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Raa NOT at ie eM Ree Geen Se Tet QUE ee sees ee ee Se ge Brena = BP ras - ae +a ee a ig ine nn Renter nee Fp ain Siar anne Sat a Van tN Pantone Taian Pe tase ay nn dna ington RR a LINER sminn ag SreectaaP individ Fae eater ont nee BR Ge de PR rit. hn tang AN Oe dene a ne Be eT na " “ Oe Late Fe No vo Pe ne? TA gf” Maclin, Piatt 9 Rothe Po DE Pate PEED mig hintn a Len Rei ogee aa Pond amen Ein . re a ee - nM BORIS Metre tr eo mee ea nn eee ete > Pa NA pen ee ED tay ta Mahe ele Desking Selle Sae A pe tethers Pe Drie an th al ae ee eRe een ee tee. Dee A Se Pee a Lee al Reon etn ete tine tie Matin oe tio ET IT Ee I oe oe 5 eS eee ee ee eee a dpa ee ~_ =o are etter tant ee ee Me he PI TN ate Pte ee me oN gine — gg tia MO eRe BEEP eI a Mn bo ae ae iy Bin re Foe ere an He te eR Vine Se ee Aral we oy Bs Prana Se gene amen Yon = eee eee et ih. = Pet Setege a ye Le Pe OE = ee eRe ternt a. eae atertiatin toni Staten -* a A o Sy ; | Fy F ul al at Sy eo) “ . ena ; eI aes See y Hae, L 4 a } ie ae CES ~ ata € re a an & oe 14 1, oa ‘iets O40 “yy Ml ie te wae =a ‘/ 4 1 “ty SGP “ib oy 4 a ~ | i & y i Ls y ae teh Oe “eee ie tie % ai a | ti i at jee Bs = ne * cl Mal thy i TN ao it an, — Sh phe “Hea a al Beer ~15 Be 'é oe Ta\ ase fe Agr a apt ut r rS | Hos i Hs es * m git ie hh JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS /ROYAL SOCIETY NEW ae WALES, < re ee VOTO, EDITED BY THR HONORARY SECRETARIES. z THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. cs ‘PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY, LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, > ad tig =e < re 17 WaRWICK SQUARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. j a 1908. : ss ae 5 tel * 7 = 4 me pach my CONTENTS. VOLUME XLII. Pagar. OFFICERS FOR 1908-1909... a ds ei wae an oh) VE List or Mempers, &c. ... es =p A ae ce a oie Art. I.—PReEsIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Henry DEANE, ™.A.,M.Inst.c.E. 1 Art. II.—The Viscosity of Water. By RicHarp HoskIna@, B.A. (Camb.) (Communicated by Prof. Pottock, D. sc.) phic Plates | AS 4: “i : ae in = eal ales Art. III.—Note on a Cupriferous Panneriia and Ouacte Veins in the Nelligen District. By H. I. Junssmn, D. se, ape 56 Arr. IV.—Records of Australian Botanists—(a) General, (6) New South Wales. By J. H. Marpen, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. [With Plates]... 60 Art. V.—On the elastic substance occurring on the shoots and young leaves of Eucalyptus corymbosa and some species of Angophora. By Henry G. SMiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney... ee 133 Art. VI.—On the Pines of Australia, No. 1—-Callitris date ie Br, Le * White or Cypress Pine.” By Ricnarp T. BAKER, F.L.S., Curator and Government Economic Botanist, and Henry G. SmivH, F.c.s., Assistant Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. [With Plates] ... w. 145 Art. VII.—Contributions to the Flora of Australia. By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D. F.LS., Government Botanist of Victoria and Professor of Botany at the Melbourne University, and JEAN WHITE, M.se. Government Research Scholar. assisted by J. R. Tovey, First Herbarium Assistant, National Her- barium Melbourne. (Communicated te J. Hi. ae [With Plates | rh 184: Art. VIII.—The Discharge of Electricity aes Glowing Caatibes By J. A. Pottock, Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, and A. B. B. RancuanD, B. Se. ae hg .. 201 Arr. IX.—The Relighting of the Carbon Arc. By J.A. Pouuock, . E. M. WetuiscH, m.a., and A. B. B. RAncuaup, B, Se ; [ With Plate] ee er se Es ose ae Art. X.—Evidence of Recent Sashmionbenlos of Coast at Naxexbeaal S : hes By T. W. EpaczewortH Davin, B:a., F.R.s., Professor of . Geology, University of Sydney, and Gzraup H. HaLLigAN, = F.G.S., Hydrographic Officer, Public Works Department. : [With Plates] ve oe ne ah a ere x ~VUwY Members of the Royal Society of New South Wales resident in Australia are not required to use this form. es Please sign this form of receipt and return promptly to the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5 Elizabeth-st. N , Sydney, Australia. If no acknowledgement be returned it will be taken as an intimation that you do not wish to receive any further Publications from this Society. Received from the Royal Society of New South Wales :-— JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOGIETY OF N.S. WALES. Vol. XLII., 1908. DG ICROfmNIUSELLUTLON, CLO. Teste ise Biscay pee iictnt ts | . 4. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1908. (INCORPORATED 1881.) WAGE) oily ESE: EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN, PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SQUARE, PaTERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1908, *hogét; ne af — "ee NOTICE. THE Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘“‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ** Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings, Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic *‘process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 4} in. x 6Zin. The cost ofall original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. ERRATA. Page 12, second line from bottom, ‘rail level is 3,400,’ should read ‘rail level is 3,611.’ PUBLICATIONS. oy) The following publications of the Society, if in print, can {be obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:— Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vol. 1. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, 9° ” II. 9 99 99 9 »» 1868,,,120, ,, bP) III. ‘9 99 9 » 59 1869, 99 173, 99 ” Iv. *» >> 99 » 1870,,, 106, ,, 33 V. 9 9 be Ie) ” 1871, 99 72, » fe} ” VI. ” ” ” ” ” 1872, 9 123, ” Be VI ss AS A * | A 1873, ,, 132; i. a VIII. m p f - + 1874, ,, 116; ‘ a ix e ae - a as 1875, ;, 285, ~: - x. Journal and Proceedings “ A 1876, ,, doa; A < xT a oe mA iP x 1877, ,, 20D; A “ XII. = “ 7 ms 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. o. XIII. Ge a A 7 re 1879, ,, 209, a Pe XIV es ¥ = 23 B 1880, ,, 391, > a xv, * 2. cs A 7 1881, ,, 440, Ps + XVI - - a oS fr 1882, ,, 327, ~ as XVII a FP As £3 Lk 1883, ,, 324, ne os XVIII - Pe a %: 1884, ,, 224, Fr a xix a os < i mJ 1885, ,, 240, Fs ” XX. ”> 99 ” 99 ? 1886, 39 396, 3° > XXI. 9° 99 bie) 9 29 1887, 3°) 296, 99 aa XXII. a e a a - 1888, ,, 390. - 9 XXIII. ” ” 9 %” +) 1889, bP) 534, be) » XXIV. 99 99 » »» » 1890,,,290, ,, ” XXV. 3 be] ” yt) 3? 1891, bP) 348, 33 + XXVI. i me ae 7" ee 1892, ,, 426, a Ba XXVII. at Ai if ws 4) 1893, ,, 530, 55 »» XXVIII. + ‘ < - » 1894, ,, 368, ,, * 2.08.8 as re ce 5 os 1895, ,, 600, e a xxx. “£4 as aa = “A 1896, ,, 568, Ps FE Xxxr = - os 4 ae 1897, ,, 626, os APU 4-8-4145 nd - a . sp. 1898, 57 470,52 ee ” XXXII. ” 9 9 9 ” 1899, 99 400, 99 3 XXXIV. ” 9° ” 23 ” 1900, 9 484, 39 ” XXXV. ” 29 oe) 9 ” 1901, ” 581, ” »» XXXVI. 5° “3 2 », 1902,,, 531, 55 9» XXXVIL. 99 99 » » », 1903, ,, 663, » AARVIU . eh a BA 5 1904, ,, 604, i 3 XXXIX. ” 29 3” 39 8 1905, 9 274, 9 os XL. re . a 3 1906, ,, 368, es a XLI. ate ms a a a 1907. ,, 377, ” “s XLII. ¥ x 3 ne x 1908, ,, 593, ‘g CONTENTS. VOLUME XLII. OFFICERS FOR 1908-1909... List or MempBers, &c. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART ART. ART. ART. ART. ART, I.—PresipentiaL AppRESS. By Henry DEANE, M.A,, M.Inst.C.5. IJ.—The Viscosity of Water. By Ricnarp HosKING, B.A. (Camb.) (Communicated by Prof. Ponuocg, D. sc.) Or Plates | ‘ a ; : 6 ITI.—Note on a Gionespous Pantie and cae Voins | in the Nelligen District. By H. I. Jenssn, D. sc, i IV.—Records of Australian Botanists—(a) General, (b) Nod South Wales. By J. H. Marpren, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. [With Plates] ... . V.—On the elastic substance occurring on the shoots and young leaves of Eucalyptus corymbosa and some species of Angophora. By Henry G. SMITH, F¥.¢.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney... ViI.—On the Pines of Australia, No. 1—Callitris Ape R. Br. yy ** White or Cypress Pine.” By Ricnarp T. BAKER, F.LS., Curator and Government Economic Botanist, and Henry G. Sm1TH, F.c.s., Assistant Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. [With Plates] ays VII.—Contributions to the Flora of Australia. By ALFRED J. HWART, D.Sc, Ph.D, F.LS., Government Botanist of Victoria and Professor of Botany at the Melbourne University, and JEAN WHITH, M.8c. Government Research Scholar, assisted by J. R. Tovey, First Herbarium Assistant, National Her- barium Melbourne. (Communicated by J. H. ene: [With Plates | : VIII.—The Discharge of “ileotricity a Gime Ce By J. A. Pottocx, Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, and A. B. B. Rancuaup, B. sc. ae ae ae IX.—The Relighting of the Carbon Arc. By J.A. Ponuock, EK. M. Wewuiscu, m.a., and A. B. B. Rancuaup, B, 8c [With Plate] : : Sc X.—Evidence of Recent ae ens of Const at N een By T. W. Epa@zewortH Davin, B.a., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, University of Sydney, and Gzratp H. Hattiaan, F.G.S., Hydrographic Officer, Public Works Department. [With Plates | eae “0c ae PAGE. (vii.) (ix.,) 1 34 56 60 133 145 184 215 229 ART, ART. (vi.) XI.—On the Influence of Infantile Mortality on Birthrate. By G. H. Knizps, F.S.S., F.R.A.S, Commonwealth Statistician. XII.—Note on Pucherite from West Australia. By E. GrirFITtHs, Caird Scholar, University of Sydney. (Com- municated by J. A. SCHOFIELD, Acting-Professor of Chemistry, Pace 238 University of Sydney) 251 Arr. XIII.—The Rainfall of Australia. By Tom Basie With Plates | “s 253 Arr. XIV.—A revision of ty ascanae Orsdiolobian! "ge J. Dovetas OGILBY and ALLAN R. McCuntocH. (Communi- cated by C. HEDLEY.) o: 264 Art. XV.—Some Geological Notes on the country honed yore Bay. By H. I. JENSEN, D. Se. 299 Art. XVI.—The Discontinuity of Potential at Ae Surface of Glowing Carbon. By J. A. Potiock, A. B. B. Rancnaup, and E. P. NorMAn. 5 as@ .= £6,300 per annum, which is the annual sav- jug due to cheaper construction. Against this we have permanent way rails 5 miles to be renewed every four years, say £5,000 = £1,000 per annum. Thus the net saving is £5,300 per annum, which sum would be vastly in excess of what is required to cover the cost of turning up and renewing locomotive tyres, etc. Wear of rails is more or less proportioned to resistance to traction, but is increased in places by brake action. Observations show that it is not proportioned to curvature, as the sharper curves wear more in proportion than flatter ones, that is at least on main lines. It is largely a question of wheel base, and given a certain wheel base there must be a limit to the curvature round which a vehicle will travel. As sharper curves are used it is clear that resistance must increase out of all proportion, when nearing the limit. Probably when not near the limit, resistance and wear may be approximately proportional to curvature. Wellington has investigated the subject at great length, but it cannot be doubted that in a country like this, where the conditions do not correspond with those in the United States of America and where other types of locomotives are used, B—May 6, 1908. 18 HENRY DEANE. and four wheeled stock is the more common type, more experiments are required to throw light on the question. Mr. Fraser, Engineer-in-Chief for Existing Lines N.S.W. Railways, Mr. Pagan, Chief Engineer of Queensland, and Mr. Norman, Chief Engineer of Victorian Existing Lines, have furnished me with some valuable information on the subject of wear of rails, and Mr. Pagan of the remedy which he adopted. Mr. Fraser says:—“‘As verbally requested a few days ago, I have to inform you that the wear of rails on sharp curves is now somewhat heavy inthis State. On the main western line (Mountain section) we had before the 8 chain curves were cut out, 80 ib. rails worn clean out in 5 months, but on the 12 chain curves to which the minimum radius has been improved, we got a life, when working single line, of two years, and since the traffic has been reduced by double line working the line has been increased to three years. On the North Coast line between Cowan and the Hawkesbury River, rails on 11 chain curves on the steep gradient have been worn out in 13 months, and this is practically the present life of 80 Ib. rails on these particular curves. On the Illawarra line, between Waterfall and Helensburgh, 80 ib. rails on 10 chain curves have a life of approximately three years, the traffic though heavy being mainly slow. On the main Western line, between Bowenfels and Bathurst, we are now renewing 80 ih. rails on 12 chain curves, which have had a life of two years only, but the traffic on that section is both heavy and fast. “The foregoing will show that approximately the life of 80 ib. rails on curves of 12 chain radius and under on single main lines, where the traffic is heavy and fast, varies from 1 vz: to two years. Renewals on curves upwards of 12 chains radius are not heavy—the difference in wear being very marked as compared with what we class as sharp PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 curves. Rails on curves of 14 chains radius laid in over 10 years ago are still in good order, so that it is evident that a small decrease in curvature very greatly increases the rail life under the rolling stock we have in general use.”’ The information furnished by Mr. Norman tends to show the importance of using hard or tough rails. In the case of acurve at South Yarra where Ameriean rails from Mary- land were used, the wear was less than one-fourth of those of some Barrow rails laid down at Kew. The particulars are as follows—in both cases 100 1b. rails were used. The rails on the South Yarra curve of 908 feet radius lost on the average 3°18 tb. per lin. yard for 52 months wear with a traffic of about 22,900,000 tons, whereas those at Kew which were on a curve of 792 feet radius showed a wear of 3°82 ib. per lin. yard for 21 months, for a traffic of 7,905,500. Reducing the wear to the same period and traffic we find the wear of the South Yarra rails per year and for 10,000,000 tons was °06 ibs., whereas that of the Barrow rails was ‘27 tbs. The difference in curvature alone would not account for this. Mr. Pagan shows the advantage to be gained by the use of guard rails. Prior to the introduction of guard rails on the main range the average life of the outer rail on curves of the radii mentioned, was as follows :— ) chain curves, 16 months 5S 99 18 99 6 9 21 29 8 33 28 to 30 months The following are the results of putting guard rails on 5 chain curves. They depend largely on grade, and it is evidently that part of the wear is due to brake action :— Grade 1 in 110, 11 years i300 the y5* son) 4 years ya 4, fos Or VealSnommontis 20 HENRY DEANR. Grade 1in 55, 4 years » 1,, 60, 5 years 2 months— » L,, 60, 4 to 7 years, dependent on fastening af ks Of, D years 2 anenths sa di 55 20D, 4 years The greatest amount of wear on the guard rails is finch. Automatic Couplings and Buffers.—It isa pity that when commencing railway construction in Australia the American style of coupling and buffer combined could not have been adopted. It not only is automatic and much safer therefore for the shunter, who avoids the risk of death by being squeezed between the buffers. It doesaway with the use of the latter, which are in the way on sharp curves. If a commencement had to be made again I have little doubt that the American coupling would be adopted with a larger sprinkling of American rolling stock and rails laid flat. The time has probably arrived when in the older countries buffers will begin to fall into disuse. The English Board of Trade having issued an order that automatic couplers must be introduced within a certain time, experiments have been made in Great Britain with an automatic coupler on the American style, and when I was over there in 1904—5, ten express trains on the east coast route were thus fitted up and running. The same system was being tried on the Great Central Railway. On the Continent of Europe I found a union of Railway Managers had been formed, and it was at the time the firmly expressed intention to introduce the automatic central coupler and buffer and abolish side buffers. To this end, intermediate or transitional combined couplings were designed, by which carriages could be coupled up on either system, and side buffers were used which could be put out of the way if not wanted. That is similar to what was done en the east coast route in Great Britain, above referred to, and it is to be noted that it was not only in PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21 one country of Europe that the idea was developing, but France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Switzerland and Russia appeared to be taking part, and the matter has been brought before the International Congress. This style of coupling without the use of side buffers conduces to flexibility on sharp curves, for on sharp curves side buffers are liable to pass one another and get interlocked. It would be a great advantage to be able to run main line rolling stock over sharp curves, and if this system of coupling were adopted there would be no difficulty in transferring any of the N.S.W. bogie stock from the North Coast Line when completed, on to such a line as the Dorrigo, even if it included 2 or 3 chain curves, provided always that the necessary rotary movement of the bogie was arranged for, and proper width allowances in platform and other structures made. Permanent Way Improvements.— When I was travelling through America in 1894, I found the different railway companies in the Hastern States vying with one another to get traffic, and with this object altering and improving their roads to permit of faster passenger trains and heavier freight trains. Curves were being flattened toa maximum curvature of 2°, which is a little over half a mile radius, and grades to ‘5% or 1 in 200. Heavier rails were also being put down. In 1904 the lines in the west were now being improved (quite a remarkable alteration since 1894), curva- ture was being reduced and heavy grades cut out. The Southern Pacific Co. was spending £20,000,000 in improving and shortening their lines, one of the most extraordinary pieces of work being the short cut through Salt Lake. These improvements are naturally undertaken as traffic increases, but although so much has to be rebuilt now, it is clear on consideration that had these same companies to start afresh with the sparse population of old times and AY HENRY DEANE. with limited capital, they would begin in the same way as originally, and the lines would be first laid down in the cheapest style. These facts should be kept in view when making our western connections for which there is an urgent need. They can be built in such a way as to be cheap at first, but to be capable of being strengthened up and improved afterwards. Break of Gauge and Unification.—A few words must be devoted to the break of gauge question, for although so much has been said and written in the past, there still remains much to be said, and it will be so till the unification of the gauges is consummated. Perhaps it would not be out of place to put on record here a few facts setting forth the circumstances under which the discrepancy in the gauges has arisen. If reference is made to a lecture I delivered before the Sydney University Engineering Society in 1902, there will be found a short account of the early history of the introduction of railways in this State and of the gauge question. With regard to the latter the principal facts are as follows:—In 1848 it was decided that the future Australian gauge should be 4 feet 8 inches. In 1850 Mr. Sheilds who had been appointed as engineer to the recently formed Sydney Railway Co. urged the adoption of the Irish gauge 5 feet 3inches. This was approved by the Home Government and became the legal gauge for Australia. Mr. Wallace, Engineer-in-Chief in succession to Mr. Shields, favoured a gauge of 4 feet 85 inches, and this was passed in the New South Wales Legislature, and the Bill dealing with the matter was sent home for Royal approval. On receipt of it Karl Grey the Secretary for State, wrote out to Governor Fitzroy and urged the objections there were to adopting a different gauge, the result being that a reversion to the gauge of 5 feet 3 inches was attempted, and would have passed but that the company pointed out that they had already counted on the 4 feet 84 inch gauge PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 93 being adopted and had ordered rolling stock accordingly. Soit remained. In 1857 Mr. John Whitton then Hngineer- in-Chief tried to induce the Government to alter the small length of line then made to that previously agreed to, namely, 5 feet 3 inches, but he failed to convince the Government of the wisdom of doing so. There is no doubt that sooner or later the difficulties of unification will have to be faced. With the present time- tables the break of gauge is not a very serious matter for passengers by the express to Melbourne, and the greatest inconvenience is felt at Albury, when on the journey to Melbourne they have in winter to rise at an inconveni- ently early hour and on the journey in the opposite direc- tion to wait up till near midnight before they can get to bed. Were there no break of gauge, passengers could wait to have breakfast at Benalla, and on the return journey could turn in about that point. It would also be possible to run through-trains at other times of the day. For instance it would be possible to arrange for an express to leave Sydney about 5 p.m. arriving in Melbourne at or | before 10 a.m. next morning, which would suit business people very well. At present this cannot conveniently be done, as the time for passing Albury would be about 5 a.m. It is most desirable that the inconvenience of the break between Sydney and Melbourne be abolished, and this can be effected or at least an amelioration found in various ways: 1. Lay down a separate line on the 4 feet 84 inch gauge between Wodonga and Melbourne, by which the Sydney trains could run right through. This would be a perfectly effective proposal if room can be found at the stations en route. 2. Lay down a separate 4 feet 8} inch line to Benalla only, and make that the changing station. This would get rid of the inconvenience of the present express timetable, 24 HENRY DEANE, but would not so well allow for the convenience of the passengers by a possible train leaving Sydney at 5 p.m. 3. Introduction of a third rail, so that the same line would suit both gauges. The points and crossings seem to have been practically worked out by Mr. Brennan, and Mr. ©. Wilkin of the Interlocking Department, has shown me a model to prove this. The heads of the rails have to be narrowed by planing, and at platforms, bridges, tunnels etc. the mean centre of the two roads has to be shifted out by half the difference of the two gauges, so that the required clearance may be efiected. Mr. Wilkin assures me that he has made diagrams showing that this is quite workable. 4. Exchangeable bogies as used in Canada before the unification. This is applicable to all the newer passenger stock, but not to four-wheeled freight stock. 5. Moveable wheel gauge, effected either by a sliding telescopic axle, or by a divided axle asin Mr. A. R. Angus’ system. Mr. Angus has informed me that he expects soon to be in a position to get tests made, which I consider absolutely necessary to prove the practicability of his system, however faultless otherwise the mechanical details of the apparatus may be. Mr. Angus claims that his System reduces friction on curves as the wheels can follow round independently of one another without having to slip. This is undoubtedly the case, but the greater part of the excessive wear and resistance is due to the stiff wheel base of the locomotives. A traveller from Central Queensland to Adelaide has to wait over at Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. He has to encounter two breaks of gauge. That at Albury can be dealt with in one of the ways mentioned, that at Wallangarra can best be treated by the adoption of Mr. H. C. Stanley’s via recta or separate short cut to Brisbane. The time will come when the traveller will expect to travel without these PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25 long waits, and that will be especially the case when Perth is connected up, as it must eventually be, by the Transcon- tinental Railway. Partial unification or rather complete unification of the main route necessitating a separate main line for part of the distance or the introduction of a third rail will then be imperative. Preservation of Timber.—The preservation of timber is a subject of the highest importance to railway engineers— so much timber is used not only for sleepers but also for bridge and other construction work. Timber can be treated by giving it a coat of some preservative liquid such as paint, tar, or other substance, but the surface treatment falls far behind any method of impregnation, of which creosote, chloride of zinc or mercury (corrosive sublimate) are the best known. The most recent method introduced into this country is ‘‘ Powellising,’’ and consists of treatment with molasses, by which the timber becomes thoroughly per- meated. It is stated to be completely successful. Dry rot does not under the most adverse circumstances attack the timber thus treated, and white ants and other insect pests can be completely warded off by the addition of arsenic to the solution. Sucha method should prove invaluable for sleepers, as not only does it render well known and approved timbers more durable, but it should enable classes of timber to be used which on account of liability to dry rot and attacks of insects are otherwise absolutely useless. I understand that the charge for treatment is somewhat high, in the case of sleepers about 1/- each. If this could be reduced to 6d. or even 3d., which may be eventually possible as the process must be a cheap one, the field of operations may become very wide. Ferroconcrete Sleepers:—Within the last few years the price of timber sleepers has risen in this country, partly owing no doubt to rise in wages, but partly also to the 96 HENRY DEANE. growing scarcity of the best kinds of timber and the remote- ness of the forests from rail or wharf. In Germany and the continent of Hurope steel sleepers are largely used. Although the first cost is high, when worn out they fetch about half the original price as scrap, so that they are not dear in the long run. Steel sleepers have been used in Australia, but not to any great extent nor with any great measure of success. fFerroconcrete sleepers of many designs have been brought into use but it cannot be said that much success has been achieved. The price has been against them, and, owing to the excessive vibration to which they are subject, they are very liable to disintegration. I still think that in spite of many failures, the sleeper of the future will be a ferroconcrete one, or at any rate this class of article will eventually successfully compete with other kinds. It would seem as if blocks of wood should be embedded in the sleeper to act as a rail bed, and so lend elasticity. Hurther experimenting is to be recommended, considering the large number of sleepers which will cer- tainly be wanted in the near future if the Transcontinental and other long cross country lines come to be constructed. Corrugation of Rails.—Corrugation of the surface of rails and the unpleasant noise and vibration thereby caused, has received much attention. It has generally been con- cluded that steam lines were exempt—except in the case of the Indian experience—and that the phenomenon was in some way connected with electric traction only. The observations and investigations by Mr. Cudsworth, Chief Engineer, and Mr. Worsdell, Chief Mechanical Engineer, of the North Eastern Railway of England, dispel this idea. There are various theories with regard to the matter, but it is quite certain that corrugations do not arise as the effect of composition or texture, as corrugated rails removed from places where the influence occurs and put down where PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27 it does not exist are said to become quite smooth again; they are to be found on straight roads as well as curves. Again it is curious to note that while some assert that the process takes place owing to too much elasticity of the road, others attribute it to too much rigidity, so that there is evidently a great deal more to be learnt before a final judgment can be passed. Noise of Trains.