil approaches °01 per cent., but the subsequent growth of the plant is injuriously affected by so small an amount as ‘001 per cent. and the limit is exceeded at °003 at and above which quantity the presence of sodium chlorate is fatal. , Experiments with arsenious acid. Since the recent enquiry in England into the cause of wholesale poisoning by beer, which revealed the fact that the glucose used in brewing frequently contained arsenic traceable to the pyrites and sulphur used in the manufac- ture of sulphuric acid, attention has been directed towards LIMITS OF ENDURANCE OF DIFFERENT’ FARM CROPS. 199. the possibility of this ingredient being present in other substances which are used commercially. | -Amongst these must be counted fertilisers compounded | of superphosphate in the preparation of which sulphuric acid is employed. If the ingredients employed in the manu-: facture of the acid are not free from arsenic, this substance will be present in the resulting fertiliser. It is known to have an injurious effect upon the growth of plants, and the following experiments will indicate its effect upon wheat. The following pots were sown on June 8rd in No. 1 soil, the complete fertiliser having been added, MOONE with. cae amounts of arsenic trioxide: Pot-3r, “01 per cent. AsO; 99 38, °05 99 99 39, "10 99 205) a0 99 BA tert 00 f Pot 37, germinated well, plants not affected and growing well on July ist and 24th, and were growing well on _ August 26th; grain is now forming in the ear Oct. 8th. Pot 38, germinated well, but early growth not very vigor- ous, plants growing fairly August 26th; grain is in the ear on October 8th. Pot 39, germinated fairly well and plants growing fairly on July Ist, subsequent growth poor and weak. Oct. 8th grain is forming in the ear, but plants are very stunted and grain backward. Pot 40, germination poor, plants very puny (July 1st), and almost dead by July 24th, still alive but very feeble _ by Aug. 26th, all dead by October 8th. . Pot 41, germination and early growth very feeble, plants hearly dead by July 24th, all dead by August 26th. The conclusions drawn are as follows :—germination and early growth is afiected by the presence of °05 per cent. 200 F, B. GUTHRIE AND R. HELMS. arsenic in the soil, the injurious effect increasing as the: proportion of arsenic becomes greater; with *1 per cent. arsenic the plant does not come to maturity. The presence of ‘01 per cent. arsenic is without injurious effect upon the growth of the plant. The following table summarizes the results obtained :—. Effect upon germination and subsequent growth of the wheat plant of different percentages of injurious substances in the soil. Germination Germination Growth affected. prevented. Growth aftected. prevented. NaCl °05 °20 "05 to °15 (recov.) °20 NaCO; *30 5 to 1°0 . *10 “40 NH.CNS = ‘005 °01 °001 °005 NaClO; above ‘01 "05 - *001 °003: ‘As,O; 05 above 0°95 + "05 "10 Attention must be drawn to the fact that in these experi- ments the injurious substances were incorporated with the soil prior to planting, and that there was no accumulation of them in any one place. In actual practice the fertilisers which are liable to contain ‘these deleterious’ ingredients are applied in such a way that they are concentrated in the first few inches of the surface soil. This is especially the case when the fertiliser is drilled in with the seed, in which case they are concentrated in the immediate neighbourhood of the germinating seed. For example, ‘2 per cent. sodium — chloride in the soil was found in the above experiments to be absolutely fatal to the growth of wheat. This amount represents about 5,000 Ibs. or nearly 24 tons of salt distri- buted over an acre of soil of average weight to a depth of six inches. Sucha dressing would not be applied in practice, but the same injury would result to the plant if the few pounds of soil in its immediate neighbourhood and from which it draws its food-supply were charged with salt to the same extent. CURRENT PAPERS. 201 CURRENT PAPERS, No. 7. By H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. {With Diagram. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 8, 1902.] THE number of current papers is steadily increasing year by year. The first paper which was read before this Society on October 3rd, 1894, contained 43 current papers—the accumulation that had extended over four years. No. 2 contains the current papers which had accumulated in two years, and numbered 200, of these the late Dr. Neumayer, then the Director of the Hamburg Meteorological Obser- vatory, sent me 23, and Captain A. Simpson contributed 41, which he had himself sent out and then collected. No. 3 pamphlet contains 167 current papers, collected in two years and one month, all of which were sent to me. During this time north-west winds were prevalent, blow- ing off the Australian Bight, and in this way hindered the landing of current papers in the Australian Bight, as the diagrams in No. 3 shew. This pamphlet bears out the experience from No. 2, viz., that the rate of drift south of Australia is gradually increased from Latitude 30° to 47° 16’ South. At that time 101 icebergs were reported by captains of ships on the voyage between Australia and Cape of Good Hope. No. 4 pamphlet contains amongst other things the drift of the “ Perthshire,” and this is the first pamphlet in which the period of collecting papers is confined to twelve months. It is also noteworthy that this year 1899 the drifts in the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the Southern Indian Ocean were all unusually strong. 202. H. C. RUSSELL. No. 5 contains particulars of the drift of the Waikato for 103 days. The number of bottle papers amounted to 93, of which five papers thrown into the Indian Ocean, four landed in Africa, and one in Madagascar. It is very noteworthy that at this period the drift of the current papers in Southern Indian Ocean was east by south, while in other cases it is east by north. This feature is impor- tant, as indicating some changes of meteorological con- ditions not otherwise observed. | : | No. 6 contains 153 current papers collected in one year, and in this period another ocean comes into the field: traversed between Australia and Canada. Valuable as they are for navigation, they suggest the interesting ques- tion—will] it be possible to find out by current papers the direction if any, by which the equatorial currents from the Pacific Ocean make their way through Torres and other Straits, through various possible openings into the Indian Ocean? There the drifts to the west are more rapid than any other place that Iam aware of. It seems, therefore, most desirable to get many more current papers afloat between Sydney and Canada. In this pamphlet, Capt. J. Mann Hart of the s.s. “ Star of New Zealand,’ we have the first report of a group of icebergs for a long time. The diagram shews a great number of small icebergs and a number of large bergs in 55° south and between 130° to 144° east. RAPID DRIFT. It is noteworthy that amongst the current papers we find the most rapid drift that we have yet discovered: No. 858; the rate reported being 32°5 miles per day, but the: period of drift was only two days. Some caution must be exercised in this drift, errors in the times given, such as. often occur in watches might be enough to make this drift appear large when it was not actually so. But there are CURRENT PAPERS. 203- two others, Nos. 848 and 854, which have most remarkable rates of drift—29°5 and 21°0 miles per day respectively. It will be observed that pamphlet No. 7 records a drift in-current paper No. 785 of 29°2 miles per day. It was committed to the Socotra Sea and found in the Gulf of Aden, which with one exception is the most rapid drift on record—the paper referred to is No. 21 in the first pamphlet with a rate of 31°0 miles per day. With one exception— No. 164 with a drift of 9,585 miles—the longest drift shewn in this pamphlet is No. 891 with 9,020 miles. List of current papers arranged in months in which they were received :— Nov. Dec. Total Year. Jan. | Feb, | Mar. | April| May | June} July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. 1896 | No |obse:rvat|ions Work began} 3|/ 7j|11] 21 wer) 5) 7) 4)'5 | 10) 7) 9+ 9/3) -8| 9) 6| 82 1898 6 7 6 2/10 7 rs) 9 4 | 16 8 | 12 92 1899 | 11/1) | 11 6 | 13 9; 10/ 15 7|16/] 11} 10) 130 1900 | 14 | 20 | 11 | 12 8 | 10 9 Wf 9|171| 10 8 | 185 I VAS WS) 1457-11 | FO} 13 6 9 9/14/11] 15 | 188 1902 | 12 | 14 | 15 | 17 8 | 12 7 7 | 10 3 | ee 4 105 Total | 61 | 72 | 61 | 53 | 59 | 58 | 46 | 56 | 42 | 77 | 56 | 62 | 7038 Average | 10°1) 12:0} 10°2| 8:8! 9°8| 9°7) 7°7| 9°3| 7:0|11:0] 9:°3|10°3 RATE OF DRIFT IN THE WEST SIDE OF TASMAN SEA. S.S. ‘‘ Kamona,’’ Union 8.8. Co. ‘“On the trip from Tasmania to Sydney, from October 20th to the 2nd November, I experienced the strongest southerly current I ever felt along the New South Wales coast between the above dates. It is a common thing in the summer months to measure from 27 to 37 miles more than the actual distance between Cape Everard and Sydney (High Light), but on my last trip, I measured 54 miles more than the actual distance between Kent’s Group (Bass’ Strait) and Sydney High Light; also we were 54 hours behind time and had fine weather all the way.” - _(C. SurFERN, Master. 204 H. C. RUSSELL. LIST OF CURRENT PAPERS THAT MADE A RAPID DAILY DRIFT, Taken from Current Pamphlets Nos. 1 to 7 inclusive. No, of |Listnum-| Miles Pam ber of per phlet.| paper. day. Qs 120 |) 5 | 11-0 8 16:0 TaN Nig || 95 | 112 \| 41 | 12:0 (| 56 | 168 64 17°7 | 102 | 15:4 1 | 104 14°4 21] 107 | 138 130 18°1 | 148 | 11°7 L175 | 186 (| 210 | 13°5 211 21°2 | 217 12°4 218 14°2 222 | 11-7 | 233 15°3 | 258 16°9 261 28°3 a5 273 11°7 323 12°5 329 16°0 303 21°3 355 11°5 358 14°2 364 19°4 L| 366 | 14°7 (| 380 | 13-2 385 11°2 388 14°0 392 13°3 406 12°7 418 17°8 | 431 11°5 433 14°2 45 | 449 | 14-5 450 12°9 452 12°2 454 12°1 456 12°7 466 13°3 | 488 12°6 L| 491 | 183 Locality of Current. South Coast East Coast East Coast Arabia North Pacific East Coast Indian Ocean East Coast Indian Ocean India Coast South Coast Atlantic Ocean Southern Ocean Brazil Indian Ocean South Coast Southern Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean West Indies Arabian Sea Indian Ocean East Coast English Channel Tasman Sea South Coast Indian Ocean Indian Ocean South Coast Southern Ocean South Coast East Coast East Coast English Channel East Coast South Pacific Indian Ocean Southern Ocean Southern Ocean South Atlantic Indian Ocean Southern Ocean East Coast ‘West Africa No. of |Listnum-|} Miles Pam-| ber of per Locality of Current. phlet.} paper. day. (| 514 12°9 | East Coast 529 15°6 | Indian Ocean | 530 16°5 | Gulf of Aden 532 21°4 | Gulf of Aden 54 551 19°4. | North Pacific 1; 559 | 146 | Ceylon Coast 561 25°4 | Indian Ocean | 574 20°6 | Indian Ocean 581 16°3 | East Coast L| 587 | 18°5 | Indian Ocean (| 598 | 111 | North of Fiji 625 17°1 | New Caledonia 644 16°2 | Gulf of Aden 652 | 11:2 | Oceania 658 | 11°5 | Coast ur. Sydney 668 11°6 | E.of N.Caledonia 671 19°5 | Gilbert Islands 674 16°83 | Phoenix Islands 676 | 17:1 |CoastS.of Sydney 64 | 681 | 15°5 | Indian Ocean 687 18°5 | Indian Ocean 690 12°5 | S.E. Coast 691 15°9 | Indian Ocean 702 | 11:0 |S. Indian Ocean 711 11°3 | Indian Ocean 727 12°7 | Indian Ocean 732 22°5 | Fiji 734 |179 | Gulf of Aden || 750 | 11:4 | Indian Ocean (| 773 | 171 | Indian Ocean | | 784 12°5 | Gulf of Aden || 785 | 29°2 | Gulf of Aden | | 848 29°5 | South Africa 7 875 | 13°0 | Southern Ocean 880 13°8 |S. W. Coast 907 11:0 | Southern Ocean {| 916 | 149 | Indian Ocean LONG DRIFTS OF CURRENT PAPERS, SELECTED | No. of Diskange Bate per paper | travelle ay in FROM THE SEVEN PAMPHLETS PUBLISHED BY | in jist, | in miles. | miles. THE SYDNEY OBSERVATORY. Current pamphlet, No.1 (July 1883 to June 1894; 2 3,300 | 4'0 43 current papers) 3 5,100 | 12°0 27 3,600 | 9°5 37 4,100 70 Current pamphlet, No. 2 (June 1894 to August | 180 5,905 9°2 1896; 157 current papers) 170 5,970 9°4 169 4,779 9°3. 168 8,840 9°2 157 9,517 | 90 163 8,617 79 164 9,585 10°3. 128 4.760 |... 147 | 4,081 9°0: 148 4,557 11°7 158 6,375 8°6: 165 4,339 ery Current pamphlet No. 3(August 1896 to November | 216 5,650 | 92 1898; 167 current papers) 215 4,800 78. 217 4,600 12°4. 218 4,890 14°2; 357 5,115 81 Current pamphlet No. 4 (November 1898 to No- | 43u | 9,567 9°6 vember 1899; 124 current papers) 452 9,025 | 12:2 ; 451 8,850 sae 385 4,100 | 11:2 409 | 4,714 | 92 410 4,550 | 8°5 425 6,300 74: 466 6,550 13°3 Current pamphlet No. 5(November 1899 to October | 510 3,850 73 1900; 106 current papers) 527 5,021 45 561 3,785 | 25°4 574 4,400 20°6. 587 3,740 18°5. 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Avy | TI6 oig| ° | Bar 1 980d "MS Fe D GPIOUE ie Grane’ (OS 201 Wr estees | ‘ujosing "HM [ * J. M. Spence, “The Land of Bolivar,” 1., 159. FORESTS IN THEIR RELATION TO RAINFALL. 217. forests on climate,”’ which mainly repeats the instances given in “‘The Forest’’ of Prof. Schacht. Mr. J. G. O. Tepper, an earnest writer on philosphical questions pertaining to plant life, has a paper’ which is well worthy of perusal. It enumerates a number of the oft quoted examples of altered climatic conditions attributed to destruction of forests, and also deals with the problems of physics which are involved in a proper understanding of the subject. e. The case, ** Forest Destruction Does Not Diminish Rainfall.—With us forest destruction takes two forms:— (1) The felling, removal and ‘“‘burning off’’ necessary for agricultural and other settlement, and which many think- ing men are of opinion is often carried out in too drastic a manner, to the detriment of the owner of the land himself, who often finds he has got rid of shelter and timber he would afterwards be glad of. (2) Ringbarking, which is necessary to fit much of our land for grazing purposes and which like (1) is undoubtedly done ignorantly and recklessly, particularly, I think, losing sight of the incipient creeks which are the beginnings of floods and washaways. This isa very wide question which I have dealt with on a previous occasion (ante page 115). Our Government Astronomer has given special attention to the “Forests and Rainfall’’ subject for many years, particularly with reference to Australia, and I cannot do better than quote some of his published statements. Mr. Russell speaks,” in regard to forest destruction and climate of “‘ the tiny efforts of men”’ in the way of forest destruction and the enormous quantity of felling and ring- + « eee ee CAO® | ss. ine aes a ar ... 4°00 MgoO ... mt a oe ve wees UL MnoO ... ait ee see aie ua °23 INA, Oe i: ate ee sag ete ste... lee KO =... ae or aioe ae vey) ees Loss on ignition mile idl fs »+) (|) 2a Total : eee 99°35 1 Report of the Aust. Assoc. for Advt. Science, Sydney, 1898. METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 259 Volcanic Dust from Mount Peleé, Martinque, collected from the deck of the s.s. ‘‘ Roddam,”’ the only ship which escaped from St. Pierre.’ Dried at 105°: Silica We was es a w. 09°40 Alumina Hiss ‘3% ane We A P2100 Iron sesquioxide as Bois a Std EO) Lime ... ine See ees vive Beis 9°70 Magnesia foe see sje ie eee ZOD INasOr ... nee sets See, aoe soe) | ROD K,O a, bd Ae ys ci ese °85 BOei\). es saa Jas ia a sree 25 99°93 Volcanic Dust, Barbadoes.’ From the recent eruption, the ash consists principally of a plagioclase felspar allied to labradorite, hypersthene, monoclinic augite and magnetite. The following analysis was made by Dr. Pollard. SiO, 5a See oh MgO aah bee ey) TiO, Bes Seg °95 K,O fae eae °60 Al,O3 she se. 18°79 Na,O eae a8 SLPOr co Fe.O; 3°28 P.O; "15 FeO 4°58 SO; °33 NnO ee °28 Cle sags 14 (CoNi)O ... ‘(07 -HO (105°) 20 CaO 9°58 H.O (above 105) "17 100°35 The following hitherto unpublished accounts of falls of meteoric dust and dust fogs in New South Wales are, except the first, selected from a large number kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer; they are of interest as showing the conditions under which some of the dusts were deposited. 1 Chemical News, June 18, 1902. 2 Geol. Soc., May 25, 1902. ** Nature,” 5th June, 1902. 260 A. LIVERSIDGE. One of the earliest accounts of dust storms in Australia is given by Strelecki in his “‘New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,’’ published in 1845, he says :— “Tn sailing from New Zealand to New South Wales in the ““ Justine,’ J was prevented making the harbour of Port Jackson for two successive days by the violence of the hot wind. The distance from the shore, on the parallel of Sydney, was sixty miles, and the heat exceeded 90°. The lee sails and reefs of the “Justine” were covered with a quantity of impalpable dust, which was at first mistaken for ashes, but, on examination proved to be sand, containing one-fourth of aluminous and three-fourths of siliceous and metallic matter. Those who shape their course to the East Indies, by way of Cape Verd Islands, may have seen the same effect produced by the north-east African hot wind.” The following account was addressed to Mr. Russell: “Times Office, Murrurundi, Oct. 21st, 1876. So far as I have been able to ascertain, the dry fog was first seen in the vicinity of Tamworth, at about sunrise on the morning of the 12th instant. In the various weather notices of different journals published north or west of that town, no mention is made of the phenomenon, such as would be expected had its appearance been observed in the districts they represent. The Tamworth News refers to it as obscuring the horizon from north- east to south-west, and as being the result of the refraction of the solar rays on passing through the depressed exhalations from the moistened earth. In this neighbourhood the conditions under which the fog appeared were quite different, its direction being rather from north-west to south-east, and its existence altogether independent of “moistened earth,” the preceding night having been too mild in temperature to produce a very copious fall of dew. With these exceptions the accounts coincide in the general repre- sentation of the event already furnished. “Its appearance and disappearance were alike sudden, consider- _ ing the iamense extent of country it appears to have covered, and its rate of progress was exceedingly rapid. At half-past five a.m. METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 261 on Thursday, the valley of the Page was as clear as usual on fine mornings, but on the ranges a peculiar dense mist, in colour pre- cisely like a dust-cloud, was seen advancing quickly towards the town of Murrurundi. At 6 o'clock the whole of the valley with the town and the surrounding mountains were enveloped in the murky haze, the atmosphere became oppressive as though a heavy thunderstorm were at hand, and the sun was so obscured that it could be viewed without the slightest inconvenience by the naked eye. No disagreeable odour accompanied the fog, but it caused a sensation similar to that experienced during the first downpour of rain upon a dusty surface, that oppressiveness to the senses generally that a continued fall of rain would be likely to relieve. In fact, had it not been for the strangely impalpable nature of the fog it would have been considered as an extraordinary diffusion of dust in the atmosphere, consequent upon strong winds. No inconvenience was occasioned to the eyes, the only discomfort being the comparative sultriness of the morning and the sense of Oppression experienced. No dust was left by the fog, nor the slightest moisture; it remained for many hours a perfectly dry, dense, dusty looking mist enwrapping every object in obscurity for many miles around. Shortly after half-past eight a.m. it left the Page valley, and proceeded towards the south, driven before the wind which rushed along the passage between the mountains with great force. The general direction of the wind was nearly direct from west to east, but as usual in the valley its course locally was determined by the position of the mountains, and the fog in the lowest lands was driven off to the south at the time already mentioned, while a portion of it lingered about the hills until nearly midday; at the head of the Page, I believe, it was discernible in the afternoon. “At Scone, twenty-five miles south of Murrurundi, the fog made its appearance shortly before 8 a.m., while Murrurundi was still enveloped in its mist. A gentleman resident in this colony for upwards of thirty years, and a very shrewd observer of the weather, happened to travel from Murrurundi to Scone during the continu- 262 A. LIVERSIDGE. ance of the fog, and he states that he was surrounded by it the whole way. He started on the journey about an hour after the fog made its appearance here, and his impression was that the mist was travelling at a rate of more than fifteen miles an hour. After leaving the valley of the Page the wind was found to be blowing stiffly from the west, but the fog remained at Scone until nearly midday, when it gradually cleared off. “The manner of its disappearance from Murrurundi was some- what sudden, and would give the impression that it was carried by the wind over the country at a considerable speed. But the fact of it having remained amongst the mountains so much longer, leads me to think that it was driven out of the valley as from a narrow passage by the increased force of the wind when com- pressed within the limits of the pass. The occurrence of winds in this part of different directions and force from those in more open country is too common to need further mention, and it is tolerably certain that in the open country the fog was not so visibly and directly influenced by the wind as it appeared to be at Murrurundi. It should be mentioned that the wind was not noticed until some time after the fog made its appearance ; the air was at first still, heavy, and oppressive, but afterwards the wind rose quickly, with frequent gusts, which swept great quan- tities of dust along the main road, giving colour to the supposition of some persons that a similar wind had blown during the earlier part of the morning, raising clouds of dust, the finer portion of which were still being carried by upper currents of wind across the country. But this is only one of many explanations invented for the occasion, and without any knowledge of the extent of the fog; allusion to some others more distant from reason and experi- ence is made in one or other of the extracts enclosed. “At Singleton the fog appears to have been witnessed at seven o'clock, about half an hour later than at Murrurundi, while at Scone, nearly half way between, it would appear to have not been observed until a later hour than either—between - half-past seven and eight o’clock. Jf I remember rightly, its appearance at the METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 263. Paterson was still later, and no record of its having been observed further south or east is procurable here. The Maitland and New- castle papers make no editorial comment upon it, nor with regard to Newcastle journals has any reference whatever to the occur- rence been made I may add here that, as already stated, the Gunnedah, Armidale, Glen Innes, Tenterfield, and other papers published in the north and west, seem to have taken no notice of the phenomenon, so that thus far observation is limited to the districts betwecn Tamworth and the Paterson. “In answer to your question, ‘‘ Did it leave any dust, if so, was any collected”? Imay repeat that no dust was observed to fall from the dark mist, but the occurrence of high winds raising the usual clouds of dust from the roads would hinder the attempt to distinguish between the dust deposited from either source unless the difference were very clearly marked. Iam alluding now of course to observations made at positions within the reach of dust driven from the roads by high winds. In remoter places, I am informed, the only peculiarity remarked in the fog was its singular dryness, together with its discolouration, as compared with usual mists. “From the best enquiries I have been able to make, such a fog has never been witnessed before by residents in the districts visited, and the subject has been very generally canvassed in the circles of the ‘“‘oldest inhabitants.” A general impression that it was the precursor of blight or an insect visitation existed, probably owing to the fact that some persons of years and education adopted this view of the occurrence and injudiciously (I think) gave their ideas to the less informed and more impressible of the residents. All were agreed, however, that the phenomenon had never been witnessed here before, whatever might be the opinions entertained respecting its origin or consequences. “The time at which the fog first made its appearance in the different districts mentioned seems to involve the subject in more difficulty than it presented at first to myself, but by correspondence 264 A. LIVERSIDGE. I shall endeavour to obtain further and more precise information upon this point. After perusing your interesting paper and Humboldt’s remarks upon dry fogs, with the more remote phe- nomena recorded by the Roman poet, I can find no parallel to this occurrence excepting in the appearance of cosmical meteoric dust, hypothetically alluded to in your concluding remarks.” —H. Jonzs. “Times Office, Murrurundi, Nov. 7, 1876. ‘From enquiries made since my last, I have gleaned a few par- ticulars, which though imperfect, may be worth communicating. The most important of these have been supplied by Mr. George Armstrong, a gentleman of very extensive colonial experience, at present residing at Walcha. He informs me that the dry fog of the 12th ultimo, was noticed near Bendemeer on the morning of that day, about six o’clock. He was out with some assistants looking after stock in the vicinity of Bendemeer, between that — town and Surveyor’s Creek, when his attention was attracted by an apparently heavy, widespreading cloud of smoke rolling over the distant mountains. He directed the notice of those who accompanied him to the strange appearance, and the impression left upon their minds was that an immense bush fire had occurred on the hills causing the smoke they imagined to be covering the mountains. ‘They rode in the direction of the mist, and soon dis- covered that its origin and nature were widely different from those already mentioned. In short they found it to be a dry fog, of such an extent and density however, as to render it quite singular. Mr. Armstrong is a native of South Australia, of which colony his father and uncle were amongst the earliest pioneers, and he has therefore the benefit of at least forty years’ clear knowledge of the seasons and phenomena witnessed in these colonies. According to his account, these dry fogs, though not common, have occurred several times within his recollection, but have never had nearly so wide a range as that of last month. Many years ago he encountered one of these fogs at the head of the Wilson River, in the meridian of Capricorn, he was then engaged in driving stock, I think, and when approaching the Valley of Lagoons, witnessed METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 265 a phenomenon similar to those under notice, but of a comparatively local character. More recently, while travelling with a large flock of sheep, he noticed a dry fog at Goonoo Goonoo, a station of the Peel River Company, near Tamworth, but this also was of limited extent. The most notable of these occurrences, he says, occurred in South Australia in 1836 in the month of April.. That colony had only just been formed at that time, and the phenomenon excited a good deal of apprehension in the minds of the settlers. There can scarcely be any evidence I imagine, of the extent over which the fog of 1836 was observed, as the colony had not then been opened up. The aboriginals associated the occurrence with some mischievous event, the nature for which they could not define. I omitted to mention that at Bendemeer there was no wind per- ceptible immediately before the fog appeared, but shortly after- wards a slight westerly wind sprang up. The direction in which the fog appeared to the view from Bendemeer, was about south- west by west. The fog appeared to annoy the horses the party were riding. The fog covered the Swamp Oak Creek, Surveyor’s Creek and intermediate country. ‘This is the extent of my information respecting the fog as it appeared at Bendemeer, but Mr. Armstrong has promised to furnish me with memoranda of this and other dry fogs which he has preserved. If I should receive them I need not add that they will be speedily forwarded to you. ‘““A friend who visited Clarence Town a day or two after the 12th ultimo, tells me that the fog was the topic of general remark during his stay. In that locality it is said to have presented a dull grey leaden hue, but otherwise preserved the peculiarities noticed elsewhere. “At Bellevue, near Scone, a number of aboriginals are located, and the fog has not passed them without observation. They take it to be a sign of approaching drought, and they tell of similar appearances having been noticed in past years. This at present is all the additional information I have to offer. I am expecting 266 A. LIVERSIDGE. more in answer to letters sent to different persons likely to have observed the phenomenon.—H. Jonss.” “‘P.S.—I have not been able to secure any dust, or learn of any having been deposited by the fog or whatever the phenomenon should be termed.” “Yabtree, Gundagai, Dec, 23rd, 1880. ‘“‘Flaving seen your paragraph in Herald re dust storm that occurred on Wednesday 15th instant, will state herein the storm as observed here. Yabtree is on the Murrumbidgee about equal distance from Gundagai and Wagga. About 1 p.m. on the 15th the sky became overcast, sun obscured and some hills about two miles away partially so, they had the appearance of heavy rain falling ; wind strong from about W.N.W., in a few minutes the dust made its appearance, it was very fine. At first I thought it was swoke coming from bush fires, and although the house was closed, in a few minutes everything inside was covered with fine dust, the storm lasted until about 6 p.m., the sun having been invisible the whole time and wind in nearly same direction, then a few drops of rain fell, the wind fell away to almost a calm, and sky partially cleared, only few rain clouds passing slowly to east, a few more drops of rain fell about 8 p.m. after which the night was aclear one. There are no roads near Yabtree from which the dust could come, so I came to the conclusion that it was due to a storm, and felt disappointed by not seeing any remarks thereon in telegrams in Thursday’s (Herald, except from one station, Euabalong on the Lachlan River, about 200 miles W.N.W. from here, the direction from here to where the Potosz passed the mud shower, is about E.S.E., so the Euabalong, Yabtree, and Potoss storms were most likely one.”—R. F. Horstey. “Tumut, N.S.W., Dec. 23rd, 1880. I see by your letter in the Sydney Herald, dated Dec. 20, that you are anxious to collect all the information you can get as to the showers of mud that fell on board the 8.S. Potosz, and also at Moruya on Wednesday the 15th December. At Tumut the morning opened calm and hot, about 10 a.m. the wind began to METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 267 rise and whirled the dust along in thick choking clouds, which gradually mounted higher and higher into mid air until all the surrounding hills were blotted out, or only seen occasionally, as though a heavy thunderstorm was raging in their vicinity. Thermometer standing, 12:30 p.m. at 94° in the shade, in about the coolest spot to be found in Tumut, viz., large open shed at the Brewery with a thick bark roof, where the beer is cooled before going into the casks, on this occasion the cooling table was covered with cold water to keep the seams tight while no brewing was going on. ‘As Wynyard Street was the main channel of this terrific storm of dust, at times one side of the street was quite invisible to the other, shops had to close all doors, and even then a very fine deposit of dust remained on everything after the storm was over, which eased itself down as the sun declined, and was entirely over at sunset. The fine dust seemed to have attained an altitude of from one mile to a mile anda half, and was travelling from about W.N.W. to E.S.E. (no compass here). When over, the roads were swept clean of fine dust, and the coarse sand lay in regular ridges the same as waves leave it on the sea beach. Perhaps Adelong could give further information as the storm came from their direction. No doubt the fine dust travelled out to sea until beat down by the rain, for I see by the public prints that you had this storm at Sydney the same night. I enclose some of the fine dust obtained from nooks and corners of elevated places, so that you may compare it with that your Moruya correspondent sent you.”— EpwarD ALLEYNE. “Moruya Heads, Meteorological Station, 22nd Dec., 1880. “T have forwarded three samples of the mud or dust shower of the 15th instant, the samples have been carefully collected with a very fine brush, and I think contain very little of any other matter than that which fell during the shower, a great deal has been blown away since the 15th, though now all the bushes, leaves, small trees, etc., show it very plainly. On the morning after the shower a few pounds weight could have been collected from tubs, buckets, rain gauge, etc., but it was all thrown away. 268 A. LIVERSIDGE. “Concerning the shower, no particular notice was taken of it, the drops were large. It had been gloomy all day and threatening and alow barometer; we had a southerly squall about 6 a.m., which cleared off about 8 o'clock, mizzling rain at 9 and cloudy, wind light southerly, with a smart shower at 10, then light showers until 2 or 3 o’clock the following morning. At 5 a.m. 16th, the weather was fine and clear. We had a quantity of clothes on the grass all night, which were all covered with mud, yet only thought it strange how it came there, until reading about the Potoss steamer having been in such a shower. She must have been about 40 miles south of the Moruya heads at the time. I have not heard of it being at any other place than Moruya, and a few miles along the south coast, it looks very much like the rust on wheat.”— R. M. TRANENT. ‘‘Yass, 23rd December, 1880. ‘‘T noticed by Tuesday’s Herald that you wish to get information about the late dust storm. Jam informed by several parties that the storm rose a long way back, most of the dust rising off the stations between the Lachlan and Darling, crossing over Con- dobolin, Euabalong and Forbes, about 12 o’clock on Wednesday morning the 15th. JI have been living in the Cobar district many years, and always found the dust very bad in summer, especially in very dry times. A flock of sheep going in to get water ata tank will rise the dust so that it can be seen plainly at a distance of 30 and 40 miles, travelling in the air the same as smoke from a bush fire, (and it takes an experienced hand to tell the difference). I may mention the dust passed over Gunning between 5 and 6 o'clock on Wednesday evening 15th, the wind being from south- west.”—C. E, ARMITAGE. ‘‘Wingen, Jan. 23rd, 1884. “We have had here a rather remarkable appearance in the air. On Sunday morning January the 20th, the thermometer record for the previous 24 hours was 88 max. 53 min. with wind blowing from the west, and that night we had a light thunderstorm with 41 points of rain. On Monday the 21st the thermometer METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 269 record for previous 24 hours was 98 max. 60 min., and the wind blowing strong from the north-west, and the country was covered all day with a light haze which did not appear at all like smoke nor like ordinary dust. This continued all day, and on Tuesday morning the thermometer record for the previous 24 hours being 84 max. 55 min., the wind blowing strong all day from the same point, the country was still covered with haze. To-day Wednes- day the 23rd, the thermometer record for previous 24 hours was 81 max. 57 min., wind blowing from the same point, the haze has quite disappeared. The wind during the whole time seemed cool and moist, which seemed the more remarkable, as we have for weeks past been having hot dry winds from the same point. The idea which suggested itself to me was that there had been heavy rain in the north-west, as the feeling in the air and the appearance was much like what sometimes occurs in Sydney when a southerly buster comes up after a very hot day.”—-W. E. Axsporr. “Dust Storm of August 14th, 1885, as seen at Hay.—The night of the 13th August, during the ride in the coach from Gunbar to Hay was most beautifully clear. At the commencement of the last stage, 20 miles from Hay at 5 o’clock a.m., August 14th, the wind was blowing pretty freshly from the North. Later on there was a magnificent sunrise, the air being as clear as could be. On reaching Hay about 7°30 a.m., the wind was blowing strongly and increased up to 10 a.m., when it was blowing in heavy gusts from the north. It continued in this way till about 2-30 p.m., when it gradually grew calmer and veered to the south-west. At 7:30 a.m. the barometer stood at 29:396. It fell steadily until 2 p.m. when it commenced to rise. About 10 a.m. the whole place was enveloped in a light reddish-brown fog, which continued allday. ‘The particles of dust composing this fog, if it may be so called, being too fine to be seen, no motion was observed although the wind was blowing in strong gusts. The day was warm and rather close, the temperature being 70°. A light reddish-brown dust was deposited on everything. The wind got much calmer towards evening, and after sunset a slight shower of rain fell. 270 A. LIVERSIDGE. The morning of the 15th was fine and rather cold. There were a few cirrus clouds, the white back-ground of which showed a slight reddish tinge in the air which could not be seen against the blue sky. The rain gauge showed about ‘003, rain with a deposit of mud about :001.”—J. Arruur PoLtock. ‘“‘Buckingbong, Narandera, 13th Feb., 1885. ‘‘Narandera and the neighbourhood seem to be about the worst places visited, as far as I can learn the storm travelled from Hay to Narandera in 14 hours, and from Narandera to Wagga 1 hour, but the wind on the surface did not I think exceed 20 to 30 miles an hour, nor was there much dust near the ground, the wind in the clouds seemed of a whirlwind nature, the appearance before darkness came on being very wonderful, the clouds were rolling and rolling over and under one another. You will probably know that the storm struck Narandera about 2:15 p.m. and total dark- ness lasted for 15 minutes, succeeded a like time by a sky of red so brilliant you could scarce look at it. I may mention the dark- ness was blacker or more intense by far than the darkest night. I have interviewed many people since, men who have been in the colonies 50 years or more, but they aver they never saw anything like the storm of Friday, February 6th.”