—The question of the noise of train and tram travelling is one that deserves more attention than it receives, as noisiness diminishes very greatly the comfort of the traveller. That a great deal of it is unavoidable there can be no doubt. The latest types of carriages, Pullman, Mann and Oorridor, are certainly much quieter to travel in than some of the older and cheaper carriages, and those to the design of which less attention has been paid. Rolling stock provided with six-wheeled bogies run much more smoothly and quickly than that supported on four-wheeled bogies. Generally speaking, our roads are more noisy than those of the old country, perhaps because everything is drier as a rule, and there is more reverber- ation. Then the passenger in Australia hears more noise because the windows are mostly all open, whereas in the old country, the chilliness and moisture of the climate require that they should be generally closed. Inthe United States of America, travelling is mostly done in Pullman cars, and to these there are double windows, which are nearly always kept closed to keep out heat and dust in summer and cold in winter, and effectually exclude noise from outside. There is one thing certain, that some types of cars are quite unnecessarily noisy, I refer to our suburban type of American car and most tramway cars. The roofs and floors of these cars act like the back and belly of a fiddle; they seemed designed to give forth sound. Composition of Steel Rails.—The composition and hard- ness of steel rails is a subject of itself, and it is impossible 28 HENRY DEANE. to more than touch on it at the present moment. To find a material which will resist wear or at least render the life of the permanent way a longer one is a matter of the highest importance, and though excessive wear of railway rails is largely due to the excessive stiffness of the locomo- tives used, there can be no doubt that the adoption of a harder and tougher material for rails is a step in the right direction. Some years ago the desire for high carbon was in the ascendant, and some very excellent results were obtained together with examples of extreme brittleness, owing reputedly to excess of carbon. The latest material is silicon steel, the use of which seems at first a step in the wrong direction, as silicon has always been looked upon as a most objectionable ingredient, except in quantities of not more than about ‘1%, but Mr. Sandberg first burns all the silicon out and then puts back the quantity required, and it is stated that when it is thus added it does not bring with it the same objectionable qualities but gives great hardness and toughness to the steel. The price of the steel is higher, amounting from 5/- to 7/6 per ton extra. The present Chief Commissioner, Mr. T. R. Johnson, is a ‘great advocate for its use, and I understand that orders have been issued for considerable quantities, both for renewals and new lines. I hope my successor in the chair, who some years ago interested himself in the subject, will find time to pay some attention to this question, which is one for the chemist and physicist as well as the engineer. New Inventions.—There have been many inventions and developments of inventions during the past twelve months in various lines of science and engineering, but none I think, so captivating to the imagination as Brennan’s Monorail. Before this when we heard of the term ‘‘ Monorail’’ we had to think of Lartigue or Behr, or the suspended system exem- plified on the Eberfeld Barmen and similar lines. All these require costly structures to carry them—the latter is a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 particularly nice system—I travelled in the cars on the occasion of my last visit to the continent of Hurope. I saw something of the Lartigue method, and I had the oppor- tunity of meeting the celebrated Mr. Behr, and listening to the description of the system by the author himself, This system, which was advocated for the Liverpool — Man- chester high speed route by some of the highest authorities in the scientific world, did not receive the support of the public. But while Mr. Behr’s train requires an expensive structure to run upon, the centre of gravity of which for the purposes of stability lies below the line of support, Mr. Brennan is able to content himself with a mere rope on the top of which his machine supports itself in the air, appar- ently disregarding the principles of gravity, so much so that if you put a weight on one side or try to pull it over it moves over in the opposite direction, and so gets its balance restored. The principle involved is that of the gyroscope or gyrostat as Mr. Brennan calls the pair of apparatus, which are kept revolving at a high velocity on the car. It remains to be seen of what practical use the invention turns out to be, but its simplicity and ease of application would seem to insure for it a great future. It is sometimes said that one learns more from failures than from successes. Let us hope at any rate that the one or two terrible events, for which the past twelve months will be noted, will result in ultimate benefit. I refer in the first place to the Quebec Bridge disaster, the report on which has recently appeared. The disaster should certainly put a stop to the tendency to allow higher and higher strains on known materials, and it should be a reminder that the strains on compound structures are not always easily determined, and that it devolves on the engineer to see that his joints and connections are thoroughly well designed and the stresses on the members 30 HENRY DEANE, of the structure brought as it were.into line, and the lines of forces controlled by efficient bracing. The other event to which I refer was the disastrous Braybrook accident. It would not be right to comment on the event, as the matter is sub judice, but it is not going too far to say that such an accident ought not to occur at all if the very effective modern system of signals established were properly watched and attended to. There seems to have been a spirit growing which sooner or later must lead toa catastrophe, and there must have been many hair breadth escapes before, at any of which similar disasters might have occurred. It is to be hoped that this spirit of recklessness will now be controlled. I must not conclude my address to you without referring shortly to the losses in membership by death that have been sustained by the Society during the past twelve months. Among our Honorary Members we have lost Sir Benjamin Baker, Mr. Robert L. J. Ellery, Sir James Hector and Lord Kelvin. | Sir Benjamin Baker, who died from heart failure on 19th May, 1907, at the age of 67 years, was for many years with the late Sir John Fowler closely connected with the engi- neering work of this State. Sir John Fowler held for many years the position of Consulting and Inspecting Engineer to the Government of New South Wales, and vast quantities of rails and machinery were received here after careful and close scrutiny by his firm and staff as regards specification, workmanship and material. Sir Benjamin Baker is perhaps best known to the world in his association with Sir John Fowler as the designer of the Great Forth Bridge, and more recently in connection with the Assouan Dam. He was at quite an early stage associated with Sir John Fowler on the Metropolitan District Railways, and more recently he took a leading part in the construction of the City and PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ol South London Railway, Central London Railway and other tube railways. He took a very active part in many great engineering enterprises, and was consulted at all points and on many subjects by engineers, public bodies, and governments in different parts of the world. He received various honours from the universities of the old country, was a Fellow of the Royal Society, a past President of the Institution of Civil Hngineers, a member of council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and an Honorary Member of the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, as well as of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He also held the dignities of Knight Commander of the orders of St. Michael and St. George and of the Bath. Lieutenant Colonel R. L. J. Hillery died on January 16th. He was for many years Director of Williamstown and Melbourne Observatories. Colonel Ellery had a long career during which the appliances at the establishments over which he presided were enormously improved, and at his instigation a four feet reflector was mounted, which at the time of its erection was the most powerful instrument of its kind in the southern hemisphere. Colonel Hllery’s | work was extensive and varied, and he has left a name as one of the leading astronomers of the southern hemisphere. He retired from the office of director in 1895, but was active in the scientific world almost up till the day of his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1873, and he was also a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and @ prominent member of many colonial societies and of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Sir James Hector, F.R.S., was born on March 16th, 1834. He took his degree of M.D. at the Edinburgh University in 1856 and served as assistant to Hdward Forbes and Sir James Simpson. He was appointed to the post of surgeon and naturalist to Captain Palliser’s expedition to the Rocky 39 HENRY DEANE. Mountains in British North America. The best known result of this expedition was the discovery of the pass by which the Canadian Pacific Railway now crosses from the prairies of the north-west to the Pacific coast. On his return from America be was appointed geologist to the Government of Otago, and from this on the scene of his work lay in New Zealand. He was an active teacher, a profound investigator, a lucid writer, and many of his works such as his ‘‘Outlines of New Zealand Geology,”’ his ‘* Hand- book of New Zealand,’’ the later editions of which were published in 1886, are works of permanent value. Sir James Hector was made a K.C.M.G. in 1887, he was a Fellow of the Geological Society and of the Royal Geographical Society, and was also elected third President of the Austra- lasian Association for the Advancement of Science. The Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, known for so many years as Sir William Thomson, died at the age of 83. It is difficult, in view of his many honours and the large amount of work he has carried out to give a short statement that would be in any way adequate to represent the career of this great man, who was one of the greatest physicists which the world has produced. For more than sixty years he was prominently before the scientific world, and right up to the time of his death his wonderful activity was always a marvel. I may refer to the account of him which was given in Nature on the 26th December of last year. With regard to ordinary members, the loss has been severe. The names of those who have thus left us are Edward H. Jenkinson, David Ramsay, John O. Rolleston, F. B. W. Woolrych, J. I. Haycroft, Walter A. Smith, and H. A. Lenehan. I should like particularly to refer to some of those gentlemen in consequence of the special interest which they took in the work of our Society. Mr. James Isaac Haycroft was born at Cork in 1854. He graduated with honours in the Queen’s University in Ireland PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 33 and became Master in Hngineering in 1882. He occupied the position of borough engineer to the Woollahra Municipal Council for eleven years, after which he obtained an appointment in the Public Works Department of this State, and was connected especially with the Tramway Construc- tion Branch. Mr. Haycroft was a diligent attendant at the meetings of the Royal Society and especially at those of the Hngineering Section of which for several years he was a member of committee. His services in the Depart- ment of Works were highly appreciated, and he died much regretted by those with whom he came into intimate contact. Mr. Walter A. Smith, ». inst. c.B., who was one of the best known and most popular officers in the Public Works Department, received his death by falling during a visit of inspection from the staircase leading up to the tower on Pyrmont Bridge. Mr. Smith was 48 years of age, and had been an officer of the Works Department for twenty-five years. For several years he was Metropolitan Hngineer in the Roads Branch, but on the inception of the Local Government Act he was placed in charge of operations at Barren Jack Dam. Harly in this year, however, he returned to Sydney to take up his old post. Mr. Smith’s career was one in which ability and high character were prominent and he leaves an irreproachable record behind him. Mr. Henry Alfred Lenehan died at the age of 65 years. He was appointed assistant at the Sydney Observatory in 1870, he was Acting Government Astronomer during the illness and retirement of the late Mr. Russell, and was recently appointed Government Astronomer. Mr. Lenehan was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. He had the interest of our Society always at heart. He became a member in 1874, has been a member of council for the last fourteen years, and was President from 1905-6, since C—May 6, 1908. 34 R. HOSKING. which time he has been on the roll.of Vice-Presidents. In Mr. Lenehan the Society has lost one of its most active members. He was always to the fore when any work was to be done or movement to be supported by personal energy or otherwise. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. By RIcHARD HOSsKING, B.A. (Camb.) [Communicated by Prof. PoLLock, p.sc. | [With Plates IV.-IX.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, June 3, 1908.] IN my previous experiments on the determination of vis- cosity by the efflux method,’ I have always arranged to have the rate of flow of liquid in the capillary tube very small. The kinetic energy correction in the well known reduction formula was thus always small in comparison with the first term. Inthe present experiments, however, I have purposely increased this rate of flow in order to test the formula in cases where the kinetic energy correction is much greater. The glischrometer used in these experi- ments was of the same form as those previously used by me, but the bulbs were larger. It is shown in Plate 4, fig. 1. At a, b, c, and d, platinum wires are inserted, which are almost touching inside the tubes. The capillary C is fitted to the limbs by rubber bands. The volume of the bulb R at 0° O. is 10°2801 ccs., and that of Lat the same temperature 10°3201 ccs. Four capillaries were carefully selected for separate use in the glischrometer, and their ends were ground with fine emery, in a lathe. Their lengths, measured directly with callipers, were 5°570, 1 Phil. Mag., March 1900, May 19U2, May 1904. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 35 '6°494, 5°408, and 6°456 cms. respectively at 0° C., and their radii approximately were °019, °019, °020, °020 cms. respec- tively, at 0°C. (The exact determination of the equivalent radius of each capillary was made at the end of all the ‘experiments. It involved the cutting up of the tube, and the careful measurement of the sections). Sufficient freshly distilled water was put in to fill up the glischro- ‘meter from b to c. The ends A and B were connected to the reservoir of compressed air or the outside air by means of three-way taps. Measurements of viscosity were taken first with the water flowing out of R into L, and secondly with the water flowing in the opposite way, under the pressure of air in the reservoir. The average of the two deter- minations was taken as an absolute value of the viscosity. The pressure was measured by means of (1) a water mano- meter 200 cms. long, (2) a mercury manometer in cases where the pressure was greater than 200 cms. of water. To facilitate the reading of the water manometer, a pair of small parallel mirrors was attached to each of the arms. These were inclined so as to make an angle of 45° with the vertical manometer scale. One was fixed near the centre of the arm, and opposite a telescope; the other could be moved along the arm and clamped in front of the water surface. When the mirrors had been set, it was thus possible to read off the positions of the two water surfaces by means of the telescope, at the same instant; for both images were arranged to be side by side in the field. The pressures employed varied between the limits 100 cm. (water) and 42 cms. (mercury). The time of flow was in most cases very short, the aver- age being about one minute, but in extreme cases it was as low as 22 seconds. Special means had to be employed to register the time intervals correctly. The chronograph 36 ; R. HOSKING. used was kindly supplied by the Sydney Observatory. It consisted of two electro-magnets side by side. The arma- tures were provided with needles. Paper tape was fed through rollers immediately over the needle points at the rate of about 5 cms. per second. A special spring enabled the needles to travel forward a little on piercing the tape, and prevented the tearing of the tape. One needle was used for recording seconds by direct reference, through electrical contacts, toa standard clock. The other needle punctured the tape when a key was pressed at the transits of the meniscus in the glischrometer at the points a and b in the one case; or at candd inthe other. These transits were observed always through telescopes. The procedure in determining the viscosity wasas follows. The bath temperature was arranged to be as close to the desired temperature as possible, and the heating flame was adjusted. The pressure of air in the reservoir was raised or lowered to the proper level. Double readings of pressure, time of flow and temperature were taken. The pressure was next altered, and more readings were taken. In most cases, the determinations were repeated. Another capillary was then placed in position in the glischrometer and the series was repeated. The Reduction Formula.—In the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales are published three most important papers by G. H. Knibbs,’ dealing with the history, theory, and determination of the viscosity of water by the efflux method. Knibbs has shown that the reduction formula is « R* m.o.V (1 + 2kt) dae R) 9-pe-h.T — Ro sVL(L+n>) SLi +a>)T 1 This Journal, volumes xxIx., xxx., and XXxXI. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. oF In this formula L is the length and R the radius of the capillary, and T the time taken for volume V of the liquid of density 6 to flow through the capillary under a pressure gph; nR isa small length of tube producing a loss of pressure equivalent to that arising from the friction at the ends, its value must be calculated for each series of experi- ments; mis the numerical factor in the kinetic energy correction, which has a theoretical value of 1°12, but which has a practical value which must be determined. The factor m has been neglected in so many recent determin- ations of viscosity that it is worth the while to repeat the information given by Knibbs respecting it. In 1860, Neu- mann deduced the value m=1, and Jacobsen used it in his ‘Introduction to Hemodynamics (1860).’? Hagenbach deduced the value m = 1, in the same year. MReynolds (following Bernoulli) in 1883, used the value m=4. Couette in 1890, independently obtained the value m=1. Boussinesq (1891) obtained a more accurate value m=1°12. Garten- meister stated (1890) that Finkener had in an unpublished treatise shown that Couette’s value was the correct (?) one. Wilberforce (1891) pointed out the defect in Hagenbach’s reasoning, and he used the value m=1. Knibbs has shewn that theoretically Neumann’s correction as deduced by Boussinesq is correct, and that experimentally its value varies considerably. Knibbs has deduced values of m from Jacobsen’s results, and stated that individual results show how, even under circumstances in which uniformity might be expected, it is not realized; and that if the correction be of sensible magnitude, the deduced viscosity is to the extent of this uncertainty, unreliable. Determination of m and m.—Preliminary experiments were made in order to obtain correct (experimental) values for the constants m and n. The temperatures were kept as close to 50° C. as possible, and under different pressures, aE ees i ¥ ad ww 38 R. HOSKING. the times of flow were recorded. The pressures: were reduced to equivalent pressures at 50°C. Knibbs has shown, that. the reduction formula, for experiments carried out at a certain temperature, may be expressed in the form Oi cfT= pW T okt (2) where C = 7, (1 + 1 R/L) - ae Pe 6 2), 7gR oud c= V4 4318) (4) BiniTRge Ah tate) anita Hquation (2) is that of a straight line such that if1/T be taken as abscissz, and corresponding values of phT as ordinates, the line passing through the points so determined will intersect the axis of ordinates at a distance C from the origin, and make with the axis of abscisse an angle whose tangentise. Whenc has been obtained m is deduced by means of equation 4. Equation (3) may be written in the form CzgR* 8V L The left hand side of the equation will have different values for different capillaries in the glischrometer. = me ( k 1 ns) Calling the left side K we have K=>%, + 24, R/L or-K' = y, + URE eee (5) where l = n ». This is the equation of a straight line such that if values. of R/L be taken as abscisse, and corresponding values of K as ordinates, the line passing through such points will’ intersect the axis of ordinates at a distance 7, from the origin, and make an angle with the axis of abscisse whose tangent is b. From value of b obtained in this way, 7 is: at once deduced. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 3% Typical Observations with Tube I. in Glischrometer. Temp. (t°C.) (50°05 50°03 50°00 50°00 50°10 50°10 (50°00 50°00 50°00 50°00 (50°04 | 50°03 50°02 (50°01 {50°10 ) 50°10 (50°05 4 50°06 50°07 50°08 (50°00 1 50°00 50°00 ( 50°00 50°10 J 50°10 . 50°10 (50°10 Manometer Reading (h) cms 1 Water Manometer. demy ot Time of i a Flow (T) ° TS Cou te cul cae ah ie tee tone oe ae secs. 22°9 71°38 ry 71°46 ae 71°45 71°33 26° 0 54°34 54°37 23° 9 43°98 43°74 24° 2, 44°03 43°70 93° 9 33°58 a 33°52 _ 33°58 33°53 26" 0 28°35 29°24 93° 9 24°78 He 24°93 ie 24°72 24°95 23°9 22°32 a 22°38 ‘ 22°28 A 22°38 22°9 20°36 a 21°40 a 20°39 2 21°40 Bulb being emptied. | fel feo) fea! eal ee teu tesla) le Pas} (en! boo) leablea}ice 20} fes es) |eal lea) |e bec] ealfeo} ier! eo] et phT (reduced to | 50°) x 10aae 7713 7718 0107 7°697 8°145 8°150 8°598 8°546 8°600 8°540 9°239 9°220 9°236 9°232 9°764 9°674 10°204 10°267 10°184 10°280 10°701 10°726 10°683 10°726 11°171 11°737 11°188 11°737 * Mercury Manometer. bl 9 | 229 | 71°38 | R | 7-713 |-01401 "01400 01400 01402 "01840 "01839 °02274 "02286 02272 02288 "02978 "02984 02978 "02985 03527 "03420 04035 "04011 "04045 04008 04480. "04468 "04488 "04468 "04912 04673 04904 04673 40 R. HOSKING. Typical Observations with Tube II. in Glischrometer. =e Manometer| coe) | eiamelot Bulb phe ; rap adin ano- | Flow (T being | (reduced to (C.) i Sa. He ib ve one es *10—" a (50°08 *108°41 26°7 | 80°41 R | 8°716 | °01244 | 50°08 | 108°25 Bs §BO27 L 8°676 | °01246 | 50°08 | 108°13 - | 80°81 R 8°729 | °01237 50°08 | 108°15 és | 80°48 L 8°690 | °01242 50°05 | 151°12 26°7 | 60°40 R 9°113 | °01656 50°06 §=151°02 a — 60°30 L 9°084 | °01658 50°07 150°96 ee 60°40 R | 97118 | °01656 50°07 150°96 es — 60°18 L | 9°065 |°01661 (50°02 197°10 26°7 | 48°58 R | 9°549 | °02058 } 50°04 = 197°20 a 48°15 L 9°470 | ‘02077 | 30°05 | 197°04 te 48°45 R | 9°531 |°02064 50°05 197708 | ,, | 4815 | L | 9°468 | 02077 (50°00 °20°40 py Ame eas aL) R. | 10°453 7702705 d 50°00 20°38 ‘. 36°68 L | 10°113 | °02726 50°00 =. 20°38 Pe | 36°93 R_ | 10°180 | °02708 | 50°00 20°38 x | 36°85 L 10°157 | °02714 (50°10 | 30°42 26°7 27°00 R 11°145 | ‘03703 150°10 | 30°42 ~ 27°16 L __ _11°200 | °03682 | 30°02 | 30°42 = Peae2o R 11°237 | °03664 50°02 | 30°42 i 26°97 | L | 11°116 |°03707 50°10 | 40°39 24°94) 322707 R 12°107 | °04552 50°10 | 40°39 a ed OF, L 12°053 |°04511 50°10 | 40°89 9 | 22317 ! R 12°152 | °04564 50°10 | 40°39 pes re 2ArOd Ss Aa 12°020 | °04585 + Water Manometer. * Mercury Manometer. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 4] Typical Observations with Tube III. in Glischrometer. Temp. (t° C.) = 50°07 50°07 50°07 50°07 50°20 50°24 | 02 50°22 50°10 | 50°10 50°10 (50°10 (50°07 | 50°07 50°07 50°07 50°08 | 50°08 50°08 (50°08 (50°10 50°10 50°10 50°10 | Manometer Reading (h) cms. *108°28 108°18 108°15 108°17 151°14 151°14 151°08 151°08 197°40 197°30 197°14 197°26 *20°30 20°30 20°30 20°30 30°39 30°39 30°39 30°39 40°42 40°42 40°42 40°42 1 Water Manometer. Time of Flow (T) secs. 04°56 04°60 04°97 04°56 41°69 41°64 41°72 41°58 34°00 33°93 33°94 33°95 26°59 26°47 26°52 26°44 19°98 19°86 19°98 19°82 17°51 16°43 17°54 (16°22 Bulb being emptied. as) ai-clad--leal--Dal--lal-lal--lal--Nal-lal-let-leal-- phT (reduced to 50°) x 10° 2897 2° 897 o891 5°893 6°316 6°325 6°321 6°300 6°705 6°690 6°684 6°691 T3il 290 7°303 7° 282 8°237 8°187 8°237 8°171 9°606 9°016 9°624 9°900 * Mercury Manometer. bs 01833 °01831 01833 01833 "02399 °02401 °02397 02404 °02941 "02948 02947 °02946 °03767 03779 03772 03783 "05006 ‘05036 °05006 °05046 ‘05711 °06088 °05701 "06165 . .R. HOSKING. Typical Observations with Tube TV. in Glischrometer. Temp. (t°C.) 50°10 50°10 50°10 ( (50°00 | Manometer temp. of Bending () | ssoten °C: '108°08 | 26°7 10805) «25, 108°09 - — 108°10 fe 150°97 | 26°7 | 151°07 ‘5 150°0G64) ». 5, 150°96 . 197°17 | 26°0 WAOVIOT. Nec as | 197°04 | ,, 196°98 | ,, | 920°92 | 25°7 20°96 56 AO ac? 2h, 20°92 es | 30°98 | 25°7 _ 30°99 * — 31°00 af 31°00 ms | 40°47 | 25°7 _ 40°47 ¥ 40°47 i 40°47 R ‘ Water Manometer. Time of Flow (T) secs. 61°26 60°80 61°83 | 61°21 | 46°49 46°30 46°50 46°30 37°44 37°35 37°54 31°37 | 28°25 28°00 | 28°32 21°30 22°80 21°40 22°58 | 20°78 21°33 20°43 21°05 Bulb being emptied. ego ao wal-9 8 oa a9 a-ak 2 phT (reduced. to 50°) x 10— 6°614 6°561 6°675 6°607 6°995 6°967 6°990 7°955 7°348 7°326 7°359 7°326 8°023 7°998 8°042 7°980 8°954 9°594 9°010 — 9°498 11°378 11°682 11°185 11°530 * M+ reury Manom-ter. Kl 01632 01645 °01617 °01634 02151 02160 02150 °02160 °02671 02671 02664 02677 03539 °03571 03531 03559 °04698 04386 04671 | 04429 04812 "04688 04895 04750 - THE VISCOSITY CF WATER. 43 The numbers in columns 6 and 7 were used to obtain the curves given in Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5. It will be noticed that for a considerable distance the lines are Straight, indicating constant values fore in equation 2, and therefore for m for the particular capillary. This con- stancy is remarkable when we consider the enormous speed with which the water is forced through the tubes in many cases. The individual observations show also that there is no variation in any particular case, and that the value of m in the general formula can be relied upon, when determined in this way. There is therefore no necessity to keep the kinetic energy correction small in comparison with the first term in determining viscosities by the efflux method, provided of course, that the time of flow and pressure can be measured with sufficient accuracy. This will be shown later, where values have been worked out. In certain curves it will also be noticed that at a particular point, there is an abrupt change in the direction of the line, indicating either a largely increased value for m, or a change in the nature of the flow. This is most marked in both the curves for Tube IV. and in one of the curves for Tube ITI. | The following values for C and ec in equation (2) were obtained from the curves, and the corresponding values of m were deduced by equation (4). Tube I. Tube II. | Tube III. Tube IV. \ —_———<—<—<——_——< qj] quem _| —— RtoL| LtoR|RtoL|LtoR| RtoL|LtoR| RtoL LtoR {- | ' C 6350 | 6330 7400 | 7440 | 4570 | 4570 | 5400 | 5390 10“ x¢| 9°60 POrSl |) 1000) 9:90 pt -78 G18) 1-24 | 7°60 m | 1-130: 1:164| 1:164] 1-162! 