—B. Brair. “Kymba, August 15th, 1885. “At 9a.m the wind was N.E. moderate, with the sky slightly hazy, and a mild feeling in the air, similar to what would be experienced on a mild summer morning, although the minimum temperature during the night had been 30°. ‘The barometer (an aneroid) registered 28:50, being ‘10 lower than at 9 p.m. the pre- vious night. By noon the haze had gradually thickened, and the wind had veered to N.W., but came in variable gusts, and the barometer had fallen to 28°35. Shortly after noon, the clouds which came in the wake of the wind which had increased to a gale, assumed a peculiar aspect—a dun or salmon colour, and the surrounding hills became enveloped in a light yellow, foggy haze which was thought to be rain. At 3p.m. the barometer registered 28:33 and remained steady till 6 p.m. The gale blew with con- METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 271 siderable violence during thistime. After sunset rain commenced to fall in showers with strong gusts of wind, and with the rain a quantity of mud fell which bespattered everything. As an instance, iron tubs placed under spouts had one-eighth of an inch of a red deposit at the bottom this morning, and roofs and out- buildings bore traces of the discolouration. Twenty seven points fell up to 9 o’clock this morning, and the barometer has been gradually rising since, although light showers have fallen at intervals through the day. Asa mud or dust storm seems so unseasonable at this time of the year, I have dried a small quantity of it, and enclose in this letter, as it may be useful in your obser- vations on the subject. The country in this immediate neighbour- hood is too damp from the effect of the recent showers to furnish any dust. I may state that the altitude of this place above sea level is 1,036 feet according to Mr. Railway Surveyor Jamieson, who kindly informed me some time ago. The highest reading of the aneroid has been 29°36 since I have had it.” _R. J. Barr. “ Narandera “Argus” Office, August 24th, 1885. “Some time since Mr. Bryce Blair of Buckinbong Station near Narandera, requested me to forward to you details of the very severe dust storm which passed over this district on Friday the 6th of February last. I enclose herewith extracts from the Argus of the 7th of February, which of course can only be accepted from a paragraph point of view. My personal experience I give you briefly in narrative form—‘ I returned to my office shortly after two o'clock, there was at that time every indication of a heavy dust storm coming from the west, in the course of half an hour the town was enveloped in dense clouds of red sand, that was no more than the usual experience at intervals during the summer, but suddenly, there came a black column (like the densest smoke in appearance) which made the place darker than the darkest night I ever experienced, it was in fact the first occasion upon which I realized absolute darkness. Many people in speaking of it after- wards assured me that they had, from very fear, to remain where they were when overtaken by this cloud, for myself I may say 272 A. LIVERSIDGE. that, in my office, just before the storm, I had moved from the window, and suddenly I was so confused by the intense blackness that I could not possibly tell where the window was placed, and though knowing perfectly well in what part of the room lucifers etc. were usually kept, I had to grope about for some time before I could secure the means of kindling a light. Asa matter of fact I can say nothing stronger than that, it was dark- ness that could be felt.”—Gro. ELDRIDGE. ‘‘Gundaroo, 30th December, 1885 “Such an unusual and strange occurrence took place here this morning, that I thought I would communicate it to you. About half-past six a.m. on looking out the whole of the hills in the dis- tance, west and south, seemed enveloped in a cloud of dust or fog which gradually rose and worked round south to east. About seven, the hills west were cleared, but the dust hung in mid air like a cloud, excepting at two or three places, where it hung as if the dust was falling like a shower of rain ; at about a quarter past seven it had all blown in a body to the south, which was so dense that the hills only a short distance away could not be seen, and then it came blowing down direct north, it then took a north- west direction and died away. Now ata quarter to eight a.m. there is hardly a breath of air, with the sun shining out hot; dur- ing my thirty-one years residence in this part I never saw the like before, and thought such a strange occurrence deserved notice being taken of, and this is my reason for troubling you with the details.” — WILLIAM AFFLECK. The following articles and letters upon atmospheric dust and dust storms from other parts of the world are not only interesting, but they throw a great deal of light upon the subject of meteoric or atmospheric dust and dust phe- nomena generally as experienced in Australia, many more examples could have been given, especially if the meteoro- logical publications had been laid under contribution; those given are some of those noted down in the ordinary course of reading. METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 273 Dust Atmosphere of China.—J. P. O’Reilly, Dublin, ina letter to ‘‘Nature,’’ January 17th, 1884, quotes from von Richtofen’s work upon China, in reference to the dust atmosphere so characteristic of Central Asia and more particularly of the loess district :—‘‘ Even during complete calms the atmosphere is often for many days yellow and opaque. The view is completely hemmed in and the sun appears merely as a dull bluish disk.”’ More markedly is this character presented by these peculiar dust storms so well known to travellers visiting Tien-tsin and Pekin, and even more so to those who travel in the interior of the N.W. provinces of China. The wind then blows from Central Asia and everything becomes covered with a fine yellowish dust. ‘“‘In Shensi where the air is rarely clear and transparent, the whole landscape has a yellow tint, streets, houses, trees, crops, and even the traveller one meets on the road, and the air itself, one and all are yellow coloured.’” A writer in “‘Nature,”’ Aug. 12th, 1886, p. 348, quoting from an article in the American Meteorological Journal, upon the dust storms of Pekin, says :—‘These occur in the dry season, especially in the winter and early spring; they come on at irregular intervals, perhaps six or eight times in the season, and last about three days. The wind is W. or more often N.W. and blows fresh or high. The dust. extends eastward from Pekin to the sea and south east- wards it regularly descends as far south as the Yellow River, and sometimes to Shanghai 10° of latitude away.” The writer of the paper says this vast quantity of dust. must come from the great deserts of Mongolia. He also refers to the variations in the barometer and thermometer accompanying the storms, and to the obscuration of the sun, which was set in a ring. 1 See also Johnson’s “ Journey to Ichi the capital of Kotau.”—(Royal Geogr. Soc., 1867, p. 5.) R—Nov. 5, 1902. Q74 A. LIVERSIDGE. . Dr. H. B. Guppy, in “ Nature,’’ June 9th 1881, says that in the spring of 1878 his attention was directed to the dust-winds which are of frequent occurrence in the valley of the Yang-tse in the warm and dry season of the year. According to his observations at Hankow, they sometimes had the appearance of a dense mist, and at other times the air seemed to be penetrated by a fine haze, and in all cases a fine and impalpable dust was deposited, which was with difficulty excluded from the interior of the houses. Their duration lasted from a few hours to two days. He con- cluded that they are not local phenomenon from the fact that one was experienced simultaneously from Hankow to Chinkiang a distance of nearly 450 miles. The dust resem- bles the loess of the alluvial plains of the Yang-tse, and is generally made up of siliceous or calcareous particles from zovo0 to sso inch in size, and vegetable débris. From a study of the meteorological and electrical conditions of the atmosphere, he does not think they are due to sudden breezes. Prof. S. P. Langley, of the Allegheny Observatory, Penn., in speaking of the red sunsets seen all over the world, says (‘‘Nature,”’ 31/1/84) ‘we know of but two likely causes: one is the advent of an unusual amount of meteoric dust. While something over ten millions of meteorites are known to enter our atmosphere daily, which are dissipated in dust and vapour in the upper atmosphere, the total mass is small, compared with the bulk of the atmosphere itself, although absolutely large. It is difficult to state precisely what this amount is . . . approximately not greatly more than 100 tons nor greatly less than 1,000 tons a day. ‘‘Taking the largest estimate as still below the truth, we must suppose an enormously greater accession than this to supply a quantity, sufficient to produce the phenomenon in question; and it is hardly possible to imagine such a METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 275 meteoric inflow unaccompanied by visual phenomena in the form of “shooting stars,’ which would make its advent visible to all. Admitting then the possibility of meteoric influence we must consider it to be nevertheless extremely improbable. There is another cause, which I understand has been suggested by Mr. Norman Lockyer—though I have not seen his article—that of volcanic dust.’’ Prof. Langley then speaks of the dust present in the apparently clear air of the upper parts of Mt. Htna, sur- rounded by snow fields and deserts of black lava, yet the telescope showed that the air was filled with minute dust particles, which evidently had no relation to the local sur- roundings, but apparently formed a portion of an envelope common to the whole earth. In 1881 Prof. Langley was on Mt. Whitney, Southern California, with an expedition from the Allegheny Obser- vatory, where from a height of 15,000 feet they looked down upon a kind of level dust ocean, invisible from below, but whose depth was six to seven thousand feet. The colour of the light reflected from this dust was clearly red and it stretched in every direction as far as the eye could reach, although there was no special wind or local cause for it. It was evidently like the dust seen in mid ocean from the Peak of Teneriffe ; something present all the time and a permanent ingredient of the earth’s atmosphere.”’ Mr. Clarence King, Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, thought that this upper dust was probably due to the “‘loess’’ of China having been borne across the Pacific and quarter of the way round the world. We were at the top of the continent and the air which swept by us was unmingled with that of the lower regions of the earth’s surface. Hven at that great elevation the dust was per- petually present in the air, and I became confirmed in the opinion that there is a permanent dust shell enclosing the 276 A. LIVERSIDGE, whole planet to a height certainly of about three miles, and probably to a height even greater. The meteorites which are consumed at an average height of 20 to 40 miles must add something to this.”’ BK. Metzger, in a letter to ‘‘ Nature,” 17/1/1884, p. 261, draws attention to the presence of particles attracted by the magnet in the sand dunes near Scheveningen. Some atmospheric dust collected at Klagenfurt, Carinthia, after a rain of mud, which had taken place on Oct. 14th, 1885, was found to consist of minute crystalline granules and flakes of quartz, opal, orthoclase, biotite, phlogopite, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, talc, kaolin, chlorite, rutile, anatase, zircon, tourmaline, ferruginous clay, spinel, mag- netite, pyrites, magnetic pyrites, calcite, magnesite, dolo- mite,and apatite; metallic iron could not be found. Diatoms etc., were present, together with a few carbonaceous or carbonized substances, such as the spores of fungi, filaments of algee etc., silicifled membranes of parenchymal cellules, and pyritised and silicified spherules resembling pollen. Its reddish yellow colour, resembling the ‘‘Passat’’ dust, may be against its having come direct from the Sahara.’ In an address delivered to the Royal Meteorological Society, Jan. 15th, 1890, Dr. William Marcet, F.R.s., President, quotes from a paper by Dr. Cook in the Journ. Roy. Meteorological Society, who says that in India there are some days on which however hard and violently the wind may blow, little or no dust accompanies it, while on others every little puff of air or current of wind forms or carries off with it clouds of dust. Ifthe wind which raises the dust is strong, nothing will be visible at the distance ef a few yards, the sun at noon being obscured. The dust 1 Dr. M. Schuster, Imp. Acad. Vienna, Jan. 14, 1886; and Geol. Mac. 1886, p. 122. | re, METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 277 penetrates everywhere, and cannot be excluded from houses boxes, and even watches, however carefully guarded. The individual particles of dust appear to be in such an electrical condition that they are ever ready to repel each other and are consequently disturbed from their position and carried up into the air. Dr. Cook also describes dust columns and dust storms, and the electrical origin of both. In a letter dated Tokio, April 23rd, Prof. J. Milne, F.R.s., states, (‘‘ Nature,” June 29, 1892) that the commander, Capt. R. Swain of the 8.8. Yokohama Maru, gave him a specimen of some dust which fell on the vessel on April 2, when about 95 miles west by south of Nagasaki, at about 6 p.m. The sun appeared quite yellow. The atmosphere was moist and rendered everything upon the deck of the ship quite damp; the precipitated moisture was yellowish, and as it dried it left an extremely fine powder. For two days previously the wind had been blowing W.S.W. or from China. Nothing was felt in the eyes, and if the ship had not been covered with a yellow powder, the phenomenon would have been regarded as an ordinary but peculiarly coloured fog. . . . The probability is that the material came from the loess plains of China. At Nagasaki which is 300 miles from the coast of China, a yellow sun was noticed on the morning of the 2nd and during the day while the dust was being precipitated, the appearance of the atmosphere was compared to a London fog. On April 1st there was a fall of dust at Nawa in Okina- wa-ken, and on the 2nd dust fell at Gifu. The P. and O. steamer Verona, which left Hongkong on April Ist experi- enced the same phenomenon as the Yokohama Maru, the vessel being covered with a fine dust, and there was so much haze that land was not seen until reaching Nagasaki. On April 3rd, a yellow sun was seen at Yokohama, but I am not aware that any dust was observed. Roughly speak- 278 A. LIVERSIDGE. ing, it therefore seems that on April 2nd, at a distance of from 200 to 400 miles from the coast of China, there was a cloud of dust which may have been over 1,000 miles and possibly 2,000 miles in length. Dr. B. Koto, who examined the dust tells me that the particles are chiefly felspar, but there is a little quartz and shreds of plants. An article referring to a shower of dust in connection with snow in Indiana and Kentucky, appeared in the Monthly Weather Review in 1895.’ The dust does not appear to have been the nuclei of the snowflakes, but was intermingled in the air with the snow and fell during an interval between two snow storms. The examination of a large number of specimens showed that the dust was made up largely of silt, mixed with organic matter. A number of fresh water alge were present, though they appear to have been dead and dried for some time. Kverything indicated that the material had come from the bottom of some dried up lake, pond, marsh or river bed. The dust was almost identical with the so-called “loess ”’ formation, which covers very extensive areas in Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska and adjoining States, its depth in some places amounting to 100 feet or more. This is interesting, because there is a long standing controversy as to the origin of the “‘loess”’ of the north-west. Certain portions of the “‘loess’’ formation of Asia are known to be wind deposits, and there is very strong presumptive evidence, now borne out by the examination of the samples of dust, that much of the “‘loess’’ of the Western States is also a wind deposit. . . . . This light soil is easily raised and carried off by strong winds of the western plains of America; instances have occurred in which six inches of surface soil have been blown away from freshly cultivated fields in the course of a single wind-storm. 1 « Nature,” August 29, 1895, p. 419. METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 279 J. M. Yates, writing from Davenham, Cheshire, “‘Nature’’ 1/4/97, says: —‘‘On Tuesday morning, March 22nd I noticed on the glass of our greenhouse and on many of the shrubs, a sort of red dust. On making inquiries I found the same thing existed about two miles due west, I collected some, and by the kindness of Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co., it was examined in their laboratory. The report says :—The dust showed minute fragments of clayey matter mixed with quartz; organic matter, such as pollen grains, was absent. The particles are about ‘0001 millimetre in diameter, many of them less. We are surrounded by grass; the soil is clayey loam, without oxide of iron or quartz.’’ A letter from Augusto Arcimis, ‘‘Nature,” 21/4/98, in reference to the dust shower met with by the Roslyn Castle off the west coast of Africa, describes the phenomenon as experienced at the City of Laguna, Teneriffe. °“‘A light fog was observed from the early hours of the evening of Feb, 15th, with a light breeze from the east. During the night it rose to a moderate gale. At about 5 a.m. on the 16th a few drops of rain fell. The wind dropped to a gentle breeze again during the day, from the east. The fog became denser and the sun pale and feeble like the moon. The drinking water became salty and coloured as by oxide of iron. The dust was grey and extremely fine, and was deposited on every object.”’ Some brown dust was collected on board the P. and O. 8.8. “Sumatra,” during a thunderstorm in the Galita Channel, Mediterranean. Mr. G. T. Pryor, (‘‘Nature,”’ 29/6/99) found the dust to be an argillaceous and calcareous sand, containing a little organic matter, and a few angular grains of quartz. Prof. Ricker, F.R.s., (now Sir Arthur Ricker) writing from Taormina, in Sicily (‘“‘ Nature,’ 28th March, 1901) on March 12th to Prof. Judd, says:—*‘ We have had a rather 280 A. LIVERSIDGE. curious phenomenon here. The sirocco was blowing and the hills were wrapt in mist, but the fog assumed a yellow hue, and the sun which at times could not be seen through it, was a bright blue. This was caused and accompanied by a copious fall of red dust. Some which I shook off my hat was quite dry, and on looking at it through a low power lens, all the granules appeared to be spherical, except a very few grains of what looked like quartz. . . . This dust also fell at Naples and Palermo in such quantity that the streets looked red and the people were frightened.” Prof. Judd states that under the microscope the dust is seen to be made up of particles of quartz, mica etc., also frustules of freshwater diatoms. Prof. Rucker, ‘“‘Nature”’ May 9, estimates the amount from his observation as about 7 tons per acre. Sir Hd. Fry, F.R.S., wrote to “‘ Nature’”’ from Failand, January 28th 1902, describing a fall of reddish or rust coloured mud or dust, which covered greenhouses, plants, and clothing out to dry; it also fell at Lawrence Weston, about five miles to the N.E., Chewton Priory some fifteen miles S.E., and Barry Island some twenty miles W. by S. and on the other side of the Bristol Channel. The above fall was afterwards found to have spread over a large area, since it occurred in Cornwall. On March 6th there appeared a letter in “Nature” from Mr. Clement Reid, stating that the above fall of red dust in South Wales may have been derived from the Red River dust flats, as he had noticed red dust clouds blown from the flats and spreading across St. Ives Bay to St. Ives Head, a distance of over three miles. The wind was not a gale, but merely a strong dry east wind. Gold and platinum? in meteoric dusts.—Yor convenience the results of the search for these metals are summarised here instead of being given under the headings of the METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 281 various specimens examined. Minute quantities of gold were met with in two of the dusts examined, viz., from Gundagai and the University tank, that from the University beams also yielded a metal resembling platinum, some of the other dusts have yet to be tested. These metals were especially sought for when grinding and washing the dusts in an agate mortar to separate out the particles of metallic iron, as this is a much more delicate test for minute quantities of gold and platinum in such materials than any chemical test; they were obtained in the form of minute spangles. The dust from the University beams, collected in 1882 from a portion of the roof some distance from the Chemical Laboratory and completely cut off from it by several divid- ing walls and the ceilings, yielded a minute spangle of a white malleable metal insoluble in nitric acid even after evaporating the acid down to dryness, hence it appears to be one of the platinum metals. The particle was too minute to admit of applying other wet tests, hence it was not treated with aqua regia. A dust from Muswellbrook (N.S.W.) yielded particles of a non-magnetic grey metal readily soluble in acid, this was probably zinc or zine and lead from a galvanized iron roof. Hartley and Ramage found lead in several meteorites, in volcanic and other dusts, as well as in chimney soots (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1901). The mud from the University tank, which may have been collecting for 30 years, as the tank had probably never been cleaned out since it was put up, yielded spangles of a yellow malleable metal, insoluble in nitric acid even on evaporation, and therefore presumably gold, the metallic particles although visible without a microscope were very small and insufficient for the application of other tests; there were also present particles of a yellow metal resem- 282 A.. LIVERSIDGE. bling gold but soluble in nitric acid, these may have been copper or brass, (as copper is almost invariably present in meteorites it may have had a meteoric origin); the Men- indie dust also contained a yellow metal soluble in nitric acid. The dust from Gundagai yielded a yellow malleable metallic spangles insoluble in nitric acid, and therefore presumably gold. In most cases some of the metallic spangles were visible without a lens, these were separated from the rest of the material left in the mortar by picking them up on the point of a needle and transferring them to a slide for examination under the microscope; under a one inch objective, they still looked like gold, the action of the nitric acid was also watched in the same way; some of the soluble ones were seen to dissolve slowly, others quickly with many minute gas bubbles. The gold and platinum may or may not be of meteoric origin, but as both metals have been met with in meteor- ites, (an account of the occurrence of gold in meteorites will be given in a subsequent paper) and platinum has apparently been previously found in meteorites,’ it is not impossible that both the gold and the platinum metal may have had a cosmic source, although it is much more prob- able that the gold has been windborne from some auriferous area, for even the sandstone and shales about Sydney contain traces of gold.’ Conclusion. I have quoted what may be considered by some as an unnecessarily large number of accounts of meteoric dusts, dust storms, rains of mud, dry fogs, etc., but Ido so because some of the explanations given by different observers do 1 Davidson, Am. Journ. Sci., 1898. Mingaye, Report of the Dept. of Mines, Sydney, 1898, p. 21. 2 A. Liversidge—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1894, pp. 185 ~ 188. = 4 = —- - METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 283 not appear to quite account for the phenomena, and it appears to be desirable that sufficient evidence is needed for each to judge for himself. My own opinion is that the phenomena of dry fogs or haze, of dust storms and mud rains are not due to extraterrestrial causes; I think that the material or dust is mainly made up of débris, inorganic and organic, from the land and occasionally as everyone is aware of volcanic dust; mingled with this undoubted telluric matter there appears to be nearly always a certain amount of extraterrestrial or cosmic matter, i.e., the dust or débris of meteorites, although in most cases it is very difficult or even impossible to discriminate between the terrestrial and the cosmic dusts. The presence of cobalt and nickel in the iron of a dust was formerly regarded as a proof of its meteoric origin, but it is now known that both of these metals occur in the metallic iron met with in some rocks, and notably in the telluric irons of Greenland, nickel has also been found in dust from volcanoes, and in the soot from coal smoke by W. Noel Hartley, F.R.S., and Hugh Ramage, (Proc. Roy. Soc., March 1901, p. 97). They also found other metals in soot, €.g., copper, gallium, thallium, silver chromium, lead, etc. Both nickel and cobalt occur in some varieties of com- mercial iron and steel, cobalt is especially likely to be present in traces in Bessemer or other steel in which spiegeleisen or other manganese alloy is used in the manu- facture. A piece of a Sydney tram rail, a horse shoe picked up in the street and nails from the same all yielded traces of cobalt; nickel was not tested for as the presence or absence of cobalt was regarded, for the purposes of this inquiry as of more importance. In spite of the presence of cobalt and nickel in some telluric irons, dusts and soils, I still think that some, if not most of the metallic iron (containing nickel and 284 A. LIVERSIDGE. cobalt) found in dusts, such as have been described in this paper, is of meteoric or cosmic origin; the particles resemble those obtained from meteorites and do not look like pieces abraded from manufactured articles, further they are not usually rusted to any great extent, whereas small particles of ordinary iron and steel (even if small amounts of cobalt and nickel are present) usually rust quickly; the difficulty is to prevent them passing wholly into the form of oxide, then too, the minute spheres of iron found in what are regarded as meteoric dusts and deposits are not found in flue dusts nor in volcanic dusts; as already pointed out, they have, however, been formed artificially by Professor Schuster from meteorites, The following shows however, that a telluric form of spherulitic iron does occur:—In the Trans. of the Royal Society of Canada for 1890, Dr. G. C. Hofimann describes an occurrence of metallic iron containing nickel and cobalt on St. Joseph Island, Lake Huron, Ontario. The iron occurs as minute spherules in a thin coating of limonite on the fissure faces of surface specimens of quartzite, the spherules amounting to 60% of the coating by weight. The largest spherules are about °3 mm. in diameter. Sp. gr. 6°86. The part of the spherules soluble in hydrochloric acid contained :— Tron... bas Pee era!) Sulphur: © 72 de 13 Magnesia ... is OT Phosphorus wa SO Nickel 43 ee ms! : SS Cobalt sat sae °23 100°00 Copper S85 Ral "10 The portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid (nonmetallic) 9°767> was made up of spherical and ovoid grains and con- sisted mainly of silica. The spherules were made up of a siliceous nucleus, coated with a humus like substance which in turn was covered with the metallic layer; the author METEORIC DUSTS, N.S.W. 285 suggests that this metallic layer was probably due to the reduction of an iron salt by organic matter. The presence of a nucleus of silica or other non-metallic matter in the spherules regarded as of cosmic origin has not been recorded; further the meteoric spherules show traces of fusion, hence I think the Canadian spherules are: quite distinct. Finally, although there appears to be no doubt, whatever, that there is a constant gentle rain of meteoric dust fall- ing upon the earth’s surface, and at times it is probably greater than at others, especially after the periodic meteor displays, the evidence certainly does not show that the dust storms, dust, haze, red rain, mud showers, etc., are due to any unusual descent of meteoric matter, hence it is a misnomer to call the deposits from such ‘‘ meteoric dust.”’ Note.—Certain minor additions have been made to this paper during its passage through the press.—A.L. 286 BERNARD F. DAVIS. OccURRENCE oF GADOLINITE in WEST AUSTRALIA. By BERNARD F. DAVIS, B.Sc., With notes by W. G. WOOLNOUGH, B.sc., F.G.S., and Prof. T. W. EDGWORTH DAVID, B.A., F.R.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 8, 1902.] Introduction.—The mineral described by Mr. Davis in the accompanying paper was obtained by him at Coogle- gong, in the Pilbarra District, West Australia. He sub- mitted it in April, 1901, to Mr. W. G. Woolnough, B.sc., and myself for a preliminary examination. Its general appear- ance at first suggested that it was allanite, but a blowpipe examination of the mineral by Mr. Woolnough showed that it was either gadolinite or some very closely allied mineral. Mr. Davis took the mineral with him to England, promising to analyse it, and send the analysis for publication in our Proceedings. The analysis reached me at the end of last year, but too late for the 1901 session of our Society.’ ‘Mode of occurrence.—“ Dr. Bonney very kindly examined the rock specimens which I brought home from the same district in which these minerals occur. They were gneisses and granites of marked archeean type. Field evidence showed that a more acid granitic rock, usually very coarsely crystalline, had intruded the gneiss, sometimes breaking across the planes of foliation without disturbing their direction, and by working along the planes of foliation becoming absorbed into the structure of the gneiss. In fact one had the process of gneiss-making before one. ‘Dr. Bonney thought that the granitic intrusion was pro- ably very little later than the original gneiss. The lodes 1 The portions of this paper in quotation marks are taken from the letter from Mr. Davis. OCCURRENCE OF GADOLINITE IN WEST AUSTRALIA. 287 carrying cassiterite, gadolinite, monazite, etc. occurred in the gneiss.” _ Physical Characteristics.—Colour black in mass, like coarse bottle glass. In splinters transparent and grass- green. Weakly doubly refracting. Pleochroism distinct but not strong, from grass-green to slightly bronze-green. Streak light greenish grey. Lustre vitreous and somewhat greasy. Fracture conchoidal to subconchoidal. Hardness 7, brittle. Specific gravity, as determined by Mr. B. F. Davis 4°14. The mineral occurs in large masses as much as 10 cm. in diameter, approximately rhombic in cross section, though not sufficiently definite in shape for crystalline form to be determined. The masses appear to be roughly prismatic and are interrupted by an imperfect transverse parting, the division planes being covered with a film of yellowish- green decomposition products. The mineral is intergrown with white felspar to a certain extent. The central portions of the gadolinite individuals are free from felspar, which occurs zonally about the periphery roughly defining the crystals of the host. This fact indicates that the crystallisation of the gadolinite on the whole preceded that of the felspar, though the two periods overlapped somewhat. The portions of the gado- linite exposed to the weather have undergone considerable decomposition, the resulting product being reddish earthy limonite with a concentric structure and a thickness up to 3 or 4 millimeters. The following is the elias by Mr. Davis :— SHHCal > e.: Led a8 Bo a8 aye) Ferrous Oxide (FeO) . oe ae 24), 10°38 Glucina (BeO) . sa ba bho 2S Cerium Oxide (Ce,0,) .. Se CR OUe| Lanthanum and Didymium (La.O; and Di,O;) 18°30 > 54°16 Yttrium group calculated as (Y.Os)... #3) 38°401) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) ie a rs "69 Loss on ignition ae xe Sa 32 101°20 288 BERNARD F. DAVIS. ‘‘A small percentage of iron is present as ferric oxide. The BeO includes any alumina which may be present, although I found none in the qualitative analysis. This result seems very high, and I think the high total is prob- ably due to this. 54°16 represents the percentage of the oxides together, obtained by igniting the oxalates with addition of a drop of nitric acid at the end. The per- centage of yttrium is probably slightly lower and the lan- thanum and didymium correspondingly higher. **Dr. Norman Collie very kindly examined the mineral for helium and other gases. He says that 10 grams on heating gave about 10 cc. of CO, and 10 cc. of hydrogen, a little nitrogen and about one bubble of helium. No argon. In his first experiments he thought he detected argon, but it must have been an impurity from the air. ‘“The method of analysis was as follows :—Decomposition of the mineral with hydrochloric acid and estimation of the silica inthe usual way. Filtrate made up to known volume and measured quantities taken for different estimations. In the slightly acid solution the cerium and yttrium earths were precipitated with excess of oxalic acid while boiling and allowed to stand usually for twelve hours, sometimes two or three days. The filtrate containing iron and glucinum was evaporated with sulphuric acid and after taking up with hydrochloric acid, ammonia added and the iron and glucinum oxides weighed together. The iron was estimated volumetrically. The oxalates of the cerium and yttrium elements were converted into sulphates and separated by standing two or three days with saturated solution of pot. sulphate. The cerium was estimated both by fusion of the nitrates with nitre and also by Mosander’s - method. I did not think it necessary to go over the analysis again to correct these errors or verify the result as given. For our present purposes it is sufficient, and OCCURRENCE OF GADOLINITE IN WEST AUSTRALIA. 289 shows the mineral is “‘gadolinite’’ with a rather low per- centage of yttrium earth, but otherwise of normal com- position. Amongst the minerals I brought from the north-west, I have two varieties of a mineral allied to ‘‘ euxenite’”’ in physical characteristics, as described by Dana. One differs from the other in having more manganese in the place of uranium. They are essentially niobates and titanates, (with tantalum) of wraniwm, iron and yttrium earths, with the cerium earths andthorium. They occur with cassiterite and monazite in the wash dirt. I have only a few small pieces, but one mineral at least was not uncommon. I saw it in all the tin we bagged from different parts of the country. I hope to start an analysis of one of these if time permits.”’ S—Dec. 3, 1902. 290 W. H. WARREN. INVESTIGATION IN REGARD TO THE COMPARATIVE STRENGTH and HLASTICITY or PORTLAND CEMENT MORTAR and CONCRETE WHEN RE- INFORCED WITH STHEL RODS AND WHEN NOT REINFORCED. By W. H. WARREN, ™. Inst.C.E., Wh. Se, Challis Professor of Hngineering. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 3, 1902. ] THE following investigation has been undertaken in order to supply data for use in the design of armoured mortar and concrete constructions, such as the Monier system, and consists of tension, compression, and transverse tests of mortar and concrete when reinforced with steel rods, also of tests under similar conditions when not reinforced. The mortar consisted of one part of Portland cement to two, three and four parts of washed river sand, which had been passed through a sieve of 400 and caught on a sieve of 900 meshes per square inch. Tension Tests.—The size and shape of the test pieces used for tensile tests is shown in Fig. 1, and the arrange- ments for holding it in the testing machine in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 shows the test piece fixed in a horizontal testing machine. It will be observed that the shackles are so designed that the tensile stress applied is equally distributed over the area of the cross section under test, which is 100 x 100 mm., or 4inch X 4inch; the length over which the elonga- tions were measured is also 100 mm., or 4 inches. The shackles are held in a horizontal plane by means of four springs which allow them to be adjusted by means of STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 291 Fig. 3—Shewing teusile test-piece in small Testing Machine, with Martens’ Mirrors attached. 292 W. H. WARREN. four screws; a spirit level is laid on the test piece while it is being fixed in the machine, and set accurately in a horizontal plane. A double set of Martens’ mirror apparatus is then attached, by means of which the elongations are observed, using two reading telescopes and scales on each side of the test piece. The elongations can thus be measured to zrodoo MM., OF ssveo00 Of an inch. In these tests the elongations have been recorded for multiple of °00004 of an inch. Tables I. and figs. 4, 5 and 6 give the results of testing the mortars at ages varying from two to twelve months, in which the coefficient, or modulus of elasticity, has been calculated at stresses varying from about 50 tb. per square inch toas nearly as possible the breaking stress. Table II. and figs. 7 and 8 give the results of testing similar pieces : He otf: 700 ~) So co) Load in pounds per square inch. 100 0 *00008 °00016 ‘00024 °00032 ‘0004 00048 -00056 ‘00064 ‘00072 ‘0008 Extensions in inches. Fig. 4—Tensile Tests of Mortar Briquettes. Age 12 months. No. 1—One Hemmoor Cement to two Emu Plains sand. No. a= ” 3 = three ” 23 No. 3— - i fort si 8; 2 STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 293 — = 2 ee 700 SeeS ee ee coor eres ee eeetee aoe SS SS Set te : aieetgeistie oH trae fit HE a iseedsaae! sieeenaee = SSeS : zt - 600 fe = aeaae “RE See erea eit S) if a saease japan : iassaceden aes +H + * aman t + O- peach sertttiee fice SH Suadeeagisasuasbaseeassesaeresareirceeenate = 500 ieiiiestresde ef set Pesiroastosieateseerstestpeiste is} is breesiousteuattsenete see = f Sr EeeeerTerereE Het f Peer etts i 2 pete i : Fe mercfsteses = pane SS rest etesereeae eretteE sic ates pets eH Siiritin a 400 Hise : EESEE ESSE Erase pessssesteseevoee H n Soratoaiyeeegiteede : ; 3 ee z aaa ¢ rH 3 i suaeafessd cupeahondoesessia = eee eet =| ett ae = miiriiaie z 8 S 200 i | ie ceeedseevaaanss tenet tert z : rs ee 32 = = oe 100 =e Srsriies a? Saaeis ore epi eapl Tea eTTTETTTTET ere ss + at = ect at tt eestest ae SESE EEE tte [euae est i af es sed eats area ie guess ests fares evtstestate fet aH Ht He Saat: sesegeusy f Ht : 3 THis SETH 0 00008 -00016 °00024 °00032 ‘0004 -00048 ‘00056 °00064 “00072 °0008 Extensions in inches. Fig. 5—Tensile Tests of Mortar Briquettes, Age 6 months. No. 1--One Hemmoor Cement to three Emu Plains sand. Noa2— 55 ” four 9 3 700 600 500 400 300 200 Load in pounds per square inch, 100 0 -00008 -00016 00024 -00032 :0004 -00048 -00056 Extensions in inches. Fig. 6—Tensile Tests of Mortar Briquettes. No. 1, age three months, one Hemmoor cement to two EmujPlains sand. 29 2, ry) 3” ry) three ” 39 3, 39 33 33 four 33 », 4, age two months, ,, re four a r 700 Haisrsesesret= - 600 z Es (3) Es S “4 Ff 500 i) fou n o S 400 3 q HEE 8 300 eoiiee ate : a seo q HH ore i rS : Eee Sis 3 H : 2 S 200 Serres z EE tt tt ssa eese! fe fa gu eaueenepadseed fast eart opetesessaeseaste 106 eS Ese Seas ee Sue H im 2 ai seinen ereegees gsreatereefe Bad pent raguatovearescteste Tphe eae t ryeeesocese seepees esee! su is 0 ‘00008 °00016 °00024 *00032 °0004 00048 ‘00056 ‘00064 00072 ‘0008 Extensions in inches. Fig. 7—Tensile Tests of Mortar Briquettes, containing steel bars, half inch diameter. Age 28 days. No. 1—One Hemmoor cement to three Emu Plains sand; five bars. y) 2— ” ” ” ” 9 four 33 99 3— ” ” ” ” ” four oy) 3” 4— 2 ” ” 0 9 one ,, ss shee ate ast : faisses a sesss Saat + isssarzevateseeses Pre = : te isi oie: antes =H aH = = E rH fs 600 +4 ieee i ptr ; yi3s: as = +t paces qd es Hy - o % 500 S 5 eset [oy fsrsstaeyiati ; a aH ta seeeea Re 2 400 ie a) eter ee patties Lo) Ceraytensevazazent i =| SHAT ives Seat Sp : 5 scien [eessgewess + as 300 Hee 2 [=7) eee = Ht =| _ ie eet z = fo} Peat = ee He 2 S 200 fee = mata A a ae : : feast esses : sbrestastitgetees at i ceay/iiainessisaad feeeveswissestrevea 7 = Hr 7 t Eeaney pagaana panel ccaua + +r Pesenles 100 seer aH a : + gesprsss reece! : ssessvost aeserdtpeessestiie HF 5 cee sore | ; noes SE ae geascure: Sayin ots - : = = Sr nsbepnaues ss ae ore ae sie ese Scere Seeder sans a ISS Petessea es tL2s 0 ‘00008 °00016 ‘00024 ‘00082 :0004 °00048 -00056 00064 ‘00072 ‘0008 Extensions in inches. Fig. 8—Tensile Tests of Mortar Briquettes, containing steel bars, half inch diameter. Age 90 days. No. 1—One Hemmoor cement to three Emu Plains sand; five bars. 3) aie 3” 29 29 29 one ;; 2” 3— 29 ” 3 29 four 33 STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE, 295 in tension reinforced with bars of Bessemer steel at ages of from 28 days to 90 days. Comparing the deformations and breaking weight of a test piece reinforced with a plain test piece not reinforced, it will be seen that the increase in strength is very marked in the case of the piece reinforced with five bars, being about 2°3 times that of the plain pieces. The increase with four bars is very small compared with the increase with one bar. The decrease in extensibility, and therefore the increase in the coefficient of elasticity is also disproportion- ately low with the four bar reinforcement, probably due to the centre of the specimen being relatively weaker than the exterior. The results are summarised in the following table :— Table III.—Showing the stresses producing deformations expressed as multiples of 0:00004 of an inch in reinforced tension pieces compared with similar pieces not reinforced. Mortar aged 3 months, 1 cement to 3 sand. BRbession ia Eiledie, iis, Reinforced Ib. per sq. inch. 000004 inch. | per sq. inch. [=] [::] [+] if 48 70 50 65 3) 109 148 150 193 10 175 269 227 330 Ig 184 296 250 353 14 279 421 16 481 Breaking stress 219 281 301 516 The extensions are reduced in consequence of the adhes- ion of the mortar to the steel rods. In every case the instantaneous coefficient of elasticity diminishes as the load increases, the curve being convex to the axis of stresses but the reinforced are slightly flatter than the plain pieces, the five bar reinforcement curve being practically straight. Compression Tests.—The compression tests were made on prisms 12 inches long by 6 inches by 6 inches (Fig. 9), 296 W. H. WARREN. f --6"-- 4 Fig 9 Gane ob. ee Neo e eee pe Re See er gO” os Rk eke ee Lig 14 and the shortenings of the prisms under compressive stress were measured by means of the Martens’ mirror apparatus in a similar manner to that described in the tension tests (Fig. 10). The tests were all made in a vertical Fig. 10—Shewing Compressive Test Piece in large Testing Machine with Martens’ Mirrors attached. testing machine, and the prisms were of similar composition ' in regard to Portland cement and sand as in the tension tests. The results are recorded in Table IV. and in figs. 11 to 13. — infinches. 10nS 1 Compress “0040 0032 “0024 0016 rept rtes 0008 5x) a 29 3— 39 = 23 5— 39 6— 0 2” 2— Load in pounds per square inch. Fig. 11—Compressive Tests of Mortar Prisms. No. 1—One. Hemmor Cement to two Emu Plains sand; age 380 days. Biesesi ae AUG if PtH! fe SEARLE deagiearie fan i aii i fe : eee i z gest ie f i ani i aa PSsctscasaesses ate Eset = : f : = : : a oH is ap teses fears 4 a ea Ee ee agin eres 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 sae : 4000 33 33 33 33 39 39 381 33 33 3) three 33 33 39 423 33 33 33 3) 33 3) 39 379 39 9 29 four 39 Py) pp GD hp 39 33 33 33 9 99 421 339 See = fe ae é i so ear See 70008 +=«°0016 «= -0024«—s 0082 )=— 0040 »=s 0048 Ss 0056 = 0064 «= ‘0072 *008 33 3) 3) 33 33 Compressions in inches. Fig. 12—Compressive Tests of Mortar Prisms. No. 1—One Hemmoor Cement to two Emu Plains sand; age 90 days. 3) 39 33 33 39 taco 3) four 39 39 33 39 33 99 33 39 3) 33 39 3? 33 3? 93 33 91 91 91 91 91 33 33 33 bh 93 298 W. H. WARREN. squ — a S Oo cere mae ; Z f : SSIES /EStS = fet = 400 Se ee ee eer sua ptt 5 sscsezass ; ; a ; 3 spiitvssrrseseee fet pest f a a iirssninas : + + age $ = fae ireus teva estvasrese Seesgegyeteusta sare Sestetise tt Elabase i : sees? tt rete sist ee + +H E + gers er + 525 ‘segas eae : 1 t tr =t =o pooeann es : = seessessd ess: : + sat qoseoreces 0 ‘0008 =°0016 «=69°0024 «=6'00382) = 0040 = 0048S 0056 = 0064-=S 0072 ~=—Ss ‘008 Compressions in inches. Fig. 13—Compressive Tests of Mortar Prisms. No. 1—One Hemmoor Cement to two Emu Plains sand; age 28 days. ox) Pp 29 cB) 9 ce) 99 3 ” 3— 9 oy) three 39 29 ry) ” 4— ” ry) ” ” Py) age 29 days. ” o— 33 29 four 39 +9 33 28 Ey) 39 6— %” ” ” cy) cy) cy) 29 3) The diagrams show smooth curves, but in fig. 11 the curves are slightly concave to the axis of stress, whereas in fig. 12 some of the diagrams are slightly convex; again, in fig. 13 they are all convex to the stress axis as in the tension tests. The coefficient or modulus of elasticity is not so regular as in the tension tests, but it is much greater than the corresponding modulus in tension. The coefficient of elasticity increases with the age and richness of the mixture. Transverse Tests.—The first series consisted of eight beams 45 inches long by 4 inches by 4 inches of Portland cement mortar, made with 1 part of cement and 3 parts of standard sand, similar to that used in the tensile and com- pressive tests. The beams were all tested on a span of ae Se ) STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 299 45 inches, loaded in the centre (Fig. 14); the deflections produced by the various loads were measured by means of sector deflectometers, reading to s+ mm. directly, or r#s0 of an inch, attached to each side of the beam in the centre. Four beams were tested when reinforced with steel rods half inch in diameter on the tension side, and four were tested without any reinforcement in order to compare the one with the other. The results are recorded in Tables V. and VI., and in figs. 15 and 16, from which it will be seen that the strength 300 aE See 2sd0 = : a 2600 2400 2200 2000 rs 1800 | seatletiee ane = S. 1600 He = 1400 3 = 1200 H 012 383 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 138 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Deflections in 0°004 inch. Fig. 15—Transverse Tests of Mortar Beams, containing three half inch steel bars. No. 1—One Hemmoor Cement to three Emu Plains sand; age 159 days ” oe oe) 29 29 99 29 39 161 39 9 3— 29 39 9 ” 29 99 187 39 oy) 4.— ” ” 2” 9° 9 cy) 192 oy) is increased by the steel rods from 54 to 10 times that of the plain beams not reinforced. Again, the reinforced beams are able to deflect much more than the plain beams without fracture. 300 W. H. WARREN. #t ft ete iat = Bn i er ieseee sets Bless Bane be te » EEE : : Ft ees os _ 500 : wm lve} oa fa BE 5 = 400 a q ors = ot . mo Hitt 4 3 Ht Hie 2 300 | i HE 200 100 7 2B +f Pate = =: iste Seecteete 7 + Sas= mcr = =! aes ‘ woes ize xs awnue SELES El sesee yeabsuenges ines exens wows + patesares + poeSgecpesi=a pores eece : 5 oe 33 Ssdasesspsss 0 0:2 0°4 0°6 0°8 1°0 1°2 1°4 1°6 1°8 2°0 2:2 2°4 2°6 2°8 3°0 Deflections in 0°004 inch. Fig. 16—Transverse Tests of Mortar Beams. No. 1—One Hemmoor Cement to three Emu Plains sand; age 94 days a” Za ” ” 39 99 3” 99 154 3) 9 3— ” ” 99 9 9 99 180 2) 3” 4,— ” ” 3” ” 99 39 188 3) A second series consisted of five mortar beams of similar composition to that just described and tested in a similar manner; the span was 48 inches and each beam was rein- forced with four rods 2 inch in diameter arranged on the tension side, giving an area of 0°4416 square inches. The width remained constant throughout the series, namely 9 inches, but the depth varied from 12 inches to 2 inches. The results are recorded in Table VII. and fig. 17. These beams gave a modulus of rupture which decreased as the depth was diminished, being 1,055 pounds per square inch for the 12 inches depth, and 3,500 pounds per square inch for the 2 inches depth, whereas the modulus of elas- ticity increased as the depth was diminished, being about three and a half times as great in the 4 inches depth as in that of the 12 inch depth. The modulus of elasticity STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 301 0°15 0°14 0°13 0°12 0°11 0°09 Q°OS eR Seeceat a AeNe a Tce) Serene ages He O07 eee. 0°06 Ta | HH Hitt Et 0°05 04 Bee 0038 Bas z aaa Deflections—one division equal ‘001 inch. i ee ql He i HY re 00 Hee ceserenenradeterels gua a 0 5000 1000 15000 20000 ‘ Load in pounds. Fig. 17—Transverse Tests of Mortar Beams, containing three-eighth inch iron rods. No. 1—1 Hemmoor Cement to 3 Nepean R. sand; 9 X 12in., age 80 days. oy) zael. 29 9) 3 29 9X 8 in DO 86 a” ” 3—1 a” 39 3 39 9 x 6 in., 99 94 oy) » 4—1 a BS 3 50 9X 4 in ee Oe Te oy) o—l ” re) 3 39 3 x 2 in ’ oy) 102 > decreased in every case as the load was increased, as in the foregoing series. A series of three tests were made in order to show the transverse strength of concrete piles when reinforced with steel, for the Sydney Harbour Board. The cross section of one of the piles was triangular, the sides of which were 19> inches, the steel rods arranged at each corner were 14 inch in diameter, tied every 6 inches with wire ¢ inch in diameter (see fig. 18). The pile was supported at each end of the span of 5 feet 63 inches and loaded in the centre. The second pile was of square section, 14 inches by 14 inches (Fig. 19) made and tested in a similar manner on a span of ) feet 63 inches. The third pile was similar in section to fig. 16, but it was tested on a span of 15 feet. The con- 302 W. H. WARREN. —JSydney Harbour Trust D — Monier Piles — — Kalelh “-/F4 — 'f cods Me wire & yay bul chser a? head and pon! }— —SA4— -—— Conerese, ees 4 pearl Comen/ 2 parls Sand Cpe pacts of Ya blueslont mujo/ 1% r0ds ; I é wire C’aparl buk 7 chaser ar hesa tpene” 15 bite = Spnaiiiins i E seins intespeiseaanes resins 14 : = sess ps ees See a Se fe cn iat scrschscuactsnteanacrtaranuat: 13 Sane Seria feeetitt —_— + oo fan st 12 i z seis a a ssrssiaaifisiad c 11 suieireee #10 ] a Ee ey aeesee z Seger suet aeceee ree eee fs} : FEE EEE ies ronnnneeraetaii o § Raiinentas Feet x eizsaiercgcrnsataad eerausaaaet Fs N eszseesesbesssessnaee: +H i N 7 Bt Ba 4 ; a serceete zl era 3 6 = S HE sec ue fine ae 4 3 2 re 1 01 2 3 4 5 6 F 8 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Deflections in 0:004 inch for 1 and 2; 0°010 inch for 3. Fig. 20. . STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 303 crete consisted of one part of Portland cement, two parts of sand, and two and a half parts of broken blue metal 3 gauge. The results are recorded in Table VIII. and fig. 20. The triangular pile showed about the same modulus of rupture as the square pile on a span of 5 feet 63 inches, but the square pile tested on a span of 15 feet was 50% stronger than a similar pile tested on a span of 15 feet, due probably to the more complete distribution of the stress in the longer pile. In the experiments recorded in Tables I. to VI. the Specimens were removed, after hardening in air for 24 hours, into water where they were kept until they were taken out for testing. The experiments recorded in Tables VIL. and VIII. were allowed to harden in air. The author proposes to read a paper early next year dealing with the application of these results to the design of reinforced mortar and concrete constructions, and he wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. A. Boyd, B.Sc. B.E., in connection with the testing and recording of the results. 304 W. H. WARREN. Table I—TENSILE TESTS OF MORTAR BRIQUETTES. Composition. 1 cement to 3 sand r -——- -— 1 cement J to 2 sand } L | | 1 cement to 4.sand } | a aa ene a RE Ore ree ae Age in months. 12 Total load applied. 1000 2150 3550 4220 800 1940 3225 4.500 775 1750 2800 2950 900 2350 3875 5100 775 1800 2050 950 1900 3030 3500 800 1660 2800 2725 825 1660 2400 2500 700 1525 1670 Tensile per sq. in. 62 134 222 262 50 121 201 281 48 109 175 184: Elongations stress, Ibs. |.99904 inches. 1:0 5°0 10°0 13°0 1:0 5°0 10°0 18°0 WD) 10°0 16:0 6:0 Coefficients of | Breaking Elasticity, lbs. per sq. inch. 3125000 2062500 1906250 1781250 1875900 1800000 1703000 1385000 1718750 1562500 1437500 1393750 2500000 2312500 2110000 1797000 1718750 1625€00 1612500 2812500 1750000 1593750 1387500 1875000 1450000 1437500 1156250 20381250 1450000 1187500 1137500 1250000 1281250 1218750 load lbs. per sq, in. 281 281 219 319 296 234 187 187 STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE, Composition. 1 cement to 3 sand 1 cement to 3 sand ia 1 cement to 3 sand Es 1 cement to 3 sand Ee ‘1 cement to | 38 sand 1 cement to 3 sand | 1 cement to 3 sand ie Age in days. 28 28 28 28 90 90 90 T—Dec. 3, 1902. Total load in pounds. 912 2048 3120 3568 1072 2240 3472 4.048 1088 3104 5552 8592 880 1920 2960 3020 800 2400 3632 4.4.64. 1040 3088 5280 7696 1120 2368 4304 Table II | . Tensile stress in pounds per sq. inch. 57 128 195 223 67 140 217 253 68 194: 347 537 55 120 185 220 50 150 227 279 65 193 330 481 70 148 269 Extensions |°00004 inches. 1 305 Coefficients of | Breaking Elasticity in bs. per sq. in. 2575000 1935000 1637500 1597900 3575000 2175000 1857500 1847000 3675000 3255000 3157500 3160800 2375000 1775000 1537500 1179600 1875000 2375000 1957500 1769600 3375000 3235000 2987500 2810900 3875000 2335000 2379000 load Ibs. per sq. in. 24.4, 285 575 218 301 516 281 306 W. H. WARREN. Breaking load lbs. lbs. per sq. inch. |per sq. in. Table IV. A Compressive Coefficient of Composition. Ageiu |stress in lbs.|Compression| Elasticity in days. | persq.inch. | ‘00v8 inch, (| 28 4.10 0:75 | 4640000 905 2:00 4.215000 1650 4°00 3970000 28 285 0°75 2973300 620 2°00 2790000 1120 4:00 2645000 1560 6:00 2496600 1993 9:00 2145500 '1 cement to< 2 sand 91 315 0°75 3373300 795 2°00 3665000 1450 400 3470000 2130 6°50 1643000 381 360 0:50 5960000 1140 2°00 53890000 2020 4°00 4895000 L 3320 7:50 | 4344000 (| 28 280 0:75 2906600 | 560 2°00 2490000 970 400 22'70000 1305 6°00 2071600 1730 9°75 1710900 29 220 0°75 2106600 440 2°00 1896000 720 400 1645000 980 6:00 1530000 1360 9:50 1366000 91 320. 0°75 3440000 660 2:00 2990000 1135 400 2682500 1540 6:00 24.63000 1 cement to¢ 1925 8°25 | 2258000 3 sand 91 130 0°75 906600 505 2:00 2215000 955 400 4.465000 1345 6:00 3207500 1855 9°25 2983300 4.23 280 0:50 4.360000 940 2°00 4390000 1710 4°00 4.120000 2115 5°25 3910400 379 160 0:50 1969000 610 2:00 2740000 1140 400 2695000 e 1860 7°25 2480000 2985 2923 3557 4640 2196 2003 2923 2643 2115 3129 STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. Table LV.—continued. | ‘1 cement to 4 sand Composition. i L Age in days. 29 28 91 ot 416 421 280 500 750 920 1120 225 4.40 685 895 1095 230 480 800 1100 400 560 900 1150 260 720 1325 209 680 1160 1605 0°75 ‘0008 inch, Compressive Compression Coefficient of stress in lbs. per sq. inch. Elasticity in lb Breaking load lbs. s. per sq. inch.|per sq. in. 2906609 2°00 | 2190000 400 1720000 6:00 | 1430000 9°50 | 1113600 0°75 2140000 2°00 | 1890000 4°00 1557400 6:00 | 1388300 8:50 | 12153800 0°75 | 2240000 2°00 2090000 4°00 1845000 6°50 _ | 1597000 0-75 | 4506600 2°00 2490000 4°00 2095000 6:00 | 18138000 0°50 | 3960000 2:00 3290000 4°25 | 2971000 0:50 27760000 2°00 3090000 4°00 2745000 6°75 | 2286000 1356 1468 307 1841 1692 2096 2333 Table V.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF MORTAR BEAMS, 4 inches by 4 inches, containing 1 cement to 3 sand and 3 bars of }inch steel. Age in days. | Load in pounds. 159 22 45 89 134 LT, 224. 269 314 358 403 448 538 627 717 | Readings of Sectors. Front | Diff. 0°2 inm- 12°85 12°85 12°85 12°65 12°55 12°45 12°25 12°15 12°15 12°15 12°15 12°15 12°15 12°15 0°00 0:00 Back 35°00 35°00 35°00 35°05 35°11 35°22 35°33 35°82 35°92 35°93 36:06 36°10 36°32 | Diff. 0:00 0:00 0:00 0°05 0:06 O11 0-16 0°44 0°10 0°01 0-13 0:04 0-22 0°21 Deflec- tions per “01 ton Mean \0°2mm)| 0°'2mm. 02mm] 0°71 mm. 0:00 0-00 0:00 0°25 0°16 0°21 0°36 0°54 0°10 0:01 0°13 0:04 0°22 0°21 Total deflection 0°1 mm. Modulus of | Breaking Elasticity pounds per Load, pounds. square inch, 0°25 0°41 2890 0°62 | 4461600 0:98 1°52 1°62 1°63 1:76 1°80 2°02 2°23 Modulus ofrupture pounds per square inch. 2737 308 W. H. WARREN. Table V.—continued. 161 187 Load in ;, | pounds. 806 890 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1434 1523 1613 1702 1792 1882 1971 2061 2150 2240 2330 0) 89 179 269 308 448 538 627 Es 806 896 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1434 1523 1613 1702 1792 1882 1971 2061 2150 22 89 179 269 358 448 Readings of Sectors. Front 0°2 mm, 12:05 12°05 12°05 12°05 12°00 12-00 12°00 12:00 12:00 12-00 12 00 12:00 12°00 1P95 EDS 11:95 11°95 11:95 16 00 16°00 16 90 16°00 16:00 16°00 15°95 15°95 15:95 15°95 15°95 15°55 15°45 14°75 14°55 14°25 13 45 12°85 12°70 11:90 11°85 110 10°99 9°35 9 25 15°45 15°44 15°20 15:00 14°25 14°00 Diff. 0'2mm 0:10 0-00 0-00 0:00 0-05 0°00 0°00 0-00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0-00 | 0:00 0:05 0:00 0:00 | 0-00 0°00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 | 0:00 0:00 0°05 9°00 0:00 0:00 | 0-00 0°00 0:10 0:70 | 0:20 0°30 0:80 0:60 0°15 0°80 0:05 O75 0°20 0:55 0:10 0°01 0°24 0°20 0-75 0°25 0:00. Back Diff. 0°2 mm. |/0°2mm 37°01 | 0°48 37°39 | 0°38 37°50 | O11 37°92 | 0°42 38:09 | 0°17 38°12 | 0°03 38°80 | 0:68 39°23 | 0°43 39°36 | 0:13 39°43 | 0:07 39°62 | 0°19 40°60 | 0:98 40°63 | 0:03 40°75 | 0°12 40 93 |0-18 41°20 | 0°27 42°20 | 1:00 42°82 | 0:62 33°94 34°12 34°42 34°85 35°26 35°55 35°62 35°85 36°42 36°60 36°70 37°32 37°42 38°10 38°28 38°61 39°50 40:05 40°20 41:00 41°25 42°60 42°85 44°21 44°95 0:00 0°18 0°30 0°43 0°41 0:29 0:07 0°23 0:57 018 0-10 0°62 0:10 0°68 0°18 0°38 0°89 0°55 0-15 0°80 0°25 0°35 0°25 1°36 0°74 0 00 0-01 0:00 0 00 0:00 0°02 33°85 33°86 33°86 33°86 33°86 33°88 Defiec- tions per ‘01 ton. Mean 01 mm. 0°58 0°38 Oat 0°42 0:22 0:03 0°68 0:43 0-13 0:07 0-19 0:98 0:03 0:17 0-18 0-27 1:00 0:62 0:00 0°18 0°30 0°43 0°41 0°29 0:12 0°23 0°57 0-18 0-10 0°62 0°20 1:38 0°38 0°63 1°69 115 0°30 1°60 0°30 eG) 0°45 ZEON 0°84 0:00 0-02 0°24. 0-20 0°75 0:27 Total deflection 0-1 mm, 2°81 3°19 3°30 O12) 3°94 3 OF 4°65 5°18 5°23 5°30 5°49 6 47 6°50 6°67 6°85 Wel, 8°12 8°74 0°00 0°18 0°48 O91 132 161 1:73 1:96 2°53 2°76 2°81 3°43 3°63 acl 5°39 6°02 (Ue 8 86 9°16 10°76 11% 12°16 12°61 15°62 16°36 0-00 0:02 0:26 0°46 1:21 1:48 pounds per square inch. 4524000 4301200 4680090 3088800 3012400 6505200 2240 | 2128 2598 | 2464 Age days. 192 Load in pounds. 538 627 CAME 806 896 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1424 1523 1613 1702 1792 1882 ea! 2061 2150 2240 2330 2419 2509 22 89 179 269 308 4.48 038 627 717 806 896 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1434 1523 1613 1702 1792 1882 1971 2061 2150 2240 2330 2419 2509 2598 2688 Table V.—continued. Readings of Sectors. Front 0°2 min. 13°95 13°28 13°22 13°00 12°24 11°79 11°78 11:03 11:00 10°72 10°40 9°49 9°38 9°06 8°25 8:07 7°38 7°08 6:07 0°82 5°50 3°92 2°60 15:20 15°20 15210 15:00 14°85 14°62 14°60 14°50 14°35 1405 14-00 13°95 13°95 13 85 13:75 13°70 13°65 13°65 13°65 13°65 13°65 13°65 13°65 13:60 Bas 1 Bah. 13°40 12°80 12°20 11:20 10°30 Ditf. 0°2mm 0°05 0°67 0:06 0:22 0-76 0°45 0:01 0°75! 0:03 0:28 0°32 0°91 O-1l 0°32) 0°81 0:18 0:69 0°30 1°01 0°25 0°27 1:68 1°32 0:00 0:00 9'10 0°10 0°15 0°23 0:02 0:10) 0°15) 0°30 0:05 0°05 0:00 0°10 0°10 0°05 0°05 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0°00 0°05 0°05 0:00 0-15 0°60 0°60 1:00 0°90 Back 0 21nm, 33°89 33 89 33:90 33°90 33°90 33 90 33°90 33°90 33 90 33°91 33°91 33 91 33 91 33°91 33°91 33°91 33°91 33 91 33°91 33°91 33°91 33°91 33°91 31°16 oleh? 31°31 31°50 31°82 32°35 32°43 32°60 - 32°90 33°60 33°70 34:00 34°86 34°94 35°70 35°95 36°50 36°88 37°00 37°70 38°00 38°28 38°75 39:00 39°68 40°11 40°70 41°42 42°10 43°20 44°15 Diff. 0°2inm 0:01 0:00 0°01 0:00 0:00 0:00 0°00 0:00 0:00 0:01 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 000 0:00 0:00 0-00 0:00 0:00 0-00 0:00 0 00 0°01 0°14 0°19 0°32 0°53 0:08 Onli 0°30 0:70 0°10 0°30 0°86 0°08 0°76 0°25 0:55 0°38 0°12 0:70 0°30 0:28 0°47 0°25 0°68 0:43 0°59 0°72 0°68 tal) 0°95 Veflec- tions per 0‘L ton. Mean 0O-lmm. 0°06 0°67 0:07 0°22 0°76 0°45 0:01 0°75 0:03 0:29 0°32 0°91 0-11 0°32 0°81 0-18 0:69 0°30 1:01 0°25 0:27 1:63 1°32 0:00 0:01 0°24: 0:29 0:47 0°76 0:10 0:27 0°45 1:00 0°15 0°35 0:86 | 0:18 0°86 0°30 0°60 0°38 0°12 0:70 0°30 0°28 0:47 0°30 073 0°43 0°74 1°32 1:28 2°10 1:85 Total deflection 01mm. L654 2°21 2°28 2°50 3°26 571 3°72 447 4°50 4°79 owl 6 02 6°13 6°45 7°26 7°44 8:13 8°43 9°44: YY) 10:06 11°69 13°01 0:00 0°01 0°25 0°54 101 CTE 1:87 2.14 2.59 3.59 3.74 4.69 4.95 5.13 5.99 6.29 6.89 (eal) 7.39 8.09 8.39 8.67 9.14 9.44, 10.17 10.60 11.34 12°66 13°94: 16:04: 17°89 Modulus of Elasticity pounds per 3931200 2995200 6474000 13432000 2340000 square inch. | Modulus Breaking of rupture Load, | pounds pounds. |persquare jineh> 2777 | 2631 310 W. H. WARREN. Table VI.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF MORTAR BEAMS, 4 inches by 4 inches, containing 1 cement to 3 sand. Age in days. 94, 154 180 188 Load in pounds. 45 89 134 179 Readings of Sectors, Front 0-2 mm. 10:00 9°96 9°73 9°25 9°20 9°04: 8°78 14°92 14°91 14°90 14°90 14°90 14°90 1490 1490 1495 14°86 14°75 14°59 16°18 16°17 16°18 16:10 16°00 15°92 15°80 15°66 15°55 15°78 Diff, 02mm 0:00 0°04: 0°23 0°48 0°05 0°16 0°26 0:00 0-01 0°01 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0°05 0-09 Oxi 0°16 0:00 0-01 0:01 0:08 0°10 0:08 0-12 0°14 O11 0°13) Back 0°2 mm. 28:00 28 04 28°35 28°65 28°68 28°82 29°06 30:00 30°05 30°23 30°41] 30°55 30 70 30°89 28°31 28°46 28°47 28°60 28°76 31°46 31°48 31°49 31°56 31:68 31:78 31:89 32°00 32:18 32°40 Diff. 0°2mm 0-00 0°04 0°31 0:30 0°03 0-14 0:24 0:00 0:05 0:18 0-18 0°14 0°14 0°19 0:00 0:15 0-01 0-13 0-16 0 00 0:02 o'01 0:07 0:12 0:10 0-11 O-ll 0:18 | 0-22 Deflec- tious per Q1 ton. Mean 0'l mm. 0-00 0:08 0°54 0:78 0:08 0°30 0:50 0:00 0-06 0-19 0:18 0°14 0°15 0-19 0:00 0°10 0-10 0°24 0°32 0:00 0°03 0:00 0:15 0°22 0:18 0°23 0:25 0°29 0:09 Total deflection 071 mm. 0:00 0:08 0°62 1:40 1°48 1:78 2°28 0:00 0:06 0:25 0°43 0:57 0°72 0:99 0:00 0:10 0:20 0°44 0°76 0:00 0:03 0:03 0-18 0°40 0°58 0-81 1:06 1°35 1°44, Modulus of Elasticity pounds per square inch. 2059200 1794000 4.212000 3822000 3900000 2964000 3900000 3525600 | Modulus Breaking |ofrupture Load, pounds pounds. /persquare inch, 358 | 359 336 | 338 224 | 327 403 401 , Table VII.—TRANSV Age in | days. Description, One cement to three | 80 Nepean River sand Four 2 inch iron bars; 9 inches wide 12 inches deep. One cement tothree| 86 Nepean River sand Four 2 inch iron bars; 9 inches wide 8 inches deep. One cement to three) 94 Nepean River sand Four 2 inch iron bars; 9 inches wide) 6 inches deep. One cement to three 99 Nepean River sand Four 2 inch iron bars; 9 inches wide 4 inches deep. One cement to three|102 Nepean River sand Four 4 inch iron bars, 9 inches wide 2 inches deep. Load in pounds. 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3000 4000 4.500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 | 8800 4.000 5000 6000 _ 7000 8000 8250 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4.500 5000 3? 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 4.500 Scale differ- ences in inches. 0:00 0-001 0-001 0:002 0°002 0°002 0°002 0:002 0:0038 0:002 0°003 0°004. 0:003 0:009 0:009 0:00 0-001 0-001 0-001 0-001 0:002 0-003 0-002 0-004: 0:005 0:012 0:01 0011 0011 0°00 0°002 0-002 0:003_ 0-004. 0-006 0-003 | 0-007 | 0-005 | O-C1l1 0:008 0013 | 0:005 0-000 0:005 9-012 0:016 0-018 0-018 0021 0:020 0-021 0-021 0:007 0°00 0°040 0:035 0:044 0°104 Total deflection. in inches. 004: ‘005 006 ‘008 "010 7012 "014, ‘016 ‘019 "021 "024 "028 ‘031 "040 ‘099 ‘001 "002 003 004: ‘005 ‘007 010 "012 016 021 033 044. "055 066 ‘001 ‘003 0-006 0°018 "005 ‘008 "012 018 021 028 033 044: *052 065 070 0-001 0-034: 0:052 0:070 0-091 0111 0°132 0°153 0°160 0°032 0.072 0°107 0-151 0°255 ERSE TESTS OF MORTAR BEAMS, containing Iron Bars. Span 4 feet. Modulus of | Breaking] Modulus of Elasticity in| Load, Rupture, pounds per | pounds. | pounds per square inch. square inch. 000; 1055 2133000 1333000 800000 11000; 1875 4.500000 2400000 909000 8250 | 1832 7111000 2708900 1675700 5000 | 2500 8000000 2057000 1568000 1750 | 38500 4000000 2258000 312 W. H. WARREN. Table VIII.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF MONIER BEAMS. Description. Four bars 13 inch in diam. Span 5 feet 4 inch. (Fig. 15) Three bars. Span 5 feet + inch. (Fig. 16) Load in pounds. 560 (1120 1680 2240 2820 3380 3940 4480 5040 5600 6160 6720 7280 7280 7840 8400 8960 9520 10080 10640 11200 11760 12320 12880 13440 14560 15680 16800 17920 19040 20160 21280 '22400 23520 24640 25760 26880 28000 2240 3380 4.4.80 5600 6720 7840 8960 10080 11200 11200 12320 13440 Sector Readings. Front “02 cm. 10°77 10°94 11:05 11°50 11°50 11:50 11°52 GL 12°04 12°26 12°25 12:26 12°28 12°24 12°24 12°66 12:66 12°55 12°56 12°57 13:12 13°37 13°14 13°22 13°30 13:45 13°47 14°43 14-70 15 09 15°45 15°90 16:60 17°80 18:26 18°83 19°76 10°97 11:20 11:23 11°46 12:02 12°22 12°48 12°82 13°51 T9390 11°96 1217 Back “02 cm. 1:00 1:13 1:20 1:26 1 30 1°42 1°50 1°58 1°68 1°72 1°81 1-90 2°00 2°24, 2°25 2°33 2°40 2°38 2°45 2°58 2°92 2°90 3°15 3:16 3°24 3°50 405 450 470 5°00 5°40 5°90 6°65 7:20 8°10 8°80 9°60 3°32 3°32 3°32 3°37 3°86 3°92 3°96 405 4°53 448 4°54, 4 85 Sun. ‘01 cin. jaleyiorg 12:07 12°25 12°76 12°80 12:92 13°02 13°19 13°72 13°98 1406 14°16 14°28 14°48 14°49 14°99 15°06 1493 15°01 15°15 16°04 16°27 16°29 16°38 16°54 16'95 17°52 18°93 19°40 20:09 20°85 21°80 23°25 25°00 26°36 27°63 29°36 14°29 14°52 1457 14°83 15:88 15°14 16°44 16°87 18°04 16°38 16°50 17:02 Dift. ‘01 cm. Total defiection ‘Ol cm. CO 0:3 0°48 0-99 1:03 115 1°25 1°42 1°95 2°21 2 29 2°39 2 51 2°52 3°02 3 09 2°96 3°04 318 4:07 4°30 4°32 4°41 4°57 498 5°58 5 96 6°43 7:02 QPTES) 8°73 10°18 11:93 13°29 14: 56 16°29 0-0 0°33 0:38 0°64 1'59 1°85 215 | 2°58 2°75 2°87 3°39 Modulus of Elasticity, pounds per square inch. 1316900 1307600 1624900 3299200 3396100 ' Modulus Breaking ofrupture Load, tons. 28000 | 27552 | pounds, per square inch. 813 802 STRENGTH OF CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE. ats Table VIII.—continued. Modulus Sector Readings. Total Modulus of | Breaking|of rupture Description. | Load in deflection} Elasticity Load, pounds. pounds. Front Back Sum. Diff. | ‘Ol cm. | pounds per tons. |per square 02cm. | ‘02cm. ‘Ol cm. {01 cm. square inch. inch. 14560 | 12:29 | 4°85 | 17°14 3751 15680 |12-71 | 5-05 | 17-76 aA 4°13 16800 |13-10 | 5:50 18-60 | oe) 4:97 17920 | 13-56 | 6:00 | 19-56 5-93 19040 | 14-02 | 6°50 | 20-52 we 6-99 20160 | 14°60 | 695 |21°55 |, 4.) 8°02 21280 |1520 | 7°40 | 22-60 |, 9) 9:07 22400 | 16:03 | 8:15 | 2418 |p.g2| 10°65 | 1958900 23520 | 16°35 | 1-51 | 2486 jo 04 24640 /16-60 | 9:50 | 26:10 |* 27552 Four 0 |10-92 | 859 ]19°51 |9.44| 90 | 12432] 1226 bars 13} 448 | 10°93 | 8°68 | 19°61 0-54 0:10 inch in| 896 |10:96 | 9-09 | 20°15 0 40 0°64 diam. | 1844 /11:15 | 940 | 20°55 0-21 1:04, Span | 1792 |11:16 | 9°60 | 20°76 0:45 1:25 15 feet. | 2240 | 11°36 | 9°85 | 21:21 0-67 1°70 | 4998000 2688 | 11-69 | 10-20 | 21-89 |o.-4) 2°87 (Fig. 16)| 3136 | 11:96 | 10°50 | 22°46 0:89 2°94 3584 | 12°35 | 10°93 | 23:28 0:99 3°76 4082 | 13:00 | 11:57 | 23°57 0-30 405 4480 | 13 65 | 12°22 | 2587 0-19 4,35 4928 13°14 | 14-92 | 28-06 | 44, 6:54 53876 | 15°62 | 13°90 | 29:52 0-71 8°60 | 3043600 5824 | 15°95 | 14°28 | 30°23 2-19 8°71 6272 | 17-15 | 15:20 |32°35 2-20 10°83 6720 | 18°34 | 16°25 | 34:55 2-02 13°03 7168 | 19°45 |17:°12 | 36°57 0-15 15:05 FNGe VO) WAT 86:72 0°31 15°20 8064 | 19°60 | 17°43 | 37:03 ALS 15:51 8512 | 21°60 | 19°58 | 41:18 1-89 19°66 | 1654600 8960 | 22°50 | 20°56 | 43:00 21°58 12432 314 H. C. RUSSELL. THE FALLACY or ASSUMING tHat A WET YHAR In ENGLAND WILL BE FOLLOWED BY A WHT YEAR IN AUSTRALIA. By H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. [With Diagram. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, December 3, 1902. | It is a widespread idea that if abundant rain falls in Hngland there will be an abundant rainfall in Australia in the following year. If we look at the diagram it is at once evident that such conditions are very irregular, and after carefully examining the same, we cannot but admit that although sometimes heavy rains in England will be followed next year by heavy rains in Australia, it seldom does so. For instance rain was very abundant in England in 1875, likewise in Australia in 1876; the next year England had still more abundant rain but in Australia the rainfall was very much below the previous year, thus contradicting the theory. During 1880 to 1885 inclusive, rain was very abundant in England, while at the same time we were suffering a very severe drought. Again, take the years 1894 to 1901; each one of them shows an abundance of rain in England, while Australia has been suffering a severe drought. Nothing more is needed to justify the fallacy of the statement that an abundant rain in England is followed by an abundant rain in Australia. IS EUCALYPTUS VARIABLE ! 315 IS HUCALYPTUS VARIABLE ? By J. H. MAIDEN, Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Government Botanist of New South Wales. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 3, 1902. | SYNOPSIS: I. The variability of characters considered seriatim. II. Has variation in Eucalyptus now ceased ? III. Some studies in variation. IV. Mannas, kinos, oils, etc. are accessory characters only. V. Botanical classification for purposes of nomenclature of genera etc., is based upon morphological characters. This Journal has been a medium for recording the theory that the genus Hucalyptus has now ceased to be variable. I propose to consider the question from various points of view. I. THE VARIABILITY OF CHARACTERS CONSIDERED SERIATIM. The genus Hucalyptus is such a large one that a number of schemes have been submitted for dividing it into sections with a view of associating those closely allied, or for arriv- ing at the name of a species with facility. I propose to review each character, from timber to anther, to see if any satisfactory scheme can be evolved. In the Proce. Aust. Assoc. for Adv. of Science, Sydney Meeting, 1898, both Prof. Tate’ and Mr. Luehmann’ simultaneously gave prominence to the use of the fruit for purposes of classifica- tion. Both papers take cognizance of other characters as well. Both are the work of men who know the genus and are valuable contributions to knowledge. 1 Tate, R.— Op: cit. * This Journal, xxxv., 121. 334 J. H. MAIDEN. in indicating differences in the several species or that is more con- clusive in its results, than is the practical constancy of chemical constituents in identical species, a fact of the greatest scientific and economic importance.” By “‘identical species” it is not certain whether botanical or chemical species are referred to. And again:— ‘That the constituents have been fixed and constant in the oils of the several Eucalypts for a very long period of time.” It is added that the venation of the leaves and their botanical characters “‘ show also a marked constancy.” All this comparative constancy is probably accounted for by the long period of time that must have elapsed before a particular species could have established itself as such over so extensive a range as we find species to-day. “The chemical and botanical peculiarities must also have been fixed primarily, because we do not find the differences in characters one might expect by environment. Our researches seem to show that the species are only well marked varieties in which the dis- tinctive characters have become permanent.”' (The italics are mine). These statements are quite definite. The authors state that the genus Kucalyptus has now become fixed. By what authority can anyone venture to say that variation has ceased in the genus? I regret that such a statement has been made, as it seems to be specially unfortunate. In view of the evidence I have already adduced, Iimagine most botanists will agree that the genus is as variable as Rubus, Rosa, Hieraciwm, Cinchona, or Salix. A friend humorously expressed the situation by saying, ‘‘There is so much variation that there is really but one species, and its name is Eucalyptus australis.’’ The late Rev. Dr. Abbott made a somewhat similar utterance when, 1 Baker and Smith, this Journal, xxxv., 122, 123. IS EUCALYPTUS VARIABLE ! 335 speaking of the English language and of its marvellous flexibility, he declared that “‘Any part of speech may be used as any other part of speech.”’ My studies of this genus have shown me that variation exists in every species with which I am acquainted. Some species are undoubtedly “‘stronger’’ than others, but the more we collect and the more we observe, the more we find old barriers between old species break down. With some species one is inclined to say, “‘What character is constant! there is no safety unless one keeps the type in sight just as the mariner does the light of the light-house.’”’ To pursue the simile further Iam sure that the only way to avoid botanical shipwreck is to stick to the type. III. SOME STUDIES IN VARIATION, We have now arrived at the point when it will be profit- able to consider specific instances of difficulties of classifi- cation through variation. I would invite attention to a paper’ I have recently written to illustrate this point. In summing up, I show that we have the following names for the Gum-topped Stringybarks of Tasmania (which extend into Victoria and Southern New South Wales), that is to say for practically the same tree :— . Risdoni, Hook. f. var. elata, Bentham. . radiata, Hook. f. (var. 4), non Sieber. . obliqua, L’herit. . regnans, H.v.M. . amygdalina, Labill. . dives, Schauer. . haemastoima, Sm. . virgata, Sieb. var. altior, Deane and Maiden. . oreades, R. T. Baker. . Sieberiana, F.v.M. . delegatensis, R. T. Baker. t SOON AMKRwWNe Hee eee eee jek = e * The Gum-topped Stringybarks of Tasmania; a study in variation.— Read before the Roy. Soc., Tasmania, 1902. 336 J. H. MAIDEN. The Gum-topped Stringybark has therefore been duly named, and has been given ten synonyms in addition,—not hastily, but by men who have worked on the genus, and who have given reasons for their determinations. The great majority of the determinations can still be defended, and may be looked upon as indicating forms of the species referred to. Study of the Gum-topped Stringybarks presents one of the best instances of variation in the genus that I have met with, and affords a most instructive example of the necessity, in this protean genus, of endeavouring to ascertain what is the type, and of bearing it closely in mind. Again, who will have the temerity to define the boun- daries between the Stringybarks, Eucalyptus eugenioides, eapitellata and macrorrhyncha, and between all of them and H. pilularis? I could give dozens of specific instances in which species run into each other, showing that we are striving after a wrong ideal when we endeavour to stereo- type them. IV. Mannas, KINOS, OILS, ETC., ARE NON-ESSENTIAL BUT ACCESSORY OR ADAPTIVE CHARACTERS AND EXAMINATION OF THEM MUST BE SIMPLY LOOKED UPON AS AIDS TO DIAGNOSIS. Volatile oils (e.g., of Hucalyptus) are what are termed accessory substances, that is to say, they are not essential to the plant. They probably have various functions, e.g.,' 1 This is of course following Tyndall, who showed that an envelope of aromatic air around a plant is less pervious to heat rays than is ordinary atmosphere.— Kearney, “ Report on a botanical survey of the Dismal Swamp region.”—(Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb., v., 6, p. 392), says, “‘ How effective this may be is yet very doubtful, but it is not to be denied that such aromatic plants are much more abundant in dry soils and climates, where the water supply of the plant needs to be jealously guarded than where other conditions prevail.’”’ He quotes Pfeffer (Pflanzenphys. 2te Auflage, 1.,501) who considers that this exhalation is “hardly of high importance” for protection against loss by water. IS EUCALYPTUS VARIABLE ? BBs (1) to create a halo of vapour which checks transpiration, (2) to attract, by their odour insects necessary for fertiliz- ing the plant, and (38) render the plant nauseous to some insects and animals which would otherwise prey upon it. Such accessory characters cannot obviously be other than variable, yet Messrs. Baker and Smith’ say “‘that the con- stituents have been fixed and constant . . . . ‘“‘their botanical characters show a marked constancy” . . ‘“‘the chemical and botanical peculiarities must also have been fixed primarily.”’ The key to the oil question has less to do with the deter- mination of species, but depends on examination of the minute morphology (anatomy) of the leaf. V. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION FOR PURPOSHS OF NOMENCLA- TURE OF GENERA, SPECIES, AND VARIETIES IS BASED ON MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. It is the object of botanists to construct a Natural System. Linnaeus in proposing his artificial system, which met the requirements of his day, still looked upon a truly natural system as the ideal of botanists. As time has rolled on we have steadily approached this ideal. Jussieu, DeCandolle, Bentham, Hooker, and others have made marked progress in perfecting the natural system, and Engler in his Pflanzenfamilien and now his Pflanzenreich, is, with the assistance of coadjutors, showing the latest progress in this direction. All these authorities base their systems on morphological characters, and it is of course their object to associate closely related forms.’ 1 This Journal, loc. cit. ? I do not lose sight of the fact for one moment that, in the discrimin- ation of genera and species we should call to our assistance any characters that can be employed to that end. Prof. John M. Coulter in his Vice- Presidential Address, Section F. (Biology) Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1891, p- 300, eloquently pleads for a philosophical conception of a species in V—Dec. 3, 1902. 338 J. H. MAIDEN. Mr. Baker however, contends that, at all events as regards the genus Hucalyptus, this method of classification is wrong. Following are some of his statements. “And all this is due to our having classified in the past our Eucalypts on what the author contends is an artificial basis, namely, morphological characters.” And again :— ‘“‘In many instances it 1s impossible to classify Hucalypts on the shape of fruits, anthers, buds, and leaves, and in this connection is mentioned the case of Z. bicolor and £. pendula, of A. Cunningham. It has been customary in recent times to synonymise these species under the name of £. largiflorens, F.v.M. Now Cunningham, who was a field botanist and who was familiar with these trees, named the bastard box of Cabramatta LF. bicolor, a tree with a dark box bark on the stem, and with clear whzte limbs, and having a lightish brown coloured timber, whilst the ‘‘Coolabah” of the interior he named L. pendula, from its drooping habit. This tree has a red coloured timber, and a bark extending to the ultimate branches. The oils of the two trees are quite distinct. The economic and systematic materials of H. pendula having been obtained from many parts of the Colony, and show the usual con- stancy of specific characters which the author has found to hold in almost all other Eucalyptus species. This also applies to £. the following passage :—‘‘ The character of a species is an extremely composite affair, and it must stand or fall by the sum total of its peculiari- ties and not by a single one. A specific character in one group may be a generic character in a closely related one, or no character at all. There- fore, there is nothing that involves a broader grasp of facts, the use of an inspiration rather than a rule, than proper discrimination of species. I have a belief that the arbitrary, rule-of-three mind will never make a successful taxonomist; and that there is a sort of instinct for specific limitations which the possessor cannot communicate to another. This taking into account the total character of a plant, from facies to minute characters, will furnish the basis of future descriptive work. The more obstacles that can be put in the way of hasty determination the better.” 1 On the constancy of the specific characters of the Genus Eucalyptus. —Proc. Aust. Assoc. for Advt. Science, Melbourne, 1900, p. 229. IS EUCALYPTUS VARIABLE ! 339 bicolor, and on these grounds it is contended that the two trees should be regarded as distinct species. The only resemblance is the venation of the lanceolate form of leaf. If placed under Z. largiflorens, then there would be the anomaly of having under one species a tree with two kinds of timber, two kinds of oil, and a variation in leaves.’’! This argument is, however basedon wrong determinations. I have shown, on morphological grounds and reference to the actual types, (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1902), that the H. bicolor referred to above is H. Bosistowna, F.v.M., and that the EH. pendula referred to is really E. bicolor, A. Cunn., thus some of the deductions based on the assumption that his determinations are correct, fall to the ground. Again Messrs. Baker and Smith have in this Journal added a new species to science (Hucaly ptus apiculata, Baker and Smith), in the following words :— “The oil obtained from a Mallee* known as Z£. stricta was differ” ent from that obtained from the supposed #. stricta growing around Berrima and Mittagong, but it was not possible to separate them on any known botanical characters, as no morphological differences could be detected, but the fact remained that the oils were different and always so . . . thus we propose to make the Berrima form distinct, and give it specific rank under the name of Hucalyptus apiculata.”* Surely this cuts at the very foundations of systematic botany. If two plants are morphologically identical one may be substituted for the other. The plants to which Mr. Baker refers have been known to botanists for many years and they have agreed with Mr. Baker that “no morphological differences can be detected”’ between EH. stricta,Sieb., and H. apiculata, Baker and Smith. As Mr. Baker has stated that the two plants 1 Op. cit. * Itis nota true Mallee. * This Journal, xxxv., 121, 122. 