1-128] 1-136 | 1-166 | 1-216 The values for m are all greater than the theoretical value. Thereare also two values for each capillary accord- ing as the liquid flows in at one end or the other. This. fact is most marked in the case of Capillary IV. . 44 R. HOSKING. The above values for C were used in calculating K in equation 5, for the four tubes. R/L was also calculated. These values are collected in the following table. Tube I. Tube II. Tube III. Tube IV. K (mean) | ‘005504 | -005463 | -005480 | -005478 RIL 003407 | 002908 | 003774 | 003172 It is evident that there is no linear relation between K and R/L. When the above values are plotted in the way already mentioned, it will be noticed that they lie along a straight line parallel to the axis of abscissee; that, there- fore, k in equation 5 has zero value, i.e., the value for n is zero. See Figure 6. A set of readings was taken at 25°C. andalso at 0°C., and values for K.; and Ky were found. The results are tabulated below, and the corresponding graphs appear in Figure 6. They bear out the conclusions arrived at in connection with the results at 50°C. Tube I. | Tube II. | TubelIII. | Tube IV. ee 00896 | 00893 00892 -0089 ge / :01791. | -01790 01790 | -01791 R/L 003407 | -002908 | -003774 | 003172 In the general reduction formula, the most difficult con- stant to measure accurately is R, the mean radius of effiux. Capillaries are not generally right circular cylinders, nor even elliptical cylinders; and as the degree of precision with which R must be calculated is always four times as great as that required in the deduced viscosity, the examin- ation and measurements of the capillaries must be carried on with extreme care. Tubes I. II. III. and IV. were in the first place selected from a large number on account of their uniformity of bore THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 45 —tested with a small mercury column—and their circular end sections. The first method of measuring R was by contained volumes of mercury. The values obtained (at 0° C.) for the mean radii were °018968, °018926, °020416 and °020482 cms. respectively. At the conclusion of all the experiments, sections about 4 cm. in thickness were cut from the tubes at regular intervals; they were ground, polished and mounted in a brass plate. Three independent sets of readings of their dimensions were obtained by me, firstly by direct com- parison with a micrometer eye-piece in a microscope; secondly by means of a microscope fitted to the dividing engine belonging to the Physics Laboratory, Melbourne University; and thirdly by means of a micrometer micro- scope at the Sydney University. The following average values were obtained for the radii of the sections reduced to 0° OC. Capillary I. First Second Third Mean (Circular) Method. Method. Method. Values. Section 1] 01905 cm. | ‘01879 cm.| -01880 018838 3 2 01929 | O EotoN 01899 019106 Pee: (ON9S2) | 01933). 01877 019048 ‘3 4 OO 26 aa ONS SOi.. 01881 ‘018882 [Mean radius (by mercury) = °018968 cm.] ; Mean =-018968 cm. Capillary II. | First Second Third Mean (Circular) Method. _| Method. Method. Values. Section 1 01899 cm.; :01889 01880 018862 siti) eee ‘OSG, |, 701861 ‘01880 018763 Peo ‘O1942 ,, 701910 01891 "019009 ae 4 | O90Ge= 01909 01890 018990 [Mean radius by mercury =:018926 cm.] Mean=-018906 cm. 46 R. HOSKING. Capillary IIT. pivgt Method. | Second Method. | Third Method. | Mean Values. (Elliptical) | | 02028 02066 02069 020608 Section 1 | -02016 01969 | 02020 ‘020023. ‘02083 02064 - 02066 “020682 Bower 02016 ‘02009 | 01993 ‘020022 02124. ‘02119 ‘02069 ‘020948 hs: «| 02043 01983 | 01996 020000 02097 02032 02075 020643 ee 02043 | ‘02010 | 01998 “020095 (a) :020719 Mean radius by mercury = ‘020415. Mean (b) "020035 aPintealy, | First Method. | Second Method. Third Method. | Mean Values. | 02138 02125 _ °02088 ‘021087 Section 1 | 02023 | ‘02070 01976 ‘020152 02130 “O21 if ‘02086 ‘021040 as Ba ie>?1] 02048 ‘02007 | 01984. 020015 | -02144 | 02143 02068 021057 ote Jno 02023 | 01954 01976 ‘019765 | -02183 02125 02079 021042 er aie ae 02023 | ‘01997 | 01994 ‘019723 (a) 021056 Mean radius by mercury = ‘020482. Mean (b) -019914 In determining the mean value for each section, the values obtained by the three methods were weighted in the following manner, Method 1, weight, 1; Method 2, weight, 2; Method 3, weight, 3; thus for Capillary 1, Section 1, by adding together *01905 cm., twice °01879 cm., and three times *01880 cm., and dividing the sum by 6, we obtain the value ‘018838 cms. The mean obtained in this way is, I consider, the best value the individual results will produce, taking in account the experimental difficulties in measur- ing such small bores in the three cases. The mean values by measurement were then combined with the values obtained by mercury column and in this way the final values were obtained. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 47 Capillary I., circular cylinder, radius °018968 cm. at 0° C. 59, Pet besiii 95 r » 018916 ” », III., elliptical cylinder, semi-axes (a) ‘020762 ,, (b) °020076 ,, Be oe : aay 020061) (b) 019919 ,, III., mean radius of efflux R (where R= 200" a*b*\ i : a? +b? / ) = °020413 cm. , LV., mean radius of efflux R — °020474 cm. An accuracy of 1 in 1000 was aimed at throughout the experiments. The values for the constants in the reduc- tion formula having been obtained, the viscosity was determined from the various observations which had been made from time to time, including those already mentioned. A special set of experiments at 0° C. was made at a fixed pressure in order to obtain accurate values of the viscosity at 0° OC. The thermometer registered 0°05° O. throughout the series. With tube I in the glischrometer, under a pressure of 197 cm. of water, the average time of flow was 109°7 secs. The first term of the reduction formula was found to be °018690, and the second term °000769. The value for the viscosity at 0°05° was °01792 ; which reduced to 0° C., becomes ‘01795. A second determination gave the same values practically. The observations and reduc- tions are given on page 48, alsoa similar set at 25° O. p. 49. Most of the experiments, however, were carried out at 50° C. with the water flowing under different pressures. In the following tables (p. 50) are collected the various results. The pressures are given in centimetres of mercury, the times of flow in seconds, the values of viscosity (double observations) in absolute measure, and the kinetic energy correction—second term—also in absolute measure. The pressures and times are approximate, and the viscosity values are reduced to the even temperature 50° C. R. 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Pressure (Approx.) 7°3 cm. i 15 20 30 40 42 (1) | ¢ Time of Flow T Approx.) 80:5 sec. 60:3 Second Term xe 91 Second _ (mean) Term. 7» X 10°.) xe 553 118 553 156 551 193 550 250 551 292 550 338 547 348 549 357 554 376 591* 400 Viscosity | Visecaity x 105 | x 108 549) ) BOAT pees j oan | 549 {| | 549 (| 549 549 | 549 ) | | 2 ie: 548 DADA one ' 548 ; | 549- 553 || 553 y (353 557 % { ae 559 565 565* Mean ‘00500 Results at 50° C. with Tube III in Glischrometer. Pressure (h 30 30 40 THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. Time of Flow (T) (Approx.) | (Approx.) Ii-2 Second Term x 105 156 430 478 500 Viscosity (double readings) n x 108 mx L028 Viscosity (mean) st ee 552 551 550 549 553 551 552 } 551 J 554 | 5B f 557 | 555 | 558+] 557* 556 | 559 | 558 ) 562 562* 565 3 615 ] 607 617 613 4} 612* 604 609 550°5 552°5 551°5 554 611 Mean °00552 51 52 R. HOSKING. Results at 50° C. with Tube IV. in Glischrometer. Pressure | Time of | Second Tacs Viscosity (h Flow (7)| Term di (mean) eee (Approx.)} x 10° A OC LOe 9 x LOE T3 | 615 | 123 || 552 | 549 11 463 | 162 J a BAT ( 544 15) i. | Bae 201 | 2 ae 545 | i( 547 i det 20 28+] 268 |. 4 546 | el 24 25:3 297 yy ade 25 244 308 ee 546 26 23-8 316 ie 551 27 23:9 325 || ih 549 28 22:7 332 |. 556* 29 22:6 333 é 588* 30 22:3 339 Ni 593* 3] 21-9 R43 dln ds 598* 39 21-9 yas 634% 34 21-5 350 668* 36 21:2 re eee 709* 38 21-0 359. |... | eum | 9]: 5 | 822 | 2 * ap: AY 2a 359 |i ee tl pee | | | 44 202 | 373 |{ me 837% Mean ‘00548 With Tube I. in the glischrometer, the formula gives con- stant values up to a pressure of 35°4 cms. of mercury, when the time of flow is about 22 seconds. It will be noticed that at this point the kinetic energy correction is more than 60 per cent. of the viscosity, and the average velocity in the tube is 400 cms. per sec. THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 53 In the case of Tube II. the formula breaks down suddenly at a pressure between 35°7 cm. and 36°9 cm., the time of flow being about 24 secs., and the correction at pressure 35°7 cm. more than 55 per cent. of the viscosity. The velocity in this case is 370 cm. per sec. For Tube III. the figures are, pressure between 20°4 cm, and 30°4 cm., time of flow less than 26 secs., second term 60 per cent. of the viscosity; and for Tube IV. when the pressure is 27 cm. and the second term is nearly 60 per cent. of the viscosity, the deduced value is satisfactory, but an increase of pressure of 1 cm. brings about some decided change. The highest velocities reached in both cases, before the change, was about 340 cms. per sec. The curves Viscosity values (x 10°) at 50° C. collected, Pressure. | Tube I. | Tube II. | Tube III.| Tube IV. | Average. 73 cm. 553 550 551 549 551 EEO; 553 549 552 547 550 147-7, 551 548 552 045 549 20. 5, 550 549 554 546 — 5650 DA ss a hat ca, 554 554. Onin Ys, on, aie a 546 549 26 i vee a oe 551 551 7 ae 550 en Re 549 550 29 * 551 nye ae (588) 551 BO 550 553 | (557) | (593) | 551 31 45 547 ues deste (598) 547 Sous, 4 549 beard Aes ae 549 34 5 551 or ae (668) 551 519 eae 554 of (562) ae 554 36 a ae Ay (574) (709) sh | GBR) ie (571) ie DOr ig ats ate (578) (751) 39 3 (573) uae (599) tee 40 ,, | (591) | (559) | (612) | (814) ieee Re (65) di i 43°, us om (837) oereees | Av. =| 00551 | -00550 | 00552 | -00548 | Mean Value = :0055@ 54 R. HOSKING. in Figure 5 (Plate 8) indicate that when the change takes place, there is a large increase in the value of m, if the formula still holds; but the individual results do not agree sufficiently well to enable one to draw definite conclusions from them. The values for the viscosity of water at 50° C., obtained with the various capillary tubes in the glis- chrometer are collected in the foregoing table. The mean value is ‘00550. Results.— (1) The constants in the reduction formula were all determined with the greatest possible degree of accuracy, including R, n and m. (2) For each capillary in the glischrometer—four were used separately—two values for m were found, one for each of the ends. These values were in every case greater than the theoretical value 1°12. | ' (3) For the series of capillary tubes used, experiments at temperatures 0° O., 25° C., and 50° C. gave in each case zero values for n. (4) Absolute values for the viscosity of water at 0° C., 25° O., and 50° ©. were obtained, namely ‘01793, °00893, and °00550, which are probably correct to 0°1 per cent. (5) The values obtained for m were constant over a big range of pressure; and at a very high pressure there was an indication of an abrupt change in the value of m, or in the nature of the flow. The velocities at this pressure were much below the critical velocities for the various tubes, but were all above the lower limit of critical velocity. (6) Consistent values for the viscosity of water at 50° C. were obtained in cases where the kinetic energy correction was as high as 60 per cent. of the viscosity. I have much pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to Professor J. J. Thomson, Cavendish Laboratory, Cam- THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. 55 bridge; Professor Lyle, Melbourne University ; Professor Pollock, Sydney University; and Mr. G. H. Knibbs, F.R.a.s., Federal Statistician, formerly Director of Technical Edu- cation, N.S.W., and Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney, for valuable assistance during the progress of this research, which was commenced at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, and completed at the Sydney ' University. Note on the Viscosity of Solutions.—The viscosity of certain lithium chloride solutions was determined with the glischrometer described in the previous paper. The only novel feature of the measurements was the automatic recording of the time of flow. The inner platinum wires at band ec (Fig. 1, Plate 4) were connected by insulated wires, also the inner wires at a and d. Wires were fastened to the outer wires at a, b, c and d, and were connected to four plugs on a double reversing key. The two remaining plugs were joined by wires through a battery, and one of the electro-magnets already described. With the key in one position, there was electrical communication between the battery and electro-magnet and the outer ¢ on the one side, and the outer b on the other side. The circuit was complete only when the solution filled the spaces at both e and b. With the key reversed, the battery was connected to the outer d and the outeraand the circuit was complete when the solution filled the spaces ata andd. By regu- lating the amount of solution in the glischrometer, the signals could be made as short as necessary, at the begin- ning and end of the flow from R to L, or in the opposite direction, and the time of flow could be read off accurately on the tape. The following set of readings will be sufficient to illus- trate the accuracy with which determinations of the viscosity of solutions can be made with this arrangement: 56 R. HOSKING. Lithium Chloride Solution, Temperature 20°75° ©. Pressure Time [Correction 7 n (h) (LT) x 10° (mean) 198°8 cm.| 57°2 sec; 150 01201 ). ie | 56-4, 1 Gils | eomigs , be 1793, | 628 ., | 136 01204 1791 "| 628 7 | 138 | -o1i97 } bei 151-0.,, | 731 ., | 118 01200 } | - Nie , | 73:0, | 118 4) RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS, 99 Eucalyptus Consideniana’ to his memory. Secretary of State Dundas wrote,’ 14th July, 1792, granting leave of absence to Considen to return to England should the state of his health continue to require it. I know nothing further concerning this wortlry. Cunningham, Allan (1791-1839). I have given so full an account of Allan Cunningham, King’s Botanist and Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, at (4) that I have but little to add at this place. The marble tablet to his memory in St. Andrew’s Scots’ Church is by Clewett of Sydney. “Cunningham on the vegetation of the N.W. Shores of Terra Australis, 1826,’ in ‘* Botanical Miscel- lanies, 1825-1844,’ I have not seen. There is much information concerning Cunningham’s journeys in Stuart Russell’s ‘‘ Genesis of Queensland.’’ In (8) there isa note on a “Crayon drawing by Sir Daniel Macnee, P.R.S.A. To the waist, seated, with arms folded, clean-shaven face three-quarters to the right looking slightly upwards. Dimensions 173 ins. by 133 ins. Hooker Collection.’’ There is a water-colour portrait of him in the Linnean Society’s collection by J. EK. H. Robinson. The coniferous genus Cunninghamia commemorates him, also a very large num- ber of species. Cunningham, Richard (1793 — 1835). Born at Wimbledon, London, 12th February, 1793; murdered by natives near the modern Dandaloo, N.S.W., April 1835. Brother of Allan. Employed on “‘ Hortus Kewensis’’ circ. 1808. Colonial Botanist and Superintendent of Botanic Gardens, Sydney 1833-35. Pritzel 73; Comp. Bot. Mag. (ii. 1826) 210, with litho. portrait from one by McNee, belonging to Sir W. J. Hooker; Royal Society’s Catalogue ii, 105; Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1881, ii, 440; Lond. Gardeners’ Mag. 1836; Mag. Zool. Bot. i, (1837), 210; Dict. Nat. Biog. xiii. * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 1904, p. 475. * Hast. Rec., 1, (2) 632. 100 J. H. MAIDEN. 317. The above is from (1). I have given a pretty full account of him at (4). The memorial tablet of him in St. Andrew’s Scots Church, Sydney, was from the Chantrey Studio, London.’ In the catalogue of the Kew library there is a MSS. folio volume of Bond and Duncanson’s drawings in the Kew Collection by Richard Cunningham. | Daintrey, Edwin (1814 — 1887). Born at Petworth, Sussex, England, 2nd September, 1814. Died at Randwick, near Sydney, 3rd October, 1887. Buried at Long Bay Cemetery, Randwick. He studied medicine (was in his fourth year) but his health obliged him to give it up. He then entered a solicitor’s office and was admitted solicitor in Kngland. Coming to New South Wales in the early forties he settled in Sydney, where he practised his pro- fession. He was at one time honorary Secretary of the Australian Library in Bent Street, and was of cultivated literary tastes. He was Associate to Sir James Dowling for some years. He and the late Walter Bradley were great friends and took a keen interest in the Sydney Zoo- logical Gardens. He was a founder of the Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, and Professor Stephens, President of the Society, in making his obituary notice, speaks of him as an excellent botanist. His name is commemorated in Acacia Daintre- ana, K.v.M. = A. excelsa, Benth.; and Pterostylis Dain- treana, F.v.M. (R. Daintree, Government Geologist of Queensland, also collected for Mueller. See Fragm. The names are sometimes confused). Portrait in F. M. Bladen’s ** Historical Notes on the Public Library of N.S.W., 1906.”’ Fawcett, Hugh Charles (1812-1890). Born 16th May, 1812, where, is not known to me. He died 15th March, 1890, probably at Stroud, N.S.W. He occupied the position of Police Magistrate at Tabulam (Casino) from 31st October 1862, to 7th August, 1870. On the latter date he left the ' « New South Wales Magazine,” August, 1843. RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. 101 Public Service, but re-entered it on 1st July, 1883, as Police Magistrate and Olerk of Petty Sessions at Bullahdelah, holding also the position of Mining Warden. On the 1st December, 1885, his head quarters were transferred from Bullahdelah to Stroud. He held the position of Police Magistrate at the last named town (visiting Bullahdelah, Bungwall, Forster, and Tea Gardens) with, in addition from 1st July, 1887, the offices of Clerk of Petty Sessions and Crown Lands Agent, till the date of his death. The above particulars have been obligingly forwarded to me by Mr. J. L. Williams, Under Secretary of the Department of the Attorney General and of Justice. He collected botanical specimens for Baron von Mueller, particularly when in the Richmond River district. Part of his herbarium is in the National Herbarium, Sydney, presented by Mrs. Coleman (1905) widow of Mr. Coleman, M.P. for Lismore. The following plants commemorate him:— Cylicodaphne Fawcettiana, F.v.M. = Tetranthera reticulata, Meissn, = 7. Fawcettiana, F.v.M.; Rhipogenum Fawcettianum, F.v.M. Field, Barron (1786—1846). Born London, 23rd October 1786; died Torquay, Hngland, 11th April, 1846. F.L.S., 1825. Judge of the Supreme Court of N.S. Wales, 1816-24. Sent plants to Hooker. Jackson 400, Proc. Linn. Soc., i, 298; Exotic Flora, t. 222. Dict. Nat. Biog. xviii, 399. The above particulars are taken from (1). The most signal service he performed for Australian botanisst consists in the publication of his ‘‘ Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales etc.’’ (London, 1825). He thus saved some valuable papers read before the Philosophical Society of Australia, more than one of which is of value to the botanist. He is commemorated in the genera Fieldia, Gaud.= Vanda, and Fieldia, A. Cunn. Colla wished to commemorate his memory in Cassia Barrenfieldii, afterwards corrected to Cassia Fieldii, Colla=C. australis, Sims. 102 J. H. MAIDEN. Fitzgerald, Robert Desmond (1830 — 1892). Born at Tralee, Ireland, 30th November, 1830, died at Hunter’s Hill, Sydney, 12th August, 1892; buried in Balmain Cemetery. He arrived in Sydney in 1856 and shortly after- wards entered the Surveyor-General’s office, retiring from the rank of Deputy Surveyor-General in November, 1887. He was a remarkably skilful draughtsman and employed his gift not only in depicting parts of plants, but living plants as they grew wild and their surroundings in nature. For many years he devoted himself entirely to the study of Orchids and his monument consists of his noble work ‘*Australian Orchids,” the drawings being almost invariably from fresh specimens and the work of his own hand, while the lithographs are the work of his old friend and coadjutor Mr. A. J.Stopps. Mr. Fitzgerald visited every Australian State and Lord Howe Island in search of material for his beloved work. Not only was he an accomplished artist, but a sound botanist, an excellent combination of gifts. He left no herbarium. See “‘Sydney Mail,’’ 3rd September, 1892, also (1), Viet. Nat. ix, 75, and Deane in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxi, 827 (1896). He is commemorated in the following species:—Sarcochilus Fitzgeraldi, F.v.M.; Dracephyllum Fitzgeraldi, F.v.M.; Eugenia Fitzgeraldi, K.v.M. and Bail. |For portrait see Plate 12.| Fleming, James (———-). The ‘‘Cumberland,”’ armed colonial schooner, left Sydney, 23rd November, 1802, under the command of Lieutenant Robbins for Port Phillip and Tasmania. Following is a record: ‘‘ The voyage of His Majesty’s Colonial Schooner ‘“‘Cumberland’’ from Sydney to. King Island and Port Phillip in 1802-3. A journal of the explorations of Charles Grimes, Acting Surveyor-General of New South Wales. Kept by James Fleming.’’ Note by Governor King :— | : ‘“‘The writer of this journal (James Fleming) was sent to ex- amine the soil, timber, etc. of King Island and Port Phillip ; he RECORDS OF AUS'TRALIAN BOTANISTS. 103 is very intelligent, and a man in whom [I could place great con- fidence in his knowledge of the objects that fell to his share.” (P.J.K. = Phillip Gidley King.) The above journal was found by Mr. J. J. Shillinglaw in the archives of the Colonial Secretary’s Office, Sydney, and published in that gentleman’s “ Historical Records of Port Phillip.’”’ (Govt. Printer, Melbourne, 1879). The botanical references are slight, Fleming however (p. 22), (‘‘looked over seeds and specimens’’) evidently made collections. Rev. Samuel Marsden writes to Banks from Sydney, 27th April, 1803,’ introducing “John (the name is James, J.H.M.) Fleming (spelt Flemming in the above Journal), is sent to England by the ‘Glatton,’ by His Excellency the Governor with the charge of the plants and seeds from this couutry. He is a man of experience and real knowledge in agriculture, a good gardener and botanist. From Fleming’s local knowledge of the Colony and the state of improvements we are in, I have requested him to make such a collection as will benefit the settlement of fruits, seeds, etc., etc.” 6 King refers to him as “‘a very good man, a gardener, . . . asensible man.’’* W.A. Chapman writing to Mrs. King, London, 16th October, 1804,’ says ‘“‘James Fleming has got an appointment to a botanical garden in the West Indies and is gone out.’’ This perhaps refers to St. Vincent, but I have not been able to trace his subsequent career. Evidently he worked in Sydney, and was well known to Governor King, but I have been unable to trace anything about his career in Sydney. Fraser, Charles (——-— 1831). Born in Scotland (?) died in Sydney, 31st December, 1831. The first officially appointed Superintendent of the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Originally a private soldier in the 46th Regiment. Accom- Hist. Recav,.99: * 2b.,-v, 3G. ° Fb: pravg. 104 J. H. MAIDEN. panied Oxley’s Expedition in 1817. Visited New Zealand, Moreton Bay, Tasmania, Western Australia. Ihave given many particulars concerning him at (4). He wrote some excellent reports of his botanical journeys, and I should be very glad if these could be published in a memorial pamphlet some day. He is commemorated by the following species which help to trace his journeyings :— Abutilon Fraseri, Hook.; Boronia Fraser, Hook.; Campylan- thera Fraseri, Hook. = Spiranthera Frasert, Hook. = Pronaya elegans, Hueg.; Cochlospermum Fraseri, Planch.; Commersonia Fraseri, J. Gay; Hartighsea Fraserana, A. Juss. = Dysoxylon Fraseranum, Benth.; Sida Frasert, Hook. = Abutilon Frasera, Hook.; Acacia Frasert, Hook. = A. podalyriefolia, A Cunn.; Sophora Fraseri, Benth.; Swainsona Frasert, Benth.; Calythrix Fraseri, A. Cunn.; Melaleuca Fraseri, Hook. = M. striata, Labill.; Andersonia Fraseri, Sond. =A. sprengelioides, R.Br.; Leucopogon Fraseri, A. Cunn. = LZ. multiflorus, R.Br.; Limnanthemum Fraseri- anum, Griseb.= LZ. indicum, Thw.; Marsdenia Fraseri, Benth.; Dryandra Fraseri, Br.; Hakea Fraseri, Br.; Lomatia Fraseri, Br. = L. ilicifolia, R.Br.; Persoonia Fraseri, Br.= P. saccata, R. Br.; Persoonia Frasert, Meissn.=J/. angustiflora, Benth.; 7'richiniwm Frasert, Cunn.; Casuarina Fraseriana, Mig.; Encephalartos Fraseri, Mig. = Macrozamia Fraseri, Miq.; Urostigma Fraseri, Mig. = Ficus Fraseri, F.v.M. = Ficus Cunninghamu, Migq.; Bulbine Fraseri, Kunth.= B. bulbosa, Haw.; Hierochloa Fraser, Hook., f. = H. redolens, R.Br. var. ? Frasert; Lindsea Fraseri, Hook.; Schizoloma, Fraseri, J. Sm = Lindsea Fraseri, Hook. ; Todea Fraseri, Hook. et Grev. Fullagar (——). He collected Lord Howe Island plants for Mueller. See Lind. The justaposition of the two names may be simply those of independent collectors, e.g. Moore and Fullagar (Fragm. ix, 69, 72, 76). He alone collected Tylophora enervis, and Marsdenia tubulosa, Fragm. ix, 71; Ipomcea bona-nox, 74. He is commemorated by Lomaria Fullagari, F.v.M. RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. 105 Good, Peter (—— - 1803). There is no record of the entry of this young Scotch gardener into Kew. Heappears to have been in the employment of Karl Wemyss, 1796. In 17935 he was selected from the Kew stafi to proceed to Calcutta to bring home a collection of plants prepared by Christopher Smith. He returned to Kew, where he filled the position of foreman until 1st March, 1801, when he was appointed Botanical Collector under Robert Brown, the botanist attached to Flinders’ voyage (H.M.S. Investigator) of survey of the coast of Australia; at a salary of £100. Brown wrote to Banks, Port Jackson, 30th May, 1802 ':— ‘In Mr. P. Good I have a most valuable assistant, a more active man in his department could hardly, I believe, have been met with.” Banks to Brown, 8th April, 1803,” speaks of— “Your able and quiet assistant, Peter Good. His diligence and docility have been before tried.” Brown wrote to Banks, Sydney, 6th August, 1803° :— ‘Poor Peter Good, who while he enjoyed health was must indefatigable, and whose exertions in his department were without doubt the cause of his untimely fate, died a few days after our arrival here of dysentry, contracted soon after our departure from Timor.” The date of his death was llth June, 1803. ‘On Monday last, Mr. Good, botanist, belonging to H.M.S. “ Inves- tigator,” and who died on the preceding day on board that ship, was brought on shore for interment. A number of officers attended in procession to the place of burial, where, after the funeral cere- monies were performed, a party of marines fired three vollies over the grave.””* There isa letter,’ from Brown to Banks, giving particulars of the disposal of Good’s private effects. See also Salisbury, Parad. Lond., t. 41; Gardeners’ Chronicle, 29th October, 1 “Hist. .Rec. iv, 177. 7 It.. v.89. * [b..v; 181. * Sydney Gazette, Sunday, 19th June, 1808. ° Hist. Rec. v, 204. 106 J. H. MAIDEN, 1881, p. 568; Britten and Boulger (1); Kew Bulletin, 1891, 301; Journal Kew Guild, v, 28 (1897). The genus Goodia, Salisb. was dedicated to his memory, and also a Banksia and a Grevillea by Brown. In Hortus Kewensis many plants are attributed to Good; they were collected under the supervision of Brown. The seeds were forwarded to Kew, where many new plants were raised from them, con- spicuous amongst them being numerous species of Pro- teacew, Myrtacese, and shrubby Leguminose. These ultimately made Kew famous for New Holland plants, Dr. Lindley calling special attention to these plants in his ‘* Report on Kew,”’’ drawn up in 1838. Gordon (—). Governor King, writing’ to Under-Secretary King, 10th March, 1801, says:— ‘“‘By the ‘Anne’ I received a letter from you respecting a young man sent out here as a botanist, named Gordon. It appears that he is employed by a Mr. Woodford, who has neglected to send me any directions respecting supplying this man with £8 per month, which he informs him in his letter and his agreement that he has done. The man is victualled from the store, and I have given him assistance.” I know nothing further concerning him. Harvey, W. H. See page 69. ’ Haviland, Eawin (1823 — 1908). Born at Gloucester, Hngland, 20th July, 1823, died at Petersham, Sydney, 22nd May. 1908. Buried at Woniora Cemetery, Sutherland, the following day. All his papers were published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales between the years 1882 and 1888. They consist of ‘‘Occas- ional notes on the inflorescence and habits of plants indigenous in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney,”’ * Hist. Records iv, 382, where Mr. Britton hasa footnote “‘ George Caley mentions this man in one of his letters to Sir Joseph Banks. ’ RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. 107 (nine papers). “The flowering seasons of Australian plants,’’ (eight papers). “Some remarks on the fertiliza- tion of the genus Goodeni.cez.’’ ‘‘On a microscopic fungus parasitic on the genus Cucurbitacee.’’ He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, and for some years a member of the Council of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. His work lay in the direction of the morphology and physiology of plants; taxonomy had no attractions for him. A busy commercial man up to the time of his retirement, afew years ago, he could not travel far, and hence he specialised on the plants of Sydney. For a brief notice of his work see p. 3, part i of my ‘‘ Illustra- tions of New South Wales plants”’ (1907). [For portrait see Plate 11.| Kidd, James (1801 —1867). Bornin Scotland, 1st August, 1801, and died in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, 15th February, 1867. Photograph (Plate 12) taken 1863. He was first appointed Overseer, Botanic Gardens, 20th July, 1833. In 1844 he was Superintendent till the appointment of Mr. J. C. Bidwill as Director on 1st September, 1847. He then reverted to his position as Overseer, which he held until his death. He travelled over the Blue Mountains and other districts for seeds and living plants for the garden. He made some of the first olive oil in New South Wales, and was awarded the Silver Medal of the New South Wales Horticultural Society in 1842. The Botanic Gardens owes much to his faithful work. King, Philip Parker (1793—1856). Born at Norfolk Island, 13th December. 1793; died at ‘“‘Grantham,’’ North Sydney, 25 February, 1856. Captain, R.N. Rear-Admiral 1855. F.L.S. 1824; F.R.S. 1824. ‘Narrative of the Survey of Australia,’ 1818-22 (with Allan Cunningham), 1827. ‘‘ Narrative of the voyages of H.M.S. ‘Adventure ’ and ‘Beagle,’ 1826-36.’ ‘“‘Icones Plantarum,”’ t. 1082. 108 J. H. MAIDEN. Plants at British Museum, Kew and Edinburgh. Pritzel 164; Royal Society’s Catalogue iii, 655; Proc. Linn. Soce., 1856-7, xxviii; Gentleman’s Magazine, 1856, i, 426; Dict. Nat. Biog. xxxi, 149. The above is from (1). He was buried at St. Mary’s, South Creek, N.S.W. With Mr. Bidwill and Mr. William Macarthur he did much work~in the hydridization of bulbous plants. I possess his annotated copy of De Candolle’s Prodromus; this shows in some measure how he studied Australian plants. He is com- memorated in the genus Kingia, R.Br., and also in the species Dodoncea Kingii, G. Don = D. viscosa, L. ? var. angustifolia; Acmena Kingii, G. Don=? Hugenia Smithii, Poir.; Dendrobium Kingianum, Bidw. Leichhardt, Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig (1813 — 1848). Born at Trebalsch, near Beeskow, Prussia, 23rd October, 1813; lost in Australia, 1848. Letters in Journ. Bot., 1845-8. Papers in Tasmanian Journ. Nat. Science, iii, (1847); Fl. Tasmanice, cxxi; Woolls; Dict. Nat. Biog. xxxii, 426. The above is from (1). I have no intention of giving at this place a lengthy account of Leichhardt. He was, apart from being an explorer, a botanist. He collected largely,and his works contain frequent botanical references. He planned a herbarium for Sydney; see his letter to Mr. Durando of Paris.t Lieut. B. Lynd, Military Barrack Master, late 63rd Regiment, and Secretary of the Com- mittee of the Botanic Garden and Museum (now the Aus- tralian Museum) at Sydney, he says has “‘been like father and brother to me.’” Mr. Lynd, who was Leichhardt’s friend and executor, presented Leichhardt’s herbarium to the Sydney Museum, and at Baron von Mueller’s request, it was forwarded to Melbourne for investigation, some years later. Very few of the plants were, however returned, and these - were handed by the Trustees of the Australian Museum to ' Lond. Journ. Bot., v, 658, (1846). * Op. cit., 659. RECORDS OF-AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. 109 my predecessor (Mr. Moore), a few years ago. I incorpor- ated them in the National Herbarium of New South Wales founded by me, and thus they form part of a herbarium for Sydney which Leichhardt had only seenina vision. [havea letter from James Kidd, Superintendent, Botanic Gardens, dated 6th April, 1846, in which he reports that Leichhardt had presented 200 kinds of seeds, collected by him in his recent expedition. Leichhardt gave botanical lectures in Sydney (Hooker’s Lond. Journ. Bot. iv, 280) and I have spoken to gentlemen who attended his lectures. Leichhardt published “‘ Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia, from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, a distance of over 3000 miles, during the years 1844-45,’’ (London, 1847). See also ‘Australasian Bibliography,’’ Public Library, Sydney, p. 228 (1888). A useful but brief account of his work will be found at (8). Some of Leichhardt’s reports are printed in Dr. Lang’s ‘* Cooksland.’’ See also Henry Stuart Russell’s ‘Genesis of Queensland,’’ page 373 etc., and Favenc’s ‘** History of Australian Exploration.’’ See also “An historical review of the Explorations of Australia,’’(Mueller in Trans. Phil. Soc. Vict., ii, p. 156). See also Journ. Bot. xxvii, 273. John F. Mann published a pamphlet entitled “Hight months with Leichbardt in the pears 1846-47,” (Sydney, 1888). The following Australian plants com- memorate him and usefully indicate his journeys; the genus Leichhardtia, R.Br., also the following species :— Commersonia Leichhardtit, Benth.; Euphoria Leichardtii, Benth.; Harpullia Leichardtii, Muell.; Unona Leichhardtii, Muell. = Melodorum Leichhardtii, Benth.; Acacia Leichhardtii, Benth; Bauhinia Leichhardtu, F.v.M. = B. Cunninghamii, Benth.; Chori- zema Leichhardtii, F.v.M.= Lsotropis filicaulis, Beuth.; Macrop- teranthes Leichhardtii, Muell.; Psoralea Leichhardtii, Muell. = Indigofera glandulosa, Willd.; Sarcocephalus Leichhardtii, F.v.M.; Anthocercis Leichhardtti, F.v.M; Datura Leichhardtii, F.v.M.; Lyonsia Leichhardtii, F.v.M. = Parsonsia Leichhardtii, F.v.M.; 110 J. H. MAIDEN. Marsdenia Leichhardtiana, F.v.M; Prostanthera , Leichhardtii, Benth.; Vitex Leichhardtii, F.v.M. = Gmelina Leichhardtii, F.v.M.; Amanoa Leichhardtit, Baill. = ?; Briedelia Leichhardtii, Baill = ?; Ficus Leichhardtii, Miq. =?; Urostigma Leichhardtit, Mig. = ?; Alsophila Leichhardtiana, F.v.M.; Livistona Leich- hardtii, F.v.M. = L. humilis, R.Br. Lewin, John William (? 1770-1819). His tombstone in La Perouse Cemetery (transferred from Devonshire Street) states that he died 27th August, 1819, aged 49 years. An artist who depicted many New South Wales plants. He landed in Sydney in 1798 (H.M.S. Buffalo), I have stated all I knew of him at that time in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, 746 (1902). He was coroner at the time of his death. The late Hon. P. G. King, M.L.c., gave me the following memorandum dated 27th October, 1901, referring to Lewin’s drawings of native plants then in his possession. The drawings were lent by Mr. King for study. At his death they became the property of his grand-daughter, Miss Goldfinch, who kindly presented seven of them to the Botanic Gardens, where they are framed. “Remarks on the history of this collection of drawings of Australian plants.—There appear to have been two sets of draw- ings by J. W. Lewin in 1805, 1808. There is a pencil note on the drawing of Macrozamia signed J. W. Lewin, 30th August, 1805. ‘This is for the Governor’s collection. Mrs. King’s is already done.’ Mr. Lewin very seldom signed the papers. In Mrs. King’s collection there is a drawing of the Mimosa signed by him, also of Kennedya No. 262. There are two figures of the Zamia and someone has pencilled on one of them ‘same as 178 and 179’ but the 179 is erased. Nearly all the drawings have been numbered, but I have no trace of the catalogue to which the numbers referred. . The names have been pencilled in by Allan Cunningham perhaps about the year 1840 (he died in 1839) when he was at Vineyard where Mr. Governor King resided with H. H. McArthur and his. family. Allan Cunningham’s initials, A.C, occur occasionally see RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. eal No. —. Probably he had the catalogue as he gives the authorities —R. Brown, Sprengel, De Candolle, etc. The two sets are mixed up—very few of the numbered shects exist.” Alexander Macleay was one of a small syndicate which subsidised Lewin to collect and send home specimens. (Jardine’s Naturalists’ Library, xiii, 46, 1842). In the ** Records of the Australian Museum,”’’ vol. v, p. 121 (1906) there is an excellent account of him as an ornithologist from the pen of Mr. A. J. North. Lhotsky, J. See p, 72. Lina (————— ). He collected (? with Fullagar, see Fragm., ix, 70, 74, 76) plants in Lord Howe [Island for Mueller before 1875. Some of his plants are enumerated in Fragm., ix. 78. Lynd, Lieut. B. (———-—). Secretary to the Botanic Garden Committee circa 1846 (succeeding Revd. G. H. Turner), and friend of Leichhardt. See page 108. Macarthur, William (1800—1882). Bornat Parramatta, 16th December, 1800, died at Camden Park, N.S.W., 29th October, 1882. Son of the celebrated Captain John Macarthur. He was a competent botanist, horticulturist and agriculturist, and his operations helped to make Camden Park celebrated. He entertained eminent scientific men who visited the Colony and bore the reputation of a cultured gentleman. No. (4) states that he sent plants to Backhouse which are now in Herb. Kew and Brit. Mus.; also quotes Pritzel 199 and Hooker (8). There isa portrait of him in the Australian Club, Sydney. See also VF. M. Bladen’s ‘“‘ Historical Notes on the Public Library of New South Wales,’’ 1906. Asa young man he studied viticulture and wine making in France, and he made the Camden Park vineyards renowned. His wines gained prizes in open competition at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. He published a work on the vine under the nom de plume of 112 J. H. MAIDEN. **Maro.’’ He was one of the Commissioners of the Colony to that Exhibition and was knighted and received the Legion of Honour for his services. He was an accomplished French scholar. His horticultural work is referred to in Sydney Hort. Mag., vii, 112. His work on hybridising Crinums is referred to by Bidwill, supra p. 88, and these two workers and Captain P. P. King, R.N., did valuable work in hybridising bulbous plants, and the result of Mr. Macarthur’s horticultural work may be seen at Camden Park even at the present day. He sent his gardener Mr. P. Reedy, to New Guinea with Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Macleay’s Expedition, the *“* Chevert’’ for new plants, and the preface of Mueller’s ‘Descriptive notes on Papua Plants.’’ Part i, shows that the material for it was placed at his disposal by Sir William Macarthur. I have a copy of this Part with the corrections in Sir William’s hand- writing. He made collections of N. 8. Wales timbers for the Paris Exhibitions of 1855 and London 1862, and sup- ported these specimens with herbarium material which is now at Kew. His catalogue is most valuable in that it contains most of the authentic aboriginal names which have been preserved of the trees etc. of the counties of Cumberland and Camden, N.S. Wales. He is commemor- ated in the genus Macarthuria, Endl., also in the species: Alsophila Macarthurii, Hook.=A. Leichhardtiana, F.v.M.; Hemitelia Macarthurii, F.v.M. = Cyathea Macarthurii, F.v.M. Iam indebted to Lieut. Col. J. Macarthur Onslow, his grandnephew, for some of the above particulars. McLean, John (———). Acting or Assistant Superin- tendent of the Sydney Botanic Gardens at intervals from 1st April 1829 to 1836, but I have very few particulars concerning him. For such as I have, see (4). Macleay, Alexander (1767-1848). Born in Ross-shire, the son of the Deputy-Lieutenant of Caithness, 24th June, RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. L13 1767. Fellow 1794, and Secretary, 1798 —1825, of the Linnean Society. Fellow of the Royal Society 1809. Colonial Secretary of New South Wales 1825-37, and first Speaker of the Legislative Council 1843-46, and First Presi- dent of the Australian Museum at Sydney, founded in 1836. His name was given by Robert Brown tothe genus Macleaya (Bocconia), belonging to the poppy family. Died at Sydney 18th June, 1848. There is a silhouette drawn on paper and a bust, profile to the right, in the Hooker Collection. There is also a line engraving by Charles Fox, after a painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A., belonging to the Linnean Society ; to the waist, seated, clean shaven face, three-quarters to the right (8). There is a copy of this in the rooms of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. A distinguished entomologist and ‘‘a practical botanist.’ (R. Brown, Proc. Linn. Soc. ii, 45). Seealso (1). The Sydney Botanic Garden was under his official care in the early days and owes much to him. An admirable account of him from the pen of Mr. J. J. Fletcher will be found in the Macleay Memorial volume (Sydney 1893), in honour of his nephew, Sir William Macleay. He is commemorated in Anopterus Macleayanus, F.v.M.; Catakidozamia Macleayi, Hill=?; Macrozamia Macleayi, Hort.=?; Leichhardtia Macleayana, Sheph. = Octoclinis Macleayana, t.v.M.; Frenela Macleayana, Parlat.= Callitris Macleayana, F.v.M. Macleay, William Sharp (1792—1865). Son of the pre- ceding. Born in London, 21st July, 1792; died in Sydney, 26th January, 1865; buried at Camperdown, Sydney. See Rev. R. L. King’s Pres. Address in Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S. Wales, i, p. 48. Also introduction to Macleay Mem. Vol., by J. J. Fletcher, both of which give a full account of him and of his contributions to science. See also (4). He was the author of ‘* Remarks on the identity of certain general laws which have lately been observed to regulate the natural distribution of insects and fungi.’”’ (Trans. Linn. H—July 1, 1908. 114 J. H. MAIDEN. Soc., 1825). Like his father his tastes lay chiefly in the domain of entomology, but he had a considerable knowledge of Australian plants and had the reputation of being a good botanist. There are memorial tablets to both Macleays in St. James’ Church, Sydney. McWilliam, Dr. (———). Some of his specimens (Port Jackson) in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are over fifty years old, but [ have been unable to trace full particulars concerning the collector. Kippist in Trans. Linn. Soc., xxi, 209, refers to a plant introduced to Kew in 1845 ‘ina case sent by Dr. McWilliam in 1845 from Norfolk Island.’ This may give a clue to the doctor. Dr. McWilliam is also credited in Harvey’s Nereis Australis, (1847) with sea- weeds from Norfolk Island. Moore, Charles (1820—1905). Born 10th May, 1820, at Dundee, Scotland. Onthe recommendation of Prof. Hens- low, he was appointed Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, by the Secretary of State, and arrived in Sydney 14th January, 1848. From that date until 5th May, 1896, a period of over 48 years, he occupied the post with advan- tage to the country and credit to himself. He died 30th April, 1905, and was buried 2nd May in Rookwood Cemetery. He was a member of this Society for forty-nine years, occupied the offices of President, Vice-President and Councillor, and contributed several papers to its Journal. I contributed notices of Mr. Moore to the ‘‘ Sydney Morn- ing Herald’’ and Daily Telegragh”’ of 2nd May, 1905; there is a notice in the “‘Gardeners’ Chronicle” of 13th May, 1905, by F. W. Burbidge, and one in the “‘Journal of the Kew Guild’’ for 1905 by his nephew, F. W. Moore, Director of the Botanic Garden, Glasnevin, Dublin. The following were published by him :—‘‘Lord Howe’s Island; sketch of of the vegetation, etc.’’ Sydney 1869, fol. ‘‘A census of the plants of New South Wales,’’ Sydney, 1884, 8vo. RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN BOTANISTS. 115 ‘** Handbook of the flora of New South Wales,” assisted by EK. Betche, Sydney, 1893, 8vo. ‘‘Catalogue of plants in the Government Botanic Gardens, Sydney,’’ Sydney, 1895, 8vo. ‘‘Woods of New South Wales, Sydney International Exhibition, 1870.’ He also wrote a Journal of a ‘‘Cruise in H.M.S. ‘‘ Havanah,’’ (Commodore Erskine) to the South Sea Islands, extending from 14th July to November, 1850.”’ Visited New Zealand, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. The journal, which is in MS. is in the possession of his family in Sydney. alcohol. Saponification number was 35°7, equal to 12°49 of ester as bornyl and geranyl-acetates. The oil obtained from the mixed material was taken for the full investigation. It had specific gravity at 18° CO. = 0°8729; rotation ay = + 27°9°; refractive index at 18° OC. = 1°4747. The freshly distilled oil was scarcely soluble in ten volumes of 80% alcohol, but was not rendered turbid by 158 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. excess; it was readily soluble in one volume 90% alcohol, but rapidly became less soluble on keeping. Saponification number was 47°03 equal to 16°46% of ester. In the cold with alcoholic potash, and with three hours contact, the sponification number was 24°5 equal to 8°57} of ester. This method of cold saponification has been found most satis- factory in the investigation of the oils of the several species of Callitris. On redistilling practically nothing came over below 156° C.; between 156 and 160° 30% distilled; between 160 and 175° O. 45%; between 175 and 200° C. 87; between 200 and 230° C. 12%. The specific gravity of the first fraction at 22°C, = 0°8562; of the second 0°8571; of the third 0°8689; of the fourth 0°9415. The rotation @p of the first fraction = + 30°4°; of the second + 27°2°; of the third + 21°0°; of the fourth + 32°4°. The fourth fraction contained 68°2% of ester. Both borneol and acetic acid were isolated and determined, so that the high activity is largely due to the presence of dextrorotatory bornyl-acetate, and to dextro- rotatory borneolalso. All the samples of oil of this species which have been investigated, contained this dextrorota- tory ester. The refractive index at 21° C. of the first fraction = 1°4733; of the second 1°4736; of the third 1°4744; of the fourth 1°4723. Terpenes.—The first and second fractions were mixed together and redistilled. Between 156 and 160° OC. 42% distilled, and 29°* between 160 and 161° C. The specific gravity of both fractions at 20° C. = 0°8549; the rotation (yp of first fraction = + 30°8°, or a specific rotation [a], + 36°02° and the refractive index at 20° C. = 1°4733. The nitrosochloride was easily prepared from this fraction, and when finally purified from chloroform by precipitating with methyl alcohol, it melted at 103 - 104° CO. The nitrosopinene was prepared from this, and when finally purified from ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 159 acetic-ether it formed good crystals which melted at 132° C. The low boiling terpene in the leaf oil of this species is, therefore, dextrorotatory pinene. The second fraction also consisted largely of this pinene. The third fraction (175 — 200° C.) consisted largely of dextrorotatory limonene together with dipentene. The presence of these terpenes in the leaf oil of this species was completely proved in the oil obtained from the material from Boppy Mountain. Sylvestrene was not detected nor were either cineol or phellandrene present. Alcohols.—The fourth fraction (200 —230° C.) was taken for the determination of the alcohols and the acids of the esters. 1°091 gram of oil reg. 0°2128 gram potash, S.N.= 195°05 equal to 68°26 ester. The remainder was saponified by boiling in aqueous potash, and the oily portion separated. This oil had a marked odour of borneol. Sufficient borneol was present to form a semi-solid portion floating in the oil, this was separated and purified from petroleum ether and absolute alcohol. It formed well defined crystals, with a marked odour of borneol and melted at 202-3° C. The appearance, odour and melting point, together with its association, show this alcohol to be borneol. Geraniol is also most probably present in combination with acetic acid. This is indicated by the fact that 83% of the esters was saponified in the cold in three hours. In the investigation of the oil of Hucalyptus Macarthuri by one of us* it was shown that geranyl-acetate was com- pletely saponified in the cold. We have used this method in the investigations of the oils of the Callitris, and have been able to follow the increase in the amount of geranyl- acetate in the oils of the several species, and the corres- ponding diminution of bornyl-acetate. The ester in one of the species of Callitris has been found to be almost entirely + This Journal, 1900, p. 146. 160 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. geranyl-acetate, and from it the pure geraniol has been isolated and determined. Although geraniol has not been separated in a pure condition from the oil of C. glauca, as it was not thought necessary, yet, we think that the results justify us in considering it to be present. The fact of cold saponification, together with the odour, and also that there isa marked gradation in the constituents of the Callitris oils, increasing in the several species until a maximum is reached in one of them. Over 60% of geranyl-acetate has been found in the oil of one species of Callitris. Geranyl-acetate as wellas bornyl- acetate may thus be considered to be present in the leaf oil of C. glauca, as well as in that of most species of Calli- tris. 19 hours contact with alcoholic potash in the cold saponified less than two-thirds of the total ester in the oil of C. glauca, while readily saponifying the total ester in the oil of the other species referred tointhree hours. The data at present available are not sufficient to enable the method of cold saponification to be considered of actual quantitative value, but of its indicative value there can be little doubt. Volatile Acids.—The aqueous solution separated from the saponified alcohols was evaporated down, and distilled with sulphuric acid until all the volatile acids had come over. This acid distillate was exactly neutralised with barium hydrate solution, evaporated to dryness, the barium salt prepared in the usual way, and dried at 110°C. On ignition with sulphuric acid 90°67? of barium sulphate was obtained. As the theoretical amount for barium acetate should be 91°35% it is evident that a small amount of a volatile acid of higher molecular weight was present. During the distillation and preparation of the acids, there was a marked odour of butyric acid, so that probably it is that acid which is present with the aceticacid. The barium ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 161 salts, therefore, contained 95°87; barium acetate, and 4°137 barium butyrate. The indications for butyric acid have also been obtained with the oils of several of the species closely allied to C. glauca. The oil of the general material from Narrandera, 25/4/07, was rectified by steam distillation in the ordinary way; the greater portion of the oil readily came over. When it distilled very slowly the receiver was charged, and the distillation continued for a considerable time. came over below 161° C.; 27% between 161—165° C.; 31% between 165 — 200° C.; 77 between 200 — 225°O. The specific gravity at 20° C., first fraction =0°8550; of the second 0°8565; of the third 0°8664; of the fourth 0°9416. The rotation ap of the first fraction = + 30°5’s of the second + 29°3°; of the third + 27°2°; of the fourth + 32°0°. The constituents of this oil were identical with those of the other samples. * *K kK No. 5.—This material was collected at Bylong, 240 miles west of Sydney, New South Wales, 2nd May, 1903. 511 ibs. of branchlets gave 463 ounces of oil =0°5697>. The rotation of the crude oil = + 31°25’; specific gravity at 12° OC. = 0°8657; refractive index at 19° C. = 1°4749; saponification number 37°94 equal to 13°274;- ester. Cold saponification, with three hours contact, gave 6°82% of ester, and with 19 hours contact 8°799° ester. On redistilling, 28> came over below 160° C.; 28% between 160 and 165° C.; 32> between 165 and 200° C.; 7 between 200 and 225° C. Thespecific gravity at 19° C., first fraction = 0°8529; of the second 0°8537; of the third 0°8649; of the fourth 0°9322. The rotation a» of the first fraction = + re ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 165 32°2°; of the second + 31°7; of the third + 30°6°; of the fourth + 32°5°. The constituents were identical with those in the other samples. No. 6.—This material was collected near Tamworth, 280 miles North of Sydney, New South Wales, 3rd March, 1908. 388 Ibs. of branchlets, containing some fruits, gave 35 ounces of oil, equal to 0°563%. Specific gravity, crude oil at 24° C. = 0°8665; rotation dp = + 25°2°; refractive index at 24° C. = 1°472; saponification number 40°2, equal to 14°07% ester. These results are practically identical with those obtained with the other samples, and it was thus thought unneces- sary to carry the investigation further. * * x No. 7.—This material was collected at Nyngan, 380 miles west of Sydney, New South Wales, 29th December, 1899. 358 tbs. branchlets gave 303 ounces of oil, equal to 0°532". The distillation was continued for eight hours, but very little oil came over during the extra two hours; it was sufficient, however, to increase the specific gravity some- what, although the ester content was but little improved. The specific gravity at 24° C. = 0°8782; rotation ap = + 22°7°; refractive index at 19° C. = 1°4774; saponification number 40°61 equal to 14°21 ester. Table I.—Crude Pine-needle Oils of Callitris glauca from New South Wales. No,| Locality and Date, | « Sperifle, | Rotation | Refractive | ster | “Tor 1 | Narrandera, 25/4/07 ...|0°8729@18/+ 27:9° | 1:4747@18| 16°46 | 0:562 2 | Boppy Mountain, 25/5/03) 0°8665 ,, 18 + 81:3° | 1°4779 ,, 19) 11°966)| 0°616 3 | Trangie, 28/11/02 ...|0 8631 ,, 24+ 80°8° | 1°4755,, 20/ 12°76 | 0°610 4 | Wellington, 17/3/03 .../ 0°8659,, 17|-+ 284° | 1:4774,, 19] 12-103] 0-635 5 | Bylong, 2/5/03 “ge ...| 0°8657 ,, 19/-+ 81°25°| 1°4749 ,, 19) 13°274) 0°569 6 | Tamworth, 3/3/08 ...| 0°8665 ,. 24/-+ 25°2° | 1472 ,, 24) 14°07 | 0°563 7 | Nyngan, 20/12/99 __ ...| 0°8782 ,, 24/4 22°72 11:4774,, 19] 14-21 | 0:532 166 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. Table II.—Some redistillation results of five of the samples of Pine- needle Oils of Callitris glauca. Numbers as in Table I. No. Ist. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 1 | 156- 160° | 160 - 175° | 175 - 200° | 200 - 230° | *8562 | -8571 | 8689 | -9415 30% A5% 8%, 12% [430-4 |+27-2 |+21-0|+32:4 | g | 156-161° | 161 - 165°) 165 - 200° | 200 - 228°] 8545 | "8555 | 8649 | 9434 | 30%, 220/, 37%, 6% |4+326/+32 |+307 |+83°5 3 | Below 160° | 160 - 165°] 165 - 180° | 180 - 225°] 8477 | 8494 | 8561 | 9256 | 27%, 37% 16% 12% |+82-4|/+31-6 |+30°5 |+-34-2 | 4 | Below 161° | 161 — 165° | 165 - 200° | 200 — 225°] 8550 | °8565 | 8664 | 9416 | 27% | 27% 31%, 7% |+80°5 |--29°3 |-+-27-2 |--39 x | Below 160° | 160 - 165°| 165 - 200° |j200 — 225° | ‘8529 |-8537 | 8649 | 9322 28% | 28% 32% 7% |4+82-2|+31-7|+30°6 |-+-32°5 Timber.—(a) Economics.—This is the most widely dis- tributed species of the genus, and its timber therefore is more extensively used than that of any other Callitris. It is preferable to that of C. calcarata, R. Br., owing to its comparative freedom from knots, its straighter grain and lighter colour, and so is in general request for certain parts of house construction in the West and Central Divisions of the State. It is an easy working timber, and although usually possessing a quiet neat figure, it occasionally has some very handsome markings, which make it a valuable timber for some kinds of cabinet work, such as panelling etc. When polished on the flat it is very attrac- tive, and the decorative characters are well brought out in turned stands or columns for busts, statuettes, etc. Some such adorn the landings of the Technological Museum and are a constant source of admiration to visitors. The white ant or Termites is not particularly partial to it, and will attack it only as adernier ressort, and this fact of course accounts for its utilisation for fence and founda- tion posts in which capacity it is reputed to be very durable. The supply unfortunately of this most useful timber is ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 167 gradually becoming less and less, and no steps are being taken for its propagation. Transverse tests of specimens of C. glauca of standard size (38 in. by 3 in. by 3 in.) made by Mr. James Nangle, at the Technical College, gave the following results:— le 196 III. B=8:02" B=2:968" B=8-005" aS {p =3:03"” D=3:025”" D=38-02" L=36” i367 Nij=36" Size of specimen Area of cross section, square inches 9°15 8:998 9°06 Breaking load in tbs. per square inch 4850 4.290 3050 Modulus of rupture in tbs. per sq. in. 9448 8529 6010 Modulus of elasticity in tbs. per sq. in. 1,016,470 1,183,160 875,675 Rate of load in tbs. per minute ... 485 451 210 Three smaller pieces 12 in. by 1 in. by 1 in. gave the following results:—1. broke at 900 tbs, deflection °37 in. ; 2. broke at 850 ths., deflection °28 in.; 3. broke at 690 ibs., deflection °20 in. (b) Histology.—Very little if anything appears to have been done to investigate the anatomical structure of the timber of Australian Callitris, or at any rate our researches through the Conifer literature at our disposal revealed little or nothing. The data now given should therefore prove of interest in the future study of this genus. Phylo- genetically the results are of some value, for a connecting link so to speak was found to exist between these living Callitris and the fossil pine woods of North America, in that the tracheids of the xylem contain a similar substance; a circumstance that will be touched upon in a later paper. A transverse section of the timber viewed under a low magnification as in Fig. 16, shows a more or less irregu- larity in the diameter and thickness of the tracheidal walls in the several medullary rows. This figure is interesting in that there is quite an absence in the picture of resin’ in + Although the term resin is used for the dark substance in tracheids of the xylem, a name generally applied to this body, yet in view of the chemical constituents present, and the absence of resin in the timber, it is very doubtful if it is correct to call it a resin. 168 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. any of the tracheids, this is an unusual occurrence, and it: simply shows that it is possible to obtain a section without resin cavities. The line of smaller or closely packed cells marks the autumnal growth and the point of transition from that season’s wood structure to that of spring. Under a higher magnification ( x 80), as in Figs. 17 and 18, a rather more uniform size of cell obtains, for although the tracheids are of varying diameters, yet the walls may be said to be of a fairly uniform thickness ; in Fig. 17 the black lines running from top to bottom are the parenchymatous cells of the medullary rays filled with resin—the ‘* end-on view ”’ of which is shown in Figs. 25 and 26. In 17 and 18 are more plainly seen the autumnal tracheids with their restricted growth, and which form a darker line across the lower portion of the plate; these vessels are slightly enlarged in Fig. 18. The gradual diminution in size of the tracheids during this period is well seen, as also is the sudden change to enlarged vessels of spring period. In Fig. 18 there is a portion of a single circle of smaller tracheids, four or five cells distinct from the well defined autumnal ones, and which evidently indicates a cold snap. The resin cavities are plainly shown, but no resinous medullary rays are visible. Fig. 19 is portion of Fig. 17 under a 210 magnification. The cells in the same row are of almost equal diameters, and on the lower radial walls of the fifth row from the top, bordered pitsin section can just be seen, and the torusis also discernible. It will be noticed in several instances, por- tions of the inner cell walls are detached and protrude into the cell cavity. Whether this is natural or accidental in the cutting we could not decide. It hardly appears to be a case of tylosis. Fig. 20 is an 80 magnification of a radial section of timber. The general character of the parenchyma cells of the ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 169 medullary rays are rather obliterated by the resin contents. However, the pictures define clearly that the outer cells of the rays are of identical structure to the inner ones and that the whole group may be classed as parenchymatous. This is a distinct difference of form or structure of the cells of medullary rays from some living non-Australian Pines. In the same figure it will be noticed that the narrow lumina of the autumnal wood are towards the right of the picture. The numerous bordered pits are in single rows on the medullary walls of the tracheids, and are well brought out in both plates. The simple pits of the medullary rays are distinctly seen at the top right hand corner and the bottom of Fig. 20. The diameters of the bordered pits varies according to that of the tracheids, and the presence of resin in the tracheids is marked by the darkened content. Fig. 20 has only one resin cavity which is low down in the right hand corner, and Fig. 21 has three on the right hand centre of the field of observation, being the vertical views of the resin cells of Figs. 17 and 18. Medullary Rays.—In addition to what has been stated under Fig. 20 it may be further remarked that these organs present novel features when compared with those of Angiosperms. In the radial and tangential sections they are found to consist entirely of narrow parenchymatous cells circular in form when viewed tangentially in the wood. Hach ray is composed of a varying number of cells arranged in horizontal parallel strata only a single cell in breadth. Most of the outer and inner cells are filled with resin similar to the vertical cells, the radial walls being marked by the presence of simple pits, and cells void of resin are the exception. In Figs. 22 and 23 they are shown radially in situ in the wood substance, the varying length evidently due to the plane of cutting, the vertical diameter being almost equal in each case. 170 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. In the tangential sections, Figs. 25 and 26, a good end-on view is obtained of the medullary rays. They are the dark black coloured fusiform bodies embedded in the radial vertical walls of the tracheids, a single cell in breadth and ranging in number from two to twelve. The black colour is due to the presence of the resin cell content. These two sections are of further interest in that they show distinctly a run of contiguous bordered pits in some of the radial walls—the greater magnification of Fig. 26 details fairly well the torus and closing membrane. Whilst resin cavities were found to be present in nearly all sections of timber cut as indicated by black patches or spots scat- tered throughout the xylem vessels, yet there was quite an absence of constancy in their positions, so that they were found to be of little value for systematic classification of the genus. The Occurrence of Guaiol in the Timber.—The timber ofthis species was received from Narrandera, New South Wales. The odour given by the wood is quite pleasant, aromatic and characteristic. The log was cut into planks and these run througha planing machine, and the shavings thus obtained distilled with steam in the ordinary way. Distilling the shavingsof this close,fairly hard wood,appeared to be the better method, as the sawdust balled considerably, and so the steam did not penetrate at all well. The weight of shavings taken was 79 Ids., and the amount of oily distillate was 9$ ounces, equal to 0°76. The substance separated on the surface of the water in semi-solid masses, and as such was readily skimmed off. It wasa camphor-like mass, and had a very marked odour of the ‘*Oypress Pine”? wood itself. It will be shown later that the odour of the wood is due to the liquid portion of the oil, because the solid crystalline substance, when obtained pure, was practically odourless. ON THE PINES UF AUSTRALIA. 763 The distillation was continued for eight hours, and even then the shavings had a strong odour of the wood. It is thus evident that more material could have been obtained by longer distillation. Another distillation of more lightly packed material was continued for nine hours, this gave 1°04%, and the product was even more solid than that from the first distillate. A third distillation, (8$ hours) gave 0°765%, while a fourth (8 hourg duration) gave 0°725/, or a mean of 0°82°> obtained during 8 or 9 hours. The crude semi-solid oily product was squeezed through cloth, by which means the greater portion of the solid was retained. The cake of stearoptene was then placed between drying paper and subjected to pressure in a screwpress. A solid hard cake was thus obtained; this was dissolved in cold 907% alcohol, filtered, and allowed to crystallise. The crystals thus obtained were hexagonal prisms, terminated by obtuse rhombohedrons, and some were of a consider- able size. They were of a glistening nature and brilliant in appearance. The material was repeatedly crystallised from alcohol. It was then dissolved in alcohol and water added to slight turbidity, crystallisation then rapidly took place, most of the material separating out in small crystals. This appeared to be a very good method whereby to purify the crystals, because they were thus obtained free from enclosures. They were finally re-crystallised from alcohol. The facility of crystallisation of this substance may be illustrated by melting it either on water or on mercury and allowing it to cool slowly; as it cools, a minute trace of the solid is added, when crystalline threads shoot out in all directions, making a very fine exhibit. The melting point of the pure crystals was 91° C. On analysis the following results were obtained :—0°2273 gram gave 0°2385 gram H,O, and 0°6756 gram CO,; or 11°66% H and 81°07 CO. A second analysis gave corresponding results. Theory for 172 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. C.;H..O requires H 11°71} and C 81°08". A sesquiterpene alcohol was thus indicated. The crystals were readily soluble in alcohol, even when somewhat dilute; also soluble in ether, in petroleum ether, in glacial acetic acid, in chloroform, in acetic ether and other organic solvents. The crystals were levorotatory, and 0°5 gram, when dissolved in 10 cc. alcohol, had a rota- tion in a1 dem. tube of —1°4’, the specific rotatory power from this is [a], —28°. When boiled with acetic anhydride in the usual way a liquid acetate was obtained. The crystals were heated with zinc chloride at 170 —180° C., water was added when cold, and the solution steam distilled. A blue oil was thus obtained; this was at first a little green, but it became bright blue on standing some time. The blue colour faded slowly if the air had full access, but if the oil was covered with water it remained blue and unchanged for several weeks. When mixed with phosphoric anhydride and gently heated, the colour changed to bright red and purple. An odour resembling somewhat that of the wood was eventually given off. We have obtained this crystallised alcohol from the wood of C. intratropica of Northern Australia, and also from the wood of the “‘Stringy Bark Pine,’’ C. Macleayana. The wood of this latter species has little resemblance to the hard compact wood of the Callitris generally, although the chemical products are the same; and it may thus be assumed that this crystalline substance, together with its corresponding sesquiterpene, is common to all the Callitris of Australia. In the timber of C. intratropica the alcohol was so pronounced that it crystallised on the surface of the planed wood itself when freshly cut. It is probably also to the presence of these and other chemical products in the wood of the Callitris that this timber is so objection- able to the ‘‘ White Ants,’ or Termites. ON THE PINES OF AUS'TRALIA. vf; With concentrated sulphuric acid the crystals dissolved easily to a yellow colour which soon became orange, and on standing, to a pink colour on the edges, When dehydra- tion was somewhat complete, a thick liquid separated. With strong nitric acid the crystals dissolved slowly to an oily mass, which after a short time became deep crimson, and purple to violet on the edges, the colour eventually fading away. The above results show the crystallised portion of the oil of Callitris wood to be the sesquiterpene alcohol Guaiol, and a sample of this substance, kindly sent to us by Messrs. Schimmel and Co., gave identical reactions in every respect. Guaiol was originally isolated from the oil of Guaiac wood, or Guaiacum wood, which was first prepared by Schimmel and Co. and brought into commerce as a perfumery oil. It was distilled from the wood of Bulnesia Sarmienti, Lor., a tree belonging tothe Zygophyllacee. Itis known as “‘ Palo balsamo’’ in Argentina, and is supplied under that name.?* It isremarkable that this substance should be contained in the wood of trees so far removed as the Callitris (Coniferee) of Australia, and the Zygophyllaces of South America. Determination of the Oil.—The liquid portion of the distillate was removed from the guaiol by squeezing through linen. It was a somewhat thick, viscous and heavy oil, but no signs of further crystallisation were detected in it even on standing for months. It was dark coloured and had the characteristic odour of the ‘‘Cypress Pine’’ wood strongly marked. For commercial purposes, where this peculiar and somewhat agreeable odour is desired, this oil would be a useful article. In localities where the wood of these trees is in common use, the aroma in the houses built of it is considered by many to be quite pleasant, as is also ? Schimmel and Co’s., Reports, April 1898, p. 28, and October, 1898, p. 29. Also Gildemeister and Hoffinann, “the Volatile Oils.” p. 453. 174 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. that given by the wood when it is burned for domestic purposes. The specific gravity of this liquid portion at 16° OC. was 0°9854. The rotation could not be determined as the light did not pass. It was soluble in an equal volume of 707 alcohol, but became turbid and milky with three or more volumes. It was easily soluble in 80% alcohol and became but slightly turbid with eight volumes. The ester content was high, as the saponification number was 106°6. The acid number was also very high 68°8, but this was largely influenced by the presence of the phenol and other allied substances, as well as by the free acid. On distillation, the greater portion came over withina compara- tively small range of temperature. Nothing distilled below 248° ©. (cor.) except a little acid water; 60% distilled between 248-255° C. As the oil distilling at the latter temperature became a little blue the receiver was changed, and 21° of a bright blue oil was obtained distilling between 255 —-265° O. The third fraction, 10%, distilling between 266 —296° C. was a deep indigo blue oil. The first fraction was again distilled when most of it came over between 250 —252° O., this was but little coloured, was insoluble in 90°: alcohol, had specific gravity 0°9266 at 15° O. and a refractive index at the same temperature 1°4926. Although evidently consisting largely of a sesquiterpene, yet this must necessarily have been far from pure. Further deter- minations will be made on the constituents of this very interesting oil from the timber of the Australian Callitris. It was found that aiter determining the acid value, that the separated oil formed a crystalline mass after standing some hours. The crystals were found to be guaiol, and these had evidently been held in solution by the substances acted upon directly by the potash, or in combination with them. The oilseparated from the saponification determin- , ations and also crystallised readily on standing. No other crystalline body was determined besides guaiol. ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 175 The Phenol.—To isolate the constituents indicated in the determinations above, a larger quantity of the oil was saponified with alcoholic potash by boiling; water was afterwards added in quantity, and the separated oil allowed to crystallise. The crystalline cake was then removed and the solution slowly evaporated down to a small bulk toremove the alcohol. It was then filtered and rendered acid by sulphuric acid, when a dark coloured oil, which was acid to litmus, separated in some quantity. This was well washed and treated with an aqueous solution of car- bonate of soda, when a portion, of an acid nature, went into solution, carbon dioxide being evolved. The solution was then thoroughly extracted by ether, and the ether evaporated. The oil thus obtained was but little coloured, was thick and somewhat viscous, and evidently from the mode of extraction and marked colour reactions was a phenol. When placed on ice it did not crystallise although it thickened considerably. It had most markedly the odour so characteristic of the timber. Undoubtedly this phenol is the principal constituent to which this odour of the wood of the Callitrisisdue. Inalcoholic solution ferric chloride gave practically no reaction. When the phenol was dis- solved in alcohol and bromine added, no colour was pro- duced, but when the alcohol had evaporated the phenol changed to a deep purple colour, this colour was again destroyed by addition of alcohol. When dissolved in acetic acid and bromine added, the colour changed to red at once, quickly becoming a rich purple. On standing some time it eventually became indigo blue in colour. On boiling, the colour was not changed. ‘This colour reaction is prob- ably due to the hydrobromic acid given off in the formation of the bromide, because both hydrobromic and hydrochloric acids gave the same reaction, although slower. The colour was destroyed on the addition of water, a turbid solution being formed by the precipitation of the bromide. When 176 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. the phenol was dissolved in strong aqueous alkalis, and this acidified with hydrochloric acid, a red colour was also pro- duced. When dissolved in acetic acid and few drops of sulphuric acid added, the solution changed immediately to red, soon becoming deeper in colour. Eventually the colour became a rich deep purple which was permanent for some days. Ifa drop of nitric acid was added with the sulphuric acid the changes through red to plum colour were more rapid, but eventually the same result was obtained. Toa portion of the original phenol on a watch glass one drop of sulphuric acid was added, a red colour was produced, eventually becoming purple on the edges as with the acetic acid solution. When a little of the phenol was dissolved in acetic acid on a watch glass, and the vapour of bromine passed over it, a purplish colour instantly formed, soon becoming a rich purple. These marked colour reactions point to the origin of the indigo blue oil obtained on redistilling the crude product. When the original thick crude oil was agitated with a 10° solution of aqueous soda, a semi-solid mass was at once produced. After a time some water was added, and the mixture agitated, the bulk of the oil still remained as a pasty mass, this was filtered off and washed. It was readily soluble in ether, and on evaporating the ether a thick oil remained which crystallised, and from which guaiol was obtained. ‘The alkaline filtrate was treated with a large quantity of water when it was partly decom- posed, an oil separating. Aiter standing some time in an open vessel with repeated agitation, the aqueous liquid was thoroughly extracted with ether. On evaporating the ether the phenol was obtained. This gave all the reactions, and had the characteristic odour of the phenol as obtained previously after saponification. It would thus be necessary to extract the phenol with a strong alkaline solution, as the combination is a weak one, andis apparently decomposed ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. Vi by carbonic acid. The phenol is readily soluble in acetic acid, in ether, alcohol, chloroform and similar organic solvents. From the results so far obtained this phenol appears to be new; if on further investigation this is found to be the case, then the name Callitrol is proposed for it. The somewhat dark coloured alkaline solution, after removal of the phenol, was acidified, when a dark coloured oil separated. This was of an acid nature, was less viscid than the phenol, did not distil with steam, and did not crystallise. It will eventually be further investigated. The volatile acids of the esters of the wood oil were only present in very small amount. On distilling these over, the odour of butyric acid was most marked. Acetic acid was also determined to be present. The barium salt was prepared in the usual way, and 0°1356 gram. of this gave 0°1116 gram. Ba SO,, = 82°3%. From this determination there was in the salt 46°17 barium acetate, and 53°83? barium butyrate. The free acids obtained, however, were not sufficient to meet the requirements of the alcohol of the ester, judged from the saponification number. Bark.—The most characteristic feature of the bark is the very large number and size of resin cells distributed throughout the entire bark, both cortex and bast. Macro- scopically they appear, in a freshly transverse cut of the mass, aS SO many concentric rings, being more pronounced in the darker outer bark or cortex, where after the oil of the cell has been volatilised or removed, resin or sandarac as it is called, remains as a white solid, filling the cells and giving the effect of tangential parallel bands or rather rows. In the bast or inner bark the cell content is in a liquid condition, and on a cut being made into fresh specimens there flows at once a liquid, which however indurates into beads or tears as soon as the volatile portion has evaporated or volatilised. L--Aug. 5, 1908. 178 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. Figs. 27 and 28—longitudinal sections, show these bodies to be cells rather than resin ducts or channels, and this is further proved by the small flow of liquid from a cut in the bark, which is quite a reverse order of things to that found occurring in the American Conifer bark and wood which yield the naval stores of that country, and give a continu- ous flow for a whole season when cut, thus proving that they are in that case canals that have been tapped. Micro- scopically these cells are found to be not quite so regularly arranged aS appears macroscopically, but nevertheless their numerical strength is even then well emphasised as shown in the transverse sections in Figs. 29 and 30. The anatomical structure is interesting in that the variety of vessels is limited. The cambium is succeeded by tangential rings of three distinct characters. The most noticeable tangential row is that composed of cells of bast fibre with their much thickened walls. These cells are generally only separated from each other by one or two layers of thin walled cells, mostly one—a circum- stance that must be unusual as it does nor appear to have been observed before in others Conifers—the general rule being three or four intervening rows. At irregular intervals are tangential bands of collapsed cells, at least that is what they appear as far as our researches go, but they require further investigation. Irregularly scattered throughout the mass are tannin cells determined by a ferric chloride test. Altogether there is a regularity of successive layers of the different cells similar to that which appears to characterise the Conifers of the northern hemi- sphere. The medullary rays are not very pronounced as in the xylem, and these also require deeper investigation. The Resins:—The oleo-resin of the Callitris is contained in the inner cells of the bark. When injured in some way this exudes, and when dry forms tears on the exterior of the ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 179 tree. It isthen known vernacularly as *‘ Pine Resin,’’ and in appearance closely resembles the original sandarac resin of commerce. So faras we are aware, it has not yet been possible to devise a method for successfully injuring Callitris trees, so that the resin might be collected in masses, and thus obtained in quantity, as is the case with turpentine for instance. For the present, therefore, Australian sandarac will have to be gathered by hand, a somewhat laborious process. Besides the numerous investigations into the composition of sandarac, recorded in the various scientific journals, Dr. Henry of London, published in 1901, an exhaustive research on the constituents of the sandarac resins generally, and isolated and determined their acid resins." This paper contains (p. 1145) the following:—‘‘There also appears on the market from time to time a similar resin, which, since it is exported from Australia, is commonly known as ‘‘White Pine Resin” or “‘Australian Sandarac’’. This substance is the natural exudation product of Callitris verrucosa and differs from the common sandarac chiefly in the larger size of the tears and its smaller solubility in alcohol.”’ This statement may be taken as representing the generally accepted idea in Hurope regarding Australian sandarac. It is not, however, quite correct as regards its origin, because Australian sandarac is not collected from C. ver- rucosa to any great extent, nor could it be obtained in commercial quantities from that species. The sandarac exported from Australia is collected from various species of Callitris, and for this reason it will be found to be vari- able in its characters, until care be taken to collect the resin from individual species. The constituents occurring in the oils of the several species of Callitris are very variable, although practically constant for each species, and + Journ. Chem. Soc., September, 1901, p. 1144. 