340 J. H. MAIDEN. yield different oils, botanists will (as I have already done)still further examine them to see if they possess morphological differences that are at present not obvious to our own eyes. When any differences are detected surely it will be then time enough for a new name to be proposed, for at present it is obviously impossible for the botanist, unless he subjects the plant to distillation, to say whether he has collected RE. stricta, Sieb. or E. apiculata, Baker and Smith. Messrs. Baker and Smith’s statement that there is no morphological difference between the plants and yet the oils vary, may surely be interpreted as evidence in favour of the view that the oils in plants vary according to environ- ment. It is a matter of common experience in Hurope that the same plant, cultivated in different soils and situa- tions, yields oils varying much in quantity and character. Acting on that experience cultivators only attempt to grow oils of certain grades in special soils and situations. I think I have shown, beyond doubt, that all other characters of Hucalyptus vary. There seems to be no evidence why the oil should presenta remarkable exception tothe general rule. It seems strange to me that with evidence (as I contend), simply inexhaustible, of variation in HKucalyptus, both as regards spontaneous and cultivated plants, where it is sometimes necessary (I believe) to name a plant with the qualifying note that another botanist may have good grounds for placing it in an allied species, this doctrine of variation apparently does not command universal accept- ance. It seems to me that the “non-variation’’ theory runs counter to some of the most generally accepted sets of practical observations on which the doctrine of evolution of species is based, and there is just a little danger of what Darwin terms “arguing in a circle’’ in presenting the observations that are interpreted to destroy the dogma which many of us look upon as built on unassailable facts. METEORITES, N.S.W. 341 THE BOOGALDI, BARRATTA Nos. 2 anp 3, GILGOIN Nos. 1 anD 2, AND ELI HLWAH or HAY METEORITES, NEW SOUTH WALKS. By A. LIVERSIDGE, LL.D, F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S. Hdin., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. . [With Plates III. -XV.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 5, 1902. ] THE BOOGALDI METEORITE. THIS meteorite was exhibited and described by Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.S., at a meeting of this Society in June 1900.’ Mr. Baker states that the meteorite was found by Mr. Gould in January 1900 lying on the ground at a place about two miles from Boogaldi Post Office and fifteen miles north west from Coonabarabran which is 267 miles north west from Sydney. In driving near the spot Mr. Gould, noticing that the ground ona hard ridge had been torn up, followed the furrow and found the meteorite, with its larger end slightly embedded in the earth. Mr. Wilcox, the local postmaster, afterwards accompanied Mr. Gould and ex- amined the spot, and they came to the conclusion that the meteorite had travelled from the north west and had reached the ground ata very low angle. The meteorite was secured by Mr. Baker for the Technological Museum, and submitted by him to me for a fuller examination and analysis. Description.—This meteorite is an exceedingly inter- esting one and somewhat resembles the Bingera meteorite” * Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W,, 1900, p. 81. A. Liversidge, ibid., p.83. The publication of the account of the Boogaldi meteorite has been delayed pending the preparation of sections and illustrations. * Journ. Roy. Soc., 1882, p. 308. 342 A. LIVERSIDGE. in form, but is much larger. Like the Bingera one it is a siderite or metallic meteorite and is also somewhat pear- shaped; it is a little over five inches long by about three inches broad at the widest part, and it weighed before cutting 2057°5 grammes. Its sp. gr. at 14° C. was found ~ to be 7°85. It was covered with the usual closely adherent skin of fused oxides, except in one place where the skin had been detached, probably when the meteorite first came in contact with the ground—the Bingera meteorite also showed a similar bare spot—the exposed metal had a bright lustrous appearance like nickel iron. In places thin crack- like markings are present in the skin; some of these are evidently closely related to the crystalline structure of the mass within, as they are straight as if ruled and meet at definite angles. A few pits are noticeable upon the surface; these are probably due to the former presence of granules of troilite (FeS), inasmuch as some granules of this mineral were found when making the sections of the interior ; fissures in the skin are seen starting from these pits, but these are irregular cracks quite distinct from the sharper and straight lines, meeting at definite angles, previously referred to. In addition to the larger and deeper pits which pass into the substance, there are in places numer- ous small ones due to the escape of gas bubbles from the fused skin of the meteorite; these small pits resemble the gas bubbles met with in slags and fused iron scale, see Plates 3, 4, 5 and 6. > There is, in addition, a very remarkable structure in the skin; shown most clearly at the two ends of the meteorite, which I have not observed in any other meteorite. At the thick end of the meteorite the fused oxides forming the skin have been thrown into well defined concentric waves with transverse furrows running in the direction of the thinner end of the meteorite, the waves and furrows gradu- METEORITES, N.S.W. 343 ally fade away in this direction. (See Plates 5 and 6, figs: 3 and 4). I think that these waves and furrows clearly show that the meteorite travelled through the earth’s atmosphere with the thick end in front, the waves of fused oxides being thrown up by the resistance of the air, just as waves are formed in water or sand by the wind, or at the bows ofa boat. That the meteorite did travel with the thick end first is confirmed by the fact that at the thin end there are longitudinal ridges and furrows in the fused skin which ~ clearly show where the excess of fused oxides dripped off in the passage of the meteorite through the air, see Plate 6, fig. 5, and also the thin end of fig. 1, Plate 3. The lumin- ous streak usually seen behind a moving meteorite is, if not wholly, certainly in part, due to such fused and incan- descent matter left in its trail. Hence the waves and other markings in the skin not only show that the meteorite travelled with the thick end first, (this view is supported by the position in which the meteorite was found), but also its position while in flight, i.e.; with the curved point of the thin end downwards as represented in Plate 4, fig. 2; for the fused oxides forming the skin are thickest on the lower’ side of the pointed end; and as I have also pointed out, there are the remains of the drops where the melted material dripped off. The thick end also has the longest and thickest streaks of fused skin on this side, and that the fused oxides dripped off from this part also is quite evident. Sections.—These were made by means of a steam hack- saw in the University Engineering Laboratory. The sections were made with great care so as to expose as large a surface as possible and yet leave all the drip markings absolutely untouched. (See Plates 5 and 6, figs. 3, 4 and 5). The sections were polished and some were etched with copper sulphate, but the one figured on Plate 7, was done with 344 A. LIVERSIDGE. bromine as it was found to yield the best surfaces. The crystalline structure is well defined (octohedral) with a damascene-like lustre, and it is noticeable that the groups of crystals pass obliquely across from side to side and from end to end of the meteorite. One or two small specks of troilite are to be seen, and at the thick end are two well marked cracks which pass out right through to the crust and are connected with the pit at the thick end (See Plate 4, fig. 2). The crystalline structure is distinct from that of any of the other Australian meteorites which have come under my notice. The absence of deep pits and thumb-like markings on the surfaces of this and the Bingera meteorite may be due to the absence of large troilite enclosures. Chemical Composition.—A qualitative analysis showed the presence of iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese,? chromium, copper, tin,? arsenic, gold and platinum (or metals belong- ing to the platinum group), also carbon, phosphorus and sulphur. The gold and platinum were first found in the residue left after acting upon the meteorite with cold hydrochloric acid, to which sulphurous acid had been added to render it free from chlorine. The residue was then ground with water in an agate mortar and the lighter materials washed out; any magnetic particles were next removed by a magnetised needle; some bronze coloured metallic looking feebly magnetic and fairly malleable particles were usually left, soluble in nitric acid; these contained copper, chromium and iron, and require further examination. The particles of what appeared to be gold and platinum were then picked out on the point of a needle and examined under the microscope, when warmed with nitric acid on the micro- scope Slide; they were found to be insoluble; to make doubly sure, the evaporation with nitric acid was repeated. Yellow and white metallic particles, apparently gold and one of the platinum metals, were also obtained in the 4 METEORITES, N.S.W. 345 precipitate thrown down from the hydrochloric acid solu- tion of the meteorite by hydrogen sulphide, although these metals in the free condition are usually regarded as being insoluble in hydrochloric acid free from chlorine; they may, however, be present in the meteorite in the form of compounds or alloys soluble in hydrochloric acid. The gold and platinum-like metals were separated from the brown precipitate thrown down by hydrogen sulphide, by igniting it (so as to drive off the sulphur) and then repeatedly grinding the residue with water in an agate mortar as above described, the oxides of the lighter metals were gradually washed offi and the free metals obtained in the form of yellow and white spangles, insoluble in hot nitric acid and therefore presumably gold and one or more of the platinum metals; the quantities obtained were too small to weigh; although the process of grinding in an agate mortar is an exceedingly delicate test, far more so than the wet tests, yet some of the metallic particles are prob- ably lost, since it is difficult to prevent the very thin spangles of the precious metals from floating off during the process of washing. The results are not those of a single experiment as is shown by the following :— Experiments—(a) 20 gms. of the sawdust from the mete- orite were dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the insoluble residue on grinding left a few small specks of both yellow and white metals insoluble in nitric acid, and the hydrogen sulphide precipitate from the solution, after ignition, yielded specks of a white metal insoluble in nitric acid; therefore presumably both gold and platinum are present. (b) 20 gms. of sawdust treated as above, also yielded what appeared to be gold and platinum in the insoluble residue, but none was found in the SH: precipitate. (c) 20 gms of sawdust yielded a few specks of a yellow metal which were insoluble in nitric acid, therefore pre- sumably gold. 346 A. LIVERSIDGE. (d) 20 gms of sawdust yielded a trace of platinum in the residue from HCl and in the precipitate from SH, but no gold. (e) 8 gms of sawdust expressly obtained from another part of the meteorite, with a new saw and a different machine, yielded two bronze coloured metallic specks soluble in nitric acid and some yellow metallic specks insoluble in nitric acid and therefore presumably gold. (f) A portion of a slice of the meteorite weighing 7°8 gms yielded both gold and platinum in the residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid. [The sawdust affords a much better average sample than a fragment or slice of the meteorite, inasmuch as it repre- sents the composition of a slice right through the mass of the meteorite; the loss in weight of the hard steel saw is extremely small and the percentage results are practically unafiected by the steel worn from the saw; thus in cutting slices from the Narraburra siderite in which 478 gms. of sawdust were obtained, the saws only lost ‘94 gm., i.e., the sawdust only contained °2% of steel from the saws]. (yg) The bromine which had been used for etching the meteorite was also tested for gold and platinum. This, of course, yielded a sample giving the average composition across the section, and consisted mainly of iron, nickel, and cobalt as bromides; it was evaporated to dryness and heated, some of the ferric bromide volatilized and part was converted into iron sesquioxide—this residue was extracted with chlorine water for 24 hours, decanted and evaporated down. On grinding portions of the residue in an agate mortar, one yielded a speck of yellow metal and three others yielded specks of a platinum-like metal. Both metals were insoluble in nitric acid. The amount of gold and platinum left was too small to admit of the application of the usual wet tests, but some METEORITES, N.S.W. 347 of the yellow metal was dissolved in aqua regia and the solution taken up on a scrap of filter paper and exposed to the sunlight; after a day or so the paper acquired the usual pinkish tinge yielded by very dilute solutions of gold chloride. Every precaution that I could think of was taken to avoid the access of gold and platinum in these experiments; the agate mortar and pestle were tested by grinding them for long periods with materials free from gold and platinum, and different agate mortars and pestles were used including a perfectly new one, no trace of gold, platinum or other metal was obtained from any of them. And nothing con- taining either gold or platinum had ever been in contact with the saws, which were new, and as far as I can ascer- tain nothing containing either gold or the platinum metals had been worked in the building in which the cutting and plaining of the meteorite had been carried out. Hvery- thing was scrupulously cleaned up after each cutting. The results of several experiments with filings from this meteorite which yielded somewhat larger quantities of gold and platinum are omitted, because I am not absolutely sure that a new file had been used, and the vice had been used for holding gold and platinum nuggets. The first few white metallic spangles obtained from some of the filings were insoluble in a mixture of nitric and hydro- chloric acids, even when warmed and evaporated to dryness, neither did they appear to diminish in size or to change in any way, (the action of the acids being watched under the microscope witha one inch lens); they appeared there- fore to be particles of iridium or of iridium metals, but as they were obtained from the filings, I do not now regard the presence of iridium metals as absolutely proved, although ina preliminary notice of this meteorite I had regarded them as present.’ The white metallic spangles -—-t: Journ. Roy. Soc., N. S. Wales, 1902, p. 282.” 348 A. LIVERSIDGE. | insoluble in nitric acid, yielded by the sawdust and by sections of the meteorite itself were soluble in aqua regia. I have not come across any previous statements as to the presence of gold in meteorites, but the platinum metals have been met with before. Palladium is recorded as occurring in a meteorite by G. Trottarelli.’ A paper on the occurrence of platinum and iridium in meteoric iron, was read before the Rochester Academy of Science on Oct. 11, 1898, by John M. Davison,’ in which he gives the results of some experiments upon meteoric irons. He found on dissolving the Coahuila and Toluca irons in hydrochloric acid that “‘they left a fine black sediment consisting mainly of minute tetragonal prisms of rhabdite, minute black irregular crystals which may also be rhabdite, carbon and a little stony matter. 500 grams of Coahuila iron left 9°386 grams of residue. Diamonds were not found in these residues.”’ “From this sediment platinum was obtained in each analysis, 606 grams of Coahuila iron yielded °014 gram of metallic platinum and °0015 gram of a black powder, in- soluble in nitrohydrochloric acid, but after fusion with zinc dissolving in that acid and giving with ammonium chloride a dark red crystalline precipitate, which is probably ammonium iridi-chloride.”’ | ‘Krom 464 grams of Toluca iron a few crystals of potas- sium platinichloride were obtained. These show a reddish colour and probably contain iridium. Platinum vessels were not used, the reagents were tested and all precau- tions taken against accidental contamination.”’ Mr. J.C. H. Mingaye, F.c.s., Chemist to the Department of Mines, New South Wales, records the presence of * Journ. Chem. Soc., Abstracts, 1891, p. 533. * American Journal of Science, Jan. 1899, p. 4. METEORITES, N.S.W. 349 platinum in a native iron sent for analysis.’ Mr. Mingaye informs me that in testing for gold and silver the residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid, was scorified with lead, free from gold and silver, and cupelled, when one of the platinum metals was found to be present; the metal was alloyed with about 20 times its weight of silver and parted with dilute nitric acid, after removal of the silver, the light yellow solution gave the usual reactions for platinum; with stannous chloride and potassium iodide as a colour test he estimated the amount of platinum present as being under 2 dwt. per ton. Partial Analysis of the Boogaldi Meteorite. Insoluble in HCl ... ee nee ae "0400 Irom 2... ce sa pe a ... 91°1350 Nickel oe ae vy, es, ae) ver Ooilen Cobalt ee ey ee ve ae °4833 Copper ae Ae ae ee ae "2801 Arsenic ae aoe es aes so Straces Phosphorus ... a 5h6 ... undetermined Carbon A Sulphur 5 Chromium “ Gold: i Platinum * 99°9901 The nickel and cobalt were determined electrolytically after the removal of the iron by litharge; to make sure that the arsenic had not been derived from the hydrogen sulphide used in precipitating the metals of the copper group, the gas was first purified, tested, and proved to be free from arsenic. The amounts of several elements present have yet to be determined and this meteorite has still to be examined for diamonds, occluded gases and spectro- scopically. 1 Annual Report of the Department of Mines, 1898, p. 21. 350 A. LIVERSIDGE, BARRATTA METEORITES, No. 2. Mr. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer, states that on May 23rd, 1889, he received from Mr. W. Kilpatrick of Cornalla Station, two meteorites which he had found on Barratta Station, 34 miles north of Deniliquin and near the place where the large Barratta meteorite was found about the year 1860.’ To distinguish these meteorites from the one previously described, they will be referred to as Barratta meteorites No. 2 and No. 3. Mr. Russell says’ that one of the new meteorites (Bar- ratta No. 2) is remarkably like the large one he has had for so many years. . He describes it as somewhat like the former in colour both internally and externally, but it is not so deeply fused on the surface. Its specific gravity is 3°706, that of the old one being 3°387, and the weight 314 tbs., the other (Barratta No. 3) weighed 48 Ibs. and its specific gravity is 3°429; these data were determined by Mr. Russell by weighing the whole mass of each meteorite. The three Barratta meteorites do not seem to have weathered to any extent and are intact except for some pieces which have been broken off by a hammer. All three show large surfaces free from fused skin as if they had been fractured after their flight had been either wholly or in part arrested. Amongst the principal constituents easily recognised in the photograph are chondri of enstatite, much fissured, — olivine, and particles of the nickel iron alloy. The metallic portion of Barratta No. 2 in 34°5 grammes was found to be 6°13; the amount varies in different parts as the metallic particles are clearly seen to be unequally distributed. 1 A. Liversidge—Journ. Roy, Soc., N.S.W., 1872, p. 97; Ibid., for 1880, p. 308, and 1883, p. 31. A. Brezina—Ann. K. K. Nat. Hist. Hofmuseum, Wien, 1895. ? Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 46. METEORITES, N.S.W. 351 The composition, after the removal of the metallic part by the magnet is given below; this method also removes some non-metallic matter, hence neither this nor the non- magnetic residue is quite normal in composition. It would probably have been better to dissolve the metallic portion by means of mercuric and ammonium chlorides, but the magnet process takes less time. Non-metallic part—mean of two analyses. Salica@) ... aa NA a ee ve .» 41°673 Ferrous oxide ... de oe mee des w. =15°656 Ferric oxide ... Lae ey ah aor ca ORKOS Alumina... asi oe oe ke ou Lieu tha ig Oss Manganese Ns ae Be ae it ... traces INiekel ... ee ee ve bi aa Abe 481 Cobalt <2; oe sof et fro #5 Be none Eames’ |... oe ns oe oP So see O2RMOS8 Magnesia iB. .3 “tf ine 33 Ma ».. 209°819 Soda (Na,O) ... i ‘as oe ee se 613 Potash (K.O) ... Kes aie - a ahs 087 Sulphur ... oe af Sn os ve oe OOM Phosphorus me see ane Bie aCe ae °067 100°431 Less oxygen equivalent to sulphur and phosphorus 1°164 99°267 The Metallic portion was found to contain: Insoluble in HCl aa ne A, ash eel OOo Iron, metallic ... sat Ao. sise ne of 81°108 Mieke! ... ie ee as ae oe: on) DAT Cobalt... ais ay “ee are 3%, aa 121 Manganese os ar aie Si ae sf none The sulphur, phosphorus and other constituents were not determined. The metallic portion was fused with caustic potash to remove entangled silicates etc., but as the fusion with 352 A. LIVERSIDGE. alkali removes phosphorus, the results are only of value for the proportions of iron, nickel, and cobalt. Plate 8 is from a photograph of Barratta No. 2. Plate 10, fig. 9, shows the fractured surface of the meteorite Baratta No. 2, the light coloured oval and round spots are enstatite chondri and some of the bright specks are metallic. The metallic portions are shown better in the polished surface of the meteorite, see fig. 10 on the same plate, in the form of light coloured irregular markings, some are curved anda few are circular and are apparently sections of investing coats of metallic matter, if the non- metallic nuclei could be removed we should apparently have hollow spherules of the nickel-iron alloy. Plate 11, fig. 11, isa photograph of a section enlarged 12 diameters, of Barratta No. 2, which shows the fissured structure of the enstatite chondri, the opaque magma, and some of the metallic grains. BARRATTA METEORITE NO. 3. Barratta meteorite No. 3 has not been analysed; it evidently belongs to the same original mass as Nos. 1 and 2. Plate 9 represents Barratta No. 3. Plate 11, fig. 12, shows portions of two of the enstatite chondri (enlarged 16 diameters) between them are to be seen thin pieces of the metallic alloy, the two lower ones roughly triangular in outline—the strize on them are due to the polishing material. GILGOIN METEORITE, No. 1. This meteorite was given to Mr. Russell, C.M.G., F.R.S., by Mr. J. A. Yeomans of Gilgoin Station, where it was found in 1889. Gilgoin is 40 miles E.S.i. of Brewarrina, which is 516 miles N.W. of Sydney and 75 miles H. from Bourke, the latter town is 503 miles from Sydney and in METEORITES, N.S.W. 353 Lat. 30° 3’ S., Long. 146° 56’ H. Mr. Russell states’ that its weight is 673 tbs., and that it has a sp. gr. of 3°857. It is quite evident that at one time it was much larger as it is much weathered and cracked; in spite of every care large pieces have fallen off since it has been in Mr. Russell’s possession. The meteorite contains a considerable amount of metallic matter, 34 grammes yielded 14°7% of the nickel-iron alloy, hence it was troublesome to prepare the slides for the microphotograph as the metallic particles tend to tear out, and as might be expected it strongly attracts a magnetic needle. Like the Barratta meteorites the structure is chondritic. (See Plate 12, fig. 13.). Ten grammes of this meteorite extracted witha magnet and then reground and washed in an agate mortar yielded two specks of a yellow metal, the smaller speck was insoluble in nitric acid with which it was twice evaporated down to dryness and therefore presumably gold. The somewhat larger and paler speck was slowly acted upon by nitric acid and left a black residue which may have been finely divided gold, but it did not acquire a metallic lustre when burnished. Afterwards 32 grammes were treated in the same way, some yellow metallic par- ticles were obtained, but these dissolved in nitric acid. None of the others, viz. Barrattas 1, 2 and 3, Gilgoin No. 2, nor the Hay meteorite yielded gold. Thirty-four grammes of the Gilgoin meteorite No. 1 yielded 7°3 grammes of magnetic matter and this after fusion with potash, left 5 grammes of metallic matter or 14°77 on the original 34 gms. As already stated this is. not a satisfactory method, as the nickel-iron alloy (Schrei- bersite) loses phosphorus and the magnetic matter entangles. 1 Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1889, p. 47. W—Dec. 3, 1902. 354 A. LIVERSIDGE. with it some of the non-magnetic matter, hence the residue left by the magnet is altered in composition. Magnetic portion. Tnsoluble in HCl. Tron, metallic... Nickels Cobalt ,, Sulphur Phosphorus... des sis Oxygen and undetermined ... Non-magnetic portion. Dried at 105° = °349% of moisture. Silica ae Ferrous oxide... Ferric oxide Alumina Nirekel %.: Cobalt ... Manganese Lime Magnesia Soda (Na,O) ... Potash (K.O) ... Sulphur Chlorine Phosphorus Less oxygen equivalent to sulphur and phosphorus GILGOIN METEORITE, No. 2. 1°5074 82°4551 8°3451 trace none 7°6924 100°0000 42°690 12°665 6°698 4°980 °280 none traces 17°530 12°661 "744 "104 2°535 none "13a" 101°022 26K. 99°759 This meteorite was also forwarded to Mr. H. C. Russell, by Mr. Yeomans of Gilgoin Station. Mr. Yeomans in METEORITES, N.S.W. 355 writing to Mr. Russell on February 8th, 1893, states that the meteorite had been recently found about two miles south of the one (Gilgoin meteorite No. 1) he had previously sent Mr. Russell. Both were found on an alluvial plain free from rocks or stones. Mr. Russell considered it prob- able that as they were found so close together and are so similar in appearance and specific gravity that they originally formed parts of one meteorite, both travelled through the atmosphere a sufficient distance, after split- ting up, to acquire the usual fused skin, although this is not so glossy as in some meteorites. Mr. Russell states’ that like the previous one this meteorite was also much weathered and cracked, some pieces have fallen off and many parts of the surface are ready to crumble away. The total weight of all the parts amounted to 74 Ibs. 4 ozs., and the specific gravity to 3°757.. The main mass is roughly doubly convex, 14 to 15 inches in length and about 7 inches through at the thickest part. A freshly fractured surface is dark grey in colour and shows numerous bright white metallic particles. Its general appearance is represented in Plate 14. The microphotograph (Plate 12, fig. 13) shows the light coloured fissured enstatite and the metallic particles (grey) in an opaque magma. The second Gilgoin meteorite has not yet been analysed. Although the fractured surfaces and micro-sections of the Gilgoin meteorites somewhat resemble those ofthe Barratta _ meteorites they appear to be too far apart in composition to have been portions of the same fall; the differences in the places and the dates at which they were discovered are not of much importance. 1 Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 18938, p. 361. 356 A. LIVERSIDGE, ELI ELWAH OR HAY METEORITE. This meteorite was exhibited at a meeting of the Royal Society of N.S.W., on November 7th, 1888, by Mr. H. O. Russell, C.M.G.,F.R.S., Government Astronomer,’ who states that it had been found on Mr. J. Russell’s Station Eli Hlwah some 15 miles west from Hay, N.S.W., 454 miles south-west from Sydney; it was taken to the station by one of the men, who said that he saw it fall; but it had apparently been lying exposed for a considerable time, oxidation was going on very rapidly and it was probable that the stone would not last very long. The fragment of this meteorite, given to me for examin- ation and analysis by Mr. Russell, c.M.G., F.R.S., had a weathered and rusty look, but the interior is tenacious and hard enough to scratch glass; I understand however that the main mass of the meteorite originally 353 tbs. in weight is rapidly disintegrating (Plate 15). Mr. Russell found the specific gravity of the whole mass to be 3°537. Externally the fragment looks like a piece of dark brown hematite with a blistered somewhat shiny surface. The rusty appearance of a freshly fractured surface is due to the dark brown colour of the material of the meteorite and to the presence of a yellow-brown mineral, probably olivine. Scattered through the mass are a few small cavities (rather unusual in meteorites), not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter. The meteorite gives a dark grey almost black streak on porcelain. (a.) Moisture, lost at 110° to 115° = °543+, (b.) Portion soluble in water, = ‘474. As it was thought that the meteorite from its weathered appearance might contain soluble salts a portion of the powdered material (3°0 grammes) was extracted with ? Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., p. 341. METEORITES, N.S.W. 357 distilled water. The percentage of soluble matter was only °477, and this consisted mainly of magnesium sulphate a little chlorine, lime and alumina were also present. The magnesium sulphate was probably due to the action of the sulphuric acid formed by the oxidation of the iron sulphide present. (c.) Portion insoluble in water, soluble in hydrochloric acid = 43°624%. Silica sah a ae sis Sa 3d Ferrous oxide ... iN ve ao sae .. 16°885 BMermic Oxide -— ... aan st se ve sce MOTAAM Alumina..: sa 2a3 v3 ve bee a "749 Nickel ... ath ae ae we alee yn Pae000 Cobalt... wi bes S86 ey, ai ads none Manganese dae Pame - :.. saa aoe bai sé ie 5a CUERCE Magnesia bes ae or aor aes ... 16°678 Soda (Na,O)~... Ses she = a ms OA, Potash (K.O) ... ie o: ern a "108 Sulphur ... bes wins ss sie ae ooh 2276 Phosphorus ... sh 500 site bos sit “099 44°959 Less oxygen equivalent to sulphur Bae Se e335) 43°624 (d.) If the magnesia MgO in this be regarded as in the form of olivine, the amount of olivine (2 MgO, SiO.) present will be 29°27 (e.) Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid = 55072. ULC ay Nene oie os BoC . 939°0795 Ferric oxide... BP BBs .. 2°643 Alumina... ae nah Lie ee 22096 Lime 55% EH: Bae sa ahd 1°589 Magnesia 2) 0d ae ... 8°649 Undetermined, alkalis etc. ... se2 OL 020 do 072 358 A. LIVERSIDGE. | Next a portion of the meteorite was analysed without previous treatment with hydrochloric acid, so that the following results give the composition of the meteorite as a whole. Dried at 110°, loss = °543%. | SHCA acs tes oa oa Bie nip ... 39°470 Copper ... ae sts ae ae et Bie none Tin ve it a4, avi nee a se none Alumina... ai ae Hos as: ke thy eae Tron sesquioxide ses aoe we es. wee oo Iron monoxide ... Aa Noe cy son «on, ORG Niekely x. as ane oe ba ei see oo Le Cobalt... ae oe a ce la th none Manganese oe si Be ae hg ... traces Lime 25. an are ae se La we OS Magnesia oa nite oy oe bee .. 20°083 Soda (Na,O) _... oa dee as a Ane “hag Potash (K.O) ... fr we wee 2 ste "109 Chlorine... sie a 636) eur me fol) ieee Sulphur ... ne ae a; ae sae ws 25299 Phosphorus ue; ae des Ne es Kd 100 100°013 Less oxygen — to sulphur and phosphorus vox: aoa 98°664 Chromium, vanadium, etc., were specially sought for, but not found. 15°5 gms. crushed in a diamond mortar and ground in an agate mortar yielded 3 or 4 specks of a yellow non-magnetic metal soluble in nitric acid and therefore not gold. The above amount of sulphur if assumed to be in com- bination as FeS, would represent 6°2% of troilite and the °109% of phosphorus would represent 1°67 of Schreibersite (FeNi).sP; if the whole of the nickel be also assumed to be present as (FeNi),P, it would represent 2°17 of Schreibersite. The nickel and cobalt were determined by electrolysis GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. 359 after the removal of the iron by litharge; the cobalt was determined by the potassium nitrite process. It was found very difficult to prepare a sufficiently thin section of this meteorite for the preparation of the micro- photograph (See Plate 12, fig. 14) on account of its opacity and the tendency for the nickel-iron alloy to tear out dur- ing the grinding. The irradiation in the photograph is due to light getting through the apertures thus left; the white spots without structure indicate these holes. The amount of nickel-iron alloy present and its composition have yet to be determined. Note.—The microscopic examination of the foregoing meteorites is not yet completed. AN IMPORTANT GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRA- JONG HEIGHTS, N. 8. WALES. By Prof. T. W. EDGWORTH DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S. (With Plates XVI., XVII.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 3, 1902. ] THE fault described in this paper is intimately related to the structural feature, a monoclinal fold, which forms the eastern escarpment of the Blue Mountains. As far as I am aware, the first reference to this from a scientific point of view is that by Darwin.’ Darwin was of opinion that the eastern escarpment of the Blue Mountains, ‘* where it abruptly terminates over 1 Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and parts of South America visited during the voyage of H.M.S. “ Beagle,’”’ Second Edition, pp. 146 - 154, and specially pp. 149 - 150. 360 _T. W. E. DAVID. the Nepean,’’ marked the original termination of a great bank of sediment, like those ‘“‘within the West Indian Archipelago, which terminate in submarine slopes inclined at angles of between thirty and forty degrees.”’ Later observers, however, favoured by better sections than those to which Darwin had access, have shown that this escarp- ment was not an original feature, but that it has been superinduced upon the strata, long subsequent to the time of their deposition, by earth-movement. Mr. J. EH. Carne, F.G.S., has drawn my attention to the following reference to the monocline by the late Rev. W. B. Clarke :—“‘Along the Nepean, where the escarpment of the Blue Mountains forms the side of a great fault, the Wianamatta beds abut against the Hawkesbury rocks, or recline at a high angle on the slopes, proving there a distinct difference in time of deposit.’* The next reference noted by me is that by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods.’ He states, (op. cit., p. 55) “‘ There are, however, at the first Zig-zag very many signs of a downcast or fault. There the beds are for a very short distance highly inclined against the range, having the appearance of an immense landslip from the failure or sub- sidence of the ground. The rock which is inclined appears to be bent down from the main mass which is quite hori- zontal.’’ In discussing Mr. Tenison-Woods’ paper, Mr. C. S. Wilkinson said (op. cit. p. 93), “‘ It has always been the Opinion of geologists that there has been a subsidence of the area between the sea and the base of the ranges near the Nepean, as stated by Mr. Tenison-Woods.”’ Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, the late Government Geologist of N.S. Wales, also referred to this structure.’ He says, “The * Catalogue Nat. and Indust. Products, N. S. Wales, 1871, p. 520. * «The Hawkesbury Sandstone,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S.—Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xvi., read May 20th, 1882, pp. 53 — 116. * Mineral Products of N. S. Wales, 1882, p. 52. GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. 361 abrupt eastern margin of the Blue Mountains, up which the Great Western Railway Zig-zag ascends at Lapstone Hill, near Hmu Plains, marks the line of a similar, though not such an extensive fault, by which all the country between it and the coast was thrown down to its present — level—the depression being so great that the ocean water flowed into the old river valleys, one of which forms the beautiful harbour of Port Jackson.”’ A later brief refer- ence is that made by Dr. J. H. Taylor,’ in which he speaks of “‘ the great Nepean fault.”’ In my Presidential Address to this Society in 1896,’ I stated as the result of my observations in the field that the eastern escarpment of the Blue Mountains above the Nepean, from Lapstone Hill to the Kurrajong, was due to a monoclinal fold rather than to a fault, (op. cit. 63, and diagram 2, of plate 11.)? On the same diagram it is shown that while the monocline depresses the Triassic Strata fully 400 feet inan easterly direction, there is also present a small fold in the strata about one mile west of the monocline, and passing through Glenbrook Railway Station. This small fold faces the west and displaces the strata in that direction to the extent of about 100 feet. It is possible that this western fold is accompanied by shearing, and it is almost certain that it is a structural feature which is identical with the Kurrajong fault. There are thus at Glenbrook two geotectonic structures of importance (1) the eastern monocline of Lapstone Hill, * Our Island Continent—a Naturalist’s Holiday in Australia, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, ¥.u.s., F.c.s., London 1886, pp. 249 - 250. * Journ. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. xxx., 1896, pp. 33-4. * I should like to take this opportunity of correcting an error made by me in drawing the Section, diagram 1 of Plate 11.,op. cit. The “Penrith Bore” is there shown as having been started at the top of the Hawkes- bury Sandstone. The bore is in reality situated at the bottom of a deeply eroded gorge in the Hawkesbury Sandstone, forming the present channel of the Nepean River. The top of the bore is actually about 200 feet below the original top of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. 362 T. W. E. DAVID. displacing the strata about 400 feet from the horizontal, and 350 feet from the inclined plane due to their normal easterly dip of about 100 feet per mile, and (2) a gentle westerly fold, one mile west of the eastern monocline and displacing the strata in a westerly direction 100 feet from the horizontal and about 175 feet from the inclined plane due to their normal easterly dip. From Lapstone Hill the above two features strike very nearly due north to the Grose Valley, and it is evident from the surface features, though the country has not yet been geologically examined, that they reappear on the north side of that valley but in a position about a mile west of the general strike from Lapstone Hill. The cause of this horizontal displacement has not yet been ascertained (see Plate 16). It is certain at all events that at the Kurrajong Heights two structures similar to but on a larger scale than those at Lapstone Hill and Glenbrook make their appearance, at a distance of about 15 miles northerly from Glenbrook. It is clear that the Kurrajong monocline is a continua- tion of the Lapstone Hill monocline, and as shown by Plate 16, there is a strong probability that the Kurrajong fault is a continuation and development of the Glenbrook fold. The existence of the fault at the ‘‘Cut Rock,’’ Kurra- jong Heights was first suspected by me through viewing from Woodford the general surface configuration of the Blue Mountain Plateau. It was apparent that the bold line of the Kurrajong Heights which bounded one’s view in an H.N.H. to N.EH. direction marked a feature due to some cause other than mere erosion, and was therefore to be ascribed to folding or faulting. With a view of testing this opinion by direct observation Mr. G. W. Card, Assoc. 8.8.M., F.G.S.,and I visited the Kurra- - GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. 363 jong Heights on November 19th last, and found conclusive evidence of the existence of a slight fold and strong fault at the ‘‘ Cut Rock.’’ Later on, December 12th — 15th, Mr. E. F. Pittman, Assoc. 