180 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. the resins obtained from these trees also vary in agreement. Although in general appearance these “Pine Tree Resins” all appear to be similar, yet they vary in chemical behaviour. The two main species occurring in New South Wales are C. glauca and C. calecarata, and it is these species which produce the greater portion of the sandarac sent from this State. The resin of the latter species is perhaps better for varnish making than that of the former, and more closely approaches common sandarac in chemical constitution. The resins of C. calcarata andC. Macleayana are practically soluble in alcohol, and contain no resin which is precipi- tated on dilution with alcohol. In the resins of C. glauca and of C. verrucosa, there is a considerable amount of resin insoluble in a large quantity of alcohol, and con- sequently the resins of these species are less soluble than ordinary sandarac. ‘This difference in solubility in alcohot is evidently due to the varying amount of the two main resins—pimaric and callitrolic acids—and these again are governed by the constitution of the oil constituents of the plant. The difference in the amount of an acid resin, the potassium salt of which is insoluble in potash, also varies in the resins of the several species. We have obtained the resins of most of the species of Callitris, and with some of them from numerous localities, We hope that the completed results obtained with these will allow some order to be evolved, and a classification made of the resinous products of the Callitris of Australia. Summary of Results.— 1. The genus Callitris may now be regarded as endemic to Australia, the North African species, in recent years included under that name being classed as a distinct genus —Tetraclinis. Both are also distinct from the South African genus Widdringtonia. ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 181 2. The ‘‘White Pine’’ of New South Wales is Callitris glauca, R.Br., the old name C. robusta, R.Br. being retained for the West Australian species, with its large fruits, and other specific differences. The former has been found to retain a comparative constancy of botanical and chemical characters throughout its geographical range. The sec- tions of the leaves show features distinctive from those of other Pines. 3. The microscopic structure of the timber of C. glawea is very interesting, and appears to demonstrate a geological connection with its progenitors. 4, The essential oil from the leaves of this species of Calli- tris is practically always the same, no matter where grown. The oilfrom C. glauca is comparable with the best ‘Pine Needle Oils’”’ of commerce. d). The rotation of the terpenes of the oil from the leaves of most species of Callitris, is in the opposite direction to that obtained from the fruits, even if collected from the Same tree. 6. The oil obtained by steam distillation from the timber of this Callitris, contains the sesquiterpene alcohol guaiol. in some quantity, the sesquiterpene is also present. The characteristic odour of Callitris timber is due to a phenol. This has distinctive colour reactions and is evidently new. The name Callitrol is proposed for it. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fig. 1.—Transverse section, showing the earliest stage of con- crescence in the leaf, and where the three divisions are beginning to individualise. x 80. Figs. 2, 3.—These show the concrescent portions more distinctly, also the fuller development of the ventral surfaces, and the cuticle protuberances on them. The hypodermic cells are distinguishable in the lower part of Fig. 3. The leaf structure explained in the 182 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. text is well reproduced. The division of the median structure into three bundles by obtruding medullary pith cells, and the orienta- tion of the phloem (indicated by the darker cells) are well brought out, x80. Fig. 4.—This section is interesting in that one or two elongated cuticle processes are seen on the lower of the assimilating surface. No oil glands occur in this or previous sections, where also the endodermic and transfusion cells are not arranged in any order. The ventral surfaces on the two left concrescences have edged together and so shut out any communication between the air and the stomata. x 80. Fig. 5.—Oil cells together with the dark secretory cells of the walls in the lower and right hand concrescence are seen. The endodermic cells are here assuming some kind of order, and in Fig. 6 are clustered around the resin cells and at the base of the ventral surfaces. The bundle of each leaf is clearly seen below each oil gland. x 80. Fig. 7—The ventral surfaces are here shown well exposed to the atmosphere, and three well formed resin cells form distinct objects in each concrescence. The various vessels of the leaf structure are clearly brought out. x 80. Fig. 8.—An unusual form of concrescent leaf. x 80. Fig. 9.—This is to show the unusual occurrence of two resin cells in a concrescence. x 80. Fig. 10—Shows ventral surfaces of two concrescences exposed to the atmosphere, x 160. Fig. 11.—The method of protecting the ventral surfaces from the atmosphere by the closing over of the edges of the dorsal surfaces is seen at top of the picture. The origin of the cuticle elongations are clearly seen in this picture. x 160. Fig. 12.—The leaf structure is well defined, especially at the locality of the oil cell. x 160. Fig. 13. —A much finer illustration of the remarks under Fig. 11. The cuticle prolongations are well marked. x 160. ON THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA. 133 Fig. 14.—Longitudinal section through a node showing an oil cell 2m sitwin the concrescence and part of the free portion. x 55. Fig. 15.—Longitudinal section through node showing position of stomata on the ventral surface, x 75. Fig. 16.—Transverse section of timber showing two annual rings. x 50, Figs. 17 and 18.—Transverse section of timber showing arrested growth of autumnal tracheids and resin scattered throughout the Summer and spring tracheids. The dark lines are the resin (sic) in the vessels of the medullary rays. x 80. Fig. 19.—Transverse section of spring tracheids showing pitted cells (in section) on radial walls. x 210. Figs. 20 to 23.—Radial section of timber showing medullary rays with both inner and outer vessels filled with resin, and their single cells. Pitted cells are distinctly shown as well as resin in the tracheids. x 80. Fig. 24.—Pitted cells in situ on radial walls. x 160. Fig. 25 and 26.—Tangential section giving end-on view of medullary rays, which shows their fusiform outline and the resin content of inner and outer cells. Pitted cells of the radial walls are seen to be numerous, their varying shapes being close to the angle of section. An occasional pitted cell will be seen to occur on the tangential walls. (25) x 80, (26) x 160. Figs. 27 and 28.—Longitudinal sections of bark to show that the resin vessels are not canals. x 43. Fig. 29.—Portion of inner and outer transverse section of bark, the large oval spaces are the oleo resin cavities. x 80. Fig. 30.—Transverse section of a portion of outer bark. The dark patches are tannin sacs. x 80. We wish to express our thanks to Professor H. OC. Jefirey, Harvard University, for some of the sections of timber and bark, and to Mr. F. H. Taylor, of this Museum, for the remainder of the sections. 184 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. CONTRIBUTIONS to tHE FLORA or AUSTRALIA.* By ALFRED J. HWART, D.Sc. Ph.D, F.LS, Government Botanist of Victoria and Professor of Botany at the Melbourne University, and JEAN WHITE, mM. sc., Govern- ment Research Scholar, assisted by J. R. Tovey, First Herbarium Assistant, National Herbarium Melbourne. (Communicated by J. H. MAIDEN.) [With Plates XXX.-XXXVI_] | Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 5, 1908. ] Aristida ramosa, R.Br., (Graminez). New for Victoria; Benalla, July 1906, and March 1908. Baeckea Maideni, Ewart and White, (Myrtacez). After Mr. J. H. Maiden, Government Botanist of N.S.W. M. Koch, No. 1021. Cowcowing, W.A., 1904. Shrub 15 to 3 feet high. Leaves opposite, crowded towards the ends of the stems. Broad-linear, with a small petiole, the surface of the lamina, especially on the under side, well provided with glands. Somewhat thick, blunt at the tip, slightly incurved at the margin. Length 2mm., diameter °5 mm. Flowers solitary or in pairs. Sepals 5, petaloid with sinuous edges, perigynous, persist- ent, free. Length ‘9 mm., diameter 1 mm. Calyx tube green and rugose, more prominently ribbed than in B. crassifolia, which it appears to resemble in certain other respects. Bracts 2, conspicuous, persistent, pointed, length about 1 mm. Petals 5, white, sinuous edges, almost globular, free, very shortly stalked, perigynous. Length 1°5 mm., diameter 1°5 mm. Stamens 10, one opposite the centre of each petal, and also one opposite the centre of 1 Ninth Contribution, No. 8 in Vict. Nat., Vol. xx1v, p. 190, 1908. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 185 each sepal. Filaments slightly flattened. In the dried specimens all bend towards the centre of the flower. Length of filaments about *5 mm., epipetalous; those which arise from the centre of the petals are surrounded at their bases by about four pointed hair-like appendages, which are not present at the insertion of those filaments which spring from the centre of the sepals. The connective gland is prominent. The anthers are large and four celled, ‘4 mm. inlength. Pollen grains triangular. The inferior ovary is ‘prominently convex, andis very glandular. It is composed of three syncarpous carpels, in each of which are two collateral ovules with axile placentation. Style fairly long, and the lower end sunk in a depression in the ovary. Stigma capitate. The plant belongs to the section Huryomyrtus. The leaves and short pedicels distinguish it from B. diffusa, and the ovary from B. tetragona. Its nearest affinities are to B. crassifolia, but it differs in the pedicels, persistent bracts, stamens and convexity of ovary. [See Plate 30.| Bertya oleaefolia, Planch. (1845). Syn. B. Mitchelli, (1865). (Huphorbiacez). Both species are retained in the “‘Census’’ but in Mueller’s “Native Plants of Victoria,’ and “‘ Key,’’ B. oleaefolia is given as Victorian with the localities of B. Mitchelli. The two species do not appear to differ in any constant feature of specific rank and can hardly be recognized as varieties, the breadth of the leaves and the somewhat tapering or blunt topped ovary being variable characters. In the ‘Plants Indigenous to Victoria,’’ and in the Fragm. iv, p. 00, Mueller proposed to join together B. gummifera, B. rosmarinifolia, B. Mitchelli, and B. oleaefolia, under the first name, but such fusion does not at present appear justifiable. Victorian specimens have been variously labelled B. Mitchelli (Herb. F. Reader) and B. oleaefolia (Herb. C. Walter). 186 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. Danthonia airoides, Nees. (Gramines), Soak Creek, W.A. F. A. Rodway, Sept. 1907. Identified by Prof. Hackel. This species was only known previously from South Africa, and if really native to West Australia, it presents a unique case of distribution, although several South African genera are represented in Australia by allied species. Mr. Rodway points out that the district contains no aliens, and that the fact of the plant not occurring in more settled districts indicates an introduction in prehistoric times.. Prof. Hackel comes to the same conclusion. Diplachne loliiformis, F.v.M. (Graminez). Malcolm, W.A. KF. A. Rodway, No. 158, April 1907. Determined by Hackel; new for Western Australia. Eleaocarpus reticulata, Sm. var. Kirtoni, F.v.M. (Tiliaceze). Distinguished by longer leaves, more serrated edges, etc. This variety, at first considered to be a species, was recog- nised by Mueller in 1885. The‘ E. longifolia’ of C. Moore (Flora of N.S.W., 1893) appears to be practically identical with it, and in any case as the Kew Index already gives two valid species of EH. longifolius (Blume, Wall.) a third one is inadmissible. Maiden and Betche raise this variety to specific rank as E. Baeuerlenii, Maiden and Baker (Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 1908, 33, p. 305), but this appears to be one of those doubtful cases in which so much depends upon individual judgment, and in such cases the reasons for retaining the first name given, whether as variety or species are especially weighty. Eremophila Kochi, Ewart, n. sp. After the collector. (Myoporinee). A shrub one to two metres high, the younger branches white with a short scurfy tomentum, the older branches greyish and emitting a pleasant fragrance when broken. Leaves rather closely set, alternate, ovate or lanceolate, CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 187 mostly obtusely pointed, wrinkled and rather coriaceous, possibly somewhat fleshy when fresh, glabrous except on the very short petiole. Flowers 14 cm. long, single in the axils of the leaves. Calyx of five free segments, rather long pointed, corolla blue, spotted inside, slightly bilabiate, the anterior segment blunter than the others, all pointed. When young the corolla is white outside with a fine stellate tomentum, which cracks or spreads as the corolla expands, a few sparse long hairs are present on the throat and anthers, but aring of numerous hairs occurs near the base. Stamens four, didynamous with spreading anthers on the curved ends of the filaments, but not expanding beyond the corolla. Style long and curved, persisting after the fall of the corolla, and the shedding of the pollen (the flower is protandrous). Ripe fruit not seen, but ovary bilocular. Cowcowing, W.A. Max Koch (No. 1204) (1904). Specimens of the above plant have been compared, by Mr. Spencer le Moore, with the Hremophilas at Kew and at the British Museum, which include the lately described species of Diels and Pritzel. The plant appears to be best. placed prior to E. santalina in the Section Pholidia, although linear placing is largely artificial, and this plant as well as others show the difficulty of keeping the sections Pholidia and Eremophila apart as separate genera (Index Kewensis and Benth. Fl. Aust.). Baillon’s change of the name Hremophila, R.Br., adopted by Mueller for the whole series, to Pholidia, R. Br., on the ground of a paging priority, is a frivolous interference with established nomen- clature. Hremophila Woollsiana, F.v.M. var dentata, new variety, (Myoporacez). This differs from the type in the leaves being smaller and having somewhat irregularly dentate margins, sparsely covered with minute hairs, and in the fruit being as long 188 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. as or longer than the calyx. In other respects it agrees closely with the type, and an older and less divergent speci- men was queried by Mueller as H. Woollsiana var. Dr. Diels informs me that he found the same form as the above at Tammin in W.A., and also considered it to be a small form of E. Woollsiana. M. Koch, 1904, Cowcowing Lakes, W.A., No. 1259; Youndegin, York Hast W.A. 1893, Alice Katon. Gastrolobium Forrestii, Ewart, 1.sp.(beguminose). After the collector. A shrub with nearly glabrous quadrangular stems becom- ing rounded when older. The leaves in whorls of four usually, but at the base of each branch a single pair only, and sometimes the same also on the tapering extremities of the branches. Short linear pointed stipules, the petioles 2to3cm. long. Leaves with a prominent midrib on the under surface, obviously reticulate and darker on the upper, ovate-oblong, with a blunt or slightly bilobed apex, and usually a small terminal point, mostly 2 to 4 cms. long and ©) to 8 times as long as broad, broadest at the middle and glabrous or sparsely hairy beneath. Flowers in long rather loose slender racemes, often 2 to 3 inches long, the rhachis nearly glabrous, but the 2 mm. pedicels and the somewhat shorter calyx tubes covered with short hairs. The two posterior sepals united to form a bilobed tongue about as long as the tube, the three anterior sepals rather shorter and pointed. Pod ovoid, sharply pointed, 7 mm. by 4, flattened except for the bulging seeds, brownish-black, sparsely hairy, prominently veined, on a slender stalk 2 mm. long, each with one or two smooth black somewhat kidney Shaped seeds. Blackwood River, W.A., Sir John Forrest ; W. Aust. 1889; Gordon River in forest land, 1877. This is one of the poison bushes, intermediate between G. velutinum and G. bilobum, distinguished from the latter CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 189 by the posterior calyx teeth and the inflorescence, and from the former by the leaves, pod, stipes etc. The specimens could not be matched either at the National Herbarium or at Kew; although no fiowers were available it seemed advisable to describe the species, as no fresh material has been procurable since 1889. Helipterum album, Ewart, n.sp. (Composite). Woorooloo, W.A. M. Koch, No. 1553 (1906). An erect annual 10—40 cms. high, branching from the base upwards and ending in very numerous corymbose clusters of small elongated brownish-yellow heads, tipped with white. Stems slender, usually red or brown-violet, and covered together with the leaves, with a fine soft wool of long curling but somewhat sparse hairs. Leaves linear pointed mostly 2 to 3 cms. long, flat, but curling more or less regularly on drying. Heads about $ cm. long by 1 to 14 cm. broad, usually in clusters of 3 to 6 or more. The bracts nearly yellowish-brown, glabrous or a few sparse woolly hairs at the edges, long and narrow, the outer scales with obtuse ends, the inner with small white nearly erect laminas. Florets about 10, all tubular and hermaphrodite, ovary silky, hairy when adult, pappus of more than 10 fine plumose bristles. The size of the plant is sufficient to dis- tinguish it from H. pygmaeum, and it differs from any of the recently described Helipterums of Spencer le Moore and of Hemsley. From H. corymbifiorum var. microglossa it is distinguished by the smaller, narrower, more crowded and numerous heads, the erect white laminas ete. The same features distinguish it from H. polyphyllum, and in addition the achenes are less hairy and the outer bracts are nearly or completely glabrous. It is perhaps more Closely allied to H. corymbosuin, Benth., but the bracts are pale and yellowish instead of reddish-brown, the florets are fewer, the pappus hairs are more numerous and finely 190 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. plumose, the white tips to the inner laminze are prominent and the heads narrower and cylindrical. Helipterum Guilfoylei, Ewart (Composite). Additional localities—Near Mount Moore, W.A., Edwin Merral, 1889; near Fraser’s Range, W.A., J. Batt, 1896. These were amongst some specimens recovered from the late Baron Mueller’s executors, after eleven years (Novem- ber 1907). The former specimen was provisionally labelled Helipterum exiguum by Mueller, but both specimens differ from that-species in the number of florets, in the achenes, pappus, and in the fact that some of the bracts have laminz and are differently coloured. Helipterum heteranthum, Turcz., var. minor, new variety (Composite). Cowcowing, W.A., Max Koch, No. 1108 (1904). Plant usually 4—6 inches high with smaller heads, and the laminee and edges of the bracts purplish-red at least when fresh. Isotropis atropurpurea, F.v.M. var. alba, Ewart, N. var. (Leguminose). Near Lake Austin, W.A., King and Lefroy 1890. It is less prominently rusty tomentose than the type specimens, the leaves are narrower and rather longer, the sepals are also slightly longer, and the standard though striate is pale or white. The specimens could not be matched at the National Herbarium nor at Kew, but the differences are not sufficient to justify the establishment of a new species. Probably the species would show considerable variation in the colour of the flower if cultivated. Kochia Atkinsiana, W.V.F. (Salsolaceze). Journ. W.A. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1904, p. 31. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 191 A low intricately branched perennial undershrub about 1toi$feet high. The younger parts covered with whitish hairs becoming sparsely scattered or absent when older. Leaves thick fleshy, obtuse, narrowed at the base, rarely exceeding a centimetre in length, drying tuberculate with rather large scattered hairs. Flowers closely sessile in the axils of the upper leaves. Fruiting perianth enlarging to a continuous brown glabrous horizontal wing 15-18 millimetres diameter. Of the 5 central slightly raised lobes of the perianth tube, the two lateral ones bear each a pair of erect more or less toothed appendages, blunt or somewhat tapering. Of the remaining 3 lobes one of the anterior pair bears a single similar appendage, the posterior lobe and the other anterior one have none, so that the five appendages are really asymmetric. This plant was first described and the name issued in MS. A specimen submitted to Mr. Fitzgerald was however marked by him as K. Atkinsiana. ‘“* Differs from type in somewhat larger leaves, and in the appendages being free and not 4 connate in pairs and free.’’ This cryptic state- ment is somewhat incomprehensible, but the plant tallies closely with Fitzgerald’s original description and is evi- dently the same; the red colour of the perianth probably fading in dried specimens. To avoid possible error a full and complete description is given. In the erect appendages the plant shows a relationship to K. lanosa, from which in all other points it differs widely. In the horizontal wing it resembles K. villosa, Lindl., of which species it at first seemed to be a variety. Though nearly circular the margin is always a little irregular and sometimes distinctly lobed, so that the plant forms an interesting connecting link between the first section of Kochia with vertical sinus appendages and with free hori- zontal wing lobes, and between the villosa section without 192 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. vertical wings but with a complete circular horizontal one. Watheroo, near salt lake W. A., 1905, Max Koch, No. 1371; Nannine and Gwalia, 1903, W. V. Fitzgerald. Podocoma nana, Ewart and White, 1. sp. (Composite). A small somewhat shrubby herb, the average height of the specimens measured being 5 centimetres. The stems are stiff and narrow and rather sparsely covered with short stiff hairs. The majority of the branches rise from the base of the plant. The leaves are glandular alternate and pinna- tipartite, length without the petiole about 1 cm., the basal ones provided with a fairly long petiole, those springing from higher up on the stem are almost sessile. The peduncle usually bears a small single faleate bract some distance below the head. The receptacle is only slightly convex; the involucre is almost hemispherical, the bracts being situated in 3 to 4rows. Those of the outer row measure about “4 cm., and are densely covered with rough brown glands like those of the peduncle. The inner bracts measure about ‘7 cm., and are membranous, glabrous, and lanceolar. The inner bracts project out about as far as the bristles of the pappus, and are slightly coloured at the tips. There were no young flowers in the specimens examined. The achenes are slightly bean-shaped and glabrous, being about 1°5 mm. in length, and ‘5mm. in breadth. The base of the achene is blunt. The beak of the achene is hair-like, 2°5 mm. long, and slightly swollen where the bristles of the pappus arise. There are usually 15 bristles in each pappus, each bristle being 3 mm. long and white, with pointed teeth. Mount Lyndhurst, $.A., Max Koch, 1899, Nos. 347 and 348; Torrens Plain, R. Tate, 1893. The latter specimen is marked by Tate as either a variety of P. cuneifolia, or a new species. Pterostylis reflexa, R. Br., (Orchidacee). CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 193 In Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xx, 1907, p. 84, it was shown that P. praecox, Lindl., must be reduced to a variety of the above species, and that many of the connecting forms could be grouped into a special variety (var. intermedia). Another connecting link is afforded by the P. constricta of O. H. Sargent (Journ.W. A. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. IV) with its numerous related forms. We have no proof of the hybrid origin of the very numerous intermediate forms, and hence it is at present only possible to make Pterostylis reflexa, K.Br., include as well as the type form and the variety intermedia, var. praecox (P. praecox, Lindl.) var. constricta, Sargent (P. constricta, Sargent) and all the forms joining these varieties together. Additional unre- corded locality for P. refiexa, var. constricta, Cowcowing, W.A. M. Koch, No. 1073 (1904). Ptilotus (Trichinium) Kennedice, F.v.M., inedit. (Amar- antacez) = Ptilotus calostachyus,var. Kennedice, F.v.M. The sole specimen isa scrap only. On reference to Kew, Mr. Farmar considered it to be an undescribed species. It has apparently no intrastaminal scales, but this character appears to vary somewhat in P. calostachyus and the trifling difference in the bracts is hardly sufficient to establish a new species, at least until fuller material is available. Tandarlo via Wilcannia, Darling River, N.S.W. 1886, Mrs. W. B. Kennedy. Rhagodia crassifolia, R. Br. and R. spinescens, R. Br. (Salsolaceze). In their extreme forms these are distinguished by the former having no spines, and rather long narrow leaves, while the latter has shorter and broader more or less deltoid or orbicular leaves and is commonly spiny. The fleshiness of the leaves is not a reliable character, many specimens of R. spinescens having leaves quite as thick and fleshy as any of R. crassifolia. In addition many specimens with M—Aug. 5, 1908. 194 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. the elongated leaves of R. crassifolia are spiny, and with some of the spiny specimens it is a matter of choice as to whether they are placed in one species or the other. There can be no doubt that in this case two species have been recognised as distinct before the intermediate forms between them have become extinct, and that R. spinescens must be classed as a variety of R. crassifolia. Salicornia Donaldsoni, Ewart and White, .sp. (Salsolacez). After F. M. Donaldson. Shrub much branched with greyish coloured woody stems, dotted at intervals with dark structures which may be glandular. The segments of the stem are conspicuous and concave above, with a prominent border and opposite free projections arranged in a decussate manner; the length of each free projection is about1mm. The fertile segments are shorter than the others, the length of the former being about 3 mm. and of the latter about 8 mm. In most of the flowering spikes examined there were two whorls of flowers open at the same time, but occasionally there were three or even four. The flowers of the succes- sive whorls are alternately superimposed. On the concave, upper surface on each side of each fertile spike, there are two flowers almost wholly immersed in the concavity of the segment, though asa rule the upper parts of the anthers and styles are exserted. Hach flower is surrounded by a membranous perianth which is attached below to the inside wall of the expanded part of the segment, and is divided above into generally about six short pointed processes. Flowers hermaphrodite. Inside the perianth of each flower are three stamens, the filaments of which measure from ‘5 to 1 mm. in length and are free from each other. The anthers are conspicuous and two lobed, dehiscing loculicid- ally, and measure 1°5 to 2 mm, in length. The three ‘brownish, flattened styles are 3 mm., and have both surfaces » Ue CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 195 papillose and stigmatic. The ovary is single and contains a single anatropous ovule. Cowcowing, W.A, 1904, M. Koch, No. 1147. Salicornia Lylei, Hwart and White, 1. sp. (Salsolacez). After Professor Lyle. An undershrub from 14 to 25 feet high, very much branched, the branches being woody and greyish in colour. The smaller branches are conspicuously longitudinally ribbed. The segments are dilated and concave at the top, with opposite projections arranged in a decussate manner. The average length of each segment is about 3 mm. and of each free projection about "8mm. ‘The length of the fertile segments is about 2mm. On each flowering spike there are from 8 to 12 fertile segments, each bearing a whorl of 6 flowers, with projecting styles and anthers. Hach flower consists of a single stamen and carpel, the filament and ovary being surrounded by the somewhat fleshy perianth, which has a prominent marginal ridge, and a narrow open- ing at the top continued along the ventral side of the flower, through which, at the top, the stamen and style project. The anther is relatively large, two-lobed and nearly spherical, about ‘5 mm. in diameter, and dehisces loculi- cidally; the filaments are 1 mm. in length. The style has papillose, brown, stigmatic surfaces; as arule there are two branches, but occasionally three. The ovary is rela- tively large and hollow, and contains a single anatropous ovule, whose funicle is attached to the axis of the spike. Six fruits are developed in each whorl and they are sur- rounded by the persistent, fleshy perianth; the styles also are persistent. The ovary is swollen and contains one seed attached to a long stalk. The fruits of successive whorls are alternately arranged. Cowcowing, near Salt Lakes, W.A., 1904; M. Koch, No. 1051. 196 _ A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. Senecio Gilberti, Turcz. (Composite). Darling Ranges, W.A. M. Koch, 1907, No. 1692. Very rare; the herbarium contained only one imperfect specimen (Drummond, 325, Swan River). The heads, as pointed out by Bentham, resemble those of Hrechtites arguta, DC., but have no ligulate female ray florets, all being tubular. Tetratheca hirsuta, Lindl., (Tremandres). Darling Range, W.A. M. Koch, 1906, Nos. 1410, 1410a. The specimens shew all degrees of transition from alter- nate to verticillate leaves, and in other respects also bear out Mueller’s reduction of T. viminea, Lindl. (and also of T. pubescens, Turez.) to varieties of T. hirsuta. A white flowered form (Woorooloo, W.A., M. Koch, 1907, No. 1711) belongs to the same species, although it differs from Old- field’s white flowered variety in the leaves and in being less hairy (variety alba). Tillaea exserta, F. M. Reader, (Crassulaceze). This species though close to T. Sieberiana, Schultz, can be distinguished by the larger carpels when in fruit. The accompanying figure was prepared by Eckert under Mr. Reader’s direction at Baron von Mueller’s request, in order that he (Mueller) could describe the plant, which Mr. Reader did after the Baron’s death, but the figure not being available was unpublished. Additional localieties are, Near waterholes, Polkemmet, Victoria, 1898, F. Reader ; Oakgrove, Little Desert, 1897. Tillaea acuminata, F. M. Reader, Vict. Nat., 1878, Vol. xv, p. 96 = T. Sieberiana, Schultz, (T. verticillaris, DC.) var. acuminata. On Mr. Reader’s original specimen the label is also changed so as to reduce the species to a variety of T. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. 197 verticillaris, which is a synonym of T. Sieberiana, but apparently the correction is hitherto unpublished. Zygophyllum ovatum, Ewart and White, n. sp. (Zygo- phyllez). Herbaceous with branching stems, and height of about 11 cms. Petiole flattened, and two apical leaflets which are cuneate,with usually an indented mucronatetip. Length of leaflets about 10 mm. and of the petiole about 5 mm. Flowers four-merous, hypogynous, very small and incon- spicuous. Calyx green, sepals glabrous inside, lanceolar, pointed, and 2 mm. long, roughened on the outer surface, free. Petals four, white, stalked, about half the length of the sepals, free, entire. Stamens eight, free, inferior, about as long as the petals, with broad winged bases. Anthers two celled, versatile. Carpels four, angular, with a very short appendage at the tip of each. Fruit, a capsule with four chambers, dehiscing loculicidally with two seeds in each chamber. The fruit is four angled and rounded at the top, being somewhat wider at the top than at the base. Ovate or obovate in shape with a blistered surface and divergent veins. Calyx persistent, reflexed. Watheroo rabbit fence, W.A.; M. Koch, 1905, No. 1674. From Z. todocarpum it differs in the small, four-merous flowers, and in the presence of two seeds in each cell. It is nearest Z. ammophilum, but the fruits have rounded instead of truncate tops, and the stamens are winged at the base as in Z. todocarpum. INTRODUCED PLANTS. Datura metel, L., (Solanaceze). Loddon River, Victoria, A. Simon, 1896. Probably only a garden escape. Galenia secunda, Sond., (Ficoidez). This South African weed introduced with ballast is now well established on the shores of Port Phillip Bay from 198 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. Geelong to Williamstown (T. Heathcote 1907), A specimen gent to Mr. Maiden and identified as G. secunda was recorded by Mr. Walter in Vic. Nat. vol xix, p. 159 in 1903. Mr. Reader received specimens from Messrs. Pescott and Williamson from Corio Bay and identified them as Galenia pallens, Walp., and made the note that the plant was the same species as that previously collected at Geelong, and that it required to be seen whether the two species were synonymous or not. A specimen examined by me shewed four-partite calyces and hence was referred to Galenia pallens (Vict. Nat., xix, 1902, pp. 191, 194). Further material shewed that the calyces were mostly five partite, and on reference to Kew the specimens were determined as G. secunda. Gulenia pallens also has occasionally a five- partite calyx, and there are no constant essential features in the flower to distinguish either it or G. spathulata from G. secunda. The lessening hairiness is of no value, since it is also shewn by some forms, (‘‘Aizoon contaminatum, K. and Z.’’) already included under G. secunda. Probably therefore, G. pallens and G. spathulata should be reduced to varieties of G. secunda. In any case our plant occurs in two forms which have a very dissimilar external habit, one being strongly hairy, the other, possibly as the result of the presence of salt, being very much less hairy, so that the leaves shew as pale green and appear glabrous until examined with a lens. Hibiscus Trionum, L. (Malvacez). Victoria, Borung, F. M. Reader (1904), Kerang District (1908). This species was recorded as new to Victoria by F. M. Reader in Vict. Nat., xxi, (1905) but no locality was given. It appears to be naturalized. Lycium Afrum, L., ‘* Caffir-Thorn,’’ (Solanaceze). County of Follett, Victoria, F. M. Reader (1908). Probably only an escape from cultivation. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA UF AUSTRALIA. 199 Melilotus alba, Desr. (Leguminose). ‘‘ Bokhara Olover.”’ Naturalized by cultivation in Victoria and now widely spread. Moraeu xerospitha, Mac Owan, (Irideze Fl. Capensis 1897). Near Adelaide, S.A., Tate (1881); North Adelaide, S.A. O. Tepper (1886); Newarpurr, Victoria, Miss Thurmann (1905); near Melbourne, Victoria, W. R.A. Baker(1905). The identification has been confirmed at the Cape of Good Hope. This plant was introduced into Australia from South Africa, long before it had been described as a species in South Africa. It appears to be naturalized. Oxalis tetraphylla, Cav. (Geraniacee). Gippsland, Victoria, O. French, Jnr. and O. J. Goodman (1908). It appears to be naturalized. Viola tricolor, L. (Violaceze). Watts River, Victoria, ©. Walter (1898). Probably introduced with agricultural seed, or a garden escape. ERRONEOUS RECORDS OF NATURALIZED ALIENS. Avena sativa, L. (Graminez). Recorded in the Journal of Pharmacy (1887) by F. M. Reader as naturalized. We have no evidence of the common cultivated oat A. sativa, L., establishing itself as a naturalized alien. Bidens cernua, L. (Composite) recorded in the Vict. Nat. vol. xviii, p. 103 (1901) by the late C. Walter, was wrongly determined. It shouldbe Bidens tripartita, L. (native). The same correction was made by Mr. Walter on the original Specimen now in the National Herbarium. Chenopodium triangulare, R. Br. (Chenopodiaces). Recorded as new to Victoria by Mr. C. Walter in Vict. Nat., ix, p. 5 (1902), but wrongly identified. It should be Rhagodia nutans, R.Br. (native). Walter’s specimens 200 A. J. EWART, JEAN WHITE AND J. R. TOVEY. evidently have the red and succulent pericarp of R. nutans, which is already recorded as native to Victoria. Apart from the pericarp the two plants are very difficult to distinguish. C. triangulare, has only been recorded from New South Wales and Queensland. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Pirate XXX.—1. Back of foliage leaf showing glands. 2. Flower. 3. Vertical section through the flower. 4. Single petal and sepal removed, showing insertion of stamens. 5. Single stamen showing the hair-like processes present at the insertion on the petal. 6. Gynecium. 7. Transverse section of the ovary, showing the ovules. PLaTE XXXI.—(a) Leafy flowering branch 14 cms. in length. (b) Flower enlarged and corolla opened within calyx. (c) Transverse section of young ovary. Kochia Atkinsiana, fruit from under (e) and upper (d and /) surface; (/) with the appendages spread apart showing ovary and bilobed stigma. Pirate XXXII.—1. Plant about natural size. 2. Ripe fruit and pappus. 3. Leaf. 4. Receptacle enlarged. PrateE XXXIII.—1. Flowering spike. 2. Portion of a branch. 3. Flower cut open and seen from the back. 4. Flower cut open and seen from the side with nearly ripe seed. 5. Style and stigma. 6. Ovule. Figures 1 and 2 slightly, 3 and 4 eight times, and 5 and 6 highly magnified. PratE XXXIV.—1. Flowering spike (x +). 2. Side view of flower (x15). 3. Gyneciam (x30). 4. Transverse section through a fruiting spike ( x 14). Prare XXX V.—1. Plant natural size. 2. Enlarged. 3. Flower from side. 4. Flower from above. 5. Stamens. 6. Pollen grains. 7. Ripe carpel. 8. Seed. 9. Seed in section. Prate XXX VI.—1. Leaf, natural size. 2. Flower, mag. about 5 times. 3. Stamen, mag. about 25 times. 4. Fruit, mag. about 3 times. DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY FROM GLOWING CARBON. 201 THE DISCHARGE or ELECTRICITY From GLOWING CARBON. By J. A. PoLuock, Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, and A. B. B. RANCLAUD, B. se. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, September 2, 1908. ] 1. Introduction.—The experiments, of which a description is here given, were undertaken in connection with an investigation of the phenomena associated with the relight- ing of the carbon arc. For the object in view an arrange- ment was required in which carbon rods should be situated somewhat as they are in an arc lamp, and in which the temperature of one of the rods could be readily controlled. The plan adopted was as follows:—a cylinder of carbon, 4°5 centimetres long and 0°5 centimetres in diameter, was electrically heated, and a circuit arranged to include an air gap, of a few millimetres, between the middle point of the heated cylinder and the end of a comparatively cool carbon rod. The currents in the circuit have been measured for different temperatures of the carbon cylinder, and for various voltages across the air gap up to the point at which an arc forms, with a view to finding the conditions under which the change from the non-luminous to the luminous discharge occurs in the case of hot carbon in air at natural pressure. The conditions for the similar change in con- nection with a hot lime cathode in air at low pressure have been investigated by Professor J. J. Thomson.’ 2. Experimental detail._The apparatus is shown in plan and elevation in figure 1. OC, the hot carbon cylinder, is ] as it —_ bd PALE Neat 4] : age oan | ‘a ; il : & i ; i cat Fl ea = BI 3 a Ley ttt S oe SaeGr I ES ral Teese IESE | E o EEE ert ee [eseeeees! @ aks; 0 R Ls H ~- &H { = ae eat Hag 7 talat . Sete stb et ece EH Telaaislaials 1 { ‘" Ltt Sn EB ie ail eal {Poa mi [ = i asicleiaiay E Fit | — +++ cate sian nee TT IC aoa 7 z as | EECEEEEE EH ECE Beles alee IHS GSS Ree See soeon sila ape Cee sini iia ae Stee mm A oaaee a SIE gy Rbbavoeaty: puasateevaze f _fal® —fn4k tL . = tht Lt Be val | ies) gale /SIBtElclale A E Re ra is] aon ae en ttre [= E 8 Tet Egan “eee ey Ky C2 heoeoe SGA CES Ie Et faanet Bicigielé 1 \t BL aL} Eis : 3 : Phe toe eet = = o _ = = — - at ey : PEEEEEEEEEE FEAR HELE 5 SIRI eiaiaiatates BEE lela | : i [SI ja 2a) f 7 = f 4 fel “4h t itt eal x a Sct si SCC eS © ‘moTyR[Ndod oy JO QOOT A0d SYQATG Jo Aoqunn ‘a2 ‘SoqVaT AT RATES OF INFANTILE MORTALITY. Bigs I. (Deaths of infants under 12 morths of age, per 1000 births.) ~) aa 944 G. H. KNIBBS. TABLE I. Influence of the Rate of Infantile Mortality on the Crude Birthrate. Country _ Period | Vaslue’ot @enae , Birth. Mortality. inB=8,+6p New Zealand ...| 1881-1905 | 1882-1906 | 13:2 | +0:191 Commonwealth... 1887-1905 | 1888-1906 | 16:8 | +0:118 |} Sweden... ...| 1881 — 1904 | 1882-1905 | 17-1 | +0-100] Norway ...| 1881 - 1905 | 1882 — 1906 | 20°5))) 22ioo Prussia .. | F) | ” 19s +0:085 Various countries 1901 | 1902 19-4 | +0:083 for one year | Netherlands .... 1881—1905 | 1882—1906 | 226 | +0-063 France ... oe eer 12-7 -| +0-061 Denmark fee 22:4 | +0:060 Japan a 1881 — 1904 1882 —1905 | 22:3 | +0053 Ceylon ... ...| 1881 -1905 | 1882 —1906 | 26-4 | +0042 Jamaica foe 34:3 | +0-:022 Switzerland 1881 — 1904 | 1882-1905 | 253 | +0:018 Treland . 1881 —1905 | 1882-1906 | 25:8 | —0:026 England & Wales 5s af 28-6 | —0-058 Scotland eal eet ees 38:9 | —0:068 The infantile mortality rate (2) is expressed by the number of infants dying per 1000 of infants born. The crude birthrate (8) is the number of births per 1000 of the total population. of collateral increase. That the tendency may thus be easily masked is however not remarkable, since the influ- ence of variations in the rate of mortality is always small. The unweighted mean of the above results, and the weighted mean, taking the respective populations at the middle of the birthrate periods as weights, are:— Unweighted Result 8 = 23°73 + 0°0507 p......... (9a) Weighted Result (£ = 22°76 + 0°0333 v......... (9b) 7. There is no reason to suppose that the absolute magni- tude of the birthrate is significantly affected by the way in which the rate of infantile mortality is associated there- with. This is indicated by the fact that its influence upon a INFLUENCE OF INFANTILE MORTALITY ON BIRTHRATE. 245 the birthrate is sensibly the same for France, with a very low birthrate, as it is for the Netherlands and Denmark with relatively high birthrate, viz. rates nearly double that for France. There may however be other circum- stances affecting the relation between infantile mortality and birthrate not considered in the fundamental assumption which shewed a priori that the linear relation equation (9) was justified. 8. Reverting to equations (1) and (2) the purview may be extended to all the countries for which fairly accurate Statistics are readily available, viz. for the following countries :-— Austria, Belgium, Chili, Ceylon, Denmark, Hngland and Wales, Hrance, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Netherlands, N. 8. Wales, New Zealand, Norway, Queensland, Russia, Scotland, S. Australia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tasmania, Victoria, West Australia. This will reveal the relation for this group of countries, on the assumption that, if definite at all, the characteristics of the relation do not fluctuate during the whole period under review, that is to say, the relation is not a function of the elapsed time. There is, of course, a fundamental objection of some weight to this procedure, viz. that it supposes that the groups are comparable in all other respects and are homo- ‘geneous. Doubtless such a large country as Russia might be divided into smaller units in which the range of mortality even for a single year would be considerable. And, in general, the characteristics of rural and urban populations are sensibly different. They nevertheless, fall under one grouping by inclusion in the statistical results for the whole of a country. These defects minimise the precision with which such statistical groupings represent the intel- 246 G. H. KNIBBS. ligible fact, or such a result say as could be expected when the total area considered was divided into approximately equal areas with homogeneous populations. Neglecting these defects and forming groups for approxi- mately every change of 5 units in the rate of infantile mortality, as ordinarily reckoned, viz. deaths per 1000 born, the following results are obtained :— TABLE II. Effect of Infantile Mortality on Birthrate. Sin Vert or 4 a cease ze = faSScigdas| BS | a5 | 88S sea 4lcaee| 2S | as | aay 2U2/bEne| 2 | HS | SEE SSLE| BEne| BS | HS | a8 Msszioaee| G2 | ae | 88S esse Saas) ab | ae | 68a | 688 | 3414 29 99 68 | 206°4| 36°73 | 218'4 | 8022 |16557 | 71:0] 26°32 38 100 71 || 211°5| 37°15 | 268-7 | 9983 |21117 | 769] 31°58 | 22:1| 698 | 537 | 217:9| 36°81 | 106:0 | 3902 | 8503 | 823] 30:30 | 134] 406 | 334 | 221-3) 37:96 | 69-1 | 2623 | 5805 | 87:°7| 2815 | 13:0) 366 | 821 | 226:0| 37:96 | 183°5 | 5068 |11454 91:8 | 26:33 | 163°3 | 4300 | 3948 | 230°0| 37°52 | 26:2] 983 | 2261 95°9 | 26:23 | 125°6 | 3294 | 3158 || 237:°2| 38°68 | 68:2 | 2638 | 6258 101'8 | 26°5u | 115°2 | 3053 | 3108 || 240°6 | 46°55 | 143°1 | 6662 |16026 |106°7 | 2890 | 96-3 | 2783 | 2970 || 248°0| 47°77 | 167°9 | 8021 |19892 | 111°38 | 29°47 | 98°7 | 2909 | 8237 || 251°4| 49°95 | 280°0 |13426 |33749 | 1169 30°92 | 543) 1679 | 19638 | 255°9 | 47°63 | 104°6 | 4982 |12747 | 123°2 | 29°80 | 1144 | 3409 | 4198 | 260°1| 47:91 | 99°0 | 4743 |12335 3 | 28°44 | 163°9 | 4661 | 5947 | 265°1 | 48°64 | 95°4 | 4640 |12299 131°7 | 30°37 | 383°9 |11658 |15351 | 272°8 | 46°74 | 287-9 |13457 |36713 |187°0 | 27°89 | 514°2 |14339 [19638 | 277-1 | 48-32 | 1861 | 8993 |24921 ~ bo “J op | 142°0 | 27°35 | 570°6 |15608 |22170 | 2800) 49:52 | 93°6 | 4635 |12978 |147:4 | 29-90 | 402°6 |12038 |17750 | 289°0| 48°60 | 92-0 | 4471 |12920 1519 | 29°72 | 687-1 |20423 [31028 | 292:0| 35°67 | 3:0] 107 | 312 | 156-6 | 29°11 | 360°1 |10484 |16422 | 3040] 3633 | 30] 109 | 831 1161-8 | 27-69 | 466-9 |12927 |20910 | 307-0 | 46-41 | 96-1 | 4460 |13692 | | 166-3 | 28°93 | 433-5 |12543 |20859 | 313:0| 36°67 | 3:0] 110| 344 | 172-4 | 29-88 | 2243 | 6697 [11547 | 329°0| 3452 | 81] 107] 352 1762 | 30°62 | 205-0 | 6278 |11064 || 332°5| 39°26 | 54] 212] 705 | » 183-0 | 32-00 | 279-7 | 8951 |16381 | 337°0| 35°81 | 31] 111 | 374 | 186-8 | 34:98 | 165°8 | 5800 |10832 || 344°0| 33:87] 31] 105] 361 192'4 | 36:41 | 189°9 | 6915 |18366 | 349°0| 37-42 | 31] 116) 405 | 197:4| 35°92 | 275:4 | 9893 |19532 || 366-0| 3625/ 64| 232 | 849 203:2 | 36:00 | 257:8 | 9280 |18854 | 412°0| 3815! 27| 108! 424 These results are shewn in Fig. 2 in which curve A (firm lines) represents a simple type of curve closely conforming to the results and having regard to their weights, and curve B (broken lines) a more complex type still more closely INFLUENCE OF INFANTILE MORTALITY ON BIRTHRATE. 247 representing the weighted results. Seeing that the origin of the curve must necessarily be the zero of both co-ordin- ates, the point 0, curve A, is not expressible by any simple relation capable of rational interpretation, much less is -curve B in Fig. 2. Moreover, equations (6) and (9) though well representing the relation within certain limits, cannot be regarded as quite general, forasmuch as they imply that when # falls to 8, there would be no infantile mortality whatever, whereas actually » and 6 must become zero together, and further it is not essential that for any value of 6 there must be a corresponding value for p. ne 5 Ch SSSR SELES GSA TTETES AMS ER SE HCCC re CaCO IROL fare 331 Birthrates, i.e. births per 1000 of the population. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 250 RATES OF INFANTILE MORTALITY. Fig. 2. Propositions (i) and (ii) in section 4 are consequently. true only for individual countries, and between the restricted limits of actually occurring rates for their entire populations. 9. Subject to the defects pointed out in the preceding section (3rd paragraph thereof) it will be possible to get some idea of the way in which infantile mortality of any AGGREGATE POPULATION IN MILLIONS. 248 G. H. KNIBBS. given magnitude is distributed throughout the total of the 25 countries referred to, by plotting the total populations exhibiting particular infantile mortality rates as ordinates, against theratesasabscisse. The results may be expected to be somewhat erratic owing to the objection indicated, Pry ! BBE! a Reiter HERES) aaa \] BEOSSB| GEBEE rH : PEER HH H+ HH site REECE a F | Thy ty cae eee. 4 BERERERDRE PPE Eee. TTT pry fH) ZREEEEREE tea be H- rity Ht t+ BE BEGEEBE ARSEERREER a {TT EERER ERE EE | | ee PCS SSE EVEERREREED ram | - | a wo Line? dee Pee Ee Ree Ae ~ i | | SRR ERES. BEREEE A HE SH ~ ar HOSS Aer hil BES JERR RRR RRR EER Bebe Se: UP aie bet ths m5 as gs BS as es eh es ge ti & RATES OF INFANTILE MORTALITY, (Deaths of infants under 12 months of age per 1000 births ) Fig. 3. INFLUENCE OF INFANTILE MORTALITY ON BIRTHRATE, 249 but will nevertheless disclose something of the nature of the relative frequence of different rates of infantile mor- tality for the entire population group represented. The thin lines in Fig. 3 shew the results as given, while the heavy line indicates the curve (of same total area) which may be taken to represent the general result. 10. It will be seen from Figure 3, that in so far as the graduated result can be taken to exhibit the frequency of any particular rate of infantile mortality, it would appear that the dominant rate (the mode) is 146°2, and the median is 165°6. The centroid vertical of the curve corresponds to a rate of infantile mortality of 178°8. Asalready pointed out, however, the various populations are not subdivided so as to constitute homogeneous groups, and hence the curve should be regarded as furnishing only a rough indication of the true characteristics of the dis- tribution of infantile mortality in the group of countries under review. 11. In deducing the linear equation representing the influences of infantile mortality on birthrate, the crude rate, should strictly be corrected for differences in the sex and age constitution of the population, in order that the results may be strictly comparable. The irregularities indicated however are so large in comparison with any correction for reduction to a common basis, that such cor- rection would have very little significance, and in fact, may be ignored. The linear variations of birthrate as related to variations of infantile mortality deduced herein, are abundantly accurate for the purpose of eliminating this element forcomparisons requiring such elimination. Secular changes in the correction factor b in (8) and (9) are of course to be expected, but can be deduced only by obser- vation of very long periods. These may perhaps disclose that the theoretical linear law is only an approximation to 250 G. H. KNIBBS. the actual. This indeed is suggested by the fact, that while the weighted mean gives 8 = 2276-03334. eee (10) the results for various countries for 1901-2 gives 0 = 19°4 --"0°083 jazceeee ore (10a) which, if it means anything at all, would imply that the correction is becoming more significant. For individual countries the factor b could be taken from Table I, and the birthrate corresponding to an absence of infantile mortality as given by b. =10"— Ui ae (11) in which b is the tabular factor, andthe rate of infantile mortality for the preceding year. 12. The actual deductions made as to the influence of infantile mortality on the birthrate of any country should perhaps be regarded merely as a general indication. The theoretical deduction gives the elementary law, but to obtain the actual coefficient b it would be necessary to be assured that no other source of variation in the relation investigated, was operating. A thoroughly satisfactory investigation demands the proper subdivision of population into homogeneous groups, and the elimination of other influences. The present investigation should be regarded as an indication of the way, rather than as a final solution. a NOTE ON PUCHERITE FROM WEST AUSTRALIA. 251 NOTE on PUCHERITE From WEST AUSTRALIA. By H. GRIFFITHS, Caird Scholar, University of Sydney. [Communicated by J. A. SCHOFIELD, Acting-Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 4, 1908. ] DvuRING 1907 a few grams of concentrates from an oxidised quartz reef at Niagara, 115 miles north of Kalgoorlie, W.A., were forwarded to the Chemical Laboratory from Mr.C. F. de J. Grut, M.A., B.E., of Kalgoorlie, with the suggestion that they might contain Pucherite, a Bismuth vanadate. Mr. Grut stated that the quartz reef occurred in the typical so-called ‘‘ diorite’’ (more strictly amphibolite) country. The concentrates consisted largely of grains of silica, magnetite, pieces of metallic sulphides and metallic bismuth. In addition to the above there was a mineral which occurred in the form of approximately cubical, crystalline grains about $ mm. diameter, chrome yellow in colour, brittle and with a resinous lustre. These were picked out by hand with the aid of a lens. On crushing in an agate mortar a lemon yellow powder was obtained. The mineral dissolved in sulphuric and hydrochloric acids yielding aredsolution. On warming the hydrochloric acid solution chlorine was evolved. On passing H.S through the HCl solution and filtering, a deep blue filtrate was obtained, which on evaporation with HNO, yielded a dark red fusible residue, having the properties of vanadium pentoxide. The mineral gave a light green borax bead in the reducing flame. On charcoal in the reducing flame it fused and yielded a metallic bead of bismuth. The specific gravity, determined on the original grains by means of a pyknometer was 9°7. 252 E. GRIFFITHS. Analysis gave the following results:— Bi,O,; one sie as so == Vouiee V.O; (including trace of P.O;) = 25°31% Fe,O, a aie a jue = SG Residue insoluble in HCl Joc = Bier The method of analysis was as follows:—The mineral was treated with hydrochloric acid, the insoluble residue removed by filtration, and the bismuth precipitated as sulphide. The sulphide was dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated almost to dryness and treated with water in order to obtain the bismuth oxynitrate; this was ignited to oxide and weighed. The chloride solution con- taining the vanadium was converted intoa nitrate solution by evaporation with nitric acid. The iron was precipitated by adding a slight excess of sodium carbonate, the precipi- tation being repeated four times. The small quantity of vanadium still retained by this precipitate was removed by fusing with sodium carbonate and extracting with water, the extract being added to the main solution, The vanadium was precipitated from the slightly alkaline solu- tion as mercurous vanadate by means of mercurous nitrate. The precipitated vanadate was ignited to the pentoxide and weighed as such. The analysis and physical properties agree fairly well with those recorded in Dana’s Mineralogy for Pucherite , Bismuth vanadate. SofarasIhave been able to ascertain this is the first recorded instance of the occurrence of Pucherite in Australia. In conclusion I desire to thank Acting-Professor Schofield for affording me the opportunity of working on the mineral and also for much useful advice during the work. THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 253 THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. By JOHN BARLING. [With Plates XL.- XLI.