3sm., and I madea cursory examin- ation of the country for over 12 miles westerly from the Kurrajong Heights as far as the top of Mount Tomah and northerly from the Kurrajong for over five miles to the ‘* Mountain Lagoon.’’ We ascertained as the result of this examination that the downthrow was not restricted to the immediate neighbourhood of the fault but that the whole strip of the Blue Mountains between Kurrajong Heights and Mount Tomah had subsided, the western edge of the ‘senkungsfeld’ being bounded at Mount Tomah by an easterly monocline and the eastern edge by a fault and slight western fold (See Section on Plate 16). Later, with a view to determine the throw of the fault more accurately it was decided to remeasure it, and Mr. G. H. Halligan, L.S., F.G.S., very kindly surveyed the fault with me with a chain and theodolite on January Ist, 19038. The results of these observations may now be given. Details of Section from Richmond to Mount Tomah.— Only brief reference will be made here to the above, as they will be given fully in the Geological Survey Memoir, to appear later. Richmond is situated on a plain of brick red sandy soil, about 60 feet above sea level. This deposit is of fluviatile or lacustrine origin. _ The highest modern floods in the Hawkesbury do not come nearer than within 10 to 12 feet (measured vertically) of its summit. It would be interest- ing to ascertain whether in the Richmond District, as at Maitland, this red soil deposit is underlaid by ‘raised beaches’ of estuarine origin. The red soil alluvial plain has been terraced by the Hawkesbury River, and the modern loamy alluvial plain has been deposited in the eroded hollows in the older alluvials. 364 T. W. E. DAVID. The recent alluvials as shown on the section, Plate 16, are about a mile in width near the low level bridge over the Hawkesbury River at Richmond. On the left bank of the river near the bridge, the low and high level alluvials quickly give place westwards to the Wianamatta Shales, the uppermost member of the local Trias System. A mile further west the middle member of the system, the Hawkes- bury Sandstone, is seen as an inlier (see section of Plate 16). - From here for about four and a half miles further west the Wianamatta Shales reappear attaining a thickness of about 250 feet between the Trigonometrical Station called ** Pound,’’ and the point where the road to Grosevale leaves the Kurrajong road above Little Wheeny Creek. About one mile down the Grosevale road from where it leaves the Kurrajong, an ostracodan sandstone was found on the occasion of the visit by Mr. Card and myself. This is about three feet thick and will be described in the Geological Survey Memoir. At little Wheeny Creek, on the Kurrajong road there is another inlier of Hawkesbury Sandstone, capped further west by the Wianamatta Shales at the foot of the long hill ascending to the Kurrajong Heights. For the first mile on the ascent a gentle easterly dip of 2° to 3° prevails. Then at a point about 360 yards W. 7 N. from the old school building at the junction of the road in portion 161 Parish of Kurrajong, the foot of the mono- cline is reached at a level of about 880 feet above the sea. The dip of the Wianamatta Shales at that spot is H. 12°S. at 20°. A little further up at the lower junction of the old and new Kurrajong roads the Wianamatta Shales thin to a thickness of only 20 feet to 50 feet, the Hawkesbury Sand- stones making their appearance in all the gullies. The level at the preceding road junction is about 1,066 feet above the sea. At 200 yards further up the hill the dip lessens to 16°, and near Mr. Powell’s house at the N.W. GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. 365 corner: of portion 182, Parish of Kurrajong, at the upper junction of the new..and old roads, the dip is H. at 8°. At the 11 mile mark, at little over 300 yards on the Kurrajong side of the top of the ridge, the dip is from a Hi. to E.S.EH. at a low angle, perhaps about 6°. The ridge forming the Kurrajong Heights is bounded on the west by a steep slope of from 10° up to 34’ (see Plate 17). The Wianamatta Shales are truncated by erosion at the top of the ridge. On descending the slope the observer comes at once on massive Hawkesbury Sandstone which still maintains an easterly dip of about 6°. gradually lessen- ing until within about four chains of the foot of the hill when they become flat. They then dip over to the west at angles which extend up to 10°, and then within a few yards of the fault plane suddenly steepen up to 30°. What I take to be the plane of the fault is marked by a seam of clay flucan, at a point two chains easterly from the peg at the foot of the hill shown on the line of section (Plate 17). ‘The clay flucan is seen in the cutting of the new road now in course of construction. The seam is about six inches wide and is nearly vertical with apparently a slight dip to the west. The Wianamatta Shales make their appearance again, on the downthrow side of the fault at a distance of a little over a chain west of the road peg shown on the section (Plate 17). A restoration of the eroded strata on the up- throw side of the fault as shown by the dotted area on Plate 17, shows the amount of throw of the fault as well as the minimum amount of erosion which has taken place since the faulting. The throw is probably at least 423 feet, as calculated from the survey by Mr. Halligan and myself, while the displacement due to bending and ‘drag’ of the strata on the opposite sides of the fault plane may amount to a maximum of 100 feet. The total displacement due to 366 - T. W. E. DAVID. bending and shearing thus amounts to probably over 500 feet. It may be added that on December 14th, Mr. Pittman and I found evidence of this fault being strongly developed at a locality called the Mountain Lagoon about 5; miles N. 3° H. from the foot of the “Cut Rock.’ (See plan, Pl. 16.) The Wianamatta Shales are strongly developed on the downthrow side of the fault at the Mountain Lagoon, and it is clear that the lagoon owes its origin to the fault. On the upthrow side of the fault the Wianamatta Shales have been completely denuded away, so that accurate measure- ments of the throw could not be made by us there. It is clear, however, that the throw is fully 400 feet, as deter- mined by aneroid measurements. There appears to be less bending of the strata as they approach the fault plane at the Mountain Lagoon than at the Cut Rock, for within 30 yards easterly of the fault plane at the former locality the dip is north-easterly at a low angle, that is in a direction away from the fault plane. It is evident from the con- figuration of the country that the fault extends at least as far north as the Colo River. The fault plane has not yet been traced by me to the south of the Cut Rock, but it is evident from the trend of the strong escarpment for many miles to the south that the fault must extend at least as far south as the Grose Valley, and probably as suggested earlier in this paper, extends to the westerly flexure at Glenbrook Railway Station. The total distance from Glenbrook Railway Station to the Colo River is about 27 miles. If now the Kurrajong Heights structures be com- pared with those of Lapstone Hill, it may be stated that at Kurrajong Heights the easterly monocline displaces the strata about 1,060 feet, measured vertically from the hori- zontal, and lowers them about 860 feet below their original position due to normal easterly dip, the figures for similar displacements at the Lapstone Hill monocline being respec- GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. . 367 tively 400 feet and 350 feet. The fault and slight westerly fold at the Cut Rock displaces the strata by 523 feet measured vertically from the horizontal, and about 530 feet below the original position of the strata due to easterly dip, whereas the displacements for the westerly fold at Glenbrook are about 100 feet from the horizontal, and about 175 feet from the calculated original plane of the strata before the folding. Thus whereas at both the Glen- brook and Kurrajong areas the easterly displacements are just double the westerly displacements, the total aggregate displacement at the Kurrajong is.a little over double the aggregate displacement in the Glenbrook area. Mr. Card and I traced the subsidence area in a westerly direction from the foot of the Cut Rock for four miles, and on December 13th Mr. Pittman and I followed it past Norwood (Bilpin) and old Tomah to the foot of Mount Tomah, where the subsidence area terminates in a mono- clinal fold which effects a depression of the strata in an easterly direction of about 250 feet. The Wianamatta Shales are almost continuous from the foot of the Cut Rock to the foot of Mount Tomah. At the latter locality they have been eroded away at the base of the monocline, but reappear at a higher level as shown on Plate 16. They attain a thickness at Mount Tomah of from 100 to 150 feet, and are capped by a sheet of basalt having a maximum thickness of about 170 feet (see Plate 16). The total width of the subsidence area from west to east, between Mount Tomah and Kurrajong Heights measures about 11 miles. Its northern limit has yet to be discovered, but in the present state of our knowledge it may be safely stated that it has a length in a north and south direction of between 20 and 30 miles. Obviously the existence of this. fault at the Kurrajong will have an important bearing on the laying out of coal ee - iL} “ Bi - 368 T. W. E. DAVID. mines when coal comes to be worked in the vicinity, and it is satisfactory to hear that the Geological Survey of New South Wales will map the course of the fault and the eastern fold, and show their further extent on the geological — map, now being prepared, of the Sydney and Blue Mountain areas. From a geotectonic point of view the fault and monocline are interesting illustrations of the principle enunciated by Suess,’ that where lateral pressure has pro- duced a monoclinal fold, faulting usually takes place on the inner limb of the fold, (i.e., on the portion nearest to the direction from which the folding force is coming) after the folding force has ceased to act, such faulting resulting in downthrows of the inner limb. . It would appear that the first stage in the evolution of these geotectonic structures in the portion of the Blue Mountains discussed in this paper was the formation of the chief monocline between Kurrajong Heights and Lapstone Hill, with the concurrent sinking of the coastal plane between Penrith and the sea. Itis not yet clear whether the forming of the monocline at Mount Tomah was con- temporaneous with the preceding or took place earlier or later. The folding force came from a westerly direction, and it pushed the strata eastwards forming the steep easterly slopes of the Kurrajong and Lapstone Hill, a slight fold facing the west developing to the west of this eastern monocline. After the folding force had become less intense or had ceased, a fracture formed along this western fold, the plateau to the west subsiding over 400 feet as the result, while the development of the monocline at Mount Tomah depressed the western portion of the plateau by a vertical amount of about 250 feet. The fact that the top of the eastern monocline eventually attained to three times the height (1,964 feet) above sea- * Das Autlitz der Erde, Vol. 1., p. 142-307. GEOLOGICAL FAULT AT KURRAJONG HEIGHTS. 369 level at the Kurrajong as at Lapstone Hill (620 feet) explains why the Grose River has been pushed further and further south, the water naturally making for the lower end of the embankment or fold, just as when a dam is thrown across a river flowing from west to east, if the north end of the dam is higher than the southern end the river will establish a bywash for itself over the lower end of the dam, which in this case would lie on the south side of the valley. The above I think is a reasonable explana- tion of the great bend towards the south-east in the Grose River as it sweeps through the parishes of Grose, Burralow,, and Coomassie just before it crosses the line of fold. It will be noticed on reference to the map (Plate 16) that. there are bends, almost concentric to this river bend, in the main line of water parting to the north of the Grose. Valley near Bilpin (on ‘ Bell’s Line’) and on the main water parting to the south, viz., the line of the Main Western Road and Western Railway. (See plan, Plate 16.) Suggestions for further explorations.—Obviously a very important question to be further studied in connection with the subsidence area between the Kurrajong and Mount Tomah, is its relation to the volcanic outbursts of Mounts. Tomah, Bell, Hay, Tootie, Irvine, King George, Wilson,. etc. Basalt is said to occur close to the fault plane at the ‘Mountain Lagoon,’ and this should be worth examining: to determine its relation to the faulting. The points where the fault crosses the Grose and Colo: Valleys should be worth exploring, and in these valleys, as. well as in that of Wheeny Creek, search might be made for- the chocolate shales, the topmost beds of the Narrabeen Series, (the third and lowest member of the local Trias).. An explanation is much needed of the remarkable horizontal. displacement of the fold and fault as they cross the Grose Valley. ‘The question also suggests itself, was the fault-- X—Dec. 3, 1902. 370 T. W. E. DAVID. ing sufficiently rapid to produce a lake on the downthrow side in either the Grose or Colo Valleys? if so, traces may be found of such lacustrine beds. On the contrary, the faulting may have been so slow that the Grose and Colo Rivers may have been able to deepen their channels on the upthrow side of the fault at arate sufficiently rapid to keep pace with the subsidence on the downthrow side. Age.—As regards age it is clear from the large amount of denudation which the upthrow side of the fault plane has undergone at Kurrajong Heights (see left of Plate 17) that the fault cannot be very modern. Since the faulting occurred a large wedge-shaped slice has been worn off the upthrow side of the fault, and this measures in places 500 feet thick, about 14 chains wide, and about 20 miles long. The above, it may be added, is a low estimate of the amount of denudation subsequent to the faulting, as the Wiana- matta Shales at the time of the faulting probably hada thickness of at least 100 feet, whereas in the above estimate a thickness of only 20 feet has been assumed for them. In conclusion I beg to thank Mr. Halligan for his kind- ness in surveying the present slopes near the fault plane, and Messrs. G. EK. Collett and W. G. Woolnough, B.sc., F.G.8. for assisting in the work. The Road Superintendent, Mr. Norman Grant, gave useful assistance by placing the ser- vices of his foreman at our disposal. Mr. HK. KF. Pittman kindly examined all the sections in the field with me, and joined with me in the collecting of evidence for drawing Plate 16, and [am much indebted to him for his help and criticism. Mr. G. W. Card, was good enough to assist me with his aneroid observations; and I desire to thank my colleague, Mr. W.S. Dun, F.L.s., for kindly supplying biblio- graphical references. 4 i ut Hee ARM TY SM eweohtiantiae &, ye Mas oy ARNE : vi Pp ch npc yay Sent ale Os BARWiPP aad, Ve Bay sie ey rN } U tay Se a A \ ? be 1 we a pie ay ¥ Be Pers nt ~~ Stes oa a ~ SAY nae ete? Sor ; ¥ ee a gr Senile, we. RAS x 2 Fe cis mens Sa SES eee oe Journal Royal Society of NSW, Vol. XXXVI, 1902, Plate 1 Plate 1 Curl Curt H¢ MAGAZINE Tv, lt ‘eek, aes ) Eee : \ Rea eee Ss “12 \. vavewse ~ Rise . s ERAESY! EA a Long NoggPt | PTSI? Bradieys ser. a l —= / 3 a a 7. \ oe Ly a / % “ ©. GHAR K * y y ‘ iy ae] 4 ok 2p R R Vs g ewan \ , ‘4 , f biee nye eS) ; rr 4 sh i WG wy biaeFore SO j if aN < } ALMALN «_—~) ) ° \ a . \ e Concord byn\ (a sma “ Drummoyn Zs oh Concord 4 >> \ ae rN iis ZZ ST; 00 MY | (Pappincton } ey rs 9 7 ry mr a) 5 ‘1 STRATHFIELD 3! Ee a fit DALCW HILL Y Marrickvitre be RANDWICK NorRTH BOTANY 2aur a penlee BOTANY wot \ sie y ae -MOOREFIELDS Xe ee N “ THE PUBLIC PARKS AND RECREATION RESERVES : within the CITY or SYDNEY & ENVIRONS jt ad ge i: > F ray it e ITT. ~~ Pla Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI, 1902. \ : : ‘ ’ : % a ee NRA I Ma a ah Mitt OBE ie Bate Fig. 1—The Boogald tail end. ide, 85. ” from the unders Sp. gr. 7 hes; weight 2057°5 grms. .S.W. Showing “drip N Meteorite, i Length 5 inches, width 3 inc Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI, 1902. Plate IV. (ripen nvprwams rumen cm aS Ben stasis Ti Noe ie ee Roe ve ne Hs y * ~ % * Y vo wae ya aI ARRAS Eine MA an AG ae GRIT A REL et hime A cna SNSON foe TARAS te alt MLM IDES Wy AMS Ms ee earn ae ee er a nn Fig. 2—Boolgaldi Meteorite, N.S.W. The lower side is on the right hand. * This indention is due to the support on which the meteorite rested. wr Deri ore enemy Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI., 1902. Plate Fig. 3—The Boogaldi Meteorite, N.S.W. Showing waves formed in the flu V. =e een id skin at the forward end, the right hand side was the lower one during flight. Enlarged 2 diameters. Journal Royal Society of NS.W., XXXVI, 1902. Plate VI. Fig. 4—Boogaldi Meteorite, N.S.W. Showing the flow of the oxides at the lower side of the forward end; also pit on the right. Fig. 5—Boogaldi Meteorite, N.S.W. Showing the drip of the fluid oxides from the lower side of the tail end of the meteorite. Figs. 4 and 5 are somewhat enlarged. Plate VII. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI., 1902. Length 5 inches, Ww SS N ite, f the Boogaldi Meteor ig. 6—Section o width 3 inches. - . 7 : ion at ee i . = ss Cae Fits & {79 oe wee iy , te a BS ae es { or : - : ake = = . P * 7 . \ “\ = nxt | = . s a ‘ ’ e - ea - = —_ a je aa wie a my Lh ] + 7 4 VW: ~ POs eC hae { aa i. c : # ~ 1 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVI., 1902. Plate VIII. Fig. 7—Barratta Meteorite No. 2,N.8.W. Weight 313 lbs. Specific gravity 3°706. Reduced to about 2. 7 sno seniem estes cert ee ey yeyracomupngemracre: ryan Plate IX. para ES Specific gravity 3°429. Reduced to 3. Weight 48 ibs. Fig. 8—Barratta Meteorite, No. 3, N.S.W. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXXVI, 1902. Fig. 9—Fractured Surface of Barratta Meteorite No. 2. Pi a 2 diameters. Fig. 10—Barratta Meteorite No. 2. 2 diameters. Polished Surface, the white markings are metallic particles. Plate XI. Fig. 11—Section of Barratta Meteorite No. 2. 12 diameters. Fig. 12—Section of Barratta Meteorite No. 3. 16 diameters. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., XXX VI., 1902. Plate XII. Fig. 183—Section of Gilgoin Meteorite No.1. 12 diameters. Fig. 14—Section of Hay or Eli Elwah Meteorite. 12 diameters. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVI, 1902. Plate XIII. — semen phianonere teeter ed mim — Fig. 15—Gilgoin Meteorite No. 1, N.S.W. Reduced to nearly 4. Weight 673 lbs. Specific gravity 3°857. ; Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVI., 1902. Plate XIV. — perpen NNN ne eer ae J ity 3°757. gravi Specific Weight 74 Ibs. 4 ozs. Reduced to nearly 3. Meteorite No. 2, N.S.W. goin il Fig. 16—G Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVI. 1902. - * mn s = D ela ~~ = Pe PS aed oo &) om E rie fo} 12 mo} ic) (2) =) ne) ® a Fig. 17—Eli Elwah or Hay Meteorite, N.S.W. Specific gravity 3°537- LRN: ao and ME Tomah — Assoc. R.S.M. eee eT. : ALLUVIALS PR eee aac eee MFO M8 Oe cose pee ete ee woe C8 et Oo oe og ae Cee ar ne es aS, ot'| ESULLELID, maay | H. E.C. Kobinson. delt. Syoney. f Journal Royal Soc. NV S. Wales. VolXXxXVI. 7902 Plate XVI. PLAN showing fold and fault at East escarpment of Blue Mountains AND LINE OF SECTION RicHMonD to M? Toman . N.S. WALES. Coz =A Wentworth Falls M Tomah — : 3276" Tomah Trig.S® CAINOZOIC Basalt z Wiaramatta Shale = Hawkesbury Sandstone \ aie Ss TRIASSIC 2670" Narrabeen Shales Lithgow Newcastle } Coal Measures Bulli PERMO- CARBONIFEROUS UpperMarine Series DATUM SEA LEVEL x BILPIN 69 F9007\gagrh® NORWOOD HORIZONTAL SCALE OF MILES ' 2 3 4 SECTION from RICHMOND to Mt TOMAH showing the subsidence area between Kurrajong Heights and Mt Tomah From Observations by Prof. David, B.A.,F-RS., and E.F. Pitrman, Assoc. R.S.M. = eh Pe Ne Oe eg oo Se ee =--- to eee eee eee SS a --W.N. wal, Kurrajong Heights B12 6 !930r- 19007 pate? ale ck Ys. OF = grew and old roads ory Fold €10°S a8 20% Se VERTICAL SCALE OF FEET. s 500 250 0 500 1000 1500 ee SS 2000 FEET BELOW SEA LEVEL HEC Robinson cele eee! . = Pn my ert aan ecm ni eo : ta? See 4 ‘ 4 (* ae i if Journal Royal Soc. N.S. Wales. Vol XXXVI. 1302, —— Plate XVII. SECTION OF FAULT at tae CUT ROCKS” KURRAJONG HEIGHTS N.S W. From survey by T.W. Edgeworth David B.A.,ERS., and G.H.Halligan,LS.,EGS. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SCALE OF FEET NDEX & 3 aS Wianamatta Shales. 38 is] TRIASSIC s3 aaaes TOP OF RIDGE | Hawkesbury Sandstone. 8 & A KURRAJONG. HEIGHTS ivy ‘I \ S 8: SS 3) The relative levels from the datum line up to Station 5 ard 1 iS fo . H | wore 1. “°° determined by means of chain and cheodolite. Ni 11 This dotted area represents the f \ ' * The reduced levels giving altitude above sea are £2 2! i minimum amount of rocks removed 3 ! ' i ' 5 ; : f from aneroid observations gs Sui hy denudation since the time of H ' ' \ aS H ; Gs 3 ' the fauiting. a ! | ! \ In the restored outline afeer Faulting a minimum thickness 8% <)| ! Het \ pores only bout 20 Feet is given to the Wienamstta Shales <8 I 1 ! } H H “but they were probably far thicker at the lime of the 3 5 zit i H 4 b H faultin ise Fl ! i x a 5 f ee 8! —3 8 i] = 1 On the assumption that the strata have been deflected, 83 3! 4 3 \ \ ; NOTE 3. From their normal plane oF dip,50" on the upthrowsite 3 z F} \ H 1 ' 1 s and a similar amount on the downthrow side the actual he — { ! ' 1 Umow of the Plt 1s about 423 feet. #8 r 1 : ' ' f ! ' | 1 I \ } 1 iH ' 1 ' \ WEST ¥ v es 2 _y oe EAST DATUM ABOUT 1510 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL HE.C Robinson dele 7. A . isl RR ri, sees esc» oe amt 4 RENT-PAPERS CHART N°/a From Novermber 301901 C0 October Wf IQW2.. oa | a L CURRENT-PAPERS CHART N°7a From November F0 190 to October F102 . 00 Pholo-lithographed by 9845 W. A. Gullick, Government Printer, Sydney, NS.W. ee ued esse, ' a ° lithographed by ik, Govern nent Printer, dney, W.S.W. he ORR at @ Emerald I.{D) Vaus 7 ahs os LPR Ny TES pd s| ~fosaar ode GET a i i 220ngea yp eras Nine 3 Ear ae $d ; onof 20' So cOno (Sts q ff yfongambu © Goran: 4 pp due: 1 437° Choshese It st i SERS CHA From November 30 1901 to October 51 1902 . RT N°7e 9845 Sold by JD Pome Agent Cor the vale of the Admarily Ohare 3i Fraley & 0 King Sree Tore HD London. Published at the Admeralty.21Jannary1874 under the Supermtendewe of Rear Admiral G.H. Richards. C.B-F RS. Hydrographe- Phote-lithegrophed by W. A. Gullick, Govern nent Printer, Sydney, HS.W. -_ ae : fe ance || HART. _1061'6-2 Ry thographed by Government Printer, y, ¥.S.W. ICEBERGS BETWEEN NEW ZEALAND AND CAPE HORN. E REPORTED BY CAP™ J.MANN HART. S.S.STAR OF NEW ZEALAND. SEPTEMBER 6™ TO 9™ I9OI. S— |e a 9 NS © (o) © AND IN DOTTED LINES Kcadaenecee pens o S263C Ss A.CPussell. Nov.3™ 1902. IAGRAM PR < RAINFALL OF NEW SOUTH WALES IN BLACK LINES.OF ENGLAND IN DOTTED LINES 4 5 6 7 8 9 |1890) | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 |1900) I 2 al | }_—_| | ate TG Ia Sem ere a | se 5 42 —t (reer ence [RE Beh S| | | { a a ve z S J eS 3 ar) 258 a8 33 A.BUT THIS DIAGRAM PROVE 4242 796 1586 31.56 948 5 OEDET ST aie 5 Dek Ge t LIEF IS NOT CORRECT. A.C Russell, Nov.3™°1902. 2022 3466 a re} Dd n 2011 3751 ENGLAND WILL 20.38 36.74 7.66 9.45 0AB 5.4 3341 26.04, e ee) at as 8 a ee 4S 2e & IT IS A COMMON BELIEF THAT iN aes a oy Ca) Ry UST Ss, & 2054 2 a a & Y 4 oy 8 oo So a 4 A OLLOWED BY A WET SEASON IN A STRALI E n WET SEASON I Photo-lithographed by HEYA W. A. Gullick, Government Printer, Sydney, N.S.W. ABSTRACT oF PROCKEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE Aopal Society of Sew South Hales. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY 7, 1902. The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth Street North, on. Wednesday evening, May 7th, 1902. The President, H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., in the Chair. Upwards of one hundred members and visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. | The following Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1902, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted: GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. fi icin vd os dl. { One Guinea... ts He 91 7 O | Subscriptions / Two Guineas ... f: .. 86710 O% 54018 3 Arrears ... ea Mec 5 ie 82 1 3 Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions received— Vote for 1901-1902 ... Be Rae .. 500 0 O —- 500 0 O Rent... baie a ae sole ae aa aie nae 38 0 O Sundries... oe oe Ses ae ae aes ee 19 18 6 Clarke Memorial Fund ... wae uae on aN ee 300). 0 0 Total Receipts ae beiiieesdetihitende ogsi.lly 9 Balance on Ist April, 1901 cot so oho. opr 4 53 13 10 £1452 5 7 PAYMENTS, Advertisements Assistant Secretary Books and Periodicals Bookbinding Conversazione Collector... de Freight, Charges, Peaking ie Furniture and Effects Gas ... ni Housekeeper Insurance ... Interest on Morhente Office Boy ... Petty Cash Mepedies Postage and Duty Stamps Printing Printing and Pablwhiag J daria Printing Extra kas of Papers Rates sas oa Reception Refreshments and attendance ae Mestings Repairs Stationery .. Sundries sims ee wiki Total Payments Repayment to Clarke Memorial Fund... Balance on 8lst March, 1902, viz.:— Cash in Union Bank, General Account ~ B. & I. Fund Cash j in hand... BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. REeEcEIPTs. Loan on Mortgage at 4% ae Aer PAYMENTS. Advance to General Account 31st March, 1897 Balance 31st March; 1902 ae Ae lV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. £ 28 250 78 Ss. d. 0 0 4 9 11 5 6 16 9 2 0 8 0 10 3 0 6) F a oO ® O = of 3 11 1092 16 6 300 0 0 —— Somes £1452 5 7 &. 8. ‘a. .. 1400 0 O ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vv. CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. RECEIPTS. £8. a Amount of Fund, 31st March, 1901 =f aa ae we oe Ly. Interest to 31st March, 1902 ss ahs ate ee re a ae £444 11 O £8. dd Deposit in Savings Bank of New South Wales, March 31,1902 218 19 0O Deposit in Government Savings Bank, March 31, 1902 ta? 295-12 sO £44411 O AUDITED AND FOUND CORRECT, AS CONTAINED IN THE Books or Accounts. DAVID FELL, ¢.a.a.......... i Pe LAWRENCE HARGRAVE 6 7 OM0T4"Y Auanlors. Sypney, 24th April, 1902. . D. CARMENT, £.1.4.,F.F.A. Honorary Treasurer. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. His Honor Judge Docker and Mr. J. T. Wilshire were > appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. D. Carment deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. There being no other nominations, the following gentle- men were elected officers and members of Council for the current year. President: Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E.,Wh.Sc. — Vice-Presidents: H. C. RUSSELL, B.a. c.m.a:, F.z.s. | W. M. HAMLET, F.1.¢., F.c.s. G. H. KNIBBS, F.n.a.s. Prof. LIVERSIDGH, m.a., Lu.D., &e. Hon. Treasurer: D. CARMENT, 1.1.4., F.F.A. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.1.s. | F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.c., F.c.s. Members of Council: Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., ¥.R.8s. | F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.v. HENRY DEANE, m.a., M. Inst.C.E.| GEORGE E. RENNIE, B.a.. M.D. J. W. GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.B. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. H. A. LENEHAN, F.2.a.8. Prof. ANDERSON STUART, ™.p., LL.D. CHARLES MOORE, F.z.z3.8. J. STUART THOM Vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of three for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Brereton, Victor Le Gay, Solicitor, ‘‘Osgathorpe,”’ Gladesville. Calder, Robert A., Dentist, 448 Castlereagh Street. Hennessy, John Francis, Architect, City Chambers, 243 Pitt Street. The following announcements were made :— 1, That the Officers and Committee of the Engineering and Hconomic Sections had been elected for the ensuing Session, and the dates fixed for their meetings, as follows :— SECTIONAL COMMITTEES—SESSION 1902. Section K.—Engineering. Chairman—H. G. McKinney, M. Inst. C.E. Hon. Secretaries—S. H. Barraclough, M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. H. H. Dare, M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Committee—Percy Allan, M. Inst. C.E., G. R. Cowdery, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E., Henry Deane, M. Inst. C.E., J. I. Haycroft, M.E., M. Inst. C.E,,1., Herbert E. Ross, W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., J. H. Cardew, Assoc, M, Inst. C.E. Past Chairmen, ox officio Members of Committee for three years :—T. H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E., Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E., J. M, Smail, M. Inst. C.E. Meetings held on the Third Wednesday in each month, at 8 p.m. P Economic Section. Chairman—R. Teece, F.1.A., F.F.A. Hon. Secretary—A. Dabkewor tht Committee—J. W. Grimshaw, M. Inst. c.E., A. Halloran, B.A., LL.B., J. Henageent: Joseph Palmer. Meetings held on the Fourth Wednesday in each month, at 8 p.m. SECTION MEETINGS. ENGINEERING— Wednesday, May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. (8 p.m.) ae aa we) 2L.18..16 20: 17 -=19ee Economic—Wednesday, (8p.m.) 28 25 30 27 24 29 26 10 SCIENCE LECTURES. 2. That the series of Popular Science Lectures to be delivered during the present Session, will be as follows: - They will be delivered at the Society’s Beek on the Fourth pers in each month, i.e., on ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vil. June 30th—Tux rétEz or BacTERIA IN THE PRODUCTION oF DIsEASE,’” F. Tidswell, u.8., M.ch, D.P.H., Health Department. July 24th—“Tur Devetopment or THE Dweztiine Hovssz,” F. W. Woodhouse, Superintendent of Drawing, Department of Public Instruction. August 28th— MicrR0-oRGANISMS, THEIR Lir—E AND Work,” R. Greig- Smith, m.sc., Macleay Bacteriologist. October 23rd—‘‘ Brontoay AND Everery-Day Lirs,’ Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.sc., F.B.S. November 27th—“<*Tue Art OF THE BRIDGE-BUILDER,” Professor W. H. Warren, wh. sc., M. Inst. C.E. 3. Ninety-seven volumes, 444 parts, 64 reports, and 120 pamphlets, total 725, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The following letters were read :— 1620 P Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., 3rd January, 1902. The Hon. Secretary of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dear Sir—I have the pleasure to acknowledge receipt of your communi- cation of November 12th, apprising me of my election as honorary member of your Society. This high honour coming from so distant as well as so distinguished a branch of the world of learning is, I assure you, very highly appreciated. I beg that you will convey to the Society both my thanks, and my wishes for its success in promoting science and learning in the Southern Hemisphere. I am, dear Sir, yours most respectfully, SIMON NEWCOMB. 22 Cumberland Road, Kew, Surrey, 26th December, 1901. My dear Sir,—It was with great pleasure that I received your letter of the 12th ultimo, informing me of my election as an Honorary Member of the Royal Society of New South Wales. I have so many friends and former students in Sydney, and it has been such a pleasure to me to co-operate with them in working out the rich harvest of materials obtained at Funafuti, that I feel especial gratification at the honour you have done me. Will you express to the Society my thanks for the very great honour they have conferred upon me and believe me to be, | Yours very faithfully, JOHN W. JUDD. The Hon. Secretary, Royal — of New South Wales. Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 2 Queen Square Place, Queen Anne’s Mansions, Westminster, S.W. 18 January, 1902. My dear Sir,—Your letter of the 12th November arrived here during my absence in Egypt on professional duties connected with the Nile Reservoir works, or I should have acknowledged its receipt before. Will you please convey to the Council of the Society my sincere appreciation of the great honour done to me in electing me an Honorary Member of | the Society, whose good work is well known to myself and other engineers | from the admirable papers from time to'time published by the Society. © Yours faithfully, BENJAMIN BAKER. G. H. Knibbs, Esq., Hon. Secretary, Royal Society of New South Wales. Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, Devon, March, 1902. Dear Sir,—I write to acknowledge the safe arrival of the Clarke Medal awarded to my dear distinguished husband by the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales. The medal arrived after Mr. Eyre’s death, I grieve to say, for it would have been a great satisfaction to him to have seen it. I, his sad widow, offer my heartfelt thanks to the Council for this tribute to my husband’s praise, and for their expressions of appreciation of his splendid work in Australia. I have been ill, and in too great affliction to be able to write before. The medal is very beautiful and will be kept as an heirloom in the family. Very faithfully yours, ADELAIDE FANNY EYRE. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that the financial affairs of the Society are in a fairly satisfactory condition. The Library.—From the Balance Sheet submitted this evening it will be seen that the sum of £78 2s. 4d. was | spent upon books and periodicals, and £24 11s. 9d. for binding during the past year. Hxchanges.—Last year we exchanged our Journal and Proceedings with 420 kindred Societies, receiving in return 333 volumes, 1,608 parts, 179 reports, 280 pamphlets, 2 maps, 12 geological and topographical maps, 2 geological photographs, 1 physical atlas, 1 hydrographic atlas, 4 hydro- graphic charts and 3 meteorological charts; total 2,425. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1x, The Library of the British Museum (in addition to the Museum of Natural History) has been placed on the exchange list. Papers read in 1901.—During the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which 19 papers were read; the average attendance of members was 40, and of visitors 3. Sections.—The Engineering Section held six meetings during the year, at which five papers were read and seven discussed; the average attendance of members and visitors was 16. The Hconomic Science Section held five meetings during the year, at which seven papers were read and discussed. Lectures.—A course of five science lectures was delivered during the Session, and were well attended. Roll of Members.—The number of members on the Roll on the 30th April, 1901, was 368. During the past year 20 new members were elected; the deaths numbered nine, and the resignations four, leaving a total of 375 on the 30th April, 1902. Obituary.—The following is a list of members who have died during the year 1901 :— Honorary Members. Elected 1878, Agnew, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D. 1888, Tate, Professor Ralph, F.G.S., F.L.S. Ordinary Members. 1864, Adams, P. F. ; 1877, Abbott, The Hon. Sir J. P., K.C.M.G., M.L.A. 1894, Carleton, H. R. 1878, Colquhoun, George. 1880, Cox, Hon. G. H., M.L.c. 1868, Garran, Hon. Dr. Andrew. 1879, Stephen, Hon. S. A. 1876, Tibbits, Dr. W. H. 1872, Wright, Dr. H. G. A. x. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. _ Mr. Russell expressed his regret that, owing to ill-health during the past year and to the pressure of his official duties, he had been quite unable to prepare a Presidential Address; he then vacated the chair. On the motion of Mr. J. T. Wilshire, a vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried with acclamation. Professor Warren, having been installed as President, thanked the members for the honour conferred upon him. The meeting then resolved itself into a “‘Reception,”’ or informal Conversazione. Various interesting exhibits were shown by the following gentlemen:—Mr. H. C. Russell, Prof. A. Liversidge, Prof. David, Dr. F. H. Quaife, His Honor Judge Docker, Mr. J. H. Maiden, and others. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 4, 1902. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held — at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, June 4th, 1902. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. 0.B., Wh. Sc., President, in the Chair. About seventy members and visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. R. A. Calder enrolled his name and was introduced. Mr. Harrie Wood and His Honor Judge Docker were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. F. H. Quaife deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xi. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society:— Wright, John Robinson; Fairfield. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, of three for the second time, and of one for the first time. The President announced that the first Science Lecture for the present Session would be delivered on the 30t inst. by Dr. Frank Tidswell, .z., u.ch., p.P.4., Health Department, on ‘‘ The Role of Bacteria in the Production of Disease.”’ Twenty-six volumes, 144 parts, 11 reports, 19 pamphlets and 1 hydrographic chart, total 201 received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “The Parks of Sydney; some of the problems of control and management,’’ by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., Director of Botanic Gardens and Domains, Sydney; Officer-in- Charge of the Centennial Park. I. General questions : a. Introductory. b. Sydney Parks,—how vested and Zonteeltad: c. Sydney Parks,—Statistics. d. Park lands should be inalienable. II. Police and traffic regulation. a. Police. b. Traffic regulation. III. Roads and paths; fences; seats, etc. a. Roads and paths. b. Fences. c. Seats. IV. Plantations ; grass, etc. a. Plantations. b. Grass. c. Depasturing of Stock. V. Buildings etc., in and abutting on Parks. a. Buildings. b. Wharves. Xi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. VI. Special public requirements :— a. Necessities :— 1. Lighting. 2. Sanitation. 3. Water-supply. 4. Public-baths and boat-sheds. 5. Refreshments. b. Luxuries. 1. Games, etc. 2. Music. 3. Statuary. 2. “A possible connection between Volcanic Hruption and Sunspot Phenomena,”’ by H. I. JENSEN (communicated by Professor DAVID, B.A., F.R.S.) The author of this paper mentions that the idea of the existence of such a connection was suggested to him by the fact that Vesuvius was in violent eruption in the years 1813, 1822, 1855, 1867. 1891, and 1900, all of which were minimum years. By means of a chart he shows that earthquakes and eruptions are most violent, numerous, ‘and extensive when there is least sunspot activity. Though seismic disturbances do occur at all times, they seem for the last one hundred and twenty years to have been most severe around the minimum years :—1811, 1822, 1833 —4, 1844, 1855 —6, 1867-8, 1878-9, 1888-9, and 1900-2, large groups of great earthquakes and eruptions having taken place in and about these years. On the other hand the chart also shows that in years of maximum, like 1893-8, 1884 — 5, 1869 —71, 1858 — 65, and so on, these phenomena have been comparatively few and unimportant. The writer thinks that the cause of this connection between solar and seismic disturbances, is that in years of sunspot minimum there is less heat, and other energy, re- ceived from the sun, and consequently there is more rapid radiation from the earth, causing quicker cooling, hence more cracking of the earth’s crust. He also suggests that the earth’s atmosphere exerts a greater squeeze on the ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. "yeaa crust in years of minimum, thus forcing lava out of fissures. He quotes the statements of various meteorolo- gists, who are of opinion that the average barometric pressure at the earth’s surface for years of sunspot minima is greater than in maxima years, and that the mean temperature is at the same time lower. If the connection which this paper tries to prove is found by future researches to be real and not merely accidental, the writer thinks that it should be possible to forecast earthquakes, though he admits the necessity of considering many other factors closely, for example secular contraction, perigee, perihelium, and atmospheric con- ditions, which undoubtedly affect, to a smaller extent than sunspots (the writer thinks), volcanic and seismic phenomena. EXHIBITS. 1. Numerous coloured diagrams and maps illustrating Mr. Maiden’s paper on ‘‘ The Parks of Sydney.”’ 2. In the absence of the exhibitor (Mr. CO. A. Sitissmilch) Prof. David described the following specimens:—(a) Beekite on fossil coral (Mucophyllum) from Spring Creek, (b) speci- mens of Lingula gregaria from Devonian rocks at Nyrang Creek. 3. Prof. David exhibited specimens of ‘* Tinguaite,’”’ a rather rare variety of nepheline egirine rock from Barigan near Lue, N. 8S. Wales, discovered by J. E. Carne, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of N. 8S. Wales. XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 2, 1902. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, July 2nd, 1902. . Prof. WARREN, M. Inst.C.E., Wh. Sc, President, in the Chair. Thirty-seven members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. a Messrs. J. T. Wilshire and Norman Selfe were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. Hamlet, deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Faithfull, William Percy, Barrister-at-Law, Australian Club. Richard, G.A., Metallurgical Engineer, Mount Morgan Gold Mining Co., Mount Morgan, Queensland. Welsh, David Arthur, Professor of Pathology, Sydney University, Glebe. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of three for the first time. | The President announced that the second Science Lecture for the present Session would be delivered on the 24th inst. by F. W. WoopHovwsE, Hsq., Superintendent of Drawing, Department of Public instruction, on ‘‘ The Development of the Dwelling House.”’ Thirty-one volumes, 171 parts, 6 reports, and 9 pamphlets total 217 received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. 1. ‘‘Notes on two chemical constituents from the Eucalypts,’”’ by Henry G. SMITH, F.C.S., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum. In this paper the author records the results of continued investigations on the ester (geranyl-acetate) contained in the oil of Eucalyptus Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden, and also on the oil itself. This data shows that the ester does not fall, at any time of the year, below 60%, and that the amount of free alcohol, considered as geraniol, diminishes in amount as the ester increases. The greatest amount of naturally formed esteroccurring at any time of the year was 74°9% in September, but the free alcohol wasonly 67 at that time. It has been found from numerous determinations that when the oil is acetylised the ester content will be but little removed from 807. The oil does not contain phellandrene at any time of the year, and eucalyptol appears to be always absent. Hudesmol is always present, but as it varies in amount, the specific gravity of the oil varies also. The crude oilappears to be always slightly dextro-rotatory. From the results of investigation of the oil obtained from over 100 distinct species of Hucalypts, this is the only one found to contain this valuable oil. The author also shows that the original formula for the quercetin glucoside, myrticolorin (C.-H.,O,,) obtained from the leaves of Eucalyptus macro- rhyncha was correct (Trans. Chem. Soc. 1898, p. 697). This formula has been confirmed by Mr. A. G. Perkin, who has shown (Trans. Chem. Soc. 1902, p. 477) that his own osyritrin, and also Mandelin’s violaquercitrin have the same formula, and are identical substances with myrticolorin. They all form quercetin and glucose on hydrolysis. 2. “The aboriginal languages of Victoria,” by R. H. MATHEWS, L.S. The paper was read by Mr. J. H. Maiden in the unavoid- able absence of the author. Synopsis :—Introductory, XVi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Orthography; the Tyattyalla language; the Tyapwurru and Wuddyauro dialects; the Thaguwurru language; the Woi- wurru dialect ; the Kunnai language ; vocabulary of Tyat- tyalla and Kunnai words. 3. “The Parks of Sydney; some of the problems of control and management,”’ by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., Director of Botanic Gardens and Domains, Sydney; Officer-in- Charge of the Centennial Park. | This paper was read at the June meeting. A discussion ensued in which the following gentlemen took part :— Messrs. J. T. Wilshire, C. A. Benbow, P. N. Trebeck, H. Deane, C. O. Burge, Dr. T. Storie Dixson, Mr. A. Duck- worth and Dr. F. H. Quaife. Mr. Maiden replied. The following is an abstract of the first Science Lecture of the present Session, delivered on the 30th June by F. Tidswell, 1.8, ch. D.P-H., Health Department, on ‘‘ The Réle of Bacteria in the Production of Disease.”’ The lecture opened with an account of the discovery of bacteria over two centuries ago by the Dutchman Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Allusion was then made to the subse- quent controversies concerning the origin of bacteria, and their influence in causing disease, and the manner in which their final settlement was effected by the researches of Louis Pasteur some thirty years ago. Attention was then directed to Pasteur’s demonstration of the causal micro- organism of a disease affecting silkworms, and of Davaine’s observations on the microbe of anthrax. It was shown how these results stimulated investigation of the germ theory, and how the proof of its correctness was rendered possible by the elaboration of exact bacteriological methods by Robert Koch. Mention was then made of the species of bacteria which produce disease in man. There followed a brief accouut of the structure and functions of bacteria ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVll. in general, and the specialisation of some forms into pro- ducers of disease. The consideration of the occurrence of these bacteria in the surroundings of the sick, and even upon the healthy skin, led up to an account of Lister’s institution of methods for preventing their entry into wounds, and its development into the modern system of aseptic surgery and of the principles underlying the hospital isolation of the infectious sick, and disinfection. The means by which infectious bacteria gain access to the sur- face of the body, and the events connected with their entrance to, and development in the internal tissues were dealt with at length. It was pointed out that the mani- festations of these diseases depend upon the injury done to the tissues by the poisons or toxins produced by the bacteria, and that recovery from them is consequent on the elabor- ation of neutralising substances or antitoxins by the cells of the body. Reference was then made to the after effects of these diseases, including the immunity against subse- quent attacks, and in this connection attention was called to the use of viruses, vaccines, and prophylactics as pre- ventives and of antitoxic serums as cures for infectious diseases. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 6, 1902. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held. at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, August 6th, 1902. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.B., Wh. Sc., President, in the Chair. Thirty-eight members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. as 6, 1902. XVlil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Messrs. T. F. Furber and M. Canty were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. H. A. Lenehan deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— Warren, Ernest William, B.E., B.A., LL.B., Barrister-at- Law; Wentworth Court. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, and of three for the second time. The President announced that the third Science Lecture for the present Session would be delivered on the 28th instant, by R. GREIG SMITH, m.sc., Macleay Bacteriologist, on ‘‘Micro-organisms, their Life and Work.”’ Sixteen volumes, 129 parts, 12 reports, and 10 pamphlets, total 167 received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The paper on “‘Sunspot minima and Volcanic Hruptions”’ by Mr. H. I. JENSEN (communicated by Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.R.S.) and read 4th June, 1902, was then dis- cussed, the following gentlemen taking part Dr. A. M. Megginson, Dr. Walter Spencer, Prof. David, Mr. H. C.. Russell, the author and the Chairman. : THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :-— On ‘The Mitigation of Floods in the Hunter River,’ by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. ; The paper discusses the subject from the point of view of the forester. I. Introductory. II. Geographical notes. III. The situation,—denudation. The outlook serious. IV. Intelligent control of ringbarking the beginning of all remedial measures :— a. Shelter for stock should be adequate. b. Danger of cutting trees too near the water-courses. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1x. V. Deviation of roads. VI. Falling in of banks. VII. Floods and weeds. VIII. Some miscellaneous factors in erosion :— a. Boulders. b. Dead trees. c. Stock. IX. Remedial and preventive measures :— a. Control of ringbarking. b. Fencing. c. Embankments. d. Chamfering of banks. e. Planting and conservation. 1. Natural bank protectors. 2. Other bank-protectors (exotic). 3. Plants recommended for Upper, Middle, and Lower Hunter. 4. Nurseries. X. Summary of the measures recommended for mitigation of floods. Appendix 1. Mountain torrents in Europe. Appendix 2. Lessons to be learnt from some rivers in Europe. Appendix 3. An instance of denudation in the United States. It was decided to discuss the paper at the meeting of 3rd September. EXHIBITS. 1. Columnar Basalt in situ from Stirling, near Inverell, New South Wales, columns minor diameter 9 in. to 26 in., lengths not known, but apparently 10 to 20 ft. Very dense, compact, stones, separated by clay joints of } in. thickness, by Mr. HERBERT KH. Ross. 2. Specimens of ‘ Fire Stone’ from Saunders’ Quarries, Pyrmont, by Mr. HENRY DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. The following is an abstract of the second Science Lecture of the present Session, delivered on the 24th July, by Mr. F. W. WOODHOUSE, Superintendent of Drawing, Depart- ment of Public Instruction. The history of man’s dwellings is the record of his wants or absence of wants, of his ideas of comfort and decency, of his social position, of his relations to his neighbours and XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. to members of other communities. The earliest may be classed as permanent, temporary or portable, the necessi- ties of agriculture developing the permanent and thus supporting Xenophon’s assertion that ‘“‘Agriculture is the Mother of the Arts.’’ Passing to the sources of our infor- mation, we have, besides actual remains, the evidence of modern uncivilised peoples, of tombs and burial urns, of laws, charters, customs and traditions. The earliest form prob- ably the round, like a wigwam. ‘Beehive’ huts of stone covered with a mound of earth are found in Greece and Britain and are still in use in the Hebrides. The round form, being inconvenient, disappeared as a usual dwelling-house, but from its survival as the ‘fire-house’ of the tribe and — then of the homestead and its connection with hearth worship, its form was taken in Rome by the circular temples of the Hearth-goddess. The rectangular form probably derived from the use of ‘forks’ or pairs of inclined poles supporting a ridge. Confining our attention to the dwell- ings of Aryan races we may take first those of the pre- Hellenic Greek, which may be broadly denominated ‘ My- cenean.’ The general arrangement is based on an open court or farmyard with the dwelling opposite the entrance and stables, etc., on either side. In Hellenic Greece the court-yard plan became, in town houses, the ‘ Peristyle ’ with rooms around. The women were secluded in apart- ments lying beyond, in large houses round a second court. The Htruscan house was originally a single room with a square opening in the roof as exit for smoke. The Roman adopted the Etruscan ‘Atrium’ and the Greek ‘Peristyle,’ and generally built a second story over part of the ground fioor. In Rome houses were generally let in ‘flats,’ and were of four or perhaps more stories, always a result of the limited space in walled cities. When we turn to our Saxon and Scandinavian ancestors we find the hall the nucleus of the dwelling ; shared by the Saxon farmer with ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XR, his horses and cows. The bower or bedroom of the master is generally the only other room, servants and sons slept in the hall, and this even to the 14th Century. Progress in refinement is shown by the addition of parlours, bed- rooms, separate dining-rooms, passages to connect rooms, until at last halls are built as a mark of state and dignity only. The progressive changes in windows and fireplaces may be taken as examp'es of the march of comfort and convenience. Stalls in markets were at first the only shops. Shops in houses were at first commonly half below the street level, being the cellar or store upon which the living rooms were raised. Since the Medieval period, individualism has had full sway, subdivision of function marks our houses as it does all other phases of our complex and somewhat burdensome civilization. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 3, 1902. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, September 3rd, 1902. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst.C.E., Wh. Sc, President, in the Chair, Forty members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. H. G. McKinney and T. F. Furber were appointed Scrutineers, and His Honor Judge Docker, deputed to pre- side at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society:— XXill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Fleming, Edward Graham, Assoc. Memb. I. E. Engineers, etc., Hlectrical Engineer; Australian Club. Jevons, Herbert Stanley, Lecturer and Demonstrator, in Mineralogy and Petrology; University of Sydney. Ramsay, Arthur Alex., Assistant Chemist, Department of Agriculture, 136 George-street, N. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, and of two for the first time. The President announced that the fourth Science Lecture for the present Session would be delivered on the 23rd October, by Professor W. A. Haswell, m.a., D.sc, F.RS., ON ‘** Biology and Hvery-Day Life.”’ Also that the Conversazione—which had been fixed for Thursday, September 25th-—would unfortunately have to be postponed in consequence of the functions which were to take place at the University during the Jubilee week. The Conversazione would, however, be held at as early a date as the use of the Great Hall could be obtained, and due notice would be given to members. Twenty-two volumes, 204 parts, 6 reports and 9 pamph- lets, total 241, received as donations were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “‘ Languages of some native tribes of Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria,’ by R. H. MATHEWS, L.s. This paper dealt fully with the grammatical structure of the speech of the native tribes inhabiting the Murray River along the Victorian frontier, and stretching thence northerly through the central and’ western districts of New South Wales to the 29th parallel of latitude, and continuing on- wards far into Queensland. The author stated that if this article be read in conjunction with a former contribution by him on “The Aboriginal Languages of Victoria,’ and ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXiil. 99 another on ‘‘The Thurrawal Language,”’ it will be found to complete a description of the grammatical constitution of all the native tongues of New South Wales and Victoria. 2. ““Ourrent Papers, No. 7,’’ by H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. 3. “‘ Meteorological Notes,’’ by H. OC. RUSSELL, B.A., 0.M.G., F.R.S. The abstract of the above papers is postponed to next month. 4. ‘““Meteoric Dusts, New South Wales,’’ by Professor LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. The term meteoric dust is used because it is commonly applied to the materials forming the subject of this paper; it is not intended to state that the dusts are necessarily of cosmic or extra terrestrial origin. The specimens described and exhibited were from Moruya, (fell on Dec. 15 1880); from Uralla, (fell on Dec. 14th, 1882); from near Broken Hill, (fell 1896); from Menindie (fell June 17th, 1899); and Pambula, (fell Oct. 5th, 1899). Dust from the roof-beams and mud from a covered cistern at the Uni- versity and from the roof of the Observatory, Sydney; all three were collected in 1882. All the dusts are of a red- dish colour except those from the University and Obser- vatory. which are grey. The red dusts are mainly silicious and argillaceous, and look as if they had come from dried up water-holes, they contain a variety of organic and mineral matters such as might be expected from such a source, and in addition magnetite and metallic iron; the latter contains cobalt and nickel which seems to indicate that the dusts contain some cosmic or extra-terrestrial materials, part of which may have settled down and become mingled with the undoubted superficial terrestrial deposits and part may have been derived directly from the atmo- XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. sphere. The University and Observatory dusts also yielded magnetite and metallic iron containing cobalt and nickel, and the University dust yielded particles of gold, the Observatory dust has yet to be tested. The Moruya, Menindie and Barrier red dusts yielded particles of gold, the others have yet to be examined. Fuller information is given in the paper as to the constituents and chemical composition of the dusts, and anaylses of volcanic and other dusts for comparison. Gold in Meteorites.—Prof. LIVERSIDGE also exhibited under the microscope particles of a malleable yellow metal, which have all the appearance of gold, obtained from certain Australian and Huropean meteorites (siderolites). The presence of gold in meteorites bears upon the presence of gold in ‘‘meteoric’’ dusts, and it is also of great interest in connection with the presence of gold upon the earth and in sea-water, inasmuch as meteorites and the dust of meteorites are constantly falling upon the earth, to the extent of probably many million tons a year. Further information upon the question of the presence of gold in meteorites will be given shortly in a subsequent paper. 4, ‘“‘A rapid gravimetric method of estimating Lime,’’ by F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S., and C. R. BARKER. The method consists in mixing previously dried and powdered ammonium nitrate with the calcium oxalate precipitate obtained in the usual manner. The oxalate is converted into calcium nitrate which is very readily and completely converted to oxide by a few minutes ignition over a bunsen burner. Prolonged ignition over the blow- pipe is quite unnecessary, and effects no further alteration of the weight of the precipitate. Figures were given show- ing the accuracy of the method. Remarks were made by Mr. Hamlet and Prof. Liversidge. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV, The paper on “The Mitigation of Floods in the Hunter River,” by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., read 6th August, 1902, was then discussed, the following gentlemen taking part :— Messrs. H. G. McKinney, J. B. Henson, C. O. Burge, H. Deane, J. H. Cardew, and Dr. F. H. Quaife. Owing to the lateness of the hour, the discussion was on the motion of His Honor Judge Docker, adjourned to the next General Monthly Meeting. | The following is an abstract of the third Science Lecture of the present session, delivered on the 28th August, by R. GREIG SMITH, m.sc., Macleay Bacteriologist, upon ‘* Micro- organisms ; their Life and Work.”’ After a reference to the universal distribution of micro- organisms, the isolation of bacteria in the pure state was demonstrated by lantern slides. Then followed a descrip- tion of the structure, shapes and methods of growth. The conditions which influence the life of bacteria such as aérobiosis and anaerobiosis, light, moisture and food supply were enumerated. The effect of temperature upon the growth of bacteria was illustrated by the putrefaction of food. The enormous multiplication of bacteria under the most favourable conditions, as well as the average multi- plication under ordinary circumstances was indicated. The formation of spores by some bacteria was noted, and the resistance of these to disinfectants and to heat introduced the subject of pasteurisation and sterilisation. The various methods of sterilisation including intermittent and plasmo- lytic were described, and finally the action of disinfectants was discussed. In the distribution of bacteria, the parts played by water, air, dust, insects, and the coughing, sneezing, etc., of patients were summarized. The work that micro-organisms perform is made evident by the alter- ation of the medium in which they subsist. The bacteria of disease produce toxines, and in dealing with this branch -XXV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. of the subject the formation of antitoxines and the phen- omenon of phagocytosis as bearing upon immunity was briefly discussed. The micro-organisms of the industries produce bye-products of commercial importance ; of these alcohol is the most important and its production by yeasts and moulds was described. Allusion was also made to the yeasts as producers of gas in bread baking and in certain aerated beverages. Then the alcohol consumers, the acetic bacteria were mentioned. This led to the production of other acids, especially lactic, the bacteria of which are used in the tannery and the dairy. The importance of the changes in the nitrogenous cycle—albumen, ammonia nitrate, albumen—to the agriculturist and the parts played in this cycle by bacteria were pointed out. a H. G. McKINNEY. are a most valuable and instructive record of the construc- tion of locks, weirs, wharves, and river training works in all parts of the States. By way of expressing my own indebtedness to these reports, I may mention that when I had the design of the Bourke Lock and Weir in hand, feel- ing dissatisfied with the common arrangement of working the Chanoine shutters by means of a tripping bar operated from one end of the weir, I searched every authority I could find for a record of the successful working of some more trustworthy and simpler method, and I found it in these reports. The success of the Pasqueau shoe for the shutter props of the movable weirs constructed by the United States Engineers on the Great Kanawha River in Virginia emboldened me to adopt that principle at Bourke. As regards the success of the shutter weir at Bourke, Colonel Home, R.E., C.S.I., who had risen through all the grades of the Irrigation Department of India till he reached the top as Inspector General, and who was familiar with all the types of weir used there informed me, in reply to a question on the subject, that in designing a weir in con- nection with the proposed Murrumbidgee Southern Canal, he did not think [ could adopt a better style than that constructed at Bourke. The Pasqueau arrangement, so far as I could ascertain, had been used on only one weir in France, although it is the invention of a French engineer. The invention is a recent one, and its prompt adoption in the United States shows that the practice of the Govern- ment engineers there is thoroughly up to date. The most recent addition to the duties of the United States engineers is the construction of reservoirs for the storage of flood waters so as to afford the means of extend- ing the period and range of navigation on the upper parts of rivers. Considering the immense extent and incalculable value of the inland navigation of the United States, as well as ANNUAL ADDRESS. XI. the innumerable interests involved, it was only natural that the question should be regarded as one which should be dealt with by the Federal Government. With the exception of such purely military works as fortifications, the only large engineering works which are under the charge of the Government engineers are those for the im- provement of navigation and particularly of inland naviga- “tion; but they have also charge of the preliminary surveys of the vast extent of country known as the Arid Region, including the taking of levels and locating the sites of reservoirs for irrigation purposes. An officer of the United States Hngineers lately contributed an interesting article to one of the magazines, recommending that the construc- tion of reservoirs for irrigation purposes as well as the locating of sites should be undertaken by the Federal Government; but no such step has been taken in this direc- tion, nor does it seem likely that any will be taken. Coming now to the irrigation works of the United States we find a record, like that of the railways, of almost un- paralleled progress in which the Government has drawn the _ benefits arising from increase of settlement, production, and wealth, while it has incurred no outlay and norisk. In afew unimportant cases, municipal authorities have con- structed irrigation works on a small scale; but as the Honorable Alfred Deakin states in hig valuable Report on Irrigation in Western America, ‘‘All the irrigation works of Western America, with the exceptions above named have been constructed and maintained wholly and solely by private persons. Not only has the Government spent nothing upon them, but it has known nothing of them.” This report was presented by Mr. Deakin in June, 1885, and since then the same system has been followed with the same vigour. In 1893, an International Irrigation Congress was held at Los Angeles in California, and repre- XII. H, G. McKINNEY. sentatives from all the States in which irrigation is prac-_ ticed were present. A point which was abundantly evident from the proceedings of this Congress was that not only had the Government given no assistance in the construction of irrigation works, but that the neglect to pass suitable legislation had seriously impeded irrigation enterprise. In 1885, Mr. Deakin when referring to the works which had then been carried out, wrote as follows:—‘* They have ° been constructed outside the law, extra legally, if not illegally. Hven now only two States and one Territory have attempted to deal legislatively with any of the problems raised, and it is not claimed that in more than one of these has anything substantial been achieved.’ The legal position of the owners of extensive irrigation works in Western America was, in fact, as unsatisfactory as that of the owners of dams and pumps on the rivers and creeks of New South Wales before the passing of the Water Rights Act. Since the date of Mr. Deakin’s report, a number of the States have adopted the principle of the State owner- ship of the rivers, which is the fundamental principle of our Water Rights Act, but this has not altered the policy adopted in the construction of irrigation works. In the proceedings of the Irrigation Congress referred to, such | expressions as ‘‘ We want no paternalism ’’ were repeatedly used, and there appeared to be a general feeling that it was not right either to wish or expect that the Govern- ment would undertake any irrigation works in settled districts. The only direction in which any assistance was wanted was indicated in the desire that the Government should carry out preliminary surveys to determine the character and outline of the country, and that it should locate suitable sites for reservoirs, and conduct a system of river gauging. The case was very clearly put by one of the representatives of Kansas as follows:—‘‘Let it be understood, however, that no friend of the Great Plains ANNUAL ADDRESS. XIII. country, who is conversant with the situation, either asks or expects the National Government to construct the irri- gation systems necessary to the reclamation of the semi- arid lands. All that we ask of the Government is such legislation as is necessary, and a very moderate amount of experimenting and demonstration.’’ The system under which irrigation in Western America has made such remarkable progress, has as its main features untrammelled private enterprise working with the consent and co-oper- ation of the settlers. The spirit of self-reliance and enter- prise of the people is aptly indicated by the quotation I have given from the speech of the representative of Kansas, and the results of that spirit are shown to the world in the millions of acres irrigated, and the thousands of car loads of produce which are sent away annually from land which, not many years ago, was regarded as almost valueless. Although the people of Australia are more completely British in their origin than are the citizens of the United States, there isa remarkable contrast between the policies of the Governments of the United Kingdom and the United States on the one hand and of the Australian States on the other so far as the encouragement of engineering enterprise is concerned. In the Australian States the tendency has been to concentrate the construction and management of all works of importance under the immediate charge of the Government. Cases have occurred where private com- panies offering to construct useful public works entirely at their own risk and expense, have been refused the neces- sary authority on the ground that the works should be constructed by the Government, and that the construction of such works should await the convenience of Government. This spirit appears to be most developed in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, and seems less pro- nounced in New Zealand and Tasmania. In New South xIV. . H. G. McKINNEY. _ Wales, owing to the absence of local self-government, centralization has reached its highest stage. The con- struction of even a road culvert on the borders of Queens- land or South Australia requires sanction from Sydney. — With comparatively trifling exceptions, the railways of the various States of Australia are constructed and managed by the State Governments. In some cases where land- grant railways were proposed, strong opposition to this system was raised, and it was apparent that this system as adopted in America would not be countenanced. ‘This being the view taken in the various States, it appears strange that the Governments of these States, as the owners of the land, did not adopt some of the leading principles acted on by the land grant railway companies in that country. They might have proceeded with the con- struction of railways in advance of settlement, selecting the lines along which settlement could most advantageously take place, and disposing of the land in suitable areas as the railways progressed. The enormous losses which have occurred through settlers taking up land remote from com- munications and insufficient in area or unsuitable in quality and surroundings for the maintenance of themselves and their families, would have been, in a great measure, avoided if the Government had acted the part of guide and pioneer of settlement, as was done by the land grant companies of the United States and Canada. It is obvious too that this system would have been as advantageous to the Government as to the settlers. However, as a matter of fact, in all the Australian States, railways have followed settlement instead of opening the way for it. Throughout Australia the system under which the railways are constructed and managed has not been so long in operation as to warrant a final opinion as to whether it is the most advantageous. When the present Railway Act was carried by Sir Henry : ANNUAL ADDRESS, XV. Parkes, and Mr. Eddy was appointed Chief Commissioner, the administration of the railways of New South Wales was admittedly in a highly unsatisfactory state. Victoria and South Australia passed through similar experiences. The magnificent services of Mr. EHddy and the high state of efficiency to which he brought our railway system, gave a reputation to State management of railways such as it never had before in a British community. No amount of * theorizing on the subject could have afforded such cogent reasons in favour of this system as were furnished by the practical results of Mr. Hddy’s management. With regard to the construction of Australasian railways this has been done chiefly in the past, and, so far as can be judged by present appearances, will be done entirely in the future by the various Governments. The only exceptions now allowed to this rule are short branch lines for mining purposes. It is worthy of passing remark that Mr. Hddy in New South Wales and Mr. Mathieson in Victoria, in their reports on the railways in these States, called atten- tion to what is perhaps the most serious drawback to which this system is liable, namely the construction of lines which are not warranted from a business point of view. Special provision has now, however, been made for exhaustive inquiries before any line of railway is sanctioned, so that it is unlikely that sanction will in future be granted with- out ample reason. For the time at least the various Governments of Australasia appear to have settled this question to their satisfaction, and that being so, it is interesting to contrast their decision with that of the Government of the United States. When the question of a trans-continental railway first came before the Govern- ment of that country, it was referred to in the Message of the President in the following terms:—“It is freely admitted that it would be inexpedient for this Government XVI. H. G. McKINNEY. to exercise the power of constructing the Pacific Railroad by its ownimmediateagents. Sucha policy would increase — the patronage of the Executive toa dangerous extent, and introduce a system of jobbery and corruption which no vigilance on the part of Federal officers could either pre- vent or detect. This can only be done by the keen eye and active and careful supervision of individual and private interest. The construction of this road ought, therefore, to be committed to companies incorporated by the States, - or to other agencies, whose pecuniary interests would be directly involved. Congress might then assist them in the work by grants of land or of money, or both, under such conditions or restrictions as would secure the transporta- tion of troops and munitions of war free from any charge, and that of the United States mails at a fair and reason- able price.’’ The policy here stated is substantially the policy still followed in the United States. It may be mentioned here that in Germany practically the whole of the railways have been brought under the direct control of the Government. When it is considered that Germany is surrounded on three sides by powerful nations possessed of huge armies, that every man is a soldier, and that the country has to be in a state of com- plete preparedness for war; the advantages connected with the Government control of the railways in that country are at once evident. Although France also is a great military nation, its extent of land frontier liable to attack is comparatively limited. Probably owing in some measure to this, the ownership of the railways, as in England is left to private companies. As regards works other than railways in Australia, it may be stated generally, that the towns have been nursed by the various Governments to an extent which has no parallel in the United Kingdom or North America. It is ANNUAL ADDRESS. XVII. on record that in one of the Australian States water supply works were constructed at Government expense for a small town, no charge being made for the water supplied, and that when a pump of very simple construction, in connec- tion with these works, went out of order, a deputation promptly went to the Government to ask that repairs should be made. The Minister, as is usual on such occasions, informed the deputation that he would refer the matter to his officers. When returning to their town, the members of the deputation, after discussing the question, came to the conclusion that the Minister was not sufficiently im- pressed with the urgency of the case, and that his officers likewise, might not be ina hurry in attending to it. After further discussion, a member of the deputation suggested that it might be worth while to try whether the local black- smith could put the pump in order, and it was agreed that the deputation should try this course on their return. They did so, and the village blacksmith, who was fortunately to some extent, at least, in accordance with Longfellow’s ideal, offered to do his best, to ask for nothing if he should fail, and to make only a reasonable charge if he succeeded. The end of the matter was that the blacksmith successfully repaired the pump and charged seven shillings and sixpence for the work—an amount which was very much less than the railway fares of the deputation. Among people in the Western States of America who proclaimed that they *‘want no paternalism,’’ the account of an occurrence like this would give rise to many reflections. In New Zealand and Victoria systems of local Govern- ment are in force, and water supply and sewerage works of towns are to a large extent dealt with by municipalities. In New South Wales the towns depend on the Government for both classes of work; in fact, the people lean on the Government and depend on it for all classes of engineering 2—May 21, 1902. XVIII. H. G. McKINNEY. works to an extent unknown in any other community of British origin. With regard to the important question of water conser- vation and irrigation, this is a branch in connection with which Victoria is the only State which has constructed extensive works. For the distribution of water from the rivers for stock and domestic purposes, a number of very useful works have been constructed by the Government of New South Wales, and much good has been done by this State and by Queensland in sinking artesian bores and exploring the country for artesian water; but as regards irrigation, Victoria alone has taken action on an extensive scale. It is necessary to mention that the number of artesian bores put down by enterprising landholders far exceeds the number put down by the Governments of Queensland and New South Wales, and that in the latter State alone, dams and other works for conserving water were constructed by the landholders at an estimated aggre- gate cost of over two millions sterling. Considering that many of these works were on land for which only a moderate tenure had been granted and that the works were con- structed and maintained on sufferance only, it must be admitted that they bear excellent testimony to the enter- prise of the pioneers who carried them out. In the United States and Canada the settlers own the land, so that the fruits of their enterprise in conserving surface water or putting down bores or wells are secured to them. When an energetic and comprehensive irrigation policy was decided on in Victoria, the system which was adopted of having all but the largest works constructed and all the works managed by Irrigation Trusts was excellent in theory. It was expected that the money supplied by the Govern- ment on loan would be judiciously and economically used by the Trusts, as they were to be responsible for the pay- ANNUAL ADDRESS. . XIX. ment of interest on it. So also, it was expected that the Trusts would manage the distribution of the water to the best advantage and to the satisfaction of all parties con- cerned. What actually happened was very different. In a number of cases the money obtained from the Govern- ment was spent very injudiciously, and in some it was absolutely wasted. Hventually an Act was passed under which a million sterling was written off as useless or un- profitable expenditure from which no return could be expected. The whole system of management by Trusts created and fostered by Government cannot be regarded otherwise than as a costly failure. This is not due to any failure on the part of the landowners to appreciate the benefits of irrigation. As a matter of fact, the landowners are anxious for more water and for further extension of the works. Still, even with the relief already afforded by the Government, the condition of affairs is far from satisfactory. The whole position is in remarkable contrast with that in California, Colorado, and other Western States of America. In these States, where the Governments did not contribute a single dollar in aid of irrigation, the progress made has been far greater than in Victoria, and the results have been highly satisfactory to all parties concerned. With reference to these results, one of the representatives of California at the Irrigation Congress already referred to, asked the question ** What would California have been to- day as far as beautiful homes and fine fruit trees are con- cerned, had it not been for private enterprise combined with private capital?’ It is interesting to compare the feelings which prompted this question with the spirit dis- played at the recent Irrigation Conference at Corowa, where representatives of Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales were in attendance. The Conference was initiated and organized by representatives of the last- named State, and they were mainly responsible for the XX. : H. G. McKINNEY. drafting of the resolutions which embodied the results of the deliberations. In these resolutions the effects of what the Americans term “‘paternalism’’ were a prominent feature. The representatives asked that the Governments of the States should take action separately in one direction, collectively in another, and in unison with the Federal Government in another; but there was not the least indi- cation that the people were either able or willing to do anything by themselves. When the landholders of India reach the stage at which they will begin to hold Irrigation Conferences, it will be easy to imagine such a conference, at say Agra or Lahore, passing resolutions closely corres- ponding in character to those passed at Corowa. On the other hand, those resolutions would sound strangely if repeated before a conference like that held at Los Angeles, where the spirit of the representatives was most clearly indicated in the phrase ‘‘We want no paternalism.’’ Various considerations led me to take up the subject of the systems under which the principal engineering works are constructed and managed in different countries. In the first place, so far as the development of the resources of New South Wales and of Australia generally is concerned, the country is still in its early youth. It is out of the question at our present stage to imagine that we have arrived at the best systems for utilizing these resources, just as it would be absurd to conclude that we have nothing more to learn from other countries in regard to the con- struction and management of engineering works. It may be urged that the system under which large engineering works are or should be constructed is a political question, and so it is to a certain extent. For this reason I have adhered to simple facts and the conclusions directly dedu- cible from them, and have avoided the advocacy of any particular system. Probably there is not much in what [ ANNUAL ADDRESS. XXI. have stated that is new to you; but the mere statement of the facts may bring new aspects of the question to your minds as it certainly has to mine. For instance, till now J never remarked the resemblance between the people of New South Wales and those of India in their attitude of passive and patient waiting for the action of the master hand of a paternal Government. Another point which had some effect in prompting me to take this subject was that for the engineer and particularly for the young engineer, the world is his field; so that the practice followed in the initiation of engineering works in different countries is a matter of much interest. I may here remark that as regards our young engineers, it seems strange that in such a young and undeveloped country as Australia, the prospects of an engineering career should seem to some of them less promising here than in England and elsewhere. It seems also strange that the great majority of the engineering students in the Sydney Uni- versity should devote themselves to mining engineering, a branch in which they will be free from Government inter- ference and Government competition. As I have already stated, it was quite impossible for me to do more than give a few fragmentary outlines of this most important subject. It seemed to me, however, that in such an address as this, though I could not convey much information that is new, I might draw attention to the question in a way that would assist in giving rise to a spirit of inquiry and investigation regarding it. If I have succeeded even in a moderate degree in doing this I shall be perfectly satisfied. XXII. J. HAYDON CARDEW. THE IMPORTANCE OF FHDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. — By J. HAYDON CARDEW, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. [ Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of NV. S. Wales, June 18, 1902. | THE practice of hydrography and the study of hydrological questions is of such great importance and value to the — people of Australia, that it is open to discussion whether the Federal Government ought not to make it a national undertaking in the same way as it is proposed to form a Federal Meteorological Department, in order that all the States may have the advantage of that fuller knowledge which a comprehensive national survey of the question over the whole continent would ensure. Unfortunately in this State and in most of the other States of Australia this important science has not been systematically pursued, although there is no country in the world where the results arising from such a course would have proved more valuable. The author does not wish in any way to depreciate the labours of many eminent observers in this branch of science, the services rendered by them are invaluable, and reflect upon them the highest honour, especially in view of the many difficulties they had to encounter owing to that want of system here alluded to, and also to the multiplicity of their other duties, but as the respective efforts of these observers have been directed only to portions of this great | question, and in some cases in a disjointed and intermittent | manner, and as the results have not been collated and published the full benefit of their labours is lost to the public. In most European countries and notably in the United States of America, professional men, principally trained engineers, are engaged upon this question all the year IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXIII. round, and in most of these countries it is considered to be of such importance as to form a division or branch of some Government Department. In the United States it forms a division of that great work, the United States Geological Survey, the annual report of which runs into many volumes, one volume of 750 pages profusely illustrated being entirely devoted to hydrography. The subject is naturally so akin to geology that a com- bined research of both subjects can be carried out more economically than when separately considered, but to be of any value to the State it must be pursued systematically and comprehensively over the whole of the Commonwealth and the results periodically published. It is of very little national value to undertake isolated researches into the hydrology of a river basin here and there, or to record the rainfall without a close study of the rivers and atmospheric effect, or to make any observations at all which are pigeon- holed in some public department and thence forgotten. This State is much indebted to Mr. H. C. Russell, B.a., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer, for his researches in many branches of hydrological science, and to his efforts in establishing so many rain gauges in different parts of the country and for his very valuable compilation of Rain, River, and Hvaporation Observations, but to be of any real value to the engineer the observing stations require to be greatly increased so as to embrace every principal creek and river basin in the State. j Mr. H. G. McKinney, m. mst.c.z., late Engineer to the Water Conservation Branch of the Public Works Depart- ment, and the officers of that branch have also performed much valuable work in the examination of some of our rivers, but, the results of which are unfortunately, only to a small extent accessible to the general public. As regards our artesian wells the Superintendent of Public Watering XXIV. ' J. HAYDON CARDEW. Places has compiled a large amount of useful data respect- ing our resources in underground water, but in perusing the reports of some of the observers referred to we find - complaint of the lack of reliable data and indirectly a plea for what the author advocates in order to make the reports more complete and definite. The Government Astronomer says, in his Rain and River Report of 1895, “‘In attempting to measure the quantity of rainfall which the Darling carries off we are still met with the want of necessary data as to the velocity of the current and the area of the river channel.’’ Again in speaking of the estimates of the water passing down the western rivers, he says, ‘‘ Before accuracy can be obtained detailed surveys are absolutely necessary, also daily records of the velocity of the current.’’ He repeats this in his 1899 report and adds the following significant statement, *“At present we have only old sections of the river and an approximate velocity of current, and I assume that the Murray catchment in Victoria receives the same quantity of rain as that in New South Wales, and that the Queens- land portion of the Darling catchment receives the same quantity of rain as that in New South Wales.’ Again in his last published report of 1899, he says in referring to the discharge of the Darling, ‘“‘In the absence of a river section at the weir it is impossible to estimate the percen- tage of rainfall which passes Bourke.’’ Also in pointing out the effect of altitude upon rainfall, which he states is avery material factor in the quantity received, he says, ‘“‘for the great majority of stations this (the elevation) is an unknown quantity,’’ and in another place, “‘I am fylly convinced that a complete record of the rainfall will enable us to forecast the seasons with some show of success.” Nothing could be stronger than the foregoing evidence as shewing the necessity and importance of a systematic and comprehensive study of hydrography. . IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXV. Mr. Boultbee, in his report on Artesian Boring in New South Wales, page 5, referring to the enlargement of our geological knowledge and the delimitation of the artesian area says, ‘The demand made upon his time by the multi- farious duties imposed on him do not permit our Govern- ment Geologist devoting that time to this important branch of geological survey which it demands, and which he desires.’”’ Again on page 7, referring to mapping of the artesian area “‘ the area is so vast, and the labour expended so slight in proportion to it, that a great element of uncer- tainty still must necessarily exist which can only be removed by comprehensive detailed work.’’ Regarding legislation, he says, it ‘‘has been lamentable, weak, inade- quate, and was introduced without data sufficient to affirm the necessity for it.’’ The introduction to the same work by the Minister for Public Works contains the following— *“We fully recognise how much we have still to learn, and how little we have been able to do, regarding the investi- gation so necessary into the complex and scientific questions arising regarding the flow, the pressures, and the limit of interference one bore with another.’’ The author places this evidence before you as being the experience of those who have dealt practically with some branches of the sub- ject, and who must have felt acutely the want of systematic research in the whole realm of hydrography. In order to eliminate the uncertainty and inefficiency of present methods and to acquire that complete knowledge of hydrology so essential to our welfare, let us first review what may be termed the elements of the subject, and after- wards note their individual importance and bearing on questions that require solving. The essential elements of hydrography are :— 1. The systematic gauging of rainfall and the collection of statistics as to its distribution and precipitation. XXVi. J. HAYDON CARDEW. 2. The systematic gauging of creeks, and rivers, noting the occurrence of floods and determnaten of flood heights and stream discharges. . The measurement of evaporation from land and water. . Determination of percolation in different soils and strata. . Determination of efflux or run off from catchments. . Recording phenomena of artesian boring. . Recording tidal phenomena and determination of mean sea level. “No Ol BB In connection with the ascertainment of the rainfall it is necessary to fix the altitude of the rain gauge above sea level, that comparison may be made of the effect on the rainfall of difference of altitude, and also the distribution of the rainfall should be carefully noted for different seasons of the year. In connection with the determination of efflux - from catchments and the torrential character of a basin it would be necessary to define the area of each creek and river catchment, classifying the areas consisting of flat impermeable strata, sloping impermeable strata, and im- permeable strata with notes as to vegetation and cultiva- tion; the statistics of each valley of the basin should be separately recorded in order that the nature of flow of each tributary of a river and the influence of the tributary on the main river may be studied if necessary. In addition to the tabulation of the data thus obtained, the preparation of maps of the river basins illustrating by suitable shading the nature of the strata and the distribution of the rainfall would convey a great deal of useful information at a glance. With regard to the observations for rainfall, I have already said that for the benefit of the engineer the observ- ing stations require to be greatly increased; at the present time there are 1,724 official rain gauges in New South Wales, and as the area of the State is 310,700 square miles, they average only one to each 180 square miles, this pro- COAST LINE © . IMPORTANCE OF FEDRAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXVII. vision may be sufficient to give an average idea of the rainfall for a large district, but quite insufficient for an exact statement of the rainfall over any particular river basin or tributary ; again the altitude of the majority of rain gauges not having been determined considerably dis- counts their value, as for instance in the determination of rainfall over a catchment area of fluctuating level, here the existence of one gauge might afford an idea of the rain- fall on other parts of the area at greater or less altitude than that of the observing station, if by a series of obser- vations elsewhere the ratio of increase or decrease of rainfall had been determined for increase or decrease of altitude. Investigating this question of altitude on rainfall the author was much struck with the relation existing between them on the line of the Great Western and Great Southern Railways, and also along the line of the Dividing Range EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON RAINFALL GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY Bi} x > o oa LITHGOW ~ BATHURST & MILCTHORPE & |- oranGE 2 fs a WELLINGTON & ! ; ' 77 246 269 368 MILES FROM COAST LAWSON PENRITH & EMU PLAINS & BLACKHEATH & BLAYNEY NEVERT | RE SCALE i i z RAINFAL® «1S TO 8 we wEATICN ALTITUDE 400 FY TO 8 We a SOURKE & e aunty | 8 ie vODWM 2 anor : tu} (a) ; =] VYANNWYLOOO Ee 2 N30UVH _~ = 3 auansyhy q ro g : rp a < ¢ TRE 1 Parra 9 =z. b Qa e —= re) Ip H $ mae : > I 88 peuytenn, x ee ( A eo ae | : w g eo, i) ts o - $ =I - z 8 o@ g ; Se Ae 33 mo ft, 2 | 8 aabypT = : "sO < FA iO 5 Bs oO S @Lloyn = : 44 2 w r AK i = - oe o 3 fo TR | 4% hwy oyvT : fw it yee 5 Fe & “Du0o) tz 5 : ] ° | L 2 : WAIN Le : Ma g NyNEs INOS 2 / : rs | HHT | | ae ada . N peanpwig E Py awassow Bs _ : 7 i : é ONOOVLLIW $s i) st = ey NOLOId <3 ; : ‘ : : @ NMOLTIZdNVO © 3NI7_ 1svoo es IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDOGRAPHY. XXIX, from Tenterfield on the north to Cooma on the south, and now exhibits for what they are worth the diagrams of the experimental plotting; it will be seen how very closely the curve of rainfall conforms to the curve of altitude. Time did not permit of a fuller investigation of this interesting question, but more data than the author had at his disposal would be necessary to arrive at any result regarding the ratio existing between increase of rainfall and increase of altitude, it can only be said as Mr. Russell puts it, that altitude is a material factor of the rainfall, what that factor is, hydrography only can supply, but these diagrams shew what great fields are open to the explora- tion of the hydrographer. The question of river gauging, occurrence of floods, and the determination of flood levels and stream discharges taken in conjunction with the rainfall opens a very wide door for enquiry and research. The Water Conservation Branch has done something in this branch of the subject, and Mr. McKinney established flood gauges in our western rivers, but only the fringe of of the question has been touched, and that in a very dis- jointed and fragmentary manner. In respect to fiood gauges it is feared we are worse off than for rain gauges, and yet if, as is now generally conceded, it is important to know the amount of rain that falls, how equally, nay, how much more important it is to know the amount of rain that the rivers discharge. For of the two, it is infinitely more im- portant to engineers who are about to project water con- servation or irrigation works to know what is the daily stream flow measured over a long series of years than to have an accurate record of the rainfall. For such purposes the relation between rainfall and river discharge is often useless, because some rivers discharge during the rainless season a great deal more than the amount of rain that falls XXX. J. HAYDON CARDEW. on the entire drainage area and which had fallen perhaps months previously. Of course the author does not wish to infer for a single moment that an analysis of the flow of ariver and the yield of rainfall from the catchment is of no value, on the con- trary, such investigations have the greatest value in other directions. The velocity and volume with which water will flow off steep mountainous slopes is one of the latter, and a very important one when a reservoir is to be formed in a valley, the safety of the dam being dependent upon a true perception of the natural laws governing this question; to the lack of this information may be attributed the destruction of many dams on account of the insufficiency of waste weir provision. The author was met with this very difficulty when report- ing upon a project for the supply of water to the Lloyd Copper Company Ltd., for their ore reduction works at Burraga 3; no authentic information was available as to the efflux from the catchment, but after a careful examination of the physical features and the geological nature of the district, he assumed that 65% of the average rainfall (assum- ing the mean annual rainfall of 28°8 inches at Burraga 24 miles away, aS being the average rainfall for the whole catchment) was lost by absorptive and evaporative agencies. Just before the dam was completed an opportunity occurred to the author of actually measuring the amount of rainfall contributed to the reservoir, which proved that 784% of the rainfall was lost on that occasion by evaporation and absorption on the catchment. It may be interesting to describe how this was done. Rain commenced to fall 19th September 1901, the ground surface being fairly moistened with the winter rains and snows, but not by any means thoroughly saturated, the rain terminated 26th October, and during that period 4°78 rs = = AT IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXXI. inches of rain fell, of which 2°65 inches were contributed in one day as recorded at the Burraga rain gauge; for this rainfall the precipitation on the catchment would represent 577 million of gallons. The reservoir was empty when the rain commenced and was full on the 10th December up to the level of the overflow weir, at which date the streams leading thereto had ceased to flow; during the period of contribution 35 million gallons were run off by the con- tractor, which quantity was measured through the sluice pipe ; 45 million gallons were evaporated from the reservoir calculated on the assumption that the evaporation was the same as Mr. Russell gives for Lake George, viz., 40 inches per annum, the conditions of the two places being apparently similar, and 85 millions of gallons remained in the reservoir, so that in all, the catchment contributed 1242 millions of gallons to the reservoir, or about 1 inch out of the total rainfall of 4°78 inches, therefore the proportion of the rain- fall conserved at this period was ** = 214%; it may readily 577 be conceived that after a long drought or in the heat of summer the percentage conserved would be less, as the absorptive and evaporative agencies would be more active, and in the winter when the bulk of the rainfall usually occurs, it might be more; the results of the test satisfied the author that the length of waste weir he had provided was sufficient to discharge the heaviest rainfall likely to occur, and did not materially disturb the calculations regard- ing the amount of water available for conservation. In a country like Australia, having vast areas of what may be termed arid lands with scanty and irregular rain- fall, is of the utmost importance to know not only the amount and distribution of the rainfall, but also what becomes of it, and that at once introduces the consideration of the questions of evaporation, percolation and efflux from river basins; without a consideration of all these taken XXXII. J. HAYDON CARDEW. together systematically and comprehensively over the whole of this and the adjoining States, we cannot solve the riddle of our western rivers and what becomes of the rain- fall. At the present the whole of our deductions are largely based upon assumption and guess work, as has been admitted, and in the author’s opinion, the discrepancy existing between the rainfall and discharge for the rivers aforesaid has never been satisfactorily accounted for, and until a complete system of hydrographical observation is established for the whole of the basins of these rivers it never will be possible to devise a system of irrigation and conservation until these questions are scientifically dealt with and solved. On the other hand the possession of such knowledge regarding these rivers would enable the engineer to project with confidence any system of irrigation, and would enable him to determine with accuracy the magni- tude of the works required, therefore the hydrographer should precede the engineer, and as his work requires time for maturity, he should have a long start of the engineer. One of the important considerations in designing irriga- tion works and especially storage reservoirs, is the maximum amount of rainfall that may occur in any period of time; great floods are the immediate result either of the sudden melting of snow, or of heavy rainstorms coming perhaps after a period of wet weather when the ground is fairly saturated, and statistics showing the rainfall in 24 hours are often insufficient to give a safe estimate of what may be precipitated in sudden storms. Mr. Russell records a rainfall in 24 hours at Arnold Grove, 28th May, 1889, of 11°13 inches, and again 10°08 inches on 20th March, 1892, which in the first instance represents 26%, and in the second instance 24% of the mean annual rainfall; again at Albion Park on the 8th February, 1895, he records a fall in 24 hours of 10 inches, or nearly 22% of the annual rainfall; an IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXXIII. investigation of a great number of other rainfall returns shows from 4 to +sth of the mean annual rainfall as being the greatest rainfall in 24 hours, but there is nothing to shew what proportion of these heavy falls occurred in a period less than 24 hours, and yet for the determination of the capacity of spill ways to reservoirs with limited catch- ments, or for culverts on roads and railways it is absolutely essential to have such data. The author has observed in many settled districts of New South Wales away from the coast, that the maximum rainfall for 1 hour fairly approxi- mates to } of the maximum daily rainfall, and that for a period of 8 hours the maximum rainfall is double of that for one hour, and he has constructed works upon that general assumption, but it must be admitted that the treat- ment of the question in this manner is not always conducive to good practice. 6 The determination of the efflux or “run off’? from a catchment is a very important one to the engineer when designing water ways for railways or roads, but it is so intimately bound up with the question of rainfall, the slope, and permeability or impermeability of the strata, the amount of vegetation, and the effects of evaporation that it is peculiarly one for the determination of the hydro- grapher, and if such information had been available before our railways had been built, one would have no hesitation in saying that a vast amount of public money would have been saved, both in the curtailment of unnecessarily extensive works or by the provision of more ample means. for the passage of water; the same thing may be said of all works carried out by our municipalities, which have lost large sums of money by actions at law consequent on the neglect of the study of hydrology. Again the systematic gauging of the rainfall, the regular daily observations of our rivers, the measurement of evapor-. 8—June 18, 1902. XXXIV. J. HAYDON CARDEW. ation, percolation and efflux would be an invaluable aid for the prediction of floods; when the nature of a tributary’s basin is known, it is possible to forecast the effect of any storm upon the main river, and by constant observation of all the tributaries of the river, to arrive at a perfect system of prediction of floods, so that the settlers and towns along the banks may be warned in time to make preparation against loss of life and property. In this connection Mr. C. J. R. Williams, Assoc. M. Inst. ¢.E., in an admirable paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1899 gives a very interesting account of the manner in which floods are predicted in the Brisbane River by the aid of hydrography; he describes how by flood gauges in the main stream and its branches, all connected by levelling, with accurate cross sections of the channel, the gradient of the stream when normal and in flood, and with the observed current velocities at difierent heights, it is quite possible to give an accurate prediction of the height and time of the flood well in advance of its arrival; a comparison of the calculated and observed heights of the actual flood levels show marvellously accurate results, but of course an immense amount of information, involving per- haps years of observation is necessary for such a purpose, however the cost and labour is amply compensated for by the insurance which it provides against all kinds of loss. In the same way we can acquire knowledge which will enable us by the construction of balance reservoirs so to regulate floods as to greatly ameliorate the effects of drought. Again the results of hydrological study would be very beneficial for the adequate provision of water supply to large towns, and if proper attention had been paid to this science the Prospect Dam would not be in the very serious condition it is to day, and the lamentable troubles and IMPORTANCE OF FEDERAL HYDROGRAPHY. XXXV. deficiencies of the Bathurst and Goulburn water undertak- ings might well have been avoided. It may be urged that the cost of such an extensive work would be prohibitive, but it need not be, the concentration of the work under one head, say that of the Geological Survey, of which it rightly forms a part, would allow of a very much larger amount of work being performed for the same cost as the disjointed efforts at present entail, and on the other hand the money expended on the acquisition of this knowledge would be recouped in a thousand ways, as I have already shown; the Government have road engineers and surveyors in every part of the country, who would make very many of the necessary observations; flood gauges could be main- tained and observed by Government employees on river punts and elsewhere, and even much despised private enterprise could be enlisted in the same way as Mr. Russell has done with such splendid results. The present drought is estimated to cost Australia 130 millions of money, and if, as the author firmly believes, such a study would point the way to save such awful losses in the future, are we not criminally neglectful in not having put our hands to the work long ago? The advantages that would accrue from a comprehensive hydrographical survey such as herein indicated with the records presented annually in a consolidated form must be obvious, especially when your attention is drawn to the fact that now such information has to be sought for—and often in vain—in the scattered reports of several depart- ments: if such a course was adopted the pastoralist, the agriculturalist, the miner, and the engineer could have the records upon their own bookshelves for reference. Ancient and contemporary history both reveal to us the great im- portance that has been attributed to this science by all civilised nations in all ages, and the certainty of the recur- XXXVI. C. O. BURGE. rence of such droughts as the one we are now suffering from, should enforce upon our serious consideration the necessity of taking immediate steps to acquire that com- plete knowledge whereby alone we can hope to alleviate the miseries and losses of our people in the future. In submitting this paper to your consideration, the author feels confident that even if all he advocates does not meet with entire approval, the broad question of Federal initia- tion and maintenance of hydrography in the States of the Commonwealth is worthy of discussion at your hands. 4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN HIGH SPEED RAIL- | WAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. By C. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.z. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 20th, 1902. |} A paper on this subject cannot have so much immediate practical interest to us in Australia, where, as regards railway speed, we are slow going, as that on hydrography at our last meeting. But it is very desirable that we should know what is going on elsewhere, in the progress of time saving work, in anticipation of the demand for it here. A recent visit to Hurope enables me to place before the Royal Society a summary of the progress within the last few years in methods for achieving rapid land locomotion. As regards speed of the long distance trains in the United Kingdom, there does not appear to be much demand for a higher through speed, including stops, than 50 miles per hour. From London to Glasgow, Hdinburgh, or Dublin, is HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XXXVII. now covered in 8 hours, t.e., an afternoon and evening, or else a night, and there is hardly any conceivable speed, taking into consideration the fatigue necessarily involved, which would practically diminish the time now withdrawn from business by the present service. Both in the House of Commons enquiry last year, on the Manchester and Liverpool Express Railway project, and having regard to other engineering opinions, it is very generally admitted that the limit of speed on ordinary steam locomotive railways has been now nearly reached. This is partly on account of the impossibility of increasing the size and weight of the engine to obtain the necessary power, without reconstructing, by widening and strength- ening, the lines, and partly on account of the reciprocating action of the propelling machinery and its inferior acceler- ating power. There is also the impossibility, unless a special high speed line is proposed, of adjusting the superelevation of the outer rail in curves to great variations of speed. The proof of these two facts as regards the United Kingdom, the absence of great demand for higher speed than is obtained at present, and the practical difficulty of attaining it at profitable cost, is to be found in the fact that though there is keen competition between the London and North Western, Midland, and Great Northern railways to the north, the through speed has not practically exceeded 20 miles per hour for some years back. In fact, the great -additional power provided in the modern passenger loco- motive over its predecessor, is expended not in increased speed, attained years ago with a limited number of light trains, but in maintaining it with a greater number of trains with heavier vehicles. Many of them contain complete restaurant and sleeping accommodation and other comforts, all implying great weight, on which, rather than higher speed, the public have insisted. XXXVIII. C. 0. BURGE. The high speeds of over 100 miles per hour now so much talked of, are looked for, as far as the United Kingdom is concerned, in short lengths between thickly populated centres, such as Manchester and Liverpool and Sheffield, London and Brighton, Edinburgh and Glasgow, etc. And if, by the aid of electricity, this speed is successfully reached in these cases, long distance express lines of the same character may be possible in the future on the Con- tinent of Hurope and in America. The element of human endurance, however, must be taken into consideration unless provided for by a very much more elastic permanent way, and easier running rolling stock than exist at present. The extraordinary progress in electric traction, the possibilities as to its power not being limited, as in the steam locomotive, to what can practically be contained in the train itself, but which can be expanded to an enormous extent in a central power house; and its greater capabili- ties in acceleration and retardation, have led to several proposals for high speed railways, by this means. These are to be used for express passenger traffic only, between such crowded centres as have been mentioned, viz., Man- chester to Liverpool, London to Brighton, Berlin to Sozzen, Brussels to Antwerp and Vienna to Buda-Pesth. The main features of the construction and working of some of these lines are, that many of the most frequent causes ef accident, which would be the more disastrous owing to the great speed, are enabled to be eliminated. These features are (1) constant speed, (2) fixed intervals bet ween trains, (3) absence of intermediate stations, sidings, cross over roads, or level crossings, and (4) single car trains. It is evident, that, owing to the constant speed, the superelevation of the outer rail on curves may be exactly conformable to that speed, and not a compromise, as on ordinary lines for mixed traffic of various speeds. Hence, HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XXXIX. as far as centrifugal force is concerned, derailment or unequal pressure on rails is less liable on such express lines, notwithstanding the speed, than on ordinary ones. Then, if the constant speed from end to end, and fixed intervals between trains are duly maintained, combined with the non-existence of points and crossings, there can be no collisions, while, owing to single car trains, there can be no breaking of couplings. The causes of accident therefore are limited to derailment through efiects of curvature, other than centrifugal force, to defects in the substructure of the rolling stock or in the road, and to obstructions upon the line. As collisions usually cause the greatest disasters on railways, the immunity from these is a great point. As regards derailment through curvature, Mr. Behr, in his proposed line from Manchester to Liverpool, is adopting the mono-rail system, by means of which he expects to run his cars safely round 30 chain curves, at 110 miles per hour, and he has actually attained, on an experimental line at Brussels, 83 miles per hour on a 25 chain curve. The Brussels to Antwerp proposal! is also on this principle, but the other lines mentioned which are on the ordinary bi-rail system, escape the curvature difficulty by making the alignment practically straight. Derailment from defects in the cars, and in the road, can only be avoided by increas- ing their strength and solidity, and from obstruction on the road, by more effective fencing, and watching, matters of expense only. Though the liability to accident is greatly reduced on these special lines, certain discomforts to passengers arise from the great speed. In order to save time, and to utilize as much as possible, the whole length of a short line for the maximum speed, the acceleration and retardation at beginning and ending must necessarily be severe. As much as 4 ft. per second per second is proposed on the first XL. C. O. BURGE. mentioned line, this meaning, at a speed of 110 miles per hour, a pull up in 1,000 yards and in 87 seconds, the maximum at present, with ordinary express speed, being not much more than half of these. The question is, whether a passenger, facing forwards, would not be thrown into the arms of his vis a vis, by such a sudden stop. Another inconvenience is that which will be caused to the passenger by excessive tilt on curves. In order to have the resultant between gravity and centrifugal force normal to floor of vehicle, at 110 miles per hour, on a 30. chain curve, as sanctioned on the Manchester Liverpool line, the car will be tilted 22° out of the vertical, while on the curve, anda 12 stone passenger would become virtually a 13 stone one pressing at that angle on his seat, that being the resultant between his weight and the 67 tbs. of centrifugal force acting upon him. If, as proposed on that line, the seats are longitudinal, that is to say omnibus fashion, the effect would be decidedly unpleasant, and possibly dangerous, as the swing from the vertical position of the car on the straight to the 22° of inclination on the curve, even if long easing curves were used, would be very sudden, as about 24 chains would be passed over ina second of time. Such sharp curves, however, would not be pos- sible, under such speed, for other reasons, on a bi-rail line, and with easier ones, and with cross seating, the effects would be greatly diminished. The mono-rail system has no ratson dére for high speed traffic, except as regards this superiority in holding the train on to the road, in sharp curves, and it has so many disadvantages as will presently be explained, that if there is sufficient demand for such speeds, the expense in con- structing a nearly straight ordinary bi-rail line would probably be justified rather than incurring of those disad- vantages. HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XLI. The Manchester and Liverpool xpress Mono-rail electric line is, except for experimental purposes, the first in the field, and apart from its special mono-rail form, it is a good representation of the class. As also I had special oppor- tunities by attendance at the House of Commons Committee last year, and by intercourse with its promoters and opponents, I shall briefly describe it :—The length of the line, which is a double one, is 34 miles 33°60 chains. The grades are practically level, except at each end, where 7 chains of 1 in 25 at Manchester, and 8 chains of 1 in 30 at Liverpool, are purposely introduced for acceleration and retardation purposes. There is one curve of 30 chains radius, and only three sharper than 40 chains. ‘Ten of the curves are less than 80 chains radius. The construction, up to the top of the sleepers, which are to be 9 ft. x 10in. x 5 in., is the same as that of an ordinary railway. On each of the sleepers, which number 1,610 to the mile, is constructed a triangular braced trestle of built steel, strid- ing 3 ft. at foot, 4 ft. 6 in. high, supporting on top the single 100 Ib bull headed rail, which bears the load, and gives its name to the system. At each side, on the slope of the trestle, two 30 ib guide rails are set horizontally, making a total weight of rails, for each line of way, of 220 Ibs. to the yard. The formation is 26 ft. wide, and the two lines of way are 12 it. 6 in. apart, centre to centre. The clearance between cars is only 1ft.6in. The electrical equipment includes, besides these, four rails as feeders, one at each side of each line of trestles. The predicament therefore, of a fettler, between the two, surprised by the approach from