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 2, 1908. } In bringing before your notice the rainfall charts now exhibited, and which are designed to shew at a glance the rainfall system of Australia, giving its chief characteristics, I must ask your indulgence if my explanation of them is not at once clear. The time involved in getting together such details, so as to present a comprehensive view of the whole, not being at the disposal of many, will, I trust, make such a compilation as that now before you interesting and valuable. Before going further I have to make my acknowledgments to the official heads of the Meteoro- logical Stations of Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth, Melbourne, and Hobart, for much of the information given on the charts, and, without which, these could not have been made. I am treating the subject from the standpoint of a non- scientific man. I can claim to be nothing more than this myself, but the non-scientist can collect data for the scientist, and I trust this compilation will prove to be valuable. On the map of Australia I have shewn the annual rain- fall as it occurs in characteristic places on its surface—by shewing more places I should only have cumbered the chart with superfluous details—places intermediate have gener- ally such a rainfall as one would presuppose after looking at the map. The spaces between the concentric rings represent 10 inches in every case, and each ray a year, the 254 JOHN BARLING. length of the ray equals the total rainfall for that year, and each ray is dated. Thus a comparison of the amount of rain in various places for any year is at once apparent. It will be seen that the lowest rainfall known in Australia is that in the vicinity of Lake Eyre. This lake bed, now mostly dry, is below sea level. In contrast to this low rainfall, you will see represented, by a long line, the greatest annual rainfall known in the world, that of the Khasi Hills in Assam, India, where more than 500 inches in one year has been frequently recorded. As to how the climatic conditions, and state of the country in the vicinity of Lake Eyre have undergone a marvellous change in, geo- logically speaking, recent times, let the abundant fossil remains found there testify.’ These remains are of extinct marsupial herbivores of different sizes ; Diprotodons, some equalling or surpassing a rhinoceros in bulk; near these are the remains of huge birds, kangaroos, and other animals. No vegetation now existing in those parts could provide sufficient food for these creatures, and yet, strangely enough, analysis of the supposed contents of the stomachs of these huge animals, shews that they fed on Salsolaceous plants,” and this kind of vegetation is still represented on their old runs, perhaps 1 See Mem. Roy. Soc., South Australia, Vol. 1., parti, by E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., F.B.8., and A. H. C. Zietz, v.u:s, @ Salsolaceous plants in Australia seem to be a characteristic of its dry parts, and these plants have been shewn to be food for “ Diprotodon.” Our western pines (Callitris robusta) apparently flourished there also at that time, so that, perhaps, the scant rain conditions of the present time, also obtained in the remote past, in the Lake Eyre district. Professor Stirling has suggested that Diprotodon was a swamp-haunting animal, if only we may reasonably suppose that in time past heavy rains such as those referred to, were not infrequent, and also that they fell over the watershed of Lake Eyre, then periodical inundations of the lake country must bea consequence—thus producing swamp conditions and vegetation which would perfectly suit huge, slow moving animals, such as Diprotodon apparently was. bo THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 5y5) on a much smaller scale. By the courtesy of Professor Stirling, Director of the South Australian Museum, I am supplied with a drawing of a “Restored Diprotodon,” a copy of which is now shewn, together with other details. Diprotodons appear to have been very widely distributed over Australia. Does the time when these animals lived, synchronize with the time when the now deeply buried forests were growing on the surface? These forests were described by the writers of the paper recently read by Prof. David and Mr. G. H. Halligan, referring to land subsidences. Is this change still operating ? The very dry parts of Australia seem to be chiefly con- fined to a belt of country extending in a west-north-west direction from Lake Hyre. At Cossack, on the coast of West Australia, the year 1891 was practically rainless, whilst at same place, the year 1900 experienced a rainfall of 40 inches, but the yearly average there is very low. The large extent of country in Australia, now subject to a uniformly low rainfall, seems remarkable. Coming to the east coast of Australia, some very irregular falls have occurred ; on the hills near Brisbane in February 1893, the rainfall for four successive days was, on the first over 10, on the second over 20, on the third over 35, and on the fourth over 10 inches. This constitutes a record for Australia during historical times. In the same locality some years have had a total of less than 20 inches. Is it unreasonable to suppose that similar heavy rains may have occurred in the past and over a much larger extent of country ? There would then be no difficulty in accounting for large inland lakes and swamps. I would also refer to the heavy rainfall at ‘‘ Dry Lake,’’ near Wilcannia, at no distance from Lake Callabonna. Dry Lake isa great depression never known up to 1885 (?) to contain water, but one day’s rain 256 JOHN BARLING. converted it into a large lake. On this occasion (I have not been able to ascertain the exact date) it is reported that 8 inches of rain fell. About this time also, the Paroo River discharged its flood waters into the Darling River, an event before unknown by white men, and not since repeated. But great as these rains were, they are small when compared with those on the Khasi Hills, already referred to, there 30 inches of rain for five successive days have been recorded. Compare this with what are called heavy rains in Great Britain and elsewhere. At Camberwell near London on 1st August, 1846, some 3 inches of rain fell in two hours seventeen minutes; in London on 13 April, 1878, 45 inches; in Cumberland, on 27 November, 1878, 65 inches; at Joyeuse, France, in 22 hours, 31 inches; at Genoa, in 24 hours, 30 inches; at Gibraltar, in 26 hours, 33 inches; at Sydney, the greatest fall in any one day, was on 25th February, 1873, when 9 inches was recorded, and on 28th May, 1889, when 8 inches of rain fell. Going further north, we find that Geraldton, Queensland, holds the record for uniformly great rainfall for all Australia. The falls there going up as high as 212 inches in 1894, whilst the lowest recorded there was 70 inches in 1902. No wonder that engineers look with longing eyes to the water power at present going to waste at the Barron Falls in the locality. On the adjacent coast of Papua a remarkable variation in rainfall is to be noticed. Port Moresby has a comparatively small rainfall, whereas at a few miles on either side—at Daru, near the mouth of the Fly River, on the one side, and at Samarai on the other, the fall is large. Does the deficiency at Port Moresby in any way account for the excess at Geraldton? Coming round to Palmerston in the Northern Territory, the rainfall there is good and with marked regularity, the first and last three months of THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 257 the year being very wet, whilst the middle six months are extremely dry. The coast from Perth to Albany has a good and sufficient rainfall, but from Albany all round the Australian Bight the rainfall is very scanty. For Adelaide I have shewn a wind chart, and this seems to be an illustration of a well known law, viz., “If the winds, even though having traversed a large extent of Ocean, yet on arriving at the land proceed to lower latitudes or regions markedly warmer, the rainfall is small or nil.’’' It will be seen that the best rains in the wheat growing area near Adelaide occur in the middle six months, when wheat crops require good rain; then, the winds are chiefly northerly, and but little rain falls in the first and fourth quarters when the winds are chiefly from the Southern Ocean; this reverses the conditions at Palmerston. In some few cases I have shewn in which part of the year the greatest rain falls—at Palmerston, Geralton (Q.), Adelaide and other places. _ To get a true estimate of the rain conditions, the quar- terly returns should be shewn in each case, or better still, monthly returns. With this information supplemented by temperature records, one could determine with much accuracy What crops would be suitable for cultivation in any given part, always supposing that the soil is good. I should like to see such work undertaken by the Common- wealth Government. It would greatly benefit intending settlers from other countries. Coming to Tasmania, a very remarkable irregularity © appears in the rainfall. Whilst asmall part near the north- west coast has an annual rainfall up to 145 inches, at Hobart there has never been more than 40 inches, and that 1 Encyc. Brit. Q —Dec. 2, 1908. 258 JOHN BARLING. quantity but once since records have been kept there. Somewhat similar, is the annual rainfall in parts of Mauritius, at Gros Caillou, viz:—30 inches. At Cluny, only 16 miles distant, we have 146 inches. Going inland from Sydney along the railway, Bathurst shews a low rainfall, whereas on either side of that city, at Katoomba and Orange, the rainfall is high. The rail- way section shewn in the margin, probably explains this curious fact. Bathurst is at the bottom of a deep basin, whilst Katoomba and Orange are on its rim. Apparently showers do not follow the contour of a country. So far, it seems that our records extend over too short a time to determine if there be any rainfall cycle in operation or not. I look forward with confidence to a time when something definite in this respect will be observed. Such a consummation will be invaluable. It would appear that in very ancient times in Assyria, the early cultivators of the soil believed in the certainty of forecasting the weather and in the periodicity of similar seasons. What their system was, and what results were obtained, history does not disclose, ‘‘and there is no new thing under the sun.’’ Our meteorologists now can give forecasts for a day or two in advance, but this is of little use to the man on the land —a whole year’s forecast is what he requires to know, to do him much good, and I confidently look forward to the time when the meteorological department will supply this information. Judging by the rainfall as shewn, there seems to be an immense extent of country in west and north- west Queensland, in the Northern Territory and in the northern part of West Australia which willin time to come carry a large population—a white one it is to be hoped. On the second chart (4 sheets’) I have shewn on the main part of it, the daily rainfall for Sydney since 1857, and up + Not reproduced. THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 259 to date. The chart is divided into columns giving the 365 days of the year and the horizontal lines across the chart give the inches of rain. By plotting each year’s rain track and starting at the left hand top, a comparison can be made for any day of the separate years. In parts, the crossing and recrossing of the tracks looks confusing, but by using the final figures of each year, for the traverse, the course of any year’s rain track can be followed, thus for the year 1860, the two figures 60 are constantly repeated to shew its track, and so on. Those days in which no rain falls, must, of course, be shewn as a horizontal track. The difference in the rain track of 1888 and 1860 is very startling. Apparently we have in these years, a minimum and maximum rainfall for Sydney; and yet up to 22 July, the years 1864, 1867, 1874 and 1900 had a greater rainfall than 1860, whilst the year 1890 hada greater rainfall than 1860 up to 15 November. ‘Taking a period of say 10 years, there is a marked similarity in the distribution of rain all over New South Wales, that is to say, if a series of years, not individual years, give a high rainfall for Sydney, so will the same series shew a high rainfall over the State generally and vice versa. To shew this, another diagram is needed. The black discs on the chart shew when half of the year’s total rain had fallen. Generally, it will be seen that the first six months of the year has more rain than the latter half. This year 1908, however, is one of the exceptions; it already shews that the last six months must have more rain than the first half of the year. In columns below you will see the rainfall for the separate months for all years, grouped, and also the monthly fall for each year in other columns,—April the greatest, closely followed by June, whilst December shews the lowest. I think these diagrams are very interesting as bearing upon the Water Supply of Sydney. It seems to demonstrate 260 JOHN BARLING. that although the total rainfall for years may be lower than what is called the average, still there may be, and, in fact, mostly is, an abundant rainfall for supplying Sydney with. water from the present watershed, if only what rain falls on it is conserved, instead of allowing so much to go to waste after every little flood, and this even with the great possible increase of population foreshadowed by Mr. Keele in his paper,’ and the increased quantity per head which should be provided for all in the Metropolitan area. Mr. Deane drew attention in his paper read 5th July, 1899, to the fact that a low total rainfall for a long period might still be sufficient for a water supply. The pressing need for the conservation referred to above, has already been insisted on by Mr. Keele, and I think cannot be too strongly put. I am assuming that the rainfall on the catchment area is not less than that of Sydney, and figures shew that this is a safe assumption. In proof of these statements I would give the following particulars :— In 1862, with a total rainfall of 2,398 points or 24 inches, On the 8th and 9th February, ... 271 points fell ‘3 23rd June... ve mee |) ae “3 3rd and 4th ss sist hoe _ ei 15th December ... jet oD aN These showers must have given a large run off. In 1865, with a total rainfall of 3,629 points or 364 inches, On the 13th February _... ... 180 points fell v. 14th February... 5. el 20 e =e 8th, 9th, 10th June we ee si ~ 3rd and 4th November ... 365 4.5 + 26th November ... js OOD a In 1866, with a total of 3,681 points or 36% inches, On the 29th January ee ... 191 points fell 4 This Journal, XLI1., p. I. THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 261 On the 15th and 16th February ... 264 points fell. 3 16th and 17th May Soh Aas) . a 13th, 14th and 15th June = 391 Es os 12th Tully, 2 coe hoo oD) 3 In 1888, Drought year, rainfall for year 2,301 points, or 23 inches. There would still have been a little caught. On the 3rd July... wes ... 122 points fell a 28th July ... Wes HAN TUN LAE H . 3 8th August ox PME) USWA - 4 1st December ate Ae PATE) - 16th December ... riya ed OS - In 1880, another dry year, with 2,951 points or 295 inches On the 29th and 30th March ... 215 points fell oA 2nd April ... ane seen “Lae eS 33 16th September ... wo 204 .5 3 27th September ... .. 149 = a 21st October aes sop ly A A 9th November ... Pu wo In 1863, with a total of 4,708 points or 47 inches, On the 22nd January se... .. 375 points fell af 15th February ... .. «104 a as 17th February ... Cok AB - 26th February ... ccc et - a 1st March... elas 3 a 23rd and 24th April ... 424 a 5, 11th, 12th, 13th,14th Aug. 532 is x 6th and 7th September... 214 es In 1881, with a total of 4,109 points, or 41 inches, On the 11h April ... see 4... 200 points fell sy 10th June ... ee foe aoO - sis 19th October tee er ADD We In 1882, with a total of 4,228 points or 424 inches, On the 5th and 6th April... ..» 946 points fell 262 JOHN BARLING. On the 10th June ... nee ... 980 points fell. i 26th October ee . 181 es * 29th October ive w. 424 a In 1885, with a total of 3,991 points or 40 inches, On the 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 25th June 1250 points fell In 1886, with a total of 3,943 points, or 393 inches, On the 28th January 350 ... 195 points fell nf 14th March sa ose) 195 x aS 26th March pe sont ees - 28th May ... =i iene aliz a a 15th October sts ... 468 a These examples do not exhaust the list of similar storms. Compare these with 1887 with a fall of 6,016 points or 60 inches. There were only two days in the year when good reservoir-filling rains fell, that ison the 29th and 31st. May, when the falls were 283 points and 218 points. On no other day was anything up to two inches recorded. From these details I think it will be seen that the present. catchment area is ample for all purposes. Taking in an additional watershed, with all due respect to Mr. Keele, Seems to be unnecessary. It is somewhat on a par witha farmer who inaslovenly manner cultivates 1,000 acres, in comparison with one who scientifically and therefore in a common sense method, works say 200 acres; better returns would be obtained in a majority of years from the smaller area. The longest period of dry weather that I can find recorded was the nine months, June 1875 to April 1876, during which time no reservoir-filling rain fell, but as there were good rains both before and after that time, there could be no shortage in the water supply. The driest seven years’ period in Sydney was from 1901 to 1907 both years inclusive —all years below the average—but the lists herewith will THE RAINFALL OF AUSTRALIA. 263 _shew that fine rain storms fell at frequent intervals all through the period, with the exception of the year 1903, this year was the worst recorded for water supply. On no day throughout the year was there a fall of two inches, and yet the total 3,861 points or 383 inches for the year, was not too small a quantity for general purposes. SypNEY RAINFALL. The driest seven consecutive years on record, all below the average. 4901 with a total of 40 inches. On the 22nd January Eeacuche April 7. Pee oun Aprile... » 20th August 1902 with a total of 43 inches. On the 14th July ,» 16th July 5 2th July , 13th October 1903 with a total of 38} inches. On the 7th May _.... ase » 20th and 26th July » ord August... Se , 18th September 4904 with a total of 46 inches. On the 27th, 28th, 29th April » 26th, 27th, 28th May » 9th July ; 1905 with a total of 35 inches. On the 3rd and 4th March... cp PAROL UM Ofal eb ooce 1906 with a total of 32 inches. On the 29th May » olst August... , 14th November 1907 with a total of 374 inches. On the 16th March... are , 1dth, 16th, 19th June 306 points 20 Ones 442, 200K, 173 points ESI. LOL a, G3ian | 158 points | 70/00 Worst year for water conservation | 126s bn 474 points A005. Viih ss 397 points 364, Prospect Reservoir overflowed on the 19th September. 335 points 362 = ., Sian 362 points 504 so, 264 J. D. OGILBY AND A. BR. McCULLOCH. A REVISION oF THE AUSTRALIAN ORHCTOLOBIDAI, By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY and ALLAN R. MCCULLOCH. [With Plates XLII., XLIII.] [Communicated by C. HEDLEY. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 2, 1908. | THE Ovrectolobidce are a family of ground-sharks of primi- tive characters, popularly known in Australia as Carpet- Sharks or Wobbegongs and Cat-Sharks. Of somewhat sluggish habits and small size, they do not endanger life or limb, nor do they rob the fisherman as do their more active relations. The senior author of this paper has enjoyed control of a large series gathered by the Amateur Fisher- men’s Association of Queensland, and has also been favoured with opportunities of study in the Queensland State Museum. The junior collaborator has been granted by the Trustees of the Australian Museum permission to incorporate notes on the collection in his official custody. Hor these advantages they tender grateful acknowledge- ment. When our paper was almost ready for press we received Mr. C. Tate Regan’s *‘ Revision of the Sharks of the Family Orectolobide.”’* We have therefore had to insert the references to his work more hurriedly than we would desire. AS will be seen, a study of large series of some species has led us to somewhat different conclusions to those at which he has arrived, and it is principally to these that we have devoted the short time available. Further, as he has taken into consideration all the species of the family, we have curtailed our first intentions, and have confined ourselves to the Australian species only. 1 Proc Zool. Soc., 1908, p. 347. Or A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ORECTOLOBIDA. 26 Family ORECTOLOBID AI. Form variable; tail not or but little bent upward from the base of the caudal. Body and fins covered with small, smooth or feebly carinated scales. Head with numerous mucous pores, especially on the lower surface of the snout. Nasal cavity with a free cirrus; oro-nasal grooves present; labial folds usually well developed. Hye small, elongate- oval, with rounded pupil; no nictitating membrane. Gill- slits narrow, the two last closer together than the others; three, rarely four, above the pectoral. Two small, sub- equal, spineless dorsal fins, the first above or behind the ventrals: upper flap of caudal fin vestigial, the lower moderately developed, with a shallow notch near its ex- tremity and no anterior lobe; pectorals and ventrals large. *‘Rostral cartilages, if present, short and not convergent. Pectoral mesopterygium enlarged and expanded distally, more or less similar to the metapterygium; an oval foramen between the mesopterygium and the metapterygium.’’* Sharks of small to large size, inhabiting the tropical and temperate zones of the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans; one species—Ginglymostoma cirratum’ from the Western Tropical Atlantic, occasionally straggling to the African coast.” Their food consists chiefly of crustaceans and mollusks. Key to the Australian genera of the Orectolobidee. a. Anal fin commencing in advance of the second dorsal; spiracle minute, below the posterior angle of the orbit; teeth lanceolate, sometimes feebly cuspidate; species oviparous. Paraseyllium. 1 Skeletal characters taken from Tate Regan’s masterly “Classification of the Selachian Fishes,” (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1906, pp. 722 to 758.) ? Squalus cirratus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, 1789, p. 1492. * Cape Verde, fide Capello, Journ. Sci. Phys. Lisbon, 1867, p. 167. 266 J. D. OGILBY AND A. R. McCULLOCH. aa. Anal fin inserted nearly opposite to the second dorsal; spiracle minute, behind the eye; teeth in three series, of which the outer one only is functional; each tooth with a finely and evenly serrated convex edge; species oviparous ? Nebrius. aaa. Anal fin inserted wholly behind the second dorsal. b. Spiracle large, situated below the level of the eye. ce. Teeth dissimilar, those in front long, slender, and smooth, those on the sides small, tricuspid, and in few series; sides of head with a more or less interrupted series of dermal lobes; species ovoviviparous. Orectolobus. ec. All the teeth similar, small and tricuspid, arranged in many series; head without dermal lobes. d. Tail short, not more than one third longer than the head and trunk; species Ovoviviparous. e. Head strongly depressed; mouth wholly in advance of the eye; anal fin approximate to the caudal. Bracheelurus. ee. Head not depressed; mouth below the front of the eye; anal fin remote from the caudal. Heteroscyllium. dd. Tail long, not less than one half longer than the head and trunk; species oviparous. Chiloscyllium. bb. Spiracle large, behind the eye; teeth inserted on a flat Subquadrangular pair of transverse cushions; tail at least twice as long as the head and trunk; species Oviparous. Stegostoma. The genus Nebrius, Riippell, considered by Regan to be a synonym of Ginglymostoma, M. & H., has not yet been recorded from Australia, but from its extended distribution will very probably be found here later. It is therefore included in this key for future convenience only. A REVISIUN OF THE AUSTRALIAN ORECTOLOBIDZ. 267 PARASCYLLIUM, Gill. Parascyllium, Gill, Ann. Lyc. N. York, 1861, p. 412; Giinth., BW. Cat. Fish., viii, 1870, p. 410; Regan, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1908, li, p. 349. Body elongate, somewhat cylindrical, with the tail not elevated above the axial plane. Scales minute, lateral line fairly distinct. Head long and depressed, with a broadly rounded snout. A longitudinal fold below the eye. Nasal valve with an obtuse inner cirrus. Mouth inferior, and nearer to the tip of the snout than to the eye. Lower lip entire. Teeth minute and arranged in many series; similar in both jaws, being triangular and with or without lateral cusps. Spiracle minute, below the posterior angle of the eye. Posterior gill-opening very large; two above the pectoral. Tail about once and two-thirds the length of the head and trunk. First dorsal placed far behind the ventrals. Anal fin in advance of the base of the second dorsal. Caudalfin small. (zapa, beside; oxvAAvov, Seyllium), Small sharks inhabiting the deeper water off the coast of South-eastern Australia and Tasmania. Anal fin entirely in advance of the second dorsal; brown, with a dark nuchal collar,and with large dark spots. collare. Anal partly below the second dorsal; body clouded with brown and with white spots, a dark nuchal collar closely spotted with white. variolatum- PARASCYLLIUM COLLARE, Ramsay and Ogilby. Parascyllium variolatum, Ginth. £.M. Cat. Pish., viii, 1870, p- 410 (non Duméril). Parascyllium collare, Ramsay and Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., iii, (2), 1889, p.1310; Waite, Mem. Aust. Mus., iv, 1899, p. 32, pl. ii, f. 2, and ec. Austr. Mus., vi, 1906, p. 229, pl. xli; Regan, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1908, ii, p. 349. **Collared Cat-Shark.”’ 268 J. D. OGILBY AND A, R. McCULLOCH. Head 6°7 in the total length. Eye large, one half the length of the snout, which is slightly more than one fourth that of the head. Interorbital space very broad and flat, being equal to one third the length of the head. Nasal cirrus very short and thick, and not reaching to the margin of the upper lip. Outer fold of the nostril provided with a small supplementary cirrus-like lobe. Groove behind the lower lip not extending more than one fourth the distance across the mouth. First gill-opening a little nearer the base of the pectoral than to the spiracle; first to fourth subequal in width, the last very large, being 25 times as wide as the others and very close to the fourth. Tail once and two thirds the length of the head and trunk. First dorsal fin originating a little in advance of the middle of the length, triangular and with the apex rounded. Second dorsal similar in size and shape, its origin placed over the extremity of the anal, which is low with its outer margin rounded and pointed posteriorly. Caudal narrow and some- What longer than the space between the two dorsals. Pectoral subquadrangular with rounded margins, and originating at a point two fifths of the distance between the tip of the snout and the vent. Ventrals much longer than broad, their outer margins broadly rounded, and the posterior angles acutely pointed. Colours of a preserved example:—Light brown above with a broad dark brown nuchal collar, which is widest above and covers the space from a point just behind the eyes to between the bases of the pectorals. The tip of the snout and two small areas below the eyes are somewhat darker coloured. The body is ornamented with scattered darker spots, some of which are very large and ill-defined and tend to form cross-bars. The anterior part of the tail is similarly ornamented, but posteriorly the smaller spots are absent and the cross-bands are more distinct. The a a A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ORECTOLOBID”. 269 vertical fins and the ventrals have also some ill-defined spots, but the pectorals are uniform. (collare, collared). Type in the Australian Museum; total length 765 mm. The above description is of a full grown male, taken off Broken Head, N.S. Wales, in 28 fathoms, in the Australian Museum. Reg. No. [. 3757. Deeper waters off the coast of south-eastern Australia and Tasmania. PARASCYLLIUM VARIOLATUM, Duméril. Hemiscyllium variolatum, Dumeéril, Rev. et Mag. Zool., 1853, p. 121, pl. iii, f. 1 and Hist. Nat. Povss., i, 1865, p. 327. Parascyllium nuchale, McCoy, Ann. Mag. N. H., xiii, (4) 1874, Paloy pls i. Parascyllium variolatum, Regan, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1908, p. 349. Differs from P. collare in having the anal fin placed a little farther back, it being partially below the second dorsal, and in lacking the supplementary lobe to the outer labial fold. Body and fins clouded with brown, which on the former tends to form cross-bands.