each direction of cars only 18 inches apart at a speed of 161 feet in a second, on the top of these fence-like, and electrically charged trestles, can only be compared to that of the man who had hold of the tiger’s tail, and did not know whether to hold on or to let go. XLII. Cc. 0. BURGE. The explanation of the promoters in defence of this that repairs will only be done at midnight, when there will be no traffic, will hardly satisfy the Board of Trade, who will probably insist on a greater clearance. The trestles are of angle steel 3$ square inches sectional area, strongly braced, and are to be tilted on the curves, so as to absorb the centrifugal force due to the speed. To prevent the too quick generation of this force, long transitions or eas- ings of the straights into the curves are to be introduced. As the electrical equipment includes, as already mentioned, one line of 100 tbs. rails at each side of each line of trestles as feeders, making a total of 840 ibs. of rails per yard, it will be seen that not only the first cost, but the mainten- ance, of the running road will be costly. Owing to there being no sidings or points, disabled or superfluous rolling stock must be transferred from rail to shop, by being lifted off by a crane, and vice versa, or by a dead end off the turntable, one of which is provided at each end of the line, to transfer cars from down to up road or vice versa. It will be seen that, unless very great care is taken in the maintenance of this road, dangerous sinuosities will take place in the alignment of the rail. In the ordinary permanent way, a slack or depression, in one rail of say one inch, affects the vehicle passing over it vertically to that same extent and more, and a certain oscillation is set up. But in the case of the trestle, a vertical slack of one inch in the same position, laterally, of the road bed, would slew the bearing rail nearly two inches over and horizon- tally, giving a dangerous lurch to the car, which at the proposed speed, might cause much damage to the structure and possible accident. Of course great care would be taken in the maintenance of such a line, but the possibili- ties of the neglect of it cannot be left out of account. The trestles, sleepers, and rails, not including the feeder rails, HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XLIII. which are part of the electrical equipment, are estimated to cost £13,500 per mile. Two alternative sizes of cars are proposed, one 35 tons loaded, taking 35 passengers, and one of 50 tons taking 50. They are designed to be on two bogies of three tandem wheels each, the leading wheel of one and the trailing wheels of the other being flangeless drivers, whose axles are geared, by case-hardened sprocket chains, to four 35 ton motors, hung at a lower level, horizontally between the guide wheels. The maximum speed of the chains will be as much as 1,960 feet per minute, transmitting 375 HP. The guide wheels of the car are eight in number, two pairs at each side of each bogie, the upper one 19 inches and the lower one 35 inches below surface of the bearing rail. They and the 301b rails they work on, are horizontal and not normal to the sloped side of the trestle, to which the latter are attached. Hach guide wheel has its own axle, so that the differential revolution in curves is provided for, that cause of derailment and friction on bi-rail lines being entirely eliminated. These wheels are provided with 2 in. flanges at lower side to resist overturning tendency. Springs are to be used to maintain contact between guide wheels and rail, but unless these springs are so perfectly adjusted as to take up fully any rolling motion set up in the car by any of the numerous causes of it, intermittent contact will ensue, which at such speed would soon destroy both rail and wheel. The underframes of the car are of steel, and the frame- work of the upper portions is of a special alloy of aluminum of about 2°50 specific gravity, so as to keep the centre of gravity of the car 12 inches below bearing rail, a condition laid upon the promoters by the Lords Committee. The 50 ton car is 41 feet long, for 25 feet of which it has parallel sides, the remainder forming pointed ends, to diminish air XLIV. C. O BURGE. resistance. They are 11 feet wide and have end doors, the - total height over rail being 7 ft. 1 in. The seats, which are about 4 feet over the bearing rail are arranged omnibus fashion—two rows on each side. The motive power originates in a power house at War- rington, which is midway. ‘The current is to be generated at 500 volts by three phase alternators, transformed up to 15,000 volts, and transmitted to five substations, where it is reduced, by static transformers, in parallel, to 320 volts, then transformed by two rotary converters connected on their continuous current side, to continuous current at 200 volts on the three wire system. The feeders, as before referred to, are two 100 tbs rail conductors placed one at each side of each road, so that there will be a difference of potential of 1,000 volts between these and the running rail, forming the return, viz. 500 volts P.D. between terminals of any motor. The current is collected by shoes, and feeds the motors, which are each of 140 HP for the 35 ton car and 187 HP for the 50 ton car, but capable of about double that power for short periods. The armatures will work at the same speed as the driving axle, viz 720 revolutions per | minute. The braking is to be effected in three ways—First, by a high speed Westinghouse brake, which can exert a retard- ing force of 4 ft. per second per second, and would stop the car, at the maximum speed, in about 1,000 yards. Secondly, electric braking by reversing motors and turning them into dynamos exerting a retarding force of 3 ft. per second per second. These two combined would stop the car in 33 seconds, in 900 yards. Third, a magnetic brake to be used on great emergency only, acting on bearing rail. There was much evidence before Sir Lewis McIvor’s Committee, in the House of Commons, as to brake power for these high speed single car lines, but it was generally agreed that the HIGH SPKED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XLV. difficulty would not consist in want of sufficient brake power, but in the application of it without danger, or at all events serious discomfort, to passengers. As to signalling, it is proposed to have signal stations worked electrically, about seven miles apart, with a man at each. The passage of a car automatically raises the the signal arm, and the one seven miles behind, to danger. The turning of the turntables at each end which transfers the car from the up to the down line, and vice versa, also actuates the signals behind them. The signals, thus set at danger, automatically act on a following car which for any cause has not been pulled up, by a current breaker which rings a bell in the car and also sets the electric brake in action. Diagrams shewing the working of these arrangements are appended. The intervals of seven miles, or in time of 3 min. 48 sec., during which they are passed over, have been fixed to suit a 10 minutes service, so that there is a considerable margin of safety. The capital of the Company is 22,800,000, being £2,100,000 in ordinary shares, and £700,000 in debentures. The estimate is— Construction and rolling stock (10 cars) .. &1,286,000 Hlectrical equipment ... 2a Soc bis 464,000 Land and Parliamentary expenses ... aie 1,050,000 Total At 2,800,000 For a ten minutes service of 90 trains daily, and 45 on Sunday, the promoters estimate working expenses at 7°47d per car mile. Compared with ordinary train service, the running wages will be very low as the mile is worked for about half a minutes’ wage but the power is necessarily high due to the speed. The fares, one class only, are to be 2/6 single journey, which with the expected number of passengers, 4,000 per day, would give a return of 5 per cent. on the carital. XLVI. Cc. 0. BURGE. The objections to the mono-rail (which ought really to be called the penta-rail, as there five rails to each road), as exemplified in the Manchester and Liverpool scheme, seem to me, to be, as under :— First—Great expense in construction. Second—Practical difficulties in loading each side of the car equally, without which unequal friction will take place in working of guide wheels, leading to the next objection, viz. : Third—Dangerous interruption of contact between guide wheels and side rails, and recontact at high speed, which may not be effectively prevented by the springs. Fourth—Hffect of centrifugal force on passengers with omnibus seating. | Fifth—Danger to workmen caught between the rails by passing cars. Sixth—Slack at one end of sleeper leading to dangerous horizontal sinuosity in the bearing rail. Seventh—Unprecedented speed of chain gearing at nearly 2,000 feet per minute, double the maximum usually in operation with similar gearing, probably dangerous, cer- tainly noisy. Highth—Costly maintenance. Notwithstanding that some of these objections were put before the Committees, they passed the bill, guarding it, however, with more stringent conditions than is usual with railway bills, as to submission of plans etc., for approval of the Board of Trade. The company have got an amend- ing bill through Parliament this session as regards a small deviation, and as a contract has been entered into for construction, it is probable that the line will be shortly commenced, and, though I have little faith in it myself, it will be certainly interesting to watch its future. HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XLVII,. The Brussels to Antwerp express line, which has been approved by the Belgian Government, is also on the Behr mono-rail system, but it is at present in abeyance, owing I believe, to want of financial support. Another type of mono-rail electric railway for fast traffic, invented to keep the car on the road on sharp curves, is that called the Boynton bicycle road. It has been sucess- fully experimented on in Long Island, New York. This has one rail at ground level, and a horizontal double-headed one in same plane above the car, supported by posts and brackets. Against this upper double-headed rail, two sets of horizontal flangeless wheels mounted on top of the car press, the weight of the car, of course being taken, by means of double flanged central wheels, set tandem fashion, by the central rail below. The upper rail serves as feeder and lower one as the return. It would appear as if this would havelessobjectionable featuresthan the Behr system, but the gauge between upper and lower rail would have to be very carefully maintained, or the car would slip out between them. The Berlin Sozzen line is an existing one of 4 ft. 84 in. gauge, of about 20 miles in length, nearly straight, which has been specially strengthened for experimental purposes. This has been ordered by the Emperor of Germany who is a good mechanic and electrician himself, as I was told by one of the leading engineers in Berlin in connexion with this project. One hundred and forty miles per hour is aimed at in these experiments, which had not come off when I was in Berlin last year, but I understand that 105 has been since attained. The Allgemeine Hlekricitats Gesellschaft are supplying, from one of their central stations, triphase currents of 10,000 to 12,000 volts in 75 periods, while Messrs. Siemens and Halske have constructed the overhead feeders. There are three wires one mitre XLVIII. C. O. BURGE. apart, and the current is taken up by three pairs of contact bars, one pair to each wire, and conveyed to transformers in the centre of the car, where it is reduced to a suitable voltage. This arrangement was considered as experimental only, as an alternative proposal was under consideration by which the transformers will be placed at substations. Siemens and Halske and the Allgemeine Gesellschaft have each constructed a car, in friendly rivalry. That constructed by the former is 72 feet long, weighing 90 tons, with 50 passengers; it has a controlling compartment at each end, and is reversible. There are two bogies of three axles each, and the four motors can exert in all 3,000 HP. asamaximum. The other car is slightly shorter, 68 feet 10 inches, and lighter, 85 tons, but has the same passenger capacity. The transforming machinery is in the middle, and the driver at the front, both passengers and driver being entirely clear of possible contact with the current distributing details. .There are three axles to each of the two bogies, the outside axles being inside the hollow shaft- ing bearing the four motors which are directly connected with the driving wheels by springs, so that the concussion caused by axle borne motors is avoided. . The motors are of 250 HP. normal and 750 HP. maximum power, as in the rival car, and this which will be required for a speed of 140 miles per hour, will involve a rate of revolution in the motor of as much as 960 per minute. It will be seen that the proportion of dead to gross weight is much greater, in these cars, than in the mono- — rail ones described, due chiefly to the extra weight of the transformers etc. carried in the Berlin cars. In order to test the working of the car, at the great speed proposed, before actual trial on the rails, an ingenious apparatus was devised. The car was lifted so that each of » its eight drivers rested upon a pair of cast steel rollers, HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. XLIX. the tyres of which were shaped like the top table of the rail. The 16 rollers, which were mounted on a strong frame, were free to revolve at any speed. In this way the motors could be driven at full speed in the workshop, with the desired frictional resistance of the rails, represented by the rollers, but without any motion in the car itself. To move each passenger at the rate of 140 miles per hour, as proposed by this scheme, will absorb 60 HP., an enormous increase on that expended in conveying one passenger that distance at ordinary express speeds, at the present time. Though there may be some economy in the production of a HP. through electrical means, it is very doubtful if there is a sufficiently numerous class of the travelling public, whose time would be so valuable as to justify them paying for such an expensive luxury. It is probable therefore that, unless supported by Government subsidy, the Berlin trials will have no effect beyond the record of an interesting experiment. The new London to Brighton express electric line now before Parliament, is to be an ordinary bi-rail one. The present express service occupies 1 hour and 10 minutes in running 46 miles. By the new line, itis proposed to have a half-hourly service of 32 minutes. Unlike the Manchester and Liverpool however, there will beat least one stoppage on the route which gives, to some extent, a risk of accident. Heavy viaducts nearly 7 miles in total length, and 14 tunnels, having an aggregate length of 195 miles, one of them being 73 miles, are necessary for the purpose of avoid- ing sharp curvature, valuable property, and various obstruc- tions. Hence, though the comparatively moderate through speed of 86 miles per hour will not require such costly power per passenger, as in the Berlin line, the interest on capital will be so high that the expectation of the pro- moters as to patronage must be very great. The present L. C. 0. BURGE. gross value of the passenger traffic is said to be £170,000 per annum, or £550 per day. The Vienna — Buda-Pesth line, which was proposed as a bi-rail express line, is in abeyance at present. But the most ambitious proposal of this kind was made, about five years ago, by Messrs. Davis and Williamson, for connecting New York with its four millions of people, with Philadelphia with one and a half millions, by an electric bi-railway 85 miles long. The maximum grade was to be 1 in 500 except the retardation ones at ends; sharpest curve 4 miles radius, with a superelevation of 35 in. Car 150 tons, holding 140 passengers, 120 ft. between centre of 6 wheel bogies. Maximum speed 170 miles per hour or 250 feet per second, which means a revolution of the 7 ft. wheels of 680 per minute. Acceleration to full speed was to take 6 minutes at 0°70 feet per second per second, covering 84 miles, and requiring the maximum power of 1,450 HP. per car. Retar- dation 3 feet per second per second, operating to full stop in 2 miles. A number of details including braking, signal- ling, permanent way and the electrical equipment, are given in the Engineering Magazine of October 1897. | Various proposals have been made towards a stable per- manent way, other than those mentioned, for such high speeds as those contemplated. In the Vienna City Rail- way where, however, ease of motion at ordinary speeds is the principal object, the rail joints are fished, on the out- side, with short lengths of the rails themselves, the space between the two webs being occupied by a filling piece. The inside member of the joint is an ordinary angle fish plate, the whole extending over the joint sleepers. The International Railway Congress have had proposals before them of a somewhat similar nature, the outer fish plate being so formed that its top is flush with the top table of the rail, thus adding to the mean depth of the ordinary HIGH SPEED RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. LI. joint. With the exception of the case of the joint, there does not appear to be any proposition to alter the general form of the permanent way. EHxtra stability is only looked for by increasing weight. As regards actual speeds, and the possibilities of largely increasing them on existing lines, by steam locomotion, the limitations in the United Kingdom have been mentioned. On the Continent, and in America, where the distances are greater, there is greater scope. In the former what are called International Hxpresses are now run, once or twice a week, from Paris to St. Petersburg and Moscow, Calais to Brindisi, Paris to Constantinople, etc., etc., which are simply moving hotels, from which the passengers need not alight during transit across HKurope. Here, of course, the highest possible speed is a desideratum. In America, the cost of altering existing dimensions of bridges, etc., to enable more powerful locomotives to be used, is compara- tively small. As to actual everyday travelling express speed in these countries at present, I find that in the Northern Railway ’ of France, the afternoon express from Paris to St. Quintin covers 95 miles in from 94 to 97 minutes, with trains of over 300 tons, and ruling grades of 1 in 200, 75 miles per hour being daily attained on this run on the down grades. Similar intermediate speeds are reached daily on several other lines in France and England, as I experienced myself on my recent trip. The Pennsylvania railway in the States gives some of the best practice there, and records of the ordinary aver- age fast train times between stations were taken between July and September 1901, on various sections varying from 15 up to 53 miles in length. The speeds range from 76 up to a maximum of as much as 89 miles per hour, the latter being reached on a 16 mile length by a train consisting of 9 cars. LII. Cc. O. BURGE. Though English averages are not so fast as this, the ease of running at very high speeds is much greater than else- where. All the ordinary requirements of life, such as reading, writing, eating, sleeping, dressing, and even shav- ing, can be done, without the slightest discomfort, on the numerous express trains from London to the North, at velocities so great that the names of stations passed by cannot be distinguished, and the sleeping arrangements are so complete that each traveller has a cabin or room. and toilet arrangements to himself. All this, of course, means weight, which is inseparable from the comforts and necessities of long distance travel, so that it cannot be compared with the single car trains of the Manchester and Liverpool, Berlin, and other short lines which do not want them. The question of travelling at over 100 miles per hour, as now contemplated on the electric express lines, if applied to long distance trains, opens up the question of the human endurance sufficient to stand for many hours, the vibration and concussion involved, for there must necessarily be a great difference between these in that case, and what we are now called upon to sustain. If 400 miles are covered in 4 hours, and the traveller requires 4 hours additional to rest from the effects, nothing is gained. It is greatly a matter of training. Samson of old was a mighty man of valour, but if he could be resuscitated, and if he made a journey even in one of what are humorously called express trains in the Colonies, he would not only be frightened out of his wits, but greatly fatigued. The maximum speed between stations in the Colonies for many years past hardly reaches 40 miles per hour. For more than this there seems to be no public demand. | The conclusions which may be arrived at from the facts given in this paper, is that increase of railway passenger speed will be very gradual, and that the facilities afforded in this direction by electricity will not stimulate it much, except in the cases of short lines between such populous and wealthy centres as are to be found in the older countries. (xxv.) Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.c.mM.a., D.Sc, LL.D., F.BR.S. Vili. Bamboo nis 124 Reed ” 125 Bambusa gracilis... 125 nigra 125 Barratta Nos. 2 ‘and 3, Meteor- 15ES \..: 341, 351, xxxi. Barker, C. R, A rapid gravi- metric method of estimating lime ... 2 xxiv Bastard Box sae eer4U) Ironbarks ... . 820 Bathurst Burr ... | . 116 Beekite on fossil coral ... ya lET. Sperry Pine’ -. 120 Bieuold, H. B., “ ‘Imperial De- fence’ lxxiil. Biology and Bvery-Day. Life XXXIV. Blackbutted gum tree. 317, 321 Blackfellows’ Bread MRIK. ‘Blady Grass’ 124 Bloodwood trees , i 317, 321 Blue Gum trees.. oe : Mountains, poole fault at Kurrajong Heights 359, xxxvi. INDEX. PAGE PAGE Aboriginal languages of Victoria Boogaldi Meteorite 341, 349, xxxi. 71, xv. | Books purchased i in 1902 lxvilii. ‘Acacia, United States . 121 | ‘ Box Elder’ ae, we Acer negundo ... 121 | —— thorn’ an lure Address to Engineering Section 1. trees won Od Ailanthus glandulosa We Bridge-Builder, art of the Raphi Alpinia officinarum 68 | ‘ Brown Pine’ ... Fon L220 Andropogon Schimperi ... ... 124) ‘ Brush or Bastard Box? . 121 Angophora intermedia ... 114, 120| Buddleia madagascariensis . 122 —— subvelutina... 120 | ‘ Buffalo Grass’ . 124 ‘Apple-trees’ 120} Bureba language 172 Apigenin... 68 | Burge, C. O., M. Inst. cE, Recent Apium Petroselinum 68 developments i in high speed Argemone mexicana A 116 railway construction and Art of the Bridge-Builder xli. working XXXVI., Ixxiv. - Arundinella nepalense 124 Arundinaria falcata 124 Arundo donax 125 | Cardew, J. Haydon, Assoc, M. Inst,C.E.. phragmites ... 125 The importance of Federal Auditors, Honorary XXXVl Hydrography Xx, lxxiv. Cassia spp. dat “oe LLG B Casuarina Cunninghamiana 114, 120 Bacteria and disease ... Xvi. | ‘Cedar, White’ . 120 Cement mortar and concrete re- inforced with steel rods 290, xxxviil. Centaurea calcitrapa ... 116 Chemical constituents from the eucalypts 61, xv. Chinese Thistle.. . 116 Chrysin ... ane LOS Clarke Memorial Fund.. Ne ‘Cockspur Thorn’ . 122 Colpoon compressum wt 66 Commersonia Fraseri . 122 Comparison between Govern- ment Initiative and Private Enterprise in the construc- tion of Engineering works in various countries xxiii. Conservation of moisture by forests o 2eixomxr: Conversazione xXli., XXVli,, Xxx., XXXVI1., xliv. —— informal or ‘reception’... x. ‘ Coolabah’ cf oe ... 338 Co-operative developments, some recent As Cortaderia argentea (xxvl.) PAGE ‘Couch-grass’ . 128 Cryoconite . 248 analysis of.. . 249 Currents, Ocean.. Be . 206 Current Papers No. cine a, Xxiii. Cudrania javanensis coepelio, Cynodon dactylon oe L2S Cyperus alternifolius . 125 — rotundus ae a6 ‘Cypress, Virginian or Swamp’ 121 D Darwinia fascicularis : David, Prof., B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S., An important geological fault at Kurrajong Heights N.S. Wales... ...0D9, XXXVI. Davis, Bernard F., B.Sc, Occur- rence of Gadolinite in West Australia, with notes by W.G.Woolnough, BSc, F.G.S., and Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, B.A., F.R.S. ... 286, xxvii. 65 Donations, books, periodicals,&c.xlvi. ‘Doub’ grass... = 23 Duckworth, A., On the Timber Industry and Forests of N.S. Wales |xxili. Duranta Plumierr Le eg ee Dust atmosphere of China ... 273 Dusts, Meteoric N.S. Wales 241, xxiii. Dwelling house, development of xix. Dyirringan language . 160 Economic Science Section vi., bey 16. o- 00h Elasticity of cement mortar and concrete - . 290 Eli Elwah Meteorite 341, 357, XXxxi. ‘Elm’ : Ane Be ADO Elymus arenarius . 124 Engineering Section Wisp ixs, Escallonia rubra... . 125 Essential oils 326 Eucalypts, chemical constituents from the ‘ 61, xv. Eucalyptus acmeniodes ... 318, 321 affinis ... 320 ——aggregata ... wae Sol6, 320 — amygdalina... 317, 821, 323, 335 — apiculata 339, 340 aspera oly — Baileyana aq OL Baueriana ... 318, 320 PAGE Eucalyptus Behriana 317, 320 bicolor ...317, 320, 338, 339 Boormanit ... .. 320 Bosistoana ... . 820, 339 botryoides 318, ioe 329 — calophylla ... me . 329 — Cambagei . : 320 capitellata . _ 818, 321, 329, 336 cordata : ke 321 — coriacea 3% 317, 320 corymbosa. .. . 317, 321, 322, 326 corynocalye. te 320 — crebra 318, 320, 330 ‘delegatensis... . 835 diversicolor... 321 dives... 317, 321, 335 erythrocorys 331 eugenioides 318, 319, 321, 336 eximia ; R 317, 321 fasciculosa ... 317, 319, 320 ferruginea ... z OLE jficifolia . 329 gamophyll... 323 —— globulus 320, 324, 326 goniocalyx ... ... 820, 326 — Gunn 317, 320, 322 — hcamastoma... 317, 320, 385 hemiphloia. ... 317, 318, 320 incrassata ... 316, 320 — largiflorens... is 339 — latifolia Bae ik) —-— leptophleba.. Oke leucoxylon 316, 317, 319, 320 329, 330 longifolia 317, 321 — Macarthuri 61, 316, 320, xv. macrorrhyncha 66, 70, 318, 321, 329, 336, xv. maculata 317; 321, 322 —. Maiden . 826 — marginata ... wae OOM melliodora ... 37,520 — melanophloia 318, 320 —— microcorys ... 318, 321, 322 microtheea ... 317, 320 —— miniata (aurantiaca) ai 329 —— Muelleriana... . 321 —— obcordata Ss 329 obliqua 318, 321, 335 — occidentalis ... 829 odorata 317, 320 —— oleosa ay OO oreades res . 830 pachyphylla 327 — paniculata ... 318, 319, 820 (xxvil.) PAGE Eucalyptus peltata (melissiodora) 318 —- pendula 338, 339 —— phenicea 318, 327, 329 pilularis 317, 318, 319, 321, 328, 329, 336 puperita 318, 321 — Planchioniana Sen. OOM polyanthema 318, 320 popultfolia ... 318, 320 propinqua ia 321 —— pulverulenta... 318, 320, 322 —— punctata 317, 321, 322 —— pyriformis .. es -45) —— quadrangulata 320, 326 —— radiata an ... 339 —— regnans 319, 821, 335 —— resinifera 318, 321 — Risdoni 3821, 335 —— robusta ee 317, 321 — rostrata ...016, 817, 321, 829 —— saligna or 317, 321 —— siderophlota .. .. 918, 320 — siderozylon ...318, 319, 320, 329 —— Sieberiana ... 319, 321, 335 —— stellulata ...316, 317, 319, 320 —— stricta 317, 339, 340 —— Stuartiana ... 318, 320, 322 —— tereticornis ...817, 319, 321, 329 tetragona 326, 330 tetrodonta ... 318 tesselaris 317, 318, 320 trachyphloia 317, 321 — umbra . 65 — unceinata ... 316 viminalis 316, 317, 319, 320, 322, 323, 329 virgata ‘ 321, 335 iS ae Ios ? ae 5. ‘ Kuxenite’ . 289 Exchanges Abii Exhibits, monthly meetings Reiley IK 7, RRA, 5 ROKK ede se ANOS Conversazione x Hyre, Edward John (late) : F Federal Hydrography xxi1., lxxiv. Fenestella ? internata 9.4.6 Financial statement lil. position 5. VAL. ‘Fire Stone’ .. KIX. Fisetin ... se 6S Flax, New Zealand mn U2Z6 Floods, mitigation of 107, xviii. XXV., XXVii. PAGE Flooded Gum Trees _... et OLG Forests of New South Wales Ixxiii. in relation to rainfall 211, xxxi. the conservation of ged LI eee xT? water G Gadolinite in West Australia 286, xxvii. analysis XXVUli. Galangin .. 68 Gentiana lutea 69 Geological fault at Kurrajong Heights ..809, XXXVI. Geranyl-acetate .. : eee 100 Gilgoin Nos. 1 and 2 Meteorites 341, 354, XxXx1. ‘Golden Willow’ . 128 Gold in Meteorites XXiV., XXXix. Government Initiative and Pri- vate Enterprise, comparison between Se lxxill. Gum-topped Stringybarks of Tasmania > 8s), Bao Guthrie, F. B., F.1.¢., F.c.s., A rapid gravimetric method of estimating lime... 132, xxiv. Pot experiments to deter- minethe limits of endurance of different Farm Crops for certain injurious substances Part I. Wheat pee Oilexexavalilils Gynerium argenteum . 124 H Haswell, Prof.W.A.,™.A., F.8.S., on ‘ ee and Every- Day Life’. XXXIV. Hay meteorite B41, 3a/, XXXi. Helms, R., Pot experiments to determine the limits of en- durance of different Farm Crops for certain injurious substances, Part I. Wheat 191, xxviii. High sued railway construction and working XXXVI., Ixxiv. Hunter River floods 107, afi. XXV., XXVIl. Hydrography, Federal xxi1., lxxiv. Hymenanthera dentata ... .») 122 wee ALS Imperata arundinacea lxxill, Imperial Defence (xxviil.) PAGE Importance. of Federal Hydro- graphy 4 XXII, lxxiv. Iridium in meteorites . XXXIXx. Ironbark trees 318, 320 Is Eucalyptus variable ? . 815 Jarrah tree 329, 321 Jensen, H. I., Possible relation between sunspot minima and volcanic eruptions 42, xii. Judd, Prof. J.W.,¢.B.,F.B.S.,F.G.8. Vil. K Kawmilaroi language 145 Kampherol : 68 Kawambarai language... 145 Kentrophyllum lanatum . 116 Kinos, gummy group 322 — ruby group 322 turbid group ; 322 Krakatoa ashes, analysis 258 Kurrajorg Heights, Sa ye fault... ..809, XXXVI. Kurnt language | . 154 Languages of Native Tribes 135, xxii. Language, Bureba . 2 Dyirringan ... 160 — Kamilaroi ... .. 145 — Kawambarai .. 145 — Kirni ... 154 — mystic eT Pikimbil ... 143 — Tyake elon — Wongaibou ... 147 — Yota-Yota ... elon — Yualeai ... 187 Leaf galls .. 828 —- venation ... 826 Library ee Wal’, Ligustrum spp. .. Ba elie Lime, estimating | . 132, xxiv. Limestone, Polypora xxix. Polyzoal Xxix. Limits of endurance of different farm-crops for certain in- jurious substances 191, xxviii. Lingula gregaria... vexill, Lippia nodiflora . 126 Liversidge, Prof. A., LL.D., F.B.S., Hon, F.R.Ss. Edin., Meteoric Dusts, New South Wales _ 241, xxiii. PAGE Liversidge, Prof. A. uL. D., ¥.B.8., Hon. F.xs. Edin., On the presence of platinum and irridium metals in meteor- ites... XXxix. — The Boogaldi, Barratta Nos. 2 and 8, Gilgoin Nos. land 2, and Eli Elwah or Hay Meteorites, New South Wales . 341, xxxi. Lophostemon « 120 Luteolin ... ee ec GS Lycium barbarum . 122 ‘Madder’ 126 Maiden, J.H., Forests concidenen in jem elation to rainfall and the conservation of moisture .. 21, eee Is Eucalyptus variable ? oho. exe — The Mitigation of Floods in the Hunter River 107 Xvlil., XXvV., XXVIi. — The Parks of Sydney; some of the problems of control and management ... be. < ts Manna ‘ 322, 336 Marram grass . 124 Mathews, R. H., t.s., Languages of some Native Tribes of Queensland, New South ‘Wales, and Victoria 135, xxii. The Aboriginal Languages of Victoria .. ou yale, McKinney, H. G., ME., M. Inst.C.E., Address to the Engineering Section, on a comparison between Government Initi- ative and Private Enter- prise in the construction of engineering works in vari- ous countries hd - r' Melaleuca Gum trees ... «9 GLO Melia Azedarach... ... 120 Members, honorary «os (KX) — obituary 1901 ree === 1902) 22. (xxi.) ordinary . (ix.) Mesembryanthemum equilaterale 126 Meteoric Dusts, Barrier Range 256, xxiii. ... 257, xxiii. . 241, xxiii. — Menindie — Moruya ... (xxix. ) PAGE Meteoric Dusts, New South Wales 241, xxili. — Pambula . 257, xxiil. Uralla ye 25D a xxinlh Meteorites, Barratta Nos. 2and3 Xxxi,, 341 —— —— analysis . 351 — Boogaldi . XXX1., 341 sd analysis . 849 — Eli Elwah ... .- XXxXi1., 341 —- analysis ine BOT —— Gilgoin Nos. 1 and 2 xxxi., 341 —— analysis . 854 — gold in : XXIV. — Hay.. . XXX1., 341 — analysis ... B57 — platinum and iridium metals in XXXIX. Mica trees mas 318 Micro-organisms ; their life and work LXV. Mitigation of floods... . 107, xviii. — Discussion ... xxv., xxvii. Monier beams sol2 — piles ... 802 Moreton Bay Ash . 317 Morin 68 Morus tinctoria .. on ROS Mortar beams .. 807 Mountain Ash trees . 321 Mucophyllum Sp: Myrica nagi 68 Myricetin 68 Myrticolorin 66, 67, 70, xv. Mystic language sco lye N Nash, R. L., Bank notes v. Gov- ernment Notes xxiii. Newcombe, Prof. Simon, ut.p., Pn.D., For. Mem. R.S. Lond. vii. New South Wales, Languages of some Native Tribes 135, xxii. —— — Meteorites 341, xxxi. — Zealand flax a. 126 Nut Grass ae we . 116 Oo Ocean currents ... ... 206 Olea europea, e128 Dye” .. . 123 ‘Oriental Plane’.. 121 Osyritrin .. ; 66; ez XV. Overproduction fallacy Ixxiii. PAGE P ‘Paddy’s River Box’ pam ‘ Pampas Grass’... .. 124 Panicum plicatum eel Papers read in 1901 sah aK: Parks of Sydney... oD eva. Paspalum dilatatum bee Le distichum . 123 Pearse, W., on the overproduc- tion fallacy .. Ixxili. Peppermint trees” 317, 321 Periodicals purchased in 1902 Ixvii. Phormiwm Colensor een 46) tenax i .. 126 Phragmites communis ... 125 ‘Pio’s Face’ e226 Piktmbil language 4 . 143 ‘Pine, She, Brown or Berry’ ... 120 Platanus orientalis 121 Platinum in meteorites XXKIX Plumbago capensis . 126 Plummer, John, on some recent co-operative developments Ixxiii. Podocarpus elata... wo 20 Polygala myrtifolia . 123 Polypora limestone XX1X. Polyporus Mylittee XXxix. Polyzoal limestone XXix. Populus angulata aa Portland cement mortar and concrete, strength and elas- ticity of 290, xxxviii. Prickly Poppy . 116 ‘ Privets ’ cua Proceedings of the Economic Section dies Ixxiil. —— Engineering Section Ixxiii. Society ‘ ennalilte Protoretepora ampla Bre. o-G6 G Psamma arenaria . 124 Queensland, languages of some Native Tribes 135, xxii. Quercetin sus O14 OS we Railway construction and Work- ing, high speed XxXxXVI., lxziv. Rainfall and forests 211, xxxi. Rapid method of estimating lime ... 132, xxiv. ‘ Reception ’ ALO = ‘Red Box’ . 820 — Gum’ trees yj (xxx.) PAGE . 258 66 ‘Red Rain’ dust, oe Stringybark ’ Reseda luteola saat 168 Rhagodia Billardiert A L26 hastata . 126 Rhamnetin 68 Rhus continus 68 -—— rhodanthema .. 68 Ringbarking soo ‘River Oak’ 114, 120 Robinia pseud-acacia 5 ala Roll of Members ‘2 ix. Role of Bacteria in the produc- tion of disease veg Rav Rubia tinctorum ... iss, 126 Russell. H. C., B.A., ¢.M.G., F.B.S,, Currents Papers No. 7 201, xxiii. — The fallacy of assuming that a wet year in England will be followed by a wet year in Australia ... 314, xxxix. Salia alba... . 123 aurea on . 123 babylonica ... = Zit Science Lectures vii, ix., xvi., XIX. 5 SKV.) KER eel ‘Sea Lyme Grass’ wae LZ Sectional Committees ... vi. Section, Economic Science _vi., ix. -— Engineering Wir, 1X... 1 ‘She Pine’ . 120 ‘Silt grass’ . 128 Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Notes on two chemical constitu- ents from the Eucalypts 61, xv. Smith, R. Greig, Msc, Macleay Bacteriologist, upon Micro- organisms; their Life and Work oar Spotted Gum sok . 321 Steel rods reinforcing cement mortar and concrete . 290 State Governor, Vice-Patron xxxvi Stenopora crinata KXik, — w«mformis SKI: —— tasmaniensis 5 XX1X. Stenotaphrum americanum Sole: Strength of cement mortar and conerete ... ... 290 Stringybark trees 318, 321 Sunspot minima and volcanic eruptions 42, xii. — Discussion ..-XViil. PAGE ‘Swamp Cypress’ . 121 Sydney Parks 1 —— — Discussion . XVi. T Tallow-wood meal ‘Tamarisk ” at ine LZB Tamariz gallica ... . 128 Taxodium distichum 121 Teece, Rrichard, F.1.A., Address to Section of Economic: Science xxiii. Tensile tests of mortar briquettes 304 Tidswell, F., M.B., M.Ch.,, D.P.H., on ‘The Réle of Bacteria in ‘the production of disease” _.... xvi. Timber Industry, N.S. Wales lxxiii. ‘ Tinguaite’ .. X1lL Transverse tests of mortar beams 307 monier beams . 312 Tristania conferta ce, True Ironbarks ... .- 320 Stringybarks .. 321 Tyake language... . 157 U Ulmus campestris . 122 V Vice-Patron of the Society xxxvi. Victoria, Aboriginal a ae of TA, Vi: — Languages of some Native Tribes o- 135; xxi Violaquercitrin .. 66, 67, XV. Viola tricolor variensis ... sce OG ‘ Virginian Cypress’ » LZ Volcanic dust from Barbadoes, analysis 259 from Mount Peleé, analysis 259 Volcanic eruptions and Sunspot minima ae 42, xil. Discussion XVill. Warren, Prof. W. H., M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc, Investigation in re- gard to the comparative strength and elasticity of of Portland cement mortar and concrete when rein- forced with steel rods and when not reinforced 290, xxxviii. —— The Art of the Bridge- _ Builder xxx., xli. (XXX1.) PAGE ‘Water Couch’ grass ... . 123 —— Poplar’... . 121 ‘Weeping Willow’ un Ll Wet years in England and Australia soo Bulzh, SO.o.gbe, Wheat, limits of endurance for ammonium sulpho-cyanide 196, xxviii. 55 AGS ROM, oxide ... XXViii. — common salt .. 198, xxviil. — sodium carbonate... 195, xxviii. arsenious acid — chlorate .. 197, xxviii. — chloride XXViil. ‘White Cedar’ ... ... 120 — Gum trees... neeme ley ‘Willow Golden’ ss eS) PAGE Woodhouse, F. W., on ‘The development of the dwell- ing house’ ... ae sep SUR Womgaibon language . vas AAT World’s Fair, St. Louis, U.S.A. xxvii. x Xanthium spinosum . 116 ¥ Yarra trees ee, ely Yellow Indigo oe LLG Poppy oe LUG —— Thistle ee EG Yota-Yota language 27 LOW Yualeai language Bae bes}7i Spdnep : ek F, W. WHits, PRINTER, 344 KENT STREET. 1903. OF THE SOCIETY | OF NEW SOUTH WALES, EDITED BY THH HONORARY SHCRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. oe gs PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDUN AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SQUARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1903. Oe ~ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS CONTENTS. por VOLUME XXXVI. OFFICERS FOR 1902-1908... Soiree ee List or Memperrs, &c. ... ae pepe es: Art. I—The Parks of Sydney; some Sof the aot of “COateel ; and management. By J. H. Maiden, Director of Botanic Gardens and, Domains, Sydney ; Se Bie fc of the ; - Centennial Park. (With Plate]... aS Ja idee oo Arr. II.—Possible relation between Sunspot Minima and Volcanic - Eruptions. — By i. 1. Jensen, (Communicated by Prof. Laas 2 B.A.,F.R.S.) [With Plate]... be ee es Bee ArT. ITI.—Notes on\two chemical constituents from the Euealepe By Henry G. Smith, F.c.8., Assistant Curator, Technol Sey Museum... ee ite hs face ee PBs Art. IV.—The nahiciwl Tatnaawes of Victoria, By Bache aa Mathews, .s., Memb. Assoc. Etran. Soc. d’?Anthrop, de Paris 71 ‘ Arr. V.—The Mitigation of Floods in’ the Hunter River. Byes do Pi. Maiden a. “eer cs eve OR x Art, VI.—A rapid Gravimetric Method of Esinattae’ Lime. ‘By F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., ¥.c.s., and C. R. Barker... ~ ... ae Arr. VII.—Languages of some Native Tribes of Queensland, New — South Wales and Victoria. By R. H. Mathews, 1s., a ria. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. 1... w=. ) a. 188 Art. VIII.—Pot Experiments to determine the Limits of eau oo ance of different Farm-crops for certain injurious substances. 28S : By F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s., and R, Helms oak ing AGT Art. [X.—Current Papers, No. 7. By H.C. Russell, B.A, on, mt F.R.S. [With Diagrams] ... fs = ce ewe eG ART. X.— Forests considered in their Relation to Rainfall and ‘the Ue Conservation of Moisture. By J: H. Maiden... ..i °°... & Art. XI.—Meteorie Dusts, New South. Wales. By Professor A ae Liversidge, Lu.D., F.R.s., University of Sydney —... Art. XI[.—Occurrence of. Gadolinite in West Australia. ~ By Bernard F. Davis,-z.sc. with notes by W. G. Woolnoughy B Se in F.Gq.s., and Prot. 'T. W. E. David, B.Asy F.RS. sa oe Arr. XIII.—Investigation in regard to the comparative str 439 Mallnoy of Eireaine that a wet year in England ~ will be followed by a wet year in Australia. By H. C. % Russell, B.A., C.I.G., F.R.S. [With Diagram.] «.. Be ener ii 5 Is Eucalyptus Variable? By J.H. Maiden, Director, A. ee “Gardens, Sydney, Government Botanist of New | ee Weles Psa ea cf aa re ds SOLD 0. af Clima y: University - Cee [With Plafes| Sa Oa II—An important Geological Fault at Kurrajong Heights, ‘New South Wales. By Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, B.A., ¥.G.8., F.B.S. “LWith Plates | ais ey Pe a ae Pec, T XVIII. —Annual Address to the Engineering Section. By Sie Ge McKinney, M.E., M. Inst. C,E. Bee As am I. XIX, oes epnboronie of Federal Hydrogrephy. é a: J. .. XXII. rae XXXVI, er Brea b.o.2 0 fore, ENG set a ia - Fs Pe ee aia a og | a SS ee a eo a —* 2 ee STITUTION LIBRARIES WUT IN 5 SMITHSONIAN ! — mn «3.9088 01308 4298